Partial Fraction
Partial Fraction
Partial Fraction
mc-TY-partialfractions-2009-1
An algebraic fraction such as
partial fractions. Specifically
3x + 5
can often be broken down into simpler parts called
2x2 5x 3
3x + 5
2
1
=
5x 3
x 3 2x + 1
2x2
Contents
1. Introduction
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1. Introduction
An algebraic fraction is a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are both polynomial
expressions. A polynomial expression is one where every term is a multiple of a power of x,
such as
5x4 + 6x3 + 7x + 4
The degree of a polynomial is the power of the highest term in x. So in this case the degree is
4.
The number in front of x in each term is called its coefficient. So, the coefficient of x4 is 5.
The coefficient of x3 is 6.
Now consider the following algebraic fractions:
x
x2 + 2
x3 + 3
x4 + x2 + 1
In both cases the numerator is a polynomial of lower degree than the denominator. We call these
proper fractions
With other fractions the polynomial may be of higher degree in the numerator or it may be of
the same degree, for example
x4 + x2 + x
x+4
3
x +x+2
x+3
and these are called improper fractions.
Key Point
If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator the fraction is said to
be a proper fraction
If the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator the
fraction is said to be an improper fraction
x 3 2x + 1
In order to add these two fractions together, we need to find the lowest common denominator.
In this particular case, it is (x 3)(2x + 1).
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x 3 2x + 1
(x 3)(2x + 1) (x 3)(2x + 1)
The denominators are now the same so we can simply subtract the numerators and divide the
result by the lowest common denominator to give
2
1
4x + 2 x + 3
3x + 5
=
=
x 3 2x + 1
(x 3)(2x + 1)
(x 3)(2x + 1)
Sometimes in mathematics we need to do this operation in reverse. In calculus, for instance,
or when dealing with the binomial theorem, we sometimes need to split a fraction up into its
component parts which are called partial fractions. We discuss how to do this in the following
section.
Exercises 1
Use the rules for the addition and subtraction of fractions to simplify
a)
2
3
+
x+1 x+3
b)
5
3
x2 x+2
c)
4
2
2x + 1 x + 3
d)
1
2
3x 1 6x + 9
=
x 3 2x + 1
(x 3)(2x + 1)
3x + 5
Suppose we start with
. How can we get this back to its component parts ?
(x 3)(2x + 1)
By inspection of the denominator we see that the component parts must have denominators of
x 3 and 2x + 1 so we can write
A
B
3x + 5
=
+
(x 3)(2x + 1)
x 3 2x + 1
where A and B are numbers. A and B cannot involve x or powers of x because otherwise the
terms on the right would be improper fractions.
The next thing to do is to multiply both sides by the common denominator (x 3)(2x + 1). This
gives
A(x 3)(2x + 1) B(x 3)(2x + 1)
(3x + 5)(x 3)(2x + 1)
=
+
(x 3)(2x + 1)
x3
2x + 1
Then cancelling the common factors from the numerators and denominators of each term gives
3x + 5 = A(2x + 1) + B(x 3)
Now this is an identity. This means that it is true for any values of x, and because of this we
can substitute any values of x we choose into it. Observe that if we let x = 21 the first term
on the right will become zero and hence A will disappear. If we let x = 3 the second term on
the right will become zero and hence B will disappear.
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If x =
1
2
3
1
+5 = B 3
2
2
7
7
= B
2
2
from which
B = 1
Now we want to try to find A.
If x = 3
14 = 7A
so that A = 2.
Putting these results together we have
3x + 5
A
B
=
+
(x 3)(2x + 1)
x 3 2x + 1
1
2
=
x 3 2x + 1
which is the sum that we started with, and we have now broken the fraction back into its
component parts called partial fractions.
Example
3x
as the sum of its partial fractions.
(x 1)(x + 2)
Observe that the factors in the denominator are x 1 and x + 2 so we write
3x
A
B
=
+
(x 1)(x + 2)
x1 x+2
where A and B are numbers.
We multiply both sides by the common denominator (x 1)(x + 2):
3x = A(x + 2) + B(x 1)
This time the special values that we shall choose are x = 2 because then the first term on the
right will become zero and A will disappear, and x = 1 because then the second term on the
right will become zero and B will disappear.
If x = 2
6 = 3B
6
B =
3
B = 2
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If x = 1
3 = 3A
A = 1
Putting these results together we have
3x
1
2
=
+
(x 1)(x + 2)
x1 x+2
and we have expressed the given fraction in partial fractions.
Sometimes the denominator is more awkward as we shall see in the following section.
Exercises 2
Express the following as a sum of partial fractions
2x + 5
3
2x 1
b)
c)
a)
(x + 2)(x 3)
(x 2)(x + 1)
(x 1)(2x 1)
d)
1
(x + 4)(x 2)
3x + 1
A
B
C
=
+
+
(x 1)2 (x + 2)
(x 1) (x 1)2 (x + 2)
where A, B and C are numbers.
As before we multiply both sides by the denominator (x 1)2 (x + 2) to give
3x + 1 = A(x 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x 1)2
(1)
Again we look for special values to substitute into this identity. If we let x = 1 then the first and
last terms on the right will be zero and A and C will disappear. If we let x = 2 the first and
second terms will be zero and A and B will disappear.
If x = 1
4 = 3B
so that
B=
4
3
If x = 2
5
9
We now need to find A. There is no special value of x that will eliminate B and C to give us
A. We could use any value. We could use x = 0. This will give us an equation in A, B and C.
Since we already know B and C, this would give us A.
5 = 9C
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so that
C=
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But here we shall demonstrate a different technique - one called equating coefficients. We take
equation 1 and multiply-out the right-hand side, and then collect up like terms.
3x + 1 = A(x 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x 1)2
= A(x2 + x 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x2 2x + 1)
= (A + C)x2 + (A + B 2C)x + (2A + 2B + C)
This is an identity which is true for all values of x. On the left-hand side there are no terms
involving x2 whereas on the right we have (A + C)x2 . The only way this can be true is if
A+C =0
This is called equating coefficients of x2 . We already know that C = 95 so this means that
A = 59 . We also already know that B = 43 . Putting these results together we have
5
4
5
3x + 1
=
+
2
2
(x 1) (x + 2)
9(x 1) 3(x 1)
9(x + 2)
and the problem is solved.
Exercises 3
Express the following as a sum of partial fractions
5x2 + 17x + 15
x
x2 + 1
a)
b)
c)
(x + 2)2 (x + 1)
(x 3)2 (2x + 1)
(x 1)2 (x + 1)
5x
+ x + 1)(x 2)
5x
Ax + B
C
= 2
+
+ x + 1)(x 2)
x +x+1 x2
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If x = 2
10
7
Unfortunately there is no value we can substitute which will enable us to get rid of C so instead
we use the technique of equating coefficients. We have
10 = 7C
and so
C=
2B + C = 0
But since C =
B=
C
2
10
5
then B = . Putting all these results together we have
7
7
10
10
x + 57
5x
7
7
=
+
(x2 + x + 1)(x 2)
x2 + x + 1 x 2
10x + 5
10
+
2
7(x + x + 1) 7(x 2)
5(2x + 1)
10
+
2
7(x + x + 1) 7(x 2)
Exercises 4
Express the following as a sum of partial fractions
a)
x2 3x 7
(x2 + x + 2)(2x 1)
b)
13
(2x + 3)(x2 + 1)
c)
x
(x2 x + 1)(3x 2)
4x3 + 10x + 4
in partial fractions.
x(2x + 1)
7
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so that
A=2
so that
A = 2B
so that
2
B = = 1
2
x3 + 1
x2 + 1
b)
2x4 + 3x2 + 1
x2 + 3x + 2
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c)
7x2 1
x+3
8
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Answers
Exercise 1
5x + 11
a)
(x + 1)(x + 3)
Exercise 2
1
1
a)
+
x+2 x3
b)
2x + 16
(x 2)(x + 2)
c)
10
(2x + 1)(x + 3)
b)
3
1
x2 x+1
c)
3
6
1
1
d)
x 1 2x 1
6(x 2) 6(x + 4)
d)
11
(3x 1)(6x + 9)
Exercise 3
2
1
3
1
3
2
a)
+
b)
+
2
2
x + 2 (x + 2)
x+1
49(x 3) 7(x 3)
49(2x + 1)
1
1
1
c)
+
+
2
2(x 1) (x 1)
2(x + 1)
Exercise 4
3
2x + 1
a) 2
x + x + 2 2x 1
Exercise 5
x + 1
a) x + 2
x +1
b)
4
2x 3
2
2x + 3 x + 1
b) 2x2 6x + 17 +
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c)
6
45
x+1 x+2
2x + 3
6
+
7(x2 x + 1) 7(3x 2)
c) 7x 21 +
62
x+3
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