Aquaculture Asia April June 2002

Volume VII No.
2
April-June 2002
ISSN 0859-600X
Focus on environment
Breeding threatened fishes
Sewerage-fed aquaculture systems
aquaculture
Asia
Gondol marine finfish aquaculture training
Regional environmental assessment
Aquaculture for poverty alleviation
A NEW AGE OF AQUACUL A NEW AGE OF AQUACUL
A NEW AGE OF AQUACUL A NEW AGE OF AQUACUL A NEW AGE OF AQUACULTURE TURE
TURE TURE TURE
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The most comprehensive review of global aquaculture status ever
published
Inquiries: NACA, GPO Box 1040, Kasetsart University Post Office, Bangkok 10903, Thailand
Fax +66-2 561 1727, Email publications@enaca.org
Editor
Simon Wilkinson
simon.wilkinson@enaca.org
Editorial Advisory Board
C. Kwei Lin
Donald J. MacIntosh
Michael B. New, OBE
Patrick Sorgeloos
Editorial Consultant
Pedro Bueno
pedro.bueno@enaca.org
NACA
An intergovernmental
organization that promotes rural
development through sustainable
aquaculture. NACA seeks to
improve rural income, increase
food production and foreign
exchange earnings and to diversify
farm production. The ultimate
beneficiaries of NACA activities
are farmers and rural
communities.
Contact
The Editor, Aquaculture Asia
PO Box 1040
Kasetsart Post Office
Bangkok 10903, Thailand
Tel +66-2 561 1728
Fax +66-2 561 1727
Email naca@enaca.org
Website http://www.enaca.org
Printed by Craftsman Press
Volume VII No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X
April-June 2002
From the Editors desk
More on eNACA
NACAs electronic communications network eNACA has finally taken off
in a serious way with the launch of our revised website www.enaca.org. The
major change is that the homepage has been altered to become an information
portal, rather than a fixed (static) site, so it now carries a lot of news content,
many free publications for download as PDF files (including an electronic version
of Aquaculture Asia and the Asia Diagnostic Guide to Aquatic Animal Diseases)
and links to major databases. A CD-ROM version of the website is now available
for distribution to areas that do not have internet access. It will be updated
quarterly, and provided for free in the first instance to institutions with no net
access, and for a nominal fee for those that do and for individuals. Ive covered
the changes to the site in more detail in the regular column Whats new on the
web.
Weve also launched an email news service, which will deliver regional content
and network news right to your mailbox, once a month. Its free, carries no
advertising and you can sign up from the NACA home page (or by emailing me
at simon.wilkinson@enaca.org). The idea is that this newsletter will provide an
easy way for people and participating network centres to share information on
their research, training courses, publications and other activities. Announcements
that are likely to be of use to the wider NACA network are welcome.
This issue of Aquaculture Asia focuses on the environment. Like most human
activities, it is not usually the activities of any one individual that cause significant
environmental problems; it is generally the aggregate impacts of large numbers
of individuals that creates an issue. So environmental impacts need to be
considered at two levels.
Firstly, farmers need to consider the cumulative impacts of their activities
and look for ways to improve their individual operation. Secondly, there is a
need for regulators to pursue more integrated management strategies, taking
into consideration the environmental pressure of all activities in a catchment or
area. Emphasis is usually placed on water quality released from individual farms,
while the total number of operations goes unchecked. Point sources of nutrients
are regulated, while non-point sources of nutrients are not.
Addressing issues such as these can be difficult, sure - but we wont see the
full environmental picture until we put all of the pieces together.
In this issue In this issue
aquacultur aquacultur aquacultur aquacultur aquaculture Asia e Asia e Asia e Asia e Asia 2
Sustainable Aquaculture
Prawn farm energy audits and five star ratings 4
Eric Peterson
Development of freshwater fish farming and poverty alleviation:
A case study from Bangladesh 5
Gertjan de Graaf and Abdul Latif
Conservation of endangered fish stocks through artificial propagation and larval
rearing technique in West Bengal, India 8
M. Mijkherjee, Aloke Praharaj and Shamik Das
Genes and Fish: Supply of good quality fish seed for sustainable aquaculture 25
Graham Mair
Farmers as Scientists: Sewage-fed aquaculture systems of Kolkata:A century-
old innovation of farmers 28
M.C. Nandeesha
When policy makers begin hearing voices 33
Graham Haylor
Fish farming in rice environments of north eastern India 43
D. N. Das
Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: Aquaculture for poverty alleviation
and food security 53
Research and Farming Techniques
Aquaculture Fundamentals: The use of lime, gypsum, alum and potassium
permanganate in water quality management 12
Simon Wilkinson
The utilizations of heterosis in common carp in China 14
Dong Z.J. and Yuan X.H.
Progress of fish gene technology research in China 15
Zhang Yue and Zhu Xinping
Seed production of Magur (Clarias batrachus) using a rural model portable
hatchery in Assam, India A farmer proven technology 19
S.K. Das
Domestication of tiger prawn gets the thumbs up 27
Marine finfish section 37
A regional approach to assessing organic waste production by low salinity
shrimp farms 48
Dr. Brian Szuster

and Dr Mark Flaherty
Aquatic Animal Health
Advice on Aquatic Animal Health Care: Visit to intensive vannemei
farms in Peru 17
Pornlerd Chanratchakool
Whats new in Aquaculture
Aquaculture calendar 22
Whats New on the Web 36
News, books and training 41
Pedro B, Bueno, Director-
General of NACA, con-
ceived of and was Editor
of Aquaculture Asia for six
years. He now writes
from the vantage view of
the Publisher.
Notes from the Publisher
the Publisher.
April-June 2002 (Vol. VII No. 2) 3
Institutional capital Institutional capital Institutional capital Institutional capital Institutional capital
the Publisher.
When a disease suspected to be Koi Herpes Virus but being
confirmed - of ornamental and common carps broke out very
recently in Indonesia, with potentially devastating consequences
for the countrys small farmers, the Government of Indonesia
sent an urgent request to NACA for assistance in containing it.
NACA took less than a week to muster global assistance and
mobilize a task force of three regional experts. The government
has estimated initial losses to be from 50 to 80 billion Rupiahs.
Coincidently, NACAs regional aquatic animal health specialist,
Dr Melba Reantaso, was in Indonesia at the time assisting the
government in finalizing and fine-tuning their National fish health
management strategy. Such national health management
strategies are a component of the regional aquatic animal health
program that NACA have developed for the Asia-Pacific region
with much expert and material assistance from the government
of Australia, FAO, OIE and other institutions. She immediately
sent out calls for assistance ranging from information from
individual experts to requests for organizations to provide experts
for a joint task force. The response was an outpouring of
information and offers of assistance, and NACA would like to
thank all those who offered to contribute.
The Task Force - composed of an epidemiologist from
Australia, a viral specialist from Thailands Aquatic Animal Health
Research Institute, and Dr Reantaso, a parasitologist herself
worked with Indonesias fish health specialists in a one-week
mission. With assistance and advice from various laboratories,
including those in USA, UK and Thailand, and that of a
multinational animal health care products and services company
based in Singapore, Intervet Norbio, the team is collating and
analyzing the field findings and clinical results. Meanwhile, a
management program to contain the disease has been proposed
to the Government. This program was developed in collaboration
with Indonesian specialists and based on the regional aquatic
animal health guidelines developed by governments with the
assistance of FAO, OIE and NACA. A longer-term program to
check further spread of this and other pathogens both within and
from out of the country is being planned, with further assistance
from FAO and OIE. We also expect that further assistance will
also be provided by other agencies that have been NACAs
institutional partners in developing a regional aquatic animal
health framework.
To highlight the theme of this Note I cite the short message
to NACA from the Fisheries Adviser of ACIAR that supported the
participation of the epidemiologist from Australia in the task force
on very short notice. He said the Center had to find a way to get
the assistance processed very rapidly because the problem
warranted quick action rather than excuses. I appreciate that
ACIAR does not do this under normal circumstances and applaud
their flexibility. I also think that the other reason was ACIARs
confidence in NACA and its partners to be able to get things
done; ACIAR along with many others has been part of the years
of efforts that it has taken NACA to build up some track record.
That track record has assumed a more practical purpose by being
parlayed into institutional capital.
Institutional capital is the sum of the goodwill and confidence
that an organization has earned. It is earned by doing work
recognized by its clients as beneficial, it is multiplied by working
with others and sharing the benefits and recognition with them, it
has to be earned the hard way. Happily, the more an institution
uses it, the bigger the capital becomes. Over the years, NACA
has strived to build up this capital. It had a good start with a
pedigree as the offspring of UNDP and FAO, and the useful
inheritance of an already functional and cohesive regional network
founded and operating on technical cooperation and global
connections that both parents built up and passed on.
Nonetheless, an assured source of a generous amount of
funding was not one of the legacies to NACA. While lack of money
cannot be counted as a blessing, the absence of one large source
of project and operational funding (the Task Force of 2000
constituted to analyze the strengths and vulnerabilities of NACA
and identify opportunities had colorfully called such entities
Godfathers) compelled the Organization to devise suitable
strategies to generate resources, first to achieve self-reliance
and second to effectively implement priority development
activities, both purposes not mutually exclusive. Core operational
costs of NACA are borne by member governments, through their
mandatory contribution to the Organization, which in a way is a
significant step in the climb to self-reliance.
In preparing for independence, NACA formulated a regional
aquaculture development program that would be implemented
through a consortium of collaborating organizations. That initial
consortium program adopted in 1991 by the member
governments and, more to the point, based on their needs, served
as the framework for subsequent regional activities; only the
program thrusts have been revised or updated subsequently to
respond to additional demands and meet new needs.
One highly rewarding strategy that the consortium program
had adopted was for those with stakes and interests in the
aquaculture development of the region to join in a collegial
framework of relationship. This fostered a climate in which
agencies could work together and cross-feed results into each
others programmes, add value to each others efforts and multiply
the beneficial results for their common and respective clients.
This strategy has served the region well: Modest resources were
pooled into an effective mass. It also reduced the vulnerability of
the aquaculture development program to the waxing and waning
of a few or a single donors assistance.
The activities of the past 12 years since NACA became
independent invariably involved multi-institutional cooperation.
Since 1990, NACA has accomplished nearly 50 regional and sub-
regional as well as bilateral projects that have regional relevance,
implementing these with a wide range of partners. The projects
are assimilated into the regional program that the NACA
governments themselves have adopted, thus assuring that two
important conditions happen: (i) uptake of the results into
government policies and programs and (ii) continuity of the activity
under NACAs regional program.
The added val ue to NACA and the regi on of these
accomplishments is their being transformed into institutional
capital. A fairly good amount of it has been accumulated, which
is not a self-serving nor immodest statement but a grateful
acknowledgment of the generous cooperation of its numerous
partners and the strong support of its member Governments.
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Advertise your company in Aquaculture Asia for
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for our current rates naca@enaca.org.
That stockpile of institutional capital which is not equivalent to
a lot of money - has been collectively earned with them. It is
being used to benefit the governments and their people.
Cooperation in the Mekong on aquaculture and
aquatic resources management
During the 9th yearly meeting of Mekong River Commissions
(MRC) Fisheries Management and Cooperation Programme, on
11-12 June, MRC and NACA entered into a cooperation
agreement that covers the following areas:
1. Research, Training, and Information activities to support the
Mekong River Basin with emphasis on poverty alleviation; in
particular, the implementation of the programmes on
aquaculture of indigenous fish species, movement of live
aquatic animals, aquatic animal health, and best management
practices in inland aquaculture,
2. Aquatic resources management for the rural poor
3. Education and training
4. Development of guidelines for policy and best management
practices for inland fisheries
5. Institutionalizing linkages for regular information exchange
The memorandum recognizes the complementarities of NACA
and MRC and the larger benefits that cooperation can bring to
their members. It also formally institutionalizes a number of past,
ongoing and planned cooperation such as those in information
exchanges, women in fisheries, development of indigenous
species for aquaculture, and fish health management.
Prawn farm energy audits and
five star ratings
Dr Eric Peterson, PhD, Adjunct Senior Research Fellow
James Cook University, email Eric. Peterson@jcu.edu.au
I have conducted energy audits at five Australian prawn farms.
Last year audits were completed for Gold Coast Marine
Aquaculture, Rocky Point Prawn Farm and Sea Ranch, which
were funded by the Australian Greenhouse Challenge in
partnership with the Australian Prawn Farmers Association.
Previously the Queensland EPA Sustainable Industries Division
funded my investigations of power use at Seafarm Ltd. in Cardwell
and Pacific Reef at Ayr in 1999. These audits were followed by
trials of control systems which I developed again with funding
assistance from EPA Sustainable Industries Division.
80% of farm electric power is required by pond aerators, 10%
for pumping, and 10% for other uses (food processing and
workshops). Surveys excluded hatcheries.
Electricity generation and transmission is expensive. Electricity
use also has an environmental impact, since one kg of carbon
dioxide is produced by coal-fired power stations for each kilowatt-
hour (kWh) unit of power consumption. It turns out that the carbon
dioxide effect of cooking prawns with liquid petroleum gas is only
about 1% of the total of farm electric power demand. Total fuel
use by farm vehicles is less again except during construction
when many truckloads of material need to be carted.
So I decided to focus my research efforts into developing more
efficient aeration control systems. Aerators actively strip oxygen
out of a pond during daylight, when phytoplankton are utilizing
the suns light. Mechanical aerators only produce oxygen at night
when oxygen is less than 100% saturation, but they do serve a
purpose as circultators to prevent stagnation. Some prawn
farmers believe it is dangerous to switch aerators off, and so my
response is that the speed of aeration ought to be actively
controlled by the real-time pond water quality. Aeration at half-
speed requires one-fifth the power of full speed operation. So
there is 80% reduction in power load, while circulation continues
and motors are kept warm and ready for the next night of full
speed aeration. Demonstrations are ongoing at Rocky Point
Prawn Farm and at NQ Barramundi near Townsville.
Individual prawn farmers may have developed other aeration
systems that are effective and efficient, but how can the industry
learn from these diverse experiences? Laboratory aeration
system tests do not account for mechanical wear and tear, pond
management practices, or the effects on production of pond
sediment quality. I proposed that APFA members annually
evaluate their energy performance with a star rating. These
star-ratings should be based on the aquaculture production
divided by the total electric power consumption. An audited
improvement of 5% after a couple of years would be sufficient
for a prawn farmer to be certified under the Australian Greenhouse
Office.
Around ten tonnes of CO
2
exhaust from the stacks of coal
fired power stations for each tonne of intensive prawn farming
production. Star units would be awarded at a rate of 50 per tonne
of production, pro-rata per tonne of CO
2
emission. So a typical
well-managed operation might be able to market its product with
five stars of audited greenhouse performance, and increase star
unit from time to time by adding speed control equipment or any
other means. I believe ten stars would be achievable after gradual
investments are made to retrofit all ponds on the farm. More
information from the AFPA website www.apfa.com.au under
Environment,where there are details of how an energy audit
can be arranged for your farm. [Note: Australian farmers only.
Reprinted from the Newsletter of the Australian Prawn Farmers
Association. Ed.]
The Cooperation Agreement was signed by Mr Joern Kristensen, Chief
Executive Officer of the Mekong River Secretariat (left) and Pedro Bueno
of NACA.
Development of freshwater fish
farming and poverty alleviation
A case study from Bangladesh
Gertjan de Graaf
1
and Abdul Latif
2
1: Nefisco Foundation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, email
deGraaf@nefisco.org, www.nefisco.org
2: Char Development and Settlement Project, Noakhali, Bangladesh
Aquaculture development in the last decade
Being a country of rivers and floodplains with a high potential
of aquatic resources, fish plays a very important role in the daily
life of many people in Bangladesh. The Bengali expression
Mache Bhate Bengali, or Fish and Rice make a Bengali,
illustrates this importance. Bangladesh produces 1,400,000
tonnes of fish annually mostly through inland capture fisheries
and aquaculture. The development of the fisheries sector in
Bangladesh during the last two decades has mainly been donor
driven and emphasis has always been laid on the improvement
and expansion of the aquaculture sector, which received or will
receive around 60% of the donor funding over the period 1986-
2005.
The increase in farmed fish from about 100,000 mt in the
early 1980s to 400,000 mt nowadays is impressive, but still, it
only accounts for 30% of the total production. In the meantime,
we see that the major sources of fish - capture fisheries are
in trouble. Riverine fisheries are declining, the major carps are
disappearing, and estuarine set bag nets are destroying the
juvenile fish in the Bay of Bengal.
Half of the 130 million people in Bangladesh are poor and 30
million are living in extreme poverty. Poverty reduction and
improvement of the livelihoods of the poorest of the poor has
always been one of the major goals of development programmes
in Bangladesh and is a major objective in all the aquaculture
development programmes. Whether the benefits of these
programmes have been made available to the poor can be
questioned, as their basic strategy: growth of the overall fish
production through fish farming was in most cases not
consistent with the socio-economic reality of the rural poor in
Bangladesh. We want to illustrate this point with two case studies.
Fresh water fish farming developments in
the Compartmentalisation Pilot Project
(CPP) and the Char Development and
Settlement Project (CDSP).
The Compartmentalisation Pilot Project
The Compartmentalisation Pilot Project is a water management
project where a traditional aquaculture development project was
conducted from 1993-1998. During this period, all 3,000 ponds
in the area were engaged in a simple aquaculture extension
programme focused on rearing Indian carp (Catla catla, Cirrhinus
mrigala, Labeo rohita) and silver carp. The production was
thoroughly monitored and socio-economic data of the
participants was collected.
Fisheries sub sector

Donor funding
(US$ million)
%

Aquaculture 205 59%
Fisheries 107 31%
Research 34 10%
Total 345 100%
Table 1: Donor funding in fisheries development,
Bangladesh, 1986-2005
The programme was successful as the yields increased from
800 kg/ha to 2,100 kg/ha and the total production in the project
area increased by about 300 mt/year. However, from the socio-
economic data, we learned that the programme had a very limited
impact on poverty alleviation. This can be attributed to a large
degree to the fact that only 1% of the landless families and 19%
of the marginal farmers have access to a pond (Table 2).
Further, the ponds owned by the landless and marginal farmers
tend to be small and often do not contain water throughout the
whole year, which results in only 60% being suitable for raising
Indian carp (Figure 2).
Therefore, the landless and marginal farmers produce only
4% of the farmed fish. Small farmers produce 22%, but the bulk
(75%) is produced by the medium and large farmers.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0
-
2
5
0
5
0
0
-
7
5
0
1
0
0
0
-
1
2
5
0
1
5
0
0
-
1
7
5
0
2
0
0
0
-
2
2
5
0
2
5
0
0
-
2
7
5
0
>
3
0
0
0
Pond size
Not sui tabl e Sui tabl e
Figure 2: Suitability of the ponds for the farming of Indian carps in the
CPP project area
Figure 1: The bulk of fish production is by medium and large farmers.
Table 2: Distribution of ponds and the aquaculture production over the different social strata in the CPP project area.
Social strata

No of rural
households in
CPP

No of ponds in
CPP

% of households
owning a pond

Pond size
(m
2
)

% on pond
number

% of total
pond area
% aquaculture
production

Landless 19,890 237 1% 248 8% 2% 1%
Marginal farmer 2,509 475 19% 379 16% 7% 3%
Small farmer 4,589 623 14% 899 21% 22% 22%
Medium farmer 1,362 1276 94% 1073 43% 53% 57%
Large farmer 475 326 69% 1232 11% 16% 18%
Total 28,825 2937
Social strata

No of rural
Households
No of
ponds
% of Households
owning a pond
Pond size
(m
2
)
% on
number
Pond area
(ha)
% on area

Landless & marginal
farmers 9164 3912 43% 355 38% 139 28%
Small farmers 6266 5862 94% 500 56% 293 58%
Medium farmers 562 553 98% 1011 5% 56 11%
Large farmers 94 94 100% 1706 1% 16 3%
Total 16086 10421 504
Table 3: Distribution of the ponds over the different social strata in the CDSP project area.
This highly disproportionate distribution was recognized in
the late 90s, and a Homestead Fish Culture programme aiming
at the poorest of the poor was developed and successfully
implemented. This programme was needed; as in the CPP project
area, the poorest of the poor do not possess suitable ponds. This
in contrast what is generally believed, i.e. that most houses
constructed in rural Bangladesh are built on a raised earthen
plinth to avoid flooding, and that therefore all households have
a pond. This situation is somewhat different in the coastal areas
of Bangladesh.
The Char Development and Settlement Project
The main activity of the Char Development and Settlement
Project (CDSP), located in the south-eastern part of Bangladesh,
is the official settlement of households that installed themselves
on the newly accreted coastal lands, the char lands. The project
also assists productive development, in particular agriculture,
and to some extent aquaculture.
One of the major problems in the coastal belt and the CDSP
project area is the shortage of fresh water during the dry season.
The shallow ground water is saline and therefore tube wells
cannot be used to provide fresh water during the dry season, as
is the case in the rest of Bangladesh. To overcome the dry season
shortage of fresh water, the digging of ponds for the storage of
rainwater is essential for the population in the coastal belt.
Because of this, relatively more ponds, on average 85 per square
kilometre, are found in the coastal belt if compared with 22 per
square kilometre found in the CPP project area. Further, many
more of the landless and marginal farmers (38%) possess a pond
(Table 3), and small farmers own the majority of the ponds.
In the CDSP project area, medium and large farmers own
only 14% of the ponds. The major reason is that there are not
many rich farmers because most of the population are new
settlers. The improvement of the ponds for aquaculture could
improve the situation of the rural poor. However, the selected
strategy of such an aquaculture development programme is very
important in terms of its actual impact on poverty reduction.
Another development strategy
It is often assumed that improvement of ponds for aquaculture
will automatically lead to an improvement of the livelihood of
poorest of the poor. Unfortunately, it is not that simple, because
improvement of fish farming in Bangladesh is not neutral.
Owning a pond does not necessarily mean that this pond is
suitable for the rearing of fish. On the contrary, the suitability
for aquaculture is mainly determined by its size and water
retention ability. In most cases, the latter are interrelated; small
ponds do not retain water for a long period, while large ponds
can retain water for over nine months. Still, experiences in
Bangladesh have proved that small ponds can be used for
production if appropriate fish species and management systems
are selected.
In general, fish ponds can be classified according to
production and rearing system as follows:
Small ponds (100-200 m
2
), retaining water for less than 4
months. Not suitable for fish (other than African catfish)
2
), retaining water for 4-5 months.
Suitable for Thai Puti (Puntius Gonionotus) and Tilapia,
production 600 kg/ha/year
2
), retaining water for 5-6 months.
Suitable for Thai Puti, Tilapia and common carp, production
700 kg/ha/year.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Landless &
marginal farmers
small farmer medium farmer large farmer
P
o
n
d

a
r
e
a

(
h
a
)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
p
o
n
d

s
i
z
e

(
s
q
r

m
)
Pond area size
POOR RICH
INDIAN CARPS THAI PUTI / TILAPIA
Figure 3: Pond distribution, pond size, poverty alleviation and aquaculture
techniques in the CDSP-II project area.
Table 4: production perspectives of freshwater fish farming in the CDSP
project area
Social strata Annual production
(t/year)
% of total
production
Kg/family/year
Landless 132 24% 34
Small farmer 309 55% 53
Medium farmer 84 15% 152
Large farmer 32 6% 303
557
Medium-sized ponds (500-800 m
2
), retaining water for 7-10
months. Suitable for silver carp, Thai Puti and Common Carp,
production 1,200 kg/ha/year.
Medium-sized or large ponds (larger then 800 m
2
)
permanently containing water. Suitable for Indian carp and
silver carp, production 2,000 kg/ha/year.
Over the last decade of aquaculture extension, programmes in
Bangladesh were aiming at the larger ponds of 1,000 m
2
or more
and mostly the use of Indian carps and silver carp was advocated.
Using this traditional strategy again would mean that the poorest
of the poor would not be reached (Figure 3).
That is because most of the ponds are smaller than 400 m
2
,
most of them are seasonal as they dry up in February or March.
Due to their size and seasonality, these ponds cannot be used for
the rearing of Indian carp. Landless, marginal and small farmers
mostly own these. If we consider that poverty alleviation and
improvement of the livelihood of the settlers is a major goal
then we have to conclude that development of fresh water fish
farming has to concentrate on the small and medium-sized ponds
owned by the landless and small farmers.
What can be expected of this strategy?
There are about 10,000 ponds in the CDSP project with a total
area of about 500 ha, the majority (85%) owned by small farmers.
In principle, about 550 mt of fish could be obtained annually
from these ponds, taking into account the earlier discussed
production system.
The largest part (55%) of the production potential lies with
the small farmers as the size of their ponds is reasonable and
together the have a large number of ponds (Table 4). Landless
and marginal farmers own Twenty-seven percent of the total
pond area, but the prospect for improvement is limited as their
ponds are small and they can achieve only 24% of the potential
production. This situation also reflects itself in the annual
production potential of the individual households.
With 34 kg/family/year incremental production, the impact
for the landless seems to be poor; but for the involved families,
it will be a substantial improvement as the production means
two months of meals with fish for the whole family.
The development dilemma: Growth of fish
production or poverty alleviation?
Despite a declining population growth rate, 2.2 million people
are added each year to the population of Bangladesh and they
have to be fed. Rice production has increased tremendously over
the last two decades, and in the early 1990s, Bangladesh became
self-sufficient. Over the same period, however, the average per
capita protein intake declined from 58 to 40 grams per day.
Therefore, it is logical for the policy makers and planners try to
stop this downward trend, aiming mainly at the growth of the
total fish production through improvement of fish farming.
Implementation of such programs is not complicated; results are
obtained quickly within 3-4 years. Costs are not high - $25-50
US per pond owner trained - and a high economic rate of return
can be obtained if the larger ponds are targeted with yields of
2000 kg/ha plus. However, it should be realised that despite the
growth in farmed fish, the poorer segment of society has no
access. It is simply too expensive for them to buy.
If fish farming is being developed in order to alleviate poverty,
it should be realized that the poor have only small and relatively
unproductive ponds. Aiming a fish farming development
programme at this group is from a macro-economic point of
view less attractive then aiming at the richer pond owners. This
as the investments are still about $25-50 US per pond owner
and the yields will be only 600-1,000 kg/ha, resulting in low
economic rates of return. However, for the involved poor, such
production has a significant impact as it means two months of
meals with fish for the family, or a 5-10% income increase.
Therefore, if poverty alleviation is concerned in aquaculture
development, instead of using the traditional criteria, such as
total increase in production and total financial or economic value
of the increased production, more relative parameters such as
growth in availability of protein for the rural poor and relative
growth in income of the rural poor should be used. If the major
donors take their objective to reduce poverty seriously, then they
should take the lead in this aspect and should seriously review
the objectives of ongoing and further planned developments in
the fisheries sector of Bangladesh.
Small ponds, lower productivity but greater potential impact on poverty.
Conservation of endangered fish stocks through artificial
propagation and larval rearing technique in
West Bengal, India
M. Mijkherjee, Aloke Praharaj and Shamik Das
Office of the Deputy Director of Fisheries (Microbiology & Parasitology), Captain
Bhery, P0. Nawbhanga, E. M Bypass, Kolkata 39, West Bengal, India
The sustainable utilization of genetic
resources, including fish, is a vital part in
improving the standard of living in a
populous country like India. Concern over
declining harvests and an obvious
reduction in biodiversity of fish species
has lead to a more holistic approach to
fisheries management and research. About
11% (2,200) of the total world fin fish
species (more than 20,000) have been
recorded from the Indian subcontinent
1
.
Unfortunately, many fish species are
in decline and some have become
endangered due to a combination of over-
exploitation, pesticide and aquatic
pollution, spread of disease, uncontrolled
introduction of exotic fishes, and habitat
modification due to industrialization,
river-valley projects, excessive water
abstraction and siltation due to clearing.
However, there is no comprehensive
list of the threatened species of fishes
critically in need of protection. This lack
of information on threatened species of
fishes and the general lack of
identification manuals are barriers to the
recognition and conservation of our
vanishing fishes. An essential prerequisite
to any broad programme of resource
conservation is the proper taxonomic
study of fish species occurring in the area
concerned and a full checklist indicating
the status of each species. Such a list
would enable the IUCN to prepare an
international list of endangered species,
to be included in the Red Data Book.
We have identified 39 such local fish
species that we believe are going to
disappear from their natural habitat in
West Bengal (Table 1).
The Department of Fisheries,
Government of West Bengal is trying to
conserve these species with the following
objectives:
1. Brood stock management: Artificial
breeding of threatened species for
restocking in their natural habitat and
to establish gene banks using
cryopreservation techniques.
Freshwater

Endangered: 1. Ompok pabo
Vulnerable: 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Ailia coila
Anguilla bengalensis
Bagarius bagarius
Eutropiichthys vacha
Ompok bimaculatus
Puntius sarana
Semiplotus Semiplotus
Osphromenus nobiliis
Labeo diacanthyus
Anabas testudineus
Threatened: 12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Notopterus chitala
Notopterus notopterus
Pangasiuspangasius
Balitora brucei
Gudusia chapra
Labeo fimbriatus
Labeo gonius
Mastocembelus armatus
Mystus tengara
Mystus aor
Rasbora rasbora
Setipinna phasa
Bengala elanga
Wallago attu
Nandus nandus
Amblypharingodon mola
Cold Water

Vulnerable: 28.
29.
30.
31.
Tor putitora
Tor tor
Raiamas bola
Barilus vogra

Brackish & Marine

Vulnerable: 32.
33.
Lates calcarifer
Mystus gulio
Threatened: 34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Osteogeniosus militaris
Periophthalmus koelreutri
Etroplus suratensis
Plotosus canius
Tachsurus thalassinus
Polydactylus indicus
Table 1: List of 39 species of local fishes from West Bengal, India, that are
likely to become locally extinct in their native habitat
2. To overcome disease problems in
larval rearing tanks & culture ponds.
3. To generate income, self-employment
and skill for interested farmers through
demonstration & training.
4. To provide technical support to private
hatchery owners to help them to
maximize production of quality seed.
As little is known about the reproduction
of many species, research is needed to
develop and standardize techniques for
their artificial propagation. This
technology can then be used to help
conserve threatened species through
captive breeding programs and also to
generate new employment opportunities
for rural people.
We would like to share our findings
with farmers and extension/conservation
workers throughout the region with regard
to the breeding techniques of two
endangered species: 1) A freshwater fish
Pabda, Ompok pabo and 2) a brackish-
water fish, Tangra, Mystus gulio.
Gene banks
For conservation purposes, we have
applied artificial reproduction techniques
to establish an Endangered Fish Species
Breeding Programme. The two main
components of this programme are a) a
live gene bank and b) gamete/embryo
bank. In a live gene bank, the endangered
species are reared in captivity and
genetically managed to avoid inbreeding
depression, domestication and unintended
selection. In the gamete/embryo bank,
adequate samples representative of the
natural genetic variation of endangered
species are held in a state of suspended
animation, frozen under liquid nitrogen.
In the first phase of the programme, we
have selected some freshwater fish
species, reared them in captivity and
attempted to artificially induce
reproduction and rear the larvae. The
results of some of our experiments on
reproduction are given in table 2.
Captive breeding of Pabda
and Tangra
Pabda, Ompok pabo and Tangra, Mystus
guillo are Indian major catfishes
belonging to the family siluridae (eel-
tailed catfish). Both are important
components of riverine and brackish-
water fisheries in the Indian sub-continent.
Little information is available on the
biology and culture practices of these two
species
2,3
. Pabda dwells and breeds in the
rivers and reservoirs and in connected
water sheds during floods. Tangra are
found in seas and estuaries throughout the
India. Tangra dwells and breeds in the
estuaries during the monsoon. There are
no prior reports of captive breeding in
either of these two species.
Brood Stock Management
Pabda
Pabda, juveniles were collected from the
river Punarvava, in the vicinity of Malda
District, West Bengal, India. They were
stocked in a polyculture tank with Indian
Major Carp in a 0.5 ha pond. Along with
regular liming the fish stock were fed with
conventional feed consisting of mustard
oil cake and rice bran in the ratio of 1:1.
Pabda were maintained throughout the
carp culture period. The brooders (Fig. la)
attained maturity after one year and the
average body weight was 85g Both male
and female broodstock were found to be
mature in May.
Matured males have a rough first ray
in the pectoral fin at the lower side and
have a narrow and rather pointed genital
papilla, which releases white milt if slight
pressure is applied to the abdomen.
Females have a smooth pectoral fin and
the genital papilla has a thick muscular
round opening.
Fish species Hormone used Sex ratio M: F Dose of hormone used
per kg body weight
Percentage
hatching

Pabda
Ompok pabo
Pituitary extract
Ovatide
2:1
2:1
16 mg (in female only)
3.0 ml (in female only)
50%
70%
Chital
Notopterus chitala
Pituitary extract 3:1 11 mg (in female only) 60%
Pholni
Notopterus notopterus
Pituitary extract 2:1 4 mg (in female)
2.5 mg (in male)
70%
Indegenous tangra
Mystus vittatus
Ovatide 2:1 8 ml (in female) 80%
Saral punti
Puntius sarana
2.5 (in male)
70%
Indigenous magur
C/art us batrachus
Ovaprim 1:1 2.5 ml in female
1.0 ml in male
50%
Nuna tangra
Mystus gulio
Ovaprim 2:1 2.5 ml in female
1.0 ml in male
80%
Mourala
Amblypharingodon mola
2.5 (in male)
80%
Table 2 : Experiments on some threatened fish species
Figure 1a) Nandos broodstock, Nandus nandus
Figure 1b) Pabda broodstock, Ompok pabo
Tangra
Adult Tangra, (Fig. 1c) were collected
from the local bheri at Digha, Midnapore
and were stocked in a round cement tank
in the hatchery for a period of 15 days for
acclimatisation. Along with regular water
exchange the fish stock were fed with
conventional feed consisting of mustard
oil cake, rice bran and dry fish in the ratio
of 1:1:5.
Males had a muscular, conical reddish-
pink genital papilla. In the case of females,
the genital papilla was found to have a
thick muscular ring round the opening.
Induced breeding
techniques
Pabda
Gravid females were identified with a
simple cathet ring device
4
. Free oozing
males and ripe females were used for
breeding in the ratio of 2:1.
Breeding was carried out in a bundh.
These are special type of impoundments
where riverine conditions are simulated
during monsoon months. The bundhs,
after a heavy shower, receive large
quantities of rainwater from their
extensive catchment and provide a large
spawning ground. Broodstock were kept
in a hapa in the bundh and conditioned
for 24 hours.
Two techniques were trialed to induce
breeding, one with carp pituitary extract
and second with a synthetic hormone
ovatide (Hemmo pharma, Mumbai,
India). For each experiment six males and
three females were kept in a separate
breeding hapa. Single doses of hormone
were administered to females only. The
dose of hormone used, as pituitary, was
16mg/kg body weight and as Ovatide 3.0
mg/kg body weight. The synthetic
hormone was diluted with double distilled
water before use and the main water
quality parameters of the tanks were
recorded regularly (Table 3) following the
method given by APHA
5
.
breeding, which was conducted in a in 200
liter round earthen cistern (60cm in
diameter), filled with saline water (salinity
20 ppt), vigorously aerated.
For the breeding operation (Fig. 2b), a
synthetic hormone ovaprim was used.
Double doses of hormone were
administered to the female. Male fish were
injected with a single dose at the time of
final dose to the females. The dose of
hormone used was 2.5 ml/kg body weight
in females and 1.0 ml/kg body weight in
males.
The first batch of eggs (about 20%) was
released about 10 hours post-injection and
a second batch (about 35%) were released
at 12 hours post-injection. The remaining
eggs (45%) were released in a third batch
15 hours post-injection.
Hatching and larval
development
Pabda
22 hours post-fertilization, the embryos
hatched. The newly hatched embryo were
5-6 mm in length with a small yolk sac
attached After 24 hours, we transferred
the larvae from the hatching hapa to a
nursery tank for further development.
Larvae were fed with formulated feed
after three days of hatching, prepared by
steam cooking a mixture of egg and
mussel
6
. We mixed Piscimix powder
into the prepared feed at the rate of 10mg/
kg feed. We sieved the mixture and
thoroughly washed it in tap water.
The synthetic hormone (ovatide) gave
the best results, with the number of eggs
released 80% higher than that from
pituitary extract (Table 4). The number of
egg released with the ovatide-induced
hormone was 80% higher than that of
pituitary extract. Hatchery percentage was
higher in ovatide and 28% higher than the
pituitary extract.
Figure 1c) Tangra broodstock, Mystus gulio
Figure 2a) Induced breeding in Mystus vittatus
Pabda

Pond Temp (C) pH DO (ppm) NH
4
N
(ppm)
Alkalinity
(ppm)
Hardness
(ppm)
Brooders tank 291 7.5-8.0 6-6.5 13010 11015
Breeding tank 311 7.6-7.9 7-7.6 - 14015 11210
Larval rearing
tank
291 7.5- 7.8 6.9-7.2 - 13515 11510

Tangra

Pond Temp (C) pH DO (ppm) NH
4
N
(ppm)
Alkalinity
(ppm)
Salinity
(ppt)
Brooders tank 291 8.0-8.2 7-7.5 - 13010 203
Breeding tank 291 7.5-7.9 6.8-7.0 - 14015 202
Larval rearing
tank
301 7.9-8.0 6.5-7.0 - 13515 202
Table 3: Major water quality parameters managed during experiments
Tangra
Broodstock were selected in June 2001.
Free oozing males and ripe females were
used in the ratio of 2:1 respectively for
Figure 2b) Injecting hormone in Tangra
Future work
In the near future we are going to try to
breed some other locally endangered fish
species such as Nados, Nandus nandus;
Parse, Mugil Persia; Bhagan, Mugil tade;
and Pangus, Pangasius pangasius. An
improved breeding technique using bio-
filtration in the hatchery and making
suitable larval feeds is expected to help
to increase larval survival.
With a view to making the conservation
effort more effective, we are also
attempting to store gametes and embryos
in a liquid nitrogen gene bank as
representative samples of the natural
genetic variation of locally endangered
species.
While a gamete/embryo bank is more
cost effective in comparison to live gene
bank, the present state of technology
allows only cryopreservation of fish
spermatozoa. Successful cryopreservation
of fish eggs and embryo are yet to be
achieved.
Figure 3b) Fertilized eggs of Pabda
Fertilized eggs of Nados, Nandus nandus
Tangra
The embryos hatched after 20 hours of
fertilization. Newly hatched embryos
were 3.5 - 4.2 mm in length with a small
yolk sac attached, which was consumed
within 36 hours from hatching. We fed
larvae with Artemia nauplii after complete
absorption of yolk sac.
Larval rearing
Feeding is the most important factor in
the larval period rearing, In Pabda,
formulated feed with the addition of
piscimix helps to combat mortality,
enhances survival rates and allows larger
growth. It also checks malnutrition and
helps to maintain steady growth of bones
and muscles.
The technique for induced breeding of
Pabda and Tangra is comparable to the
induced breeding of carp but special
attention is needed in larval rearing as
large mortalities occur mostly after 24
hours from hatching. Decomposing of
eggshells can cause deterioration of water
quality in the hatching hapa. However,
after the initial mortality the rest
population of survived to become
fingerlings without additional problems.
Table 4a: Larval production of Pabda

Set Hormone used No. of fish Dose of hormone
(per kg)
No. of eggs
released
Percentage
hatching
I Pituitary gland
extract
Female 3
Male 6
16 mg 4,200 50%
II Ovatide Female 3
Male 6
3 ml 20,500 70%

Table 4b: Laval production of Tangra

Set Hormone used No. of fish Dose of hormone
(per kg)
No. of eggs
released
Percentage
hatching
I Ovaprim Female 9
Male 18
2.5 ml
l.0ml
30,000 80%
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Director
of Fisheries, Government of West Bengal,
India. The authors would like to thank Sri
Dipak Roy, Dipak Roys Carp Hatchery,
for providing hatchery facilities for the
duration of the experiment and also to
CALPHAR for providing piscimix
powder.
References and further reading
1. Das, P. and Pandey, A. K. (1998). Current Status of
fish germplasm resources of India and strategies of
conservation of endangered species, pp. 252 212,
in: Ponniah, A C., Das, P. and S.R. Verma (eds) Fish
Genetics and Biodiversity Conservation. Nature
Conservators, Muzaffanagar.
2. Day, F. (1967). The fishes of India. Vol. I Jagmander
book agency, New Delhi.
3. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (1962).
The wealth of India, Raw Materials Vol.-IV,
supplement Fish and Fisheries, New Delhi.
4. Chowdhury, H., Singh, S. B. and Sukumaran, K. K.
(1966). Experiments on large-scale production of
fish seed of Chinese carps, Ctenopharingodon idella
(C&V) and the silver carp, Hypopthalmicthys
molitrix (C&V). by induced breeding in pond in
India. Proc. India Acad. Sci., 53: 80 - 95.
5. APHA (1995). Standard methods for the
examination of water and waste water Analysis, 18th
Ed. Amer. Pub. Hlth. Ass., Awwa, WBPC
Washington DC.
6. Karmakar, A, Bandyopadhyay, A. and Mukherjee,
M. (2000). Freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii post larvae production b modified
management protocols. pp 157 -161 In: B B. Jana,
R. D. Banerjee, B. Guterstam and J. Heeb (eds.).
Waste Recycling and Resource Management in the
developing world.
7. Dehadrai, P.V., Das P. and Venna, S.R. (1994).
Threatened fishes of India. Nature Conservators,
Muzaffarnagar.
Figure 3a) Close up view of Chital eggs
Notopterus chitala
The use of lime, gypsum, alum and potassium permanganate in
water quality management
Simon Wilkinson, NACA
The addition of liming materials to increase the total alkalinity
of ponds has the desirable effect of increasing buffering capacity
and pH stability
1,7
.
Liming to reclaim acid-sulfate soils
Acid-sulfate soils contain iron pyrite, (iron sulfide) which is
oxidised to sulfuric acid if the soils are exposed to air
3
as per
the following reaction
2
:
FeS
2
+ 3.75 O
2
+ 3.5 H
2
O = Fe(OH)
3
+ 2SO
4
2-
+ H
+
Drainage from acid sulfate soils can cause extremely low pH
in ponds outside the tolerable range of most species
3
. Acid
sulfate soils within a pond or its watershed must therefore be
treated if the pond is to be used for production. However, large
amounts of lime are typically required and the technique may
not be economically feasible unless used in conjunction with
other methods
2
.
Liming to increase the effectiveness of fertilisation
programs in soft acidic waters
Fertiliser is often added to ponds to increase fish yields by
increasing the availability of food organisms for fish. However,
fertilisation programs are usually ineffective in ponds with acidic
waters and sediments
3
. This reduced response is caused by two
factors. The first is a deficiency of carbon in the alkalinity
system, which cannot support high rates of photosynthesis by
phytoplankton and plants
8
. The second is the increased
adsorption of dissolved inorganic phosphorus by sediments
9
.
Phosphorus is a key nutrient for phytoplankton growth and its
availability limits phytoplankton production
8,10
. Liming
materials may be used to support fertilisation programs or to
improve productivity in acidic waters by addressing both of these
factors. Lime is generally recommended as a treatment for ponds
when total alkalinity and total hardness are below 20 mg/litre
11
.
Heavy phytoplankton growth can deplete free CO
2
which is
required by phytoplankton and aquatic plants for
photosynthesis
4,5
. Bicarbonate ions provide an alternative carbon
source for photosynthesis in the absence of free CO
2
1
. The
increase in total alkalinity resulting from properly applied liming
materials is primarily by bicarbonate ions
3
. Liming can therefore
favour greater rates of photosynthesis at times when the
availability of free CO
2
is limited, leading to substantially higher
phytoplankton densities
4,5
.
Phosphorus added to ponds rapidly disappears from solution.
Some of this dissipation is due to adsorption by phytoplankton,
but most phosphorus is removed through reaction with the
sediment to form iron and aluminium phosphate compounds.
This process is pH dependent
9
. Applying lime to neutralise the
Aquaculture Fundamentals
It is desirable to provide cultured fish with conditions that are
within their favoured range for optimum growth and production.
However, local environmental conditions may make a pond
unfavourable or completely unsuitable for fish culture. Problems
that are frequently encountered include soft acidic waters, low
natural productivity, high clay turbidity, oxygen depletion and
acid sulfate soils. In such circumstances it is desirable to adjust
the water chemistry of a pond in order to bring it back into the
favoured range of the culture species.
Lime, gypsum, alum and potassium permanganate are all
chemicals frequently used in aquaculture to regulate water quality
and the conditions described above. The usefulness of these
chemicals in water quality management for fish culture is
reviewed below.
Lime
Pond waters with pH of 3.6-5.4 have been reported to exert toxic
effects on a range of fishes including mortality, reduced growth
and poor reproduction. Waters with a pH of less than 6.0 have
also been associated with poor productivity
1
. Freshwater ponds
with acidic waters may therefore be unsuitable for use in fish
culture without remedial action. Total hardness and total
alkalinity are normally within acceptable limits in brackish or
marine ponds
2
.
Liming materials contain calcium, or calcium and magnesium
in combination with an anionic radical capable of neutralising
acidity
2
. Common liming materials include agricultural
limestone and liquid lime, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide
and basic slag. Liming materials react with acidity as follows
for dolomite
3
:
CaMg(CO
3
)
2
+4H
+
= Ca
2+
+ Mg
2+
+ 2H
2
O + 2CO
2
This reaction neutralises acidity, increases pH and total
hardness of water, and results in an increase in total alkalinity.
The addition of lime can be used to increase these properties to
levels favoured by culture species
4,5
.
Rapid pH changes, even within the range normally tolerated
by a species, may also cause the death of fishes
1,6
. Some liming
materials such as calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide can result
in a pH increase above 11, which is considered to be the alkaline
death point for pondfishes
1
. However, these materials will react
with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO
2
) to form less hazardous
carbonates if applied to empty ponds several weeks before
refilling
1
. This will prevent such excessive increases in pH
occurring from the use of these materials.
Ponds with substantial populations of phytoplankton or
aquatic plants may also experience wide diel fluctuations in pH.
This is caused by fluctuations in CO
2
concentration due to
respiration and photosynthetic activity
7
.
acidic muds of ponds to pH 6.5 has been shown to increase
soluble phosphorus concentrations. This reflects the greater
solubility of phosphorus from muds at this pH
5
. This may
enhance phytoplankton productivity and substantially increase
fish yields in limed fertilised ponds relative to unlimed fertilised
controls
4
.
Agricultural limestone cannot be applied simultaneously with
phosphate fertilisers as this will cause phosphorus to precipitate
12
.
This is due to the high calcium concentrations from the limestone
reacting with phosphate to form tricalcium phosphate
18
. It is
therefore desirable to add liming materials well in advance of
fertilisers.
Liming is not usually considered to be a form of fertilisation
13
.
However, liming increases the concentration of calcium and/or
magnesium,which can be limiting nutrients, for phytoplankton,
at low concentrations
5
. These nutrients are most likely to be
limiting in waters of low total hardness.
Lime must be periodically reapplied to remain effective.
Ponds treated with approximately 1000kg/ha agricultural
limestone or hydrated lime have been reported to show increased
productivity for two to four years
3
. The effective period of an
application, as indicated by water hardness, is determined by
the rate of water loss to seepage and overflow from ponds
3
.
Liming has been reported to be ineffective in a pond with a water
retention time of less than three weeks
12
.
Alum (Aluminium sulfate)
Clay turbidity restricts light penetration in ponds. This reduces
the depth to which photosynthesis can occur and reduces primary
productivity
14
. Clay turbidity is caused by ultra-fine colloidal
particles, 1-10m in diameter. These particles carry a negative
charge which maintains them in suspension.
Positive ions react to reduce the negative charge of colloids,
causing them to coagulate into larger particles and settle out
2
.
Electrolytes with appropriate positive ions can therefore be added
to water to remove colloidal particles. Alum (aluminium sulfate),
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) and gypsum (calcium sulfate)
are often used as sources of electrolytes for reducing turbidity
14
.
Liming materials increase the concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions, which flocculate colloidal particles
14
. Gypsum
can also be used to flocculate colloids by increasing the
concentration of calcium ions
7
. However, in one comparative
study, alum was found to be more effective than lime or gypsum
in the reduction of turbidity. Alum reduced turbidity by 89-
97% within 48 hours at doses of 10-30 mg/litre
14
. The cost of
treatment with alum is significantly lower than for gypsum
7
.
Alum is acid forming and can substantially reduce total
alkalinity and pH as per the following reaction
14
:
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 6H
2
0 = 2Al(OH)
3
+ 6H
+
+ 3SO
4
2-
This effect makes alum unsuitable for use in ponds with low
total alkalinity as it may lower pH to the point where it is toxic
to fish
14
. Alum also reduces dissolved inorganic phosphate levels
through the precipitation of insoluble aluminium phosphate,
reducing phytoplankton growth
14
. The use of alum may therefore
necessitate the addition of lime to correct total alkalinity and pH
if these parameters fall below acceptable levels. Fertilisation to
increase dissolved phosphorus concentrations may also be
necessary to maintain productivity.
Gypsum (calcium sulfate)
Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is more soluble than liming materials
and can be used to increase the total hardness of waters beyond
that possible with lime, although it does not neutralise acidity
7
.
The low cost and high solubility of gypsum makes it ideal for
use in the maintenance of calcium levels in hatchery situations.
Adequate levels of calcium are critical for bone formation in
fish and exoskeleton formation in crustaceans
7
.
The increased calcium concentrations associated with the
addition of gypsum to ponds may cause a gradual, but substantial,
decline in total alkalinity, pH and phytoplankton abundance
7,15
.
The increased concentration of calcium associated with the
addition of gypsum has been shown to reduce total alkalinity
through the precipitation of calcium carbonate
15,16
. High calcium
concentrations have also been shown to limit the concentration
of dissolved phosphorus through precipitation of insoluble
tricalcium phosphate
10
. The reduction in phosphorus in this
manner is not normally enough to make ponds unproductive
7
.
However, phosphorus concentrations are normally low in acidic
waters due to the exchange acidity of sediments
4
. The use of
gypsum may therefore reduce the productivity of acidic ponds.
It may be necessary to correct total alkalinity with lime and
increase phosphorus levels with fertilisation if treatment with
gypsum causes these parameters to fall below acceptable levels.
The calcium ions supplied by gypsum act as electrolytes in
the flocculation of colloidal particles. For example, gypsum
applied at rates of 100-500 mg/litre substantially reduced
turbidity in one study. However, similar reductions in turbidity
were achieved using 20-25 mg/litre of alum, which is a more
cost effective treatment
7
.
Potassium permanganate
Potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
) is an oxidizing agent, which
is sometimes used as a pond treatment for oxygen depletion. It
is also sometimes used as a disinfectant or treatment for fish
8
.
The addition of potassium permanganate at concentrations
above 4mg/litre has been reported to reduce the biological oxygen
demand of water in plastic pools
17
. The effect lasted for one to
two days post-treatment and was attributed to reduction in the
abundance of aerobic bacteria. However, treatment also reduced
daylight rates of oxygen gain by suppressing photosynthesis and
reducing algal abundance. This technique may in fact be
detrimental since it is only useful if potassium permanganate is
added in advance of oxygen depletion occurring
17
. However,
this technique might possibly be of some assistance as an
emergency measure if combined with additional supplementary
aeration to increase dissolved oxygen levels. This would be of
particular benefit at night when dissolved oxygen levels are at
their lowest.
The use of potassium permanganate appears to be
incompatible with the application of fertilisers to enhance
primary productivity of ponds. Treatment of ponds with
potassium permanganate has been reported to substantially
reduce the concentration of dissolved orthophosphate
concentrations
17
. The loss was attributed to the formation of
insoluble precipitate formed upon the oxidation of ferrous iron
by potassium permanganate. Phosphorus is a key nutrient for
phytoplankton and its availability limits phytoplankton growth
18
.
Fertilisation with phosphorus may be required after treatment
with potassium permanganate in order to maintain the primary
productivity of ponds.
Potassium permanganate may also be used to oxidise the
piscicides such as rotenone and antimycin
7
. However, potassium
permanganate has been shown to be toxic in itself, with adverse
effects observed in some fish at concentrations of 2mg/litre in
tap water
17
. The toxicity of potassium permanganate, and its
effectiveness as a treatment appeared to be reduced by the
presence of organic matter in ponds.
Conclusion
Liming materials may contribute substantially to fish yields by
improving conditions for fish, and by enhancing the primary
productivity of the pond. Alum is an effective flocculant for
reducing clay turbidity. Gypsum is less useful in this regard,
but is better suited to raising hardness than lime or alum because
of its greater solubility. Potassium permanganate is a useful
disinfectant, but may actually be detrimental if added to ponds
suffering from oxygen depletion.
References
1. Swingle, H.S. (1957). Relationship of pH of pond waters to their suitability for
fish culture, Proceedings of the 9th Pacific Science Congress.
2. Anon. (1998). Study guide SQQ631 Water Quality Management, Deakin
University, Geelong.
3. Boyd, C.E. (1982). Liming fish ponds, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,
vol 37, no 2, pp 86-88.
4. Arce, R. & Boyd , C.E. (1975). Effects of agricultural limestone on water chemistry,
phytoplankton productivity and fish production in soft water ponds, Transactions
of the American Fisheries Society, vol 104, no2, pp 308-349.
5. Boyd, C.E. & Scarsbrook, E. (1974). Effects of agricultural limestone on
phytoplankton communities of fish ponds, Arch Hydrobiol, vol 74, no 8, pp 336-
49.
6. Witschi, W. and Ziebell, C. (1979). Evaluation of pH shock on hatchery-reared
rainbow trout, Progressive Fish-Culturist, vol 41, pp 3-5.
7. Boyd, C.E. (1990). Water quality in ponds for Aquaculture, Birmingham
Publishing Co., Alabama 482 pp.
8. Boyd, C.E. (1984). Fluids beat granular in fish pond trials, Solutions, February.
9. Boyd, C.E. (1971). Phosphorus dynamics in ponds, Proceedings of 25th Annual
conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp
418-26.
10. Hepher, B. (1962). Ten years of research in fish ponds fertilization in Israel, I.
The effect of fertilization on fish yields, Bamidgeh, vol 15, pp 78-92.
11. Pillai, V.K. & Boyd, C.E. (1985). A simple method for calculating liming rates for
fish ponds, Aquaculture, vol 46, pp 157-62.
12. Boyd, C.E. (1976). Liming farm fish ponds, Leaflet 91, Agricultural Experiment
Station, Auburn University, Alabama, April.
13. Boyd, C.E. (1981). Fertilisation of warmwater fish ponds, Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation, vol 36, pp 142-145.
14. Boyd (1979). Aluminium sulfate (alum) for precipitating clay turbidity from fish
ponds, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, vol 108, pp307-13.
15. Mandal, B.K. & Boyd, C.E. (1980). Reduction of pH in waters with high total
alkalinity and low total hardness, The Progressive Fish-Culturist, vol 42, no 3,
July, pp 183-84.
16. Wu, R. & Boyd, C.E. (1990). Evaluation of calcium sulfate for use in aquaculture
ponds, The Progressive Fish-Culturist, vol 52, pp 26-31.
17. Tucker, C.S. and Boyd, C.E. (1977), Relationships between potassium
permanganate treatment and water quality, Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society, vol 106, pp 481-88.
18. Hepher, B. (1963). Ten years of research in fish ponds fertilization in Israel, II.
Fertilizers dose and frequency of fertilization, Bamidgeh, vol 15, pp 78-92.
The utilizations of heterosis in
common carp in China
Dong Z.J. and Yuan X.H.
Common carp Cyprinus carpio is one of the principal cultured
species in China. The production of cultured common carp
reached 2.05 million ton in 1999 and accounted for 20% of total
freshwater fish production. Since the farming of this fish extends
back to ancient times, common carp has a wide distribution in
China. As a result of long-term selection (both natural and
artificial), common carp populations have acquired a great deal
of genetic diversity there is a great deal of polymorphism in
its phenotype and genotype and its genetic structure has high
heterozygosity. This heterosis provides the opportunity to
improve the productivity of carp through selective breeding.
The utilization of heterosis in selective breeding is an effective
way to improve fish quality and increase fish production. Since
1970s, Chinese fisheries scientists have made broad studies on
the utilization of heterosis in common carp and achieved
significant results. Traits in which crossbreeds express heterosis
include improved survival, growth and tolerance to cold and
specific diseases. The followings are some hybrids of common
carp that have been successfully extended to the practice.
Applications of heterosis in common carp
Feng carp
This hybrid comes from the combination of Xingguo red carp
scattered mirror carp, first developed by staff at the Hubei
Institute of Hydrobiology. At the fingerling stage, the growth
rate of Feng carp is typically 1.5-1.6 times of that of maternal
fish, and at the adult stage, 1.32 times.
Heyuan carp
This crossbreed is obtained from the hybridization between purse
red carp Yuanjiang carp. It has some advantages included a
high growth rate, good body shape, high feed conversion rate
and a high capture rate.
Yue carp
These are the first generation offspring (F1) of the hybridization
combination of purse red carp Xiangjiang carp. Their growth
rate is 50-100% more than the paternal fish and 25-50% than
the maternal fish. Field trials have shown that they can reach
market size after 200 days culture in the Hunan area (central
China).
Triple-hybrid carp
The maternal and paternal fish of this hybrid is Heyuan carp and
scattered mirror carp, respectively. The growth increment of the
hybrid is 15% and 50% greater than the maternal and paternal
fish, respectively.
Lotus carp
This was first obtained by crossing scattered mirror carp and
Xingguo red carp, first conducted in 1975. This carp may reach
6kg after the first year of cultivation.
Jian carp
The varieties of carp we mentioned before are all hybrids. The
traits of the offspring of the hybrid carps will be segregated. So
new hybrids should be made every year and at least two varieties
of parental fish must be conserved in order to obtain the hybrid
carps. This can be inconvenient in practice. Jian carp is the first
variety of common carp that was produced by artificial breeding
in China. The technique applied in its breeding procedure
includes hybridization, family selection and gynogenesis. Jian
carp has several advantageous characteristics, for example, a
high growth rate and fine body shape. The growth advantage of
Jian carp is significant. The body weight increment outperforms
purse red carp, Yuanjiang carp and Heyuan carp by a factor of
141-250 %, 80-96 % and 40-42 %, respectively. The gross
production of this carp may be more than 30% greater than other
varieties of common carp.
Molecular studies on the mechanism of
heterosis
It takes several years for fish to reach maturity and selecting
heterotic crossbreeds from hybrid combinations often takes a
lot of selection work, time and effort. Therefore, a study looking
for a stable and practical index to predict heterosis is a highly
desirable aid for fish breeding. Fisheries scientists in China also
have tried to study the mechanism and prediction of heterosis at
a molecular level. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
technique was applied to analyze the genetic relationship within
and between Feng carp and the parental fish. The genetic distance
between parental fish and genetic similarity indices between Feng
carp and parental carps were calculated. The results showed that
the genetic distance between Xingguo red carp and scattered
mirror carp was farthest in the experimental fish. The genetic
similarity indices between Feng carp and two parental fish were
almost same, which indicated that Feng carp inherited equal
genetic material from maternal and paternal fish. The same
technique was also used to examine the heterozygosity of Jian
carp. The result revealed that Jian carp has a higher ratio of
polymorphic loci and higher average allelic heterozygosity
compared to other carp populations. The advantageous traits of
Jian carp may come from the greater heterozygosity of these
fish.
Suggestions on the utilization of heterosis
The major factors influencing heterosis include the genetic
relationship and the purity of the parents. We know that within
a certain range, hybrids generated by varieties with a farther
genetic distance (ie. that are less closely related) have a greater
heterosis. So in practice, we should use varieties with a farther
genetic distance as the parental stock to generate hybrids with
high heterosis and superior characteristics. But how can we know
which varieties have a greater genetic distance? Molecular
biological methods are highly accurate but are not available to
farmers. Fortunately, there are some general guidelines that
farmers can use to select broodstock varieties with a greater
genetic distance:
1. Varieties whose native habitats lie in widely separated
geographic regions usually have a greater genetic distance and
can be used as parents to produce heterotic hybrids. For example,
the crossbreeds of purse red carp (native habitat in Jiangxi, mid-
east of China) and Yuanjiang carp (native habitat in Yunan,
southwest of China) have a high heterosis.
2. Varieties with greater differences in morphology/body
shape or physiology can be used as parental stock to produce
crossbreeds of high heterosis. Evidence of this comes from Feng
carp and lotus carp whose parental fish are Xingguo red carp
(red color and all scales) and scattered mirror carp (caesious
color and scattered scales).
3. Another factor influencing heterosis is the genetic purity
of the parental fish. Usually, more pure the parent fish are, higher
the heterosis of their crossbreeds. It is necessary to select
broodstock every year in order to get the hybrids with higher
heterosis.
For more information contact Prof. Dong Zaijie, Freshwater
Fisheries Research Centre of Chinese Academy of Fisheries
Sciences, Wuxi, 214081, China. Email: dongzj@bigfoot.com.
Progress of fish gene
technology research in China
Zhang Yue and Zhu Xinping
Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Guangzhou, 510380, P.R.
China
Research on the genetic modification of fish (transgenic and
nuclear transplantation) has been undertaken in China for over
two decades, since the first successful human growth hormone
gene transfer in goldfish
1
. To date, most research in this area has
focused on improving the growth rate of species or other useful
traits such as cold-tolerance and resistance to disease. Most of
the Chinese research can be categorized into three main groups:
1) Growth hormone gene transformation, 2) anti-freeze protein
gene transformation, or 3) disease-resistance gene
transformation.
To date, the Chinese researchers have engineered more than
20 species of fishes. Some of these are cloned
2
. However, the
first engineered fish to enter commercial production is likely to
be a carp developed by the Zhu research group. In this fish the
carp beta-actin promoter and grass carp growth hormone have
been fused using a combining of gene cloning with nuclear
transplantation.
Progress of studies on engineering fish
Growth hormone gene transformation
In the Wuhan Hydrobiology Institute, researchers have conceived
and developed an all fish growth hormone model. They have
cloned and sequenced the grass carp and common carp carbonic
anhydrase (CA) gene and growth hormone gene. The grass carp
CA gene (beta-actin) promoter has been linked to a grass carp
growth hormone cDNA to form a high efficiency expression
vector called pCAZ. Using the CAT gene as a reporter gene, a
pCA grass carp growth hormone recombinant was microinjected
into fertilized, non-activated common carp eggs via the
micropyle, generating all fish transgenic carp. The presence
of the transgene was detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR and
Northern blotting. A number of these transgenic fish showed
dramatic increases in their growth rate (137% of the control).
The growth rate in the first generation offspring is up to 120%
of the control
3,4,5
. The transgenic fish from this group has
successfully passed field-testing and safety assessment and
commercialization has sanctioned.
In other work, an ocean pout anti-freeze protein promoter
has been constructed and fused with salmon growth horomone
(Oncorhynchus keta) (i.e. opAFP-GHc) and microinjected into
Tangtufang (Megalobrama amblycephala). Carp metallothionein
(MT) promoter has been fused with salmon growth hormone
then microinjected into the carp. Similar growth-promoting
effects were observed in both experiments and field tests.
Anti-freeze protein gene transformation
The ocean pout (Macrozoarces americanus) possesses an anti-
freeze protein that enables it to reduce the effective freezing
point of its blood and tissue. In contrast, the mud carp (C.
molitorella) is a tropical species with poor cold tolerance that is
of economic importance in south China. We tried to improve
the cold tolerance of mud carp through gene technology. In our
experiments, we microinjected genomic DNA from common
carp and ocean pout. In the latter, four out of 73 samples (about
5%) were positive for the presence of the transgene
6
. Field assays
of cold tolerance showed that the transgenic fishes could survive
better than controls under average temperatures that are 4.0C
lower than normal winter temperatures. Expression of the ocean
pout anti-freeze protein in transgenic goldfish (Carassius
auratus) and its enhancement of cold adaptation has been
successfully demonstrated in the Chinese Oceanology Institute.
Ocean pout anti-freeze protein genes were microinjected into
the oocytes of goldfish. Mature anti-freeze protein, detected by
immunoblotting, was expressed in both first and second
generation offspring demonstrating successful transfer and
expression of the protein gene. Transgenic goldfish were
significantly more cold tolerant than controls when challenged
with low temperatures. The anti-freeze protein gene may have
application in enhancing cold tolerance as well as freezing
resistance for a variety of fish species.
Disease-resistance gene transformation
In the Chinese Wuhan Virology Institute and Ichthyology
Institute, some researchers have piloted a gene contributing
resistance to the grass carp haemorrhagic virus (GCHV). Eleven
different gene fragments encoding protein were cloned and
isolated from translation in vitro using GCHV genomic single
gene fragments. A random library was constructed. Based on
the information of capsid protein SP6 and SP7 gene cDNA, 3
oligonucleotides were synthesized and fused with SV40 MT
promoter and transferred into grass carp cytokine-induced killer
(CIK) cells via a constructed expression vector and transfected
with GCHV. The results indicated that the mortalities were
reduced by one order after challenge with the virus.
Another transgene anti-disease strategy trialed used a
combination of electric fusion and nuclear transplantation
methods. Somatic cells from grass carp liver cell strain (GLA),
which are resistant to GCHV, were transferred into unfertilized
eggs of grass carp by means of electric fusion and microinjection.
Morphological studies have shown no distinguishable differences
between engineered fish and donor grass carp, which suggests
that the nucleus of the engineered grass carp may originate from
somatic cells of the GLA. This technique has the potential to
provide cell-engineered fish for aquaculture and for basic
biological research. Further study on diseaseresistant properties
of cell-engineered fish to GCHV has been carried out
2
.
Other studies on transgenic fish related to basic
scientific research
Genetic modification of fish has been carried out to study the
relationship between the nucleus and the cytoplasm in terms of
the controlling effects determined by nucleus or cytoplasm or
both during the development, cell differentiation and phenotypic
expression in developing animals. This has generally been carried
out using nuclear transplantation (cloning) techniques to produce
nucleocytoplasmic hybrid (NCH) adult fish between different
varieties, species, genera and subfamilies that are capable of
producing viable offspring. These experiments have revealed
that while most phenotypic characteristics are controlled by the
nucleus, a few are controlled by the cytoplasm or by a
combination of both. Some were found to be superior in certain
characteristics of economic importance such as growth rate, high
protein or low fat content.
Some of this research has indicated that the cultured or
uncultured adult somatic cells in fish can support the nuclear
transplantation of eggs, which develop into viable adults. A
seventeen-month-old goldfish was obtained by transplanting an
adult erythrocytes into an enucleated eggs
7.
A sub-cultured
kidney cell nucleus of Crucian carp (Carassius auratus) has also
been transplanted into the enucleated egg of the same species,
developing into a three-year old adult female
8
.
Our own research with serial nuclear transplantation has
shown that a NCH embryo can be developed into blood
circulation stage through an inter-genus combination (nucleus
of crucian carp and enucleated egg cytoplasm of common carp).
A NCH embryo of heart beat stage was obtained in an interfamily
combination (nucleus of mud carp and enucleated egg cytoplasm
of common carp). A NCH embryo of muscular contraction stage
has also been reported from an inter-order mix (nucleus of mouth
breeder and enucleated egg cytoplasm of common carp)
9
.
Selected references
1. Zhu, Z. Li, G. et al. (1985). Novel gene transfer into the fertilized eggs of goldfish
(Carassius auratus L.1758) Z. angew. Ichthyol. 1:31-34.
2. Yu, L., Zuo, W. et al (1996). Cell-engineering grass carp produced by the
combination of electric fusion and nuclear transplantation. J. Fishery.China
20(4):314-318.
3. Zhu, Z. (1992). Growth hormone gene and the transgenic fish. Agricultural
Biotechnology. Edited by C.B. you and Z. Z. Chen. China Science and Technology
press, Beijing, pp.106-116.
4. Li, G. Cui, Z. Zhu, Z. et al, (1996). Foreign gene introduction via fish germ-mediated
technique. Chinese J. Hydrobiology 20(3):242-247.
5. Wang et al. (2001), Construction of All-fish gcACGH carp and genetic analysis of
its F1 generation. Chinese Science Bulletin 46(3):226-229.
6. Zhu, X.,Zhang, Y. et al (1997). Preliminary study on transgenic mud carp of
antifreeze protein gene. J. Fishery Sci. China 4(2): 79-80.
7. Yan, S. (1998) Cloning-in fish nucleocytoplasmic hybrids. Educational and Cultural
Press Ltd., Hongkong.
8. Chen et al. (1986). Studies on the developmental potential of fish culture cell.
Chinese J. Hydrobiology, 10(1):1-7.
9. Lin et al. (1996). Studies on nuclear transplantation of somatic cells in teleosts. J.
Zoological research 17(3):337-340.
Advice on Aquatic Animal Health Care
VISIT TO INTENSIVE VANNAMEI
FARMS IN PERU
Pornlerd Chanratchakool
Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute, Department of Fisheries, Thailand
Email: pornlerc@fisheries.go.th
On my first visit to Peru two years ago, only semi-
intensive shrimp farming systems had been
developed which were generally stocked at 5-15
PL/m
2
. When the severe outbreak of whitespot
disease occurred, water and pond bottom qualities
could not be efficiently controlled or managed due
to the large size of shrimp ponds (1.6-8.0 ha).
Recently, I had the opportunity to visit Peru again
and I visited some shrimp farms at Tumbes on the
border with Ecuador. I was surprised to see that
over 80% of shrimp ponds were empty. These
farmers usually stop their operation during this
time of year (May 2002) due to the onset of the
cold season, which causes high mortality by
whitespot disease outbreak. This further confirms
that severe outbreaks of whitespot always happen
during the sudden drop of temperature in every
country. I was very surprised to see that intensive
ponds have been developed mostly in large farms
(over 48 ha). Areas of 8-32 ha in these large farms
have been converted to several small ponds (0.6-
1.0 ha) with plastic lining. Groundwater from 80-
100 m depth is used as the water supply to prevent
the entry of viral pathogens into the pond.
this year, which also affected Thai farmers.
Another reason is that most crops early this year
failed due to the whitespot outbreak caused by an
unusual low temperature (22-23C).
...confirms that severe outbreaks
of whitespot always happen
during the sudden drop of
temperature in every country.
From interviews with farmers, I found that the
traditional practices with semi-intensive culture in
large ponds are now entirely impossible. Therefore
many farmers have developed intensive ponds
with plastic linings in sandy soil area to prevent
seepage. This makes the total investment cost per
1 ha pond (including pond construction, aeration,
water pumps, electricity and water supply system)
up to US$ 47,600. Therefore, only high stocking
density (60-80 PL/m
2
) is feasible to support such
a high capital investment. Last year, most crops
were successful due to less temperature variation
during the change of season. Some farms could
produce 14 ton/ha of 15-18 gm size shrimp with
100-110 days culture period. This is more feasible
than the production of 0.8-1.0 ton/ha in traditional
system. However, most farmers have had to stop
their operation since the recent price crisis early
Groundwater from 80-100 m
depth is used as the water supply
to prevent the entry of viral
pathogens into the pond.
The main causes for this whitespot disease
outbreak were:
Infected PL imported from Ecuador, which
have higher degree of infection than PL from
Columbia. Heavy mortality occurred within a
month for ponds stocked with local wild fry,
which have been fully contaminated.
Decrease in water temperature and cloudy sky
cause the collapse of phytoplankton, which
always leads to oxygen depletion, later causing
disease infection due to shrimp stress.
During plankton collapse, pond water could not
be changed in order to improve water quality
and to remove the dead plankton due to the lack
of reservoirs. The accumulation of dead
plankton and left over feed will cause the
release of toxic ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
gases, which also cause shrimp mortality.
Poor feed quality, which has less stability in
water, causes accumulation of feed waste.
These factors are similar to those contributing to
the outbreak of whitespot in P. monodon in Asia.
Therefore, P. vannamei culture is not easy
although it has less disease problems as some
farmers expected. Although ponds were stocked
with PCR negative PL imported from Columbia,
which were 1.5 time more expensive than normal
PL, whitespot outbreak still occurred during the
sudden temperature drop. Therefore, farmers
should be careful about the selection of high health
PL and adopt efficient farm management practices
to reduce water quality problems and toxic gases.
Production cost, particularly high seed cost, should
be also considered when production yields are low.
Dr Pornlerd
Chanratchakool is a shrimp
health and production
management expert. He
lectures in the joint NACA/
AAHRI annual training
course on shrimp health
management.
Seed production of Magur (Clarias
batrachus) using a rural model portable
hatchery in Assam, India A farmer
proven technology
S.K.Das.
Associate professor
Assam Agricultural University
College of Fisheries, Raha, Nagaon,
Assam, India- 782 103, Email skdas01@yahoo.com
heavier, have a round and bulging
abdomen and their vent is more red than
that of the males. In the female, the genital
papilla is short, oval and slit-like (figure
1); whereas in males, the papilla is conical
and elongated with a pointed reddish tip
(figure 2). We stocked the brood fishes in
a specially prepared fish pond in the
month of April. The fishes were fed with
a mixture of trash fish and rice bran at 9:1
proportion at about 10% of the body
weight of the stocked fish daily. For
induced breeding, both female and male
magur were given single dose of hormone
ovaprim at the same time. Hypodermic
syringes with a small size needle (No.24)
were used to inject hormone into the
muscle of broodstock. We kept the treated
male and female fishes separately in two
tanks.
18-21 hours after injection we
examined the fish for ovulation by hand
stripping. Fish that yielded a good stream
of transparent green-brown eggs were
rated as ovulated. We released the eggs
by gently pressing the abdomen towards
the vent, collecting them on a stainless
steel plate. The milt is then added and
mixed well with the help of a feather and
a small amount of water to activate the
sperm. Earlier, the injected males were
sacrificed to prepare sperm suspension in
clean water. The testes were dissected out
and cut into small pieces with the help of
small scissors and a clean blade. The
sperm suspension was sprinkled evenly
over the eggs and clean water was added.
We fertilized the hand-stripped eggs
artificially using the dry method. Eggs and
sperm were allowed to mix by gently
moving the tray for 4-5 minutes. We
washed the fertilized eggs thoroughly and
transferred them to hatchery specially
developed for our study before the eggs
began to adhere. We removed unfertilized
or dead (opaque/white) eggs immediately
to prevent fungal infection. On the fourth
The Asian cat fish (locally known as
Magur fish, Clarias batrachus is an
important air-breathing cat fish with good
markets especially in North-Eastern parts
of India where it fetches a higher price
than the major carps. In some parts of
Assam, the fish is sold at more than Rs.
250 per kg ($US 5.21). The fish is revered
as nutritious and therapeutic in nature. It
is generally cultured in ponds along with
carps. However, the culture practices of
this species have not received much
attention, probably due to inadequate
supplies of seed and proper feed.
In natural waters, the fish spawns
during rainy season in Assam (June-
August). For spawning, the fish swims to
shallower regions of the already flooded
ponds, swamps, streams, rice fields and
other water bodies. It has been reported
to grow to 198 mm in the first year, 262
mm in the second, 305 in the third and
335 mm in the fourth year. It attains
maturity at the end of first year.
The potential to obtain magur seed
from natural sources has become low due
to the increasing use of pesticides in the
paddy fields-which are the main breeding
grounds of this fish. Therefore, we
conducted an experiment to develop a
farmer-proven induced breeding and seed
production technology for magur using a
low-cost hatching device in Assam. The
project was conducted under a farmer
participatory small-scale aquaculture
project funded by the ARIASP (World
bank).
Breeding techniques
The standard breeding technique
developed by the Central Indian Fisheries
Research Institute was employed with
little modification. We used Magur that
were about one year old and weighing
about 100 g. each. Gravid females are easy
to identify as they are comparatively
Figure 1: A mature female magur
Figure 2: A mature male magur
Figure 3: Stripping the eggs
day, we transferred the hatchlings to a
hapa fixed in a pond fertilized with pig
manure for further rearing.
Construction and operation of the
hatching trough
The low-cost hatchery we have developed
has three main structures (Figure 5): a) a
circular trough of 140 cm diameter made
of galvanized iron sheets, b) a circular
hatching ring of 70 cm diameter made of
iron to which a nylon net is fitted and
stretched and c) an ordinary water drum
with a water storage capacity of 170 liters.
The fertilized eggs are spread on the
circular net fixed inside the hatching
trough and water is sprinkled over it
Hatching time varied between 23 hours
and 26 hours at a temperature range of 31
37.5 C and water pH range of 7.6 8.1.
The low hatching rates and
survivability of the magur seeds produced
in our hatchery can be attributed to several
factors such as a) high air and water
temperature b) high water pH c) absence
of aeration facility (only a water
circulation was maintained) d) delay in
removal of egg shells and debris, resulting
in deterioration of water quality and e)
inadequate densities of zooplankton and
other live food for the hatchlings.
through a perforated 1.25cm diameter
PVC pipe. The piped water supply is
essential, as this enables the adjustment
of flow and oxygenation as well as
allowing the controlled application of
treatments to combat the spread of
bacterial and fungal disease. Eggs of two
female magur fish (not exceeding total
weight of 200 g) can easily be spread on
the circular net ring for hatching. The
fertilized eggs are evenly spread on the
surface of the nylon net tied to a circular
steel frame and a mild water current (20
ml / second) is maintained. At a water
temperature of 27 300C, eggs normally
hatch out within 26 hours. The emerging
larvae have a large yolk sac, which gets
absorbed in 4 days. A few clean stones
are placed on it so that the net is always
submerged in water and provide shelter
for the hatchlings. The eggshells and
debris should be removed periodically
from the hatching trough. The three-day
old (4th day) larvae can be fed with boiled
hen egg yolk and zooplankton. In our trial,
we used pond water fertilized with pig
manure in the hatchery.
Evaluation of the technique
Altogether we conducted six trials were
conducted on magur breeding using this
small-scale hatching trough. The results
of the trials are summarized in Table 1
and 2. On an average, about 6,000-7,000
eggs are obtained from a fully ripe female.
The fertilization percentage obtained
varied from 89 to 96% with an average of
93.16% whereas the hatching percentage
varied between 23 and 75 % with an
average of 55.10 %. An average of 21.55
% survival was achieved from spawn to
fry stage with a maximum of 34 %.
Figure 4: Eggs & milt are mixed with a feather
Figure 5: Production of magur hatchlings with
farmer participation.
Figure 6: Harvesting fry
Figure 7: Magur seeds are being nursed in hapa
...rearing magur can be
achieved at the village level
using a simple low-cost
technology.
The maximum survival percentage
from spawn to fry was 34%. This is fairly
a good percentage for a village level
production system, as this stage is
regarded as the most crucial in magur seed
production. We tried three different
dosages of ovaprim. Out of these, a single
injection of 0.6ml/kg body weight was the
most effective. The males were given a
single dose of 0.1-0.2 ml/kg body weight.
In hapa nursing of magur, we achieved
an average survival of 51% while feeding
with rice bran and mustard oil cake
mixture at 1:1 ratio and termite twice
daily.
There is little information available on
the use of lowcost rural model magur
hatcheries in India. Several experiments
were conducted on magur breeding in the
natural condition in Assam, but with little
success. This is the first attempt to produce
magur seeds using a low-cost village-level
hatchery technique in Assam.
Lessons learnt
Our trials show that the breeding and
rearing of magur (Clarias batrachus) can
be achieved at the village level condition
using a simple low-cost technology. Since
it is a small-scale unit a greater number
of farmers can adopt the technology for
producing the seed as per requirement.
The following lessons were learnt during
the magur seed production trials.
1. The condition of brood fish must be
excellent and over 100 g in weight.
2. Water quality plays an important role
in hatching and survival of magur seed.
Water temperature over 33 C. and
water pH over 8.0 lead to reduced
development and survival of eggs and
larvae.
3. Addition of aeration facilities, and
prompt removal of eggshells and debris
would likely improve survival by
preventing the deterioration of water
quality.
4. The survival of larvae can be increased
if boiled egg yolk and adequate
densities of live food are provided.
The simple technique thus developed
under this study can easily be adopted by
farmers and this would help in meeting
the growing demand for seeds of magur
fish to some extent.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to Assam Rural
Infrastructure and Agricultural Services
project, World Bank for providing
financial assistance to the project.
Further reading
1. Basu, D., Rana, G.C., Mondal, B.K., Sengupta, K.K.
and Dhar, P.K. (2000).Studies on the comparative
efficacy of Ovaprim, HCG and piscine pituitary
gland in induced breeding of Clarias
batrachus,(Linn). Fishing Chimes, Vol.19, No.10-
11,Jan/Feb.2000.pp.103-104.
2. CIFRI (1983). Annual report, CIFRI, ICAR,
Barrackpore, West Bengal.
3. Dwivedi, S.N and S.G.S. Zaidi (1983). Development
of carp hatcheries in India. Fishing chimes. 3(5): 29-
37.
4. Mahapatra, B.K., Sengupta, K.K., De, U.K., Rana,
G.C., Datta, A., Basu, A. and Saha, S (2000).
Controlled breeding and larval rearing of Clarias
batrachus (Linn.) for mass scale propagation. Fishing
Chimes.Vol.19, No.10-11.Jan/Feb,2000. pp: 97-102.
5. Manickam, P. and K.P.Joy. (1989). Induction of
maturation and ovulation by Pimozide-LHRH
analogue treatment and resulting high quality egg
production in the Asian catfish, Clarias batrachus.
Aquaculture, 83 (1989):193-199.
6. Sahu, A.K., Sahoo, S.K., and Ayyappan, S. (2000).
Seed production and hatchery management: Asian
Catfish, Clarias batrachus. Fishing Chimes, Vol.19,
No.10-11, J an/Feb 2000: pp.94-96.
Vietnamese Trading Centre Opens
In the past local shrimp farmers of Can
Gio region of Vietnam have had difficulty
in selling their product, there were simply
to many sellers and too few buyers. As a
measure to alleviate this situation the Can
Gio Fisheries Trading Centre has been
opened in Ho Chi Minh City.
In its initial session in April, 14 farmers
accounting for 16.9 tonnes of sugpo
shrimp have enlisted at the trading centre.
The opening of the centre is a direct
response to the demands of local shrimp
producers for a well-organised trading
centre. By May 27 shrimp farmers had
registered to sell 74.3 tonnes
The center currently comprises of
transaction offices, markets and booths for
trading. Cholimex, the company
responsible for its construction plans ice
production and freezing stores for a
second stage.
In addition to its trading function the
center will also serve as a source of
information regarding prices and demand
for shrimp, breeding techniques, feed and
veterinary medicines, loans and transport
services. (Source: Saigon Times Daily,
April 23, 2002, Saigon Times Daily, May
14, 2002; Asia Pulse Pte Ltd, May 28,
2002, Tuesday).
Thai Prawn Farmers address the EU
ban
In Thailand, the Surat Thani Prawn
Farmers Club in association with Thai
Prawn Raisers Association is
implementing chemical free treatment
programmes. Black tiger prawn farmers
have stopped using antibiotic chemicals
in response to the EU banning of
shipments containing excessive amounts.
In addition prawn farmers have
rehabilitated mangrove forests by
reducing the use of these antibiotics and
discharge of wastewater into the sea. 300
members have contributed to a laboratory
where prawn fry can be screened for
disease prior to release. The organisation
is campaigning to correct the
misunderstanding that prawn farming is
environmentally degradating. Mangrove
forests along the coasts of Chumphon and
Surat Thani have recovered and prawn
farms have moved inland allowing
mangrove recovery to take place. Organic
shrimp farming is also making an
appearance. (Source; Bangkok Post May
6th, 2002).
Hazard analysis vital for US fish
exports
At a workshop at the Saigon Times Club
on May 13th the director of International
Seafood Quality Assurance of Surefish
relayed the importance of obtaining a
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Point certificate (HACCP) in order for fish
processors to export fish to the US. The
meeting hosted by Surefish and the
Vietnam Association of Seafood Export
Processors (Vasep) discussed aspects of
food safety management with reference
to the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). (Source: The Saigon Times Daily,
May 14, 2002).
CP reorganizes in China, to focus on
the wealthy
CP, The Charoen Pokphand group is
reorganizing its agribusiness sector in
China, where it is known as Chia Tai (CT),
to focus in on high-value-added products.
The group is now integrating plants in
seven provinces and four or five smaller
provinces. It is investing in aquaculture
facilities within China, all products of
which will be distributed within the
Chinese market. One of these products is
turbot to be raised in Shandong province
and expected to market to the 130 million
individuals in China classified as rich.
Other species targeted include mouse
grouper. Turbot, which brings in a price
of around (44 US$) per kg will be mainly
marketed in the east coast including
Beijing and Shanghai, Grouper which
brings in a coast of over (88 US$) per kg
will be focused upon southern regions
such as Guangxi and Guangdong.
(Source: AFX News Limited, May
1,Wednesday, 2002, Bangkok Post, May
1, 2002).
...continued on page 41
Australian Prawn Farmers
Association and the Australian
Barramundi Farmers Association
Joint Annual Conference, 19-20 July,
Sydney.
Over 400 delegates are expected to attend
from around Australia and overseas. The
Conference will include 30 Trade
Exhibitors. For more information contact
Martin Breen on ph +61 (417) 006639 or
+61 (7) 3255 1070, or visit
www.apfa.com.au.
The 4th Japan International Seafood
and Technology Expo, 24-26 July
2002, Tokyo, Japan
The expo will be held at the Tokyo
International Exhibition Center. For more
information phone +81-3-5775-2855, fax
+81-3-5775-2856, email.
info@exhibitiontech.com, or visit http://
www.exhibitiontech.com/seafood
The World Congress on Aquatic
Protected Areas 2002, Cairns,
Australia, 14-17 August 2002
This event is hosted by the Australian
Society for Fish Biology in conjunction
with their 31st annual conference. The
themes of the conference are 1) Who and
what are the beneficiaries of aquatic
protected areas; 2) How to design and
select aquatic protected areas; 3) success
factors in the implementation and
management of aquatic protected areas;
4) how good are aquatic protected areas
measuring their performance; and 5) the
role of aquatic protected areas in the
aquatic ecosystem. For details contact
OzAccom Conference Services, Ph
+61(0)7 3854 1611, Fax +61(0)7 3854
1507, email apa2002@ozaccom.com.au.
Further details are also available from the
website http://www.ozaccom.com.au/
apa2002.
The 5th International Acid Sulfate
Soils Conference, 25 - 30 August
2002, Tweed Heads, Australia.
The theme of the meeting is the
sustainable management of acid sulfate
soils. Researchers, land managers and
legislators have become very aware of the
potential environment degradation for the
unsustainable use acid sulfate soils. The
conference embraces four broad themes:
1. Characteristics of acid sulfate soil
hazards; 2. Management of acid sulfate
soils; 3. planning, legislation and
regulation and 4. Acid sulfate soil
education and communication. For more
information visit http://www.out.at/
acidsoil.
4th Aquaculture Expo 2002, 25-27
August 2002, Nellore, India.
A three-day national exhibition and
Technical Conference on Aquaculture,
will be held at TTD Kalyana Mandapam,
Nellore in Andhra Pradesh. The Expo is
being organised by NRS Publications,
publishers of Aqua International, the
national magazine on the sector. The Expo
will have participants from all over India,
besides some from abroad.
In connection with the Expo, there will
be a full day Technical Conference on
26th August 2002, with different topics
on aquaculture with the objective of
providing a common platform for
stalwarts, scientists, experts and farmers
in aquaculture sector to assemble and
discuss on present status of this sector and
the work to be done to take aquaculture
sector into further brighter prospects. The
Conference will also help the participating
members to exchange views for mutual
advantage and benefit. Contact M A
NAZEER, Convenor, Email
nrspubns@hd2.dot.net.in
Second International Symposium on
GIS and Spatial Analyses in Fishery
and Aquatic Sciences, 3-6 September
2002, Brighton, UK
Spatial Analyses has been added to the
conference focus as GIS alone implies just
the tool and we are essentially more
interested in Spatial Analyses using GIS,
and Aquatic Sciences has been added
because there is now a strong realization,
manifest especially in the ecosystems
approach to fisheries management, that
neither inland nor marine fisheries or
aquaculture can be studied in isolation
from the aquatic environment in which the
activities take place. Visit http://
www.esl.co.jp/Sympo/sympo10.htm for
more information.
Fish Eye View Exhibition 2002, 6-8
September 2002, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
An international exhibition on tropical
fish, fishing and aquaculture accessories,
products and technology. The exhibition
will be broadly grouped under three main
themes: 1. Aquaculture and Fish Farming,
2. Recreational Fishery and 3. Ornamental
fish. For more information contact Jungle
Motion Sdn. Bhd., ph +603 5638 2019,
fax +603 56382069, email
enquries@fisheyeview.net or visit
www.fisheyeview.net
Coastal Environment 2002, 16-18
September 2002, Rhodes, Greece
This conference will address the subjects
of monitoring, analysis, and modelling of
coastal regions including, air and ground
phenomena. The fourth in this
international series, the conference will
focus on topics which need to be
recognised in order to prevent, alleviate
or minimise environmental problems,
allowing a balanced use of the coastal
regions as a common resource around the
world.
As population growth and industrial
and tourist activity development continues
in coastal zones, the environmental stress
on near-shore water, air and ground
increases. Due to the ecological, social,
economic and cultural interests within the
coastal zone, almost all activities or
actions within this area generate conflicts
amongst different interested parties such
as users, landowners, engineers,
ecologists, economists and politicians.
Effective strategies for management
should therefore consider the coast as a
dynamic, integrated system in which
inputs, outputs and re-circulation of matter
and energy control the environmental
quality. The conference places great
emphasis on the practical applications of
computer modelling of seas and coastal
areas around the world. Visit http://
keywater.vub.ac.be/External.asp?http://
www.wessex.ac.uk/ for more information.
Aquaculture Europe 2002, Trieste,
Italy 16-19 October
The theme of the meeting is Seafarming
Today and Tomorrow and will address
key issues related to the future of the
farming of the seas. In addition to the main
conference, three workshops will be held
to encourage interactive discussion on
future perspectives with industry. The
workshops will address 1) applied
solutions to health management in
Mediterranean aquaculture a practical
approach for farmers; 2) new technologies
for Mediterranean aquaculture; and 3)
certification in aquaculture HACCP,
ISO Standards, Eco-labeling and organic.
More detailed information is available
from the European Aquaculture Society
website www.easonline.org or email
ae2002@aquaculture.cc
Fourth International Conference on
Environmental Problems in Coastal
Regions, 16-18 September 2002,
Rhodes, Greece
The conference will address the subjects
of monitoring, analysis, and modeling of
coastal regions including, air and ground
phenomena, focussing on topics which
need to be recognized in order to prevent,
alleviate or minimize environmental
problems, allowing a balanced use of the
coastal regions as a common resource
around the world. As population growth
and industrial and tourist activity
development continues in coastal zones,
the environmental stress on near-shore
water, air and ground increases. Due to
the ecological, social, economic and
cultural interests within the coastal zone,
almost all activities or actions within this
area generate conflicts amongst different
interested parties such as users,
landowners, engineers, ecologists,
economists and politicians. Effective
strategies for management should
therefore consider the coast as a dynamic,
integrated system in which inputs, outputs
and re-circulation of matter and energy
control the environmental quality. For
more information visit http://
keywater.vub.ac.be/External.asp?http://
www.wessex.ac.uk/
Global Shrimp Outlook 2002,
September, Bali, Indonesia
Charoen Pokphand Indonesia will provide
in-country support for the next edition of
this annual conference organized and
sponsored by the Global Aquaculture
Alliance. At Global Shrimp Outlook:
2002, major international shrimp buyers,
sellers, producers and processors will help
forecast the shrimp market during clearly
focused, half-day sessions. The program
will answer tough questions like what will
happen when Chinas fast-growing
shrimp production exceeds its internal
consumption? When will Ecuadors
faltering industry recover? How does my
company fit into the changing global
equation? For more information on Global
Shrimp Outlook: 2002, contact the Global
Aquaculture Alliance Home Office e-
mail gaa@mo.net, telephone +1-314-293-
5500, fax +1-314-293-5525.
Aquafest Australia 2002: Meeting
the Challenge, 19-22 September,
2002, Hobart, Australia.
Call for papers. For more information
contact Convention Wise, Mures Building,
Victoria Dock Hobart, Tasmania 7000, ph
+61 (03) 6234 1424, fax +61 (03) 6231
5388, or you can inquire at email
mail@conventionwise.com.au
Workshop on Health Management,
16 October, Trieste, Italy
Organized in cooperation with the
European Fish Pathologists (EAFP).
Contact: EAS, Slijkensesteenweg 4, B-
8400 Oostende, Belgium, Tel: +32- 59-
32-38-59, Fax: +32- 59-32-10-05, E-
mail: ae2002@aquaculture.cc
Workshop on Certification in
European Aquaculture,16 October,
Trieste, Italy
Contact EAS, Slijkensesteenweg 4, B-8400
Oostende, Belgium
Tel: +32- 59-32-38-59, Fax: +32- 59-32-
10-05, E-mail: ae2002@aquaculture.cc
Offshore Mariculture, October 29-31
2002, Bali, Indonesia
Contact: Jean Pritchard, Society for
Underwater Technology Innovation
Centre, Offshore Technology Park, Bridge
of Don Aberdeen AB23 8GX, Scotland,
Accessing and meeting the
requirements of markets for
aquaculture products: Regional
seminar and exhibition, 3-5
February 2002, Manila,
Philippines
Interact with co- participants and
with resource persons from various
UN specialized agencies and other
international organizations
including ADB, ESCAP, ICLARM,
INFOFISH, FAO, IBRD, ITC, OIE,
UNCTAD, WHO, WTO and others.
The topics: various issues and
policy approaches relating to access
and competitiveness in markets for
aquaculture products and impacts of
certain trade issues on poverty and
environment. Join the panel
discussions on specific marketing
related issues on the following
themes:
Product standards, safety and
quality
Production and marketing
efficiency
International trade agreements
and national import regulations
Tariff and non- tariff barriers to
trade
The exhibition will cover new
products and services for
progressive aquaculture. Attend the
exhibition/ information forums on:
Health
Processing and packaging
Production efficiency and
product quality
Accessing markets
A consultation will also be held
from 5-7 February. Be a part of the
search for strategies for action on
accessing markets and on meeting
market requirements. You will have
the opportunity to take an active part
in the deliberations which will
address the role of governments and
of international organizations in
providing support to accessing and
meeting requirements of markets for
aquaculture products.
Contact Mr Malcolm Sarmiento,
Director, BFAR, Quezon City,
Philippines, tel: (632) 373 7452,
fax: (632) 372 5048, email:
director@bfar.stream.ph
Tel: +44.0.1224.823637, Email:
jeansut@sstg.demon.co.uk or visit http://
www.sut.org.uk/pdf/maricultureflyer.pdf
for more information.
ExpoPesca and Acuicultura 2002, 20-
23 November 2002, Santiago, Chile
Email Sue Hill for more information on
email sue.hill@informa.com
Seventh Pacific Islands Conference on
Nature Conservation and Protected
Areas, 812 July 2002, Rarotonga,
Cook Islands
The theme of the conference is
mainstreaming nature conservation. The
objectives of the meeting are to review
progress in the implementation of the
regions Action Strategy for Nature
Conservation and to define priorities and
the regions nature conservation agenda
for the next four years. The Seventh
Pacific Islands Conference has widened
its traditional appeal to attract trade
specialists, economists, development
planners, tourism operators and others in
the more mainstreamed sectors of
economic development. The agenda
includes keynote presentations on
different perspectives and synergies on
mainstreaming nature conservation.
Working groups will explore the
following areas from a mainstreaming
nature conservation perspective:
Biodiversity conservation, protected
areas, species conservation, new funding
mechanisms and planning and legal
processes. The conference is jointly
organized by the South Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP) and
the Cook Islands Environment Service
and Ministry of Culture. For more
information visit www.pacificbiodiv.org/
conference or contact Kate Brown, at
SPREP in Samoa on 685 21929 fax 685
20231 or email kateb@sprep.org.ws.
Second International Tropical
Marine Ecosystems Management
Symposium, 25-28 November 2002,
Manila, Philippines
Tropical marine ecosystems are under
increasing pressure from many sources,
including coastal land use and
development, pollution, unsustainable
fishing and tourism and the impacts of
global climate change.
The 2nd International Tropical Marine
Ecosystems Management Symposium
(2nd ITMEMS) will provide an
opportunity for managers to engage in
multidisciplinary discussions and sharing
of experiences and lessons learned to
identify gaps and priorities for future
management action. The output and
recommendations from the symposium
will be disseminated through the partners
of ICRI (including member countries, the
International Coral Reef Action Network,
IUCN, UNEP, WWF, the World Bank,
donor agenices) and considered in the
implementation of management programs
for tropical ecosystems at local, national,
regional and global levels.
The 2nd ITMEMS will be conducted
through a number of concurrent
workshops that address the topics listed
below. Each workshop will start with
presentations of exemplary case studies
that illustrate relevant experiences and
lessons learned either by their successes
or, equally important, their inadequacies.
These will form as bases for subsequent
facilitated discussions that aim to achieve
clear recommendations and priorities for
the management of tropical ecosystems in
the future. The results of each workshop
will then be reported to all participants and
discussed in plenary sessions. The number
of participants in each workshop group
will be limited to approximately 20.
Preliminary topics for workshop sessions
include co-management and social
impacts of marine and coastal
management; economic benefits of
conservation and sustainable use; the role
of the private sector in protection and
management; the role of protected areas
and management; monitoring to facilitate
successful management; management to
mitigate the effects of climate change;
dissemination of information for coastal
and marine management; targeted
research for management support;
securing sustainable funding for
management; restoration and
rehabilitation of damaged ecosystems; and
achieving sustainable fisheries.
Contact the ICRI Secretariat: +63 2
928 1225 / +63 2 926 2693 or e-mail to:
secretariat@icriforum.org or
olof.linden@cordio.org. Organized by the
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI),
Joint Philippine-Sweden Secretariat, 2nd/
F FASPO Bldg., Department of
Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), Visayas Ave., Diliman, Quezon
City, 1101, Philippines.
International Symposium on the
Management of Large Rivers for
Fisheries: Sustaining Livelihoods and
Biodiversity in the New Millennium,
11-14 February 2003, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia
The symposium are will review and
synthesize the current status, management
and development of large rivers systems
including their ecology, fisheries,
environmental impact assessments,
multiple uses of resources and associated
socio-economic considerations. The
symposium will also raise the political,
public and scientific awareness of the
importance of river systems, the living
aquatic resources they support and the
people that depend upon them and
contribute to better management,
conservation and restoration of the living
aquatic resources of large rivers. It is
organized by the Mekong River
Commission, the Cambodian Department
of Fisheries and the FAO. Visit http://
www.lars2.org for more information.
5th Symposium on Diseases in Asian
Aquaculture, 25-28 November 2002,
Gold Coast, Australia
The Fish Health Section of the Asian
Fisheries Society will host the 5th
Triennial Symposium on Diseases in
Asian Aquaculture (DAA5) from 25 28
November 2002 at the Gold Coast
International Hotel, Australia. Two
satellite workshops will follow the
Symposium: Epidemiology and Risk
Assessment 29-30 November 2002, and
the Asia-Pacific Regional Molluscan
Health Management Training Program
Phase II 2-6 December 2002. For more
information about the symposium contact
OzAccom Conference Services, ph +61
7 3854 1611, or you can inquire at email
daa5@ozaccom.com.au. For more
information about the workshops, contact
Dr Chris Baldock - ph +61 7 3255 1712
(Epidemiology and Risk Assessment),
email chris@ausvet.com.au and Dr Rob
Allard - ph +61 7 3840 7723 (Molluscan
Health).
Graham Mair is a research
fellow at the University of
Wal es Swansea, on
secondment since 1997 to
the Aquaculture and Aquatic
Resources Management
Group at the Asian Institute
of Technology, Bangkok.
Based in Asia for the past 14
years, he has been coordi-
nating and conducting re-
search proj ects under
DFIDs Fish Genetics Re-
search Program, focusing
on the appropriate aplication
of genetic technologies to
species for low-input aquac-
ulture systems.
Email: gcmair@ait.ac.th
Supply of good quality fish seed for sustainable
aquaculture
Deadlines are tight again and Im drafting this
column while traveling in the Philippines. Having
lived in the Philippines from 1988 to 1997, when
I was intimately involved with developments of
improved breeds of tilapia, its very interesting to
get a snapshot each time I return on the changes
that are taking place in the tilapia industry here. It
seems now that the genetic advancements that have
been made, particularly with the selectively bred
Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) and
the monosex Genetically Male Tilapia (GMT), are
starting to have significant impacts and may indeed
be contributing to changing the very structure of
the tilapia industry itself. Ill make this the topic
of a future column but what the story of improved
tilapia in the Philippines does highlight is the
paramount importance that factors related to the
supply of good quality seed have on the
sustainability of aquaculture as a whole.
These issues were one of the foci for discussion
at the ASEAN-SEAFDEC conference on
Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security in the
New Millennium held in Bangkok towards the
end of 2001. At this meeting I sat on a panel that
chaired an open forum on the supply of good
quality seed in relation to sustainable aquaculture,
and it is the outputs from this meeting that provide
the basis for this column. The panel focused on
four major elements:
Seasonality and inconsistency of
seed supply
In the tropics most aquaculture species can be
grown year round, subject to suitable availability
of water (neither too little nor too much) and
demand for cultured fish is also largely year round
with seasonal troughs and peaks associated with
availability of fish from capture fisheries and with
cultural preferences. However, for the majority of
species, spawning and thus seed supply is seasonal.
This is a major factor behind the relative
importance of multiple spawning species, which
are often exotic to Asia, and Im thinking here
particularly of common carp and tilapia.
Domestication of species and advances in induced
breeding have enabled us to breed fish in captivity
and extend the spawning season to a limited degree
but have not yet enabled us to produce seed
substantially outside the normal spawning season
for the species. A lot of seed supplied for
aquaculture, particularly marine and brackish
water aquaculture is still wild caught and thus
supply is completely dictated by the natural
breeding cycle of the species. Domestication and
extension of breeding seasons, for example in
shrimp production, could have profound
influences on productivity and markets. Other
factors that cause unpredictability of seed supply
include flooding and other natural disasters,
disease outbreaks and limited availability of feeds
for broodstock and larvae. The major
Smaller scale, decentralized hatcheries may be more
effective in overcoming inconsistency of seed supply and
undoubtedly have an important role to play in the
sustainable and equitable distribution of quality seed.
recommendations to address these
constraints included research on
domestication and fish reproduction
including induced spawning, broodstock
nutrition etc. A note of caution was
sounded concerning the potential effect on
marginal fisherman deriving income from
wild seed collection whose livelihoods
would be negatively impacted by a switch
to dependency on seed from domesticated
stocks.
Inadequate support for seed
production
In most countries it is anticipated that the
private sector will be the primary
producers of seed for aquaculture.
However, in newly introduced species or
species with long generation times or for
hatchery systems requiring large capital
input, development of seed production for
some species may require the joint effort
of government and private sectors.
Governments could be proactive in
stimulating market demand and in
supporting the initial development of seed
production facilities. To better ensure
consistent quality of seed, governments
should also introduce systems of hatchery
and seed certification. Furthermore
governments and private sector could
introduce cost-sharing schemes for
introduction of new or improved varieties
(with appropriate impact assessment) and
advancing research. In promoting seed
supply, consideration should be given to
the fact that small localized hatcheries,
whilst delivering seed locally, can be more
responsive to changing trends in demand,
more economically flexible, and have
lower startup costs. They can thus play
an important role in the sustainability and
equity of seed supply and in many cases
may be more appropriate media for seed
distribution than larger centralized seed
supply systems. Such a trend is currently
evident in Cambodia for example. Trading
networks can overcome some of the
problems associated with centralized seed
supply systems and traders can be
effective agents for extension and thus
such networks should be encouraged in
certain circumstances.
As sectors mature, governments should
work to avoid competing with the private
sector in seed supply and take on a
responsibility for supplying good quality
broodstock including improved breeds.
Deterioration in quality of
seed stocks
The potential negative impacts of genetics
related broodstock management issues
such as inbreeding, genetic drift,
introgressive hybridization and
unconscious selection have been
discussed in a previous columns and it is
well established that many, if not the
majority, of aquaculture stocks that have
been negatively impacted by poor genetic
management. I would however, again,
sound a note of caution that there is a
temptation to attribute genetic
deterioration (usually inbreeding is the
prime culprit) as the cause of declines in
productivity, often over such short
timescales (in terms of generations) that
it would actually be very unlikely that
inbreeding was a major contributor. We
should also look for management or
environmental factors that might be
responsible for problems in seed quality.
During panel discussions it was
recognized that it is of considerable
importance to raise general awareness of
the impacts of domestication and
broodstock management practices on the
genetic status of stocks in terms of both
performance and potential impact upon
natural biodiversity. In addition, to
mediate some of the negative impacts of
poor management, it was considered
important to maintain in situ and ex situ
gene banks, including sperm
cryopreservation, for conservation of
genetic diversity and enhancement of
broodstock management capacity.
Research on embryo storage was also
recommended due to the substantial
management benefits that such a
technique would bring. It was further
cautioned that full consideration must be
given to the issue of intellectual property
rights over genetic resources held in gene
banks. In addition to promoting awareness
of genetic management issues, efforts
should expand to improve our important
commercially cultured stocks, with
conventional techniques of selection
being the primary method. It was agreed
that there are lessons to be learned in this
regard from other countries outside the
region where aquaculture may be more
advanced, for example the salmonid
breeding programmes in Europe. Efforts
to improve stocks should be accompanied
by the development of practical criteria
for assessing and certifying genetic and
non-genetic aspects of both broodstock
and seed quality. With the dissemination
of improved breeds, efforts should be
made to ensure that this is done equitably
so that small-scale farmers are not further
marginalized and to maximize benefits to
poor fish consumers. The latter two points
were both covered in some detail in a
recent ICLARM-INGA sponsored expert
consultation on strategies/plans for the
dissemination of improved fish breeds
issue surrounding which may be the
subject of a future column.
Impacts of releases of
cultured seed stocks
As anthropogenic effects on wild fish
stocks increase, the need to replenish
natural fish populations through stocking
of seed from hatchery stocks (which are
genetically changed by the processes
listed above) will increase. There are,
however, serious concerns to be addressed
on the impacts of enhanced fisheries
including a wide range of ecological and
genetic effects on habitats and on wild
populations. Some such effects arising
through predation, competition,
introduction of diseases and genetic
introgression have been documented but
surely many have not. There is a need to
conduct more considered impact
assessments before introductions and,
subsequently, to conduct research to
quantify actual impacts in order to
broaden our knowledge base on this topic.
Governments and NGOs will take the major
responsi bi l i ty to ensure that benefi ts of
i mproved seed qual i ty are di ssemi nated
equitably to ensure that small-scale farmers are
not further marginalized.
The advent of molecular methods for
assessing genetic interaction between wild
and introduced domesticated stocks
should allow more detailed analysis of
genetic impacts and there are now many
examples of the power of this kind of
study outside of the region. Breeding wild
caught broodstock from the same
population or releasing sterile fish are
options that should be actively considered
under the precautionary principle although
the latter option of sterile fish could still
have impacts on reproduction or
ecological displacement of wild stocks.
The panel went as far as to recommend
that broodstock should be developed and
maintained separately for aquaculture and
for stock enhancement, with the former
being genetically improved for enhanced
efficiency while management of the latter
stocks should strive to minimize genetic
change. Whilst there is little doubt that
such a recommendation is idealistically
sound, there are clearly many logistical
constraints to adopting such a
recommendation.
My initial fear was that the panel
sessions at the ASEAN-SEAFDEC
meeting may simply echo many of the
points raised at the earlier NACA-FAO
sponsored conference on Aquaculture in
the Third Millennium that then appeared
in the Bangkok declaration. However, for
me, the focus on seed supply issues rather
than just genetics, ensured that original
discussion was stimulated and I found
some of my own views somewhat
modified by the discussion, particularly
with regard to the relative roles of
centralized and decentralized seed supply
systems.
Silver barb, Barbodes gonionotus, is a species in which natural population structure has been
compromised by the widespread stocking of hatchery-produced seed in enhanced fisheries.
Domestication gets the thumbs up
The Australian Fisheries Research &
Development Corporation (FRDC) has
approved an application by the Australian
Prawn Farmers Association (APFA) to
remove barriers to domestication of Black
Tiger Prawn Penaeus monodon. The
AUD$ 1.8 million, 3-year project is a
collaborative partnership between the
FRDC, the Australian Institute of Marine
Science, Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Queenslands Agency for Food
and Fibre Sciences and three leading
Australian prawn farms.
Details are still being finalized however
an early start to the project has been
granted with broodstock collection
hopefully to get underway this month.
According to APFA domestication has
been the number one industry R&D
priority for several years and is of
international importance. Details of the
project will be announced at the upcoming
APFA Annual Conference in Sydney in
July. For more information contact
Martin Breen, Executive Officer of the
Australian Prawn Farmers Association,
Email apfa@qff.org.au.
Fol l owi ng shortages of wi l d broodstock,
Austral i an i ndustry i s now i nvesti ng i n
domesti cati on programmes. Thi s i s a
broodstock rearing facility at a farm near the
Gold Coast.
These fi sh were produced by a subsi stence farmer i n Nakon Sawan, Thai l and
[and they tasted great ! Ed.]
Dr. M.C.Nandeesha has
taken up a new position as
Professor and Head of the
Department of Aquaculture,
College of Fisheries, Central
Agricultural University, PO
Box No. 120, Agartal a-
799001, Tripura, India. This
is a four-year old institution
established to cater to the
manpower and research re-
quirements of the Northeast-
ern part of the country in the
fi sheri es sector. He has
nearly two decades of expe-
rience in teaching, research
and development and has
worked with Universities,
NGOs and multilateral orga-
nizations within and outside
the country. Email address:
mcnraju@yahoo.com.
Farmers as Scientists
This is a series anchored by M.C. Nandeesha. It describes farmer-driven
innovations and experiences.
Sewage Fed Aquaculture Systems of Kolkata
A Century-old Innovation of Farmers
Farmers around Kolkata city in India developed a
technique of using domestic sewage for fish
culture almost a century ago. This technique is
widely used to meet the growing demand for fish
in this thickly populated Indian city. The technique
is considered to be unique and is the largest
operational system in the world to convert waste
in to consumable products.
The system appears to have started nearly a
century ago although large-scale usage of sewage
for fish culture began in the 1930s. Early success
of fish culture in stabilized sewage ponds, which
were used as a source of water for growing
vegetables, provided stimulus for the large-scale
expansion of sewage fed fish culture system. The
area under this unique system of culture peaked
at 12,000 ha, but in recent years there has been a
steep decline in the area due to the increasing
pressure from urbanization. Currently, the area
under the sewage fed culture system has been
reduced to less than 4,000 ha and the poor people
dependent on these wetlands for their livelihood
have been severely affected. However, even today,
a considerable amount of fish consumed in Kolkata
city is produced from this system. There are
appeals to Government to declare the existing
sewage fed aquaculture area as sanctuaries and to
protect them from further encroachment by the
rapidly expanding population of Kolkata city.
The waste recycling system that has evolved in
Kolkata city involves garbage based vegetable
farms, wastewater fed fishponds, paddy fields
using fish pond effluent and sewage fed brackish
water aquaculture. The practice of using pond
effluent for paddy cultivation is of recent origin.
Sewage fed system
The sewage fed ponds, which are locally called
Bheries are usually large and can be as big as
40 ha in size. Although these sewage-fed ponds
are generally shallow and vary from 50 cm to 150
cm in depth. Though most of the sewage fed ponds
are static in nature, with the increase in size, they
tend to become lotic. In general, these ponds have
five distinct phases covering pond preparation,
primary fertilization, fish stocking, secondary
fertilization and fish harvesting. Pond preparation
is undertaken during cooler months (November-
February) during which time the growth of carps
is also reported to be slow. Whenever possible,
ponds are drained, dried, silt is removed from the
silt traps (perimeter canal dug along pond dike),
the pond bottom is tilled and the dikes are prepared.
Sewage from the canal is drawn in to the pond
and allowed to stabilize for 15-20 days.
The photosynthetic activity in the pond is the
basis for biological purification of the sewage.
Once the water turns completely green, stocking
Sewage fed fishponds; locally called Bheries have a bamboo sluice structure to prevent
the entry of wild fishes and escape of the stocked fishes.
Open channel through which sewage is flown. Lush
growth of Colocasia seen on either side of the channel.
of fish is initiated. Before stocking fish,
some are kept in hapas in the pond to test
pond condition through survival. If the
results are positive, large scale stocking
is undertaken. Fish stocking takes place
several times in a year depending on the
intensity of operation.
Species cultured
Although both Indian and exotic carps are
grown, farmers have specific preference
for the Indian carps, namely catla (Catla
catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal
(Cirrhinus mrigala) and bata (Labeo bata)
with bulk of the stocking consisting of
mrigal. Exotic fish like silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) and common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) are stocked as a
small percentage. However, the popularity
of tilapias (Oreochromis niloticus and O.
mossambicus) is increasing and they
constitute 5-30% of the species stocked
with different farms. There is also a
tendency for some farmers to stock
Pangasius hypophthalmus to control
mollusc populations and some are
attempting to culture high value species
like giant freshwater prawn,
Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Periodic fertilization
After stocking, sewage is drawn regularly
from the canal in small quantities. It is fed
to ponds at doses varying from 1-10% of
the total volume of water in the pond at
intervals throughout the culture period. In
bigger ponds, continuous inflow and
outflow are maintained by allowing the
same level of water to flow out of the
pond. Water color, transparency,
temperature and depth are used as
measures to decide on the amount of
sewage to be introduced in to the pond.
Fishes are generally not fed with any
supplementary feed, except on occasions
such as the monsoon season when there
is difficulty in getting enough good quality
sewage.
Rotational cropping system
Farmers have evolved culture systems that
are responsive to market demand. Fish are
stocked and harvested throughout the
culture period leading to periodical
stocking and regular harvest. In larger
ponds, harvesting takes place
continuously for almost fifteen days in a
month. After completion of one cycle of
harvest in a large pond, fishes are
restocked at the rate of one kg of
fingerlings for every five kg of fish
harvested. After restocking, fishes are left
undisturbed for the subsequent fortnight
and harvesting will start again after that
period. Drag nets are commonly used for
harvesting fishes through an encircling
technique. However, for the bottom
burrowing and difficult to catch species
like common carp and tilapia, encircling
with the net and hand picking are adopted
as common techniques. There are
specialized people to harvest fishes using
these strategies.
Sewage fed ponds are pumped out to dry.
Drying of ponds is undertaken during winter.
Silt is removed at least once in three years.
Dikes are some times used for the cultivation
of horticultural crops like banana.
Dried water hyacinth is kept in heaps in the
ponds for decomposition.
The bulk of the harvested fish consists of Indian major carps and tilapia.
Live fish marketing
Live fish marketing is becoming more
popular. Fish are harvested and kept in a
depuration pond for varying lengths of
time, but at least for one day. Depurated
fish are harvested and transported to the
market site live using containers placed
on bicycles, tricycles and trucks. Based
on the market demand, fishes weighing
more than 100 g are generally harvested
and sold. For example, if there are ten
fishes in a kilogram, they are called hotel
fish as they serve the needs of the
restaurants that cater food to poor people.
There are also skilled persons for the
transportation of fishes in live condition
for marketing using bicycles and they earn
about Rs. 40-50 for 3-4 hours of work.
Dike protection
Aquatic weeds like water hyacinth are
grown along pond dikes of larger ponds
to break waves and prevent damage to
dikes. In addition, these weeded areas,
provide shelter to fish when the
temperature rises, prevent poaching of
fishes to some degree and most
importantly serve as filters to extract
nutrients and metals from the system.
When these weeds grow in excess, they
are periodically harvested and
decomposed in the pond to enhance
fertility of water. Surrounding these large
ponds, silt traps 2-3 m wide and 30-40 cm
deep are dug. These get filled with regular
harvesting of fishes. Farmers restrict
themselves to cleaning of these silt traps
instead of digging the entire pond. Silt rich
in nutrients is used for various purposes,
including strengthening of dikes.
Disease problems
In sewage fed farms, bacterial diseases are
not common. Even when there were
problems with Epizootic Ulcerative
Disease (EUS) in recent years with carps
in other areas, carps in these sewage-fed
ponds remained uninfected. However,
parasitic infections by Lernea (anchor
worm) and Argulus are common and there
is a need to develop techniques for the
control of this problem.
Ownership pattern of
sewage fed ponds
Sewage fed ponds are operated both
through individual operation as well as
through cooperatives. Cooperatives have
been largely successful in sewage-fed
aquaculture systems and the poor are
deriving good benefits from such systems.
The practices adopted by some of the
management systems visited by the author
are presented here to highlight how the
poor are deriving benefit from this system.
Jagrashisha Farm
This farm is 120 hectares in area. This
large water area has been taken on lease
from the owners by a group of three
people for a period of twenty-one years
and has more than 200 employees. One
part of the farm complex consists of 58
ha comprising three large ponds with the
largest pond having an area of 23 ha. The
raw sewage drawn in to the pond is
Specialists carry out harvesting of fish in large ponds. Tilapia and common carp are largely
harvested through hand picking.
Aluminium vessels, called hundies, are used to transport seed as well as live fish to market.
Large plastic containers are used in tricycles
for the transportation of fish in live condition.
conditioned for 20-30 days before
stocking with carps and tilapia once the
stabilization process is completed and
water turns green. For every hectare of
pond, about 40,000 50,000 fingerlings
are stocked and the total weight of these
fingerlings would be about one ton.
Most of the stocked material are major
carps (70%) with other species including
common carp, silver carp, grass carp and
tilapia. Multiple stocking and multiple
harvesting is the strategy adopted by this
farm. Each pond is harvested continuously
for fifteen days in a month. After
harvesting one kg of seed is stocked for
every five kg of fish harvested. Each farm
maintains its own nursing area (about 10%
of farm area is used for growing
fingerlings) and stunted seed are stocked
in to the pond continuously. While
common carp and tilapia are produced on
the farm, other species seed are obtained
from local hatcheries. Fingerlings are
generally more than 10-15 g in size when
stocked. Fishes are grown mostly on the
natural food produced in the pond and
sewage is regularly drawn in at a rate of
2-3% of the total volume of pond water,
using the color of water as an indicator.
Aerators are used when oxygen depletion
problems are noticed. Feeding of fish is
generally not practiced, except when there
is a heavy monsoon, resulting in shortfall
of quality sewage. The market price of the
harvested fish varies between Rs. 30-50
depending on variety and season.
Employees are compensated
adequately following the local systems
and regulations with a weekly paid
holiday, annual bonus and special
holidays for festivals. Fish are harvested
everyday by these laborers and depurated
and transported by another group of hired
contract workers who are paid Rs.40/
person for 2-3 hours of work. The farm
also hires specialists to hand pick bottom
dwelling fishes like common carp and
tilapia and they receive at the rate of Rs.
3/- for every kg of fish harvested. Fish are
harvested from all the ponds on rotational
basis and on an average, there are 300
fishing days per year. The average fish
productivity of the farm is more than five
ton / ha / year.
Cooperative system of
management
Bheri No. 4 is one of the cooperatives
started in mid 1980s with the support of
the government. The Society has 265
members with sixteen female members.
The Society owns water area covering
about 60 ha. A Management committee
consisting of nineteen members manages
the Society. Elections are held once in
three years. The Secretary of the Society
has been working in that position for the
past ten years. This demonstrates the high
level of confidence created by the leaders
through their completely transparent
system of management and provision of
equal benefits to all members. Every
member of the society takes part actively
in the work and activities of the society
and thereby conflicts are avoided. Each
member receives a financial benefit of Rs.
2,000-2,500 /month along with a weekly
paid holiday, annual festival bonus and
special holidays. Members are also given
limited medical reimbursement facilities.
The annual transactions of the Society are
large in magnitude with financial
transactions amounting to more than Rs.
13 million. This is a huge sum in the local
context and there is lot to learn from these
successful cooperatives. The Society uses
its own labor force for harvesting fishes
and marketing them in live condition.
Several of the aquaculture management
practices adopted by the Society are
similar to those described earlier. The
major expenditure of the farm is on
Some sewage fed farms also integrate with pig
farming.
The sewage fed system is threatened by the
increasing urbanization. Note the multistoried
commercial complexes behind the fishponds.
Dr. Amitabh Ghosh and his team from CICFRI (Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute)
have been involved in carrying out research in partnership with the Bheri No.4 Cooperative.
Cooperatives have been
largely successful in
sewage-fed aquaculture
systems and the poor are
deriving good benefits...
procurement of seeds from hatcheries
since the farm produces only common
carp and tilapia seed on site. The Society
has also set up a good integration system
with pig farming and on an average 300
pigs are raised on a continuous basis. The
Society has a number of assets like nets,
boats and trucks, which are required for
the efficient operation of the farm. Fish
are harvested continuously almost
everyday throughout the year, except for
a month break in the whole year.
Asia Diagnostic Guide to Aquatic
Animal Diseases
The Asia Diagnostic Guide is a comprehensive, up-datable diagnostic guide for the
pathogens and diseases listed in the NACA/FAO and OIE Quarterly Aquatic Animal
Disease (QAAD) Reporting System including a number of other diseases which are
significant in the Asia region. It jointly published by FAO and NACA under the Asia-
Pacific Regional Programme on Aquatic Health Management.
This 240 page volume contains a general introduction on health and aquatic animals
and the roles and levels of diagnostics. Section 2 to 4 cover Finfish Diseases, Molluscan
Diseases and Crustacean Diseases. Each host section commences with a chapter on
General techniques which covers essential starting points that will enable prompt
and effective response(s) to disease situations in aquatic animal production. These
chapters are not disease specific and emphasize the importance of gross observations
and how and when they should be made, including information on environmental
parameters worth recording, general procedures for sampling and fixation and the
importance of record-keeping. The guide is illustrated with more than 160 colour
photos. Limited hard copies and a CD version are available for cost of postage. A free
electronic (PDF) version is available from the NACA website (http://www.enaca.org/
aapqis/ - visit the publications link).
Conclusion
Integrated resource recovery systems and
waste recycling using peripheral wetlands
around cities are some of the planning
concepts suggested to maintain the good
environment around urban areas.
Unfortunately, Kolkata wetlands, which
served as the best examples to the world
on these concepts are slowly being lost
due to the urban expansion without
understanding the ecological,
environmental and economical benefits of
this sewage fed fish culture system. While
there is a necessity to protect this unique
system in Kolkata, there is a much more
urgent necessity to understand the science
behind the management practices evolved
by farmers. The quality of fish grown in
sewage fed ponds remains as one of the
major concerns, though the practice
followed by farmers for nearly a century
demonstrates the robustness of the system.
Some of the studies conducted to
understand the microbiological and
chemical qualities of fish grown in sewage
fed ponds indicate that the fish are safe to
consume.
An international seminar held in 1988
in Kolkata city with the support of UNDP
World Bank Water and Sanitation
Program, ESCAP and the Government of
India, brought together experts and
countries, which have some form of
sewage fed systems. The seminar also
recognised the uniqueness of the Kolkata
system and recommended that detailed
studies should be undertaken to
understand the existing practices and also
assesses the quality of fish. Dr. Peter
Edwards from the Asian Institute of
Technology and Dr. P.S.V. Pullin from
ICLARM have edited and published the
proceedings, which has wealth of
information and a number of other
recommendations. As it is clear, even
within the country, even after a century
of this important innovation, the technique
has not spread to other parts of the
country. What is preventing the adoption
of this novel system is it social,
economic or technical constraints or are a
combination of all these?
of freshwater Aquaculture located in
Bhubaneswar has reported the
development of an improved method of
sewage fed fish culture system, which
avoids the direct use of raw sewage in fish
culture. Though there are fears about the
safety of the fish grown in sewage fed
systems, it is the general belief in Kolkata
that the fish grown in sewage tastes better.
This has been partly attributed to the good
nutrition obtained from the rich plankton
growth in ponds. Plankton for the
growing fish.
There is opportunity to develop
systems suitable to each of the urban
centers to produce fish using sewage and
avoid environmental damage being
caused by the discharge of untreated
sewage.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr. V.V. Sugunan,
Director, Central Inland Capture Fisheries
Research Institute (CICFRI),
Barrackpore, West Bengal and Dr.
Amitabh Ghosh, Principal Scientist and
Officerin-Charge, Kolkata Centre,
CICFRI, Barrackpore for the provision of
various information and also for arranging
visit to sewage fed farms around Kolkata
city. Dr. M.L. Bhowmik, Dean, College
of Fisheries, Lembucherra and Dr. Peter
Edwards, Professor, AIT Aquaculture
Division, provided additional information
and literature and encouraged me to write
on this significant innovation of farmers.
There is opportunity...to
produce fish...and avoid
environmental damage
being caused by the
discharge of untreated
sewerage.
Perhaps bringing farmers living around
urban areas and doers from the scientific
and development community to see this
practice of Kolkata might help in applying
the system elsewhere in the country with
suitable modifications. The Public Health
Engineering Department has to be
impressed with the potential of this system
and the Fisheries Department has to work
closely with them to develop new systems
in other urban areas. The Central Institute
When policy makers
begin hearing
voices
Graham Haylor, William Savage and SD
Tripathi
Demographic and
Livelihoods Poverty Focus
One year ago, the Indian population stood
at 1.027 billion, with 320 million Indian
people (especially in rural areas) living
below the Government of Indias official
poverty line. Five hundred million people
in India live on less than US$1/day,
representing one third of the worlds poor
people. Indias successes in poverty
alleviation will seriously affect
international success with international
development targets (such as halving
absolute poverty by 2015). The Eastern
Plateau region of India is characterised by
poverty and inequality, land alienation and
seasonal migration. The scheduled castes
and tribes targeted by the project are
amongst the poorest communities in India.
Poor women and men, recipients of the
envisaged improved aquaculture service
provision, typically belong to scheduled
tribes or castes, and many lack the means
to produce sufficient food throughout the
year. Their livelihoods may be
characterised as in Box 1.
Geographic Scope of the
Project and Key
Stakeholders
Service provision impacting on the lives
of people such as have been characterised
above is prescribed by national as well as
state government policy. Therefore key
stakeholders in a policy change process
would be (potential) service provision
recipients, policy actors at national, state
and local levels, as well as non-
government advisors on service provision
to poor men and women (Table 1). The
states where the project will consult with
poor men and women in tribal areas are
Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal,
facilitated by GVT and DOF.
How did the current policy
come about?
Freshwater fish culture has been an age-
old tradition in India. Though originally
confined to the eastern region of
undivided India, presently covered by
West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa, it
gradually spread to Uttar Pradesh, eastern
Madhya Pradesh and some parts of Tamil
Nadu, where the seed of Indian major
carps was transported from Calcutta and
stocked in ponds, tanks and reservoirs in
the thirties and forties. With
independence, the state and national
governments focused attention on food
production as well as production of animal
protein that included small and large
livestock and also fish. Fish seed, though
not available locally, was imported from
Calcutta, and stocked in ponds and tanks
under UNICEFs Applied Nutrition
Programme. As survival of the spawn and
fry imported from Calcutta was low,
owing to crude indigenous practices of
seed transport, research investigations
were directed at improving the methods
of seed transport and rearing of spawn to
fry and fingerling size. The package of
seed-rearing practices was developed by
the mid-fifties and rates of survival
increased in nursery and rearing ponds.
As the Indian major carps (catla, rohu and
mrigal) normally spawned only in flooded
rivers and streams, the seed collected from
such sources was poor in quality, being a
Table 1: Key Stakeholder Groups
(Potential) service provision
recipients

Poor men, women and youth, including tribal as
well as other marginalized and disadvantaged
groups

National policy actors Fisheries Development Commissioner, Planning
Commission, Finance Ministry, Fisheries Division
(Deputy Director General) of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and technical and
learning centres (CIFE and CIFA).

State policy actors Chief Ministers, Fisheries Ministers, Fisheries
Secretaries, Department of Fisheries (Directors,
Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, District
Fisheries Officers, Fisheries Extension Officers),
Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDA),
Directors of Gram Panchyats, Tribal Welfare and
Department of Forests.
Local government

Zila Parishad and Gram Panchyat
Non-government advisors on
service provision to poor
men and women

Gramin Vikas Trust (GVT), donors (DFID, IFAD),
international organisations
Livelihoods of poor people in
rain-fed tribal areas of eastern
India
They may farm about 0.4 ha of poor
upland, where they might grow
finger millet and about 400 kg of
paddy (sufficient for 2.5 months
consumpti on by 5-6 fami l y
members). (Wild) fish would be a
popular but rare source of vital high-
grade protein, polyunsaturated fats,
calcium and iodine. Without food
security, livelihoods depend on local
l abouri ng for better-endowed
farmers, for a daily wage of 30
(women) to 50 (men) Indian Rupees
(64-106 US cents/day). Agricultural
dai l y l abouri ng wi l l be most
commonly available to women and
highly seasonal, resulting in high
(soci al l y di vi si ve) seasonal
migration rates of 40-50%. Men or
families will tend to migrate after
pl anti ng work i s over i n June,
returning for possible harvest work
in September-October; there is no
Rabi cropping (November-April) in
most of the dry Eastern Plateau.
Seasonal (urban) l abouri ng
opportunities in Chhota Nagpur are
commonl y medi ated through a
Sardar who will recruit and sell the
labour of 30-40 people. Piecework,
perhaps at a brick-works, enables
those labouring long days to earn
70 Indian Rupees (149 US cents/
day). However, power relations are
skewed against migrant labourers
who may be i ncl i ned to report
exploitation and underpayment.
mixture of several varieties including
trash and predatory species. Urgent
attention was therefore paid to developing
the techniques of breeding them in
confined waters.
With success in induced spawning of
Indian carps, followed by Chinese silver
carp and grass carp research programmes
on increasing fish production were taken
up. Polyculture of Indian major carps and
Indian and Chinese carps resulted in
achieving production levels of over 4,000
kg/ha/yr at the Central Inland Fisheries
Research Substation, Cuttack, by the end
of the sixties. In 1971, the Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute launched an
All India Coordinated Research Project
(AICRP) at 12 centres in the country from
the northwest (Haryana) to the northeast
(Assam), west (Gujarat and Maharashtra),
east (Orissa) and southeast (Tamil Nadu).
AICRP achieved high levels of production
ranging from 3,000 to 10,000 kg/ha/year
and the technology thus developed was
popularly called Composite Fish Culture.
Some of the states established a number
of Demonstration Centres to transfer the
technology to farmers and entrepreneurs.
AICRP also helped in spawning the fish,
especially the difficult-to-breed exotic
carps, at all 12 centres and organised
training programmes for state officers and
farmers.
The technology of composite fish
culture comprises pond preparation
(removal of trash and predatory fishes),
liming, nutrient management through
periodic application of organic manures
and inorganic fertilisers, supplementary
feeding twice daily at 2-3% of the total
fish biomass, monthly sampling for
checks on health and growth to determine
the quantum of feed, and finally
harvesting at the end of one year. Though
several variants have been developed
now, the basic technology remains the
same.
High production levels (average of
3,000 kg to over 6,000 kg/ha/yr) in
farmers ponds were also registered in
various northern, central and southern
districts of West Bengal and Orissa, when
the Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute implemented an Operational
Research Project called the Rural
Aquaculture Project in collaboration with
IDRC (Canada) from 1975-79. Based on
the initial results achieved at the Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station,
Cuttack, and under the AICRP on
Composite Fish Culture, the Government
of India launched a centrally sponsored
scheme called Fish Farmers Development
Agency (FFDA) in 1973-74. The scheme
was initiated with a view to increasing fish
production from ponds and tanks all over
the country and supporting poor and
disadvantaged people, especially the
scheduled castes and tribes. An FFDA was
gradually established in each potential
district and today there are 422 FFDAs in
the country, of which 400 are functional.
FFDA provides a package of technical,
financial and extension support to fish
farmers. It is a sort of autonomous
organization under the administrative
control of the District Collector, to help
allotment of government land for pond
construction or organize leases of
government ponds to farmers,
entrepreneurs and cooperatives. The
central government initially shared 50%
of expenses, with the states sharing the
other half. However, since the beginning
of the Ninth Plan, the share of the central
government was increased to 75%.
So what might be a Policy
Change Mechanism?
Recognising the Need for Change
An important prerequisite for transacting
policy change is recognition of the need
for change. That policy change (including
poverty alleviation involving aquaculture)
is an appropriate way forward has been
highlighted by recent research and
development in aquaculture in India
(DFID NRSP Research, DFID EIRFP,
1996-2002), by the Government of India
(Committee of High Level Experts, 2000-
01), by the UK (Blair, 2002) and other
governments, and more broadly by the
international community (NACA/FAO
Aquamillenium Conference, 1999).
The Government of India (GoI)
recognises the need to develop the
fisheries sector and in particular
aquaculture. A government target for
fisheries and aquaculture of 7.8 million
metric tonnes (mmt) of fish production has
been identified based on a per capita
requirement of 12 kg. Current fish
production is 5.9 mmt, and freshwater
aquaculture contributes a third of this.
Aquaculture has made tremendous
progress in India during the last ten years,
its production increasing by threefold. The
current annual growth rate in aquaculture
is 7.5%. While efforts are being made to
achieve the planned target, it is a question
as to how far poor and disadvantaged
groups are able to profit from national and
state government schemes.
From 1996-2001, the Institute of
Aquaculture (IoA), University of Stirling,
Scotland, co-ordinated a DFID-funded
NRSP research project (R6759) to select,
test and develop integrated aquaculture
innovations relevant to poor groups and
to their local needs and conditions in
eastern India. The work was conducted
in participation with farmers in farm-
based trials integrated with on-station
State No. of
FFDAs
Water
area (ha)
Farmers
trained
No. of
beneficiaries
Average
productivity
(kg/ha/yr)
Production
(MT)
Bihar 49 24,769 24,769 26,574 2,175 53,785
Gujarat 17 49,270 17,970 15,341 1,244 61,292
Madhya
Pradesh
45 76,180 35,162 79,374 1,739 132,477
Maharashtra 29 22,547 13,383 60,030 1,749 39,435
Orissa 30 33,215 46,654 122,162 2,059 68,390
Rajasthan 15 3,164 9,405 2,710 2,053 6,496
West Bengal 18 107,712 196,820 354,695 2,950 317,750
Table 2: FFDAs in States with Large Tribal Populations
The FFDA has so far
trained 634,000 fish
farmers, with 934,000
beneficiaries who developed
531,000 ha of water area.
Besides revising the rates of subsidies,
some new components were also added
to the scheme and its scope enlarged. The
FFDA has so far trained 634,000 fish
farmers, with 934,000 beneficiaries who
developed 531,000 ha of water area. The
all-India average productivity from fish
ponds under the FFDA scheme stood at
2,226 kg/ha/yr during 1999-2000. The
performance of the seven states with large
tribal populations under consideration for
the present project is shown in Table 2.
research and contextual information
collection. Project partners included the
Eastern India Rain-fed Farming Project
(EIRFP), now the Gramin Vikas Trust
(GVT), and a supporting team of
consultants recruited by the Centre for
Development Studies, Swansea, the DOF
and CIFA. Research and development
work undertaken has clearly shown that
there are certain constraints in the
adoption of technologies by poor and
disadvantaged people in rural sectors. It
was felt that some policy changes are
necessary to bring these groups into the
mainstream and to take advantage of
government services.
The need for policy change was also
recognised by the GoI, which set up a
Committee of High Level Experts in July
2000 that submitted its report in May
2001. The report indicates that there is
much that needs to be done to popularise
aquaculture and to bring the benefits to
the doorsteps of disadvantaged groups
who constitute an important and sizable
component of the total population. These
include, among others:
To ensure the timely supply of
fingerlings of desired species and of
proper size.
The procedure for financing loans
should be simplified and time-bound.
The lease period for Panchyat and
village ponds should be increased.
The need for coordination and adequate
extension was recognised.
Time for a Change
Despite considerable economic growth
and reduction in the numbers of people
below the poverty line in India, the
situation has not substantially improved
for the poorest groups, including tribal
populations, as the programmes meant to
help poor people have not been effectively
implemented. Huge sums have been
invested in anti-poverty programmes
involving subsidies. Far less effort has
gone into empowering people to
contribute to policy change processes, to
give recipients of service provision a voice
and to help them to realise their rights.
However, for a range of key stakeholders,
the time is right for change. For example:
Donors (especially DFID)
The development assistance that comes
into India from abroad is still insignificant
when compared to the national budget.
Increasingly, outside agencies recognise
that they can achieve strategic impact on
poverty through influencing specific
policies at the national level. As the British
Prime Minister said in a speech to the
Confederation of Indian Industry in
Bangalore on 5 January 2002, donor
nations are realising that help with a
proper system of government or law is at
least as crucial, sometimes more so, than
cash.
and successful undertaking researched in
partnership with NRSP and ICAR. The
opportunity for incorporating such
learning into policy change processes is
wholly welcomed by GVT.
Government of India
During discussions with the Fisheries
Development Commissioner, it was
evident that despite all efforts, the
aquaculture development needs of
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and
farmers in the north-eastern region, have
not been adequately addressed. A
Committee of High Level Experts
(comprising the CIFE Director; Fisheries
Development Commissioner; Directors
(Fisheries) of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka
and Himachal Pradesh; FFDA
representatives and others) recommended
policy changes and the Tenth Five-year
Plan is with the Fisheries Development
Commissioner at the final drafting stage.
A Mechanism for
Transacting Change
Based on DFIDs research and
development experience in Bihar (now
Jharkhand), West Bengal and Orissa and
some further work in the western (Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan) and
central (Maharashtra) regions covering
tribal populations, the Fisheries
Development Commissioner encouraged
the STREAM Initiative, with funding
from DFID NRSP, in collaboration with
NACA, to play a role in recommending
reforms under the FFDA scheme or even
suggest a new tribal rain-fed farming
component that could be launched in the
next year. In order to exemplify such work
on constraints and policy concerns, within
the Tenth Five-year Plan (currently being
finalised), a Component Concept Note
was drafted and provided to the
Commissioner in March 2002. This will
provide opportunities for interactive
workshops, meetings and consultations
that might lead to recommendations for
developing either a new scheme or a
component of an ongoing scheme.
Fieldwork was carried out before
hosting a Recipients and Implementers
Workshop, with an aim to gain an initial
understanding of peoples experiences of
aquaculture service provision.
Community colleagues from the
fieldwork villages were invited to
participate in the workshop, including
Huge sums have been invested
in anti-poverty programmes
involving subsidies. Far less
effort has gone into empowering
people to contribute to policy
change processes.
DFID in India is a partner in health and
education, science and technology, and
trade and investment. It proposes to work
in close collaboration with local, state and
national governments to develop policies
that could be used to bring about a change
in national policy. Aquaculture is an
important component within the portfolio
of livelihood activities that are considered
valuable. DFID India welcomes the
STREAM Initiative approach to
contribute to policy change processes and
to give recipients of service provision a
voice.
Implementers (especially GVT)
A focus of GVT (formerly the Eastern
India Rain-fed Farming Project) is now
the sharing of processes and outcomes
from their work (including six years of
experience of working in aquaculture with
poor marginalized people, mainly from
tribal groups). Through extensive use of
participatory approaches, and the
development of social capital as an entry
point (involving the formation of 193
groups, 25% of which were womens
groups), more than 4,500 farmers who
were unable to produce sufficient food
throughout the year (the majority of whom
belong to scheduled castes and tribes in
Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa), had
benefited from aquaculture. Aquaculture
has been one of the most successful
interventions of the project (which
includes soil and water conservation,
small-scale livestock and forestry, as well
as special issues like participatory crop
varietal selection). The use of seasonal
water bodies for aquaculture was a new

Inception
Visit and
Report

Fieldwork

Recipients and
Implementers
Workshop
Understanding
lessons learnt
from elsewhere

Understanding
service provision
Understanding
modes and
priorities for
policy change

Lessons

Case
studies
Analysis
Stakeholders
Workshop
Prepare
briefing
materials

Policy
Review
Workshop
Document
progress towards
policy change and
lessons learnt
Document the
transaction
process and
lessons learnt
Figure 1: STREAM plan for Investigating Improved Policy on Aquaculture Service Provision to Poor People
State
Workshops
Jankars from two GVT-supported
villages, recipient farmers from a
government-supported village, and
farmers from a village with no support.
As a result of the Inception Visit, and the
fruitful, enthusiastic discussions with a
range of colleagues and stakeholders at
the subsequent workshop, the following
plan has been agreed (Figure 1).
The central of the three parallel
strands to follow this inception phase, and
to inform each other and subsequent
project activities, is a set of case studies.
A number of these, using a variety of
media, will be commissioned in Jharkand,
Orissa and West Bengal.
The purpose of the case studies is to
show peoples experiences of aquaculture
service provision from their perspective,
about specific issues, with specific groups
of fishers, farmers and other relevant
actors, in Schedule Tribe, Scheduled
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The Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture in Chennai,
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of the institute and research achievements, lists of available
publications and extension materials, profiles of resident
scientists and a training calendar. Also worth a mention, if you
are trying to contact institutes in India, is the homepage of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which contains
links to most major institutions, www.icar.org.in.
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The NACA information team has rebuilt the NACA homepage
to make it a lot more useful to network participants. Our website
now features a lot more dynamic content and is updated at the
end of each week, so there is always something new. We have
completely changed the page to include:
Regional aquaculture news headlines;
Announcements on upcoming conferences, workshops and
updates on network activities;
Links to NACA programmes and major databases;
An online library of network publications, all available for
FREE download as PDF files;
An email newsletter service;
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put all currently available network books on our publications
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Totally free !!! This includes some very useful things like the
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viewing, but you will still have to subscribe if you want a printed
hard copy, sorry). New NACA publications will continue to be
added to this page as they are released - usually before the hard
copies have been printed.
A particularly useful feature is our new email newsletter,
which will be delivered once per month. If you would like
regional aquaculture news headlines and announcements on
Caste and Backward Class
communities. For more information
contact Graham Haylor, email
ghaylor@loxinfo.co.th
The Grouper Section has taken on a new and broader name: It has become the
Marine finfish Section to take account of other species. This Section is almost
wholly based on the Grouper Electronic Network which is prepared by Sih Yang
Sim (Editor), Michael Phillips (NACA Environment Specialist) and Mike Rimmer
(Principal Fisheries Biologist of the Queensland Department of Primary
Industries). Visit www.enaca.org/grouper for more information on the network.
Marine finfish section
Grouper Hatchery Production Training Course, Gondol Research
Institute for Mariculture, Bali, Indonesia, 1 - 21 May, 2002
Sih Yang SIM
1
and Adi Hanafi
2
1: Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), PO Box 1040, Kasetsart Post Office, Bangkok 10903, Thailand.
E-mail: sim@enac.org
2: Gondol Research Institute for Mariculture, PO Box 140, Singaraja 81101, Bali, Indonesia.
E-mail: gondol@singaraja.wasantara.net.id
for Indonesian scientists, technicians and
farmers for some time.
The training course was attended by
fourteen participants from eight
economies in the Asia-Pacific region;
Thailand, Indonesia, Hong Kong China,
Singapore, Vietnam, Malaysia, the
Philippines and Colombia. The training
course attracted four people from private
sector and ten from government research
institutes around the region.
Opening and Institute Tour
The training course was started with a
welcome speech by Gondol and NACA
staff, and resident JICA marine fish
breeding expert. After the official opening
the participants were given opportunity to
introduce themselves and toured the
GRIM facilities with Dr Adi Hanafi, the
director, and staff.
Theoretical Components
During the 21 days of training,
participants were provided with a mix of
practical, hands on training, supported by
lectures and working discussions on
various topics, broadly covering the
following:
Grouper Seed Production
Live Food Production
Broodstock and egg management
Sex and maturation manipulation
Parasitic diseases
Bacterial diseases
Viral diseases
Transportation of eggs and seed
Nutrition and feed development
Floating net cage culture
Mariculture development in Indonesia
Practical Components
One of the essential components of the
training course was on the job training.
The participants were divided into four
groups, in which each group was assigned
to handle and take care of one larvae tank.
The responsibilities of the group members
were to feed the larvae, clean tank bottom,
counting rotifer in the larvae tanks, harvest
rotifer in the live feed section, enrich live
feed such as rotifer and Artemia.
The participants are also provided with
other on the job training which include
the following:
Preparation of larval rearing tanks
Larviculture
Aeration control
Management for prevention of surface
tension death
Rotifer density estimation
Live feed culture
Microalgae
Rotifer
Artemia
Egg harvesting, handling, examine egg
quality and estimation of hatching rate
Broodstock, feeding, handling and post
spawning handling
Feed preparation and feeding
Examine gut contain of early larvae
Diseases
The training course was organized and
supported by the Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia, the
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-
Pacific (NACA), the Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research
(ACIAR), the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) and the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
It is one of the activities of the Asia-
Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture
Network http://www.enaca.org/grouper/.
The training course was conducted at the
Gondol Research Institute for Mariculture
(GRIM), northern Bali, Indonesia, which
is equipped with good facilities for
training and research activities and has
excellent experience in breeding of
groupers. This is the first time that GRIM
offered a regional training course on
grouper hatchery production in
cooperation with NACA and the Asia-
Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture
Network, although it has provided training
Preparati on of l arvae cul ture tanks by
participant from Thailand
PCR Test
After the theoretical section on diseases,
particularly viruses, participants were
provided a one day session on step-by-
step PCR test procedures for grouper
larvae to determine whether the larvae are
infected with Viral Nervous Necrosis
virus.
Observe Activities
Participants were also provided chances
to observe broodstock selection and
examine eggs development stage for
napoleon wrasse. Activities such as blood
sampling and injecting microchips for
broodstock of napoleon wrasse and mouse
grouper were also observed by
participants.
Feed Preparation and
Manufacturing
After the lecture on Nutrition and Feed
Development, participants were given a
hands-on practical lesson on feed
preparation and manufacture. The group
was brought to the feed production section
at GRIM and shown how to prepare and
produce artificial pelleted feed. The
formula for the feed was provided by
GRIM. The participants were provided
step-by-step guideline for making the
pellet feed, and explanation of the feed
machineries. Some participants were
given the opportunity to do work on pellet
spreading on the drying tray.
Field Trips
Field trips were organized to visit grouper
backyard hatcheries, grouper nursery, live
fish traders and exporter, fish market and
also floating cages. Participants were also
Participant counting rotifer population under
supervision of GRIM technician
provided opportunity to visit some
milkfish hatcheries nearby.
Grouper backyard hatcheries
Three commercial backyard hatcheries
were visited, this provide an opportunity
for the participants to see for themselves
how the system actually operates and
works.
Grouper nursery
One big commercial nursery was visited.
The nursery cultured mouse grouper and
tiger grouper, this nursery bought fry at 2
cm in length and grow them to juveniles.
Live fish traders and exporters, and
fish market
A one-day trip was organized for
participants to visit live fish traders and
exporters. Two live fish exporters were
visited. One was dealing on coral trout and
Lecturer explaining the microalgae pure culture
in indoor system
Harvesting enriched rotifers for feeding larvae
Observing packing of eggs for distribution Napoleon wrasse eggs development sampling Hand pressure to check spawned broodstock
the other is mixed of grouper species, but
mainly on Epinephelus spp., such as tiger
grouper. After the live fish section the
group was brought to visit the local fish
market, which is the main fish market in
Denpasar area.
GRIM technician shows participants on how to
make pelleted feed from small machine
Floating net cages
The participants were provided a chance
to visit the broodstock holding cages
nearby GRIM and also visited GRIMs
floating net cages for grouper nursery
from 2 inches to stocking grow-out cage
size. The group also went to visit a floating
net cage farm which mainly culture
milkfish, and also beginning to do grouper
culture, particularly for mouse grouper.
Private Sectors Interaction and
Discussion Session
Additional activities such as informal
meetings with the private hatchery
operators were also arranged so that
participants could hear the success stories
and problems that were facing by the
private sector in Indonesia for grouper
seed production. Discussion sessions with
technicians and lecturers were also being
organized as needed.
Certificate and Closing
Overall the training course was a
successful one, participants experiencing
a lot of activities and also provided some
commercial interaction that provides
opportunity for participants as well as the
local hatchery operators, traders and
exporters and products suppliers.
Future similar training course may be
run, anyone interested please contact
grouper@enaca.org.
Some coral reef fish species selling in the local fish market
Field trip visit to GRIM nursery floating net
cages for grouper species
ACIAR Grouper Project Six
Monthly Report
(July December 2001)
The ACIAR project Improved hatchery
and grow-out technology for grouper
aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region is
now into its second year. There have been
several breakthroughs for grouper
breeding and larviculture during the past
two years of research. Promising results
have also been obtained for the grow-out
diet development component. The
following summarizes the research
outcomes:
Larval rearing
Research at SEAFDEC has shown that a
range of environmental factors affect the
survival of newly hatched grouper larvae.
Significantly higher survival rates
(P<0.05) were observed at aeration levels
of 0.62 and 1.25 ml/min/l, at salinity levels
of 16 and 24 ppt and at light intensity of
500 and 700 lux than at the other
conditions tested.
Analyses of live prey at SEAFDEC
have provided baseline data on the
nutritional composition of the live prey
diets used for larval rearing. Analyses of
early larval stages has shown some
interesting patterns of fatty acid
utilization, including a high level of
conservation of docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA) in the polar lipid fraction of Day
4 larvae. In Day 8, 18 and 28 larvae
arachidonic acid (ARA), eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and DHA were more highly
conserved in the polar lipid fraction than
in the neutral lipid fraction.
Morphological and histological
descriptions of Epinephelus coioides
larval stages are largely completed. On-
going histochemical and biochemical
analyses of grouper (E. coioides and
Cromileptes altivelis) larvae are being
undertaken at SEAFDEC and at NFC and
an accurate profile of the ontogeny of
digestive enzymes is being developed
from these studies.
A new component has recently been
added to the project: selective breeding
of super small (SS-) strain rotifers
Brachionus rotundiformis. Experimental
work undertaken at Gondol demonstrated
that development of rotifers is dependent
The vitamin C requirements of C. altivelis are currently being
examined at RICF Maros. Preliminary results indicate that fish
weight tends to increase with increase levels of L-ascorbyl 2-
polyphosphate (APP) in the diet. The highest weight was
observed in fish fed diet with APP 150 mg/kg diet.
For the full report visit the Marine Finfish Network website
www.enaca.org/grouper/ or contact:
Dr Mike Rimmer, Principal Fisheries Biologist, Northern
Fisheries Centre
PO Box 5396, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.
Phone: +61 7 4035 0109
Fax: +61 7 4035 1401
E-mail: Mike.Rimmer@dpi.qld.gov.au
Country Status Overview 2001 on Reef
Fisheries Exploitation and Trade in
Indonesia
International Marinelife Alliance (IMA) Indonesia, Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries, and Telapak Indonesia Foundation
This report cover reef fisheries exploitation and trade dynamics
in Indonesia, describes the type of commodities, fishing ground
and trading centers in Indonesia for ornamental fish, live coral
and reef food fish. This report also covers the price structure for
both ornamental and food fish in Indonesia. Destructive fishing
methods used such as cyanide, blasting, coral extraction etc are
also being described. External natural threats such as red tide,
coral bleaching are also briefly included. The report also
describes the intervention methods that are implemented for
controlling the destructive fishing activities such as fishing
ground and catching season management models, technical
intervention on fishing methods by introducing sustainable
methods such as hook & line, bubu, barrier net, and also introduce
mariculture.
Country Status Overview (CSO) 2001 is the first part of a
series which will be developed and published annually. CSO is
an open document that can be, and is expected to be, written by
as many parties as possible with interest in the Exploitation and
Trading of Reef Fisheries in Indonesia. Data for the compilation
of CSO will be collected/gathered from all involved players in
the exploitation and trading of reef fisheries, including parties
which cause the decrease in the quality of the habitat. And of
the life of the community, indirectly or directly.
Most of the data collected is secondary data, varied from
export tables issued by several government institutions, to the
observation reports made by export and science agencies. A
series of interviews have been conducted to support specific data.
CSO 2001 decided on three monitoring sites (Jakarta, Denpasar
and Makasar, which are the main export gates) as the first points
in information and collection, and observations in several fishing
areas (Nias, Lampung, Ujungkulon, Thousand Islands, Karimun
Jawa, Sumenep, Maluku Tenggara, and Biak).
For full report please visit International Marinelife Alliance
website at http://www.imamarinelife.org/
on salinity and that measuring egg-bearing females older (post
hatch) than 12 h at 5 salinity, 15 h at 20 salinity and 18 h
at 30 salinity provides an accurate indication of any change
in the average body size of the initial rotifer population. A second
experiment to evaluate the effect of diet particle size on rotifer
body size indicated that the Sticchococcus diet resulted in a
significantly smaller rotifer population and that this difference
was detectable after 5 days.
Grow-out diet development
Diet development work to examine a range of ingredients to
develop practical compounded diets for groupers using (where
practical) locally available ingredients.
Experimental work at SEAFDEC comparing several diets
showed that fishmeal can be substituted with high-quality
terrestrial meals. Specific growth rate (SGR) of fish fed control
(3.1%), meat and bone meal (3.0%), gluten meal (2.8%) and
tuna fish meal (3.1%)-based diets were comparable, and
significantly higher than that of fish fed blood meal-based diet
(2.4%).
Diet trials at Gondol and at RICF Maros have demonstrated
that:
the minimum dietary carbohydrate requirement of C. altivelis
is 7%;
dietary carbohydrate affected the growth, feed efficiency,
growth, protein and lipid retention as well as the digestibility
nutrient of C. altivelis;
glucose is the appropriate carbohydrate source of juvenile
C. altivelis diet.
...from page 21
From sandwiches to sashimi - the
success story of Australias southern
bluefin tuna industry
In the early 1980s Australias Southern
Bluefin Tuna (SBT) industry was in a
precarious position.
SBT was regarded generally as suitable
only for the low-value canned fish market,
destined for use on Australias lunchtime
sandwiches. As a result, fishers needed to
catch high tonnages of the species to earn
a living. The Australian SBT catch peaked
in 1982 at 21,500 tonnes.
Concerned over the sustainability of the
species, fisheries managers and the
industry established quotas in 1984 to
limit the tonnage of fish caught to 14500
tonnes. It was reduced to 6,250 tonnes in
1988 and 5,265 tonnes in 1989.
These days, things are different. The
wild-catch tonnage caught has stabilized
at that set in 1989 and a Convention for
the Conservation of SBT has been
established between Australia, New
Zealand and Japan.
Fish are produced by a combination of
wild-catch and aquaculture (farming).
The products destination is no longer
canned tuna but the high value Japanese
sashimi market with prices averaging
$1200 per fish. By adding value through
tuna farming, operators have increased the
value of their catch from $12.5 million to
$252 million in 2000.
Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation (FRDC) Programs Manager
Dr Patrick Hone said this remarkable
transformation has been achieved through
systematic improvement in the knowledge
of the species, husbandry processes,
technology and marketing.
This has been led by innovative
companies and an industry association
that are focused on sustainable
development; and establishing
partnerships within the industry and with
customers and research investors such as
the FRDC, he said.
These partnerships began in 1991,
when the FRDC collaborated with the
Tuna Boat Owners Association of
Australia, the South Australian
Government and the Japanese
Government, in funding the worlds first
research and development project
associated with farming SBT.
Farming offered a potential
mechanism for improving fish quality,
increasing the weight of fish and
optimizing the time that fish were
marketed, said Dr Hone.
An experimental farm was established
as the focus for developing technology in
Port Lincoln. Initially it began with two
pontoons, fifteen tonnes of captured SBT
and full participation of Japanese farm
experts and Australian fishers. The rest,
as they say, is history.
However, the industry and FRDC are
continuing to look forward, already
working on the challenge of breeding SBT
in captivity-the success of which could
have enormous environmental, economic
and social benefits.
The industry and FRDC has ensured
that this innovative momentum will not
be lost with the recent signing of a
Memorandum of Understanding between
the Tuna Boat Owners Association of
Australia and FRDC that will see an
increased investment in R&D by the
industry.
It is partnerships such as these that will
ensure the sustainability of the industry
and the natural resources on which it
depends, said Dr Hone.
For further Information contact: Dr
Patrick Hone, FRDC Program Manager,
Ph: +612 6285 0412 or Mr Brian Jeffries,
Tuna Boat Owners Association of
Australia CEO, Ph: +61 0419 840 299
Seafood retains healthy oils after
cooking: CSIRO
Theres more good news on the good
oils in seafood. Cooking doesnt diminish
the high level of beneficial oils found in
seafood, according to research released
today by the Australian CSIRO.
The research, funded by the Fisheries
Research and Development Corporation,
shows that seafood cooked, uncooked
or processed, wild or farm-raised is the
best source of nutritionally-important
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
These fatty acids are needed to help
prevent and treat heart disease and other
disorders, but the human body only
produces them in small amounts, so they
must be obtained from the diet.
Proceedings of The Live
Reef Fish Trade Workshop
April 23, 2001
International Marinelife Alliance
This report includes summaries of the
papers presented at the Live Reef Fish
Trade workshop in Hanoi, Vietnam on
April 23, 2001 and it also provides a
record of the discussions and
recommendations from the workshop.
The following are the list of presentations
given in the above workshop:
Overview of the Worldwide Live Reef
Fish Trade, IMAs Indo-Pacific
Destructive Fishing Reform Initiative
Overview of Live Reef Fish Trade in
Vietnam
The impact of cyanide fishing on coral
resources in Vietnam
Activities for coral reef conservation
in Vietnam
Legal issues concerning the
management of fisheries resources
including the Live reef Fish Trade
Marine culture strategies n Vietnam,
the concept of coastal resources co-
management
The full report can be obtained from
International Mainelife Alliance
Vietnam website at http://www.ima-
vietnam.b2vn.com/.
New aquarium species
database
Dr Edmund Green
The UNEPWorld Conservation
Monitoring Centre (UNEPWCMC) is
pleased to announce a new database on
the trade in aquarium species, the Global
Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD),
which is available at http://www.unep-
wcmc.org/marine/gmad.
Users of the database will have access
to approximately 50,000 records of trade
in live aquarium species and may query
these geographically and taxonomically.
Further data collection is ongoing and
the database is continuously being
updated, with the release of the next
version scheduled for April.
Reprinted from the SPC Live Reef Fish
Information Bulletin # 10.
The research findings are presented in
Seafood the Good Food II, a book recently
released in Hobart.
Information in Seafood the Good Food
II is intended to help the seafood industry,
nutritionists and consumer groups to
communicate the health benefits of eating
Australian seafood.
The book contains detailed oil profiles
for 79 seafood species, as well as
information on cooking, processing,
aquaculture production and seasonal
influences for selected species. It brings
the total number of Australian seafood
species profiled by CSIRO to nearly 300.
Most Australian seafood is high in
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and
low in cholesterol. project leader Dr Peter
Nichols of CSIRO Marine Research says.
In fact, it contains 10100 times
higher levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids than foods such as beef,
chicken and lamb.
But the nutritional value of farmed
seafood, and the effects of cooking and
processing on these beneficial oils were
unknown, until now.
Weve determined that frying,
grilling, steaming, microwaving and
curing have no adverse effects. That must
be good news for seafood lovers.
And farmed fish such as Atlantic
salmon, barramundi, silver perch and
striped perch are high in omega-3 PUFA,
and feeds can be tailored to increase this
nutritional value, he says.
Nutritional studies continue to
emphasise important links between
seafood and human health.
There is now good evidence in
humans that the omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids in fish reduce heart attacks and
particularly death from heart attacks, Dr
Manny Noakes of CSIRO Health Sciences
and Nutrition says.
Animal studies have shown that this
may be because omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids stop arrhythmias, the irregular
heart rhythms that can lead to sudden
death from cardiac arrest.
Dr Noakes says omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids from seafood
act to lower triglycerides, one of the fats
in the blood thought to contribute to heart
disease.
They also appear to be involved in
blood pressure regulation, platelet
function and blood clotting, all of which
may contribute to the prevention of heart
disease.
The benefits of fish dont stop at heart
disease prevention.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
from seafood may prevent stroke, may
reduce the risk of premature births and
may guard against prostate cancer, Dr
Noakes says.
They are also helpful in the treatment
of rheumatoid arthritis and some recent
studies indicate a benefit in some forms
of depression.
Steve Gill of the Master Fish Merchants
Association of Australia says the findings
are great news for the seafood industry.
Our association will be spread the
message through distributing posters and
brochures explaining the results of the
study to fish retailers throughout the
country, he says.
Seafood the Good Food II is available
from CSIRO Publishing on +61 1800 645
051.
For more information please contact
Dr Peter Nichols, CSIRO Marine
Research, on +61 (3) 6232 5279 or email
peter.nichols@csiro.au.
Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes
of Australia
This book is the definitive and only
complete work on Australias freshwater
fish fauna. The 302 species covered in the
book are accompanied by good quality
colour photographs, a brief taxonomic
description, advice on how to recognize
the species, details about its preferred
habitat, its status and geographic
distribution and remarks about its habits
and breeding behaviour. Thirty-four
Australian native fishes - more than one-
in-ten of our identified species - appear
on the IUCN's "red list" of threatened
species. Their fate is a stark indicator of
the ailing condition of the continent's
rivers and freshwater systems.
The Field Guide to the Freshwater
Fishes of Australia is the work of Gerald
Allen, Mark Allen and Hamar Midgley,
supported by a host of Australia's best
museums, biologists and aquarists. It is a
copublication between the Western
Australian Museum and CSIRO
Publishing, ISBN 0 7307 5486 3. RRP
$45.00 in softback. To order copies
contact CSIRO Publishing Customer
Services +61 1800 645 051 or email
publishing.sales@csiro.au.
I would say that this guide
complements, rather than replaces, the
previous definitive book freshwater fishes
of Australia, also by Gerald Allen. While
the guide covers a great deal more species
- around 300 as opposed to 200 in the
previous book, it does so in less detail
which I found a little disapointing,
however I guess length was an issue. Most
of the extra species covered in this book
are the more unusual and arcane (and
interesting !) ones. Still, if you are into
native Australian fishes, this is a great
(and lets face it the only) book. Highly
recommended. The Editor.
Training course - Population
Genetics: Applications in Fisheries
Resources Management
22 August - 3 September 2002,
Penang, Malaysia.
The objectives of this training course,
organised by the International Center for
Living Aquatic Resources (ICLARM),
include providing participants with a
background to the use of genetic markers
as a tool for fisheries resource
management and to present the pros and
cons of the different genetic techniques
that may be used for the assessment of
genetic variability. See http://
w w w . i c l a r m . o r g / T r a i n i n g /
training_19Aug02.htm or contact
m.ablan@cgiar.org for more information.
FISH FARMING IN RICE ENVIRONMENTS OF
NORTH EASTERN INDIA
D. N. Das
Dept. of Zoology, Arunachal University
Itanagar-791 112, India
by products to science-based technology such as use of improved
breeds, inorganic fertilizers and formulated feeds.
The system of raising fish from the rice fields probably started
in the northeast with the beginning of rice cultivation itself. Since
the water logged rice field forms natural habitat for wild fish so
it is believed that it appeared first only as the simple capture.
The fish communities of rice fields were exploited as common
property resources for rice growers as a whole in the earlier days.
The concept of intentional rearing or culture farming evolved
later, particularly when the farming communities faced a demand
for increased and organized fish production. Even then the impact
of modern research and developmental endeavors hardly touched
the rice farmers of these remote region of India.
Existing farming practices:
Methods and Status
The indigenous rice-fish farming practices prevailing among the
farmers in the northeastern India can be categorized as (a) rice
field capture fishery systems (b) wild aquatic cropping systems
(c) mountain valley rice fish farming system and (d) running
water terrace rice-fish farming systems.
Rice field capture fishery system
In the unmanageable vast waterlogged rice environments,
perennial waterlogged wet rice lands, oxbow type rice fields or
flooded river basin rice fields, naturally occurring fishes and
prawns enter the field during the monsoon and grow together
with the rice crop. The gravid females and young fingerlings
enter the field during the wet season when field water overflows
and connects neighboring watercourses to form a vast sheet of
water under the rice canopy. The floodwater carries huge and
diversified community of fish, prawn, crabs and other aquatic
organisms into the rice paddies. This situation is very common
in the flood plain rice fields of whole of the Brahmaputra and
Barak Valleys of Assam. The fishing activities there start just
after arrival of the floods from late June and continue until the
water recedes in November-December. In a true sense, these
areas become temporary fishing grounds. The farmers and fishers
use those fields as common property resources for about 5-6
months of the year using gill nets, cast nets, and various
indigenous traps, either operating them in the rice-free spots or
fixing the traps at appropriate water entry and exit points in the
fields. In such fisheries, the average capture rate is typically
around 3kg/ha/yr
1,2
. Such practices are highly prevalent in the
districts of North Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Barpeta, Nalbari,
Bongaigaon, Dhubri and Kachher district of Assam and certain
districts of Manipur and other Northeastern states. The deepwater
rice environment where such practice is most common covers
more than 460,000 hectares in Assam State alone.
Fish have been harvested from rice fields as an additional crop
since ancient times. Biologically, rice fields can be considered
as agriculturally managed marshes, which remain dry for varying
periods of time during the year. Physically, the aquatic phase
has varying water depth according to the land topography and
local rainfall patterns and water tables. In its flooded state, the
rice field is a rich and productive biological system which can
produce a crop of aquatic organisms, both plant and animal, for
human consumption in addition to the rice.
The farmers of the Northeastern part of India (Fig-1) in all
the seven states viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur and Tripura cultivate rice as their
staple food. The ecology of their rice fields in the region is quite
diverse, but can be divided primarily into upland, lowland and
deepwater rice ecosystems. On the basis of water sources there
are two types of fields viz., irrigated and rain fed rice fields. In
this region of the country, a fish crop is traditionally raised only
from the paddies of rain fed lowlands (both shallow and
deepwater). In many areas, irrigation-fed rice fields have also
been adapted locally by the farmers to include fish farming.
Traditional rice-fish production systems have an important socio-
economic part in the life of the farmers and fishers in the region.
Rice-fish farming
Unlike most agriculture and animal husbandry, which evolved
millennia ago, many aquatic farming systems have relatively
recent origins. Traditional rice fish farming may be considered
to derive solely from the farmer-based technology, where modern
rice fish farming involves a shift from completely farmer-based
technology relying mainly on use of on-farm and agricultural
Figure 1: Northeastern states of India
All of the states of Northeastern India
lie in a heavy rainfall zone and therefore
a longer aquatic phase is possible in these
areas than in rain-fed low lying rice fields.
Harvesting of the rice starts in November-
December after the recession of
floodwater at the end of wet season. All
the low-lying ditches, marginal swamp
and natural depressions inside the field
area are also harvested at the same time.
This is done either by pumping out the
water or by using traditional nets or traps.
The fish fauna from such flooded fields
are very diverse (figure 4).
In Barpeta district, Assam, this is a very
common system among the local tribal
and fishers for collecting fish and other
aquatic resources from the paddies. The
yield of fish from such indigenous practice
ranges from 45-280 kg/ha/season
3
(table
1). The tribal folks of lower Assam
traditionally practice community fishing
during the night. They use indigenous
night lamps made from bamboo or
burning bicycle or rickshaw tires for light
fishing. By walking in and around the
flooded field at night with the light they
can attract and capture stunted fish, frogs,
crabs and other animals with a sharp
weapon. In rice-less patches of open
deepwater rice fields or oxbow lakes the
farmers also practice cast netting using
bait during the evening hours.
The tribal women of the lower Assam
traditionally collect wild resources
through group fishing of the flooded rice
areas using local devices. In general, small
fishes, snails and crabs are the common
harvests from most of the rice
environments. Group fishing is performed
throughout either the either the whole of
the wet season or at the end of the season.
Aside from animals, various aquatic
vegetables like Ipomea, Alternathera,
Nymphaeia are also harvested for family
consumption.
Wild aqua cropping system
The practice of wild aquatic cropping is a
common practice in the rice fields of
Assam, Manipur and foothills of other
hilly states of Northeastern India. In this
system the farmers or fishers trap and rear
the fish, which enter the fields from the
wild and thus intentionally utilize the rice
environment. This practice is mostly
carried out in impounded rain fed lowland
and the closed deepwater rice fields,
which are embanked all around and linked
with canal systems of varying sizes and
designs. On average, canals occupy 8%
of the area of such fields and average 0.6-
1.5m in depth
4
. The rice cultivars
traditionally grown in these fields are a
tall type commonly known as Sali rice in
lower Assam and Aman rice in Cachhar
district. In some closed deepwater rice
field, tall traditional Bao cultivars are
grown. These plots are seasonal wetlands
where water depth may reach 2.5 meters
or more during the monsoon, but partially
or completely dry up during December-
January. The rice is planted during April-
May by direct seeding and after getting
first shower of rain the seeds are
germinated. In many areas, tall seedlings
are also transplanted after accumulation
of rainwater during June-July. The fields
connect with neighboring watercourses
during the monsoon when they overflow,
allowing seeds of various wild fish and
prawns into the field. Sometimes farmers
dig trap ponds inside the field intentionally
to give the animals refuge and facilitate
their entry in the field. In addition to direct
capture during the wet season, the farmers
also rear wild seed until the water level
drops down below the level of the fields.
During this phase wandering fish
accumulate in the trap ponds or natural
ditches in and around field contour. These
fishes are harvested after dewatering the
ditches and canals. The rate of production
is ranges around 200-300kg/ha/season.
Figure 2. Open deepwater rice fields during October- November i.e. water recession period
Figure 3. Use of trap in the field at the entry &exit points in post flood low land rice fields
In Assam, many of the old fortresses
constructed by tribal chief of the state are
being used under this type of farming
practices. One such fortress Jangal Balahu
garh (37ha) in Nagaon district has a high
perimeter dyke surrounding the entire
area, horizontal deep trenches and wooden
sluice structures present in one corner of
the plot offering a readymade site for rice-
fish farming
5
. In districts of Barpeta,
Bongaigaon and Kokrajhar rice fields are
often connected by canal systems locally
called as Dong. To facilitate aquaculture
the Dong are enclosed by bamboo pens
to prevent escape of the fish from the rice
field, which are harvested after recession
of the water. The tribal communities of
Boro and Rajbangshis are very well
trained in this type of aquaculture and
local fishers supply huge fish to local
markets from such harvests. In the
lowland areas of Barpeta and Nagaon
district wild aquatic farming is so
popular among the farmers that they often
use their jute retting tanks as trap ponds
in the field. In many areas farmers
deliberately stock their closed rice fields
with fish seed during the wet season but
they normally they do not normally follow
and any scientific system of culture.
Mountain valley rice-fish system
In the hilly states of Northeast India many
rice fields are located in mountain valleys
where water accumulates from adjoining
slopes and flows down the valley. Dwarf
varieties of rice are generally cultivated
in such plots mainly integrated with
culture of common carp Cyprinus carpio.
Naturally various weed fishes from
colonize in those fields during the period
of inundation.
The states of Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland and
Tripura have a type of huge rice field
where farmers intentionally allow various
fish species to grow along with their rice
crop. These are harvested at the end of
rice season either from the irrigation
channel or from the specially dug fish
refuges in the plots. The production rate
from such plots could be raised up to
200kg/ha/season.
The best example of mountain valley
rice fish culture in the region is in the
Apatani plateau of Arunachal Pradesh.
These plots have more or less uniform
elevation. Mountain valley plots are
gently sloping and are characterized by
two- and three-sided dykes. These types
of plots are common in the valley areas
of the northeast but are not generally
utilized for culture fisheries.
Running water terrace rice-fish
system
In the hilly terrain of Meghalaya, Sikkim
and in certain parts of Arunachal Pradesh,
the rice fields are in the form of terraces
spaced over mountain slopes. This
provides opportunities, as in Japan, to
develop running water fish culture
systems in the rice fields. The water from
the stream irrigated and rain-fed plots
trickles down from plots at higher altitude
to lower ones creating a flow through
system within the plots. The terrace type
of plots are stocked with common carp at
a density of 6,000/ha and fed either with
1:1 mustard oil cakes and rice bran at 1kg/
ha or simply provided with domestic
kitchen waste, giving an average
production of 186kg/ha in two months.
Farmers practice terracing in certain
areas of Arunachal Pradesh, particularly
in most of the hilly areas adjoining the
Apatani plateau contour. To reduce soil
erosion, water is funneled into trench
constructed at the edge of each terrace.
This seems to have good potential for
replication in hilly areas where soils have
good water retention. A dyke on one side
is usually sufficient to retain water in an
Figure 5. Community harvesting of a marginal swamp of the rice fields
Figure 4. Wild fish and prawns commonly available in rice fields in northeastern India
800-1000 m
2
trench. An earthen spillway
in the dyke is needed to drain off excess
water. A one-way bamboo gate across the
spillway serves to prevent stocked fish
from escaping but also allows wild fish
to enter the field. Traditionally a simple
bamboo gate is used to prevent stocked
fish from escaping.
Fish farming in rice fields has become
an additional source of income and
important economic avenue among the
Apatani farm families of the state. Local
farmers have modified the system in such
way that it has become an excellent
example of rice fish-farming system in hill
tracks and it has also become intimately
related with the agrarian life of Apatani
people in Northeastern states of India.
Indigenous versus modern
culture systems
All the rice fish systems prevailing in
Northeastern states of India (except
mountain valley and terrace culture
systems) are chiefly dependent on wild
fish seed resources. The wild fish and fry
enter the rice fields during initial flooding
and additional water exchange from the
permanent lakes and rivers. Therefore, the
success of fish output from such fields
depends on adequate natural spawning
and survival of fingerlings, much of which
occurs in seasonally flooded rice fields
during the monsoon. This natural stocking
system is hampered if (a) indiscriminate
fishing at first flooding is allowed due to
depletion of gravid females leading to
poor spawning in the field or (b) if rice
cultivation is intensified adopting modern
management practices, which will also
inhibit spawning and fry production.
Figure 7: Wild stream fishes from waterlogged mountain valley rice fields
Figure 8: Use of bamboo pens in wild aqua-
cropping system
Figure 6: Dewatering of perimeter canal for harvesting of fish
Fish farming in rice fields
has become an additional
source of income and
important economic
avenue...
Irrespective of the rice ecosystems the
indigenous farming of rice and fish are
mostly concurrent in nature. So, the
capture fishery and wild aquatic cropping
systems are commonly found in areas that
are water logged during the water season
and where inundated fields become
connected with perennial water bodies.
The capture system is a customary and
seasonal habit of rice farmers and fishers
living around waterlogged rice
agricultural systems. These areas face a
lot of constraints in adopting modern rice
production systems. The indigenous
practices that prevail there were developed
locally by farmers. The supplementary
harvest of fish from rice fields is an
innovation to increase returns.
In upland or shallow water rice fields
where dwarf high yielding rice varieties
are cultivated, modern tools and practices
are required. The seepage of agricultural
chemicals through runoff water into
flooded fields can cause the destruction
of aquatic fauna. As a result, the capture
yields of fishes from rice fields are
gradually declining in many states of
India. A survey report from the district of
Barpeta, Assam revealed that many
species of wild fishes and prawns are
District

*Rice area (ha) Culture fisheries
area (ha)**
Irrigated Un-irrigated Rice-fish
culture
Total
Tawang
West Kameng
East Kameng
Lower Subansiri
Papum Pare
Upper Subansiri
West Siang
East Siang
Upper Siang
Dibang Valley
Lohit
Tirap
Changlang
216
133
954
4443
-
913
4335
6011
-
684
1428
11
2677
533
1433
3475
8867
-
7461
9853
3717
-
6249
8466
4120
6583
50.0
75.0
15.0
547.0
10.0
69.0
40.0
22.0
17.0
-
7.0
10.0
-
66.23
114.70
39.18
626.76
136.19
123.19
87.14
72.22
42.25
38.98
148.97
45.22
70.70
Total 21805 60757 862.0 1611.73
* Approximated land census data
** Approximated data from fisheries report, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh
Table 2: District-wise rice area, developed rice fish culture area and total
fisheries area in Arunachal Pradesh
Development
bocks
No. pockets
surveyed **
Fish production
(kg/ha/season)
Average yield
(kg/ha/season)
1. Barpeta 10 45.0-136.0 98.4
2. Chenga 5 80.0-118.0 97.8
3. Mandia 5 105.0-215.0 135.5
4. Bhabanipur 12 82.5-280.0 138.0
5. Gobardhana 5 63.5-115.0 75.0
6. Rupahi 4 49.0-120.0 71.0
7. Bajali 5 82.0-160.0 89.8
8. Jalah 4 58.0-116.2 78.0
Total 45 45.0-280.0 97.9
* Individual farmers were interviewed during the period of fish capture
** Based on farmers interview during the Season (June-December) 1992
Table 1: Wild fish production from deep-water rice field environment of
Barpeta district, Assam
State Scope for
Cultivation (ha)
Area under
cultivation (ha)
Total
production (ha)
Average
(Kg/ha/year)
Arunachal
Pradesh
2,650 150 2800 125
Assam 15,000 N/A 15,000 N/A
Manipur 1,600 400 2,000 200
Meghalaya 2,200 50 2,250 380
+

Mizoram 400 N/A 400 N/A
Nagaland 400 120 520 250
Tripura 5,000 N/A 5,000 300
++

Total 27,250 720 27,970 251
NA Not Available
* Adopted after Lipton, 1983
+ Experimental observations (Ghosh, 1981)
++ Experimental observations (Lipton, 1982)
Table 3: Potential rice-fish culture areas of the Northeast India
declining sharply in their availability
throughout the season. In that context, the
traditional wild capture and aqua cropping
systems should either be improved or
replaced by adopting suitable culture
techniques. Almost in all the states of
Northeastern India have plenty of areas
under flooded paddy fields (Table 2,3).
This would definitely increase yields,
enhancing socio-economic development
in rural areas.
Figure 9. A terrace plot under rice-fish farming
in Apatani plateau, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Acknowledgement
I am highly indebted to all the fisheries
and agricultural workers of the
Northeastern India who supplied the
information time to time on my personal
communication. I also gratefully
acknowledge the help forwarded by my
fellow colleagues in the department of
Zoology, Arunachal University during the
preparation of this manuscript.
References and further reading
1: Jhingran, V.G., (1983) Fish and Fisheries in India.
Hindustan Publishing Corporation, Delhi.
2: Hora, S.L., (1951) Fish culture in rice fields. Current
Science 20(7): 171-173.
3: Bayan, D.N., Das,D.N and Dutta,A (1996) Status of
rice fish farming in the district of Barpeta,Assam.
Tropical Zoology 1(1): 9 13.
4: Pillay, T.V.R. and Bose, B., (1957) Observation on
culture of brackish water fishes in paddy fields in
West Bengal (India). Proceedings of Indo-Pacific
Fisheries Council 7:187-192
5. Ghosh, A., (1992) Rice fish farming development
in India: past, present and future. Rice fish research
and development in Asia (Dela Cruz, C.R et al, 1992
(eds.) ICLARM Conference proceedings no-24.
ICLARM, Manila, Philippines. 457p.
6. Kojeen, H., (2001) Economy of the Apatanis with
special reference to paddy cum fish culture. The
Arunachal Times 13(8): 2(1-3).
7. Das D.N., Roy, B and Mukhopadhyay, P.K (2000)
Survey on farmers practices of rice fish farming in
deep water rice environment of West Bengal, India.
Aquaculture 1(2): 125-139.
A REGIONAL APPROACH TO ASSESSING ORGANIC WASTE
PRODUCTION BY LOW SALINITY SHRIMP FARMS
Dr. Brian Szuster
1
and Dr Mark Flaherty
2
1: Thailand Aquaculture Management Program, Department of Aquatic Science, Burapha University
Bang Saen, Chonburi, 20131, Thailand, telephone: 66-038-745900 (extension 3043), e-mail: bszuster@uvic.ca
2: Department of Geography, University of Victoria
PO Box 3050, Victoria BC V8W 3P5, Canada
overcome this seasonal limitation, and
shrimp farming expanded inland rapidly
during the second half of the 1990s. The
low salinity culture system spread from
seasonally brackish areas, to freshwater
areas that never experience salt water
intrusion
4
. Low salinity shrimp farms that
draw freshwater from existing rice
irrigation infrastructure now exist over
100 kilometers from the coast in areas
such as Prachinburi and Nakhon Nayok.
Approximately 18,530 hectares of low
salinity shrimp ponds have been identified
in the Bangpakong River Basin as part of
our study, and as much as 40 percent of
Thailands total cultured shrimp
production could come from shrimp farms
located in freshwater or seasonally
brackish areas throughout the country
5
.
The rapid emergence of low salinity
shrimp farming within inland freshwater
areas has, however, raised concerns
regarding potential water quality impacts
6
.
The main concern is usually the disposal
of organic-rich effluent from shrimp farms
into freshwater streams or irrigation
canals. Water quality impacts associated
with an individual low salinity shrimp
farm are typically quite limited because
of their small size (0.5 - 5 hectares).
However, the simultaneous operation of
a large number of these farms within a
river basin could produce a serious
cumulative impact on regional water
quality
7.
Given the proliferation of shrimp
ponds within freshwater areas of Thailand,
it is imperative to obtain a better
understanding of the regional organic
waste production characteristics of this
activity. Unfortunately, most previous
investigations have been site-specific case
studies
8,9
or have focused on brackish
water shrimp farms located in coastal
environments
10,11,12,13
. Few broad-scale
environmental studies have been
undertaken assessing the regional water
quality impacts associated with low
salinity shrimp farming.
Study Area
The Bangpakong River Basin is
approximately 18,758 km
2
in area (Figure
1). Two major tributaries (Nakhon Nayok
and Prachinburi Rivers) join in northern
Chachoengsao Province to create the
Lower Bangpakong River (Figure 2). This
major watercourse then flows 122
kilometers through a flat alluvial plain
before empting into the Upper Gulf of
Thailand. The lower Bangpakong sub-
basin is a highly productive agricultural
region with fertile clay soils and an
extensive man-made irrigation network
dating back over one hundred years
11
.
Irrigated rice is the most common crop,
but fruit and field crops such as tomatoes
and corn are also produced. Intensive
animal husbandry (chicken, pig and cattle)
has also developed with many large farms
located in Chonburi and Chachoengsao
provinces. A substantial industrial
complex and numerous towns and cities
are located along the lower Bangpakong
River.
The need for large volumes of brackish
water to fill pond enclosures has
traditionally limited the cultivation of
marine shrimp to a relatively narrow band
of coastal land in Thailand
1
. This was
certainly the case during the first wave of
intensive shrimp aquaculture
development in the Upper Gulf of
Thailand during the late 1980s. Farm
expansion during this period was
concentrated in the estuaries of major
rivers such as the Bangpakong, Chao
Phraya, Tha Chin, and Mae Khlong.
Intrusion of saline water during the dry
season is a common characteristic of these
low gradient river systems, and this
permitted the construction of a second
generation of tiger shrimp farms along
natural stream channels and irrigation
canals some distance from the coast
2
.
However, brackish water is unavailable
in upstream areas when higher stream
flows counteract tidal influences during
the wet season
3
. Low salinity shrimp
culture techniques were developed to
Figure 1: The Bangpakong River Basin study area
Regional assessment
techniques
Shrimp farming can develop very rapidly
in suitable areas. This rapid pace of
development places on a premium on the
availability of farm inventory data and can
render time consuming management
approaches such as basin planning or
integrated coastal zone management
largely ineffective
15
. Given these
characteristics, a technique that combines
the use of satellite imagery, geographic
information systems (GIS), and organic
waste modeling was developed to study
aquaculture-related water quality impacts
in the Bangpakong River Basin.
Shrimp farms in the study area were
identified by a recent survey of low
salinity shrimp farms in the Central Plains
Region of Thailand4. This survey utilized
LandSat 5TM (level 8) satellite images
obtained on March 10 and March 17,
1998. Interpretations of these images were
later ground-truthed to produce 1:50,000
base maps identifying individual shrimp
ponds. These base maps digitized, and
entered into a geographical information
system with other data (e.g., hydrology,
soils, land use). This process identified the
location of individual low salinity shrimp
ponds, and provided a calculation of total
pond area within individual sub-basins
(Figure 3). A field reconnaissance of the
study area was also conducted during the
latter half of 2000. No new low salinity
shrimp farms were found outside of the
areas surveyed in 1998, but a substantial
number of new ponds were found to be
under construction within existing
development zones. This may have been
in response to the rise in world shrimp
prices that occurred as a result of disease-
related crop failures in Ecuador
16
.
Shrimp farm organic waste production
was evaluated using biological oxygen
demand (BOD) loading estimates. BOD
is one of the most commonly applied
indicators of both organic waste
production and overall water quality in
Thailand
17
. BOD provides a measure of
the potential for aquaculture wastewater
to cause pollution by de-oxygenation
18
.
Three scenarios for farm-level BOD
production estimates, based on farm level
studies
8,9,10,11,13,14,19
were combined with the
shrimp farm locational data to estimate
organic waste loads within individual sub-
basins. Shrimp farming BOD production
was also compared to other sources of
agricultural, industrial and municipal
organic pollution to assess the relative
significance shrimp farm effluent
discharges.
Existing Water Quality in the
Bangpakong River
Water quality and hydrological conditions
in the Bangpakong River Basin were
recently investigated as part of a Water
Quality Management Plan for the Eastern
Region of Thailand
14
. Streamflows in the
Bangpakong River Basin are extremely
seasonal as a result of the monsoon which
creates a distinct dry season (November -
April) and wet season (May-November).
Threshold levels for key parameters
identified by the Pollution Control
Department (dissolved oxygen DO;
biological oxygen demand BOD; total
coliforms and ammonia NH
3
) were used
to create water quality classes representing
the needs of beneficial water uses in the
Bangpakong River. Class 1 water quality
essentially corresponds to natural
conditions, while Class 5 water quality is
very poor and only suitable for
navigational purposes. Water quality
meeting the Class 2 level has been targeted
for most reaches of the Bangpakong,
Prachinburi and Nakhon Nayok Rivers.
Currently, only the most distant
headwaters of the Prachinburi and Nakhon
Nayok Rivers comply with the Class 2
target for dissolved oxygen (6.0 - 7.6 mg/
l). Most of the Prachinburi River and all
reaches of the lower Bangpakong River
above kilometer 82 possess a Class 3
designation (4.0 6.0 mg/l). The lower
Bangpakong River and several reaches of
the Nakhon Nayok River were rated as
Class 4 (2-4 mg/l).
Several important points are
highlighted by this water quality
Figure 2: The Bangpakong River is rises from
the fusion of the Nakhon Nayok and Prachinburi
Rivers in Chachoensao Province
Figure 3: Pond area within sub-basins
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Domestic Industrial Agriculture
B
O
D

(
k
g
/
d
a
y
)
Nakhon Nayok R.
Prachinburi R.
L. Bangpakong R.
Figure 4: Total pollution load from the industrial, domestic and agricultural sectors
assessment. Low dissolved oxygen and
high BOD levels suggest that many
portions of the Bangpakong River Basin
are heavily loaded with organic wastes to
the severe detriment of water quality. The
lower Bangpakong River receives the
largest total pollution load from the
industrial, domestic and agricultural
sectors (Figure 4). Agricultural BOD
inputs from intensive animal husbandry
(pig, chicken and cattle farms) are
significant in each of the three major
rivers, but exceed 30,000 kg/day in the
lower Bangpakong River. Substantial
industrial and domestic pollution loads
were also identified in the lower
Bangpakong River as a result of effluent
produced by major industrial estates and
urban centers located within this sub-
basin
20
. Population growth and economic
development will likely result in a further
degradation of water quality unless
municipal wastewater treatment facilities
are constructed, industrial effluent
discharges are controlled, and the flow of
untreated agricultural pollutants is greatly
reduced
14
.
Shrimp Farm Organic Waste
Production
Low salinity shrimp farm effluent
production and water exchanges are
modest during the first 60 days of the
grow-out cycle because the juvenile
shrimp are small and require little
supplemental feeding
21
. Larger shrimp
require substantial feed inputs and more
frequent water exchanges to maintain a
suitable growing environment. Uneaten
food pellets, faeces, and eroded pond soil
tend to accumulate at the center of the
pond enclosure due to the action of
mechanical aerators. This sludge is
enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus and
carbon relative to sediments in the
surrounding environment. The organic
waste load of shrimp farm effluent is
determined by the quantity and rate of
waste production, feed nutrient levels,
feed conversion ratios, and site-specific
conditions
10
.
Untreated liquid effluent discharged
during the early to mid grow-out period
typically contains organic nutrient loads
only slightly higher than many receiving
waters in Thailand
8,17
. This effluent is also
generally within a range acceptable to
native freshwater and marine organisms
and complies with aquaculture effluent
quality standards such as those proposed
by the Thai Pollution Control
Department
17
. The nature of untreated
effluent released during the late grow-out
period and at harvest is quite different with
significant concentrations of nutrients,
solid organic matter, and salt.
Larger shrimp farms typically treat
pond sludge using on-site settling ponds.
Small-scale low salinity shrimp farms in
Thailand generally do not possess either
adequate land or the experience to apply
this even basic form of waste
management
22
. Many shrimp farmers
simply flush pond sludge directly into
adjacent water bodies
17
. Accumulated
pond sediments may be removed with
high-pressure water sprays. A second
disposal technique involves simply
allowing pond outlets to remain open over
several tidal cycles
19
.
Sludge disposal is problematic in all
shrimp farming areas, but this issue is
particularly important within inland
regions containing low salinity shrimp
farms
6
. The small streams and irrigation
canals that support shrimp farms within
inland areas may have little assimilative
capacity (Figure 5) and water quality can
be significantly degraded by sludge
dumping. The disposal of pond sludge into
any water body is illegal in Thailand, but
this practice is not uncommon due to a
lack of farmer awareness and difficulties
in enforcing regulations
19,17
.
Regional Impact of Shrimp
Farming on Water Quality
Water quality in the Bangpakong River
Basin is affected by a number of
pollutants, but organic nutrient loading is
the biggest concern
17
. Given the degree
to which husbandry practices affect
organic nutrient levels within shrimp farm
effluent, three BOD scenarios were
developed to estimate regional water
quality impacts. Scenario A represents a
best case situation in which shrimp
farms apply efficient husbandry
procedures and basic waste management
practices. Effluent discharges in Scenario
A comply with the existing Thai standard
for aquaculture wastewater of 10 mg
BOD
5
per litre or less throughout the
production cycle
17
. It is assumed that no
effluent discharge occurs during the early
grow-out period and pond bottom
sediments are stored on-site. Based on
these assumptions, BOD production in
Scenario A is estimated at 163 kg/ha/crop
or 326 kg/ha/year.
BOD Scenario B presents a worst
case situation. Poor husbandry and waste
management practices result in effluent
that exceeds Thai aquaculture standards
for BOD during the mid-late grow-out
period and at harvest. BOD production
figures for these stages of the production
cycle were drawn from a recent study of
low salinity shrimp culture within
freshwater areas of the Thai Central Plains
Region
8
which corresponds to the findings
Figure 5: Small waterways have limited assimilative capacity
of other recent studies
12,13,17
. BOD
production in Scenario B is estimated at
2,768.5 kg/ha/crop and 5,537 kg/ha/year.
BOD Scenario C represents an
intermediate case. It assumes that 50
percent of existing low salinity shrimp
farms comply with effluent discharge
standards, while the remaining 50 percent
utilize poor management practices that
results in non-compliance and sludge
dumping.
The magnitude of water quality impacts
associated with low salinity shrimp
farming in the Bangpakong River Basin
was estimated using shrimp pond area
calculations (Figure 2), effluent
production estimates
19
, and the three BOD
production scenarios outlined above.
Assuming a shrimp farm wastewater
outflow of 16,300 m
3
/ha/crop, the
operation of 18,531 hectares of low
salinity ponds would generate
approximately 332,613,500 m
3
of effluent
per crop or 665,227,000 m
3
per year
(assuming 2 shrimp crops per year are
produced). A substantial proportion (59
percent) of the total effluent flows
originate from shrimp farms located in the
lower Bangpakong River (Table 1). High
organic pollution loads in the Bangpakong
East and West Bank sub-basins are
associated with dense concentrations of
low salinity shrimp farms in the Muang,
Bang Khla, Ban Pho, and Khong Khuain
districts of Chachoengsao Province.
Effluent volumes are relatively smaller in
the Prachinburi sub-basin (26 percent of
the basin total), but are almost completely
concentrated within the Ban Sang district
located near the confluence of the lower
Prachinburi and Nakhon Nayok Rivers.
Only 15 percent of the total effluent flow
is produced by shrimp farms in the
Nakhon Nayok sub-basin, mostly located
along the lower Nakhon Nayok River or
operating within irrigation projects in the
Ongharak and Muang districts.
Total annual organic pollution loads in
the three BOD scenarios range from
approximately 6 million kg/year (Scenario
A best case situation) to over 102 million
kg/year (Scenario B worst case
situation). BOD production in Scenario C
(a combination of good and poor shrimp
farm effluent management practices) is
estimated at approximately 54 million kg/
year. The extreme difference in BOD
production rates provided by the three
scenarios is largely attributable to sludge
handling practices. Shrimp farm effluents
that contain sludge removed by wet
flushing possess very high suspended
sediments loads and are heavily enriched
in both nitrogen and phosphorus. In the
worst case management scenario (BOD
Scenario B), slightly less than 90 percent
of the total BOD load associated with each
hectare of shrimp pond is attributable to
pond sludge disposal. Only approximately
10 percent of the total BOD load within
Scenario B reflects late grow-out period
water exchange or effluent disposal at
harvest.
A comparison of annual estimated
organic pollution loads for other forms of
intensive animal husbandry suggests that
low salinity shrimp farming represents a
large new source of agricultural BOD in
the Bangpakong River Basin (Table 2).
Depending on which BOD scenario is
applied, low salinity shrimp farming could
produce somewhat less or considerably
more BOD per year than the intensive
chicken or pig farming sectors. A more
accurate estimate of shrimp farm BOD
production is not possible because
detailed data on sludge handling practices
in the Bangpakong River Basin are
unavailable. Given the explosive growth
of low salinity shrimp farming in eastern
Thailand, and the widespread prevalence
of poor waste management practices,
BOD loads are likely at least as large as
those produced by intensive pig or chicken
farming and could reach the levels
described in BOD Scenario C.
Management implications
Existing water quality in many portions
of the Bangpakong River Basin is not
suitable for aquatic life or for water uses
that involve human contact such as
fishing, swimming, bathing
14
. The
situation is particularly serious in the
lower Bangpakong River during the dry
season when nutrient loading from
agricultural, industrial and municipal
sources produce algae blooms and low
dissolved oxygen levels. Construction of
the Bangpakong Diversion Dam has also
affected dry season water quality
conditions, and it appears unlikely that this
facility will operate as planned until
organic pollution levels in the lower
LOW SALINITY SHRIMP
(BOD kg/year)

SUB-BASIN

CHICKEN
(BOD kg/year)

PIG
(BOD kg/year)
Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C
Nakhon Nayok 7,651,875 1,030,778 932,686 15,841,357 8,339,815
Prachinburi 7,574,130 3,003,158 1,547,196 26,278,602 13,834,590
Lower Bangpakong 13,468,946 14,777,968 3,200,439 60,480,651 32,020,775
TOTAL BASIN 28,694,952 18,811,904 6,040,780 102,600,610 54,320,695
Table 2: Annual estimated organic pollution loads for animal husbandry

Sub-Basins

Pond
Area
(hectares)
Effluent
Volume
1

(m
3
/ year)
BOD
Scenario 1
(kg / year)
BOD
Scenario 2
2

(kg / year)
BOD
Scenario 3
(kg / year)
Nakhon Nayok River 2,861 93,268,600 932,686 15,841,357 8,387,022
Nakhon Nayok Sub-Basin 2,861 93,268,600 932,686 15,841,357 8,339,815

L. Prachinburi River 4,746 154,719,600 1,547,196 26,278,602 13,912,899
Hanuman River 0 0 0 0 0
Phraprong River 0 0 0 0 0
Prachinburi Sub-Basin 4,746 154,719,600 1,547,196 26,278,602 13,834,590

Bangpakong (west bank) 4,039 131,671,400 1,316,714 22,363,943 11,840,329
Bangpakong (east bank) 4,494 146,504,400 1,465,044 24,883,278 13,174,161
Khlong Luang 1,613 52,583,800 525,838 8,931,181 4,728,510
Khlong Thalat 777 25,330,200 253,302 4,302,249 2,277,776
L. Bangpakong Sub-Basin 10,923 392,135,700 3,200,439 60,480,651 32,020,775

Total Bangpakong Basin 18,530 665,227,000 6,040,780 102,600,610 54,320,695
Table 1: Estimates of BOD under different scenarios
Bangpakong River are dramatically
reduced
22
.
Achieving the water quality targets
outlined in the Action Plan to Improve
Water Quality in the Eastern River Basins
will require a major reduction in organic
nutrient loads within the lower
Bangpakong and Prachinburi Rivers
(Pollution Control Department, 1998).
Proposed remedial actions include
limiting industrial waste flows,
constructing municipal water treatment
faculties, and reducing organic waste
flows from intensive chicken and pig
farms. However, a large number of low
salinity shrimp farms have been
constructed in the Bangpakong River
Basin since these remedial actions were
proposed. This additional source of
organic pollution has undoubtedly
increased total agricultural BOD
production and placed further stress on
water quality. The dry season also
represents the main production period for
shrimp. Given the likely contribution of
shrimp farm waste to total annual
agricultural pollution loads, and the
implications this has for meeting BOD
reduction targets, it is reasonable to
conclude that low salinity shrimp farming
is having a significant impact on the water
quality in the Bangpakong River Basin.
Confidence in the assessment is
affected by several factors. Firstly, water
quality monitoring data are limited to the
main channel reaches of the Prachinburi,
Nakhon Nayok and lower Bangpakong
Rivers. Information describing
environmental conditions in tributary
streams are unavailable, but given the
more limited assimilative capacity of these
systems, water quality impacts could be
even more severe than those identified in
the main river channels. Dry season water
quality effects within irrigation districts
could be particularly acute because
outflow from areas are limited to prevent
the intrusion of saline tidal flows from the
main channel of the Bangpakong River.
Assumptions concerning average annual
shrimp crop production are also based on
a relatively small data set, and very little
information is available concerning sludge
management practices. The latter issue is
particularly critical given the influence of
sludge on the overall production of
organic pollutants by low salinity shrimp
farms.
Controlling the regional water quality
impacts associated with low salinity
shrimp farming will be difficult, but
eliminating the illegal disposal of pond
bottom sediments into freshwater streams
or irrigation canals is critical.
Management actions that could reduce the
prevalence of illegal sludge disposal
include increased environmental
monitoring, more stringent enforcement
practices, and extension programs for
shrimp farmers that focus on waste
management techniques. Imposing a
requirement for all shrimp farmers to
construct and utilize waste treatment
ponds could also reduce water quality
impacts. Addressing waste management
issues in the shrimp farming sector does
not, however, guarantee regional water
quality improvements. A wide range of
agricultural, industrial and domestic
activities produce organic pollutants in the
Bangpakong River Basin, and a multi-
sectoral pollution reduction strategies is
required. In the absence of a broad-based
approach, improved waste management
practices introduced by shrimp farmers
will have a limited effect on regional water
quality.
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this study was
provided by the Canadian Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council, and the
International Development Research
Center. Logistical support was provided
by the Department of Aquatic Sciences at
Burapha University in Bang Saen,
Thailand. Digital and non-digital data sets
were supplied by the Thai Land
Development Department, Pollution
Control Department, and Department of
Fisheries. Maps were prepared by Ole
Heggen of the Department of Geography,
University of Victoria.
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20. Kasetsart University (2000). Planning and
Management for Water Resources and Land Use in
the Bangpakong River Basin. Volume 1 (General
Information). Kasetsart Institute of Research and
Development and the Office of the Eastern Seaboard
Development Committee. Bangkok, Thailand.
21. Lee, D.OC. and J. F. Wickens. (1992). Crustacean
Farming. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications.
22. Bangkok Post. (2000b). Bangpakong dam proves
disastrous: Ecological horror as reservoir stinks.
Bangkok Post. April 11, 2000.
Peter Edwards is Professor
of Aquaculture at the AIT in
Bangkok where he founded
the aquaculture program.
He has 25 years of experi-
ence in education and re-
search relating to small-
scale, inland aquaculture
based on extensive travel
throughout the region.
Email: pedwards@ait.ac.th
There was a lively and stimulating session on
Aquaculture for Poverty Alleviation and Food
Security at World Aquaculture 2002, the recent
annual meetings of the World Aquaculture Society
and The China Society of Fisheries, held in April
in Beijing. This issues column, based on five
presentations of speakers kindly sent to me on
request for this purpose as chair of the session with
Professor Li Sifa, will enable persons unable to
attend the meeting to benefit from the collective
experience and wisdom of the speakers. My
column in the next issue will outline another six
presentations from the session.
Simon Funge-Smith from FAOs Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific led off with
background to one of the main themes of the
session with a presentation entitled, Focusing
Aquaculture on Poverty Alleviation. Simons
presentation was based on a recent FAO/NACA
Expert Consultation of field-level professionals in
Asia who shared experiences and prepared a
platform for future networking. Living aquatic
resources play a fundamental role in sustaining
the livelihoods of many of the rural poor in Asia
with poorer people often the most dependent on
aquatic resources, particularly low-value fish and
other living aquatic organisms. Such resources
provide opportunities for diverse and flexible
forms of income generation and contribute towards
food security. Aquaculture may offer significant
advantages over other activities such as cash crops
and livestock and may be easily integrated into
other farm and livelihood activities. Low-cost
aquaculture technologies using available on-farm
inputs exist, providing limited need for investment,
low levels of risk and low labor requirements that
fit with household divisions of labor. Low levels
of production may still provide an important
source of household nutrition, and buffers against
shocks. Women often benefit from aquatic
resource use and management in production,
processing or trading the extent to which
aquaculture can improve the position of poor
women will also be taken up with Cecile Brugeres
presentation in the next issue.
To realize the potential for small-scale
aquaculture and aquatic resource management to
alleviate poverty, it is recommended that poverty
alleviation be taken as the strategic starting point
for aquaculture interventions. This has significant
implications for how interventions are
conceptualized, planned and executed as well as
the institutional arrangements and partnerships.
Distinctions between farmed and wild living
aquatic resources are often artificial and thus mask
flexible and often complex relationships between
the two in the livelihoods of the rural poor. As
with any productionbased intervention, poor
people face significant constraints to entry into
aquaculture. Those currently involved in
aquaculture may not be the very poorest since
aquaculture requires resources such as land, ponds,
water, credit and other inputs. Furthermore, many
aquaculture interventions have not always directly
addressed the needs of the poorest people.
However, as Simon pointed out, experience from
the consultation clearly demonstrates that there are
considerable opportunities for poor peoples entry
into aquaculture, if appropriately planned.
Previous thinking was in terms of aquaculture
development. Now the emphasis now is on
aquaculture for development.
Small-scale integrated aquaculture with pigs (above),
chickens or vegetables usually has too low a production
to provide a significant income. Photo courtesy Thomas
Hecht.
Aquaculture for Poverty Alleviation and Food
Security
As aquaculture technologies for poor people are
largely in place, greater emphasis should now be
given to more effective extension of low-cost
technologies and appropriate management
practices for poor people, and securing their right
of access to and control of resources, rather than
technical research. Targeting the poor to
understand their needs and to identify
opportunities for them to benefit from aquaculture
and aquatic resources management is essential.
Targeting should be based on a range of criteria
...there is a
need for a
paradigm shift in
philosophy away
from food for the
poor, which
addresses the
symptoms of
poverty, not
causes, to
creation of
weath...
and participatory methods. Local peoples
views of categories of the poor and poor
people, including those of women, should
be taking into consideration in defining
objectives, strategies and indicators of
success. Opportunities for the entry of
the poor and / or landless can be created
by breaking up the aquaculture production
cycle, facilitating access to fingerlings by
decentralizing seed production,
supporting seed traders and seed
distribution networks, facilitating pond
lease or purchase, and by providing inputs.
Collective action of poor people should
be supported through securing access to
or leasing common water bodies,
enhancement of communal water bodies
including the establishment of locally
devised pro-poor rules and regulations,
introduction of small cages into water
bodies, dry season refuge management,
establishing farmer groups and supporting
credit and savings groups.
The enabling institutional environment
for the poor to benefit significantly more
from living aquatic resources
management than at present is wanting as
fisheries institutions are traditionally
oriented to technical issues, often have
limited experience in training and
extension methods appropriate for the
poor, and usually face serious budget and
personnel constraints. New learning
opportunities are required for these
institutions, including increased
interaction with other agencies as
aquaculture for development should not
be the sole responsibility of fisheries
institutions. This will require innovative
institutional arrangements and
partnerships between governments,
NGOs, civil society groups, donors and
poor people.
Africa and possible reasons for limited
adoption by farmers, in spite of significant
investment, and offered views on
strategies to promote aquaculture for
development.
Although aquaculture failed to fulfill
expectations, Africa now has a core of
practicing fish farmers producing low
yields with little government support i.e.
aquaculture has evolved from an
introduction into an enterprise with which
a few farmers are familiar. These are the
persistent and resistant individuals who
form the foundation for future
development and expansion of
aquaculture in Africa. While there are a
limited number of medium- and large-
scale aquaculture enterprises that supply
fish to urban centers and also employ poor
people, it is estimated that 95% of African
aquaculture production comes from small-
scale rural farms. Most household
aquaculture is of tilapias and/or catfish,
integrated within a traditional farming
system, producing an average of 0.5-1
tonnes/ha in one or more 100-500 m
2
ponds, and providing fish for the home
and market.
Present day development of
aquaculture in Africa is constrained by
both political- economic and technical
issues. Aquaculture has acquired a high
degree of donor dependence but external
funds have become extremely scarce.
Macro-economic difficulties have
precipitated adoption of national structural
adjustment programmes, accompanied by
decentralization and down-sizing of
government agencies. The situation has
been exacerbated by geo-political
turbulence, economic recession, natural
calamities, and significant and often
negative changes in demographics. In
aggregate, these have led to weakened
public sector institutions, reduced
extension / outreach, declining
infrastructure, and chronic shortages of
human and financial resources.
Aquaculture development has also been
affected by persistent input supply
problems: unreliable supplies of good
quality seed; difficulties in obtaining
adequate quantities of cost-effective
feeds; and no ready access to capital. At
the same time, a combination of swelling
populations and declining natural
resources puts increasing pressure on
aquaculture to fill the growing fish supply:
demand gap. The capacity to fill this gap
appears to exist as there is un- or under-
utilized land and water resources,
available labor and suitable climate. These
attributes can justify development of
small-scale integrated aquaculture and
large-scale intensive fish farms, as well
as raising crustaceans and molluscs.
...and on supporting field extension workers.
Photos courtesy John Moehl.
Considerable donor funds were spent on
construction of fish stations in Africa...
The next two presentations, by John
Moehl, FAO Regional Aquaculture
Officer for Africa, and Thomas Hecht of
Rhodes University, South Africa, outlined
the current low level of aquaculture in
John, in his presentation entitled,
Aquaculture Development as a National
Strategy for Poverty Alleviation and
Improved Food Security in Africa,
explained that to understand the potential
for aquaculture development in Africa,
there is a need to appreciate the past as
remnants of early efforts still very much
affect present processes aimed at
increasing the impact of aquaculture. The
donor community spent millions of dollars
in the 1970s and 1980s on aquaculture
development across Africa to introduce
technology and reinforce government
programmes. Significant funding was
spent on creating infrastructure,
particularly fish stations / hatcheries and
supporting aquaculture extension services
which were frequently linked to the new
government fish stations through
subsidized transport for extension staff.
The technology extended by many of
these externally-funded operations was
based on maximizing outputs often
presented as a cook book methodology
as it was assumed development was
resource-limited and an injection of funds
and technology would translate into
increased fish yields. Indeed, most
countries demonstrated a dramatic
increase in the number of fish farmers as
revitalized extension services stimulated
interest in aquaculture but adoption was
at times marginal and at best has had a
minor impact on food security and
poverty. Yields did not progressively
increase as foreseen but often declined,
as did the number of active fish farmers,
especially when donor funds dwindled.
According to John, a holistic view is
required for growth and increased impact
of aquaculture in Africa that examines
aquaculture in a matrix of variables,
addressing size / scale, intensity and
ownership i.e. there is need for proper
technical and socio-economic fit for
aquaculture in each location. Each
production system should have a target
group, utilizing a specific set of inputs and
producing a product aimed at a defined
market. This requires increased
understanding of the socio-economics of
target groups, participation and sharing of
responsibility with stakeholders, increased
private sector involvement, divestment by
government, and enhanced information
exchange / flow. The effort to generate
information and match systems and
producers will require considerable up-
front expenditure but will reduce long-
term maintenance costs and promote
sustainable aquaculture.
Thomas Hecht in his presentation,
Strategies and Measures for Sustainable
Aquaculture in Sub-Saharan Africa,
explained that sustainable aquaculture has
a dual meaning: first and foremost it refers
to placing aquaculture on a sustained
growth trajectory in terms of production,
job creation, poverty eradication and
enhanced trade; but also that it is
dependent on aquatic ecosystems and the
maintenance of the integrity of the
environment will ultimately determine the
sustainability of the sector as a whole.
Aquaculture in Africa will only reach a
sustainable threshold once it enters a
steady growth phase, is less dependent on
foreign donor aid, and is practiced in an
environmentally sustainable manner.
Africa contributes < 0.5% to global
aquaculture production. Three
Mediterranean countries produce almost
60% of the African total and 6 sub-
Saharan countries produce 93% of the
remaining 40%. But the 27 countries that
produce 7% (2,400 tonnes) of the sub-
Saharan total receive the bulk of donor
support. Although sub-Saharan
aquaculture is generally practiced within
environmentally sustainable boundaries,
aquaculture makes little if any
contribution to sustainable livelihoods, as
also pointed out by John Moehl, except
in certain countries and circumstances.
According to Thomas, there is the need
for a paradigm shift in philosophy away
from focusing on food for the poor, which
addresses symptoms of poverty not
causes, to creation of wealth (financial,
knowledge, health etc.). He believes that
capture fisheries have a greater role to play
in providing food for the poor than
aquaculture. The sustainable aquaculture
threshold will only be attained when
production changes from low-yielding
small-scale ponds to larger-scale and
higher-yielding fish ponds.
sector investment, capacity building and
appropriate technology.
With respect to appropriate technology,
Thomas highlighted poor nutrition for the
fish, which translates into poor production
efficiency. The previous focus has been
on organic fertilizers that are available in
limited amounts, and maize bran. Use of
maize bran is logical as it is widely
available but it is a waste of money with a
FCR of 25:1. Previous research on
alternative feeds has been unfocused and
should be redirected to legumes as
soybean with a FCR of 5:1 has led to
considerably increased extrapolated fish
yields of 5 tonnes/ha/year.
It is ironic that there was no Chinese
presentation on the role of aquaculture in
food security and poverty alleviation as
China dominates global aquaculture
production, has had the fastest growth rate
in total production over the past few
decades and the meeting was held in
Beijing. Fortunately, Miao Weimin sent
me a copy of his paper presented in
another session, Economic Profile of
Aquaculture Practices in China:
Implication for Sustainable Aquaculture
Development which is of relevance. The
rapid development of aquaculture over the
past two decades has significantly
increased the availability of aquatic
produce from less than 10 kg to over 30
kg/caput, making an important
contribution to national food security.
There has been tremendous diversification
of species and culture systems in China
but traditional pond fish culture still
dominates aquaculture production.
Recent experience with intensification
of pond culture in China has involved
increased use of commercial formulated
feed, reduced integration and a change
from polyculture to monoculture of high
value species. A degraded culture
environment has led to increased
frequency of disease requiring extensive
use of various medicines and chemicals.
A further adverse environmental impact
Relatively high value grass carp is cultured on
grass grown on pond dikes, supplemented with
pelleted feed. Souchow, China.
Ferrocement boat used to harvest aquatic
weeds from canals and lakes to feed grass
carp. Souchow, China.
Small grass carp fed with duckweed cultured
between fish ponds. Souchow, China.
Thomas also presented a plan for
promoting aquaculture development in
sub-Saharan Africa, including the
recognition of both the down-side and the
up-side of past mistakes. The over-arching
mistake was allowing economic reality to
be overshadowed by philanthropy and
political expediency. Specific mistakes
included a flawed developmental
philosophy, inadequate planning, transfer
of inappropriate technologies,
inappropriate channeling of donor funds,
neglect of the private sector and the
consequences, and a focus on hatcheries
and the poorest of the poor. On the up-
side, a fundamental knowledge base has
been established e.g. ponds, species and
integration; it is now recognized that profit
motivates activity; and it is also
recognized that there are resource
limitations for which appropriate plans
need to be made to overcome them. To
establish a self-sustaining sector requires
a change in philosophy, appropriate
strategies, careful participatory planning,
goal oriented donor participation, private
is the current practice of discharging
effluents from pond culture to natural
water bodies without any treatment. This
has led to the conclusion that traditional
pond fish culture with moderate intensity
and integration with other agricultural
activities is a sustainable aquaculture
system. Clearly, more widespread
application of the principles of Chinese
aquaculture practice elsewhere in the
world would help aquaculture to fulfill its
potential contribution to food security and
poverty alleviation.
There were two presentations on India,
the second largest aquaculture production
in the world : Role of Fish Consumption
in the Food Security of India by
Ramachandra Bhatta, M.M. Dey and F.
Parguas; and Contribution of
Aquaculture to Poverty Alleviation and
Food Security in India by M.C.
Nandeesha. According to Ramachandra,
the growth rate of fish production in India
is second only to eggs and is considered
to be one of the most promising sectors to
achieve food security. Their presentation
was based on a comprehensive survey of
food consumption of rural and urban fish
consumers in five Indian states known to
be prominent in inland fisheries (Haryana,
Karnataka, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal).
Fish contributed more to the welfare
of poor than better-off consumers. The
percentage of expenditure on fish relative
to total expenditure decreased with an
increase in income; furthermore, the
percentage contribution of fish protein to
total animal protein was relatively higher
among poorer than medium and rich
income classes. This indicates that higher
fish production would benefit the poor
more than the better off. Rural consumers
who mainly represented producer
consumers had an annual fish
consumption twice that of their urban
counterparts. Rohu was consumed the
most by all income classes in all states,
followed by catla, mrigal and marine fish.
The average annual consumption of fish
was about 15 kg / caput, two to three times
higher than previous estimates but ranged
from 5 for urban Karnataka to 30 kg/caput
for rural Haryana, the latter indicating the
impact of increased production and
accessibility of fish on consumption, and
greatly underdeveloped potential for
aquaculture in India.
Nandeesha pointed out that more than
half of the more than 1 billion people in
India are non-vegetarians. Although most
fish consumers live in the eastern part of
the country, demand for fish is increasing
throughout most of the country. However,
overall growth of aquaculture has been
slow compared to several other countries,
calling for a vigorous campaign if
aquaculture is to fulfill its potential.
In several parts of India, family fish
ponds are common with the majority of
farmers being poor and raising carps for
both household consumption and sale.
Although the national average for inland
fish production is only 2 tonnes/ha/year,
farmers have demonstrated the
commercial viability of carp farming with
yields of more than 15 tonnes / ha / year
in several areas where aquaculture has
been introduced. Nandeesha described the
development in Andhra Pradesh of a
system based largely on rohu, which has
the highest market demand in a previous
issue (Volume 6, No. 4, pp. 29-32, 2001).
Anabas, Channa, Clarias and
Heteropnustes are important cultured fish
in some areas. Tilapias are also widely
cultured and are increasing in popularity.
In Kolkata (Calcutta) tilapia is the most
sought after fish by both poor and rich
people. Culture of prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, has increased dramatically in
several states with small-scale and poor
farmers also involved. Contrary to the
perception that penaeid shrimp farming is
carried out largely by big business, more
than 90% of the area is farmed by small
farmers who mostly hold < 2 ha. Low
salinity and freshwater shrimp culture are
also widely practiced.
According to Nandeesha, there is a
need to employ a farming systems
approach to increase aquaculture
production with a change in extension
strategies to focus more on people than
on technologies. There is also a need to
evolve more farmer friendly technologies
that minimize risk to reap the full benefits
from aquaculture.
Shrimp Farming and
the Environment
Michael Phillips and Jesper Clausen, NACA
Development of coastal aquaculture, and
shrimp farming in particular, has
generated debate in recent years over the
social and environmental costs and
benefits. Rapid expansion of shrimp
farming in some countries in Asia has
focused attention on the need for effective
management strategies to improve
farming and to minimize environmental
complications. Such strategies are needed
to enhance the positive contributions that
shrimp farming and other forms of coastal
aquaculture can make to economic growth
and poverty alleviation in coastal areas,
while controlling negative environmental
and social impacts that may accompany
poorly planned and regulated
developments.
The Network of Aquaculture Centres
in Asia-Pacific (NACA) has been
involved in environmental aspects of
aquaculture for a long time and since
August 1999 been part of a Consortium
dedicated to the often discussed
relationship between shrimp farming and
the environment. The other partners
besides NACA are the World Bank (WB),
the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO).
So far the Consortium have supported
35 complementary case studies prepared
by more than 100 researchers in more than
20 shrimp farming countries. These cases
have been developed through consultation
with numerous stakeholders throughout
Asia, Africa and the Americas. Cases
range from specific interventions within
single operations to thematic reviews of
key issues in shrimp aquaculture. The
overall goal is to document and analyse
experience around the world in order to
better understand what works, what
doesnt and why. The reports are intended
for discussion with a range of
stakeholders, to ensure that the findings
from the Program have broad impact and
relevance.
Stakeholder Meeting in the
World Bank
As part of the process of consultation, the
World Bank hosted a small meeting for
relevant stakeholders at the World Bank
in Washington DC, end of March 2002.
The objectives of the meeting were:
To present the findings of the
Consortium program on Shrimp
Farming and the Environment for
review and discussion.
To discuss implementation of better
management practices identified
through the program case studies and
synthesis report.
To identify future activities to support
implementation, including
recommendations for further work by
the Consortium.
The meeting was attended by a broad
range of people from the sector and from
different regions were shrimp farming is
important namely from the industry,
governments, civil society/NGOs. This
created a rare opportunity for stakeholders
to interact and share experiences across
different levels in the marked chain and
across regions.
Initial discussions among stakeholders
focussed on a set of core Better
Management Principles (BMP) that could
be widely adopted throughout the shrimp
industry. There was a broad interest in
BMPs that could be used to improve the
sustainability of the industry from farmer
to consumer. The meeting also felt that
there should be a focus on key issues and
BMPs with potentially the most
significant benefit and that indicators and
a monitoring procedure for BMPs should
be developed. The meeting suggested that
activities that support the implementation
of BMPs in selected countries and provide
wider experiences for the consortium
program should be initiated. The countries
nominated by participants included
Bangladesh, Vietnam, Madagascar and
Brazil, however specific criteria for
selecting countries are still in
development, and other countries may
become involved as opportunities and
needs arise.
Another important task in ensuring a
healthy environment for shrimp
aquaculture was to undertake studies and
consultations to support development of
government, investor and purchaser
screens based around the core BMP
principles including:
Certification
Financial incentives for implementing
BMPs
Tax incentives to support BMP
implementation
Mechanisms to address key gaps in the
consortium program
The meeting made recommendations
on further work and studies within the
Consortium. These included:
Social dimensions of BMPs and small
scale producers, including poverty
affects of BMP implementation. These
studies should also consider socially
responsible issues and differentiation
between farmed and wild shrimp in
certification systems.
Economics of BMP implementation
and cost reduction studies, including
studies on reducing energy costs.
Inland shrimp farming.
BMPs and coastal polyculture
aquaculture systems.
Legislation examples of where is it
working, and minimal requirements to
support implementation of key BMPs.
Mangroves and options for restoration
of abandoned shrimp farm land. A
possible case study is being planned in
Thailand.
Chemicals and quality focus on anti-
microbials, including understanding of
background levels.
Genetics, immunology and
biodiversity. Implement a review on
major current and future issues.
Effluent water quality standards and
capacity to conduct effluent analyses.
Some of these recommendations have
already been implemented. A study on
inland shrimp farming supported by the
Consortium has started and work on
chemicals/antimicrobial issues is also
taking off.
Conclusions and Further
Work
One of the important outputs of the
consortium has been to bring together
experiences on management and
environmental measures from the eastern
and the western hemispheres. The
exchange of knowledge between
government representatives from the two
regions could turn out to be indeed very
productive.
Overall it can be said at the stakeholder
consultation there seems now to be a very
positive atmosphere and a broad interest
from producers, processors and NGOs in
working towards a more sustainable
shrimp farming industry.
The case studies from the consortium
and draft synthesis report are available for
free download from the NACA website
www.enaca.org
Regional seminar consultation and
exhibition
3-7 February 2003
Come to Manila!
Regional Consultation, 5-7
February 2003
You will have the opportunity to take an active part in
the deliberations of the Joint Sessions of the Seminar
and the Consultation. These deliberations will address
the role of governments and of international
organizations in providing support to accessing and
meeting requirements of markets for aquaculture
products. Share your experiences and views with other
participants, resource persons and observers on the
pertinent issues and policy approaches that could be
brought to bear on those issues. Decide on the action
proposals that would contribute towards an effective
integration of the aquaculture producers and exporters
into the global trading system through market
penetration and sustained competitiveness.
Exhibition, 3-5 February 2003
Participate in the Exhibition of new products and
services for progressive aquaculture. Attend the
exhibition/ information forums to be convened in the
afternoon, 3-5 February 2003, to provide an
opportunity for exhibitors to present their views on
the following themes:
Health
Processing and packaging
Production efficiency and product quality
Accessing markets
For more information contact:
Mr Malcolm Sarmiento
Director, BFAR
Quezon City, Philippines
Tel: (632) 373 7452
Fax: (632) 372 5048
Email: director@bfar.stream.ph.
Accessing and Meeting
Requirements of Markets for
Aquaculture Products
Regional Seminar, 3-5
February 2003
We invite you to a seminar of fish farmers, fishery
product traders, entrepreneurs, prospective investors,
suppliers, technical service support providers, industry
analysts, experts, advisers, technologists, researchers
and government policy makers from more than 25
countries from Asia- Pacific, Europe and North
America.
Interact with co- participants and with resource
persons from various UN specialized agencies and
other international organizations including ADB,
ESCAP, ICLARM, INFOFISH, FAO, IBRD, ITC,
OIE, UNCTAD, WHO, WTO and others. The topics:
Various issues and policy approaches relating to access
and competitiveness in markets for aquaculture
products and impacts of certain trade issues on poverty
and environment. Join the panel discussions on specific
marketing related issues on the following themes:
Product standards, safety and quality
Production and marketing efficiency
International trade agreements and national import
regulations
Tariff and non- tariff barriers to trade
Be a part of the search for strategies for action on
accessing markets and on meeting market
requirements.

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