Chapter 9
Chapter 9
Chapter 9
eBook plus
A timeline of
the Polynesian
expansion across
the Pacific
40 000
c. 40 000 BCE
Aborigines arrive
in Australia.
1600
1400
1200
c. 15001000 BCE
The Lapita people
spread across
Polynesia.
1000
BCE
CE
200
400
c. 300 CE
Polynesians settle
the Marquesas and
Hawaiian islands.
600
c. 700 CE
Polynesians settle
Easter Island.
800
1000
c. 1600 CE
The moa bird
becomes extinct,
forcing the Maori to
alter their lifestyle.
1976 CE
The voyage of the
Hokulea recreates
the 10 000 km sea
voyage between
Hawaii and Tahiti.
c. 1000 CE
Polynesians arrive
in New Zealand
(the arrival of the
Great Fleet).
1600
1800
2000
1769 CE
Captain James Cook
arrives in New Zealand.
259
260
Source 2
Carved wooden paddles from the Solomon Islands. The
paddle on the right is thought to show a frigate bird in the sky. It is thought
the frigate bird is a symbol of the spirits of the ancestors. Although the
Solomon Islands are actually part of Melanesia, not Polynesia, these
artefacts are important as they help historians understand where
theoriginal Polynesian settlers migrated from.
Changing history
In recent years there has been a renewed focus on
the history of the Polynesian people as seen through
Polynesian eyes. This important work is done by the
descendants of the very people who first settled the region
centuries ago. But, as is the case with all oral histories, it is
important to act quickly. When a person dies without the
opportunity to record their story, their knowledge and
unique perspective on their indigenous history is lost.
261
A great undertaking
The settlement of the remote islands of the vast Pacific
Ocean is one of the greatest stories of exploration in
world history because the Pacific islands were the most
difficult places for humans to reach. The Pacific Ocean
covers one-third of the Earths surface and is larger than
the Atlantic and Indian oceans combined. The Pacific
could contain the total landmass of the Earth and still
leave enough room for another continent the size of Asia.
Source 1
A map of the Pacific Ocean showing migration and settlement in the Pacific islands.
The people of the Pacific islands belong to three main cultural groups Melanesia (meaning
black islands), Micronesia (small islands) and Polynesia (many islands).
Haw
TAIWAN
aiia
n I
sla
n
ds
Northern
Mariana
Islands
Hawaii
P H I L I P P I N E Guam
New Guinea
N
PAPUA
NEW GUINEA
SOLOMON
ISLANDS
c. 1500
1000 BCE VANUATU
New
Caledonia
K I R I B A T I
c. 1500 CE
Gilbert
Islands
TUVALU
c. 1000 BCE
1 CE
OCEAN
MARSHALL
ISLANDS
SAMOA
Cook
FIJI
c. 1000 BCE
TONGA I s l a n d s
Tahiti
French Polynesia
North Island
TA S M A N S E A
NEW ZEALAND
c. 1000 CE
c. 300 CE
Pitcairn
Islands
Easter Island
Kermadec
Islands
c. 1200
1300 CE
AUSTRALIA
Marquesas Islands
c. 100 CE
Java
M E
L
PAC I F I C
c. 1500 BCE
INDONESIA
c. 300500 CE
M I C R O N E S
I A
PHILIPPINES S E A
c. 1000 CE
c. 1000 CE
Chatham Islands
South Island
Key
Movement of peoples
1000
2000
kilometres
262
3000
Student workbook
9.1
Source 3
The Hokulea under
sail from Hawaii in 1976
263
Source 1
A map of New Zealand showing the areas of Maori settlement, hunting
grounds of the moa and deposits of greenstone and obsidian. All of these aspects
of the land would play an important role in the development of the Maori culture.
Key
Greenstone-nephrite
Obsidian
Initial area of settlement c. 1000CE
How?
The Pacific Ocean is vast. It covers
a distance of half the circumference
of the earth, so there is no doubt
that those people who explored the
Polynesian region were excellent
seafarers. Charts made from sticks
and shells showed islands and sea
currents and were passed down
from generation to generation.
Knowledge of the stars and other
natural signs, such as the flight
patterns of birds and the shape
of clouds, also helped guide the
voyagers across the seas.
Why?
There is not enough evidence
to give a definite answer to the
question of why the first settlers
came to New Zealand. Some
theories are:
a planned short voyage of
exploration was blown off course
an escape from war or disease
a search for land and resources
because of island overpopulation
a spirit of adventure developed
through sophisticated skills of
navigation.
Although none of these has
been definitively proven, most
264
North Island
NEW ZEALAND
TA SM AN
SE A
South Island
S O U TH
PACI FI C
O CE AN
100
200
kilometres
300
When?
The Maori
Source 2
Charts made from sticks and shells, like this one, helped
the early seafarers navigate the vast distances between the islands
of Polynesia. The chart shows ocean currents and islands and was a
valuable tool in the absence of compasses and modern navigational
instruments.
265
266
Nga kakano
The East Polynesian or Archaic period, also referred to
as Nga kakano, meaning the seeds, spanned from about
800 to 1200 CE. This is the time of the first Polynesian
settlers and their immediate descendants. The people
of this period are also known as the Moa hunters. It
was a time of discovery and adaptation to the new land.
Te tipunga
The Te tipunga period, meaning the growth, began on
the North Island during the thirteenth century and had
spread across New Zealand by the sixteenth century.
It was the era of expansion when the Maori discovered
and settled the more remote areas of their land and
began developing their unique cultural traditions,
beliefs and art.
Te puawaitanga
The Classical Maori period dated from the sixteenth to
the nineteenth century. During this time, the earliest
European explorers and settlers of New Zealand
recorded the features of Maori classical society and
culture. This period is known as Te puawaitanga, or the
flowering, because it is regarded as the time when the
most beautiful Maori art was created.
Te huringa
The final period from the nineteenth century to the
present is known as Te huringa, or the turning point,
because it is the time of increased Maori contact with
Europeans and the introduction of the modern world
into Maori culture.
Student workbook
9.2
267
Source 1
A portrait of Chief
Tamati Waka Nene painted by
Gottfried Lindauer in 1890. This
painting provides a great deal of
information about Maori society.
Women in society
While leadership positions were primarily
held by men, women had their own titles and
a very important role to play in establishing
alliances between different members of the
family and other iwis. The first-born female
of the most important families could be given
the title of ariki. She would also have been
shown the level of respect given to a queen in
European society.
The community
The general term to express the many groups
and levels of traditional Maori society is tangata
whenua, meaning the people of the land.
The whanau was the family unit at the core
of Maori society. The family and the other
members of the hapu, or clan group, decided
where individuals lived, who they married, who
they were friends with and who they fought.
Village communities ranged in size from just a
few families to over five hundred people.
Land and most of the property was
communally owned. Absolute ownership of
land was not common. In fact different families
or tribal groups could have different rights to
the same piece of land. For example, one family
The village
On occasions when community meetings were
held the people gathered in the open courtyard,
called the marae, in front of the more formal
meeting houses, known as the wharenui. The
traditional Maori pa, or village, was designed
around the marae because it was regarded as
the spiritual centre of the village. It was on the
marae that celebrations were held, the dead were
mourned, guests were greeted and important
matters were discussed.
The pa were often built on ridges and
locations that could be easily defended. Rivers
and lakes were also often used to provide
natural barriers against enemy attack. Defences
were completed by trenches, earth ramparts
and palisades built from large sharpened stakes
that were lashed together for strength.
The Maori were very successful farmers.
Agriculture led to the construction of larger
and more permanent village settlements.
Village life was organised around food
gathering, growing and warfare.
Source 2
Tu Kaitote, the Pa of Te Whero Whero, by
George Angas. Painted c. 1845, this image shows a
community meeting being held on the marae.
269
Source 3
The Maori war canoe was up to 40 metres long and could carry dozens of warriors. It was formed from
a large hollowed-out tree trunk that was then intricately carved and decorated, as shown in this etching, c.1773.
Warfare
270
Source 6
A computer
image of a shrunken
head. The traditional
tattoo is clearly visible.
Tapu
Maori life was guided by a sacred law known as
tapu, meaning taboo. Those people who broke tapu
were doomed to meet with misfortune, sickness or
death. Tapu was enforced through religious belief,
superstition and the power of the community tohunga,
or spiritual leader. Only the tohunga could declare or
release tapu. The gods, or atua, were the sources of
tapu, and only through the protection given by the
atua could humans be saved from evil. Objects that
were declared tapu had to be given the highest respect.
Forests and fishing grounds could be tapu during
particular seasons of the year; burial grounds were
tapu; and the possessions of a dead person were tapu
until cleansed by a tohunga.
Student workbook
9.3
Trade
Despite the constant warfare a network of trade
links developed between the Maori tribes. Trade was
important because food sources and natural resources
were not evenly spread across the islands. The greenstone,
called nephrite, was a type of jade found only in three
small regions of the South Island. The South Island tribes
mined the rich greenstone deposits and then shipped
the treasured stone by canoe to the coastal villages of the
North Island. Greenstone was the most valuable trade
item, desired both for beauty and hardness. It was used
to make weapons and ornaments and was known to the
craftsmen as pounamu. The stone was so important to
Maori culture that the entire South Island was named
Te Wai Pounamu, meaning place of the greenstone.
According to Maori belief, the greenstone came from the
earth and was under the guardianship of the god Poutini.
Maori people also travelled and traded over long
distances for the high quality obsidian from the Bay of
Plenty, which they used to craft the blades of their knives.
Food, such as mutton birds from the south, was regarded
as a delicacy and so preserved and also traded widely.
271
272
Source 2
The supercontinent
Pangaea broke up millions
of years ago. It formed the
two smaller supercontinents
of Laurasia and Gondwana,
which then broke up further
to begin resembling todays
continents. This diagram
shows Gondwana.
Central Europe
Turkey
Iran
Arabia
Africa
Tibet
India
South America
Australia
Antarctica
New
Zealand
273
Source 3
There were different species
of moa, some ranging from the size
of a chicken to others that were more
than three metres tall. This image was
published in 1907.
Source 4
The takahe, once thought extinct, was rediscovered
in 1948 in New Zealands Murchison Mountains.
Student workbook
9.4
Definition
Gondwana
Ponga
Kauri
Flax
Moa
Tuatara
Takahe
Silver fern
275
9.6 SkillBuilder
Making your own notes from sources
What are notes?
At the heart of any successful study
of history is the ability to make
effective notes. By learning this skill,
you get the most out of your classes
and readings. You are also more
prepared for assessment as notes
form the basis of revision and essay
construction.
Effective notes are more than
just a transcript of what has been
said in class, or a direct copying of
information from a textbook. Notes
are a concise and comprehensive
account of a topic or source. They
summarise key information and
clarify particular points in your own
words. They also ensure that you
are obtaining only the important
information from a source.
Why is note-making
important?
As you study a history topic, you
will notice that there is a great
deal of information that you are
required to know. Sometimes the
amount of information can seem
overwhelming, but being able
to make useful notes will make
remembering and understanding
that information easier. This is
because you identify only the
important information without
trying to remember everything.
Effective notes are not only used
later on when preparing for a test
or essay they are an excellent
way to learn. You will find that by
making notes you are helping the
key information travel from your
pen to your mind.
276
STEP 1
Read through the source at least once without a pen in your hand. Do
not make any markings or highlight anything. This will help you get an
overall idea of the source before you worry about the details.
STEP 2
After you have a general understanding of the source, go back
and underline or highlight what you consider to be the key words
and phrases (shown in blue in Source 1 ). If you see words that are
unfamiliar to you, you should make note of these in a different colour
(shown in green in Source 1 ).
Source 1
Rahui is a form of tapu that the Maori used to limit resource use. For
example, rahui could be imposed over an area to prevent the gathering of
food while the land recovered. It helped to conserve limited food supplies
and other natural resources. All Maori tribes accepted the principles of
rahui.
Unfortunately, rahui came too late for the moa. Although the young
birds were an important food source of the Haasts eagle, the adult moa
lacked any natural predators prior to human settlement. The moa became
an abundant and important food source, with both the meat of the bird
as well as its large eggs providing a lifeline for the Maori. The bones of the
bird were used to make ornaments and fishhooks, and even the shells of
the giant eggs were used to carry water. The meat of the moa could be
preserved and became a valuable trading good.
Archaeologists believe the moa was hunted to extinction by the
fifteenthcentury. As a result, the Haasts eagle also disappeared into history.
As you will see later in this chapter, this had a huge impact on the Maori
people.
STEP 3
Once you have highlighted or underlined the key words and phrases, you
now need to organise them into dot points. Write them in your own words
so that you can be sure you have understood the text. Your notes should be
much shorter than the text you have read because you have summarised the
important information in your own words.
Student workbook
9.5
Source 2
Source 5
The taro, a Polynesian
vegetable, was a part of the Maori diet.
Now compare
Source 3
Dot point notes on the
rahui and the extinction of the moa
Rahui
Form of tapu (sacred law)
Used to conserve natural
resources
Accepted by all Maori tribes
Moa
Large flightless bird native to
NZ
No predators for adult moa
Haasts eagle preyed on the
young
Moa had many uses (food,
ornaments, trade)
Extinction
Gone by the fifteenth
century
Haasts eagle extinct also
because prey disappeared
Principles of rahui were too
late to save the moa.
Your turn
Read the following passage and
follow the steps to make your own
notes.
Source 4
The Maori diet was a combination of the cultivated vegetables brought from
Polynesia, such as taro and yams, and the meat from birds, fish, dogs and
rats. The abundance of seafood, including seaweed, dolphins, whales and
seals, provided additional variety to the Maori meal. The village cooking
was not done within the whare (house), but was generally a communal task
done in an earth oven, known as hangi or utu. The hangi was made by men
by digging a deep pit and covering it with wood that was set alight. Large
river stones placed on the wood pile became very hot and eventually fell
into the pit. The hot stones were covered with baskets of food wrapped in
wet leaves. Layers of soil and wet mats were piled over the food. The heat
created steam from the wet leaves, which cooked the food over the course
of a few hours.
The boiling pools and streams of the North Island region of Rotorua
provided the Maori with another unique method of cooking. Small ovens
were built around the vents where water and steam bubbled up through
the ground. Food placed in these ovens was quickly cooked.
277
The pa
The pa, or fortified village, first emerged around
the fifteenth century. The Maori lived in a whare,
or house, within their fortified villages. They dug
out the floors of the whare to keep the warmth in.
The construction of the whare varied according
to location and tribal tradition. The whare was
commonly built with a framework of branches from
the small manuka tree and then thickly thatched with
the leaves of a large water plant called raupo.
There were many other aspects to the pa, as can
be seen in Source 1 .
storehouses built on platforms so
b Pataka
rats and dogs could not steal the fish, meat,
Source 1
A modern artists
impression of a Maori pa
pits covered by
a Storage
low roofs, often used for
storing vegetables
for canoes
c Shelters
and cooking sites
278
279
9.8 Customs
and culture
Source 1
A carved figurehead
mounted on a war canoe
Dress
The quality and value of weapons,
clothes and ornaments was of
real significance to Maori society
because it identified individual
status and class groups. The design
and materials used to make clothing
and jewellery varied according to
the tribal group, the location and
the climate.
Although both men and women
wore ornaments indicating their
position and rank, it was the
tradition for men to dress with
greater decoration. Men wore their
long hair wound into topknots held
Source 2
The talents of the highly
skilled Maori craftsmen are visible
in this example of whakairo.
Flax
The traditional Polynesian plants
such as the paper mulberry tree
and tropical cabbage tree did
not survive in the colder climate
of New Zealand. However, the
Maori discovered wonderful new
natural resources in New Zealand
such as native flax called harakeke.
Using a process that could take
three months, the flax plant was
manufactured into a sturdy fibre
suitable for weaving into clothing,
ropes and baskets. Flax sandals were
worn on long journeys across frozen
ground, flax string was used to hold
pendants in place and flax clothing
kept everybody warm.
A method of finger weaving was
developed to produce a fine flax
cloth similar to linen. Flax cloth was
dyed and woven into traditional
tribal patterns in red, white, yellow
and black. Women wore colourful
wrap around style flax skirts and
delicately woven cloaks.
Korowhai cloaks were the most
important and treasured item of
clothing woven from flax. The
korowhai were decorated with
feathers from birds such as the kiwi,
and woven with the traditional
geometrical triangle and diamond
shaped taniko patterns.
Source 3
from flax
281
Tatau
During his eighteenth century
journeys of exploration, Captain
James Cook wrote about the
Polynesian art of skin decoration
known as tatau. The British called it
tattoo.
Archaeologists believe that the
Lapita people were tattooed over
3500 years ago and carried the
tradition with them on their great
journeys of Pacific migration.
Source 4
This early European depiction of a
Maori chief shows clearly the intricately carved
comb and jewellery that reflected social
status. The tattooing is also clearly visible.
Ta moko
282
The hei-tiki
Source 7
Greenstone
in its raw form. This
specimen was found on the
coast of the South Island.
Student workbook
9.6
283
Quick quiz
1 What islands form the
5
6
7
8
9
10
284
Student workbook
9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10
Source 2
Three Maori girls and a boy sitting on a large carved Maori canoe
by a lake, painted by Gottfried Lindauer in 1899
Agree
Disagree
285