Summary of Signal Types: Pulses

Slide 1
Summary of Signal Types

G6
v(t) V(f) [ V ] [VHz
1
] [ V ] [VHz
1
]

R() S(f) = V(f)
2
[ V
2
s ] [VHz
1
]
2
[J ] [J Hz
1
]
Typical Sets of Units
Pulses:
1-ohm load
v(t) V
m
[v] [ V ] [V] [ V ] [ V ]

R()
m
= V
m
2
[ V
2
] [ V
2
] [ W ] [ W ]
Periodic:
1-ohm load
v(t) [?] [ V ] [?] [ V ] [ ? ]

() (f) [ V
2
] [ V
2
Hz
1
] [ W ] [ W/Hz ]
Random:
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 2
Probability Distributions
G7
[ ]
2 2 2
2 / ) / v (
dv v ) v ( p
e
2
1
} v { P
2
=

=

p(v)

0
[ ]
o
o
2 2
=
Gaussian Noise:
v
Band-limited Gaussian white noise, e.g.
N
o
/2
(f)
( ) WHz N
1
o

[ ] WHz
1
f
B
(f)
Single-sided
equivalent
Power
spectral
density
2 N
o
f
6.661 Fall 2001
v E =

B N
B N v E
=
=
Slide 3
G8
{ } { } p 1 r Assume
{ } ( )
( ) n k
n
where p 1 p
k
n
k n k

=

[ ] ( )

=
= =
n
0 k
np
Binomial Distribution:
6.661 Fall 2001
Note: There are n positions possible for the first 1,
n 1 for the second 1, and a total of
n(n 1)(n k + 1)/k! ways to arrange those
k 1s among the n available positions.
0 p , p 1 p where 1, o 0 bits, n have we
k! ! k
! n
s 1' k p
k p k k E
Slide 4
G9
Poisson Distribution:
{ } { } p 1 r Assume
{ }

= = + =

=

0 xy ; y x
e
2
1
2
o
2 2 2 2 2
/
o
o
o
2 / 1
0
2 /
o

[ ] ( )

=
= =
n
0 k
np
N
~0
If n np i (
>> << =
e
k
Mean of k = = np
Variance of k =
6.661 Fall 2001
0 p , p 1 p where 1, o 0 bits, n have we
mean zero , variance Gaussian, are y x, where
x , y r if example, for , Arises
r p
r 2
Laplacian Distribution:
k p k k E
1, p 1: 1; var ance np 1-p) =

! k
p{k} then
Slide 5
Receiver-Noise Processes
Receivers are limited by noise, many types
1-D (TEM transmission line)
3-D (Multimode waveguide)
Equation of radiative transfer (1-D)
RF and optical limits; IR case
Cases:
Thermal noise:
2 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 6
Thermal noise, 1-D (TEM) case
Z
o
, TK Z
o
(), c(ms
-1
)
Electromagnetic
energy
Heat
Heat
3 6.661 Fall 2001
lossless TEM line
Slide 7
Approach:
closed container
very slightly lossy
1) Find average energy density W(f)[J /m Hz]
2) Find average power P
+
[W/Hz] power flow
power P
+
P
-
D
z
4 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 8
Find average energy density W(f)[J m
-1
Hz
-1
]
W(f) =
modes
Hz
photons
mode
energy
photon
hf [J oules] (h Plancks constant)
1
D
f is frequency (Hz)
h = 6.6252 10
-34
(J s)
5 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 9
W(f) =
modes
Hz
photons
mode
energy
photon
1
D
Find modes/Hz:
Resonator modes
Therefore (v
p
= phase velocity)
modes/Hz
m =
2D
m
=
2Df
m
v
p
dm
df
2D
v
p
=
V(z)
z = 0
m = 3
m = 2
m = 1
z
D
6 6.661 Fall 2001
Find photons/mode
n
j
; (j
th
mode)

Photons obey Bose-Einstein statistics; therefore
any number can occupy each mode.
Total energy fixed; combinations favor more likely distributions
p
j
(n) = Q e
-nW
j
/kT
, Boltzmann distribution
where

n=0

p
j
(n) 1, W
j
hf
j
, Q = constant

n
j
= n p
j
(n)

n=0

p
j
(n)
7 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 10
p{n photons in state j}
p
j
(n) = Q e
-nW
j
/kT
where

n=0

p
j
(n) 1, W
j
hf
j
, Q = constant

n=0

Recall x
n
) if x < 1
-W
j
/kT
Therefore Q =
p
j
(n) = Q

n=0

e
-W
j
/kT
n
=
-W
j
/kT
Q

n=0

8 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 11
= 1/(1 - x
1 - e
1 - e
p
j
(n) = Q e
-nW
j
/kT
-W
j
/kT
Where Q =
p
j
(n) =
-W
j
/kT
e
-nW
j
/kT
-W
j
/kT
n
j
=

n=0

n=0

n p
j
(n) =
e
-W
j
/kT
n
n
Therefore
9 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 12
1 - e
1 - e
1 - e
Recall

n=0

n x
n
= x
d
dx

n=0

x
n
= x
d
dx
)
-1
=
2
x
So n
j
=
-W
j
/kT
e
-W
j
/kT -W
j
/kT
2

=

=
= =
0 n
n
kT W kT W
0 n
j
j
j j
e 1 ) n ( n
[ ]
j j
kT W
j
hf e 1 n
j
=
=
10 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 13
(1 - x
1 - x
1 - e 1 - e
e n p n
W de photons/mo 1
W(f) =
modes
Hz
photons
mode
energy
photon
1
D
J m
-1
Hz
-1
W(f) =
2D
v
p e
W
j
/kT
1
(hf)
1
D
=
2hf
v
p
e
hf/kT
J m
-1
Hz
-1
W(f) = W
+
+ W
-
= 2W
+
(powers and energies superimpose
if waves are orthogonal)
W
+
= forward-moving energy density
11 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 14
Solution - Average Energy Density
- 1
- 1
W(f) =
2D
v
p e
W
j
/kT
1
(hf)
1
D
=
2hf
v
p
e
hf/kT
J m
-1
Hz
-1
W(f) = W
+
+ W
-
= 2W
+
If the TEM line is non-dispersive, then v
p
= v
g
and
P
+
(f) WH
z
-1
=
e
hf/kT
hf
P
+
WH
z
-1
= v
g
W
+
= v
g
W/2
12 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 15
Solution - Thermal power in TEM line:
- 1
- 1
- 1
Recall e
x
= 1 + x + x
2
/2! + 1 + x for x << 1
P kTB watts in uniform bandwidth B(Hz)
Rayleigh-J eans region (radio vs. optical)
B 0
f(Hz)
kT
f
o
P
+
(f)
hf
o
kT, so f
o
= kT/h
Plancks constant: h 10
-34
[J sec]
Boltzmanns constant: 10
-23
[ ] kT
1 e
hf
WH ) f ( P
1
z
<<

=

+
Rayleigh-J eans limit
13 6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 16
20 T(K) GHz
6.6
k = 1.38 [J /K]
hf for kT
kT hf
Problem: Find thermal radiation intensity I(watts/Hz m
2
ster)
Approach:
slightly lossy, filled with photons
b
a
d
z
x
y
1) Find energy density spectrum W(f)[J /m
3
Hz]
2) Relate W(f) to I(f)
e.g. antenna
Intercepting
surface
W(f)
I(f)
14
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 17
Assume closed container, very
First:
waveguide
modes
Find energy density spectrum W(f)[J m
-3
Hz
-1
]
W(f) =
modes
Hz
photons
mode
energy
photon
1
vol.
TE
m,n
1 e -1
hf/kT
hf
E
z
0 H
z
0
m
y
2
= a,
n
x
2
= b
x
b
x
m=4
n=3
a
y
y
a
b
d
z
15
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 18
m,n
, TM
Begin finding modes/Hz
2 2 2
cp cn cm
f
= Claim:
Recall wave eqn:
2
+
2
E = 0
2
x
2
2
y
2
2
z
2
+ +
wave
direction
x
y
y
o
k
k
2
x
k
2
y
k
2
z
+ + =
k
2
o
=
2
o
=
2
o
2
E = E
o
e
x y z
z
[k
x
= 2/
x
]
16
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 19
p , n , m
d 2 b 2 a 2
- jk x - jk y - jk
Uniform plane wave
k
2
x
k
2
y
k
2
z
+ + =
k
2
o
=
2

o

o
=
2

o
2
E = E
o
e
x y z
z
[k
x
= 2 /
x
]
m

y
2
= a (m/2a)
2
+ (n/2b)
2
+ (p/2d)
2
= (f/c)
2
= QED
Next, use this relation to find modes/Hz
1/
2
X
+
1/
2
y
+
1/
2
z
=
1/
2
o
= (f/c)
2
Therefore
Note:
wave
direction
x

y
y

x

o
k
( ) 0 E
2 2
=
17
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 20
- jk x - jk y - jk
+
f
m,n,p
=
cm
2a
2
cn
2b
2
+
cp
2d
2
+
#modes in df shell =
= vol. of shell 2/vol. cell
4f
2
8
c
2a

c
2b

c
2c
=
8f
2
c
3
V
ol
df
modes
Hz
df
=
abd
df
1 2 3 0
0
1
1
2
p(c/2d)
m(c/2a)
n(c/2b)
Find modes/Hz:
18
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 21
TE + TM
df 2
W(f) =
modes
Hz
photons
mode
energy
photon
1
vol.
Find energy density spectrum W(f):
W(f) =
8f
2
c
3
V
e
hf/kT
1 8
c
3
hf
3
e -1
hf/kT
[J m
-3
Hz
-1
]
19
6.661 Fall 2001
Slide 22
- 1
hf 1/V =

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Summary of Signal Types

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