SQL

(Structured Query Language)

Agenda
What is SQL?
SQL Terminology
Creating and Deleting Tables
Select Statement for querying
Join Statement
Aliases
Sub-query
Comparison, Character match, Numerical
expression
Insert, Update, Delete
SQL Data-types

What is SQL?

What is SQL?
SQL provides a way to retrieve and
manipulate data in a relational database
SQL is used for all relational database
operations, including administration,
schema creation and data retrieval

Data definition
Data manipulation

What SQL IS Not

SQL is a not a programming language

It does not provide any flow-of-control

programming constructs, function definitions,
do-loops, or if-then-else statements
Unlike modern programming languages that
enable you to define a data type for a specific
purpose, SQL forces you to choose from a set
of predefined data types when you create or
modify a column.

SQL is not a procedural language

You use SQL to tell the database what data to

retrieve or modify without telling it how to do it

Similarity with Programming

Language
They both usually give you more than one
way to accomplish the same goal

Various SQL statements may achieve the same

results (but differ in processing efficiency and
clarity of code)

Case Sensitivity
SQL is not case sensitive

You can mix uppercase and lowercase

when referencing SQL keywords
(SELECT, INSERT, ...), table names and
column names
However, case does matter when
referring to the contents of a column; if
you ask for all the store's where the store
name is lower case, but in the database
all the names are stored in upper case,
you wont retrieve any rows at all
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SQL Terminology

SQL Terms
Table
A set of rows
Analogous to a file

Column
A column is analogous to a field of a record
Each column in a given row has a single value

SQL Terms (Continued)

Row
Analogous to a record of a file
All rows of a table have the same set of
columns

Primary Key
One of more columns whose contents are
unique within a table and thus can be used to
identify a row of that table
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Creating & Deleting

Tables and other
Operations via DDL
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Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL is used for defining the database
structure
Create Table, Alter Table, Drop table
Create Index, Drop Index
Create User, Alter User, Drop User
Create Role, Drop Role
Create Schema, Drop Schema
Create View, Drop View
Create Trigger, Drop Trigger
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CREATE TABLE
create table store
(store_id NUMERIC,
name VARCHAR(25),
city VARCHAR(25),
state VARCHAR(2),
zip VARCHAR(25));

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ALTER TABLE
ALTER TABLE store ADD UNIQUE (C1);
ALTER TABLE store ADD ORDER_NUM INT;
ALTER TABLE store ADD CONSTRAINT
constraint_0 FOREIGN KEY (C1)
REFERENCES T1 (C1);
ALTER TABLE store DROP ORDER_NUM
CASCADE;
ALTER TABLE store RENAME TO T1;
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DROP TABLE
DROP TABLE store;

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CREATE INDEX & DROP INDEX

CREATE INDEX customer_idx
ON "PBPUBLIC"."CUSTOMER_TBL"
( "CUSTOMER_NUM" ASC ,"NAME" ASC )
DROP INDEX ORDER_TBL.ORDER;

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CREATE/ALTER/DROP USER
CREATE USER PoInT PASSWORD BaSE;
CREATE USER "PoInT" PASSWORD "BaSE";
ALTER USER Scott PASSWORD lion;
ALTER USER Scott DEFAULT ROLE CEO;
DROP USER ENGINEERING_MANAGER
CASCADE;
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CREATE/DROP VIEW
CREATE VIEW customer_order
AS select
order_num,order_tbl.customer_num,customer
_tbl.name
FROM order_tbl,customer_tbl
WHERE product_num = 10;
DROP VIEW customer_order;

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CREATE/DROP TRIGGER
CREATE TRIGGER trigger2
BEFORE UPDATE ON product_tbl
REFERENCING NEW AS NEWROW
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEWROW.qty_on_hand < 0)
SET NEWROW.qty_on_hand = 0;
DROP TRIGGER trigger2
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Select Statement

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SELECT Statement
SELECT [ DISTINCT | ALL ]
column_expression1, column_expression2, ....
[ FROM from_clause ]
[ WHERE where_expression ]
[ GROUP BY expression1, expression2, .... ]
[ HAVING having_expression ]
[ ORDER BY {column | expression} [asc | desc] ]
distinct keyword eliminates duplicates

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SELECT Statement
Select * from customer_tbl;

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FROM Clause
Comma delimited list of tables to retrieve
data from
With or without aliases

23

WHERE Clause
Determines exactly which rows are
retrieved
Qualifications in the where clause
Comparison operators (=,>,<, >=,<=)
Ranges (between and not between)
Character matches (like and not like)
Unknown values (is null and is not null)
Lists (in and not in)
Combinations of the above (and, or)
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WHERE Clause
(Continued)
Not negates any Boolean expressions
and keywords such as like, null, between
and in

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Example: WHERE Clause

select Customer_num, discount_code, zip, name
from customer_tbl
where discount_code in ('N','M','L')
and zip like '33%'

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GROUP BY Clause
The group by function organises data into
groups based on the contents of a column(s)
Usually used with an aggregate function in the select
list
The aggregate is calculated for each group
All null values in the group by column are treated as
one group

Grouping can be done by a column_name or

by any expression that does not contain an
aggregate function
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GROUP BY Clause Cont.

The group by function usually contains
all columns and expressions in the
select list that are not aggregates
In conjunction with the where clause,
rows are eliminated before they go into
groups
Applies a condition on a table before the
groups are formed
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Example: GROUP BY
Clause
select customer_num,
count(customer_num),
sum(quantity)
from order_tbl
group by customer_num

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HAVING Clause
Set conditions on groups
Restricts groups

Applies a condition to the groups after

they have been formed
having is usually used in conjunction
with an aggregate function

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Example: HAVING Clause

select product_num,
quantity,
shipping_cost
from order_tbl
group by product_num,
quantity,
shipping_cost
having shipping_cost >
250

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ORDER BY Clause
The order by clause sorts the query
results (in ascending order by default)
Items named in an order by clause need
not appear in the select list
When using order by, nulls are listed first

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ORDER BY Clause
Example
select product_num,
quantity,
shipping_cost
from order_tbl
group by product_num,
quantity,
shipping_cost
having shipping_cost >
250
order by quantity,
shipping_cost;

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Join Statement

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Join Statement
Retrieves data from two or more tables
Combines tables by matching values
from rows in each table
Joins are done in the where clause
Columns in join don't have to be in select

35

Join Statement (Continued)

If you do not specify how to join rows
from different tables, the database
server assumes you want to join every
row in each table
Cartesian Product
Very costly (cpu time)
May take a while to return large result set

Column names that appear in more then

one table should be prefixed by table
name

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Example: Join Statement

select c.name,
o.quantity,
o.shipping_cost
from order_tbl o,
customer_tbl c
where o.customer_num =
c.customer_num;

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Outer Joins
With a join, if one row of a table is
unmatched, row is omitted from result
table.
The outer join operations retain rows
that do not satisfy the join condition
List branches and properties that are in same
city along with any unmatched branches.
SELECT b.*, p.*
FROM branch1 b LEFT JOIN
property_for_rent1 p ON b.bcity = p.pcity;

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Outer Join cont.

bno
bcity
pno
pcity
--------------------------------------------B3 Glasgow PG4
Glasgow
B4 Bristol
NULL
NULL
B2 London PL94
London
There is a LEFT JOIN and a RIGHT JOIN
These can be very vendor specific (check with
your vendor for outer join specifications)
Oracle uses (+) for outer joins, MS SQL Server
uses LEFT OUTER JOIN
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Alias

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Alias
Use of temporary names for tables
within a query
Can be used anywhere in query
Reduces amount of typing
ex. select pub_name, title_id
from titles t, publishers p
where t.pub_id = p.pub_id
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Example: Alias
select type_code,
city,
region
from office_tbl;

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Example: Alias cont.

select t.description,
o.city,
o.region
from office_tbl o,
office_type_code_tbl t
where o.type_code =
t.type_code;

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Sub-Query

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Sub-Queries
A select statement, used as an
expression in part of another select,
update, insert or delete
The sub-query is resolved first and the
results are substituted into the outer
query's where clause
Used because it can be quicker to understand
than a join
Perform otherwise impossible tasks (i.e. using
an aggregate)
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Example: Sub-Query
select product_num,
description,
purchase_cost
from product_tbl
group by product_num,
description,
purchase_cost
having purchase_cost >
(select avg
(shipping_cost)
from order_tbl);

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EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS are for use
only with sub-queries.
They produce a simple true/false result
EXISTS is true if and only if there exists
at least one row in result table returned
by sub-query
It is false if sub-query returns an empty
result table
NOT EXISTS is the opposite of EXISTS
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EXISTS cont.
select o.city,
s.first_name || ' '||
s.last_name
from sales_rep_tbl s,
office_tbl o
where s.office_num =
o.office_num
and exists
(select 1
from manufacture_tbl m
where m.city = o.city);

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Union, Intersection

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Union, Intersection and

Difference
Can use normal set operations of union,
intersection, and difference to combine
results of two or more queries into a
single result table.
Union of two tables, A and B, is table
containing all rows in either A or B or
both.
Intersection is table containing all rows
common to both A and B.

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Union cont.
Difference is table containing all rows in
A but not in B.
Two tables must be union compatible.
(SELECT area
FROM branch
WHERE area IS NOT NULL) UNION
(SELECT area
FROM property_for_rent
WHERE area IS NOT NULL);

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Comparison,
Character match,
Numerical Expression
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Comparison Operators
=
equal to
> greater than
< less than
!=
not equal
<> not equal

!> not greater than

!< not less than
>= greater than / equal
to
<= less than / equal to

53

Character Matches
Use to select rows containing field that
match specified portions of character
string
Use with character data only
Can use wildcards
%

any string of zero or more characters

Enclose wildcards and character strings

in quotes
54

Numerical Expressions
Numerical expressions can be used in
any numeric column or in any clause
that allows an expression
+
*
/
%

addition
subtration
multiplication
division
modulos

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Aggregate
Functions
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Aggregate Functions
count(*)

number of selected rows

count(col_name)

number of nul-null values in column

max(col_name)

highest value in column

min(col_name)

lowest value in column

sum(col_name)

total of values in column

avg(col_name)

average of values in column

Aggregates ignore null values (except

count(*))
sum and avg only work with numeric
values

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Aggregate Functions Cont.

If a group by clause is not used, only
one row is returned
Aggregates may not be used in a where
clause
Aggregates can be applied to all rows in
a table or to a subset of a table
Distinct keyword eliminates duplicate
values before applying the aggregate
function
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NULL Values
A null value is an unknown value
null is a special value which means no
information available
is null should be used to match columns
contains null values
= null can also be used, but is not
recommended
One null value is never equal to another null
value
null's sort and group together
Some columns are defined to permit null
values
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Insert, Update,
Delete
60

INSERT
INSERT INTO table_name [ ( col_name1, col_name2, .... ) ]
VALUES ( expression1_1, expression1_2, .... ),
( expression2_1, expression2_2, .... ), ....
INSERT INTO table_name [ ( col_name1, col_name2, .... ) ]
SELECT ...
INSERT INTO table_name
SET col_name1 = expression1, col_name2 = expression2, ....

61

INSERT cont.
The column list is optional.
If omitted, SQL assumes a list of all
columns in their original CREATE
TABLE order.
Any columns omitted must have been
declared as NULL when table was
created, unless DEFAULT was specified
when creating column.
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INSERT cont.
Data value list must match column list as
follows:
Number of items in each list must be the same.
Must be direct correspondence in position of items
in two lists.
Data type of each item in data_value_list must be
compatible with data type of corresponding column.

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INSERT Examples
Not specifying column names:
INSERT INTO Dept VALUES (1, 'Engineering', ProjectSet());
Specifying column names:
INSERT INTO staff (sno, fname, lname, position, salary, bno)
VALUES ('SG44', 'Anne', 'Jones', 'Assistant', 8100, 'B3');
Insert using a select statement
INSERT INTO stores (store_name, total_sales)
SELECT ...

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UPDATE
UPDATE table_name
SET col_name1 = expression1, col_name2 = expression2, ....
[ WHERE expression ]
[ LIMIT limit_amount ]
SET clause specifies names of one or more columns that are to
be updated.
Where clause is optional.
If omitted, named columns are updated for all rows in
table.

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Update Example
UPDATE emp
SET sal = sal * 1.1
WHERE empno NOT IN (SELECT empno FROM bonus);

UPDATE staff
SET salary = salary*1.05
WHERE position = 'Manager';

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DELETE
DELETE FROM table_name
[ WHERE expression ]
[ LIMIT limit_amount ]
where is optional; if omitted, all rows are deleted from table. This
does not delete table. If the where is specified, only those rows
that satisfy condition are deleted.

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DELETE examples
delete from store where store_num = 221;
Delete all information from the store table:
delete from store;

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SQL Data Types

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SQL Data Types

Data Type

Declaration

character

CHAR, VARCHAR

bit

BIT, BIT VARYING

numeric

NUMERIC, DECIMAL, INTEGER

approx. numeric

FLOAT, REAL, DOUBLE

datetime

DATE, TIME, TIMESTAMP

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Passion!

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