Helicopter Aerodynamics
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Helicopter Aerodynamics
ON
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
BY
PRADEEP KUMAR DEY REG.NO:1001343085
MECHANICAL
YEAR : 201314
DEPARTMENT O! MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VIJAYANJALI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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ABSTRACT
Heicop!ers are !"e mos! #ersa!ie $%in& mac"ines in e'is!ence !o(a%. T"is #ersa!ii!%
&i#es !"e pio! compe!e access !o !"ree)(imensiona space in a wa% !"a! no airpane can
(*e !o aero(%namics. I$ %o* "a#e e#er $own in a "eicop!er %o* +now !"a! i!s a,ii!ies are
e'"iara!in&. T"e ama-in& $e'i,ii!% o$ "eicop!ers means !"a! !"e% can $% amos!
an%w"ere. Howe#er. i! aso means !"a! $%in& !"e mac"ines is compica!e(.
T"e /resen!a!ion wi pro#i(e an o#er#iew o$ Heicop!er Aero(%namics. 0e$ini!ions
o$ s!a!ic an( (%namic aero(%namic wi ,e &i#en. an( si')(e&ree)$ree(om sim*a!ions
wi ,e *se( !o (emons!ra!e !"e impac! o$ !"ese !erms 1an( *ncer!ain!ies in !"ese !erms2
on #ario*s proper!ies o$ !"e Air$ois. Ro!ar% 3in& /a!$orms. Rea!i#e 3in(. An&e o$
A!!ac+. To!a Aero(%namic Force. /ress*re /a!!erns. 0ra&. Cen!ri$*&a Force. Ro!a!iona
Veoci!ies. Ho#erin&. Gro*n( E$$ec!. Tor4*e. Transa!iona Li$!. Trans#erse Fow E$$ec!.
0iss%mme!r% o$ Li$!. Ba(e Fappin&. G%roscopic /recession. Re!rea!in& Ba(e S!a.
Se!!in& wi!" /ower. A*!oro!a!ion. So*rces o$ aero(%namic in$orma!ion wi ,e re#iewe(
an( e#a*a!e(
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H"#$%&'(") A")&*+,-.$%/
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INDE0
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S). NAME P-1" N&.
N&.
5. Comparin& 6o(es o$ Transpor!a!ion777777777...
8. Air$ois 777777777777777777777
9. Ro!or% 3in& /an$orms 77777777777777..
:. Rea!i#e 3in( 777777777777777777.
;. An&e o$ A!!ac+ 77777777777777777...
<. To!a Aero(%namic Force77777777777777
=. /ress*re /a!!erns 77777777777777777.
>. 0ra& 7777777777777777777777
?. Cen!ri$*&a Force 77777777777777777
5@. Ro!a!iona Veoci!ies 777777777777777..
55. Ho#erin& 77777777777777777777
58. Gro*n( E$$ec! 777777777777777777
59. Tor4*e 777777777777777777777
5:. Transa!iona Li$! 77777777777777777
5;. Trans#erse Fow E$$ec! 77777777777777..
5<. Ba(e Fappin&777777777777777777.
5=. G%roscopic /recession777777777777777.
5>. Re!rea!in& Ba(e S!a 777777777777777.
5?. A*!oro!a!ion7777777777777777777
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CO6/ARING 6O0ES OF TRANS/ORT
To *n(ers!an( "ow "eicop!ers wor+ an( aso w"% !"e% are so compica!e( !o $%. i! is
"ep$* !o compare !"e a,ii!ies o$ a "eicop!er wi!" !"ose o$ !rains. cars an( airpanes. B%
oo+in& a! !"ese (i$$eren! mo(es o$ !ranspor!a!ion. %o* can come !o *n(ers!an( w"%
"eicop!ers are so #ersa!ieA
I$ %o* "a#e e#er ,een insi(e o$ !"e ca, o$ a ocomo!i#e. %o* +now !"a! !rains are $air%
simpe !o (ri#e. A$!er a. !"ere are on% !wo (irec!ions !"a! a !rain can !ra#e in )) $orwar(
an( re#erse. is a ,ra+e !o s!op !"e !rainBs !ra#e in ei!"er T"ere (irec!ion. ,*! !"ere is no
s!eerin& mec"anism o$ an% +in( on a !rain. T"e !rac+s !a+e !"e !rain w"ere i! nee(s !o &o.
Beca*se a !rain "as on% !wo (irec!ions in w"ic" i! can !ra#e. %o* can (ri#e a !rain wi!"
one "an(.
A car. o$ co*rse. can &o $orwar( an( ,ac+war( i+e a !rain. 3"ie %o* are !ra#ein& in
ei!"er (irec!ion %o* can aso !*rn e$! or ri&"!C
To "an(e !"e s!eerin&. a car *ses a s!eerin& w"ee !"a! !"e (ri#er can !*rn coc+wise or
co*n!ercoc+wise. I! is possi,e !o (ri#e a car wi!" one "an( an( one $oo!.
An%one w"o "as !a+en pio! essons or oo+e( insi(e !"e coc+pi! w"ie ,oar(in& a D*m,o
De! +nows !"a! panes are a o! more
compica!e( !o $% !"an a car is !o (ri#e.
Howe#er. a pane is rea% on% one s!ep
awa% $rom a carC
A pane can mo#e $orwar( an( !*rn e$!
or ri&"!. I! aso a((s !"e a,ii!% !o &o *p
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an( (own. Howe#er. i! oses !"e a,ii!% !o re#erse. So a pane can mo#e in $i#e (i$$eren!
(irec!ions ins!ea( o$ a carBs $o*r (irec!ions. T"e a,ii!% !o &o *p an( (own a((s a w"oe
new (imension !o a pane. an( !"is (imension is one o$ !"e !"in&s !"a! ma+es airpanes
(i$$eren! $rom a car. To con!ro !"e *pwar( an( (ownwar( mo!ion o$ !"e pane. ei!"er a
Do%s!ic+ repaces !"e s!eerin& w"ee or !"e s!eerin& w"ee &ains !"e a,ii!% !o mo#e in an(
o*! 1in a((i!ion !o !*rnin& coc+wise an( co*n!ercoc+wise2. In mos! panes 1,*! no! a2.
!"e pio! aso "as access !o !wo pe(as !o con!ro !"e r*((er. T"ere$ore. a pio! co*( $% a
pane wi!" one "an( an( !wo $ee!.
A "eicop!er can (o !"ree !"in&s !"a! an airpane canno!C
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AIRFOILS
A "eicop!er $ies $or !"e same ,asic reason !"a! an% con#en!iona aircra$! $ies. ,eca*se
aero(%namic $orces necessar% !o +eep i! ao$! are pro(*ce( w"en air passes a,o*! !"e
ro!or ,a(es. T"e ro!or ,a(e. or air$oi. is !"e s!r*c!*re !"a! ma+es $i&"! possi,e. I!s
s"ape pro(*ces i$! w"en i! passes !"ro*&" !"e air. Heicop!er ,a(es "a#e air$oi sec!ions
(esi&ne( $or a speci$ic se! o$ $i&"! c"arac!eris!ics. Us*a% !"e (esi&ner m*s! compromise
!o o,!ain an air$oi sec!ion !"a! "as !"e ,es! $i&"! c"arac!eris!ics $or !"e mission !"e
aircra$! wi per$orm.
Air$oi sec!ions are o$ !wo ,asic !%pes. symmetrical an( nonsymmetrical. S%mme!rica
air$ois "a#e i(en!ica *pper an( ower s*r$aces. T"e% are s*i!e( !o ro!ar%)win&
appica!ions ,eca*se !"e% "a#e amos! no cen!er o$ press*re !ra#e. Tra#e remains
rea!i#e% cons!an! *n(er #ar%in& an&es o$ a!!ac+. a$$or(in& !"e ,es! i$!)(ra& ra!ios $or
!"e $* ran&e o$ #eoci!ies $rom ro!or ,a(e roo! !o !ip. Howe#er. !"e s%mme!rica air$oi
pro(*ces ess i$! !"an a nons%mme!rica air$oi an( aso "as rea!i#e% *n(esira,e s!a
c"arac!eris!ics. T"e "eicop!er ,a(e m*s! a(ap! !o a wi(e ran&e o$ airspee(s an( an&es
o$ a!!ac+ (*rin& eac" re#o*!ion o$ !"e ro!or. T"e s%mme!rica air$oi (ei#ers accep!a,e
per$ormance *n(er !"ose a!erna!in& con(i!ions. O!"er ,ene$i!s are ower cos! an( ease o$
cons!r*c!ion as compare( !o !"e nons%mme!rica air$oi.
Nons%mme!rica 1cam,ere(2 air$ois ma% "a#e a wi(e #arie!% o$ *pper an( ower s*r$ace
(esi&ns. T"e% are c*rren!% *se( on some CH):= an( a OH);> Arm% "eicop!ers. an(
are increasin&% ,ein& *se( on new% (esi&ne( aircra$!. A(#an!a&es o$ !"e
nons%mme!rica air$oi are increase( i$!)(ra& ra!ios an( more (esira,e s!a
c"arac!eris!ics. Nons%mme!rica air$ois were no! *se( in earier "eicop!ers ,eca*se !"e
cen!er o$ press*re oca!ion mo#e( !oo m*c" w"en an&e o$ a!!ac+ was c"an&e(. 3"en
cen!er o$ press*re mo#es. a !wis!in& $orce is e'er!e( on !"e ro!or ,a(es. Ro!or s%s!em
componen!s "a( !o ,e (esi&ne( !"a! wo*( wi!"s!an( !"e !wis!in& $orce. Recen! (esi&n
processes an( new ma!erias *se( !o man*$ac!*re ro!or s%s!ems "a#e par!ia% o#ercome
!"e pro,ems associa!e( wi!" *se o$ nons%mme!rica air$ois.
AIRFOIL SECTIONS
Ro!ar%)win& air$ois opera!e *n(er (i#erse con(i!ions. ,eca*se !"eir spee(s are a
com,ina!ion o$ ,a(e ro!a!ion an( $orwar( mo#emen! o$ !"e "eicop!er. An in!ei&en!
(isc*ssion o$ !"e $ac!ors a$$ec!in& !"e ma&ni!*(e o$ ro!or ,a(e i$! an( (ra& re4*ires a
+nowe(&e o$ ,a(e sec!ion &eome!r%. Ba(es are (esi&ne( wi!" speci$ic &eome!r% !"a!
a(ap!s !"em !o !"e #ar%in& con(i!ions o$ $i&"!. Cross)sec!ion s"apes o$ mos! ro!or ,a(es
are no! !"e same !"ro*&"o*! !"e span. S"apes are #arie( aon& !"e ,a(e ra(i*s !o !a+e
a(#an!a&e o$ !"e par!ic*ar airspee( ran&e e'perience( a! eac" poin! on !"e ,a(e. an( !o
"ep ,aance !"e oa( ,e!ween !"e roo! an( !ip. T"e ,a(e ma% ,e ,*i! wi!" a !wis!. so an
air$oi sec!ion near !"e roo! "as a ar&er pi!c" an&e !"an a sec!ion near !"e !ip.
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T"e chord line is a s!rai&"! ine connec!in& !"e ea(in& an( !raiin& e(&es o$ !"e
air$oi.
T"e chord is !"e en&!" o$ !"e c"or( ine $rom ea(in& e(&e !o !raiin& e(&e an( is
!"e c"arac!eris!ic on&i!*(ina (imension o$ !"e air$oi.
T"e mean camber line is a ine (rawn "a$wa% ,e!ween !"e *pper an( ower
s*r$aces. T"e c"or( ine connec!s !"e en(s o$ !"e mean cam,er ine.
T"e s"ape o$ !"e mean cam,er is impor!an! in (e!erminin& !"e aero(%namic
c"arac!eris!ics o$ an air$oi sec!ion. Maximum camber 1(ispacemen! o$ !"e mean
cam,er ine $rom !"e c"or( ine2 an( !"e oca!ion o$ ma'im*m cam,er "ep !o
(e$ine !"e s"ape o$ !"e mean cam,er ine. T"ese 4*an!i!ies are e'presse( as
$rac!ions or percen!a&es o$ !"e ,asic c"or( (imension.
T"ic+ness an( !"ic+ness (is!ri,*!ion o$ !"e pro$ie are impor!an! proper!ies o$ an
air$oi sec!ion. T"e maximum thickness an( i!s location "ep (e$ine !"e air$oi
s"ape an( are e'presse( as a percen!a&e o$ !"e c"or(.
T"e leading edge radius o$ !"e air$oi is !"e ra(i*s o$ c*r#a!*re &i#en !"e ea(in&
e(&e s"ape.
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ROTARY 3ING /LATFOR6
Common !erms *se( !o (escri,e !"e "eicop!er ro!or s%s!em are s"own "ere. A!"o*&"
!"ere is some #aria!ion in s%s!ems ,e!ween (i$$eren! aircra$!. !"e !erms s"own are
&enera% accep!e( ,% mos! man*$ac!*rers. T"e s%s!em s"own "ere is $*% ar!ic*a!e(C
Semiri&i( !%pes (o no! "a#e a #er!ica or "ori-on!a "in&e pin. Ins!ea(. !"e ro!or is
aowe( !o !ee!er or $ap ,% a !r*nnion ,earin& !"a! connec!s !"e %o+e !o !"e mas!C
T"e chordis !"e on&i!*(ina (imension o$ an air$oi sec!ion. meas*re( $rom !"e
ea(in& e(&e !o !"e !raiin& e(&e.
T"e span is !"e en&!" o$ !"e ro!or ,a(e $rom !"e poin! o$ ro!a!ion !o !"e !ip o$ !"e
,a(e.
T"e vertical hinge pin 1(ra& "in&e2 is !"e a'is w"ic" permi!s $ore an( a$! ,a(e
mo#emen! in(epen(en! o$ !"e o!"er ,a(es in !"e s%s!em.
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T"e horizontal hinge pin is !"e a'is w"ic" permi!s *p an( (own mo#emen! o$ !"e
,a(e in(epen(en! o$ !"e o!"er ,a(es in !"e s%s!em.
T"e trunnion is spine( !o !"e mas! an( "as !wo ,earin&s !"ro*&" w"ic" i! is
sec*re( !o !"e %o+e. T"e ,a(es are mo*n!e( !o !"e %o+e an( are $ree !o !ee!er
1$ap2 aro*n( !"e !r*nnion ,earin&s.
T"e yoke is !"e s!r*c!*ra mem,er !o w"ic" !"e ,a(es are a!!ac"e( an( w"ic"
$as!ens !"e ro!or ,a(es !o !"e mas! !"ro*&" !"e !r*nnion an( !r*nnion ,earin&s.
T"e blade grip retainer bearing is !"e ,earin& w"ic" permi!s ro!a!ion o$ !"e ,a(e
a,o*! i!s spanwise a'is so ,a(e pi!c" can ,e c"an&e( 1,a(e $ea!"erin&2
Blade Twist is a c"arac!eris!ic ,*i! in!o !"e ro!or ,a(e so an&e o$ inci(ence is
ess near !"e !ip !"an a! !"e roo!. Ba(e !wis! "eps (is!ri,*!e !"e i$! e#en% aon&
!"e ,a(e ,% an increase( an&e o$ inci(ence near !"e roo! w"ere ,a(e spee( is
sower. O*!,oar( por!ions o$ !"e ,a(e !"a! !ra#e $as!er norma% "a#e ower
an&es o$ inci(ence. so ess i$! is concen!ra!e( near !"e ,a(e !ip.
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RELATIVE 3IN0
A +nowe(&e o$ rea!i#e win( is par!ic*ar% essen!ia $or an *n(ers!an(in& o$
aero(%namics o$ ro!ar%)win& $i&"! ,eca*se rea!i#e win( ma% ,e compose( o$ m*!ipe
componen!s. Rea!i#e win( is (e$ine( as !"e air$ow rea!i#e !o an air$oiC
Rea!i
#e win( is crea!e( ,% mo#emen! o$ an air$oi !"ro*&" !"e air. As an e'ampe. consi(er a
person si!!in& in an a*!omo,ie on a no)win( (a% wi!" a "an( e'!en(e( o*! !"e win(ow.
T"ere is no air$ow a,o*! !"e "an( since !"e a*!omo,ie is no! mo#in&. Howe#er. i$ !"e
a*!omo,ie is (ri#en a! ;@ mies per "o*r. !"e air wi $ow *n(er an( o#er !"e "an( a! ;@
mies per "o*r. A rea!i#e win( "as ,een crea!e( ,% mo#in& !"e "an( !"ro*&" !"e air.
Rea!i#e win( $ows in !"e opposi!e (irec!ion !"a! !"e "an( is mo#in&. T"e #eoci!% o$
air$ow aro*n( !"e "an( in mo!ion is !"e "an(Bs airspee(. 3"en !"e "eicop!er is
s!a!ionar% on a no)win( (a%. rotational relative wind is pro(*ce( ,% ro!a!ion o$ !"e ro!or
,a(es. Since !"e ro!or is mo#in& "ori-on!a%. !"e e$$ec! is !o (ispace some o$ !"e air
(ownwar(. T"e ,a(es !ra#e aon& !"e same pa!" an( pass a &i#en poin! in rapi(
s*ccession 1a !"ree),a(e( s%s!em ro!a!in& a! 98@ re#o*!ions per min*!e passes a &i#en
poin! in !"e !ip)pa!" pane 5< !imes per secon(2.
T"is $i&*re i*s!ra!es "ow s!i air is c"an&e( !o a co*mn o$ (escen(in& air ,% ro!or
,a(e ac!ionC
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T"is $ow o$ air is cae( an induced flow 1(ownwas"2. I! is mos! pre(ominan! a! a "o#er
*n(er s!i win( con(i!ions. Beca*se !"e ro!or s%s!em circ*a!es !"e air$ow (own !"ro*&"
!"e ro!or (is+. !"e ro!a!iona rea!i#e win( is mo(i$ie( ,% !"e in(*ce( $ow. Air$ow $rom
ro!a!ion. mo(i$ie( ,% in(*ce( $ow. pro(*ces !"e resultant relative wind. In !"is
i*s!ra!ion. an&e o$ a!!ac+ is re(*ce( ,% in(*ce( $ow. ca*sin& !"e air$oi !o pro(*ce ess
i$!C
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3"en !"e "eicop!er "as "ori-on!a mo!ion. !"e res*!an! rea!i#e win( (isc*sse( a,o#e is
$*r!"er c"an&e( ,% !"e "eicop!er airspee(. Airspee( componen! o$ rea!i#e win( res*!s
$rom !"e "eicop!er mo#in& !"ro*&" !"e air. I! is a((e( !o or s*,!rac!e( $rom !"e ro!a!iona
rea!i#e win(. (epen(in& on w"e!"er !"e ,a(e is a(#ancin& or re!rea!in& in rea!ion !o !"e
"eicop!er mo#emen!. In(*ce( $ow is aso mo(i$ie( ,% in!ro(*c!ion o$ airspee( rea!i#e
win(. T"e pa!!ern o$ air circ*a!ion !"ro*&" !"e (is+ c"an&es w"en !"e aircra$! "as
mo#emen!. Genera% !"e (ownwar( #eoci!% o$ in(*ce( $ow is re(*ce(. T"e "eicop!er
mo#es con!in*a% in!o an *n(is!*r,e( airmass. res*!in& in ess !ime !o (e#eop a #er!ica
air$ow pa!!ern. As a res*!. a((i!iona i$! is pro(*ce( $rom a &i#en ,a(e pi!c" se!!in&.
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ANGLE OF ATTACE
An&e o$ a!!ac+ is an aerodynamic angle an( is i*s!ra!e( "ereC
I! is (e$ine( as !"e an&e ,e!ween !"e air$oi c"or( an( i!s (irec!ion o$ mo!ion rea!i#e !o
!"e air 1res*!an! rea!i#e win(2. Se#era $ac!ors ma% ca*se ro!or ,a(e an&e o$ a!!ac+ !o
c"an&e. Some are con!roe( ,% !"e pio! an( some occ*r a*!oma!ica% (*e !o !"e ro!or
s%s!em (esi&n. /io!s are a,e !o a(D*s! an&e o$ a!!ac+ ,% mo#in& !"e c%cic an(
coec!i#e pi!c" con!ros. Howe#er. e#en w"en !"ese con!ros are "e( s!a!ionar%. !"e
an&e o$ a!!ac+ cons!an!% c"an&es as !"e ,a(e mo#es aro*n( !"e circ*m$erence o$ !"e
ro!or (is+. O!"er $ac!ors a$$ec!in& an&e o$ a!!ac+. o#er w"ic" !"e pio! "as i!!e con!ro.
are ,a(e $appin&. ,a(e $e'in&. an( &*s!% win( or !*r,*en! air con(i!ions. An&e o$
a!!ac+ is one o$ !"e primar% $ac!ors !"a! (e!ermines amo*n! o$ i$! an( (ra& pro(*ce( ,%
an air$oi.
ANGLE OF INCI0ENCE
An&e o$ a!!ac+ s"o*( no! ,e con$*se( wi!" an&e o$ inci(ence 1,a(e pi!c" an&e2. An&e
o$ inci(ence is !"e an&e ,e!ween !"e ,a(e c"or( ine an( !"e pane o$ ro!a!ion o$ !"e
ro!or s%s!em. I! is a mechanical angle ra!"er !"an an aerodynamic angleC
In !"e a,sence o$ in(*ce( $ow an(For aircra$! airspee(. an&e o$ a!!ac+ an( an&e o$
inci(ence are !"e same. 3"ene#er rea!i#e win( is mo(i$ie( ,% in(*ce( $ow or aircra$!
airspee(. !"en an&e o$ a!!ac+ is (i$$eren! !"an an&e o$ inci(ence.
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TOTAL AERO0YNA6IC FORCE
A !o!a aero(%namic $orce is &enera!e( w"en a s!ream o$ air $ows o#er an( *n(er an
air$oi !"a! is mo#in& !"ro*&" !"e air. T"e poin! a! w"ic" !"e air separa!es !o $ow a,o*!
!"e air$oi is cae( !"e poin! o$ impac!C
A "i&" press*re area or s!a&na!ion poin! is $orme( a! !"e poin! o$ impac!. Norma% !"e
"i&" press*re area is oca!e( a! !"e ower por!ion o$ !"e ea(in& e(&e. (epen(in& on an&e
o$ a!!ac+. T"is "i&" press*re area con!ri,*!es !o !"e o#era $orce pro(*ce( ,% !"e ,a(e.
T"is pic!*re aso s"ows air$ow ines !"a! i*s!ra!e "ow !"e air mo#es a,o*! !"e air$oi
sec!ion. No!ice !"a! !"e air is (e$ec!e( (ownwar( as i! passes *n(er !"e air$oi an( ea#es
!"e !raiin& e(&e. Remem,er New!onBs !"ir( aw w"ic" s!a!es Ge#er% ac!ion "as an e4*a
an( opposi!e reac!ion.G Since !"e air is ,ein& (e$ec!e( (ownwar(. an e4*a an( opposi!e
$orce m*s! ,e ac!in& *pwar( on !"e air$oi. T"is $orce a((s !o !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce
(e#eope( ,% !"e air$oi. A! #er% ow or -ero an&es o$ a!!ac+. !"e (e$ec!ion $orce or
impac! press*re ma% e'er! a -ero posi!i#e $orce. or e#en a (ownwar( or ne&a!i#e $orce.
Air passin& o#er !"e !op o$ !"e air$oi pro(*ces aero(%namic $orce in ano!"er wa%. T"e
s"ape o$ !"e air$oi ca*ses a ow press*re area a,o#e !"e air$oi accor(in& !o Berno*iBs
/rincipe. an( !"e (ecrease in press*re on !op o$ !"e air$oi e'er!s an *pwar( aero(%namic
$orce. /ress*re (i$$eren!ia ,e!ween !"e *pper an( ower s*r$ace o$ !"e air$oi is 4*i!e
sma ) in !"e #icini!% o$ 5 percen!. E#en a sma press*re (i$$eren!ia pro(*ces s*,s!an!ia
$orce w"en appie( !o !"e ar&e area o$ a ro!or ,a(e.
T"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce. some!imes cae( !"e res*!an! $orce. ma% ,e (i#i(e( in!o
!wo componen!s cae( i$! an( (ra&. Lift ac!s on !"e air$oi in a (irec!ion perpen(ic*ar !o
!"e rea!i#e win(. Drag is !"e resis!ance or $orce !"a! opposes !"e mo!ion o$ !"e air$oi
!"ro*&" !"e air. I! ac!s on !"e air$oi in a (irec!ion parae !o !"e rea!i#e win(C
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6an% $ac!ors con!ri,*!e !o !"e !o!a i$! pro(*ce( ,% an air$oi. Increase( spee( ca*ses
increase( i$! ,eca*se a ar&er press*re (i$$eren!ia is pro(*ce( ,e!ween !"e *pper an(
ower s*r$aces. Li$! (oes no! increase in (irec! propor!ion !o spee(. ,*! #aries as !"e
s4*are o$ !"e spee(. T"*s. a ,a(e !ra#ein& a! ;@@ +no!s "as $o*r !imes !"e i$! o$ !"e
same ,a(e !ra#ein& a! on% 8;@ +no!s. Li$! aso #aries wi!" !"e area o$ !"e ,a(e. A ,a(e
area o$ 5@@ s4*are $ee! wi pro(*ce !wice as m*c" i$! as a ,a(e area o$ on% ;@ s4*are
$ee!. An&e o$ a!!ac+ aso "as an e$$ec! on !"e i$! pro(*ce(. Li$! increases as !"e an&e o$
a!!ac+ increases *p !o !"e s!ain& an&e o$ a!!ac+. S!a an&e #aries wi!" (i$$eren! ,a(es
an( is !"e poin! a! w"ic" air$ow no on&er $oows !"e cam,er o$ !"e ,a(e smoo!"%. Air
(ensi!% is ano!"er $ac!or !"a! (irec!% in$*ences i$!.
Two (esi&n $ac!ors. airfoil shape an( airfoil area are primar% eemen!s !"a! (e!ermine
"ow m*c" i$! an( (ra& a ,a(e wi pro(*ce. An% c"an&e in !"ese (esi&n $ac!ors wi
a$$ec! !"e $orces pro(*ce(.
Norma% an increase in i$! wi aso pro(*ce an increase in (ra&. T"ere$ore. !"e air$oi is
(esi&ne( !o pro(*ce !"e mos! i$! an( !"e eas! (ra& wi!"in norma spee( ran&es.
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/RESSURE /ATTERNS
0is!ri,*!ion o$ press*re o#er an air$oi sec!ion ma% ,e a so*rce o$ an aero(%namic
!wis!in& $orce as we as i$!. A !%pica e'ampe is i*s!ra!e( ,% !"e press*re (is!ri,*!ion
pa!!ern (e#eope( ,% !"is cam,ere( 1nons%mme!rica2 air$oiC
T"e *pper s*r$ace "as press*res (is!ri,*!e( w"ic" pro(*ce !"e *pper s*r$ace i$!. T"e
ower s*r$ace "as press*res (is!ri,*!e( w"ic" pro(*ce !"e ower s*r$ace $orce. Ne! i$!
pro(*ce( ,% !"e air$oi is !"e (i$$erence ,e!ween i$! on !"e *pper s*r$ace an( !"e $orce on
!"e ower s*r$ace. Ne! i$! is e$$ec!i#e% concen!ra!e( a! a poin! on !"e c"or( cae( !"e
center of pressure
3"en an&e o$ a!!ac+ is increase(C
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*pper s*r$ace i$! increases rea!i#e !o !"e ower s*r$ace $orce. Since !"e !wo #ec!ors are
no! oca!e( a! !"e same poin! aon& !"e c"or( ine. a !wis!in& $orce is e'er!e( a,o*! !"e
cen!er o$ press*re. Cen!er o$ press*re aso mo#es aon& !"e c"or( ine w"en an&e o$
a!!ac+ c"an&es. ,eca*se !"e !wo #ec!ors are separa!e(. T"is c"arac!eris!ic o$
nons%mme!rica air$ois res*!s in *n(esira,e con!ro $orces !"a! m*s! ,e compensa!e(
$or i$ !"e air$oi is *se( in ro!ar% win& appica!ions.
/ress*re pa!!erns $or s%mme!rica air$ois are (is!ri,*!e( (i$$eren!% !"an $or
nons%mme!rica air$oisC
Upper s*r$ace i$! an( ower s*r$ace i$! #ec!ors are opposi!e eac" o!"er ins!ea( o$ ,ein&
separa!e( aon& !"e c"or( ine as in !"e cam,ere( air$oi.
3"en !"e an&e o$ a!!ac+ is increase( !o (e#eop posi!i#e i$!. !"e #ec!ors remain
essen!ia% opposi!e eac" o!"er an( !"e !wis!in& $orce is no! e'er!e(. Cen!er o$ press*re
remains rea!i#e% cons!an! e#en w"en an&e o$ a!!ac+ is c"an&e(. T"is is a (esira,e
c"arac!eris!ic $or a ro!or ,a(e. ,eca*se i! c"an&es an&e o$ a!!ac+ cons!an!% (*rin& eac"
re#o*!ion.
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DRAG
0ra& is !"e $orce !"a! opposes !"e mo!ion o$ an aircra$! !"ro*&" !"e air. Total drag
pro(*ce( ,% an aircra$! is !"e s*m o$ !"e profile (ra&. induced (ra&. an( parasite(ra&.
To!a (ra& is primari% a $*nc!ion o$ airspee(. T"e airspee( !"a! pro(*ces !"e owes! !o!a
(ra& norma% (e!ermines !"e aircra$! ,es!)ra!e)o$)cim, spee(. minim*m ra!e)o$)(escen!
spee( $or a*!oro!a!ion. an( ma'im*m en(*rance spee(.
T"e $oowin& pic!*re i*s!ra!es !"e (i$$eren! $orms o$ (ra& #ers*s airspee(C
Profile drag is !"e (ra& inc*rre( $rom $ric!iona resis!ance o$ !"e ,a(es passin&
!"ro*&" !"e air. I! (oes no! c"an&e si&ni$ican!% wi!" an&e o$ a!!ac+ o$ !"e air$oi
sec!ion. ,*! increases mo(era!e% as airspee( increases.
nduced drag is !"e (ra& inc*rre( as a res*! o$ pro(*c!ion o$ i$!. Hi&"er an&es o$
a!!ac+ w"ic" pro(*ce more i$! aso pro(*ce increase( in(*ce( (ra&. In ro!ar%)
win& aircra$!. in(*ce( (ra& (ecreases wi!" increase( aircra$! airspee(. T"e
in(*ce( (ra& is !"e por!ion o$ !"e total aerodynamic force w"ic" is orien!e( in !"e
(irec!ion opposin& !"e mo#emen! o$ !"e air$oi. T"in+ o$ i! as i$! w"ic" is in !"e
wrong direction.
Parasite drag is !"e (ra& inc*rre( $rom !"e noni$!in& por!ions o$ !"e aircra$!. I!
inc*(es !"e $orm (ra& an( s+in $ric!ion associa!e( wi!" !"e $*sea&e. coc+pi!.
en&ine cowin&s. ro!or "*,. an(in& &ear. an( !ai ,oom !o men!ion a $ew. /arasi!e
(ra& increases wi!" airspee(.
C*r#e GAG s"ows !"a! parasi!e (ra& is #er% ow a! sow airspee(s an( increases wi!"
"i&"er airspee(s. /arasi!e (ra& &oes *p a! an increasin& ra!e a! airspee(s a,o#e !"e
mi(ran&e.
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C*r#e GBG s"ows "ow in(*ce( (ra& (ecreases as aircra$! airspee( increases. A! a "o#er.
or a! ower airspee(s. in(*ce( (ra& is "i&"es!. I! (ecreases as airspee( increases an( !"e
"eicop!er mo#es in!o *n(is!*r,e( air.
C*r#e GCG s"ows !"e pro$ie (ra& c*r#e. /ro$ie (ra& remains rea!i#e% cons!an!
!"ro*&"o*! !"e spee( ran&e wi!" some increase a! !"e "i&"er airspee(s.
C*r#e G0G s"ows !o!a (ra& an( represen!s !"e s*m o$ !"e o!"er !"ree c*r#es. I! i(en!i$ies
!"e airspee( ran&e. ine GEG. a! w"ic" !o!a (ra& is owes!. T"a! airspee( is !"e ,es!
airspee( $or ma'im*m en(*rance. ,es! ra!e o$ cim,. an( minim*m ra!e o$ (escen! in
a*!oro!a!ion.
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CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Heicop!er ro!or s%s!ems (epen( primari% on ro!a!ion !o pro(*ce rea!i#e win( w"ic"
(e#eops !"e aero(%namic $orce re4*ire( $or $i&"!. Beca*se o$ i!s ro!a!ion an( wei&"!.
!"e ro!or s%s!em is s*,Dec! !o $orces an( momen!s pec*iar !o a ro!a!in& masses. One o$
!"e $orces pro(*ce( is centrifugal force. I! is (e$ine( as !"e $orce !"a! !en(s !o ma+e
ro!a!in& ,o(ies mo#e awa% $rom !"e cen!er o$ ro!a!ion. Ano!"er $orce pro(*ce( in !"e
ro!or s%s!em is centripetal force. I! is !"e $orce !"a! co*n!erac!s cen!ri$*&a $orce ,%
+eepin& an o,Dec! a cer!ain ra(i*s $rom !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion.
T"e ro!a!in& ,a(es o$ a "eicop!er pro(*ce #er% "i&" cen!ri$*&a oa(s on !"e ro!or "ea(
an( ,a(e a!!ac"emen! assem,ies. As a ma!!er o$ in!eres!. cen!ri$*&a oa(s ma% ,e $rom
< !o 58 !ons a! !"e ,a(e roo! o$ !wo !o $o*r passen&er "eicop!ers. Lar&er "eicop!ers ma%
(e#eop *p !o :@ !ons o$ cen!ri$*&a oa( on eac" ,a(e roo!. In ro!ar%)win& aircra$!.
cen!ri$*&a $orce is !"e (ominan! $orce a$$ec!in& !"e ro!or s%s!em. A o!"er $orces ac! !o
mo(i$% !"is $orce.
3"en !"e ro!or ,a(es are a! res!. !"e% (roop (*e !o !"eir wei&"! an( span. In $*%
ar!ic*a!e( s%s!ems. !"e% res! a&ains! a s!a!ic or (roop s!op w"ic" pre#en!s !"e ,a(e $rom
(escen(in& so ow i! wi s!ri+e !"e aircra$! 1or &ro*n(A2. 3"en !"e ro!or s%s!em ,e&ins !o
!*rn. !"e ,a(e s!ar!s !o rise $rom !"e s!a!ic posi!ion ,eca*se o$ !"e cen!ri$*&a $orce. A!
opera!in& spee(. !"e ,a(es e'!en( s!rai&"! o*! e#en !"o*&" !"e% are a! $a! pi!c" an( are
no! pro(*cin& i$!.
As !"e "eicop!er (e#eops i$! (*rin& !a+eo$$ an( $i&"!. !"e ,a(es rise a,o#e !"e
Gs!rai&"! o*!G posi!ion an( ass*me a coned posi!ion. Amo*n! o$ conin& (epen(s on R/6.
&ross wei&"!. an( G)Forces e'perience( (*rin& $i&"!. I$ R/6 is "e( cons!an!. conin&
increases as &ross wei&"! an( G)$orce increase. I$ &ross wei&"! an( G)$orces are cons!an!.
(ecreasin& R/6 wi ca*se increase( conin&. E'cessi#e conin& can occ*r i$ R/6 &e!s
!oo ow. &ross wei&"! is !oo "i&". or i$ e'cessi#e G)$orces are e'perience(. E'cessi#e
conin& can ca*se *n(esira,e s!resses on !"e ,a(e an( a (ecrease o$ !o!a i$! ,eca*se o$ a
(ecrease in e$$ec!i#e (is+ areaC
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No!ice !"a! !"e e$$ec!i#e (iame!er o$ !"e ro!or (is+ wi!" increase( conin& is ess !"an !"e
(iame!er o$ !"e o!"er (is+ wi!" ess conin&. A smaer (is+ (iame!er "as ess po!en!ia !o
pro(*ce i$!.
Cen!ri$*&a $orce an( i$! e$$ec!s on !"e ,a(e can ,e i*s!ra!e( ,es! ,% a #ec!or. Firs! oo+
a! a ro!or s"a$! an( ,a(e D*s! ro!a!in&C
Now oo+ a! !"e same ro!or s"a$! an( ,a(e w"en a #er!ica $orce is p*s"in& *p on !"e !ip
o$ !"e ,a(eC
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T"e #er!ica $orce is i$! pro(*ce( w"en !"e ,a(es ass*me a posi!i#e an&e o$ a!!ac+. T"e
"ori-on!a $orce is ca*se( ,% !"e cen!ri$*&a $orce (*e !o ro!a!ion. Since one en( o$ !"e
,a(e is a!!ac"e( !o !"e ro!or s"a$!. i! is no! $ree !o mo#e. T"e o!"er en( can mo#e an( wi
ass*me a posi!ion !"a! is !"e res*!an! o$ !"e $orces ac!in& on i!C
T"e ,a(e posi!ion is cone( an( is a res*!an! o$ !"e !wo $orces. i$! an( cen!ri$*&a $orce.
ac!in& on i!.
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ROTATIONAL VELOCITIES
0*rin& "o#erin&. air$ow o#er !"e ro!or ,a(es is pro(*ce( ,% ro!a!ion o$ !"e ro!or
s%s!em. Here is a pic!*re s"owin& a !%pica "eicop!er ro!or s%s!emC
Ba(e spee( near !"e main ro!or s"a$! is m*c" ess ,eca*se !"e (is!ance !ra#ee( a! !"e
smaer ra(i*s is rea!i#e% sma. A! poin! GAG. "a$ wa% $rom !"e ro!or s"a$! !o !"e ,a(e
!ip. !"e ,a(e spee( is on% TBS +no!s w"ic" is one)"a$ !"e !ip spee(. Spee( a! an% poin!
on !"e ,a(es #aries wi!" !"e ra(i*s or (is!ance $rom !"e cen!er o$ !"e main ro!or s"a$!. An
e'!reme airspee( (i$$eren!ia ,e!ween !"e ,a(e !ip an( roo! is !"e res*!. T"e i$!
(i$$eren!ia ,e!ween !"e ,a(e roo! an( !ip is e#en ar&er ,eca*se i$! #aries as !"e s4*are
o$ !"e spee(. T"ere$ore. w"en spee( is (o*,e(. i$! is increase( $o*r !imes. T"is means
!"a! !"e i$! a! poin! GAG wo*( ,e on% one)$o*r!" as m*c" as i$! a! !"e ,a(e !ip
1ass*min& !"e air$oi s"ape an( an&e o$ a!!ac+ are !"e same a! ,o!" poin!s2.
Beca*se o$ !"e po!en!ia i$! (i$$eren!ia aon& !"e ,a(e res*!in& primari% $rom spee(
#aria!ion. ,a(es are (esi&ne( wi!" a !wis!. Ba(e !wis! pro#i(es a "i&"er pi!c" an&e a!
!"e roo! w"ere spee( is ow an( ower pi!c" an&es nearer !"e !ip w"ere spee( is "i&"er.
T"is (esi&n "eps (is!ri,*!e !"e i$! more e#en% aon& !"e ,a(e. I! increases ,o!" !"e
in(*ce( air #eoci!% an( !"e ,a(e oa(in& near !"e in,oar( sec!ion o$ !"e ,a(e.
T"is pic!*re compares !"e i$! o$ a !wis!e( an( *n!wis!e( ,a(eC
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No!e !"a! !"e !wis!e( ,a(e &enera!es more i$! near !"e roo! an( ess i$! a! !"e !ip !"an !"e
*n!wis!e( ,a(e.
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HOVERING
Ho#erin& is !"e !erm appie( w"en a "eicop!er main!ains a cons!an! posi!ion a! a seec!e(
poin!. *s*a% a $ew $ee! a,o#e !"e &ro*n( 1,*! no! awa%s. "eicop!ers can "o#er "i&" in
!"e air. &i#en s*$$icien! power2. For a "eicop!er !o "o#er. !"e main ro!or m*s! s*pp% i$!
e4*a !o !"e !o!a wei&"! o$ !"e "eicop!er. 3i!" !"e ,a(es ro!a!in& a! "i&" #eoci!%. an
increase o$ ,a(e pi!c" 1an&e o$ a!!ac+2 wo*( in(*ce !"e necessar% i$! $or a "o#er. T"e
$orces o$ i$! an( wei&"! reac" a s!a!e o$ ,aance (*rin& a s!a!ionar% "o#er.
Ho#erin& is ac!*a% an eemen! o$ #er!ica $i&"!. Ass*min& a no)win( con(i!ion. !"e !ip)
pa!" pane o$ !"e ,a(es wi remain "ori-on!a. I$ !"e an&e o$ a!!ac+ o$ !"e ,a(es is
increase( w"ie !"eir #eoci!% remains cons!an!. a((i!iona #er!ica !"r*s! is o,!aine(.
T"*s. ,% *pse!!in& !"e #er!ica ,aance o$ $orces. "eicop!ers can cim, or (escen(
#er!ica%.
A$)2#&3 *4)$,1 5&6")$,1
A! a "o#er. !"e ro!or !ip #or!e' 1air swir a! !"e !ip o$ !"e ro!or ,a(es2 re(*ces !"e
e$$ec!i#eness o$ !"e o*!er ,a(e por!ions. Aso. !"e #or!e'es o$ !"e prece(in& ,a(e
se#ere% a$$ec! !"e i$! o$ !"e $oowin& ,a(es. I$ !"e #or!e' ma(e ,% one passin& ,a(e
remains a #icio*s swir $or some n*m,er o$ secon(s. !"en !wo ,a(es opera!in& a! 9;@
R/6 crea!e =@@ on&as!in& #or!e' pa!!erns per min*!e. T"is con!in*o*s crea!ion o$ new
#or!e'es an( in&es!ion o$ e'is!in& #or!e'es is a primar% ca*se o$ "i&" power re4*iremen!s
$or "o#erin&.
0*rin& "o#er. !"e ro!or ,a(es mo#e ar&e #o*mes o$ air in a (ownwar( (irec!ion. T"is
p*mpin& process *ses o!s o$ "orsepower an( acceera!es !"e air !o rea!i#e% "i&"
#eoci!ies. Air #eoci!% *n(er !"e "eicop!er ma% reac" <@ !o 5@@ +no!s. (epen(in& on !"e
si-e o$ !"e ro!or an( !"e &ross wei&"! o$ !"e "eicop!er. T"e air $ow pa!!ern o$ a "o#erin&
"eicop!er is i*s!ra!e( "ereC
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No!e "ow !"e (ownwas" 1in(*ce( $ow2 o$ air "as in!ro(*ce( ano!"er eemen! in!o !"e
rea!i#e win( w"ic" a!ers !"e an&e o$ a!!ac+ o$ !"e air$oi. 3"en !"ere is no in(*ce(
$ow. !"e rea!i#e win( is opposi!e an( parae !o !"e $i&"!pa!" o$ !"e air$oi. In !"e
"o#erin& case. !"e (ownwar( air$ow a!ers !"e rea!i#e win( an( c"an&es !"e an&e o$
a!!ac+ so ess aero(%namic $orce is pro(*ce(. T"is con(i!ion re4*ires !"e pio! !o increase
coec!i#e pi!c" !o pro(*ce eno*&" aero(%namic $orce !o s*s!ain a "o#er. A!"o*&" !"is
(oes increase !"e i$!. i! aso increases !"e in(*ce( (ra&. an( so !o!a power re4*ire( is
"i&"er.
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GROUN0 EFFECT
T"e "i&" power re4*iremen! nee(e( !o "o#er o*! o$ &ro*n( e$$ec! is re(*ce( w"en
opera!in& in &ro*n( e$$ec!. Gro*n( e$$ec! is a con(i!ion o$ impro#e( per$ormance
enco*n!ere( w"en opera!in& near 1wi!"in 5F8 ro!or (iame!er2 o$ !"e &ro*n(. I! is (*e !o
!"e in!er$erence o$ !"e s*r$ace wi!" !"e air$ow pa!!ern o$ !"e ro!or s%s!em. an( i! is more
prono*nce( !"e nearer !"e &ro*n( is approac"e(. Increase( ,a(e e$$icienc% w"ie
opera!in& in &ro*n( e$$ec! is (*e !o !wo separa!e an( (is!inc! p"enomena.
Firs! an( mos! impor!an! is !"e re(*c!ion o$ !"e #eoci!% o$ !"e in(*ce( air$ow. Since !"e
&ro*n( in!err*p!s !"e air$ow *n(er !"e "eicop!er. !"e en!ire $ow is a!ere(. T"is re(*ces
(ownwar( #eoci!% o$ !"e in(*ce( $ow. T"e res*! is ess in(*ce( (ra& an( a more
#er!ica i$! #ec!or. T"e i$! nee(e( !o s*s!ain a "o#er can ,e pro(*ce( wi!" a re(*ce(
an&e o$ a!!ac+ an( ess power ,eca*se o$ !"e more #er!ica i$! #ec!orC
T"e secon( p"enomena is a re(*c!ion o$ !"e ro!or tip vortexC
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3"en opera!in& in &ro*n( e$$ec!. !"e (ownwar( an( o*!war( air$ow pa!!ern !en(s !o
res!ric! #or!e' &enera!ion. T"is ma+es !"e o*!,oar( por!ion o$ !"e ro!or ,a(e more
e$$icien! an( re(*ces o#era s%s!em !*r,*ence ca*se( ,% in&es!ion an( recirc*a!ion o$
!"e #or!e' swirs.
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Ro!or e$$icienc% is increase( ,% &ro*n( e$$ec! *p !o a "ei&"! o$ a,o*! one ro!or (iame!er
$or mos! "eicop!ers. T"is $i&*re i*s!ra!es !"e percen! increase in ro!or !"r*s!
e'perience( a! #ario*s ro!or "ei&"!sC
A! a ro!or "ei&"! o$ one)"a$ ro!or (iame!er. !"e !"r*s! is increase( a,o*! = percen!. A!
ro!or "ei&"!s a,o#e one ro!or (iame!er. !"e !"r*s! increase is sma an( (ecreases !o -ero
a! a "ei&"! o$ a,o*! 5 5F: ro!or (iame!ers.
6a'im*m &ro*n( e$$ec! is accompis"e( w"en "o#erin& o#er smoo!" pa#e( s*r$aces.
3"ie "o#erin& o#er !a &rass. ro*&" !errain. re#e!men!s. or wa!er. &ro*n( e$$ec! ma% ,e
serio*s% re(*ce(. T"is p"enomena is (*e !o !"e par!ia ,rea+(own an( cancea!ion o$
&ro*n( e$$ec! an( !"e re!*rn o$ ar&e #or!e' pa!!erns wi!" increase( (ownwas" an&es.
Two i(en!ica air$ois wi!" e4*a ,a(e pi!c" an&es are compare( in !"e $oowin& $i&*reC
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T"e !op air$oi is o*!)o$)&ro*n()e$$ec! w"ie !"e ,o!!om air$oi is in)&ro*n()e$$ec!. T"e
air$oi !"a! is in)&ro*n()e$$ec! is more e$$icien! ,eca*se i! opera!es a! a ar&er an&e o$
a!!ac+ an( pro(*ces a more #er!ica i$! #ec!or. I!s increase( e$$icienc% res*!s $rom a
smaer (ownwar( in(*ce( win( #eoci!% w"ic" increases an&e o$ a!!ac+. T"e air$oi
opera!in& o*!)o$)&ro*n()e$$ec! is ess e$$icien! ,eca*se o$ increase( in(*ce( win(
#eoci!% w"ic" re(*ces an&e o$ a!!ac+.
I$ a "eicop!er "o#erin& o*!)o$)&ro*n()e$$ec! (escen(s in!o a &ro*n()e$$ec! "o#er. ,a(e
e$$icienc% increases ,eca*se o$ !"e more $a#ora,e in(*ce( $ow. As e$$icienc% o$ !"e
ro!or s%s!em increases. !"e pio! re(*ces ,a(e pi!c" an&e !o remain in !"e &ro*n()e$$ec!
"o#er. Less power is re4*ire( !o main!ain "owe#er in)&ro*n()e$$ec! !"an $or !"e o*!)o$)
&ro*n()e$$ec! "o#er.
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TORHUE
In accor(ance wi!" New!onBs aw o$ ac!ion an( reac!ion. !"e "eicop!er $*sea&e !en(s !o
ro!a!e in !"e (irec!ion opposi!e !o !"e ro!or ,a(es. T"is e$$ec! is cae( tor!ue. Tor4*e
m*s! ,e co*n!erac!e( an( or con!roe( ,e$ore $i&"! is possi,e. In !an(em ro!or an(
coa'ia "eicop!er (esi&ns. !"e ro!ors !*rn in opposi!e (irec!ions !o ne*!rai-e or eimina!e
!or4*e e$$ec!s. In !ip)De! "eicop!ers. power ori&ina!es a! !"e ,a(e !ip an( e4*a an(
opposi!e reac!ion is a&ains! !"e airI !"ere is no !or4*e ,e!ween !"e ro!or an( !"e $*sea&e.
Howe#er. !"e !or4*e pro,em is especia% impor!an! in sin&e main ro!or "eicop!ers wi!"
a $*sea&e mo*n!e( power so*rce. T"e !or4*e e$$ec! on !"e $*sea&e is a (irec! res*! o$
!"e wor+Fresis!ance o$ !"e main ro!or. T"ere$ore !or4*e is a! !"e &eome!ric cen!er o$ !"e
main ro!or. Tor4*e res*!s $rom !"e ro!or ,ein& (ri#en ,% !"e en&ine power o*!p*!. An%
c"an&e in en&ine power o*!p*! ,rin&s a,o*! a correspon(in& c"an&e in !or4*e e$$ec!.
F*r!"ermore. power #aries wi!" !"e $i&"! mane*#er an( res*!s in a #aria,e !or4*e e$$ec!
!"a! m*s! ,e con!in*a% correc!e(.
ANTITORHUE ROTOR
Compensa!ion $or !or4*e in !"e sin&e main ro!or "eicop!er is accompis"e( ,% means o$
a #aria,e pi!c" an!i!or4*e ro!or 1!ai ro!or2 oca!e( on !"e en( o$ a !ai ,oom e'!ension a!
!"e rear o$ !"e $*sea&e. 0ri#en ,% !"e main ro!or a! a cons!an! ra!io. !"e !ai ro!or
pro(*ces !"r*s! in a "ori-on!a pane opposi!e !o !or4*e reac!ion (e#eope( ,% !"e main
ro!or. Since !or4*e e$$ec! #aries (*rin& $i&"! w"en power c"an&es are ma(e. i! is
necessar% !o #ar% !"e !"r*s! o$ !"e !ai ro!or. An!i!or4*e pe(as ena,e !"e pio! !o
compensa!e $or !or4*e #ariance. A si&ni$ican! par! o$ !"e en&ine power is re4*ire( !o
(ri#e !"e !ai ro!or. especia% (*rin& opera!ions w"en ma'im*m power is *se(. From ; !o
9@ percen! o$ !"e a#aia,e en&ine power ma% ,e nee(e( !o (ri#e !"e !ai ro!or (epen(in&
on "eicop!er si-e an( (esi&n. Norma%. ar&er "eicop!ers *se a "i&"er percen! o$ en&ine
power !o co*n!erac! !or4*e !"an (o smaer aircra$!. A "eicop!er wi!" ?.;@@ "orsepower
mi&"! re4*ire 5.8@@ "orsepower !o (ri#e !"e !ai ro!or. w"ie a 8@@ "orsepower aircra$!
mi&"! re4*ire on% 5@ "orsepower $or !or4*e correc!ion.
HEA0ING CONTROL
In a((i!ion !o co*n!erac!in& !or4*e. !"e !ai ro!or an( i!s con!ro in+a&e aso permi!
con!ro o$ !"e "eicop!er "ea(in& (*rin& $i&"!. Appica!ion o$ more con!ro !"an is
necessar% !o co*n!erac! !or4*e wi ca*se !"e nose o$ !"e "eicop!er !o swin& in !"e
(irec!ion o$ pe(a mo#emen!. To main!ain a cons!an! "ea(in& a! a "o#er or (*rin& !a+eo$$
or approac". !"e pio! m*s! *se an!i!or4*e pe(as !o app% D*s! eno*&" pi!c" on !"e !ai
ro!or !o ne*!rai-e !or4*e an( "o( a sip i$ necessar%. Hea(in& con!ro in $orwar(
!rimme( $i&"! is norma% accompis"e( wi!" c%cic con!ro. *sin& a coor(ina!e( ,an+
an( !*rn !o !"e (esire( "ea(in&. Appica!ion o$ an!i!or4*e pe(as wi ,e re4*ire( w"en
power c"an&es are ma(e.
In an a*!oro!a!ion. some (e&ree o$ ri&"! pe(a is re4*ire( !o main!ain correc! !rim. 3"en
!or4*e is no! presen!. mas! !"r*s! ,earin& $ric!ion !en(s !o !*rn !"e $*sea&e in !"e same
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(irec!ion as main ro!or ro!a!ion. To co*n!erac! !"is $ric!ion. !"e !ai ro!or !"r*s! is appie(
in an opposi!e (irec!ion !o co*n!er !"e $ric!iona $orces.
TRANSLATING TEN0ENCY
0*rin& "o#erin& $i&"!. !"e sin&e ro!or "eicop!er "as a !en(enc% !o (ri$! a!era% !o !"e
ri&"! (*e !o !"e a!era !"r*s! ,ein& s*ppie( ,% !"e !ai ro!or. T"e pio! ma% pre#en! ri&"!
a!era (ri$! o$ !"e "eicop!er ,% !i!in& !"e main ro!or (is+ !o !"e e$!. T"is a!era !i!
res*!s in a main ro!or $orce !o !"e e$! !"a! compensa!es $or !"e !ai ro!or !"r*s! !o !"e
ri&"!.
Heicop!er (esi&n *s*a% inc*(es one or more $ea!*res w"ic" "ep !"e pio! compensa!e
$or !ransa!in& !en(enc%.
Fi&"! con!ro ri&&in& ma% ,e (esi&ne( so !"e ro!or (is+ is !i!e( si&"!% e$! w"en
!"e c%cic con!ro is cen!ere(.
T"e coec!i#e pi!c" con!ro s%s!em ma% ,e (esi&ne( so !"a! !"e ro!or (is+ !i!s
si&"!% e$! as coec!i#e pi!c" is increase( !o "o#er !"e aircra$!.
T"e main !ransmission ma% ,e mo*n!e( so !"a! !"e mas! is !i!e( si&"!% !o !"e
e$! w"en !"e "eicop!er $*sea&e is a!era% e#e.
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TRANSLATIONAL LIFT
T"e e$$icienc% o$ !"e "o#erin& ro!or s%s!em is impro#e( wi!" eac" +no! o$ incomin& win(
&aine( ,% "ori-on!a mo#emen! or s*r$ace win(. As !"e incomin& win( en!ers !"e ro!or
s%s!em. !*r,*ence an( #or!e'es are e$! ,e"in( an( !"e $ow o$ air ,ecomes more
"ori-on!a. A o$ !"ese c"an&es impro#e !"e e$$icience o$ !"e ro!or s%s!em an( impro#e
aircra$! per$ormance.
Impro#e( ro!or e$$icience res*!in& $rom (irec!iona $i&"! is cae( translational lift. T"e
$oowin& pic!*re s"ows an air$ow pa!!ern a! airspee(s ,e!ween 5); +no!sC
No!e "ow !"e (ownwin( #or!e' is ,e&innin& !o (issipa!e an( in(*ce( $ow (own !"ro*&"
!"e rear o$ !"e ro!or (is+ is more "ori-on!a !"an a! a "o#er.
T"is ne'! pic!*re s"ows !"e air$ow pa!!ern a! a spee( o$ 5@)5; +no!s. Air$ow is m*c"
more "ori-on!a !"an a! a "o#er. T"e ea(in& e(&e o$ !"e (ownwas" pa!!ern is ,ein&
o#err*n an( is we ,ac+ *n(er !"e "eicop!er nose. A! a,o*! 5< !o 8: +no!s 1(epen(in&
*pon !"e si-e. ,a(e area. an( R/6 o$ !"e ro!or s%s!em2 !"e ro!or compe!e% o*!r*ns !"e
recirc*a!ion o$ o( #or!e'es. an( ,e&ins !o wor+ in rea!i#e% cean airC
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T"e air passin& !"ro*&" !"e ro!or s%s!em is near% "ori-on!a. (epen(in& on "eicop!er
$orwar( air spee(.
As !"e "eicop!er spee( increases. !ransa!iona i$! ,ecomes more e$$ec!i#e an( ca*ses !"e
nose !o rise. or pi!c" *p 1some!imes cae( ,ow,ac+2. T"is !en(enc% is ca*se( ,% !"e
com,ine( e$$ec!s o$ (iss%mme!r% o$ i$! an( !rans#erse $ow. /io!s m*s! correc! $or !"is
!en(enc% in or(er !o main!ain a cons!an! ro!or (is+ a!!i!*(e !"a! wi mo#e !"e "eicop!er
!"ro*&" !"e spee( ran&e w"ere ,ow,ac+ occ*rs. I$ !"e nose is permi!!e( !o pi!c" *p w"ie
passin& !"ro*&" !"is spee( ran&e. !"e aircra$! ma% aso !en( !o ro !o !"e ri&"!.
3"en !"e sin&e main ro!or "eicop!er !ransi!ions $rom "o#er !o $orwar( $i&"!. !"e !ai
ro!or ,ecomes more aero(%namica% e$$icien!. E$$icienc% increases ,eca*se !"e !ai ro!or
wor+s in pro&ressi#e% ess !*r,*en! air as spee( increases. As !ai ro!or e$$icienc%
impro#es. more !"r*s! is pro(*ce(. T"is ca*ses !"e aircra$! nose !o %aw e$! i$ !"e main
ro!or !*rns co*n!ercoc+wise. 0*rin& a !a+eo$$ w"ere power is cons!an!. !"e pio! m*s!
app% ri&"! pe(a as spee( increases !o correc! $or !"e e$! %aw !en(enc%.
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TRANSVERSE FLO3 EFFECT
In $orwar( $i&"!. air passin& !"ro*&" !"e rear por!ion o$ !"e ro!or (is+ "as a &rea!er
(ownwas" an&e !"an air passin& !"ro*&" !"e $orwar( por!ionC
T"e (ownwar( $ow a! !"e rear o$ !"e ro!or (is+ ca*ses a re(*ce( an&e o$ a!!ac+.
res*!in& in ess i$!. Increase( an&e o$ a!!ac+ an( more i$! is pro(*ce( a! !"e $ron!
por!ion o$ !"e (is+ ,eca*se air$ow is more "ori-on!a. T"ese (i$$erences ,e!ween !"e $ore
an( a$! par!s o$ !"e ro!or (is+ are cae( !rans#erse $ow e$$ec!. T"e% ca*se *ne4*a (ra&
in !"e $ore an( a$! par!s o$ !"e (is+ res*!in& in #i,ra!ions !"a! are easi% reco&ni-a,e ,%
!"e pio!. T"e #i,ra!ions are more no!icea,e $or mos! "eicop!ers ,e!ween 5@ an( 8@
+no!s.
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FLA//ING
Fappin& can ,e pre!!% "ar( !o *n(ers!an( a! $irs!. a!"o*&" i! rea% is a $air% simpe
concep!. A co*pe !"in&s %o* nee( !o *n(ers!an( is !"e rea!ions"ip ,e!ween an&e o$
a!!ac+ an( rea!i#e win(. Rea!i#e win( is simp% !"e (irec!ion !"e air seems !o ,e comin&
a! %o* ,eca*se o$ %o*r mo!ion. 3"en %o* s!ic+ %o*r "an( o*! o$ a mo#in& car win(ow.
!"e win( "i!!in& i! seems !o ,e comin& $rom (irec!% in $ron! o$ %o*. T"e win( wi awa%s
seem !o ,e mo#in& in !"e opposi!e (irec!ion o$ %o*r mo!ion. For ins!ance. in !"e car
e'ampe. !"e car is mo#in& $orwar(. an( !"e win( seems !o ,e mo#in& ,ac+war(.
Now e!s c"an&e !"e e'ampe a i!!e ,i!. Ta+e a "ar(co#er ,oo+ in %o*r "an(. an( (rop i!.
T"in+ a,o*! a i!!e person &*e( !o !"e ,o!!om o$ !"e ,oo+. As !"e ,oo+ $as. "e wi $ee
!"e win( seem !o come (irec!% *p a! "im $rom !"e &ro*n(. A&ain. !"is is rea!i#e win(
(*e !o !"e mo!ion o$ !"e ,oo+C
Ins!ea( o$ (roppin& !"e ,oo+. e!Bs si(e i! aon& a !a,e si(ewa%s. T"e !a,e is !"ere !o
pre#en! i! $rom $ain&. so !"e on% mo!ion wi ,e si(ewa%s mo!ion. For !"is e'ercise. we
e! !"e i!!e &*% s!an( on !op so "e wonB! ,e s4*is"e(C
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3"a! i$ we remo#e !"e !a,e. !"row !"e ,oo+ si(ewa%s. aowin& i! !o aso $a !owar( !"e
&ro*n(. I! wi "a#e !wo componen!s o$ mo!ion. one "ori-on!a an( one #er!ica. i+e !"isC
No!e !"a! !"e rea!i#e win( is !"e com,ina!ion o$ !"e "ori-on!a an( #er!ica mo!ions. To
!"e poor i!!e &*% a,o*! !o ,e s4*is"e( a&ain. i! seems !o ,e comin& a! "im $rom an
an&e. somew"ere ,e!ween !"e #er!ica an( "ori-on!a. Now e!Bs *se a !in% ,i! o$ ma!". I$
we (raw !"e ,*e arrows !o represen! !"e !wo componen!s o$ mo!ion. "ori-on!a an(
#er!ica. an( !"en we e'!en( re( ines (own $rom !"e !op arrow"ea( an( !o !"e e$! $rom
!"e ,o!!om arrow"ea( *n!i !"e% mee!. we can !"en (raw !"e &reen ine ,ac+ !o !"e ori&in
o$ !"e !wo #ec!ors. T"e &reen ine is a #ec!or w"ic" wi s"ow *s !"e (irec!ion !"e rea!i#e
win( is comin& a! !"e i!!e &*% on !"e ,oo+C
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No!ice !"a! !"e !wo ,*e ines are a,o*! !"e same en&!". an( !"a! !"e an&e en(s *p ,ein&
a,o*! :; (e&rees. T"a!Bs no! ,% c"ance. Le!Bs !a+e a oo+ a! w"a! "appens i$ we ma+e !"e
"ori-on!a componen! o$ mo!ion ,e !wice as $as! as !"e #er!ica componen!C
No!ice "ow !"e an&e "as c"an&e(A Beca*se !"e "ori-on!a componen! is ar&er. !"e an&e
seems !o ,e more "ori-on!a !"an #er!ica. 3e can cac*a!e !"e an&e !"is wa%. as on& as
we +now !"e "ori-on!a componen! an( #er!ica componen! o$ mo!ion.
O+a%. w"a!Bs a !"is &o! !o (o wi!" $appin&J I$ i!Bs no! area(% o,#io*s. !"e ,oo+
represen!s !"e ro!or ,a(e. Le!Bs see a pic!*re o$ a ro!or ,a(e !"a! is spinnin&. ,*! no!
$appin&C
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T"is is sor! o$ a compe' (ia&ram. ,*! e!s !a+e i! par! ,% par!. T"e ,*e ine s"ows !"e
mo!ion o$ !"e ro!or ,a(e. mo#in& $orwar( (*e !o ro!a!ion. T"e &reen ine s"ows !"e
rea!i#e win(. Since !"ere is on% a "ori-on!a componen! !o mo!ion ri&"! now. !"e &reen
ine is "ori-on!a. T"e pin+ ine a,ee( !ip pane pa!" s"ows !"e orien!a!ion o$ !"e ro!or
(is+. I!Bs D*s! ano!"er ine s"owin& !"e "ori-on!a mo!ion o$ !"e ro!or ,a(e. T"e %eow
ine w"ic" is a,ee( c"or( ine can D*s! ,e !"o*&"! o$ !"e (irec!ion !"e air$oi is $acin&
1,*! no! necessari% mo#in&2. In !"e case o$ !"is (ia&ram. !"is wo*( a ,e consis!en!
wi!" a "eicop!er a! "o#erC !"e c"or( ine is !i!e( ,eca*se !"e pio! "as raise( !"e
collective con!ro. !"ere,% !i!in& !"e ,a(e *p $rom !"e "ori-on!a. An&e o$ a!!ac+ is
(e$ine( as !"e an&e ,e!ween !"e rea!i#e win( an( !"e c"or( ine. T"a! is s"own ,% !"e
p*rpe ine.
In !"e ne'! $i&*re. weB#e a((e( some #er!ica mo!ion !o !"e ro!or ,a(eC
T"e wa% IB#e (rawn !"is is on !op !o s"ow !"e !wo componen!s o$ mo!ion o$ !"e ro!or
,a(e. No!e !"a! !"e ,a(e is $appin& up. IB#e copie( !"e ,*e ines o$ mo!ion (own ,% !"e
air$oi. an( *se( !"e re( ines !o s"ow w"ere we wo*( e'!en( !"e ,*e ines !o. T"en I
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(rew !"e &reen rea!i#e win( ine $rom !"is poin! ,ac+ !o !"e ori&in. T"ere are a $ew
in!eres!in& !"in&s !o no!ice now.
Firs! o$ a. remem,er !"a! !"e rea!i#e win( is e4*a an( opposi!e !o !"e (irec!ion !"e
o,Dec! is &oin&. so !"e &reen rea!i#e win( ine aso &i#es *s an i(ea o$ !"e pa!" o$ !"e
,a(e. Cear% i! is mo#in& $orwar( an( 4'. T"e impor!an! !"in& !o no!ice. "owe#er. is
!"a! !"e an&e ,e!ween !"e rea!i#e win( an( !"e c"or( ine is now c*! a,o*! in "a$. In
!"is case. !"e i$! wo*( aso ,e c*! in "a$. I$ !"is is no! cear !o %o*. e!s see !"e same
(ia&ram. ,*! ro!a!e( so !"a! !"e rea!i#e win( is "ori-on!a !o *sC
I! s"o*( ,e cear !"a! !"e an&e o$ a!!ac+ in !"is pic!*re is m*c" smaer !"an !"e (ia&ram
wi!"o*! $appin&.
One $ina +e% !o a !"is is. w"a! ma+es !"e ,a(e $ap *pJ T"e answer is #er% simpeC i!Bs
!"e e'cess i$!. Remem,er !"a! a! a "o#er. !"e ,a(e an&e is w"ere !"e $orces o$ i$! an(
cen!ri$*&a $orce ,aance o*!. I$ we increase !"e i$! 1,eca*se o$ !"e e'cess airspee( on !"e
a(#ancin& ,a(e2 an( !"e cen!ri$*&a $orce s!a%s !"e same. !"e e'!ra i$! wi ca*se !"e
,a(e !o $ap *p !o a "i&"er posi!ion *n!i i$! an( cen!ri$*&a $orces are once a&ain in
,aance.
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GYROSCO/IC /RECESSION
G%roscopic precession is a p"enomenon occ*rrin& in ro!a!in& ,o(ies in w"ic" an appie(
$orce is mani$es!e( ?@ (e&rees a!er in !"e (irec!ion o$ ro!a!ion $rom w"ere !"e $orce was
appie(. A!"o*&" precession is no! a (ominan! $orce in ro!ar%)win& aero(%namics. i!
m*s! ,e rec+one( wi!" ,eca*se !*rnin& ro!or s%s!ems e'"i,i! some o$ !"e c"arac!eris!ics
o$ a &%ro. T"is (ia&ram s"ows "ow precession a$$ec!s !"e ro!or (is+ w"en $orce is appie(
a! a &i#en poin!C
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A (ownwar( $orce appie( !o !"e (is+ a! poin! A res*!s in a (ownwar( c"an&e in (is+
a!!i!*(e a! poin! B. An( *pwar( $orce appie( a! /oin! C res*!s in an *pwar( c"an&e in
(is+ a!!i!*(e a! poin! 0.
Forces appie( !o a spinnin& ro!or (is+ ,% con!ro inp*! or ,% win( &*s!s wi reac! as
$oowsC
G!a,e a! ,o!!om o$ pa&e 8)::G
T"is ,e"a#ior e'pains some o$ !"e $*n(amen!a e$$ec!s occ*rrin& (*rin& #ario*s
"eicop!er mane*#ers. For e'ampe. !"e "eicop!er ,e"a#es (i$$eren!% w"en roin& in!o a
ri&"! !*rn !"an w"en roin& in!o a e$! !*rn. 0*rin& ro in!o a e$! !*rn. !"e pio! wi "a#e
!o correc! $or a nose (own !en(enc% in or(er !o main!ain a!i!*(e. T"is correc!ion is
re4*ire( ,eca*se precession ca*ses a nose (own !en(enc% an( ,eca*se !"e !i!e( (is+
pro(*ces ess #er!ica i$! !o co*n!erac! &ra#i!%. Con#erse%. (*rin& a ro in!o a ri&"! !*rn.
precession wi ca*se a nose *p !en(enc% w"ie !"e !i!e( (is+ wi pro(*ce ess #er!ica
i$!. /io! inp*! re4*ire( !o main!ain a!i!*(e is si&ni$ican!% (i$$eren! (*rin& a ri&"! !*rn
!"an (*rin& a e$! !*rn. ,eca*se &%roscopic precession ac!s in opposi!e (irec!ions $or eac".
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RETREATING BLA0E STALL
A !en(enc% $or !"e re!rea!in& ,a(e !o s!a in $orwar( $i&"! is in"eren! in a presen! (a%
"eicop!ers an( is a maDor $ac!or in imi!in& !"eir $orwar( spee(. J*s! as !"e s!a o$ an
airpane win& imi!s !"e ow spee( possi,ii!ies o$ !"e airpane. !"e s!a o$ a ro!or ,a(e
imi!s !"e "i&" spee( po!en!ia o$ a "eicop!er. T"e airspee( o$ !"e re!rea!in& ,a(e 1!"e
,a(e mo#in& awa% $rom !"e (irec!ion o$ $i&"!2 sows (own as $orwar( spee( increases.
T"e re!rea!in& ,a(e m*s!. "owe#er. pro(*ce an amo*n! o$ i$! e4*a !o !"a! o$ !"e
a(#ancin& ,a(e. T"ere$ore. as !"e airspee( o$ !"e re!rea!in& ,a(e (ecreases wi!" $orwar(
aircra$! spee(. !"e ,a(e an&e o$ a!!ac+ m*s! ,e increase( !o e4*ai-e i$! !"ro*&"o*! !"e
ro!or (is+ area. As !"is an&e increase is con!in*e(. !"e ,a(e wi s!a a! some "i&"
$orwar( spee(.
As $orwar( airspee( increases. !"e Gno i$!G areas mo#e e$! o$ cen!er. co#erin& more o$
!"e re!rea!in& ,a(e sec!orsC
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T"is re4*ires more i$! a! !"e o*!er re!rea!in& ,a(e por!ions !o compensa!e $or !"e oss o$
i$! o$ !"e in,oar( re!rea!in& sec!ions. In !"e area o$ re#erse( $ow. !"e ro!a!iona #eoci!%
o$ !"is ,a(e sec!ion is sower !"an !"e aircra$! airspee(I !"ere$ore. !"e air $ows $rom !"e
!raiin& !o ea(in& e(&e o$ !"e air$oi. In !"e ne&a!i#e s!a area. !"e ro!a!iona #eoci!% o$
!"e air$oi is $as!er !"an !"e aircra$! airspee(. !"ere$ore air $ows $rom ea(in& !o !raiin&
e(&e o$ !"e ,a(e. Howe#er (*e !o !"e rea!i#e arm an( in(*ce( $ow. ,a(e $appin& is
no! s*$$icien! !o pro(*ce a posi!i#e an&e o$ a!!ac+. Ba(e $appin& an( ro!a!iona #eoci!%
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in !"e ne&a!i#e i$! area are s*$$icien! !o pro(*ce a posi!i#e an&e o$ a!!ac+. ,*! no! !o a
(e&ree !"a! pro(*ces apprecia,e i$!.
T"is $i&*re s"ows a ro!or (is+ !"a! "as reac"e( a s!a con(i!ion on !"e re!rea!in& si(eC
I! is ass*me( !"a! !"e s!a an&e o$ a!!ac+ $or !"is ro!or s%s!em is 5: (e&rees. 0is!ri,*!ion
o$ an&e o$ a!!ac+ aon& !"e ,a(e is s"own a! ei&"! posi!ions in !"e ro!or (is+. A!"o*&"
!"e ,a(es are !wis!e( an( "a#e ess pi!c" a! !"e !ip !"an a! !"e roo!. an&e o$ a!!ac+ is
"i&"er a! !"e !ip ,eca*se o$ in(*ce( air$ow.
Upon en!r% in!o ,a(e s!a. !"e $irs! e$$ec! is &enera% a no!icea,e #i,ra!ion o$ !"e
"eicop!er. T"is is $oowe( ,% a roin& !en(enc% an( a !en(enc% $or !"e nose !o pi!c" *p.
T"e !en(enc% !o pi!c" *p ma% ,e rea!i#e% insi&ni$ican! $or "eicop!ers wi!" semiri&i(
ro!or s%s!ems (*e !o pen(*ar ac!ion. I$ !"e c%cic s!ic+ is "e( $orwar( an( coec!i#e
pi!c" is no! re(*ce( or is increase(. !"is con(i!ion ,ecomes a&&ra#a!e(I !"e #i,ra!ion
&rea!% increases. an( con!ro ma% ,e os!. B% ,ein& $amiiar wi!" !"e con(i!ions w"ic"
ea( !o ,a(e s!a. !"e pio! s"o*( reai-e w"en "is is $%in& *n(er s*c" circ*ms!ances
an( s"o*( !a+e correc!i#e ac!ion.
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T"e maDor warnin&s o$ approac"in& re!rea!in& ,a(e s!a con(i!ions areC
A,norma #i,ra!ion
/i!c"*p o$ !"e nose
Ten(enc% $or !"e "eicop!er !o ro in !"e (irec!ion o$ !"e s!ae( si(e.
3"en opera!in& a! "i&" $orwar( airspee(s. !"e $oowin& con(i!ions are mos! i+e% !o
pro(*ce ,a(e s!aC
Hi&" ,a(e oa(in& 1"i&" &ross wei&"!2
Low ro!or R/6
Hi&" (ensi!% a!i!*(e
S!eep or a,r*p! !*rns
T*r,*en! air
3"en $i&"! con(i!ions are s*c" !"a! ,a(e s!a is i+e%. e'!reme ca*!ion s"o*( ,e
e'ercise( w"en mane*#erin&. An a,r*p! mane*#er s*c" as a s!eep !*rn or p**p ma%
res*! in (an&ero*s% se#ere ,a(e s!a. Aircra$! con!ro an( s!r*c!*ra imi!a!ions o$ !"e
"eicop!er wo*( ,e !"rea!ene(.
Ba(e s!a norma% occ*rs w"en airspee( is "i&". To pre#en! ,a(e s!a. !"e pio! m*s!
$% sower !"an norma w"enC
T"e (ensi!% a!i!*(e is m*c" "i&"er !"an s!an(ar(
Carr%in& ma'im*m wei&"! oa(s
F%in& "i&" (ra& con$i&*ra!ions s*c" as $oa!s. e'!erna s!ores. weapons. spea+ers.
$oo(i&"!s. sin& oa(s. e!c.
T"e air is !*r,*en!
3"en !"e pio! s*spec!s ,a(e s!a. "e can possi,% pre#en! i! $rom occ*rrin& ,%
se4*en!ia%C
Re(*cin& power 1coec!i#e pi!c"2
Re(*cin& airspee(
Re(*cin& GGG oa(s (*rin& man*e#erin&
Increasin& R/6 !o *pper aowa,e imi!
C"ec+in& pe(a !rim
In se#ere ,a(e s!a. !"e pio! oses con!ro. T"e "eicop!er wi pi!c" *p #ioen!% an( ro
!o !"e e$!. T"e on% correc!i#e ac!ion !"en is !o accompis" proce(*res as in(ica!e(
pre#io*s% !o s"or!en !"e (*ra!ion o$ !"e s!a an( re&ain con!ro.
AERO0YNA6ICS OF AUTOROTATION
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0*rin& powere( $i&"!. !"e ro!or (ra& is o#ercome wi!" en&ine power. 3"en !"e en&ine
$ais. or is (ei,era!e% (isen&a&e( $rom !"e ro!or s%s!em. some o!"er $orce m*s! ,e *se(
!o s*s!ain ro!or R/6 so con!roe( $i&"! can ,e con!in*e( !o !"e &ro*n(. T"is $orce is
&enera!e( ,% a(D*s!in& !"e coec!i#e pi!c" !o aow a con!roe( (escen!. Air$ow (*rin&
"eicop!er (escen! pro#i(es !"e ener&% !o o#ercome ,a(e (ra& an( !*rn !"e ro!or. 3"en
!"e "eicop!er is (escen(in& in !"is manner. i! is sai( !o ,e in a s!a!e o$ autorotation. In
e$$ec! !"e pio! &i#es *p a!i!*(e a! a con!roe( ra!e in re!*rn $or ener&% !o !*rn !"e ro!or a!
an R/6 w"ic" pro#i(es aircra$! con!ro. S!a!e( ano!"er wa%. !"e "eicop!er "as po!en!ia
ener&% ,% #ir!*e o$ i!s a!i!*(e. As a!i!*(e (ecreases. po!en!ia ener&% is con#er!e( !o
+ine!ic ener&% an( s!ore( in !"e !*rnin& ro!or. T"e pio! *ses !"is +ine!ic ener&% !o c*s"ion
!"e !o*c"(own w"en near !"e &ro*n(.
6os! a*!oro!a!ions are per$orme( wi!" $orwar( airspee(. For simpici!%. !"e $oowin&
aero(%namic e'pana!ion is ,ase( on a #er!ica a*!oro!a!i#e (escen! 1no $orwar( airspee(2
in s!i air. Un(er !"ese con(i!ions. !"e $orces !"a! ca*se !"e ,a(es !o !*rn are simiar $or
a ,a(es re&ar(ess o$ !"eir posi!ion in !"e pane o$ ro!a!ion. 0iss%mme!r% o$ i$!
res*!in& $rom "eicop!er airspee( is !"ere$ore no! a $ac!or. ,*! wi ,e (isc*sse( a!er.
0*rin& #er!ica a*!oro!a!ion. !"e ro!or (is+ is (i#i(e( in!o !"ree re&ionsC
T"e driven region. aso cae( !"e propeller region. is neares! !o !"e ,a(e !ips an(
norma% consis!s o$ a,o*! 9@ percen! o$ !"e ra(i*s. T"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce
in !"is re&ion is incine( si&"!% ,e"in( !"e ro!a!in& a'is. T"is res*!s in a (ra&
$orce w"ic" !en(s !o sow !"e ro!a!ion $o !"e ,a(e.
T"e driving region or autorotative region. norma% ies ,e!ween a,o*! 8; !o =@
percen! o$ !"e ,a(e ra(i*s. To!a aero(%namic $orce in !"is re&ion is incine(
si&"!% $orwar( o$ !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion. T"is incina!ion s*ppies !"r*s! w"ic"
!en(s !o acceera!e !"e ro!a!ion o$ !"e ,a(e.
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T"e stall region inc*(es !"e in,oar( 8; percen! o$ !"e ,a(e ra(i*s. I! opera!es
a,o#e !"e s!a an&e o$ a!!ac+ an( ca*ses (ra& w"ic" !en(s !o sow !"e ro!a!ion o$
!"e ,a(e.
T"e $oowin& $i&*re s"ows !"ree ,a(e sec!ions !"a! i*s!ra!e $orce #ec!ors in !"e (ri#en
re&ion GAG. a re&ion o$ e4*ii,ri*m GBG an( !"e (ri#in& re&ion GCGC
T"e $orce #ec!ors are (i$$eren! in eac" re&ion. ,eca*se !"e ro!a!iona rea!i#e win( is
sower near !"e ,a(e roo! an( increases con!in*a% !owar( !"e ,a(e !ip. 3"en !"e
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in$ow *p !"ro*&" !"e ro!or com,ines wi!" ro!a!iona rea!i#e win(. i! pro(*ces (i$$eren!
com,ina!ions o$ aero(%namic $orce a! e#er% poin! aon& !"e ,a(e.
In !"e (ri#en re&ion. !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce ac!s ,e"in( !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion. res*!in&
in an o#era (ra&&in& $orce. T"is area pro(*ces i$! ,*! i! aso opposes ro!a!ion an(
con!in*a% !en(s !o (eceera!e !"e ,a(e. T"e si-e o$ !"is re&ion #aries wi!" ,a(e pi!c"
se!!in&. ra!e o$ (escen!. an( ro!or R/6. 3"en !"e pio! !a+es ac!ion !o c"an&e
a*!oro!a!i#e R/6. ,a(e pi!c". or ra!e o$ (escen!. "e is in e$$ec! c"an&in& !"e si-e o$ !"e
(ri#en re&ion in rea!ion !o !"e o!"er re&ions.
Be!ween !"e (ri#en re&ion an( !"e (ri#in& re&ion is a poin! o$ e4*ii,ri*m. A! !"is poin!
on !"e ,a(e. !o!a aero(%namic $orce is ai&ne( wi!" !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion. Li$! an( (ra& are
pro(*ce(. ,*! !"e !o!a e$$ec! pro(*ces nei!"er acceera!ion nor (eceera!ion o$ !"e ro!or
R/6. /oin! G0G is aso an area o$ e4*ii,ri*m in re&ar( !o !"r*s! an( (ra&.
Area GCG is !"e (ri#in& re&ion o$ !"e ,a(e an( pro(*ces !"e $orces nee(e( !o !*rn !"e
,a(es (*rin& a*!oro!a!ion. To!a aero(%namic $orce in !"e (ri#in& re&ion is incine(
$orwar( o$ !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion an( pro(*ces a con!in*a acceera!ion $orce. 0ri#in&
re&ion si-e #aries wi!" ,a(e pi!c" se!!in&. ra!e o$ (escen! an( ro!or R/6. T"e pio!
con!ros !"e si-e o$ !"is re&ion in rea!ion !o !"e (ri#en an( s!a re&ions in or(er !o a(D*s!
a*!oro!a!i#e R/6. For e'ampe. i$ !"e coec!i#e pi!c" s!ic+ is raise(. !"e pi!c" an&e wi
increase in a re&ions. T"is ca*ses !"e poin! o$ e4*ii,ri*m GBG !o mo#e !owar( !"e ,a(e
!ip. (ecreasin& !"e si-e o$ !"e (ri#en re&ion. T"e en!ire (ri#in& re&ion aso mo#es !owar(
!"e ,a(e !ip. T"e s!a re&ion ,ecomes ar&er an( !"e !o!a ,a(e (ra& is increase(.
ca*sin& R/6 (ecrease.
A cons!an! ro!or R/6 is ac"ie#e( ,% a(D*s!in& !"e coec!i#e pi!c" con!ro so ,a(e
acceera!ion $orces $rom !"e (ri#in& re&ion are ,aance( wi!" !"e (eceera!ion $orces $rom
!"e (ri#en an( s!a re&ions.
A")&*+,-.$%/ &2 -4(&)&(-($&, $, 2&)3-)* 2#$15(
A*!oro!a!i#e $orce in $orwar( $i&"! is pro(*ce( in e'ac!% !"e same manner as w"en !"e
"eicop!er is (escen(in& #er!ica% in s!i air. Howe#er. ,eca*se $orwar( spee( c"an&es
!"e in$ow o$ air *p !"ro*&" !"e ro!or (is+. !"e (ri#in& re&ion an( s!a re&ion mo#e
!owar( !"e re!rea!in& si(e o$ !"e (is+ w"ere an&e o$ a!!ac+ is ar&erC
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Beca*se o$ ower an&es o$ a!!ac+ on !"e a(#ancin& si(e ,a(e. more o$ !"a! ,a(e $as
in!o !"e (ri#en re&ion. On !"e re!rea!in& si(e ,a(e. more o$ !"e ,a(e is in !"e s!a
re&ion. an( a sma sec!ion near !"e roo! e'periences a re#erse( $ow. T"e si-e o$ !"e
(ri#en re&ion on !"e re!rea!in& si(e is re(*ce(.
A*!oro!a!ions ma% ,e (i#i(e( in!o !"ree (is!inc! p"asesI !"e entry. !"e steady state
descent. an( !"e deceleration and touchdown. Eac" o$ !"ese p"ases is aero(%namica%
(i$$eren! !"an !"e o!"ers. T"e $oowin& (isc*ssion (escri,es $orces per!inen! !o eac"
p"ase.
"ntry in!o a*!oro!a!ion is per$orme( $oowin& oss o$ en&ine power. Imme(ia!e
in(ica!ions o$ power oss are ro!or R/6 (eca% an( an o*!)o$)!rim con(i!ion. Ra!e o$
R/6 (eca% is mos! rapi( w"en !"e "eicop!er is a! "i&" coec!i#e pi!c" se!!in&s. In mos!
"eicop!ers i! !a+es on% secon(s $or !"e R/6 (eca% !o reac" a minim*m sa$e ran&e.
/io!s m*s! reac! 4*ic+% an( ini!ia!e a re(*c!ion in coec!i#e pi!c" !"a! wi pre#en!
e'cessi#e R/6 (eca%. A c%cic $are wi "ep pre#en! e'cessi#e (eca% i$ !"e $ai*re
occ*rs a! !"i&" spee(. T"is !ec"ni4*e #aries wi!" !"e mo(e "eicop!er. /io!s s"o*(
cons*! an( $oow !"e appropria!e aircra$! Opera!orBs 6an*a.
T"e $oowin& $i&*re s"ows !"e air$ow an( $orce #ec!ors $or a ,a(e in powere( $i&"! a!
"i&" spee(C
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No!e !"a! !"e i$! an( (ra& #ec!ors are ar&e an( !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce is incine(
we !o !"e rear o$ !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion. I$ !"e en&ine s!ops w"en !"e "eicop!er is in !"is
con(i!ion. ro!or R/6 (eca% is rapi(. To pre#en! R/6 (eca%. !"e pio! m*s! promp!%
ower !"e coec!i#e pi!c" con!ro !o re(*ce (ra& an( incine !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce
#ec!or $orwar( so i! is near !"e a'is o$ ro!a!ion.
T"e $oowin& $i&*re s"ows !"e air$ow an( $orce #ec!ors $or a "eicop!er D*s! a$!er power
ossC
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T"e coec!i#e pi!c" "as ,een re(*ce(. ,*! !"e "eicop!er "as no! s!ar!e( !o (escen(. No!e
!"a! i$! an( (ra& are re(*ce( an( !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce #ec!or is incine( $*r!"er
$orwar( !"an i! was in powere( $i&"!. As !"e "eicop!er ,e&ins !o (escen(. !"e air$ow
c"an&es. T"is ca*ses !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce !o incine $*r!"er $orwar(. I! wi reac"
an e4*ii,ri*m !"a! main!ains a sa$e opera!in& R/6. T"e pio! es!a,is"es a &i(e a! !"e
proper airspee( w"ic" is ;@ !o =; +no!s. (epen(in& on !"e "eicop!er an( i!s &ross wei&"!.
Ro!or R/6 s"o*( ,e s!a,ii-e( a! a*!oro!a!i#e R/6 w"ic" is norma% a $ew !*rns
"i&"er !"an norma opera!in& R/6.
T"e $oowin& $i&*re s"ows !"e "eicop!er in a steady state descentC
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Air$ow is now *pwar( !"ro*&" !"e ro!or (is+ (*e !"e (escen!. C"an&e( air$ow crea!es a
ar&er an&e o$ a!!ac+ a!"o*&" ,a(e pi!c" an&e is !"e same as i! was in !"e pre#io*s
pic!*re. ,e$ore !"e (escen! ,e&an. To!a aero(%namic $orce is increase( an( incine(
$orwar( so e4*ii,ri*m is es!a,is"e(. Ra!e o$ (escen! an( R/6 are s!a,ii-e(. an( !"e
"eicop!er is (escen(in& a! a cons!an! an&e. An&e o$ (escen! is norma% 5= (e&rees !o
8@ (e&rees. (epen(in& on airspee(. (ensi!% a!i!*(e. win(. !"e par!ic*ar "eicop!er
(esi&n. an( o!"er #aria,es.
T"e $oowin& $i&*re i*s!ra!es !"e aero(%namics o$ a*!oro!a!i#e decelerationC
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To s*ccess$*% per$orm an a*!oro!a!i#e an(in&. !"e pio! m*s! re(*ce airspee( an( ra!e
o$ (escen! D*s! ,e$ore !o*c"(own. Bo!" o$ !"ese ac!ions can ,e par!ia% accompis"e( ,%
mo#in& !"e c%cic con!ro !o !"e rear an( c"an&in& !"e a!!i!*(e o$ !"e ro!or (is+ wi!"
rea!ion !o !"e rea!i#e win(. T"e a!!i!*(e c"an&e incines !"e !o!a $orce o$ !"e ro!or (is+
!o !"e rear an( sows $orwar( spee(. I! aso increases an&e o$ a!!ac+ on a ,a(es ,%
c"an&in& !"e in$ow o$ air. As a res*!. !o!a ro!or i$!in& $orce is increase( an( ra!e o$
(escen! is re(*ce(. R/6 aso increases w"en !"e !o!a aero(%namic $orce #ec!or is
en&!"ene(. !"ere,% increasin& ,a(e +ine!ic ener&% a#aia,e !o c*s"ion !"e !o*c"(own.
A$!er $orwar( spee( is re(*ce( !o a sa$e an(in& spee(. !"e "eicop!er is pace( in a
an(in& a!!i!*(e as coec!i#e pi!c" is appie( !o c*s"ion !"e !o*c"(own.
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