Learning From Mickey, Donald and Walt: Essays On Disneys Edutainment Films

Learning from Mickey,
Donald and Walt
This page intentionally left blank
Learning from
Mickey, Donald
and Walt
Essays on Disneys Edutainment Films
Edited by
A. BOWDOIN VAN RIPER
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina, and London
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Learning from Mickey, Donald and Walt : essays on Disneys

edutainment lms / edited by A. Bowdoin Van Riper.
p.
cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7864-5957-5
softcover : 50# alkaline paper
. Walt Disney Company. 2. Walt Disney Pictures. 3. Disney,
Walt Criticism and interpretation. 4. Animated lms United
States History and criticism. 5. Documentary lms United
States. 6. Motion pictures in education United States. I. Van
Riper, A. Bowdoin.
PN999.W27L43 20
79.43' 66 dc22
200047490
British Library cataloguing data are available
20 A. Bowdoin Van Riper. All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Front cover by TG Design
Manufactured in the United States of America
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 6, Jeerson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
For Cindy,
who believed
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
ix
Introduction
Section I: War and Propaganda

1. The Canadian Shorts: Establishing Disneys Wartime Style
BELLA HONESS ROE
15
2. Desiring the Disney Technique: Chronicle of a

Contracted Military Training Film
DOUGLAS A. CUNNINGHAM
27
3. Cartoons Will Win the War: World War II Propaganda

Shorts
RICHARD J. LESKOSKY
40
4. Cartoon Combat: World War II, Alexander de Seversky,

and Victory Through Air Power
JOHN D. THOMAS
63
Section II: Science, Technology,

Mathematics and Medicine
5. The Promise of Things to Come: Disneyland and
the Wonders of Technology, 1954 58
6. A Nation on Wheels: Films About Cars and Driving,
1948 1970
vii
84
103
viii
Table of Contents
7. A Journey Through the Wonderland of Mathematics:

Donald in Mathmagic Land
MARTIN F. NORDEN
113
8. Paging Doctor Disney: Health Education Films,

19221973
BOB CRUZ , JR .
127
Section III: Nature

9. Nature is the Dramatist: Documentary, Entertainment,
and the World According to the True-Life Adventures
EDDY VON MUELLER
145
10. Sex, Love, and Death: True-Life Fantasies

RONALD TOBIAS
164
11. It Is a Small World, After All: Earth and the Disneycation

of Planet Earth
EDDY VON MUELLER
173
Section IV: Times, Places and People

12. A Past to Make Us Proud: U. S. History According
to Disney
MARIANNE HOLDZKOM
183
13. Reviving the American Dream: The World of Sports

KATHARINA BONZEL
201
14. Beyond the Ratoncito: Disneys Idea of Latin America

BERNICE NUHFER-HALTEN
209
15. Locating the Magic Kingdom: Spectacle and Similarity

in People and Places
CYNTHIA J. MILLER
221
16. Americas Salesman: The USA in Circarama

SARAH NILSEN
237
About the Contributors
255
Index
259
Acknowledgments
This project had its origins at a 2006 conference, The Documentary Tradition, sponsored by the Center for the Study of Film
and History. For helping to bring it from there to here, I am grateful
to Dan Vogel and Ron Weekes, for their contributions to the original
conversation; Peter Rollins, organizer of the conference and director
emeritus of the Center, for his encouragement; Skip Elsheimer, for
his generous offer of access to his lm collection; Kathy Merlock
Jackson, for her astute comments and suggestions; several anonymous referees, for sharpening my ideas about the shape of the project; and my daughter Katie, for her patience with a project that I
began when she was in elementary school and nished when she
was in high school.
Finally, my thanks go to Cindy Miller, whose insight, enthusiasm, and willingness to be my rst, best editor have been invaluable throughout this projects long life.
ix
Introduction
All movie studios are in the fantasy business, but none more so than Disney. Its biggest stars are a plucky white-gloved mouse who keeps a pet dog,
a perpetually exasperated duck in a sailors blouse (but no pants), and a gangling, irrepressibly happy being of uncertain species. Its lms have, over eight
decades, shown audiences towering castles, talking animals, magic spells, and
still-more exotic sights: ying elephants, ticking crocodiles, self-aware Volkswagens, and elaborate musical numbers performed by dancing tableware. The
very rst Mickey Mouse cartoon released, Steamboat Willie, set the tone with
a surrealistic concert played entirely on barnyard animals. Pulling a cats tail
(he is not yet the upright, well-behaved citizen he will become), Mickey generates a high-pitched cry ... and immediately begins swinging the unfortunate
feline by its tail to produce a siren-like wailing. He seizes rst a goose and then
a sows teats, squeezing bodies and ngering extremities to transform the beasts
into bagpipes. A cows mouth gapes open before him, and he takes up a pair
of mallets to play the broad, at teeth like a xylophone. Two young trees lift
their roots from the ground and dance joyously with each other in Flowers and
Trees, the studios rst Technicolor cartoon. Mushrooms and owers form a
ring around them, cheering them on.1
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the studios rst animated feature, provided audiences with a deeper, richer fantasy experience. The lm showcased
Disneys emerging house style of animation: soft, rounded, richly and subtly
colored more real than real, in the words of Walt Disney, who had prescribed
its use. The lm also, through the use of a multi-plane camera, gave audiences
the unprecedented sensation of moving into, not just across, the painted world.2
Snow White offered audiences a chance to immerse themselves in a fully realized
fantasy world, and lms like Pinocchio (1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi (1944)
opened the doors to others. Fantasy, rendered in a distinctively lush visual style,
has remained the hallmark of Disneys animated features. The fantasy and stylization are most apparent in traditional fairy tales like Cinderella (1950) or
Sleeping Beauty (1959), and in animal-centric stories like The Jungle Book (1967)
1
Introduction
or The Lion King (1994). They are equally present, however, even in nominally
more realistic features, such as The Sword in the Stone (1963) and Mulan (1998).
The studios most elaborate live-action featuresMary Poppins (1964), Bedknobs
and Broomsticks (1971), and Escape to Witch Mountain (1975) display the same
qualities.3
Disneys close association with the fantastic has, over the years, overshadowed its long-standing interest in reality. The studio has produced and released
a steady stream of lms designed to educate as well as entertain: to actively
convey factual information about the real world, while using it as a backdrop
for comedy or drama that, in turn, leavened the educational elements of the
production. Walt Disney himself coined, in 1948, the term edutainment to
describe such productions, but Disney Studios had already been producing them
for nearly a decade. The lms range from eight-minute shorts through featurettes of varying lengths to fully-developed features.4 They took a variety of
forms: traditional live-action documentaries; dramatizations of historical
events; animated illustrations of historical, scientic, and political concepts;
and complex hybrids of animation, staged dramatization, and location footage.
They were created for diverse audiences, and for diverse settings: movie theaters,
army barracks, classrooms, television, and attractions at Disneys own theme
parks. Collectively, they represent a signicant portion of the studios output.
The sheer volume of edutainment lms that Disney produced, and the companys enthusiasm for recycling and repackaging them, made them an ubiquitous
presence in postwar American popular culture. The True-Life Adventures nature
documentaries, for example, were released theatrically, aired on Disneys Sunday-evening television anthology series, plundered for clips used in productions
such as Natures Better Built Homes (1969), and marketed to schools in 16-millimeter prints for classroom use. Animated footage depicting the early history
of aviation, originally created for Victory Through Air Power (1943), was reused
(with new narration) in the anthology-series episode Man in Flight (1957), and
reused again in a later episode, Fly with Von Drake (1963). In between, they
appeared as still illustrations in a Man in Flight comic book published by Dell.
Videocassettes, laser discs, and DVDs particularly the limited-edition Disney
Treasures collection gave decades-old edutainment productions a new lease
on life, as did (in its early years) the Disney Channel cable television network.
Disneys edutainment lms are signicant, however, not simply for their
ubiquity but also for the ideas they present. They are among the purest reections of Walt Disneys worldview a vision that continued to shape the studios
output after his death in 1966. Ideas that subtly shape Disneys narrative lms
the sanctity of the patriarchal family, the moral superiority of small towns, the
unmixed blessings of technology, the exceptional status of the United States,
the benevolence of authority gures and the virtues of submitting to them
are preached, openly and explicitly, in Disney edutainment lms. Those values,
as well as the more concrete, factual content, are part of the lessons the lms
Introduction (Van Riper)
are designed to impart.5 Disneys long involvement with edutainment shows

that the studio, whose stock-in-trade was fantasy, was equally at home in the
real world. This collection is designed to explore that dimension of the studios
lms. It is a book about Disney, being serious.
Filmmaking with Intent to Educate: Disney

Edutainment Films Dened
The distinction between narrative and documentary forms in lm and
television is neither crisply dened nor unproblematic.6 A profusion of inbetween terms docudrama, biopic, pseudo-documentary, mockumentary,
reality television testify to the lack of consensus about where, or even whether,
the two broad categories overlap. Documentary lms concern events that actually took place, but routinely use techniques borrowed from narrative lmmaking to establish structure and create audience appeal. They emphasize
certain characters and events while deemphasizing others, adjust the sequencing
and tempo of events, and create, choose, or juxtapose images for the sake of
visual interest. They recreate events that cameras could not or did not record,
sometimes striving for perfect delity of detail, sometimes seeking a more
impressionistic kind of truth. Narrative lms tell ctional stories, but set those
stories against the backdrop of the real world rather than creating wholly new
worlds. They use establishing shots of buildings and landscapes that are often
indistinguishable from those used in documentaries, and (particularly if set in
the past) frequently use footage from documentaries to establish a sense of time
and place. The very existence of terms (and analytical categories) like docudrama and mockumentary suggest the degree of overlap between the categories and the permeability of their boundaries.
Countless lms, particularly those depicting historic gures and events,
op with unruly energy across those boundaries. Only the most openly, deliberately transgressive Warren Beattys Reds, Alex Coxs Walker, or Oliver
Stones JFK draw more than sporadic critical commentary for their energetic
blurring of lines.7 The rest are slotted into one category or the other with little
discussion and (often) for obscure reasons. War lms like Zulu, Tora! Tora!
Tora!, or Gettysburg are a particular case in point. Made with narrative-lm
budgets and studded with familiar actors, they eschew traditional dramatic
plotlines in favor of minutely detailed recreations of well-documented historical
events.8 Frequently criticized as dull, plodding, and didactic because of their
laser-like focus on accurately recreating past events, they are just as frequently
shelved with heavily ctionalized epics like Pearl Harbor or wholly ctional
ones like Air Force.
Taken as a group, the lms and television programs produced by Walt
Introduction
Disney Studios reect all these complexities of denition and categorization.

The vast majority fall cleanly and unambiguously into one category or the other.
Treasure Island (1950) and The Lion King (1994) are narrative lms. The Living
Desert (1953) and Roving Mars (2006) are documentaries.
Disney documentaries are distinguished, however, by their unusually free
use of narrative elements, especially fantastic or whimsical ones, in otherwise
serious contexts. The Disney vault also contains lms that straddle and blur
the lines between categories still further. The animated featurette Donald in
Mathmagic Land (1959), for example, uses a patently ctitious characters journey through a patently imaginary world to teach real mathematical concepts.
Other Disney productions, ranging from the hallucinatory Three Caballeros
(1945) to the sober Mars and Beyond (1957) intercut straightforward documentary scenes and wild ights of imagination. Television serials like Davy Crockett
(1954 1955) or The Swamp Fox (1959 1961), along with feature lms like Pocahontas (1995), take historically documented gures and make them the heroes
of ctional adventures. Films such as Ten Who Dared (1960) and Miracle (2003)
dramatize specic historical events, but improve on them (and the people
involved) for dramatic purposes. Disneys willingness to use whimsical narrative
elements even in the most serious of documentaries is part of what makes Disney documentaries distinctive.
Walt Disney used the term edutainment to describe the kind of documentaries he wanted his studio to produce: Information-rich, yet lively and
engaging. This book extends it to all Disney productions that deliberately interwove documentary and narrative elements the realistic and the fantastic
in order to educate the audience. This broader use of edutainment
encompasses conventional documentaries like The Living Desert and To The
South Pole for Science, docudramas like Ten Who Dared and Miracle, ctionalized biopics like The Swamp Fox and Pocahontas, consciously educational lms
like Four Methods of Flush Riveting, stealthily educational lms like Freewayphobia, and hybrid works like Magic Highway USA and Donald in Mathmagic
Land. The element that ties these disparate lms together is their explicit intent
to instruct the audience, not just about the human condition but about the
details of the real world. Instructional intent determination to convey information, or to explicitly make a point is what distinguishes Magic Highway
USA from The Love Bug and The Swamp Fox from Treasure Island. It is what
separates, more broadly, the edutainment lms dealt with in this book from
entertainment-driven narrative lms for which Disney is justly famous.
Disney Edutainment Films: A Historical Survey

Fantasia, released in 1940, was perhaps the most overtly fantastical of Disneys early animated features. 9 Its most famous segment, The Sorcerers
Apprentice, pitted the title character (played by Mickey Mouse) against a

relentless army of marching brooms. Other segments featured cavorting centaurs, hippo ballerinas, and (in Night on Bald Mountain) a towering demon.
Squarely in the midst of these fantastical creatures, however, lay the studios
rst signicant experiment with realism. The fourth of the lms seven segments
used Igor Stravinskys Rite of Spring as an audio backdrop for the story of life
on Earth, beginning with the formation of the solar system and ending with
the extinction of the dinosaurs. The opening narration for the segment made
the lmmakers documentary intentions clear. The segment itself wordless
like most of the rest of the lm lived up to that promise. The art was spare
and realistic, the colors deep and vibrant, but muted, and the wordless narrative
consistent with the state of paleontological knowledge in the 1930s. The most
memorable images from the segment dinosaurs, rst locked in mortal combat
and then perishing together as the climate changescould have come straight
from Rudolph Zallingers murals at Yales Peabody Museum.
The outbreak of World War II broadened Disneys involvement with reality-based lms. The studio turned out a steady stream of instructional cartoon
shorts for the military light-hearted in approach, but serious in intent that
were designed to educate soldiers, defense workers, and civilians on subjects
ranging from recycling and personal hygiene to riveting techniques and the
proper use of anti-tank weapons.10 The studios second line of wartime shorts
was propagandistic rather than instructional. Not all the propaganda shorts
were realistic Der Fuehrers Face plunged Donald Duck into a surreal, nightmarish vision of life under the Third Reich but all sought to present reality
as Walt Disney, and the countrys wartime leaders, saw it. Education for Death
purported to show how Nazi Germany indoctrinated its citizens, beginning in
early childhood. The most ambitious of these wartime propaganda lms was
the 1943 featurette Victory Through Air Power. Mixing various forms of animation with stock footage and lectures by Major Alexander de Seversky, it made
the case for aerial bombing as a decisive factor in modern warfare. The demands
of wartime diplomacy specically the need to foster good relations with Central and South America gave rise to Saludos Amigos! (1943) and The Three
Caballeros (1945). Mixing animation and live action as Victory did, they too
were designed to make a broad point: that Latin America and the United States
were natural allies, and their peoples similar in culture and outlook.
The decade immediately following the end of the war brought major
changes to Disney Studios. One was Walt Disneys decision to begin producing
live-action features, which promised lower production costs and higher prots
than costly animated features. The second was the launch of a weekly Disney
anthology series on the ABC television network in the fall of 1954. The third
was the opening of Disneyland, the rst Disney theme park, in 1955. All three
of these developments created new demand for lms, and new opportunities
for bringing them to a wide audience. It is no coincidence that the immediate
Introduction
postwar period (roughly 1945 1960) was the heyday of Disneys documentaries
and docudramas.
The leading edge of this postwar wave of reality-based Disney lms was
the True-Life Adventures series of nature documentaries, which began with Seal
Island in 1949.11 Elaborate productions focusing on a particular animal (such as
The African Lion) or environment (such as The Vanishing Prairie), they featured
full color footage shot entirely on location, often in tight close-up or slow
motion. Walt Disney insisted that they be factually accurate, but in practice the
nuggets of fact were wrapped in layers of storyline, careful editing, and anthropromorphic narration. Designed to make the lms appealing to audiences, these
elements made the lms more articial than their publicity suggested. The TrueLife Adventures series eventually encompassed 13 lms, eight of which won
Academy Awards, before it ended with Islands of the Sea in 1960. Ben Sharpsteen,
who produced twelve of the thirteen, also produced a parallel People and Places
series that began with The Alaskan Eskimo in 1953. As the series title suggests,
these 30 minute featurettes did for geography what the True-Life Adventures
did for natural history. Focusing on exotic areas such as Siam (1954), Switzerland
(1955), and Lapland (1957), they combined elements of two traditional documentary forms: the travelogue, and the popular ethnography. Three of them
won Academy Awards for best documentary short subject: The Alaskan Eskimo
in 1953, Men Against the Arctic in 1955, and The Ama Girls (about life in a Japanese shing village) in 1958.
The Disneyland television series, which premiered on 27 October 1954,
was designed to mesh seamlessly with the studios theatrical releases and the
new Disneyland amusement park, then under construction. Old theatrical
releases from the studios vaults provided a cheap source of quality programming to ll the weekly broadcasts, and documentary shorts from the True-Life
Adventures and People and Places series t its hour-long format especially well.
Short documentaries showcasing the park and its attractions also became a regular feature on Disneyland, as did behind the scenes shorts that introduced
audiences to the process of movie-making. The behind-the-scenes programs
fell into three broad categories. The rst, like The Story of Animated Drawing
(broadcast November 30, 1955), showed the process of animation, and used
cartoon shorts from the Disney catalog as illustrations. The second, like A
Cavalcade of Songs (broadcast February 16, 1955), featured Walt Disney discussing a particular element of the studios cartoons, again using clips from the
vault as supporting evidence. The third, like Operation Undersea (broadcast
December 8, 1954), chronicled the elaborate efforts of Disney camera crews to
shoot on location: in northern Scandinavia for the Lapland entry in People and
Places, for example, or underwater for 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.
The exible structure of the Disneyland program four rotating weekly
themes: Fantasyland, Frontierland, Adventureland, and Tomorrowland
meant that individual elements could be combined and recombined in different
variations. The True-Life Adventure lms, for example, were rst released theatrically, then broadcast multiple times on television, and nally used as a source
of footage for compilation programs like Natures Better-Built Homes. Footage
of the primary camera crew shot by the second-unit crew could, meanwhile,
become behind the scenes documentary shorts of their own. Disney thus had
the luxury of paying the costs of a lmmaking expedition once, then reaping
the benets multiple times.
Disneyland also featured original programming, produced for and originally aired on the television series. The most ambitious were a series of documentaries about science and technology, designed to mix animation with
live-action footage and serious educational segments with comic relief.12 Six of
these hour-long programs three about space travel and one each about highways, aviation, and nuclear energy eventually aired, along with a three-part
series of more traditional documentaries tracing the U. S. Navys involvement
in the exploration of Antarctica. Just as the True-Life Adventures found a second
life on television, several of the made-for-television documentaries were recycled as theatrical releases. Our Friend the Atom was screened as a featurette in
European theaters, and footage from the three Antarctica episodes was edited
into a People and Places lm titled The Seven Cities of Antarctica.
Impressive as they were, the science-and-technology documentaries that
aired on Disneyland were eclipsed, in the public eye, by a simpler kind of reality-based lm: the historical drama.13 Davy Crockett (5 episodes; 1954 1955)
was followed later in the decade by Texas John Slaughter (13 episodes, 1958
61), The Nine Lives of Elfego Baca (11 episodes, 1958 1961), and The Swamp Fox
(6 episodes, 1959 61). All four series used conventional adventure story plots,
but set them against the backdrop of real historical events. All four featured
heroes based on real historical gures: Crockett, a frontiersman and member
of Congress who died at the Alamo; Slaughter, a member of the Texas Rangers;
Baca, a self-appointed Arizona deputy sheriff who became a frontier lawyer;
and Francis The Swamp Fox Marion, a Revolutionary War guerrilla leader
whose men harassed British forces in the Carolinas. These serialized adventures
for television were complemented by a series of theatrical features based on the
adventures of historical gures. These covered familiar periods from American
history, such as the Revolution (Johnny Tremain, 1957), the Civil War (The
Great Locomotive Chase, 1956), and the opening of the West (Ten Who Dared,
1960), but also the history of England (The Sword and the Rose, 1953), Scotland
(Rob Roy: The Highland Rogue, 1953), Ireland (Fighting Prince of Donegal, 1966)
and even Austria (The Miracle of the White Stallions, 1963).
The decade-and-a-half from the late 1950s and the rst years of the 1960s
were the golden age of Disney documentaries and docudramas. Noting, perhaps, the declining popularity of historical dramas at the box ofce and Westerns on television, the studio shifted the focus of its live-action lmmaking to
family comedies like The Absent-Minded Professor and ctionalized animal
Introduction
stories like Charlie, The Lonesome Cougar. The output of new documentary
features and shorts never entirely stopped, however. The animated Donald in
Mathmagic Land appeared in 1959 and the historical drama Justin Morgan Had
a Horse in 1972.
The animated shorts Freewayphobia and Goofys Freeway Troubles (1965)
and the hybrid featurette Dad, Can I Borrow the Car? (1970) continued an
informal string of commentaries on Americans and their automobiles that
had begun with Motor Mania in 1948. Disneys production of educational shorts
for the school and corporate markets also ground onward, with titles such
as 1965s Steel and America (made for U. S. Steel) and 1967s Understanding
Stresses and Strains (made for Upjohn). The release of the heavily ctionalized
features Squanto: A Warriors Tale, Iron Will (both 1994) and Pocahontas (1995),
heralded a return to adventure stories based on real people and real events.
Pocahontas, the rst Disney animated feature to be based on real historical
gures, was followed in turn by the similar Mulan and the direct-to-video
sequel Pocahontas II: Voyage to a New World (both 1998) before the studio
shifted its attention to based-on-a-true story sports dramas with Remember
the Titans in 2000.
The continuation of the sports-docudrama cycle with The Rookie (2002),
Miracle (2004), and The Greatest Game Ever Played (2005) suggests that, at the
beginning of the twenty-rst century, reality-based lms are still an important
part of the Disney Studios output. IMAX documentaries such as Ghosts of the
Abyss (2003) and Roving Mars (2006) conrm it, as do recently released concert
lms featuring Miley Cyrus (2008) and The Jonas Brothers (2009). At this writing, nearly seventy years after the Rite of Spring sequence of Fantasia traced
the history of life on our planet, the latest Disney lm to reach theaters is a latter-day version of the True-Life Adventures: a lavish, feature-length nature documentary titled simply: Earth.
Why This Book?

There is no shortage of books, both scholarly and popular, about Disneys
lms and television programs. Many of the lms treated in this volume have
been treated before, and some of them (the True-Life Adventures) have been
treated extensively. Why, then, another book on Disney lms? More particularly,
why this book?
Disneys edutainment lms documentaries, docudramas, and the rest
span seventy years and represent an extraordinary range of subject matter, narrative strategies, and visual styles. They reect substantial investments of time,
money, and equipment, and utilized the talents of a diverse group of animators,
directors, cameramen, composers, and technical advisors. All of them, however,
were linked by their underlying purpose: To educate the audience in the process
of entertaining them. The goal of this book is to illuminate that goal, and the
means used to achieve it, surveying the full range of Disneys edutainment projects. It is divided into ve thematic sections, each designed to juxtapose similar
lms and, by doing so, to highlight both their extraordinary diversity and their
surprising commonalities.
The rst section, devoted to war and specically to World War II, surveys
the range and diversity of Disneys substantial contributions to the war effort.
Bella Honess Roe explores the wartime training lms that Disney made for the
National Film Board of Canada, and Douglas A. Cunningham examines the
training lms that Disney made for the United States Army Air Forces. Both
sets of lms are edutainment in its most extreme form: They deal with topics
that are serious, complex, and essential to the war effort (ush riveting, highaltitude bombing, and the proper operation of anti-tank weapons), but do so
in ways designed to keep audiences of soldiers paying attention. Disney Studios
other principal contribution to the war effort was propaganda lms. Richard
J. Leskosky places these in context, showing how Disney pressed familiar characters into service to deliver serious wartime messages about resource conservation, diplomacy, and the evils of totalitarianism. John D. Thomass essay on
Victory Through Air Power rounds out the section, showing how Disneys most
famous wartime production used animation to present and extend the ideas
proposed in the 1942 book of the same name. Victory, both the book and the
lm, preached the value of strategic bombing as a war-winning weapon: A far
cry from the gentle messages of Disneys earlier features.
Section II takes up Disneys explorations of the world-changing powers of
science, technology, medicine and mathematics. A. Bowdoin Van Ripers essay
focuses on the Tomorrowland segments from the Disneyland television program, which at the height of the Cold War celebrated the virtues of largescale, government-funded science and technology projects. It considers the
Disney version of subjects such as space exploration, superhighways, aviation,
nuclear power, and the evolution of life, and reveals a surprising level of sophistication in Disneys attempts to inform Americans about them. The following
essay considers Disneys complicated relationship with the automobile, which
Walt himself saw both as an emblem of progress and American ingenuity, and
a threat to the small-town way of life that Disney lms and theme parks gloried. Martin F. Norden traces the complex history of a single half-hour featurette, Donald in Mathmagic Land, which helped to establish Disney as a major
provider of educational materials for K-12 schools. Bob Cruz, Jr.s essay on the
Disney public health lms rounds out the section, with in-depth looks at a different kind of educational lm; so different, in fact, that it scarcely seems compatible with the Disney name. Tommy Tuckers Tooth, The Story of Menstruation,
and VD Attack Plan unmistakably bear the Disney visual and narrative stamp,
however, and Cruz shows how their unconventional narrative styles make
potentially uncomfortable topics palatable.
10
Introduction
Disneys nature documentaries, the subject of the third section, are perhaps
the best known of all the studios edutainment. Eddy von Mueller rst considers Disneys famous True-Life Adventures series of nature documentaries,still
the studios best-known and best-loved exercises in edutainment. Ronald Tobias
considers a group of less-familiar True-Life Fantasy lms that continued the
True-Life Adventures tradition of dramatized animal life-stories without a
human presence, but shifted the balance from information to entertainment.
A third essay, also by von Mueller, considers Disneys attempt to revive the
True-Life Adventure style of lm-making. It explores the continuity of earth
with earlier Disney nature lms, and the ways in which it uses twenty-rst century technologies to create a larger-than-life moviegoing experience and turn
nature into a form of cinematic spectacle.
Section IV considers the products of Disney Studios fascination with
telling the stories of real people and events. Marianne Holdzkom surveys the
Disney version of American history from the Colonial era in Johnny
Tremain to the election of 1888 in The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family
Band and nds it dominated by messages about the importance of unity and
common cause. Such messages were Disneys philosophical stock-in-trade, and
had particular resonance during the Cold War, when most of the studios American history epics appeared. Katharina Bonzels essay on Disney sports lms
shows that, in telling the stories of essentially ordinary Americans achieving
greatness on the playing eld college hockey players winning Olympic gold
in Miracle, or coach Herman Boone achieving racial harmony in Remember the
Titans Disney sought to show that the American dream was alive and well as
the new century began. Bernice Nuhfer-Halten considers Disneys wartime
exercises in cinematic Latin American diplomacy as an effort to sell Latin
American culture to skeptical Americans by stylizing, essentializing, and distorting it. Cynthia J. Millers essay on the People and Places series (a parallel to
the better-known True-Life Adventures) assesses its elaborately spontaneous
glimpses of exotic lands and reduction of complex cultures to splashes of local
color, while noting its enormous stylistic inuence on later geographic documentaries. The nal essay of the section (and the book) considers some of Disneys most technologically audacious documentaries: the Circarama lms,
designed to surround audiences with 360 degrees of moving images. Sarah
Nilsen shows that, though best remembered as a theme-park attraction, these
lms actually had their roots in the Cold War, when they were deployed at
worlds fairs as part of a State Department effort to promote America to the
world.
The diversity of subjects covered by these essays suggests the scope of Disneys engagement with the real world. Fantasy talking animals, objects with
human personalities, and a growing stable of princesses remains the studios
stock-in-trade, but no corner of reality is truly beyond reach of the Disney
touch.
11
NOTES
1. J. P. Telotte, The Mouse Machine: Disney and Technology (Urbana and Chicago:
University of Illinois Press, 2008), 28 29, 48 49.
2. Telotte, Mouse Machine, 6267.
3. Leonard Maltin, The Disney Films, 4th edition (New York: Disney Editions, 2000)
surveys the studios productions. On Disneys visual style, see: Jack Kinney, Walt Disney
and Other Assorted Characters: An Unauthorized Account of the Early Years at Disneys
(New York: Harmony Books, 1988); Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life (New York: Disney Editions, 1995); John Kenworthy, The Hand
Behind the Mouse: An Intimate Biography of Ub Iwerks (New York: Disney Editions,
2001). John Canemaker, Walt Disneys Nine Old Men and the Art of Animation (New
York: Disney Editions, 2001). Leonard Maltin, Of Mice and Magic: A History of American
Animated Cartoons, revised ed. (New York: Plume, 1987) and Michael Barrier, Hollywood
Cartoons: American Animation in the Golden Age (New York: Oxford University Press,
1999) place Disneys lms in the context of American animation in general. The scholarly
literature on Walt Disney lms is vast. Kathy Merlock Jackson, Walt Disney: A Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993) is a useful guide to earlier work. For
more recent studies, see Walt Disney: A Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley
Library, accessed 12 May 2009 at http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/disney.html
4. Bill Cotter, The Wonderful World of Disney Television (New York: Disney Editions,
1997) surveys the history of the anthology series.
5. Disneys worldview is discussed in detail by his many biographers, particularly
Stephen Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001) and Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of
the American Imagination (New York: Knopf, 2006).
6. Jack C. Ellis and Betsy A. McLane, A New History of Documentary Film (New
York: Continuum, 2006), pp. 112 provides a basic theoretical introduction and a useful
list of further readings.
7. All three lms, and the larger issues they raise, are considered at length in Robert
A. Rosenstone, Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
8. See George MacDonald Fraser, The Hollywood History of the World (New York:
Morrow, 1988), pp. 142147 [on Zulu] and Akira Iriye, Tora! Tora! Tora! in Mark C.
Carnes, ed., Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies (New York: Holt, 1995), 228
231.
9. John Culhane, Walt Disneys Fantasia (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987).
10. Richard Shale, Donald Duck Joins Up: The Walt Disney Studio During World War
II (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982).
11. On the history and content of the series see, for example, Cynthia Chris, Watching
Wildlife (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), pp. 28 41; Scott Hermanson, Truer Than Life: Disneys Animal Kingdom. In Rethinking Disney: Private Control,
Public Dimensions, ed. Mike Budd and Max H. Kirsch. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2005); Gregg Mitman, Reel Nature: Americas Romance with Wildlife on
Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 109 130; and Margaret J. King,
The Audience in the Wilderness: The Disney Nature Films, Journal of Popular Film
and Television 24 (1996), pp. 60 68.
12. On the three space lms, see J. P. Telotte, Disney in Science Fiction Land,
Journal of Popular Film and Television 33 (2005), pp. 1221; and Miek Wright, The Disney-Von Braun Collaboration and Its Inuence on Space Exploration. 1993. Accesses
28 October 2002 at http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/special/Disney.html.
13. J. G. OBoyle, Be Sure Youre Right, Then Go Ahead: The Early Disney West-
12
Introduction
erns, Journal of Popular Film and Television 24 (1996), pp 69 82. On Davy Crockett,
which drew the largest contemporary audiences, see Margaret J. King, The Recycled
Hero: Walt Disneys Davy Crockett, in Michael A. Lofaro, ed. Davy Crockett: The Man,
the Legend, the Legacy, 1786 1986 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrier, Michael. Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in the Golden Age. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Canemaker, John. Walt Disneys Nine Old Men and the Art of Animation. New York:
Disney Editions, 2001.
Chris, Cynthia. Watching Wildlife. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006.
Cotter, Bill. The Wonderful World of Disney Television. New York: Disney Editions, 1997.
Culhane, John. Walt Disneys Fantasia. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987.
Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane, A New History of Documentary Film. New York:
Continuum, 2006.
Fraser, George MacDonald. The Hollywood History of the World. New York: Morrow,
1988.
Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. New York: Knopf,
2006.
Hermanson, Scott. Truer Than Life: Disneys Animal Kingdom. In Rethinking Disney:
Private Control, Public Dimensions, edited by Mike Budd and Max H. Kirsch. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2005).
Iriye, Akira. Tora! Tora! Tora! In Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, edited
by Mark C. Carnes, 228 231. New York: Holt, 1995.
Jackson, Kathy Merlock. Walt Disney: A Bio-Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 1993.
Johnston, Ollie and Frank Thomas, Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life. New York:
Kenworthy, John. The Hand Behind the Mouse: An Intimate Biography of Ub Iwerks. New
York: Disney Editions, 2001.
King, Margaret J. The Audience in the Wilderness: The Disney Nature Films, Journal
of Popular Film and Television 24 (1996): 60 68.
_____. The Recycled Hero: Walt Disneys Davy Crockett. In Davy Crockett: The Man,
the Legend, the Legacy, 1786 1986, edited by Michael A. Lofaro. Knoxville: University
of Tennessee Press, 1985.
Kinney, Jack. Walt Disney and Assorted Other Characters: An Unauthorized Account of
the Early Years at Disneys. New York: Harmony Books, 1988.
Maltin, Leonard. The Disney Films, 4th edition. New York: Disney Editions, 2000.
_____. Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons, revised edition.
New York: Plume, 1987.
Mitman, Gregg. Reel Nature: Americas Romance with Wildlife on Film. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1999.
OBoyle, J. G. Be Sure Youre Right, Then Go Ahead: The Early Disney Westerns,
Journal of Popular Film and Television 24 (1996):69 82.
Rosenstone, Robert A. Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
Shale, Richard. Donald Duck Joins Up: The Walt Disney Studio During World War II.
Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1982.
_____. Disney in Science Fiction Land, Journal of Popular Film and Television 33
(2005): 1221.
13
_____. The Mouse Machine: Disney and Technology. Urbana and Chicago: University of
Illinois Press, 2008.
Walt Disney: A Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley Library http://www.
lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/disney.html
Watts, Stephen. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001.
Wright, Mike. The Disney-Von Braun Collaboration and Its Inuence on Space Exploration. 1993. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Marshall Spaceight
Center Website. http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/special/Disney.html

1
The Canadian Shorts

Establishing Disneys Wartime Style
BELLA HONESS ROE
By 1943 the United States was deeply embroiled in the Second World War
and the Walt Disney Studio was nearly entirely occupied with producing lms
for the war effort. Ninety-four percent of the studios output went to fulll
contracts with the government and military and these commissions effectively
rescued the studio from the nancial difculties it had suffered a few years earlier.1 These lms, however, were not the studios rst foray into educational,
training and promotional lms. Prior to the United States entry into the war,
the Disney Studio produced ve lms for the National Film Board of Canada.
These lms demonstrate the beginnings of a Disney style of wartime animated
lm one necessitated by expediency and economy and introduced several
narrative, stylistic and aesthetic traits that were later adopted in the studios
vast domestic wartime output as well as in its post-war educational lms and
television programs. In producing these training and promotional lms for the
Canadian government, Disney experimented with blending the factual and the
entertaining and the sober and the light-hearted in order to effectively convey
information and appeal to the public during a time of conict.
Several decades before the Second World War, producers of military lms
recognized animations potential advantages over live action for clarication
and illustration. During the First World War, the animation pioneer and studio
head John Randolph Bray received a request from the military to make training
lms. Bray sent along one of his top animators, Max Fleischer, to do the job.
Along with draftsman Jack Leventhal, Fleischer produced many training lms
before peace was declared in 1918.2 Their lms, which included extensive animation, were the rst army training lms produced, and they covered hundred
of different subjects.3 For example, in 1917 Fleischer made a series of lms
(including How to Read an Army Map and How to Fire a Lewis Gun) that were
used to train American soldiers heading to the battle zones of Europe. This
15
16
early realization that animation could clarify and explain more effectively and
efciently than live action was shared by Walt Disney, who made two educational
lms about dental health at the beginning of his career in Kansas in the 1920s.4
Nearly two decades later, Disney showed an astute foresight for animations
wartime potential with the speculative production of a training lm for the
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, which had premises close to his Burbank studio.
Four Methods of Flush Riveting (1940) is a somewhat dry animated lecture. An
authoritative voice-of-god commentary guides the viewer through four different methods of riveting (such as the countersink method and the doubledimple), designed to minimize turbulence by reducing drag on the aircraft
surface. The clearly drawn and labeled images of the riveting process are animated on a plain blue background and the look of the lm is akin to textbook
diagrams put into simple motion. Disney screened this lm for a group of
guests invited to the studio in 1941 to debate the different ways animation might
be used in a non-entertainment capacity.5 John Grierson, who was by then head
of the National Film Board of Canada (NFBC), was particularly enthusiastic
about Flush Riveting and not put off by its rudimentary aesthetics. In fact, he
was so impressed with the lm he suggested that every time a new piece of military equipment was delivered, an animated training lm should go with it.6
The NFBC was established in 1939, with a mandate from the government
to make and distribute lms across the country that were designed to help
Canadians everywhere in Canada understand the problems and way of life of
Canadians in other parts of the country.7Previously, lmmaking in Canada
had lacked direction and scarcity of funds hindered the quality of the lms
produced. Grierson was brought to Canada rst in 1938, in the light of his
stature and experience as a documentary director and producer in Great Britain,
to assess the state of lm in the country and report back to the government.
Working within several state departments making sponsored lms from the
beginning of the 1930s, Grierson championed a sober, yet visually arresting
type of documentary lmmaking that came to be known as the British documentary movement.8 Grierson was also a master of using lm for educational
and persuasive ends and it was this potential that he saw in Flush Riveting.9
Indeed, he suggested that animation challenged the assumption that documentary was the best form with which to teach and persuade audiences when he
said animation seems to have a capacity for simplifying the presentation of
pedagogical problems as documentary lms have not.10 Griersons conviction
that animation could be applied to non-ctional ends led him, early in his
tenure, to commission from Disney on behalf of the Canadian government one
instructional lm and four shorts promoting the purchase of War Savings Certicates.
The shorts were intended as an appeal to the Canadian public to buy savings certicates to support the war effort instead of spending their money on
material goods or investing in traditional ways. The shorts were required to be,
1. The Canadian Shorts (Roe)
17
then, both diverting and convincing, playing on the audiences sense of patriotism and entertaining them at the same time. Character animation featuring
the popular gures from the Disney stable presented in vibrant Technicolor,
rather than the dry approach and limited color palette of Flush Riveting, was
deemed the best way to achieve this goal. There were, however, time and budgetary constraints on the production of the shorts and Disney-style character
animation was time consuming and costly to produce. Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs (1937), Disneys rst feature-length animated lm, had cost an
astounding $1.5 million to make.11 Disneys short subjects were less expensive,
but still not cheap to make. The production cost of a Silly Symphony,12 Disneys
shorts animated to music made during the 1930s, ranged from around $5,000
for the early black and white shorts to nearly $70,000 for some of the last color
Symphonies made towards the end of the decade.13 The Three Little Pigs (1933),
for example, had a production cost of nearly $16,000, and the cost of making
prints for distribution nearly doubled this amount.14 In the 1930s the studio
was producing twenty short lms a year, as determined by their distribution
deal with United Artists.15 The production process of these lms was drawnout and meticulous, with animators taking the time to test their pencil sketches
on lm before committing the images to celluloid in ink and paint.16 The Three
Little Pigs took ve months to produce from the original story idea to nished
lm, and two months to animate, and this was not an unusually long production
schedule for a Silly Symphony.17 Disney had just $20,000 to produce all four
Canadian shorts, about the same as the average budget of a single Silly Symphony, and far less than Disney had been spending on these shorts in the late
1930s.18 Furthermore, the ongoing war was proving a drain on the national
economy, creating an urgent need for bond sales. For all these reasons, Disney
chose to re-use and adapt material from the studios previous output.19 In three
of the NFBC shorts, Disney even directly re-purposed signicant chunks of
already successful lms and shorts, playing on the popularity of the original
material to encourage people to invest their money in the war effort.
Seven Wise Dwarfs (1941) opens with the diamond mine sequence from
Snow White. But, instead of heigh-ho-ing themselves back to their cottage at
the end of a hard days work, the dwarfs march off to the nearest post ofce,
singing heigh-ho, heigh-ho, we all must help you know; well win the war with
5-for-4, heigh-ho, heigh-ho.20 Disney artfully threads the idea of investing
your savings and earnings in the war effort into a story with which audiences
would already be familiar. The dwarfs heft their sacks of diamonds into the
post ofce in order to put the fruits of their labor toward the national cause,
encouraging the audience to make a connection between work, reward and
investment in war bonds. The lm also plays on already established characters
to inform audiences where they can buy their bonds. The ever-hapless Dopey
gets distracted from the group by a poster advertising bonds in the window of
a bank and it is into this establishment that he drags his bag of gems. Having
18
Dopey wander off from the group ts with the behavior that viewers expect
from this specic character and adds a level of humor and amusement to the
lm. In a light-hearted way, however, this action also fulls the function of
telling audiences they can buy bonds at both post ofces and banks.
We can see that in the rst half of this short subject, which runs at just
under four minutes, the governments message is delivered with a light touch.
In the second half, however, the tone moves from gently encouraging to overtly
persuasive. As Dopey leaves the bank and rushes to catch up with the rest of
the dwarfs he fumbles with his stash of bonds and several escape his clutches.
These bonds oat towards us as the background changes from the familiar world
of the seven dwarfs and Snow Whites magic kingdom to a plain gray backdrop.
The escaped bonds morph into an artillery shell, onto which the words lend
your savings are superimposed in yellow and red block capital letters that ll
up the screen. In a movie theatre, where Canadian audiences would have
watched these shorts, the declarative words would have loomed over them,
marking a strong contrast with the highjinks of the friendly, familiar dwarfs
just a few seconds earlier. The music also changes, to a dramatic orchestral
score that matches this new, serious tone. In the following animated images of
the arsenal of war, connections are made through graphics. Shells red by antiaircraft guns destroy enemy planes, forming the words keep your money ghting as they explode against gray skies. A printing press churning out bonds
morphs into a conveyer belt of planes and shells. The nal image of the lm
makes the message crystal clear. Several planes y towards the audience, their
guns blazing, creating bullet holes that spell out invest in victory and the
message is emblazoned on a background of a night sky lled with ghter planes
and tracing searchlights.
The other three Canadian shorts employ this same structure: a lighthearted rst half, which uses characters and scenes familiar from Disneys back
catalogue, and a more serious second half that literally spells out the message
of the lms to cinema-goers. Just as feature lm success was capitalized on in
Seven Wise Dwarfs, Thrifty Pig (1941) re-uses parts of the popular Silly Symphony, The Three Little Pigs. This lm had been a huge hit on its release in 1933,
in part due to the catchy song, Whos Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf? that had
audiences whistling its tune even after the rst preview.21 The song, written by
Frank Churchill, became Disneys rst music hit and the lm itself grossed
$150,000 in its rst two years and proved to be the most popular cartoon short
ever up to that time (and possibly of all time).22 The Three Little Pigs was so
popular, in fact, that the distributor, United Artists, was taken by surprise by
the demand for prints and in some areas resorted to shuttling copies between
theatres by messengers on bicycle.23 It was also the rst Disney short to receive
foreign language soundtracks and re-shot scenes for distribution in overseas
territories.24
The original story of The Three Little Pigs, which is based on the classic
19
fairytale, sees two fun-loving pigs paying the price for putting whimsy before
work when the Big Bad Wolf easily destroys their homes, built quickly but imsily out of straw and sticks.. The efforts of their third, more diligent porcine
colleague, who took the time to build his house out of bricks and stone rather
than having fun and singing songs, pays off when his sturdy workmanship
thwarts the efforts of the Wolf. In the version re-imagined for Canadian wartime
audiences, the hard-working pig is building his house out of bricks made of
war bonds and ies a Union Jack proudly in his front yard. As in the original
short, the Big Bad Wolf, whose raggedy top hat is replaced with a swastikaemblazoned military cap and red armband, huffs and puffs and blows away the
rst two houses, but only succeeds in loosening the plaster on the third house,
revealing the sturdy bond-bricks underneath. These building materials, it would
seem, are stronger than the gusts of the Nazi enemy. The Wolf turns tail and
ees when Thrifty Pig hurls bricks that bounce off his behind. A chorus of
whos afraid of the Big Bad Wolf? The Union Jacks still ying. Well be safe
from the Big Bad Wolf, if you lend your savings fades into the graphic portion
of the lm that encourages us to spend less and lend our savings, written
on the smoke streaming out of factory chimneys. The same invest in victory
message, strafed out by oncoming planes, closes the four-minute short.
It has been suggested that The Three Little Pigs can be read as an allegory
for Depression-era America. The lm was released during the rst hundred
days of Franklin D. Roosevelts presidency, when a message of consistent and
decisive action was being sent out to the nation. The lm can be seen, Robert
Sklar argues, as celebrating this condent, purposeful spirit of the early New
Deal.25 Richard Schickel suggests, however, that the lm embodies the conservative attitudes of outgoing president Herbert Hoover, through encouraging
a nancially strapped nation that hard work would pull them out of the doldrums and protect them for the future.26 Underlying both these readings is the
notion that good will triumph over bad, be it through hard work or forward
thinking. This message is regured, and far less open to interpretation, in
Thrifty Pig. Here personal thrift is advocated as a means of directly protecting
oneself from the advance of Nazism. Following on from this is the suggestion
that supporting the war nancially will help the nation and the allies defeat a
foreign enemy that threatened to mercilessly destroy the Canadian way of life.
The threat is made clear, but so is the optimistic suggestion that nancial selfsacrice will equate to victory. Thus, a Depression-era allegory translates to a
wartime message.
Similarly, in Donalds Decision (1941) the moralistic message of the original
lm from which material was harvested, Donalds Better Self (1938), is translated
into a patriotic message of putting your nations needs before ones own. In the
original lm, a schoolboy Donald grapples with whether to attend his lessons
or go shing. His conscience manifests in two physical forms an angelic duck
and a devilish duck, both of which try to convince him that their way is the
20
right way. Angelic duck leads him to his lessons, whereas devilish duck tempts
him away with a day of leisure and schools him in the bad habits of pipe smoking. A physical showdown between the two ducks sees Donald take the angels
side and, with a little nudging, march off to the schoolhouse with his books in
hand. The remake has a grown-up Donald lazing in a hammock, sipping a
drink, while a voice on the radio encourages listeners to invest in war bonds.
As Donald rolls over to take a nap, the angel duck emerges from his body and
urges him to take the contents of his piggy bank and buy war savings certicates.
As they head off together, Donald passes a mailbox that gets his attention with
a spinning red ag (which we can see forms the sign of a swastika). The devil
duck emerges and tells Donald to spend his hard-earned money on himself and
to have some fun. The ght sequence between the two ducks is lifted from the
original lm and the result is the same Donald sides with his good conscience
and dutifully follows the angel duck. This time, however, they march towards
the post ofce, which ies the Union Jack, and Donald carries his piggy bank
instead of school books.
The wartime short plays on Donalds familiar characteristics his tendency
to be led astray and to not instinctively know what the right action is. Through
his character arc in this short, the audience gets to play out their own reservations about buying war bonds (immediate personal gain versus long term
national good) through the moral indecision of this loveable, familiar, cartoon
duck. Similarly to Thrifty Pig, Donalds Decision re-works the Depression era
subtext of early Disney short cartoons regarding hard work to play out the
wartime message that investing in war bonds is the best decision for you and
your nation. Donald, furthermore, was a Disney character that was as popular
with adults as he was with children.27 In fact, he was far more popular with
adults than Mickey Mouse, which perhaps explains why Disney chose to feature
the duck, rather than the emblematic Mickey, in this Canadian short that was
intended to appeal primarily to adult audiences.28
The shortest of the four promotional lms, All Together (1942), eschews a
narrative in favor of displaying a large number of familiar characters in the
name of evoking a sense of camaraderie and community. It shows a parade of
Disney characters marching in front of the Canadian Parliament (recognizable
from its Gothic-revival style), rallying the audience to buy war bonds. Geppetto
and Pinocchio lead the way, followed by Donald and his nephews. Pluto is there
too, and Mickey, in his conductor role as seen in The Band Concert (1935), leads
his band atop a oat, while the seven dwarfs bring up the rear. Mickeys oat
is emblazoned with win the war and the other characters carry banners saying
all together for war savings and 5 for 4. There is no singing or dialogue in
this lm, which relies instead on the image of a variety of characters marching
together to evoke a sense of community and national spirit. Robert Sklar points
out that this was a familiar theme from Disneys 1930s short cartoons, which
advocated playing by societys rules and thinking of oneself as not as an indi-
21
vidual, but as part of a wider community.29 Once again, the peacetime message
of Disneys cartoons is adapted to the wartime situation and the short aims to
convince people that buying war savings certicates constitutes uniting with
your fellow citizens in the name of winning the war. As in the other three shorts,
this lm concludes with a graphic, serious section that makes the message clear.
Planes y in formation, spelling out the words all together, a tank rolls towards
us, lling the screen, as the words keep your money ghting are emblazoned
across it in vast yellow block letters. Piles of savings certicates become sails
on a warship that ies the Union Jack and the words buy more and more are
superimposed on the ocean beneath it.
While the war savings certicate promotional lms were short, succinct
and to the point, with an emphasis on entertainment and persuasion, the training lm Disney made for the Canadian government is longer and has a more
involved structure. Stop That Tank ! (1942) does, however, take a more lighthearted approach to the instruction of the workings and use of the MK-1 antitank rie than the dry informational approach of Flush Riveting to its subject
matter. The twenty-one minute lm begins with an entertaining animated section drawn in typical Disney style and produced in Technicolor. Hitler, who is
caricatured as a sallow, belching gure with a protruding red nose, leads a convoy of tanks attacking a sleepy village, rallying his troops with cries that they
are being oppressed. To Hitlers surprise, the Canadian infantry pop out from
under haystacks and farmyard animals and defend their territory with antitank guns. Hitlers forces are quickly thwarted and he gets catapulted down a
crater into hell. Here he wails and whines to a round-faced red devil who translates his incomprehensible German gibberish. As Hitler rolls around on the
ground, tearing off his clothes, the devil chuckles at the Fuhrers tantrums and
tells us that Hitler says, against your anti-tank ries, he simply cant win. The
leader of the enemy is thus reduced to a non-threatening gure through the
use of entertaining animation a propaganda technique that Disney repeated
in later shorts made in the U.S., such as Der Fuehrers Face (1943) and Education
for Death (1943).
This opening section then segues to a title screen that sets up the rest of
the lm: The Anti-Tank Rie (Boys Mk. 1) Characteristics and Details of Operation. The comedy overture is over and the next eighteen minutes are mostly
devoted to a serious and straightforward demonstration of the workings of this
piece of weaponry. The change in tone from amusing to serious is further
amplied by the switch to an informative voiceover intoned by a narrator in
Received Pronunciation. While there is frequent use of live-action imagery in
this section, mostly footage of soldiers demonstrating how to shoot and clean
the gun, animation prevails. The majority of this animation is, however, of a
style and tone very different from that of the opening three minutes, but familiar
from Four Methods of Flush Riveting.
Rather than being used to entertain, the animation in the training portion
22
of the lm is used to clarify and explain. It operates as a moving diagram of

the Boys Mk. 1 rie, through which the different functions of the gun are
demonstrated and its working parts revealed. The animation had to be precise
and accurate to the experience the soldiers would have working the guns in the
eld, so, as Richard Shale notes, the Disney animators based their drawings on
a rie that was shipped down especially to the British Consul in Los Angeles.30
The implication that animation can reveal and explain details more clearly than
live action is apparent with the narrators invitation to observe the inner workings of the rie through the magic of x-ray animation. By using animated
drawings, the lmmakers are able to clearly show us what happens inside the
gun when it is red, an insight that would be impossible to achieve as clearly
(or at all) with live action lm. Similarly, when live action footage of a soldier
loading cartridges into the magazine segues into animation that shows us the
inside of the magazine and its strong, loaded spring, the action and strength
that is required to compress the spring in order to load the rounds into the
magazine is claried and emphasized. The use of instructional animation in
Stop That Tank! reinforces Griersons initial response to Flush Riveting regarding
animations pedagogic potential. Animation allows complete control over the
construction of the image and used in this instructional way offers the chance
to demonstrate and illustrate in a similar way to a diagram in a textbook.
There are, however, notable instances of light relief in the eighteen-minute
training section of Stop That Tank! In an animated sequence on how to aim
the gun the explanation of how to hit a moving object explains to would-be
users that failure to properly line up a target traveling across their line of sight
can cause them to hit the wrong thing. A badly aimed shot results in a cow
jumping with a loud squeal from behind some bushes and complaining about
poor aim. A clumsy young private, who looks remarkably similar to Dopey,
crops up several times in the lm. At one point he strains, to no avail, to lift
up the Boys rie, demonstrating its heavy weight and the point made by the
narrator that it is best carried on a vehicle. Later, he gets whacked on the nose
by the spring in the magazine, emphasizing that care should be taken when
opening it to insert cartridges. At the end of the lm, the narrator encourages
us careful maintenance of the weapon, comparing it to a woman in its repayment of good treatment. The foolish private is then seen snuggling up in bed
with his rie, kissing and stroking its barrel, to the disapproving response of
the narrator who comments, say, thats going a little too far.
While Stop That Tank! ostensibly has a two-part structure similar to the
rst three promotional shorts, its various narrative and stylistic strategies reveal
the different purpose of this lm. Whereas the shorts needed to persuade the
public to part with their hard-earned wages, the training lm needed to clearly
inform and educate military personnel. Thus, with the shorts it was essential
to grab peoples attention with the familiar, entertaining animated section and
then persuade them of the importance of buying war bonds with the hard-hit-
23
ting, dramatic graphic sections. The latter halves of the four lms clearly articulated the subtextual patriotic message delivered in their opening sections. The
stylistic contrast between these two sections also emphasizes the seriousness of
the message of the lms, something that is further backed-up by the use of dramatic, orchestral music in the graphic sections. The sudden switch from fun
Disney full animation to dark tones of the graphic animation would have been
a jolt to audiences familiar with Disneys shorts and would have hammered
home the importance of buying war savings certicates. The shorts also show
how Disney and the NFBC subscribed to the popular opinion of the time regarding successful propaganda. Eric Smoodin has pointed out that by the 1930s it
was accepted that the most effective propaganda was the most overt and that
propaganda should state its objectives clearly, in contrast to previous opinion
that working on peoples unconscious was the best way to persuade.31 This went
hand-in-hand with the psychological theory that the behavior of individuals
could be manipulated and directed towards goals and actions that beneted
society.32 The four shorts are squarely aimed at the Canadian audiences conscious conception of morality and patriotism in an unquestionable message
that persuades them to do the right thing.
In Stop That Tank!, while it is easy to distinguish between moments where
we are being entertained and moments where we are being educated, the differentiation is less dramatic and the humorous sections act as moments of light
relief for an audience that would have been expecting the type of dull lmed
lecture common in instructional lms. The lm is not relying on evoking a
strong reaction from the audience and does not need to rally the public into
action. Instead, clarity and understanding are key and the entertaining interjections in the instructional part of the lm can be seen as a strategy for keeping
the viewers interested in the onscreen material. Similarly, the military audience
does not need to be convinced of the value of the Boys Mk. 1 rie, rather just
to understand how it functions in the eld. The audio track of the latter section
of Stop That Tank!, when compared to the shorts, further exemplies this purpose. The rousing music is replaced with a sober, clear voice over that explains
the images on screen.
Both types of lm, however, use entertainment as a means to an end. The
shorts and the training lm use a style of animation that viewers would have
associated with fun, leisure and amusement. This animation is used as a sweetener to the serious, functional parts of the lms for audiences who would not
yet have been familiar with the use of animation for non-ctional purposes.
We can surmise, then, that the entertainment sections would have made audiences more responsive to the intended messages of these lms, making them
more palatable than if they had been delivered via all live action or entirely animated in the dry, pedagogic style of Flush Riveting.
Disneys approach to animation that was intended to have real-world
results of persuasion and education was modied and honed as he produced
24
greater and greater numbers of these types of lms for the American government. There are, then, differences to be seen between these ve Canadian lms
and the later domestic output. In the educational shorts aimed at the American
cinema-going public, there was often a less clear distinction between entertainment and education as seen in the Canadian war savings certicates lms.
Many, such as Out of the Frying Pan and Into the Firing Line (1942), which featured Minnie and Pluto, seamlessly integrate the message of the lm (the importance of collecting cooking fat for use in munitions) into one coherent narrative,
a structure that we can see Disney experimenting with in Stop That Tank! with
the integration of humor into the instructional part of the lm. In other lms
that do contain a similar structure to the Canadian shorts such as The New
Spirit (1942), which uses Donald Duck to encourage people to pay their income
tax the graphic second half of the lm is presented in as lush and rich an animation style as the rst, character-based section.
This focus on quality of animation was, however, unusual for Disney during the war years. Similarly, Richard Shale has pointed out that the U.S. training
lms rarely included the kind of humor seen in Stop That Tank! and
were mostly, in the name of economy, produced in black and white. In fact,
Disney spent much of the war in a state of frustration regarding the types of
lms he had to output in order to fulll the military and government contracts
that kept his studio aoat and he bristled at the idea of having to produce
largely unimaginative training and educational lms with primitive animation.33 The speed with which the studio had to churn out lms meant usual
Disney procedures of trialing and testing material had to be abandoned and
the famously perfectionist studio head had to dramatically lower his aesthetic
standards.
It is clear, however, that the ethos of Disneys domestic wartime animation
was established with the lms made for the National Film Board of Canada. It
was in these ve lms that the studio rst explored educating, training and
persuading through animation and the achievement of real world results
through a medium better known for childrens entertainment. Disney also
appreciated that there are some tasks to which animation is better suited than
live action. A serious message can be sweetened if delivered by a friendly, familiar character. Complex mechanical workings, military maneuvers and geographical positions are better explained in moving drawings. After the war Disney
continued to explore ways to blend fun and pedagogy. The True-Life Adventure
series of nature documentaries made by the studio between 1948 and 1960 has
been described as smoothly blending education with entertainment.34 Likewise, the Man in Space series blended information and humor, pedagogy and
entertainment.35 The Canadian war lms form the foundation for Disneys
later educational lms and show how Walt Disney was a pioneer, as he was in
many other ways, of the use of animation for nonctional ends and the potential
for using entertainment to educate.
25
NOTES
II (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1976), 24.
2. Richard Fleischer, Out of the Inkwell: Max Fleischer and the Animation Revolution
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005), 27.
3. Ibid.
4. Tommy Tuckers Tooth (1922) and Clara Cleans Her Teeth (1926) were commissioned by Dr. McCrum of the Deener Dental Institute.
5. Shale, 16.
6. Ibid.
7. National Film Board of Canada website. Accessed 1 November 2009 at
http://www.nf b.ca/history/about-the-foundation/
8. Grierson pioneered this style in his 1929 lm Drifters, about the herring shing
industry.
9. This is also one of the reasons Grierson was recruited to head the NFBC, an
appointment that occurred shortly after the lm board was established.
10. Grierson, quoted in Shale, 16.
11. Leonard Maltin, Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons.
Rev. ed. (New York: New American Library, 1987), 57. This equates to approximately
$7,000 per minute of screen time.
12. The negative cost is the cost to produce a lm and does not include costs such as
distribution or promotion.
13. See Russell Merritt, and J. B. Kaufman. Walt Disneys Silly Symphonies: A Companion to the Classic Cartoon Series. (Germona, Italy: La Cineteca del Friuli, 2006). The
average cost of a black and white Silly Symphony was $10,200, or $17 per foot. The color
Symphonies cost on average $32,400, or $36 per foot.
14. Merritt and Kaufman, 126; Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Biography (London:
Aurum Press, 2006), 184.
15. Richard Schickel, The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt
Disney. (London: Pavilion Books, 1986), 150.
16. Merritt and Kaufman, 36 37.
17. Merritt and Kaufman, 124. The production time of the Silly Symphonies ranged
from around a month for the early black and white shorts to over eight months for some
of the later color shorts.
18. Maltin, 42; Shale, 17.
19. This is a strategy that Disney would continue to adopt after the war when, for
example, the opening sections of the 1943 lm Victory Through Air Power would reappear
in the 1957 Man in Flight episode of the Disneyland TV series and the 1963 episode Fly
with Von Drake.
20. 5-for-4 refers to the government promotional offer selling ve dollars worth
of savings certicates for four dollars.
21. Gabler, 183.
22. John Grant, Encylopedia of Walt Disneys Animated Characters (New York: Harper
& Row, 1987), 55.
23. Gabler, 183.
24. Merritt and Kaufman, 40.
25. Robert Sklar, The Making of Cultural Myths Walt Disney, in The American
Animated Cartoon: A Critical Anthology, edited by Gerald Peary and Danny Peary (New
York: E. P. Dutton, 1980), 58 65, on p. 64.
26. Schickel, 154.
27. Grant, 62
26
28. This choice also reects the character differences of Donald and Mickey and is
indicative of the fact that by the early 1940s Mickey had developed into the kind of character that would have no internal quandaries regarding the best use for the contents of
his piggy bank.
29. Sklar, 64 65.
30. Shale, 19
31. Eric Smoodin, Animating Culture: Hollywood Cartoons from the Sound Era (New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 81.
32. Ibid.
33. Gabler, 389.
34. Steven Watts,The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life.
Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997, 304.
35. Watts, 309.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fleischer, Richard. Out of the Inkwell: Max Fleischer and the Animation Revolution. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005.
Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Biography. London: Aurum Press, 2006.
Grant, John. Encylopedia of Walt Disneys Animated Characters. New York: Harper &
Row, 1987.
Maltin, Leonard. Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons, revised
edition. New York: Plume, 1987.
Merritt, Russell, and J. B. Kaufman. Walt Disneys Silly Symphonies: A Companion to the
Classic Cartoon Series. Germona, Italy: La Cineteca del Friuli, 2006.
National Film Board of Canada website. http://www.nf b.ca/history/about-the-founda
tion/
Schickel, Richard. The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt Disney.
London: Pavilion Books, 1986.
Sklar, Robert. The Making of Cultural Myths Walt Disney. In The American Animated Cartoon: A Critical Anthology, edited by Gerald Peary and Danny Peary, 58
65. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1980.
Smoodin, Eric. Animating Culture: Hollywood Cartoons from the Sound Era. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Columbia:
University of Missouri Press, 1997.
Desiring the
Disney Technique
Chronicle of a Contracted
Military Training Film
DOUGLAS A. CUNNINGHAM
Between 1942 and 1945, the Walt Disney Studio made more than a hundred
contracted training lms for the armed forces mostly for the Navy, which
lacked a robust internal lmmaking capability of its own.1 Disney produced
over a hundred lms for the Navy, but only a few dozen for the Army. Only a
handful of lms were made exclusively for the Army Air Forces (AAF), which
operated under the auspices of the Army during the war but became the independent United States Air Force in 1947. Despite its subordinate relation to the
larger Army, the AAF boasted, by 1943, the largest training-lm production
capability in the U.S. Armed Forces. The AAFs First Motion Picture Unit or
(FMPU) in Culver City, California formed in the summer of 1942 and staffed
in large part by Hollywood studio professionals recruited to serve as uniformed,
active-duty AAF members oversaw this prolic and remarkably self-sufcient
enterprise. The FMPU produced the majority of the AAFs training lms: more
than 300 over the course of the war.2
On occasion, however, the AAF did contract the production of lms from
commercial vendors such as Disney, most often because the FMPU could not,
for scheduling or backlog reasons, make those lms itself. In such cases, too,
the FMPU often worked hand-in-hand with such vendors (including Disney)
to ensure the future success of the lm. This essay will trace the bureaucratic
trail that the Disney-made training lm series High-Level Precision Bombing
followed through AAF channels, and examine how Disneys 1943 lm Victory
through Air Power heavily inuenced AAF decisions to contract with Walt Disney Productions for the two-part 1944 series.
27
28
The Ancillary Impact of a Commercial Failure

An understanding of Disneys High-Level Precision Bombing series and its
path to production requires, rst, an explanation of strategic bombing itself
and the political role it played in the AAFs push toward postwar independence.
In crude terms, strategic bombing is the practice of high-altitude bombing of
sites of logistical signicance far beyond the front lines of the ground war. Its
targets included centers of industrial production, major railroad and other
transportation corridors. Brigadier General William Billy Mitchell aggressively advocated this new and controversial doctrine throughout the 1920s, but
his ideas were generally ignored even detested by the entrenched U.S. military establishment, which saw air power as tactical support for traditional
ground and naval forces rather than as a decisive military arm in its own right.3
Many AAF advocates particularly those that favored a separation from the
Army and the concomitant establishment of an independent air force continued to tout the advantages of strategic bombing throughout the 1920s and
30s.4 Among these advocates was Mitchells admirer and fellow aviator, Russian
migr Alexander P. de Seversky, who championed Mitchells ideas throughout
his own career in America, and particularly in his 1942 book, Victory through
Air Power. After Americas entry into World War II, the AAF found itself in a
position, both politically and technologically, to demonstrate the validity of its
strategic bombing theories an important opportunity given that the AAF had
for so long based its arguments for independence on the uniqueness of its strategic bombing mission.5
Initiated in the summer of 1943 by the AAFs Air Staff at headquarters in
Washington, D.C., the lm that would later become the High-Level Precision
Bombing series was almost certainly ordered in response to lessons learned during the AAFs rst independent bombing campaigns over Europe during the
rst half of the year. In this respect, the lms could not have been timelier.
Intended to train AAF bombardiers on the most efcient methods to achieve
accurate bombings of enemy targets, both lms (produced simultaneously
throughout the fall and early winter of 1943) went into wide distribution
throughout the AAF in 1944.6 The story of how the series came about and the
related tale of the bureaucratic channels through which it passed, however,
reveal much about the extent to which the AAF paid close attention to Disneys
other government-funded efforts and, in particular, the studios feature-length
curiosity, Victory through Air Power (a hybrid of animation and live-action produced as an adaptation of de Severskys book of the same name).
Victory through Air Power made the most direct and convincing case for
strategic bombing of any lm made during World War II. In fact, the case
seemed so convincing at the time that the Navy Department the AAFs longstanding rival for the military aviation spotlight actually attempted to discourage Disney from producing it, arguing the lm would scuttle [the Navys]
2. Desiring the Disney Technique (Cunningham)
29
search for funds and resources.7 This anecdote typies the erce rivalry
between the AAFs ground-based military aviation services (which took various
forms under the auspices of Army control and oversight between 1907 and
1947) and the Navys carrier-based aviation forces that characterized the rst
half of the century, and in particular the years immediately following World
War II. Although Victory through Air Power claims no ofcial ties to the government or its opinions, Steven Watts notes that a high-ranking ofcer in the
AAF encouraged [Disney] to go ahead [with production of the lm] because
people didnt understand air powers growing centrality to the Allied military
effort.8 The identity of this high-ranking ofcer remains vague, but the individuals opinions did not stray far from those held by a number of top AAF
brass of the time. Shale reports, however, that while many AAF ofcials visited
the Burbank studios during the lms production, Not all of these pilgrims
visiting Mecca [the Walt Disney Studio] were in accord ... and by late 1942 and
early 1943 the Disney Studio had become a battleground for aviators.9 Perhaps
Disneys heavy-handed approach and de Severskys association with the stillcontroversial Mitchell steered the War Department away from any direct
involvement with the lm during a time when interservice rivalries needed to
be set aside in favor of interservice cooperation.10 Still, Victory through Air
Power looks ofcial. The credits gave de Seversky (long since retired) his U.S.
Army rank of major, and Disneys close partnership with the government on
other collaborative, war-related projects must certainly have led some audience
members to believe they were watching yet another military-sanctioned product.11
Traditionally regarded as a deliberate abstraction of reality, animation in
Victory through Air Power becomes much more powerful for its glamorized
semblance of reality: the depictions of warfare, machinery, and ery ruin are
packed with realistic detail. At the same time, however, these scenes seem
strangely larger-than-life and dreamy, as if part of some childs fantasized version of warfare. Perhaps this fantasy accounts for oft-cited comments made by
critic James Agee in his 1943 review of the lm for The Nation: I noticed,
uneasily, that there were no suffering and dying enemy civilians under all those
proud promises of bombs; no civilians at all, in fact.... The sexless sexiness of
Disneys creations have always seemed to me queasy, perhaps in an allAmerican
sense; in strict descent from it is this victory-in-a-vacuum which is so morally
simple a matter ... of machine-eat-machine.12 Still, others (the New York Times,
for example) praised Disneys fantastic approach:
Through a brilliantly Technicolored array of maps and diagrams, Mr. Disney and
his artists have animated de Severskys ideas with a clarity which could never be
achieved simply through the spoken word. The designer and former Russian ying
ace of the rst World War discourses at length and with warm conviction throughout
the latter half of the lm, but it is the remarkably lucid exposition effected by the
drawings which makes his formula for true aerial strategy understandable even to
30

upper-grade elementary school pupils. Mr. Disney has proved in one bold stroke
that the motion picture has great possibilities as an educational factor.13
While The Commonweal found the lm a little heavy-going, it also remarked,

Perhaps if we had paid more attention to Mitchell in the 20s, this lm would
not have had to be made. But having been made, and made so well, it provides
another illustration of the value of cinema as an educational medium.14 Despite
such favorable reviews as those seen in the New York Times and The Commonweal, however, the lm failed miserably at the box ofce.15
Figure 1. Abridged chart of the AAFs Air Staff organization as of the summer and fall
of 1943.16
Although the AAF did not ofcially endorse Victory through Air Power,
the lms innovative animation and Technicolor visuals seem to have made a
deep impression on top AAF ofcials. In a July 20th, 1943, letter to Colonel
Lawrence Carr, the commander of the AAFs Training Aids Division in New
York City, Brigadier General Robert W. Harper, Assistant Chief of Air Staff,
Training (see Figure 1), based in Washington, D.C., requested the production
of a training lm that would focus exclusively on the concepts inherent to
strategic bombing. Harpers letter emphasized the need for the lm to stress
the importance of the bomber crew in the successful execution of such missions:
The purpose of this lm is to instill in our heavy bomber crews a deep sense of their
individual responsibility and importance in the furtherance of the enemys defeat
through precision placement of the bombs.... [I]t is believed that a lm of this nature,
if its importance is to be conveyed effectively, will require an animation technique
such as appears in the recent Walt Disney lm VICTORY THROUGH AIR POWER[.]
The proposed lm, of necessity must demonstrate through animation the complex-
31
ities, interrelationships and [interdependence] of war industries, so that the heavy

bombing crews will understand the full signicance of their missions. In addition,
this lm must dramatize, by showing [the] effect upon industry of the over-all implications of strategic bombing and the precision placement of bombs. To accomplish
this purpose, it is believed that a treatment comparable to the recent Disney lm on
Air Power is required.17
Harper evidently wanted a lm that would motivate as well as educate: a lm

that would not only explain strategic bombing, but argue for its efcacy and
importance. He wanted a lm like Disneys Victory Through Air Power but still
different in many respects. In other words, Harper was clearly looking for something very specic: a shortened, streamlined, less expensive (and less politically
problematic) version of Victory.
Consistent with Harpers desires, a First Lieutenant Peter R. Nehemkisof
Harpers Plans, Analysis, and Reports Division (then under the leadership of
Lieutenant Colonel Walt D. Merrill)seems to have initiated preliminary negotiations in earnest with Walt Disney Productions.18 By July 21st, in fact, Roy O.
Disney had already sent a letter to Harper requesting a greenlight for the company
to proceed on Disneys proposal for a project on strategic bombardment; as the
letter indicates, the Disney company knew that it could effectively play on the
signicant aesthetic and doctrinal advocacies of Victory through Air Power:
[Given] ... the quality of our current production, VICTORY THROUGH AIR POWER ...
[and] careful analysis of production costs on this picture, we feel that [a] per foot
arrangement of between $50.00 and $75.00 would be an equitable [rate at] which
to proceed with the intent of producing the picture as inexpensively as possible, with
the same quality as VICTORY THROUGH AIR POWER.... [Consistent] with the studios
policy on all war lms, this lm would be [done on a no-prot], cost basis, and would
run between 18 and 30 minutes, dependent [upon] script content.19
Here, Roy Disney relied on the companys extensive prior experience in

producing lms on behalf of the U.S. Government in order to provide cost estimates for a new production. The letter also demonstrates, however, the extent
to which Walt Disney Productions actively, even aggressively, sought to secure
such contracts particularly during a period of economic insecurity at the studio following the 1941 employee strike and the disappointing box-ofce returns
on Fantasia (1940) and Pinocchio (1940).20 Disney Productions had, by July of
1943, produced so many lms at cost for federal agencies that the proactive
process for securing this new contract must have seemed like business as usual.21
Solidifying the Contract

Harper replied to Roy O. Disney on July 22nd, stating that a nal decision
as to what organization would produce the picture, whether commercial or military, had yet to be made:
32

In accordance with customary procedure, a project number has been assigned for
the production of the training lm Strategic Bombardment, and the project is now
in the hands of the Army Air Forces Photographic Branch, Requirements Division,
[Assistant Chief of Air Staff, or AC/AS] Operations, Commitments and Requirements, who will decide shortly whether Air Force facilities or an outside agency will
be utilized to produce this lm.22
AC/AS Operations, Commitments, and Requirements (OCR), in turn, passed

the decision down three levels of management (through its Requirements Division to the Motion Picture Branch to, nally, the First Motion Picture Unit in
Culver City, California) for a nal decision.23 As Nehemkis later reported, Prior
to my departure from Washington, [OCR] had advised that the [First] Motion
Picture Unit alone could determine what agency would produce the lm on
Strategic Bombing and that this determination would be made after a script
had been prepared.24 OCR dispatched Nehemkis from Washington, D.C., to
Culver City on or around July 30th to meet face to face with FMPU members.
On August 2nd, Nehemkis met with FMPU leadership and production staff,
and at that time, the Motion Picture Unit quickly determined that the Disney
Organization was the only one capable of producing this lm, and negotiations
were immediately undertaken.25
A major reason for the AAFs decision to contract with Disney rather than
produce the lm internally rested with the backlog of productions at the
FMPU.26 Indeed, the FMPUs monthly Production Progress Report dated August
31st, 1943, lists over 125 projects assigned and in various stages of production
at that time many of which were slated to include complicated animation
sequences to be overseen by the over-tasked Animation Department and its
over-tasked (if highly qualied) leadership Rudolf Ising and Frank Thomas,
two former Disney artists turned AAF military men).27 Among the more ambitious of such projects was Camouage Cartoon directed by Ising and written
by Thomas a fully animated, two-reel, Technicolor short designed to instruct
AAF personnel on the essentials of airbase camouage.28 At that time only 65
percent complete, Camouage Cartoon claimed a great deal of time and manpower within the FMPUs Animation Department, as did many other lms
requiring a heavy animation component, to include Elementary and Pylon Eights
(slated for direction by Ising), Fighter Combat Formations: Attacks and Escorts
(85 percent complete, but needing additional animation), Advanced Formation
Flying (90 percent complete but still requiring the completion of nal animation), How to Fly the B-26: Loading ([a]nimation in work), and Lazy Eights
(10 percent compete, and, like Camouage Cartoon, requiring the use of a complex, animated character).29 The Animation Department was so busy, in fact,
that another lm, Operation and Maintenance of the Electronic Turbo Super
Charger, was also slated in this same Production Progress Report for production
by Disney.30 In an August 7th memorandum to Brigadier General Harper, in
fact, Lieutenant Colonel Merrill of AC/AS Trainings Plans, Analysis, and
33
Reports Division concurred with the assessment that the FMPU was too overwhelmed to produce the strategic-bombing lm, but he noted, too, that a
desire for the Disney technique also played a role in the decision to outsource
the lms production.31 Although Merill did not expound on his thoughts about
what might constitute the Disney technique, we might assume that he, along
with his superior, Brigadier General Harper, was impressed by the visual air
of Victory through Air Power. (We might also assume Merill knew Harper would
understand exactly what he meant by the term Disney technique, given that
Harper had initiated the request in the rst place.)
Along with deciding that Disney would produce the lm that had by now
come to be known through ofcial correspondence as Strategic Bombing, conference calls among personnel in AC/AS, Training, and AC/AS, OCR, on or
around August 6th determined initially that Perc Pearce the chief story writer
for Disney and the ofcially credited story director of Victory through Air
Power would act as the lms de facto writer while one of the FMPUs chief
scenario writers, Captain Norman Krasna, would serve as General Supervisor
and Consultant for the lm.32 (Krasna was, in fact, the celebrated talent who
had penned 1941s The Devil and Miss Jones, nominated for an Academy Award
for Best Original Screenplay, and Princess ORourke, the lm that would later
win that same award for 1943.) Nehemkis, by this time in California and actively
consulting with both the FMPU in Culver City and Disney in Burbank, respectively, pointed out that the lm would require a different working dynamic
between the AAF and Walt Disney Productions than that to which military ofcials had grown accustomed:
The Disney Organization does not work along the same lines [as other] commercial
producers, since animation technique requires a different approach. A script is not
prepared. Rather basic ideas, in terms of individual drawings and sequences are rst
developed. Actual production [and the] lming is only undertaken after this procedure is thoroughly [laid] out on the boards.33
Accordingly, Merrill scheduled Krasna and Pearce for an immediate research

visit to the Air Force School of Applied Tactics (AFSAT) in Orlando, Florida,
where they would study the theories of strategic bombing and its recent successes in the North Africa campaign.34
In an August 5th conference among Colonel Waters and Major Zimmer
of Training Aids Division, Major Cowling of the FMPU, and Lieutenant Colonel
Merrill of the Plans, Analysis, and Reports Division, all parties agreed that
Captain Krasna would not be suitable for supervision, as his talents lie along
the lines of scenario writing [i.e., the writing of training lms structured around
a dramatic narrative], consequently Captain Krasna was eliminated.35 All AAF
ofcials involved still wanted Pearce to visit AFSAT in Orlando prior to setting
up his Boards, however, and they also determined that although the picture
would be produced by Disney ... it would be closely supervised by Training
Aids and AFSAT to assure the proper end result.36 This supervision was to
34
include a visit to Walt Disney Productions in Burbank [p]rior to actual lming

by an AFSAT ofcial of technical ability and theater knowledge who would
perform a nal check on Disneys plans.37
Additionally, all conferees determined that Disney should take no longer
than three months to produced the requested lm, and an initial total cost estimate of $90,000 seems to have been attached to the lm at some point, subject
to change due to no [T]echnicolor being desired.38 (The project ultimately
cost only $66,958.)39 Signicantly, in an August 9th letter to Colonel Lawrence
Carr of Training Aids Division, Harper noted that although he (Harper) had
suggested the use of an animated technique, either animated or live action
will be satisfactory if the proper end result can be secured.40 The point Harper
made here proved important, for despite the fact that Victory through Air Power
played an important role in priming the imaginations of AAF ofcials about
the possibilities for their lm, Strategic Bombing, in truth the nal product(s)
employed more live action than dynamic animation. Indeed, the two lms eventually produced and released seem signicantly different from Harpers original
intent in several other ways, not the least of which proved to be their stated
aims. Whereas the original concept for Strategic Bombing centered on convincing airmen of the absolute importance of their roles in the successful execution
of a strategic-bombing mission, the two separate lms ultimately released seem
more like reinforcements of standardized bombing procedures.
One Series, Two Films

At some point after August 1943, the single project at one time titled Strategic Bombing seems to have been divided into two separate lms intended as
halves of an overall series titled High-Level Precision Bombing. The change was
probably motivated by mistakes made during the Allied bombing campaigns
of 1943 and, in particular, the high-level precision bombing raids on Schweinfurt and Regensberg, which, combined resulted in the loss of over 60 Allied
aircraft on a single day.41 One could assume, however, that once the partial failures of these raids and their associated lessons learned began to permeate the
AAFs institutions of doctrinal theory and strategy development (in particular,
the aforementioned Air Force School of Applied Tactics in Orlando at which
Disneys Pearce had been assigned to conduct background research), additional
requirements might have been levied on the lm that then required a splitting
of the current project into two parts that would address different aspects of the
overall high-level precision bombing protocol. The rst of the two lms in the
seriesHigh-Level Precision Bombing (Part 1: The Bombing Computers)concerns the proper use and functions of two calibration and calculation devices,
the E6-B computer (which resembled and operated like a manual slide rule)
and the Automated Bombing Computer (ABC), which attached as a supplement
35
to the Norden bombsight. As the narration states, Through the use of either
the E6-B or ABC computer, pre-set sight data can be computed without any
change in the ships course. The bulk of this lm consists of live-action closeups of hands manipulating both computers to calculate drift, dropping angles,
and bomb release points, although animation is occasionally employed to reiterate numbered directions, to indicate via arrows where parts of the computers need to be manipulated, or to capture overall conceptual ideas. In
general, the lm is dedicated to the idea that proper use of either device will
signicantly improve the accuracy of bombs dropped from high altitudes. In
this respect, The Bombing Computers does bear some resemblance to the original
intent of Strategic Bombing; after all, The Bombing Computers reects Harpers
desire to validate the practice of high-level precision bombing in that it seeks
to persuade airmen that proper applications of advanced technology can help
them to achieve success.
Like The Bombing Computers, the second lm in the series, High-Level Precision Bombing (Part 2: Combat Bombing Procedure), uses animation sparingly,
but that use nevertheless seems more integrated with the purpose and drive of
the lm as whole, which explains the ve-point procedure by which a bombardier is meant to properly execute a bombing mission. The lm begins with
the off-screen narrator relating the story of a recent bombing raid over an
important Axis oil renery (the site goes unnamed in the lm), during which
three successive aircraft had to be replaced as lead bomber because the bombardier in each had forgotten to follow one important element of combatbombing procedure. The lm then spends the rest of its 22 minutes reviewing
the ve constitutive phases of every bombing mission and the necessary actions
required by the bombardier at each of these phases. Much of the lms construction also concerns the techniques used by the bombardier during Phase 5
of the procedure, during which he is expected to take evasive action at scheduled
intervals while approaching the target. (The bombardier would temporarily
assume piloting duties once the aircraft began its bombing run.) During this
sequence, the lm integrates live-action close ups and medium shots of a bombardier performing regulation procedures followed immediately by an animated
aerial view of a bomber moving according to the adjustments made by the bombardier as shown in the previous two.
Disney completed the two-part High-Level Precision Bombing series on
January 21st, 1944, after which time both lms were distributed widely throughout the relevant units of the AAF.42 While the FMPU is credited prominently
as working in cooperation with the studio in the opening titles of both lms
in the series, the exact nature of this cooperation once Krasna had been eliminated as General Supervisor remains unclear. The FMPUs function in the
production could have taken many forms between August of 1943 and January
of 1944. One possibility is that FMPU personnel continued to act as West
Coast liaisons between AAF representatives based on the East Coast (ofcials
36
from Training Aids Division in New York and AFSAT experts from Orlando,
for example) and Perc Pearces Disney team working to assemble both pictures.
Another possibility is that the FMPU provided both production and post-production assistance with the series; after all, the FMPU had ready-made mockups of cockpits and bombardier bays for use in shooting different types of
training lms, and these may have come in handy for Disney lmmakers. Additionally, the FMPU may have assisted in some aspects of post-production, a
practice that was not uncommon for the FMPU given that it often performed
similar services for overseas combat-camera crews that sent materials back to
Culver City for nal assembly.
The most likely role played by the FMPU, however, was probably that of
a friendly consultant and overseer of Disneys work on the series. This does
not imply that Walt Disney Productions lacked the necessary knowledge of its
craft to effectively execute and complete this project; rather, the FMPU, having
by this time produced dozens of training lms (most often to great acclaim
from the leadership that requested them) for AAF organizations worldwide,
possessed a keen knowledge of the most effective ways to reach and instruct its
core audience, and this knowledge about the AAF may have proved useful for
Disney.
Conclusion
While the visuals and dramatic air inherent to Disneys 1943 feature, Victory through Air Power, inspired high-placed AAF ofcials within the ofce of
the Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Training, as they were trying to make a decision
regarding what organization would produce the lm on strategic bombing they
desired, ultimately, the lms produced for the High-Level Precision Bombing
series bear little resemblance to Victory through Air Power, employing far more
live action than dynamic animation. Still, the arcing arrows and their concomitant explosions demonstrated in the hub-and-spoke wheel sequence of Victory through Air Power would eventually resurface in an FMPUproduced
lm, 1945s Air Power and Armies (animated in-house at the FMPU, without
help from Disney), which advanced many of the same arguments about strategic
air powers role in combined air-ground operations that Disney had forwarded
two years earlier. Still, although the AAF produced most of its training lms
internally during World War II, it sometimes turned to outside vendors for
lms when the First Motion Picture Unit could not make space within its schedule for another project. This essay has chronicled the bureaucratic processes
whereby such a lm came to be assigned to Walt Disney Pictures, Inc., and the
ways in which that companys Victory through Air Power played a major role in
that decision. Indeed, some of the very same talents that had helped to bring
Victory through Air Power to life also worked to produce the project that even-
37
tually came to be known as the High-Level Precision Bombing series. Tracing

the history of the series production from an AAF point of view provides a
unique glimpse into the kinds of demands levied on the Walt Disney Studio
during this period, as well as an understanding of the extent to which Disneys
independent feature products (e.g., Victory through Air Power) signicantly
inuenced a desire for the Disney technique even in lms intended strictly
for military use. Although the High-Level Precision Bombing lms differ quite
noticeably in style from Victorys vaulting arrows and visual metaphors, one
can after reviewing AAF correspondence recognize in the series the fruits
of seeds planted by Victory through Air Powers immediate effect on high-ranking AAF ofcials during the summer of 1943.
NOTES
II (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1982), 165 170.
2. Robert B. Miller, foreword to History of 18th AAF Base Unit (Motion Picture
Unit): A Report for War Activities Committee of the Motion Picture Industry, by James
Scanlan, File 262.11, Air Force Historical Research Institute, Maxwell Air Force Base,
Alabama.
3. For a remarkable summary of Mitchells life and work, see David Jablonsky, Roots
of Strategy, Vol. 4 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999), 409 420.
4. For a comprehensive treatise on the decades-long ght to achieve an independent
United States Air Force, see DeWitt S. Copp, A Few Great Captains (McLean, VA: EPM
Publications, 1989) and R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Ofce, 1996).
5. An early but primary example of this is assertion may be seen in William
Mitchells 1925 book, Winged Defense, reprinted in its entirety in Jablonsky, 421516.
6. Scanlan, History of 18th AAF Base Unit (Motion Picture Unit) (Formerly Designated 1st Motion Picture Unit): A Report for Historical Division, AC/AS Intelligence,
Headquarters, Army Air Forces, 189.
7. Steven Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life
(New York: Houghton Mifin, 1997), 235 36.
8. Watts, 236.
9. Shale, 70.
10. McClendon, 94 95.
11. Leonard Maltin, The Disney Films, 3rd ed. (New York: Hyperion, 1995), 64.
12. Quoted in Richard Schickel, The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art, and Commerce of Walt Disney (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 275.
13. The Globe Presents Victory Through Airpower, a Disney Illustration of Major
de Severskys Book, New York Times, 19 July 1943. Accessed 27 March 2010 at: http://
movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9404EFDF1738E33BBC4152DFB1668388659EDE
14. Philip T. Hartung, Winged Victory, The Commonweal, 6 August 1943: 393 94.
15. Watts, 236.
16. Organization Chart, Army Air Forces, November 15, 1943 Air Force: The Ofcial
Service Journal of the U.S. Army Air Forces 27, no. 1 (1944): 3233.
17. Brigadier General Robert W. Harper to Commanding Ofcer, Training Aids Division, 20 July 1943, Decimal Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July
1, 1943 September 5, 1943, RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
38
18. Roy O. Disney to Brigadier General Robert W. Harper, 21 July 1943, Decimal Files,
October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943 September 5, 1943, RG 18
(AAF), National Archives and Records Administration, College Park. Emphasis mine.
19. Ibid. Emphasis mine.
20. Shale, 20 22.
21. Shale, 168.
22. Brigadier General Robert W. Harper to Roy O. Disney, 22 July 1943, Decimal
Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943 September 5, 1943,
RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
23. First Lieutenant Peter R. Nehemkis, Jr., to Brigadier General Robert W. Harper,
4 August 1943, Decimal Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1,
1943 September 5, 1943, RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Lieutenant Colonel Walter D. Merrill to Brigadier General Robert W. Harper, 7
August 1943, Decimal Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943
September 5, 1943, RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
27. First Motion Picture Unit Production Progress Report, 31 August 1943, Decimal
Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943 September 5, 1943,
RG 18 (AAF), NACP. Also, Cartoon Hall of Fame, ASIFAHollywood Animation
Archive, http://www.animationarchive.org/bio/2005/12/ising-rudolph.html (accessed
20 February 2010).
28. First Motion Picture Unit Production Progress Report, 31 August 1943.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid. Yet another FMPUDisney collaboration, this lm was also completed in
January of 1944. See Scanlan, 99, 101, 189, and 190. Also, Shale, 169.
31. Merrill to Harper, 7 August 1943.
32. Lieutenant Colonel Walter D. Merrill to Brigadier General Robert W. Harper, 6
August 1943, Decimal Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943
September 5, 1943, RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
33. Nehemkis to Harper, 4 August 1943.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid. Notes about cost, Technicolor, and time deadline appear in handwriting on
this document along with Merrills initials.
39. Scanlan, 189.
40. Brigadier General Robert W. Harper to Colonel Lawrence Carr, 9 August 1943,
Decimal Files, October 1942May 1944, 062.2, Training Films, July1, 1943 September
5, 1943, RG 18 (AAF), NACP.
41. Geoffrey Perret, Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II (New York:
Random House, 1993), 218.
42. Scanlan, 101.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cartoon Hall of Fame. ASIFAHollywood Animation Archive. http://www.animationarchive.org/bio/2005/12/ising-rudolph.html
Copp, DeWitt S. A Few Great Captains. McLean, VA: EPM Publications, 1989.
The Globe Presents Victory Through Airpower, a Disney Illustration of Major de Severskys Book, New York Times, 19 July 1943.
39
Hartung, Philip T. Winged Victory. The Commonweal, 6 August 1943: 393 94.
Jablonsky, David. Roots of Strategy, vol. 4. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999.
Maltin, Leonard. The Disney Films, 3rd edition. New York: Hyperion, 1995.
McClendon, R. Earl. Autonomy of the Air Arm. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Ofce, 1996.
Organization Chart, Army Air Forces, November 15, 1943 Air Force: The Ofcial Service
Journal of the U.S. Army Air Forces 27, no. 1 (1944): 3233.
Perret, Geoffrey. Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II. New York: Random House, 1993.
Schickel, Richard. The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art, and Commerce of Walt Disney.
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985.
United States Army Air Force papers. National Archives, College Park, MD.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. New
York: Houghton Mifin, 1997.
Cartoons Will Win the War

World War II
Propaganda Shorts
RICHARD J. LESKOSKY
With the entrance of the United States into the Second World War, the
Walt Disney Studio also embarked on a new period in its history. The war in
Europe, even before U.S. entry, had had a profound effect on the studio since
it cut Disney off from the lucrative European market he needed to recoup his
investments in his feature-length productions. The day after Pearl Harbor, the
studio campus took on the appearance of a military base, with soldiers stationed
there to protect the nearby Lockheed Aircraft plant. That same day Disney also
received his rst U.S. government contract. By 1943, ninety-four per cent of
the studios output was government-funded, including classied work.1
The bulk of this work consisted of training lms, but some lms were intended
for more widespread distribution, and designed to educate and inuence viewers.
Any theatrically released cartoon which depicted Americas enemies as monsters
and/or buffoons or which evoked positive feelings about Americas role in the war
could in some sense be considered propaganda. This discussion, however, will take
a narrower focus and consider as propaganda only those cartoons, made at the
governments behest which, displayed a more structured and obvious message.
Although traditional theatrical cartoon production accounted for less than
ten per cent of the Disney studios output at the height of the war, Disney images
nonetheless permeated American society at that time. This chapter discusses
nine short Disney cartoons commissioned by the government for largely propagandistic purposes, but those cartoons were part of a much larger body of
Disney war-related images, both animated and still, which Americans in the
early 1940s could readily see on a regular basis and which provided a visual context for the overtly propagandistic lms discussed in this chapter.2 This larger
body of imagery included bond rally lms produced for Canada, Good Neighbor
health lms made for Latin American distribution, training lms made for var40
3. Cartoons Will Win the War (Leskosky)
41
ious branches of the armed forces, and the educational/hortatory featurette Victory Through Air Power, all of which are considered elsewhere in this book. The
abundance of such imagery undoubtedly made it easier for viewers to accept
the more message-laden images in the nine short lms discussed here.
Disney artists designed about 1,200 insignia for military units, many featuring familiar Disney characters,3 as well as posters supporting the war effort.4
Disney images appeared in ads in family publications such as Colliers and The
Saturday Evening Post. Popular publications including Life, Fortune, and Popular
Science Monthly ran articles on Disneys war-related projects along with illustrations from the lms and photos of the artists at work. Wartime documentaries made to inform G.I.s and the American public about the causes and
importance of the war most notably, Frank Capras Why We Fight series
relied on Disney-produced animated maps and related graphics.
Even before U.S. entry into the war, service comedies had become a recognizable Hollywood genre, casting familiar comedians as members (often
unwilling or accidental) of the military, where conicts with superiors gured
more prominently than conicts with enemy troops.5 Once the United States
entered the war, popular animated characters donned military uniforms, went
through basic training, and even saw action in two dozen or so lms. Donald
Duck, one of the cartoon stars most commonly seen in uniform, appeared in
ve cartoon service comedies.6 Goofy also appeared in uniform in How to Be
a Sailor (1944), and even Pluto got into the act though not, strictly speaking,
into uniform as a mascot or military watchdog in three lms.7
Disneys animated propaganda shorts proper fell into three categories: agricultural documentaries, home front calls to action, and psychological lms.
Agricultural documentaries detailed the importance of American crops to the war
effort both at home and around the world. Home front calls to action explained
the necessity of paying ones taxes or conserving resources. Psychological lms
examined the German psyche and compared it with its American counterpart or
explored other psychological aspects of the war. Education was the overt aim of
each of these categories, but that education was also intended to lead to action
supporting the American war effort. And even though they differed from the studios regular theatrical releases in the manner in which they told their stories and
in having obvious messages specically related to the war, their propaganda function was supported and complemented by Disneys overriding intention to entertain his audience. Long before he had Mary Poppins sing it, Disney lived by the
principle that a spoonful of sugar helps the medicine go down.
Selling the War, Disney Style

During the early 1930s, Walt Disneys studio increasingly emphasized character animation (along with a stock company of characters) and developed cer-
42
tain Principles of Animation which gave its cartoons a distinctive look and
tone.8 The Silly Symphonies became testing grounds for new techniques and
addressed specic animation challenges (The Three Little Pigs, for example,
explored ways of individuating physically identical characters). At the same
time, Walt Disney actively encouraged his animators to continue their art education with, among other resources, life drawing lessons at the studio. Fantasia
(1940) carried this notion onto the screen with its explicit intent of edifying as
well as entertaining. So the mix of education/indoctrination and entertainment
that would make the propaganda lms so effective was a natural extension of
already exiting Disney traits. And that Disney used these lms in turn to develop
techniques that would continue to appear in certain types of productions for
decades to come continued his developmental strategies of the 1930s.
Disney employed one or more of the following devices in each of the studios propaganda lms: a voice of authority imparting information or delineating proper attitudes and courses of action, the use of contrasting moral
exemplars to demonstrate the consequences of different attitudes or courses of
action, and a blending of different graphic styles. In each case, this represented
a departure from Disneys general practice but also an elaboration of devices
used only rarely in his previous lms in short, an evolution of storytelling
form to serve new purposes.
Voices of authority. Disneys pre-war lms relied most heavily on images
and music, with minimal assistance from the dialogue, to tell their stories.9
Virtually every Disney animator interviewed by researchers has described Walt
as a peerless storyteller who would act out entire cartoons when explaining
projects to his artists (or government sponsors).10 This aptitude for, and commitment to, showing rather than telling manifested itself throughout Disneys
purely entertainment offerings.
The rare pre-war exceptions with voiceovers had very specic justications.
The Oscar-winning Ferdinand the Bull (1938) adapted from the immensely popular 1936 childrens book, The Story of Ferdinand, preserved author Munro
Leaf s humorous, endearing text in voiceover (while almost completely ignoring
illustrator Robert Lawsons visual style in favor of the studios own). Goofys
Glider (1940), the rst of a popular series of ersatz instructional lms starring
Goofy, relied for its comedy on the dichotomy between its voiceover narration
and its visuals. Throughout the series, while the narrators cultivated voice gave
a reasonably accurate account of the proper way to go about the sport or other
activity in the title, the audience saw Goofy serving as a fumbling or even contradictory example of those same principles.11 And of course an on-screen
authoritarian narrator gured prominently in Fantasia (1940).
Once the United States entered the war, Disney embarked in earnest on
the production of serious instructional lms, with Four Methods of Flush Riveting (1942) for neighboring Lockheed Aircraft. Here the use of voiceover came
into its own, with straightforward verbal instruction to explain the simple,
43
nearly diagrammatic animation of the ush riveting process and the reasons
for its use. Educational lms that were also designed to entertain, the propaganda shorts used techniques from both Four Methods and the Goofy comedies
of instruction. Their off-screen voices of authority, often employing a more
overtly oratorical delivery, explained to the audience what they were seeing and
sometimes even explained to the characters within the lm what they ought to
be doing. Voiceover and on-screen action thus reinforced each other, driving
the message home.
This technique was particularly useful in the propaganda lms for presenting densely packed lists of information a need that did not arise in the
comedies of instruction, the health lms, or the training lms. The off-screen
narrator would recite, for example, the uses to which a citizens taxes might be
put or a series of illustrative similes making more graspable such not easily
visualized concepts as, say, the annual United States potato output. The verbal
catalog would be matched with a montage of images so that the combined aural
and visual assault had a heightened emotional impact to x the message in the
viewers mind.
Moral Dichotomies. A teaching tool that Disney uses repeatedly in his
commissioned lms is the presentation of exemplars of good and bad behaviors
or right and wrong choices and the consequences of those actions and choices.
Disney employed this device in virtually all the health lms made for the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs as part of the Good Neighbor Policy.
Improper or uneducated behavior result in sickness and death while health
awareness and proper hygiene lead to a better life. In Donalds Decision (1942),
commissioned by the National Film Board of Canada to sell War Savings Certicates, angel and devil Donald replicas clash over investing in Canadas war
bonds. This lm depended in large part on recycled footage from Donalds
Better Self (1938) where angel and devil battle over Donalds decision to play
hooky.
This particular teaching method had its origin in Disneys early lm career
in Kansas City. Tommy Tuckers Tooth (1922), a largely live-action Laugh-OGram and Disneys rst educational lm, contrasted the hygiene and career
potentials of dentally careful Tommy Tucker and slovenly Jimmie Jones. Disney
also made his points more comprehensible by relating them to phenomena with
which the audience would be familiar, drawing comparisons between proper
tooth care and measures taken to prevent the spoilage of food and the deterioration of clothing. A second dental hygiene lm, Clara Cleans Her Teeth (1926),
presented before and after visions of a young girls bad and good oral cleansing
habits.12
Blending Levels of Realism. Throughout the 1930s, Walt Disney pushed
his animators to ever higher levels of artistic quality and enhanced realism.13
Most of the studios new ideas, processes, and inventions produced visual cues
suggestive of qualities in the real world (depth of eld, say, or illusions of mass
44
in a moving gure). Disney was not striving for anything like photorealism in
his cartoons, though.but rather believability in his animated characters in
effect, an emotional rather than a strictly physical realism.14
This process meant Disney increasingly avoided the inherently surreal
aspects of the animated cartoon which other studios most notably, the Fleischers regularly exploited and which Disney himself had relied upon in his
studios early years. Characters no longer enjoyed the complete graphic freedom
of his Oswald the Rabbit, who could detach parts of his body, stretch his limbs
to any length as needed, and turn symbols from his own dialogue balloons into
tools or vehicles to achieve his immediate goals. Instead, characters and objects
in Disney sound lms acquired a certain stability of form and did not metamorphose into other shapes, and objects generally did not come to life unless
that was the whole point of a particular cartoon as in Music Land (1935), a
Romeo and Juliet story with living musical instruments.15
By the time the studio began work on its propaganda lms, it had developed
three distinct styles or modes with different levels of verisimilitude, which I
will refer to here as cartoon, realistic, and schematic.
The cartoon style, marked by caricature and exaggeration, predominated
in Disneys entertainment shorts. Though it became more sophisticated and
achieved greater verisimilitude through the 1930s, it remained essentially comic
in tone and intent .Animal characters were anthropomorphized. Human characters were generally drawn with head to body proportions that did not match
those in real humans, and their facial features were generally more rounded
than in real life and displayed different proportions. Most characters, human
or animal, were constructed from underlying circles and ellipses, lacked ne
details, and moved more rapidly and comically than their real-life counterparts.
The realistic style covered a range of more detailed artwork and was used
to tell more serious stories.. Animated characters appeared more closely modeled after real world beings. Humans displayed body proportions consistent
with those of real people, and their facial features showed lines and shapes one
might expect to see in life drawings. Their torsos were more likely to be built
up from underlying rectangles and trapezoids. Animals tended to resemble
more closely their real world counterparts, and their movements tended to have
a speed more closely approximating real life. Finer detail appeared in characters,
objects, and especially backgrounds. Backgrounds often looked more painterly,
resembling oil paintings or watercolors rather than pencil drawings. This style
appeared occasionally in the Silly Symphonies16 and reached its acme there in
the Oscar-winning The Old Mill (1935). The animal denizens of the mill were
rendered in a more naturalistic manner which complemented the greater detail
in the rendering of the mills decrepit interior, the use of the multiplane camera
to create appearance of depth, and the various special effects reections and
gleams off rain and pond. Disney employed this style more often in the feature
45
lms, especially in their more serious moments the scene in Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs (1937), say, when the Queens huntsman is supposed to kill
Snow White but instead spares her life.
In the propaganda lms, something of a paradox occurs with regard to realistic images. Though they are by denition more naturalthat is, they look more
like what they represent than the caricatures of the cartoon style they generally
have a higher symbolic content. A loaf of bread rendered in near photo-realistic
style represents not a particular, single loaf of bread but all the bread produced
by the United States in one year or simply the notion Bread. The same is true
of moving images of tanks, say, which may be rendered in considerable detail
but do not represent a specic line of tanks invading a particular country; instead
they represent war machines in general or the concepts of Invasion, Aggression, or Conquest. This echoes the use of stock footage and captured footage
in the live-action Why We Fight series to represent specic events (whether or
not they were actual recordings of those events) but more often to convey simply
general impressions of conict, aggression, and Axis infamy.
The schematic style includes diagrams, maps, and highly stylized gures.
Disney employed this style only sparingly in its regular entertainment shorts
until introducing explanatory game diagrams as a gag in the Goofy instructional
comedy How to Play Baseball (1942). This was perhaps inspired by the other
government sponsored work the studio had begun doing, such as the animated
maps for the Army Signal Corpss Why We Fight lms. Schematic rendering
may have a humorous or serious function, depending on its context, but its
overt intent in either case will appear to be educational or explanatory. Generally, Disney tended to avoid noticeable mixes of these styles and levels of realism
in his entertainment shorts in order not to distract viewers and thus compromise the illusion of reality the animators were manufacturing.17 The schematic
diagrams in the Goofy instructional comedies passed, however, as natural inclusions in a spoof of educational lms. In the propaganda shorts, realistic and
cartoon styles appeared in the same lm but were usually assigned to distinct
sections dealing with different aspects of the main subject, although, as will
become evident in the descriptions of individual lms, a realistic image might
pop up in a more cartoonish section or a cartoon caricature could suddenly
appear amidst an array of realistic images. Schematic illustrations could appear
in either context, and several lms successfully employed all three styles to signicant degrees.
Although these different styles appear in all three categories of Disney
propaganda shorts, the realistic and schematic styles tend to show up more
often in the Agricultural Documentaries, and the cartoon style shows up to a
greater degree in the Home Front Calls to Action and the Psychological Films.
Presumably, in those lms the propagandistic intent was more obvious and so
needed to be made more palatable by being rendered in a style audiences would
automatically associate with pure entertainment.
46
Agricultural Documentaries
The war represented a huge drain on the countrys resources. Food
rationing had become law. Gasoline, rubber, and scrap metal were diverted to
military uses, thereby reducing the general mobility of the population. In
response, Disney supplied the government with two lms explaining the importance of food to the war effort and justifying the audiences sacrices for their
ghting men.18 The lms also served to link agricultural workers with the military, thereby implicitly justifying to the general populace the deferments from
active service accorded to farm workers. Additionally, they furthered the sense
of the whole hemisphere working together, which lay at the root of the Good
Neighbor Policy.
Food Will Win the War (1942). Directed by Ben Sharpsteen, the lm was
made with supervision by the Agricultural Marketing Administration for the
Department of Agriculture. Food Will Win the War took its title from a phrase
Secretary of Agriculture Claude Wickard coined in a nationwide radio address:
Food will win the war and write the peace. That in fact was the original full
title, but it was shortened on the recommendation of the Ofce of the Coordinator of Information, apparently to avoid suggesting that the United States
planned to take the lead in shaping the post-war world.19
The lm opens dramatically with an image of the world on re, followed
by a primarily still image of a ruined farm. The off-screen narrator briey
explains the conict and the plight of the Allies in charged terms and offers
America as a source of hope and food. A United States map blossoms with the
outlines of various European countries within its borders illustrating that American farmlands far exceed those in the countries depicted. Next, silhouettes of
American farmers and their families stand astride the globe as the narrator
praises their labors (Grim farmers with sleeves rolled up, ready for sacrices)
and announces that America has twice as many farmers as Germany has soldiers.
The farmer silhouettes begin to show more detail: they are wearing overalls,
but faces remain blank. Next, ranks of farm equipment harvest a crop20 while
the narrator describes them in military terms, further emphasizing the farmersoldier equivalence: Panzer forces of food, battalions of combines, regiments of trucks, divisions of corn pickers, potato diggers, planting machines.
The narrator next presents a catalog of commodities along with the
amounts of each America produces. Though each commodity is illustrated with
a realistic image, the narrator provides bizarre statistics for each crop. The
analogies become as surreal as anything Disney has ever done: Or should we
turn this milk into butter, war-ooded elds of Holland could be reclaimed by
dikes it would build. In the midst of realistic renderings of surreal images, a
giant cartoon bowling ball (representing vitamins) scatters pins with the faces
of Hitler, Mussolini, and Hirohito, and the planet Earth gets a pie in the face.
Happy cartoon hens, recycled from Golden Eggs (1941), lay eggs, and the Three
47
Little Pigs (imitating Archibald Willards famous painting, The Spirit of 76)
lead a parade of pigs (presumably to the slaughterhouse). A giant farmer silhouette pours grain into the hold of a Victory ship, and the narrator launches
into another litany. The ships, ships, ships (...ships protected by the blasting
re of men of war, ships loaded with food for freedom....) cross the seas, protected by planes and warships from Axis subs with skull-shaped bows, to deliver
foodstuffs to those who ght for a list of freedoms. It all ends with a close up
of food crates bearing the Lend-Lease program emblem (an eagle and four
stars) that Disney had designed for the Department of Agriculture.21
Among Disney propaganda lms, Food Will Win the War most demonstrates a likely inuence from Disneys work with Frank Capras lm unit of
the Special Service Division Army Service Forces. Like, say, Prelude to War
(1942), it tells its story in a montage of images both verbal and visual. It begins
by presenting a dichotomy between the ravaged farms of Europe and the bounties of American agriculture just as Prelude began with a comparison between
the free world and the slave world. Its language is factual but emotionally loaded.
It uses specic images to make general or symbolic points. It employs maps
and deploys statistics about relative strengths and resources of the opposing
forces. And it uses at least some recycled footage.
The Grain That Built a Hemisphere (1943).22 More focused in its content,
The Grain That Built a Hemisphere, directed by Bill Roberts, concentrates
specically on the past, present, and future of corn production. Made under
the auspices of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA) for the Latin
American market, as were the health lms commissioned by the CIAA, the lm
was nonetheless released theatrically in the U.S. and nominated for an Oscar
for Best Documentary.23
The lm begins with a map of North and South America covered by golden
grain with a stylized Indian off to the side grinding corn by rolling a cylindrical
stone mano over a at stone metate.24 The off-screen narrator explains the theories of how modern corn evolved, accompanied by schematics of the reproductive systems of possible corn ancestors. An Indian (in silhouette with
highlights along the edges of his limbs and torso like the roustabouts in the
tent-raising scene in Dumbo) passes by one of these plants in the Andes while
hunting a deer (recycled from Bambi). Eventually when game becomes scarce,
an Indian whose features are actually shown discovers that the plants kernels,
depicted in a naturalistic style, are edible. Then follows a summary of the importance of corn to the civilizations of the Mayas, the Aztecs, and the Incas (including corn gods and Aztec human sacrice). A map shows the spread of corn
throughout South America, then North America, and nally the world. Behind
an outline of the Indians forearms working with mano and metate, an array of
basic corn-based foods appears as the narrator lists them. The narrator praises
the Indian discoverer and developer of corn and then goes on to explain how
modern farmers grow corn with highly productive and efcient machinery.
48
The narrator then explains the process of in-breeding corn which leads to
bigger plants. Like the preceding scenes, this is illustrated with realistic images
and handled seriously except for an odd descent into the cartoonish when two
unrelated strains are joined in wedlock accompanied by Wagners Bridal Chorus as they link their leaves like arms. This produces a new, larger strain and
leads to a set of statistics about the consumption of corn by farm animals, with
scenes recycled from Farmyard Symphony (1938). The narrator next discusses
the role science plays in developing food and other products from corn. A diagram of a corn kernel shows the different parts which may be used for various
products illustrated realistically in another catalogue sequence.25 The shimmering, vaguely ominous reection of a researcher on a bubbling retort marks
a shift to a catalogue of potential new (war) uses for corn products: fuel for
planes, high explosives for bombs (a plane dropping bombs is recycled from
The New Spirit), tires, fabric for parachutes better than silk, plastics harder
than steel for cars, for tanks, men of war, ships of peace.... For its nale, the
lm returns to the recurring visual motif of the Indian, whom the narrator
thanks again for discovering corn.
The Grain That Built a Hemisphere signals its Good Neighbor origins with
its title (changed from the original, succinct Corn and Corn Products to suggest
a link between North and South America),26 its emphasis on the importance of
South America in the history of this vital crop, its recurring visual motif of the
Indian grinding corn, and its repeated verbal thanks to corns Indian discoverers. It does eventually get around to referencing the war but with more
restrained images and language than Food Will Win the War. The emphasis
remains on furthering hemispheric harmony rather than actively denouncing
European and Asian enemies.27
Home Front Calls to Action

More than food was needed from the home front to win the war. Money,
in the form of taxes, was of course essential; but even simple items, such as
cooking grease, could be recycled into war matriel. When asking viewers to
make sacrices or change common behavior (i.e., save and turn in grease that
might ordinarily have been used for avoring), Disney relied on his popular
cartoon characters to hook viewers, inserted a voiceover explanation of the target behavior, and followed that with a visual and verbal catalogue of the positive
effects of that behavior, rendered in a generally realistic style.
On 18 December 1941, Treasury Secretary Henry J. Morgenthau and Guy
Helvering, Commissioner of Internal Revenue, asked Walt Disney to produce
a lm which would urge the fteen million new taxpayers created by the 1941
tax law to pay their taxes in a timely (and cheerful) manner. Walt responded
with The New Spirit starring Donald Duck, but when Morgenthau saw the sto-
49
ryboards and heard Walts description on 4 January 1942 he was unimpressed.

He had hoped for an everyman sort of protagonist rather than a recognized
studio character. Walt explained that putting his top cartoon star in the lm
was like MGM lending the Treasury Department Clark Gable. In any case,
because the lm had to go into production immediately for a February release
to prepare viewers for the March 15 ling deadline, Morgenthau had to approve
the lm.
The lm was generally considered a success; according to a Gallup poll, it
induced 37% of its viewers to pay their taxes immediately.28 But Walt unfortunately had only a letter of intent from Morgenthau and not an actual contract,
and Congress objected to paying for a cartoon instead of bombers. Disney was
not even able to recover all the production costs, let alone print costs. Nonetheless, Disney continued to make propaganda lms for the government and even
a sequel for the Treasury Department, The Spirit of 43, but with the money
guaranteed by Congress up front this time.29
The New Spirit (1942). Over the opening title credits Cliff Edwards (the
voice of Jiminy Cricket) sings about the new spirit. Multiple Donald Ducks
are dancing to the tune, though these are soon revealed as reections in a multipaneled mirror. The song emanates from Donalds radio (although the image
is rendered more realistically, the knobs and speaker nonetheless vaguely suggest
a face), and when he marches up to it, one reection remains in the mirror
until it realizes that Donald has moved on (not a typical sort of sight gag for
Disney at this time). Donald salutes as Edwards sings about the Yankee Doodle
spirit; a close-up shows ags waving in his eyes (also not a typical Disney sight
gag). An announcer speaks about the country preparing for total war, and
Donald arms himself with shotgun, sword, baseball bat, boxing gloves, axe,
golf club, and a bear trap. When the announcer says that he can help and that
it will mean some sacrice but no medals, Donald begs to be told what he can
do. When the announcer says it is paying his taxes on time, however, Donald
grumbles and asks whats the rush. The announcer reiterates that the country
is at war and launches into a taxes litany culminating in what will become a
catch phrase for this and its sequel, taxes to beat the Axis.
Inspired, Donald rushes off to return laden with a globe, calculators, math
and law books, jar of paste, piggy bank, le drawer, rulers, compass, and large
bottle of aspirin. The announcer tells him that he does not need all that since
he made less than $3000 and can use the short form (shown in realistic closeup).30 He just needs ink, a pen, and a blotter. These come to life on his desk to
voice their encouragement and cooperation (yet another gag Disney had
eschewed years earlier). The announcer instructs Donald on lling out the form,
which the fountain pen does automatically, though not without comment (it
also puts a question mark after actor on the Occupation line and notes that
dependents Huey, Dewey, and Louie are Adopted). When the announcer
encourages him to mail his check in early, Donald races out the door and past
50
the mailbox, which calls out after him, to zip across a map of America from
California to Washington.
An off-screen narrator now explains that taxes run the factories that make
guns and other war machines. Tax forms for people with different income levels
appear. A factory whistle with a minimal face wearing an Uncle Sam hat sounds
off, and a realistic montage, in March of Time style, shows factory machines
turning out war matriel while the narrator catalogues the weapons that taxes
and factories make. A montage of weapons follows with occasional returns to
factory whistles (which wear naval caps when the catalog gets to ships) and
depictions of what our planes, guns, and ships do to the enemys (Axis subs
once again have ugly faces on their bows). This culminates in an assault on a
terrifying Nazi war machine combining elements of tank, airplane, and artillery
battery, all topped with a horned helmet. When it lies in wreckage, the rst
four notes of Beethovens Fifth Symphony sound: three short notes and one
long, the Morse code symbol for V. As the narrator promises victory and a
chorus sings America the Beautiful, silhouettes of tanks and planes radiate
out from the bottom of the screen as clouds and stars simulate an American
ag.
The lm, directed by Wilfred Jackson and Ben Sharpsteen, maintains a
cartoon style while Donald is on-screen but segues through the schematic of
the U.S. map to a generally realistic style for the factory/weapons montage.
Moderately surreal elements appear in the Donald section (the independent
reection, the talking pen and ink) and in the realistic section (cartoonish
anthropomorphic factory whistles and the realistically rendered Nazi War
Machine). American planes and tanks are drawn in a straightforward, bright
style which presents them realistically but without a lot of detail. Enemy
machines are rendered with more detail, the impression of more weight, and
an overriding darkness. They appear more solid in a sense and very menacing,
but with some bizarre elements (subs with faces, planes with fangs) which
simultaneously heighten their negative connotations but compromise their reality. The explanations of the tax form and the need to pay early are clear-cut
and concise, though the language ratchets up to the Why We Fight level in the
taxes/factories/weapons catalog.
The disembodied voice of authority which characterizes all the propaganda
lms appears here in both diegetic (radio announcer) and non-diegetic
(voiceover narrator) forms.31 In post-war lms, Disney would continue to use
both forms for educational entertainments but generally not within the same
lm.
The Spirit of 43 (1943). A factory whistle intones Payday and puffs
smoke in dollar sign shapes. As the narrator announces that millions of dollars
go into workers hands, a close-up shows Donalds ngers rifing through a
sheaf of greenbacks. According to the narrator, two separate personalities exist
in the mind of the worker the thrifty and the spendthrift. The thrifty per-
51
sonality arrives on the scene rst. An older Scottish version of Donald in kilt
and tam with sideburns and pince-nez glasses (the progenitor of Donalds rich
uncle, Scrooge McDuck), he advises Donald to save his money. Donald puts it
in his pocket, but it immediately begins literally burning a hole in it. The smoke
summons the spendthrift, a sleeker version of Donald in a zoot suit, who tries
to entice him into The Idle Hour Club with the promise of a couple of good
dates. But Thrifty says he has better dates the tax deadlines. The narrator
announces that, thanks to Hitler and Hirohito, taxes will be higher than ever
this year and asks whether the viewer (or Donald) will have the money to pay
them when they fall due. Spendthrift tears up Thriftys calendar pages, and the
spend/save argument quickly becomes a tug-of-war with Donald in the middle until a rip in his jacket sends the two antagonists sprawling in opposite
directions. Spendthrift falls through the saloons swinging doors, now revealed
to be swastika-shaped, while Thrifty crashes into a wall, knocking off plaster
to reveal a brick pattern suggesting the Stars and Stripes. The narrator asks
Donald what he will do now spend for the Axis or save for taxes? Donald
gets swastikas in his eyes as he looks toward Spendthrift leaning on the swinging
doors, with his tie and cigarette smoke now swastika-shaped and a moustache
and bangs like Hitlers. With stars in his eyes, Donald looks at Thrifty standing
deant against the ag-like brick background. He walks toward Spendthrift,
who now looks even more Hitler-like, and punches him back through the swinging doors which shatter into a V and a Morse Code dot-dot-dot-dash (V)
accompanied by the rst four notes of Beethovens Fifth. Donald pays his taxes,
though Thrifty nds a coin Donald has hidden under his hat and adds it to his
payment. The lm then repeats the taxes/factories/weapons montage and
voiceover of The New Spirit.
Director Jack King (who also did Donalds service comedies) employs the
same moral strategy in The Spirit of 43 as in his Donalds Better Self (1938), pitting fanciful good and bad counselors against each other in a struggle for Donalds moral compass. He eschews the religious implications of the earlier lms
angel and devil ducks for secular icons, though.32 The lm essentially repositions
the Allies/Axis dichotomy from the international stage to the individuals own
mind, thereby giving the individuals decision global consequences. This strategy evidently struck a chord with Disney, and he employed variations of it in
subsequent propaganda lms.
Out of the Frying Pan and into the Firing Line (1942). Made for the Conservation Division of the War Production Board, Out of the Frying Pan and into
the Firing Line, directed by Jack King, encouraged viewers to save kitchen grease
for the war effort.
Minnie Mouse fries bacon and eggs (shown in realistic close-up), and
Pluto looks eager to have the grease poured on his dry dog biscuits. Just as
Minnie is about to do that, however, the radio (also shown in close-up in realistic detail) interrupts with an injunction not to throw away kitchen fats since
52
they are needed to make glycerin for explosives. Statistics follow on how much
is thrown away each year and how many shells that would make. The narrator
and a visual montage repeatedly link grease with American weapons and their
devastating effect on the enemy (with drops of grease metamorphosing into
bullets and bombs). When the narrator announces Your pound of waste fat
will give some boy at the front an extra clip of cartridges, Pluto looks over at
a picture of Mickey in uniform with a rie on his back (the only time Mickey
is ever seen in military uniform in a wartime cartoon).33 Pluto salutes with his
ear and declines the bacon grease. Instead, he and Minnie follow the
announcers instructions for straining and preserving the grease, and then Pluto
takes it to a butcher who collects fats for the military. While an artillery battery
in silhouette res off a round, the announcer/narrator gives a nal recommendation to the audience to save fats and directs viewers to look for the ofcial
recycling insignia in their butchers window.
Shorter than the other lms here, Out of the Frying Pan gets its simple
message across quickly and with relatively less of the standard war imagery. Of
course, it is also not asking anything that takes much of a sacrice certainly
nothing like paying taxes and viewers who participate in the program can
even get cash rewards. Minnie and Pluto are drawn in their normal cartoon
style while the industrial/military section looks more realistic. Disney couches
the appeal to help our soldiers in more personal terms, both in the voiceover
and in the picture of Mickey in uniform, as well as with the generally domestic
feel of the opening scene. This strategy is entirely in keeping with a support
effort that takes place largely in ones kitchen.
Once again, the voice of authority appears both in diegetic (radio
announcer) and non-diegetic (voiceover) forms. The radio voice helped fortify
the image of a typical day at home whereas a voiceover during that breakfast
scene directing the characters actions might have suggested the sort of government intrusion into the home dramatized in the rst section of Der Fuehrers
Face.
Psychological Films
Disneys hardcore propaganda shorts, all commissioned by the CIAA and
released theatrically in 1943, focused on regimentation and the exploitation of
emotions (usually fear) in controlling people. Education for Death and Reason
and Emotion are structured like documentaries, while Der Fuehrers Face and
Chicken Little could pass for a typical Donald Duck comic short or a Silly Symphony, respectively..
Der Fuehrers Face (1943). Disney changed the original title, Donald in
Nutziland, when Spike Joness boisterous recording of Oliver Wallaces theme
song became a huge hit months before the lm hit theatres. Although released
53
on 1 January 1943, the lm, directed by Jack Kinney, carries a 1942 copyright
and won the Oscar as Best Animated Short of 1942.
A Nazi marching band singing the title song (voiced by Cliff Edwards)
parades through a landscape suffused with swastikas. Clouds, trees, shrubs,
hedges, windmill vanes, hydrants, fences, street signs, and telephone poles are
all distorted into the twisted cross. A generic Japanese soldier plays the tuba.
An effeminate caricature of Hermann Gring plays the ute (and gets goosed
by the trombone). Mussolini pops up briey for a verse.
They awaken Donald, who has been giving the Nazi salute in his sleep.
The exterior of his house presents a caricature of Hitlers face with architectural
features suggesting nose, moustache, and bangs. Inside, twisted crosses decorate
wallpaper, bed, dressing screen, and window shade pull. The numerals on the
clocks are swastikas, and the spring on the cuckoo, which resembles Hitler, is
swastika-shaped. A soldier with bayoneted rie marches outside his window.
Donald salutes pictures of Hitler, Hirohito, and Mussolini. His breakfast
consists of coffee made from one bean, a couple of atomizer spritzes of Aroma
de Bacon & Eggs, and a slice sawed from a loaf of bread displaying an obvious
wood grain.34 A copy of Mein Kampf is thrust into the frame on a bayonet for
his edication. The band marches in and then out again with Donald carrying
the bass drum and getting kicked in the rear.
When he arrives at work prodded by bayonets, the factory whistle (with
mouth and helmet) intones Heil Hitler, and he goes to work screwing the
tops onto shells and saluting whenever a Hitler portrait comes down the assembly line. After a frantic scramble with shells and portraits, Donald gets a oneminute paid vacation. This consists of a threadbare canvas mountain scene and
forced calisthenics to build him up for more work. His alternating arm and
head movements turn him into a living swastika. Afterwards he must work
overtime at an ever increasing pace, causing him briey to split in two and then
have a nervous breakdown. He hallucinates a writhing dance of exible shells
which owes much to the pink elephants sequence in Dumbo. Donald appears
as Hitler and also shows up moving down an assembly line being pounded by
a giant living shell. Everything blows up, and it rains Donalds until he wakes
up in his own bed in stars and stripes pajamas. When he sees a shadow apparently giving the Nazi salute, he begins to do the same but then realizes its the
shadow of his model Statue of Liberty, which he proceeds to hug, saying Oh
boy, am I glad to be a citizen of the United States of America! The camera
irises in and then out again for a nal chorus of the title song with an image of
Hitler getting a rotten tomato thrown in his face (a similar image is featured
on the poster for the lm and the sheet music for the song).
Donalds audience would have been familiar with rationing and overtime
at defense plants from their own experience. Der Fuehrers Face demonstrated
humorously how much worse the situation was in Germany. Donalds dream
self is obviously motivated solely by fear rather than any sort of allegiance to
54
Hitler, and any slight sign of resistance, such as grumbling on the assembly
line, is met with instant threats of violence. Though the tone is light and made
even more comic by the surreal hallucination sequence, the lm nonetheless
brings home its points about forced labor, shortages, and fear among those
under Hitlers rule and the corollary that Americans are (or should be) happy
to work for their countrys war industries.
Although there is no narrator here, diegetic voices of authority appear as
orders presumably from the marching band or perhaps the soldier outside Donalds window in the breakfast scene and as commands from the loudspeakers
at the munitions factory. These diegetic yet disembodied voices reinforce the
sense of a totalitarian environment.
Education for Death (1943). Based on the 1941 book by Gregor Ziemer35
and directed by Clyde Geronimi, Education for Death the most inammatory
and serious of the Disney propaganda lmsfollows the growth and education
of a young German boy named Hans from sickly innocent to goose-stepping
slave of the Third Reich. It employs cartoon, realistic, and schematic styles of
rendering in telling its story and relies heavily on the narrator for explanation
and commentary (including translating the characters German dialogue).
What makes a Nazi? narrator Art Smith asks as a scarlet swastika occupies the screen. In a large hall in the typical overwhelming Nazi style of architecture, Hanss parents hand over his birth certicate and proof of Aryan
ancestry to a faceless uniformed gure. He calls their attention to a list of unacceptable names (which include not only Franklin and Winston at the top but
also lower down Elias Walts own middle name and his fathers given name
and lower still, Clyde). He presents the parents with a copy of Mein Kampf.
Hitlers book dissolves to a book of Nazi-approved fairy tales (Mrchen
der neuen Ordnung) to illustrate what Hans learns in kindergarten. It opens to
Sleeping Beauty (Dornrschen), and the style changes from realistic to cartoon. A witch identied as Democracy menaces Sleeping Beauty. A prince in
armor arrives to send the witch crashing through a leaded glass window to
escape. The princes kiss awakens Sleeping Beauty, who turns out to be an obese,
bibulous Germania (contrary to her slim silhouette in the preceding shots but
in keeping with the stereotypical comic movie image of the fat Wagnerian
soprano). The knight is revealed to be Hitler. They heil, he rants for a while,
and she sings. Then he picks her up and after some slapstick gets her onto his
horse and rides away as rows of trees salute. The lm cuts to a reasonably accurate cartoon rendering of The Standard Bearer (Der Bannertrger), Hubert
Lanzingers 1937 portrait of Hitler as a knight on horseback, which Hans and
his kindergarten classmates salute.36
When Hans becomes ill, though, a shadowy uniformed gure bursts into
his bedroom to threaten his mother that the state will take over if she does not
stop mollycoddling him.
Back in school, Hans and his classmates salute a picture of Hitler while
55
pictures of Gring and Goebbels look on approvingly. The paintings show more
texture in their rendering but also caricature their subjects: Grings medals
spill over his frame, and Goebbels peers from the corner of his tilted frame to
the sound of rat-like chittering.
The teacher sketches on the chalkboard the outlines of a hare and a fox
which come to life, with the fox chasing, cornering, and eating the hare. When
Hans expresses sympathy for the hare, the teacher angrily sends him to sit in
the dunces corner and calls him a dummkopf. The paintings of Hitler, Gring,
and Goebbels (again with chittering accompaniment) glare in disapproval.
While Hans sheds a tear, other students give the correct answer that the world
belongs to the strong and the brutal, and Hans comes around to that way of
thinking. The boys heil while the teacher rants about German superiority. Hans
then vehemently renounces his sympathy for the hare. The narrator comments
on the effectiveness of the teaching, and the portrait of Hitler winks.
The scene changes to a nighttime rally with torches where books by Einstein, Spinoza, Mann, Voltaire, and possibly Marx (only MA is visible on one
book cover) are burned, as are paintings and Mendelssohns Wedding March.
A Bible transforms into Mein Kampf, and a crucix into a sword with a swastika
on the hilt and a swastika shadow on the blade. Marching shadows play across
a church wall, and a painted swastika materializes on the wall. A brick crashes
through a stained glass window showing Mary and the infant Jesus, recalling
the window Democracy ed through earlier.
Hans is then seen marching and heiling. He and his companions transform
into Hitlerjugend and then into soldiers with ries and bayonets. He is now a
good Nazi. In a close-up, blinders appear when the narrator says that he sees
only what the Party wants him to see. A muzzle appears, showing that he says
nothing but what the Party wants him to say, and chains around his neck and
those of the others in his rank indicate that he does nothing but what the Party
wants him to do. Hans and his comrades march off into the background and
turn into rows and rows of Nazi grave markers. His education for death is now
complete.
The lm demonstrates how fear and regimentation produce Nazi followers.
The rendering tends to be more realistic, except for the cartoon fairy tale, but
ironically it also becomes more symbolic in the last sequence as the trappings
of Nazi control accrete on the marching Hans.
Education for Death is also perhaps the least Disney-like of the propaganda
lms. The scenes involving the faceless representative of Hitlers regime with
their use of expressionistic light and shadow (also associated with earlier German Expressionist lms) and more natural bodily proportions recall what the
Fleischers had been doing in their Superman cartoons. And the fairy tale
sequence has a decidedly Warner Bros. feel to its character design, level of satire,
and mild bawdiness.
Reason and Emotion (1943). Directed by Bill Roberts, Reason and Emotion
56
is perhaps the most psychologically oriented of the propaganda lms in that it

specically purports to explain common psychological processes, albeit in very
simplied terms. The title processes are personied with cartoon characters drawn
from contemporary Hollywood stereotypes, with examples of typical sensible
and emotional behavior similarly derived from the paradigms of the day.
The outline of a scale appears with neon letters spelling out the title as the
narrator explains that within the mind of each of us these two wage a ceaseless
battle for mastery. An infant boy pushes a ower pot off a window sill, pulls
a cats tail and tumbles down a ight of stairs at the behest of Emotion, a little
caveboy gure (wearing a leopard skin) in his head who has complete control
since Reason has not been born yet. Reason shows up after the toddlers fall,
dressed in a baby bonnet and gown and wearing glasses. Emotion kicks him
into his suitcase.
When the infant reaches adulthood, Reason is literally in the drivers seat
and behind the steering wheel in his head. Reason has a big head in proportion
to his body, a receding hairline, and a weak chin, and he wears glasses and a
business suit. In short, he looks and speaks much like a typical middle manager in a screwball comedy. Emotion is under control in the back seat. He still
wears a leopard skin caveman outt and looks unkempt with a heavy ve oclock
shadow.37 When he spots a young woman at a bus stop, he argues with Reason
about talking to her and nally seizes control of the steering wheel, knocking
out Reason. Hi, Babe! Going my way? gets only a slap in the face, and a
caution from the narrator against letting Emotion take control.
The narrator then borrows the young womans pretty head for a
moment to demonstrate female versions of Reason and Emotion. Reason is
thin, has her dull brown hair in a bun, and wears glasses, a conservative outt,
and sensible shoes (a stereotypical movie librarian or school teacher of the
1930s and 1940s). Emotion is plump and sensual, has aming red hair, wears
lipstick and a short, tight, off-the-shoulder dress, and thinks the guy Reason
just slapped was cute. She suggests doing something fun namely, eating.
Although Reason favors a light lunch, Emotion goes wild and seizes control.
As she lists what she wants to eat, graphs of the womans chin, prole, and
gure expand and set off alarms-evidence that uncontrolled emotion can cause
you trouble.
As alarming war-related headlines pile up in a stack of newspapers, the
narrator warns that in these troubled times we especially need to keep emotion
in check, A new exemplar, John Doakes, tries to keep up with the news but
becomes anxious over what he hears on the radio. Phantom rumormongers
spring up around his easy chair with more disinformation and turn symbolic
(a ventriloquist puppet, a parrot, a braying jackass); an old woman complaining
that all their food is being sent overseas and that they will starve turns into a
skeleton.
Reason and Emotion grapple in his head over whether to believe the
57
rumors, and Emotion is about to brain Reason with the steering wheel when
the narrator intervenes and says that would be good ... for Hitler! The narrator
proceeds to discuss how Reason and Emotion operate in a typical German. A
caricatured Hitler exerts control over a particularly dense-looking German soldier by appealing to his Emotion (who wears a spiked helmet) with fear, sympathy, pride, and hate. As Emotion swells throughout Hitlers tirade, Reason
shrinks. Emotion bashes him with a spiked club and puts him in a tiny concentration camp. As Emotion marches around Reason saluting, the camera
focuses on his legs and dissolves to realistic legs in jackboots (with a swastika
on them) marching through a ruined city. After this example of the effects of
unrestrained emotion, the narrator tells John Doakess Reason and Emotion
what they need to do and be: Reason needs to think and plan while Emotion
must love his country, his freedom, his life. Reason and Emotion become
pilot and co-pilot in a ghter pilots head in a eet of U.S. bombers.
The gures of Reason and Emotion do not present the same sort of oppositions represented by Thrifty and Spendthrift or the angel and the devil of
Donalds Decision. After all, Emotion explicitly has the potential of being a
good Emotion and helping serve his country. But the drama implicit in the
conict between the two throughout the lm certainly engages the viewers
attention. It was effective enough in any case to garner an Oscar nomination
for Best Animated Short.
Chicken Little (1943). Directed by Clyde Geronimi, Chicken Little looks
much like a Silly Symphony in that it tells a familiar fable in cartoon style.38
The lm warns against listening to rumors and giving in to unfounded fears,
both very real dangers on the home front. It, too, deals with psychological
processes but demonstrates them in action without having the narrator belabor
the point with analyses or explanations and without the surreal images of fear
used in Reason and Emotion. In fact, the narrator seems to be here mainly to
tell a story which, it turns out, he has no control over.
Originally this lm was to have had more topical references. The book
Foxey Loxey refers to for guidance was to have been Mein Kampf, and the grave
markers at the end were to be swastikas. Disney was already perhaps looking
forward to a possible re-release of this lm after the war, however, and changed
the book to a general psychology text, eliminated the swastikas, and changed
a few words of dialogue as well.39
The narrator introduces all the characters. The chickens and other farm
fowls wear clothing and engage in human activities (gossiping, knitting, drinking and smoking, getting their hair done, dancing). They live complacent, sheltered lives behind a tall fence with a padlocked gate; the farmers shotgun also
stands nearby ready to repel predators. Undaunted, however, Foxey Loxey
resorts to psychology to capture his prey. He quotes from a psychology text
that To inuence the masses, aim rst at the least intelligent. That would be
Chicken Little, who can barely cope with his yo-yo.
58
Foxey Loxey also quotes, If you tell em a lie, dont tell a little one, tell a
big one. He takes a star from a wooden astrologers sign40 and drops it on
Chicken Littles head. Then, speaking through a knothole in the fence as the
voice of doom he tells Chicken Little that the sky is falling. Chicken Little panics and alarms all the other birds, but Cocky Locky correctly identies the star
as a piece of wood and sends everyone back to business as usual.
The narrator mocks Foxey Loxey over his plan not working, but the fox
returns to his text to quote Undermine the faith of the masses in their leaders.
Donning various disguises matching each group he addresses through knotholes,
he starts a whispering campaign questioning Cocky Lockys ability to lead.
After reading Through the use of attery insignicant people can be made
to look upon themselves as born leaders, Foxey Loxey convinces Chicken Little
he should lead the fowls. When Cocky Locky asks why the supposedly falling
sky doesnt it hit him, the fox knocks him at with another wooden star. All
the birds panic, and Foxey Loxey (his fangs particularly evident and menacing)
advises Chicken Little to send them to the cave. They burst out of their safe
yard and rush to the cave where the fox seals them in. The narrator assures the
audience that everything will work out all right, but a dissolve shows a bloated
Foxey Loxey sucking clean a wishbone and planting it in a little graveyard laid
out with ranks of wishbone markers. The narrator objects that thats not how
it ends in his book, and Foxey Loxey responds, Dont believe everything you
read, brother.
Chicken Little and Education for Death, both directed by Clyde Geronimi,
present the grimmest endings in the Disney cannon both end with rows of
graves. Both present the forces of Nazism (implicit in the case of Foxey Loxeys
use of Hitlerian strategy) ascendant with no obvious balancing element of hope
(the graves ending Education for Death represent the deaths of German soldiers
but not explicitly the defeat of Nazi Germany). These dark tales defy the good
exemplar/bad exemplar paradigm that Disney was developing and instead present only the negative side but in such a way that the viewer is compelled to see
the evil it represents and automatically reject it.
Conclusion
Although Disney continued to make military training lms and Good
Neighbor health lms for the duration, government demand for, and hence the
studios production of, propaganda lms for American theatrical release ceased
after an impressive climax in 1943.
Parts of Reason and Emotion were re-used (minus World War II references)
in a segment for Walt Disneys Wonderful World of Color on NBC in 1962 entitled
Man Is His Own Worst Enemy. Some of that footage was then used under that
title as a 16mm educational release in 1975.
59
The Nazi teachers chalkboard outline drawings which came to life in Education for Death served as a model for the illustrative drawings in How to Catch
a Cold (1951) and the Im No Fool educational series. This series, starring Jiminy
Cricket, was made for the Mickey Mouse Club TV series in the 1950s and later
released on 16mm. After instructing the viewer on the right way to swim, ride
a bicycle, deal with electricity, and so on, Jiminy would draw rst a fool on
the chalkboard and then you. The fool would do everything wrong and wind
up a pile of chalk dust while you would do everything right. This also continued the tradition of good and bad exemplars as teaching tools, which
appeared in The Spirit of 43, Reason and Emotion, the Canadian bond rally lm
Donalds Decision, and, arguably, Der Fuehrers Face.
The off-screen voice of authority, a feature of all the propaganda lms
except Der Fuehrers Face, turns up in Disneys later educational lms such as
Toot, Whistle, Plunk, and Boom (1953), Donald in Mathmagic Land (1959), and
the science lms Man in Space (1954), Man and the Moon (1955), Mars and
Beyond (1957), Our Friend the Atom (1958), and Eyes in Outer Space (1959).41
While this might seem an obvious device to use in such lms, it was by no
means Disneys only option. He frequently used on-screen narrators, both live
(Deems Taylor in Fantasia, Major Seversky in Victory Through Air Power,
Werner von Braun in the Tomorrowland space exploration documentaries, and
himself as host for the Disneyland TV series) and cartoon (most notably, Jiminy
Cricket and Prof. Ludwig von Drake).
The mixing of different types of animation within the same lm worked
so well in the propaganda lms that Disney once again used all three types as
well as live-action in the Tomorrowland lms about space exploration and
atomic power for his TV series.
The strategy of setting out the history of a subject, describing how it works
in the present, and making projections for the future, which appeared in The
Grain that Built a Hemisphere, Education for Death, and Victory through Air
Power, operates also in the science lms of the 1950s. And historical overviews
played signicant roles in the Oscar-winning Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom
and the Oscar-nominated Donald in Mathmagic Land.
The Silly Symphonies of the 1930s allowed Disney to try out technical
innovations that would become signicant factors in the feature lms while
nonetheless providing top quality cartoon entertainment in their own right.
The propaganda lms of the 1940s served very specic functions during the
war years but also became in effect a similar testing ground for various sorts
of rhetorical and storytelling experimentation that Disney capitalized on in his
postwar ventures into edutainment.
NOTES
1. Richard Shale, Donald Duck Joins Up: The Walt Disney Studio during World War II
(Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1982), 24.
60
2. The propaganda lms discussed here and many of the other wartime Disney lms
can be found on the twoDVD set Walt Disney on the Front Lines: The War Years released
2004 in the Walt Disney Treasures series.
3. See Walton Rawls, Disney Dons Dogtags: The Best of Disney Military Insignia from
World War II (New York: Abbeville Publishing Group, 1992) for further discussion and
copious examples. Any variances from Rawlss discussion here are based on items from
the authors own collection.
4. Shale, 86. See also Rawls, 1213, for an example of a Mickey Mouse Appreciate
America poster.
5. In 1941 alone (and, of course, before the Pearl Harbor attack), Abbot and
Costello made three: Keep em Flying, In the Navy, and Buck Privates. That same year
Bob Hope weighed in with Caught in the Draft, and Laurel and Hardy appeared in Great
Guns. The Three Stooges wound up in the army the previous year in the short Boobs in
Arms.
6. Donald Gets Drafted, Sky Trooper, and The Vanishing Private (both 1942); Fall
Out, Fall In and The Old Army Game (all 1943). Donald also tried to command his
nephews in a Civil Defense unit in Home Defense (1943). All of these titles were directed
by Jack King. Donald even took an active combat role in Commando Duck (1944), in
which he improbably demolished a Japanese airbase singlehandedly with a hyperinated
rubber life raft. This gave him the distinction of being the only regular Disney character
whose engagement with the enemy formed the central plot element in a lm
7. The Army Mascot (1942), Private Pluto (1943), and Dog Watch (1944).
8. See Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life
(New York: Abbeville Press, 1981) for discussion of the Disney style as it developed
during this period.
9. The early adoption of sound in cartoons rocketed Disney to the top of his industry,
but with notable exceptions such as The Three Little Pigs (1933), most Disney shorts of
the 1930s kept dialogue between characters to a minimum.
10. See in particular Don Peri, ed., Working with Walt: Interviews with Disney Artists
(Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2008).
11. These comedies of instruction were so effective that the series endured for more
than twenty years. When the Disney studio recently began experimenting once again
with theatrical shorts, they re-teamed Goofy with his more knowledgeable narrator in
How to Set Up Your Video System (2007).
12. I have not seen these extremely rare lms, but they are discussed in Russell Merritt
and J. B. Kaufmans Walt in Wonderland (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dellImmagine,
1992).
13. See Johnston and Thomas for an illustrative inside look at classical Disney animation methods and the demands of character animation.
14. Peri, quotes (p. 64) animator and director Wilfred Jackson, who played a signicant role in helping Walt synchronize music with animated images, Walt wanted people
to believe his characters were actual things, not just drawings jumping around on the
screen, and that they were real, individual beings with minds of their own and individual
personalities of their own.
15. The 1930s gave rise to a whole genre of cartoon shorts in which books, toys, and
other objects in shops came to life and held jam sessionsfor example, Disneys The
Clock Store (1931). Conversely, in The Band Concert (1935) it comes across as something
of an anomaly when the benches of Mickeys audience run away from an approaching
tornado.
16. A transitional stage appears in The Goddess of Spring (1934) wherein Persephone
has a human-looking face and ve-ngered hands but arms which seem to have no
joints, and Pluto (not the dog this time, but the lord of the Underworld) has a torso
61
and limbs that are properly proportioned for a human. Compare this noble-looking
underworld ruler with the cartoonish version in Hells Bells (1929).
17. The anthology features had no problem accommodating different styles in different sections. Victory Through Air Power used all three to signicant degrees.
18. By contrast, Warner Bros. cartoons frequently employed the negative aspects of
rationing and short supply of foodstuffs and vital materials as a source of usually rueful
humor.
19. Shale, 3233.
20. This sequence echoes shots from Pare Lorentzs The Plow That Broke the Plains
(1936). That live-action documentary, made for the Resettlement Administration, had
looked at how uncontrolled farming in the Great Plains led to the Dust Bowl; Food Will
Win the War represents something of an antithesis to that negative image of the American
farmer.
21. The Toons at War web site includes a photo from a January 28, 1942 press release
of Walt Disney presenting the insignia to Secretary of Agriculture Claude Wickard
(posted 7 June 2007, on http://toonsatwar.blogspot.com/2007/06/department-of-agriculture-lend-lease.html.
22. The lm carries a 1942 copyright but was released in 1943.
23. In only the second year that the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences
awarded Oscars to documentary lms, they took the unique tack of allowing twentyve nominations, both features and shorts, in a single Documentary category and gave
out four awards.
24. The gure here is clearly male although this task would have been performed by
the women of the tribe.
25. This includes glue for putting up posters (a circus poster is shown) and starch
for clothes (a dickey springs out from a jacket on a mannequin torso). While neither
image comes directly from Dumbo, both seem to derive from that feature. That the
poster shows a clown seems hardly coincidental, and the ringmasters shirt front curls
up when Dumbos mother goes on her rampage.
26. Shale, 52.
27. It also hints at another positive response to the negative picture of American agriculture presented by The Plow That Broke the Plains.
28. Richard Holliss and Brian Sibley, The Disney Studio Story (New York: Crown Publishers, 1988), 4748.
29. The most extensive treatment of this episode appears in Shale, 2735. See also
Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination (New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 2006), 384 385.
30. Donalds total income for 1941 was $2501. The average salary in America was
$2050 according to the web site Television History The First 75 Years http://www.tvhis
tory.tv/1941%20QF.htm. Donald owes $13 in taxes and pays with check #13 drawn on
the 13th National Bank on 13 February 1942.
31. Donald had earlier had a less positive experience with a radio voice in Jack Kings
Self Control (1938).
32. That footage in any case had already been re-used in Donalds Decision (1942) to
sell war bonds for the National lm Board of Canada.
33. Even in insignia Mickey appeared without actual weapons and usually in those
related to home front services.
34. Germans provided bread made with sawdust to prisoners in concentration camps
and P.O.W. camps, and the citizens of Leningrad resorted to bread made from sawdust
during the German siege.
35. The book also served as the basis for Edward Dmytryks 1943 live action feature
Hitlers Children.
62
36. A scene of school children saluting in front of Der Bannertrger appears in Prelude
to War.
37. He is modeled after animator Ward Kimball. See Shale, 149.
38. The last Silly Symphonies were made in 1939, however.
39. Shale, 65.
40. Other signs on the tree advertise Holoboff Varnish (Mike Holoboff was an uncredited assistant director on Snow White, Pinocchio, Fantasia, and Bambi) and Ryman Tires
(Herb Ryman was art director on Fantasia and Dumbo).
41. The rst four were all made for the Tomorrowland portion of the Disneyland television series; Eyes in Outer Space was actually a theatrical release.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 2006.
Holliss, Richard, and Brian Sibley, The Disney Studio Story. New York: Crown Publishers,
1988).
Johnston, Ollie, and Frank Thomas, Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life. New York:
Merritt, Russell, and J. B. Kaufmans Walt in Wonderland. Pordenone, Italy: Edizioni
Biblioteca dellImmagine, 1992.
Peri, Don, editor. Working with Walt: Interviews with Disney Artists. Jackson: University
of Mississippi Press, 2008.
Rawls, Walton. Disney Dons Dogtags: The Best of Disney Military Insignia from World
War II. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group, 1992.
Cartoon Combat
World War II,
Alexander de Seversky, and
Victory Through Air Power
JOHN D. THOMAS
On 8 December 1941, the United States ofcially entered the Second

World War, a conict that had drastically altered national boundaries since it
began in the latter half of 1939. Since that time, the German army had conquered
most of mainland Europe, defeated British forces in several Mediterranean
and North African conicts, and advanced approximately 700 miles into
Russia, an eastward offensive that would, by November of the following
year, proceed as far as Leningrad, Moscow, and Stalingrad. Meanwhile, in
what came to be known as the Pacic Theatre, Japans military had extended
its empire from Manchukuo (a puppet state established in Mongolia and
China) to Hong Kong and French Indo-China, from the Dutch East Indies and
the Philippines to Guam and other Pacic islands. Its navy had just dealt a crippling blow to U.S. forces stationed at Pearl Harbor, destroying four battleships
and 200 aircraft and killing more than 2,300 American servicemen and civilians.
Following the United States declaration of war, however, a unique
counter-offensive began in, of all places, the Walt Disney Studios. For the rst
eight months of 1942, the U. S. army nearly monopolized Disneys soundstages.
Nevertheless, Disney, at the request of several military ofcials, began producing
an assortment of animated cartoons in support of the Allied war effort. By midyear, almost every studio production was in some way relevant to the war.1
Often nanced by government contracts, Disneys wartime cartoons were, for
the most part, educational shorts (Thrifty Pigs, Donald Gets Drafted, and Food
Will Win the War, for example) and training lms (Stop That Tank, Four Methods of Flush Riveting, and Wings/Engines/Fuselage/Tail, to name a few).2 How63
64
ever, despite the attention received by many of these animated productions,

Disneys Victory Through Air Power a semi-animated, feature-length lm
shown to American audiences in 1943 would eventually be the most widely
seen, and possibly the most inuential, wartime production released by the
studio. Amalgamating the many artistic techniques that he had employed in
his more popular shorts, such as Der Fuehrers Face and Education for Death,
Disneys lm, an adaptation of the 1942 bestseller Victory Through Air Power,
translated the aeronautical theories of Major Alexander P. de Seversky into a
visual medium accessible to citizens of all ages.
After emigrating to the United States in 1918, Seversky, a Russian naval
pilot and veteran of World War I, founded two companies in the inter-war
period that specialized in advanced ight technology (the Seversky Aero Corporation in 1923 and the Seversky Aircraft Company in 1931) and produced
such planes as the SEV-3 (an amphibian monoplane) and the P-35 (one of the
Armys rst modern ghters).3 More importantly, he had, since the early 1920s,
worked alongside General Billy Mitchell, a controversial army ofcer whose
book Winged Defense (1925) was one of the rst major publications that argued
for the creation of an autonomous air force.
Throughout his life, Seversky considered Mitchell an exemplar and praised
the latters apparent foresight regarding the future of military aviation. In 1942,
he wrote Victory Through Air Power, in which he argued that long-range bombing would, through the destruction of industrial and military sites far within
enemy territory, hasten the end of the global conict and provide the American
military with interhemispheric attack capabilities. Appearing less than ve
months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, it seemed to offer answers for the
many Americans who were anxious about future attacks from the sky. Beginning
with an apocalyptic vision of giant bombers invading the U.S. mainland
[f ]rom every point of the compass, the book concludes with a reverse scenario Alaska and the Aleutian Islands would, according to Seversky, provide
perfect locations for long-range bombings of Tokyo and other Japanese-held
territories. 4 Unlike Mitchells earlier work, Severskys publication was
immensely popular and was read by tens of thousands of Americans. And here,
in the many varied responses to the book that appeared in national newspapers
and magazines, we can begin to understand the origins of what would become
one of the most interesting collaborations Disney every undertook.
Disney, Seversky, and Victory

After multiple delays and a third advance printing, Simon & Schuster published Severskys Victory Through Air Power on April 20, 1942. With an initial
release of 30,000 copies, the book immediately made The New York Times bestseller list and remained there for the next twenty-one weeks.5 On May 10th, a
4. Cartoon Combat (Thomas)
65
writer for the Times reviewed Severskys much-acclaimed work and concluded
the following:
In no other war have books played as important a part as they have done and will
continue to do in the present conict.... Books are not only supplying information.
[T]hey are furnishing weapons for the successful prosecution of the war.
They will not only play a part in the determination of war policy; they will help to
keep vividly alive in us the values for which we are ghting. They will, too, help to
lay the foundations for the new world structure which must follow when the war is
won....
This is a war which is being fought for and about and with ideas, to an unprecedented
degree, and books, which are the repository of ideas, are weapons of might in that
war.6
Overstated as they may seem to modern ears, such claims epitomize the general
response to Severskys book. Its array of arguments, controversial as they were
at times, dazzled its audience even as its conclusions provoked debate amongst
all types of readers, from civilians to the most decorated military brass. While
Seversky was not the rst aviator to propose the creation of a modernized,
autonomous air force (such claims had already been circulated by Billy Mitchell,
Ira Eaker, and Henry Harley Arnold, to name a few), his book more clearly
articulated and popularized the arguments made by previous military strategists.7 Moreover, the books seemingly pragmatic approach to strategic, longrange bombing appealed to a readership worried about American involvement
in the Pacic, and thereby generated many public discussions of Severskys
aeronautical theories.
For instance, Victory Through Air Power was called the most brilliant book
yet to appear on the war, a bombshell that exploded in the faces of both the
military and the lay public, a very efcient recracker to drop into the pants
[sic] of the allied high command.8 The historian Charles Beard wrote, In my
opinion, this book is more important to America than all the other war books
put together; Lewis Gannett of the New York Herald Tribune argued that Severskys work, if read and heeded, might become a turning point in the war;
and Clifton Fadiman of The New Yorker suggested that it is the duty of every
adult citizen who can lay his hand on $2.50 to buy it and ponder its message.9
In fact, for the rst time in its sixteen-year history, the Book-of-the-Month
Club distributed the Russian-born majors work, alongside a previously chosen
novel, to its nearly 500,000 members, beginning a trend of dual selection that
would continue due to the urgent timeliness of the [second] book chosen,
usually a nonction work related to the war.10 But not all reviewers echoed these
paeans. Orville Prescott, a contributor for The New York Times, cautioned readers of Severskys work: Either he is right and most of our military concepts
and defensive and offensive plans must be changed at once; or else he is wrong
and is unnecessarily scaring the daylights out of every reader of his sensational
book. After quoting a particularly disturbing section of Victory Through Air
66
Power one in which Seversky suggested that advanced peoples must, if possible, be reduced to impotence beyond easy recovery, through the annihilation
of the industrial foundations of their life so that no military comeback could
possibly be achieved Prescott warned, Is this war going to reduce us to the
same moral level as the Nazis and are we going to have a literature that can be
quoted by our enemies with the same propaganda effectiveness in Germany as
Mein Kampf has had here?11 Despite a few such objections, within a month
after the books release, Seversky had become a celebrity. He immediately joined
the lecture circuit and was thereafter invited to Harvards War Institute, a
gathering of military minds to discuss a variety of important matters related
to the worldwide conict. As time passed, Severskys work would even be
referred to as prophetic, and the author called a hero and an apostle of
air power.12
During this period, Walt Disney became, as one scholar has suggested,
Severskys most fervent disciple.13 As early as 1940, the U.S. military recognized the potential for direct propaganda lms couched in the simplicity of
the animation medium, and recruited Walt Disney as goodwill ambassador in
South America to counter Nazi propaganda.14 Upon his return to the United
States, Disney contacted Seversky and obtained the rights to produce an animated, feature-lm of the best-selling book. Although the government had
already nanced many short training lms for each branch of the military, no
nancial arrangement was made with Disney for this particular project due to
the overwhelming political pressure exerted by Navy ofcials who were ardently
opposed to the creation of an independent air force. This lack of nancial support, however, did not alter Disneys resolve, and he decided to produce the
lm independently with his own companys money, aware that such a decision
might prove nancially disastrous for his studio. During the previous year,
from May until September of 1941, most of Disneys staff had organized a labor
strike and delayed the production of numerous lms.15 Moreover, on the day
after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, ve hundred soldiers requisitioned several
of Disneys sound stages, installed antiaircraft repair machinery, and stored
millions of rounds of ammunition there before setting up a temporary barracks.16 Despite these obstacles, Disney began animating Victory Through Air
Power in mid1942, and the segments that included Seversky were lmed later
that year.17
The lm opened at New Yorks Globe Theatre on July 17, 1943, and ran for
six consecutive weeks, but its critical reception varied.18 One reviewer called
the movie an unusual document, a lm that was frankly propaganda yet,
oddly enough, one that was also prophetic and a technical tour de force.19
Another writer claimed that Victory Through Air Power was [m]ost interesting
from a cinematic viewpoint ... a landmark in the ideographical usage of the
screen. Its digestive method of teaching almost frightens you with its scope.20
Time magazine called it 65 minutes of highly unorthodox lm fare, and an
67
exceedingly potent instrument of propaganda.... It may drop with the effect of

an incendiary bomb into the long-smoldering argument on whether the U.S.
should have a separate Air Force.21 The Hollywood producer Walter Wagner
explained how every once in a while a motion picture ashes across the horizon
to prove our industry an instrumentality of human enlightenment, and a
reviewer for Life magazine suggested that Disneys movie was good history and
ne entertainment.22 Finally, according to Thomas Pryor, a writer for the Times,
Mr. Disney has adroitly blended the documentary technique of presentation
with his own highly skilled cartoon form of infectious humor. The result is a
delightful and stimulating combination entertainment-information lm.... If
Victory Through Airpower [sic] is propaganda, it is at least the most encouraging and inspiring propaganda that the screen has afforded us in a long time.23
Despite these approbations, some reviewers disagreed. One writer claimed
that the lm was completely devoid of human values and that it fail[ed] to
give the impression of the loss of human life, and Howard Barnes of the New
York Tribune suggested that the ideological content of the offering ... is likely
to give one pause.24 Similarly, in a cautionary review for The Nation, James
Agee wrote:
I only hope Major de Seversky and Walt Disney know what they are talking about,
for I suspect an awful lot of people who see Victory Through Air Power are going
to think they do. Certainly I am not equipped to argue with them. I have the feeling
I was sold something under pretty high pressure which I dont enjoy, and I am staggered by the ease with which such self-condence, on matters of such importance,
can be blared all over a nation, without cross-questioning....
I noticed, uneasily, that there were no suffering and dying enemy civilians under
all those proud promises of bombs; no civilians at all, in fact.
Agee then concluded by criticizing the lms artistic medium. I realized, he

said, that animated cartoons, so weak at least as Disney uses them in the
whole human world, would be particularly inadequate to human terror, suffering, and death.25
Unfortunately for Agee, Disneys production proved to be more than a
mere weak cartoon. Before the lms release, Theodore Strauss, in an article
for the Times, had written of the sudden new importance of the cartoon
medium and had explained how Donald [Duck], who used to be just another
noisy neighbor, has by some odd token of fate become a sort of ambassadorat-large, a salesman of the American Way.... He has become one of this countrys
No. 1 propagandists.26 Likewise, during one of his many interviews, Seversky
discussed his initial reaction to Disneys proposed collaboration. He said, As
for becoming an actor when Walt Disney informed me that I was to appear
in the picture as myself well, anyone in the studio within a hundred yards of
my voice at the time can tell you how passionately I tried to persuade him that
animations are much more explicit than any human action can be.27 Accordingly, Disney defended his own aesthetic preferences:
68

The war ... has taught us that people who wont read a book will look at a lm. Its
shown that you can take knowledge out of a dusty tome somewhere, and wrap up
the effort of many teachers in one can of lm. You can show that lm to any audience
and twenty minutes later it has learned something a new idea, or an item of important information and it at least has stimulated further interest in study.28
Responding to his critics, he added, [T]hese are times for radical departures....
Of course I want to make the kind of pictures that make people laugh and
in Victory Through Air Power Ive tried to do so in some sequences. But we
believe that the basic ideas of this picture must be carried out before people are
going to be able to laugh very much again.29 For Disney, books were not the
only weapons of might in World War II; cartoons were as well.
Regardless of its critical reception, the movie was a commercial failure.
Audiences endeared to the memorable characters that Disney had hitherto created were confused by the didactic nature of the lm. Although Victory Through
Air Power failed at the box ofce, its propagandistic value, for Disney and others
involved in the lms production, far outweighed nancial compensation.30 At
the Quebec Conference attended by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston
Churchill, many military and naval experts attended a private showing of
the lm. According to Roy Disney, Walts brother, The lm had wide distribution ... because the air force sent it far and wide to other countries and to
military establishments. As a motion picture for the theatre it was a big op.
We lost most of our money [$436,000] on that picture, but we did it as a patriotic gesture. It seems that the gesture may have been worth the effort.
Churchill was given a special screening and thought that it was a superb lm.31
And according to H.C. Potter, the lms director:
The British Air Force thought this was the greatest thing that ever came down the
pike, and the picture was much better known in England than it was here, in ofcial
circles, and early in the game. Walt told me this story, and swore this was what
happened. When Churchill came over to the Quebec conference, they were trying
to get Roosevelt interested in this long-range bombing idea, and Roosevelt
didnt know what the hell they were talking about. Churchill said, Well, of course,
youve seen Victory through Air Power... and Roosevelt said, No, whats that? Air
Marshal Tedder and Churchill worked on Roosevelt until Roosevelt put out an order
to the Air Corps to y a print of Victory through Air Power up to Quebec. Churchill
ran it for him, and that was the beginning of the U.S. Air Corps Long Range Bombing.32
Although Disney, as well as Potter, inated the political inuence of their lm

after its release and subsequent nancial failure the Combined Bomber
Offensive had been organized by American and British generals in January of
1943 and implemented in June of that year; the Quebec Conference was not
held until August they recognized the fact that their lm was being circulated
among military personnel and was, at the very least, contributing to national
debates regarding the strategic use of long-range bombers.
Moreover, Disney and his supporters responded to those who criticized
69
the cartoon medium for its inability to depict death and destruction by arguing
that animated lms had vast pedagogical potential. Richard Schickel, one of
Disneys early biographers, believed that cartoons were the ideal educational
medium due to the hard-outline precision possible in animation.33 Discussing this aspect of his productions, Disney claimed, Mass education is coming.... Its coming because its a necessity. Democracys ability to survive depends
on the ability of its individuals to appreciate their duties as citizens and to comprehend the complex problems of the changing world we live in.34 Disregarding
his critics, Disney wholeheartedly believed in the didactic power of the screen
(as seen in his many post-war educational lms), and so did many others. In
Film Phenomena, a short review of several Disney movies published prior to
the release of Victory Through Air Power, Wagner insisted that a new education
of the free world would issue from the Disney studios. In a later article, which
appeared in September of 1943, he again suggested that Disneys lms had great
pedagogic potential: We know that people want to be informed today, and
information means education. Today, through the lm, education can be carried
to the entire world to the remotest village and a medium like Disneys
which every day is turning out pictures in three and four languages and has
made them in as many as ten is a logical means of carrying out such a mission.35 Calling the motion picture a medium of enlightenment, Wagner
believed in the instructional power of the genre.
However, others considered the impartation of knowledge less important
than the manner whereby Disney cultivated political support for a particular
military credo. J. P. McEvoy, a writer for This Week Magazine, called Disney a
propaganda genius for whom the Axis would give a dozen divisions, and two
artists who worked for Disney in the 1940s, Joe Grant and Dick Huemer, claimed
that [i]n this war, humor and fantasy have enlisted on the side of the United
Nations.... Theyre ghting, and ghting hard.... No other weapon of propaganda can ridicule the Axis, expose its absurdities, as deftly.36 Although the
propagandistic nature of Victory Through Air Power is not quite as shocking as
that of Der Fuehrers Face or Education for Death, two of Disneys most
(in)famous animated shorts, the lm both entertained and indoctrinated audiences through the animation of ideology. It contained many scenes designed
to convert as many men and women (and even children) of all ages as possible
into supporters of an independent air force and a wartime strategy based on
long-range bombing.
In light of the discrepancies between this lms critical reception and its
cultural inuence, one might wonder why Victory Through Air Power so bewildered reviewers and general audiences alike. Why was it labeled an unusual
document, unorthodox fare, a weak cartoon, and propaganda while simultaneously praised as a technical tour de force, a documentary lled with
good history that functioned as an instrument of human enlightenment?
What could engender such ardent vilication and glowing praise? On another
70
note, why did it escape any sort of criticism in Argentina, a country whose
government had already censored most of Hollywoods antiAxis lms? And
why, if the movie was such blatant propaganda (as so many claimed), did the
Schools Motion Picture Committee of the National Board of Review, a voluntary organization of teachers and parents of pupils in local public and private
elementary and high schools, recommend Disneys wartime picture as suitable
for children between the ages of 8 and 14 years?37 Such questions, at this time,
remain largely unanswered due to several reasons. First, most biographers
and scholars have critiqued the historical and social context of Victory
Through Air Power, but have not examined the lm itself nor subjected it to
any sort of critical investigation. Second, after 1944, the Disney studios withheld
the movie and did not allow anyone to see it (excepting a few rare instances)
until 2004, when the company released Walt Disney: On the Front Lines, a twodisc DVD compilation of Disneys most famous World War II animated pictures.
Not surprisingly, when examining this lm, any attempt at categorization
encounters immediate problems. As Bill Nichols suggests, When stories set
out to represent the world around us, they enter into the realm of those blurred
genres like historiography and documentary that use imaginative techniques
to tell the tale of actual occurrences.38 In Walt Disneys case, not only is Victory
Through Air Power one of the most curious motion pictures in his studios
history,39 it also represents a marked departure from more popular lm genres.
For example, it is a documentary animated by a team of professional artists; it
is propaganda in cartoon form; it is political ideology disguised as entertainment. In order to understand the lms heterogeneity, we must avoid general
observations and examine each of the aforementioned features in detail. Only
then might we understand why the movie elicited such remarkably different
reactions from theatergoers in 1943 from enthusiasm to aversion, interest to
apathy, edication to perplexity.
Victory as Propaganda: Selling Air Power

Throughout the lm, from the introductory statements to the concluding
commentary, Disney creates, or attempts to create, a cult of personality
around its inspiration and main character, Major Seversky, an already-accredited aeronautical expert. As the opening credits end, an introduction of sorts
appears on screen:
Our country in the past, has struggled through many storms of anguish, difculty
and doubt. But we have always been saved by men of vision and courage, who opened
our minds and showed us the way out of confusion. One of the men who foresaw
the present mortal conict, who tried desperately to awaken and prepare us for the
issue, but who was ignored and ridiculed, was General Billy Mitchell.40
71
Before valorizing Severskys military achievements and promoting his strategy

for long-range bombing, Disney and his team of animators situate his argument
within a history of overlooked, unnoticed warnings regarding the need for an
autonomous air force. In 1919, General Mitchell believed that another world
war was inevitable, and he claimed that the American military needed to
develop and enhance its aerial capabilities before the recurrence of global hostilities. As I have already suggested, Mitchell worked alongside Seversky and
others to promote these hypotheses and test their validity, and in 1925, he published Winged Defense, a book that warned of a possible future attack by Japan
on U.S. bases located in the Pacic Ocean but was ultimately ignored by military
ofcials.41 Less than a year later, he was court-martialed for publicly criticizing
his superior ofcers and thereafter resigned from active duty. In 1936, three
years prior to the start of World War II, he died of inuenza.
Although the lm ignores the details of Mitchells career, the sequences
that follow caution viewers not to disregard such dire and, according to Disney,
undeniably prophetic warnings. As the introductory text fades, the colorful
background darkens, the melodic music becomes ominous, and the year 1919
appears before a looming newspaper that bears the front-page headline Future
War in Air. Although that year followed the cessation of worldwide conict,
it inaugurated a period of hostility toward efforts aimed at bolstering support
for an independent U.S. air force. After various newspaper columns devoted
to Mitchells theories appear in a chronological montage that proceeds from
1921 to 1934, the Los Angeles Examiner, a newspaper associated with the latter
date, expands to ll the screen. Suddenly, a photograph of Mitchell superimposed upon the front page of the Examiner becomes cinematic, and a short
lmed sequence follows in which Mitchell, recorded in an unidentied archival
video, addresses Disneys audience. Today, states Mitchell, a war is very different than the last European war was, but the today discussed by the general
has been removed from its original historical context and transcribed into that
of Victory Through Air Power. Thus, another type of animation takes place
than that commonly employed by Disney. Instead of using ctional characters
throughout this portion of the lm, Disney visually resurrects the deceased
Mitchell or, more properly stated, a cinematic simulacra of him and not
only reanimates the man, but vitalizes his military exhortation as well. Nevertheless, although the lm acknowledges its indebtedness to General Mitchell,
the introductory material insinuates that Seversky is, like the unheeded general,
also a man of vision and courage, one who will open the minds of civilians
and ofcers alike to the necessity of air supremacy.
Thereafter, during a sequence in which an animated copy of the book Victory Through Air Power appears on screen, the narrator praises the vision and
persistence of pioneer airmen, especially Seversky, a friend, advisor, and disciple of General Billy Mitchell. For the next few minutes, the movie proceeds
through a biographical sketch of Severskys career from his military training
72
and martial accomplishments to his tactical inventions and awards using both
animation and a photographic montage, and the narrator explains that [w]ith
his background as a combat pilot, aeronautical designer, engineer, manufacturer, and military strategist, Major Severskys advanced viewpoint and opinions are of vital importance to every citizen. Alongside the description of
Severskys many inventions and accomplishments, the cartoon sequence both
accompanies and complements the biographical information presented to the
audience; however, the paucity of factual details and the accelerated pace of the
narrative renders the sequence more didactic than informative. For instance,
during a brief description of the fty-seven aerial battles in which Seversky
participated, the lm depicts at least sixteen German airplanes concurrently
ablaze and plummeting to earth, each presumably destroyed by the accomplished Russian pilot. Next, an animated shadow box appears onscreen containing a variety of medals and other prestigious military decorations, a
cinematic assemblage of diverse, generic awards. Finally, as the narrator explains
the patents developed by Seversky for the U.S. military, the lm depicts an
assortment of diagrams, sketches, blueprints, and drafts. These scenes progress
rapidly, creating a visual experience more akin to a cinematic mosaic than a
realistic biography; thus, the lm quickly recapitulates the many reasons why
Seversky should be trusted, why his opinions in aeronautical matters cannot
be ignored. The hurried pace of these sequences enables the makers of the lm
to lengthen the didactic segments and overwhelm their audiences with a barrage
of diverse images. Through such sequences which integrate a doctrinaire narrative voice with a frantic montage of animated pictures and photographs
Disney encourages an outright acceptance of both Severskys authority and his
postulations while also discouraging a cautious, critical approach to the lms
didacticism.
Between the segments linking Mitchell and Seversky are the moments when
Victory Through Air Power is more docutoon than cartoon, more closely associated with the documentary technique. These sequences boldly assert the lms
historicity. In one, an animated book entitled History of Aviation opens to a
page labeled 1903, and the narrator, the voice of God so familiar in documentaries,42 discusses the airplanes development during the rst decade of the
twentieth century. For the next few minutes, as the pages turn and the years
pass, the Wright brothers perform their rst takeoff, various inventors modify
the airplanes design, the U.S. Army requests its own aircraft, and aviators create
and break aeronautical records. This story proceeds in a seemingly innocuous
manner until the page turns to the year 1914. Here, the narrator describes how
the airplane, at the tender age of ten, went off to war. What follows is a series
of animated scenes that force upon the reader a skewed historical rendering of
the events precipitating the First World War.
When documentary lms are at their best, one scholar claims, a sense
of urgency brushes aside our efforts to contemplate form or analyze rhetoric
73
and encourage a reexamination of the previous material.43 And here, temporarily anesthetized to the supposedly historical narrative by the nature of
Disneys artistic medium, one must pause and reexamine the content of these
scenes. In the rst place, this animated sequence begins with the opening of a
book. This image is, in itself, suggestive of several things. If documentaries
move between the public and private, personal and political spheres by becoming simultaneously an aesthetic and archival object part ction, part truth,
then [w]e may think we hear history or reality speaking to us through a lm,
but what we actually hear is the voice of the text, even when that voice tries to
efface itself.44 The aforementioned book, even though it is animated, suggests
a degree of historical authenticity, yet this portion of the lm is more story
than history. In fact, it is the story of a story, a narrative (Disneys) of a narrative
(the ctional book History of Aviation) one that is chronicled by a seemingly
knowledgeable narrator, drawn by artists, and captured by the camera a series
of simulacra that suggest the dubious nature of the re-telling. Thus, as Alan
Rosenthal suggests, [I]nstead of having the past claried and illuminated, we
simply have a new mythologizing of history.45
For instance, as the story unfolds, the narrator discusses the manner in
which airplanes were used during the First World War. According to the aforementioned ctitious, pseudo-historical book, German and French pilots often
ew near other, waved, and took pictures of one another in what the narrator
describes as a spirit of sportsmanship. However, one day, after Pierre (the
French pilot) develops his photographs, he sees a mocking image of Fritz (the
German) and immediately exclaims, Sacr bleu! This is outrge! The following
day, Pierre throws a brick at Fritz, and since the latter is, as the narrator
recounts, both a hothead as well as a square-head, he responds by ring his
pistol at Pierre. Thus, according to Disney, mid-ight duels began and eventually intensied due to mounted machine guns, especially after the development of the synchronizing device, the timing mechanism that allowed bullets
to travel between the blades of the propeller. Clearly, during this animated portion of the movie, history and story have become indistinguishable. Historical
events have been reconstructed and reinterpreted, and the real catastrophes
of World War I have been reduced to a series of caricatures created by the
Disney studios.
Furthermore, in an artistic aesthetic that Disney scholars have commonly
referred to as imagineering,46 Disney animates a peculiar type of aerial historiography, one indebted to pseudo-factual recreations of military and aviation
history. For instance, during the sequence involving General Mitchell, and
throughout much of the lm, Disney supports many of his claims using animated newspapers, virtual replicas of both actual and ctional publications. In
fact, he intersperses journalistic reproductions between various chronological
sequences at least fteen times during the remainder of the lm. While some
of these newspaper segments provide factual information the U.S Armys pur-
74
chase of the rst warplane, the development of modern aerial technologies, the
conclusion of World War I, Hitlers militaristic aggression, and the attack on
Pearl Harbor others appear as support for Severskys military proposals. To
achieve a decisive, succinct victory over the Japanese, Seversky argues, longrange bombers capable of attacking mainland Japan would have to be developed
and then deployed from bases situated on the Alaskan Peninsula. In support of
such argumentation, Disney juxtaposes Severskys plan with those proposed
by other military strategists aerial attacks based in China and Siberia, an
offensive launched from a Pacic eet of aircraft carriers, or an aeroamphibious
island-to-island campaign. In each of these instances, a newspaper appears with
a headline that promotes a plan other than Severskys, but the latter thereafter
explains the shortcomings of each strategy and summarily dismisses them as
both illogical and futile. Although these cartoon reproductions resemble actual
papers, the images on the front page belie such direct historical correspondence
since each animated photograph appears in color (as opposed to the black and
white publication) and artistically resembles the lms other cartoon segments.
In each of these visual manipulations, Disney subtly revises military history,
blurs the distinctions between fact and ction, and imbues Severskys theories
with ideological authority.
Moreover, Disney consistently relies upon an aesthetics of transmutation.
Throughout the lm, many diverse animated metamorphoses occur. Objects
undergo constant artistic transliterations, and in the process, these images promote a type of illustrative didacticism. For instance, after the narrator explains
the importance of C. S. Rollss solo ight across the English Channel in 1910,
the voice-of-God ends, and another narrative voice begins. Departing from
England, the voice-of-Rolls explains, the ight across the channel was quite
uneventful. Reaching the other side and being recognized, dropped greetings.
And without stopping, returned home safely without mishap. During this
scene, a small plane navigates a thunderstorm and drops letters addressed to
The Aero Club de France near a sleeping French shepherd, disturbing a ock
of sheep in the process. Immediately thereafter, the chronological sequence
continues with a turning of the page from the aforementioned History of Aviation. However, later in the lm, during a description of the technological
advancements in World War II aerial bombardment, the narrator explains,
Today, the historic ight of C. S. Rolls is repeated daily. As the voice-of-Rolls
begins a verbatim repetition of his earlier statements, the images shown are no
longer merely that of Rollss plane, a thunderstorm, and the French countryside.
Instead, Allied bombers cross the channel. Upon reaching the other side, now
a designation for German-controlled territory, they are recognized by enemy
artillery before dropp[ing] greetings, payload after payload of explosive materials. In both of these instances, Disney not only renders an artistic continuity
between various segments of his lm; he also suggests that these bombing raids
will effectively destroy German forces and allow Allied soldiers to return home
75
safely without mishap, like Rolls, amidst the billowing smoke of decimated
enemy munitions.
This is only one of the many such instances where Disney relies upon this
stylistic aesthetic. Elsewhere the transmutations are much more overt. For
example, during a description of the recently-developed B-19, the Wright brothers rst ight takes place on the wings of the aircraft47; in a later scene, a French
ag atop the Eiffel Tower mutates into a German one; and soon thereafter, several German swastikas become the propellers of enemy ghters.48 Likewise,
Allied planes become a protective bridge for boats navigating the English Channel at the Battle of Dunkirk, the U.S. mainland evolves into a large industrial
factory, a celebratory bottle of champagne is replaced by a destructive torpedo,
the Japanese islands and Manchukuo become the jaws of a deformed monster,
and the Alaskan Peninsula transforms into a large nger pointing in the direction of Japan. Finally, in a scene indebted to an original illustration from Severskys book, an eagle (the United States) attacks an octopus (Japan) and alights
upon a miniature globe. Immediately, both eagle and globe become the adornment of a golden agpole, and an American ag waves in the breeze while
America the Beautiful crescendoes. These transliterations underscore the propagandistic pedagogy of Victory Through Air Power, and their consistent deployment throughout the lm intensies its didacticism. By relying upon images
en mouvement,49 that is, pictorial transmutation, Disney augments Severskys
arguments with a dynamic array of visual metamorphoses, artistic manipulations designed to enhance both the viewers visceral experience of the lm as
well as its persuasive potential.
Alongside this creative manipulation of images, Disney relies upon elaborate cartographic sequences throughout Victory Through Air Power that are
underscored by animated maps, globes, diagrams, and directional arrows. These
illustrations function both metaphorically and metonymically. They are used
to simulate the movements of military forces across continental and transnational boundaries and the expansions and contractions of the German and Japanese empires, but they also simplify the complexity of these changes by reducing
the scale of military engagements and expansionist agendas to a few manageable
sequences. In each, Disney uses a wide variety of animated illustrations to connect the conceptual to the concrete in order to vitalize what might have otherwise been a bland recitation of geographic facts or a convoluted representation
of global conict.
Severskys critique of Maginot Line, for example, is illustrated by a large
map with a string of French fortications highlighted in yellow, adjacent to
darkened regions under the control of Nazi Germany. The lm then depicts the
advance of the Nazi hordes, but what begins as a more realistic portrayal of
Hitlers armed forces evolves into a hybrid sequence involving arrows and
miniature tanks. In another transmutative sequence, one of Hitlers ghter
planes transforms into three large red arrows, and the scene evolves from land-
76
scape to topographic map as recurring arrows destroy a series of small turrets

representing the Maginot Line. One particularly effective arrow penetrates the
French defenses and, like the metaphoric bridge over Dunkirk, becomes a
shield of air power under which Hitlers tanks proceed into French territory.
In a later segment, these somewhat realistic representations of military
operations all but disappear, and metonymic images alone illustrate Severskys
arguments. During a scene in which the narrative voice discusses supply lines,
a map of Europe appears, but fades shortly thereafter as a swastika positioned
over much of the continent grows larger and becomes the center of a massive,
horizontal wheel: the hub [Hitlers] powerful industrial center, the
spokes his supply lines, the ghting fronts the rim of the wheel. As yellow
arrows representing industrial production emerge from the red hub and travel
down the spokes, green arrows surround the wheel and attempt to penetrate
its outer rim, and a cinematic close shot reveals numerous miniature tanks
destroying one another. For nearly two and a half minutes, this sequence continues almost entirely uninterrupted as Seversky explains the advantages of
long-range air attacks designed to destroy the hub of the wheel, the center of
wartime production, and not the rim and spokes, individual military units or
supply lines. These cartographic sequences condense the pictorial apparatuses
associated with Severskys arguments into simple, understandable images and
enable Disney to avoid intricate, realistic recreations of military engagements.
They are the most didactic elements of Victory Through Air Power and render
intelligible a large number of simultaneous, diverse military operations that
would have otherwise been too artistically complex for a single lm.
Furthermore, Disney uses visual transmutations to illustrate pertinent
technological advancements in aeronautics, yet he does so without explaining
how or when such improvements in long-range bombing might be accomplished. Thus, during these segments of the lm, he encourages an uncritical
acceptance of the supposedly easy path to aeronautical evolution. For instance,
immediately after the transmutation of the Alaskan Peninsula into a large nger,
a blueprint entitled Long Range Combat Fighter appears onscreen, followed
by a montage of other diagrams that, in greater detail, artistically envision the
production of such advanced weapons of war. Concurrent with this animated
sequence, Seversky explains: Bombers that can take off from our own shores,
y across the ocean, strike at the enemy, and return non-stop are not only possible, but practical. It is no longer a question of whether it can be done, but of
making up our minds to do it. The science of aviation is ready to give us powerful, long-range combat planes far exceeding anything in the air today.50 As
Severskys narration ends, the nal blueprint of one of these practical
machines transmutates into the plane itself, and the scene scrolls from right to
left in order to provide audiences with a more detailed visualization of the
plane in mid-air. Simultaneously, the narrator explains, Theyll be heavily
armed and bristling with large-caliber cannon and maneuverable guns, mil-
77
itary technologies that will provide these bombers with a distinct advantage
over [s]mall single-seater ghters whose guns are not maneuverable and
can only re forward. Interestingly enough, the airplanes envisioned by Seversky and animated by Disney not only exceed anything in the air today, but
most aircraft in the today of postwar military technologies.51 For instance, the
proposed long-range bomber of the lm has eleven individual, independent
rotating gun turrets and two cannons located in the rear and nose of the plane;
however, in this portion of the lm, the bomber not only successfully targets
military installations on enemy territory, it also effectively destroys small enemy
ghters during a massive mid-air conict. According to Disney, as the smaller
enemy planes jockey into position, Theyre under the constant and deadly
re of the combat plane which is always in ring position. As the scene progresses, the bombers turrets and cannons independently re in thirteen separate
directions, and within the next few moments, the plane destroys at least twenty
enemy aircraft, due to the scientic accuracy of its guns, and achieves complete mastery of the air.52
In order to support Severskys claims that such machines were technologically feasible if Americans, especially military personnel, [made] up our minds
to do it, Disney consistently, and rather ingeniously, refers to the possibilities
inherent in Science, an inclusive, generic term employed throughout the lm.
During the aforementioned segments, he and Seversky promote the science of
aviation, the scientic accuracy of military technology, and a science of
demolition that will enable long-range bombers to destroy the enemys industrial centers. In the earlier transliteration of C.S. Rollss historic ight, the narrator claims that massive bombloads of the most devastating explosives have
been conceived by science. Later, alongside a critique of land and sea warfare,
the new scientic devices used by the enemy effectively destroy Allied warships and other important wartime vessels. Nevertheless, Disney suggests that
scientic bombing, those air raids conducted by Severskys theoretical
squadrons of long-range bombers, will eventually conquer Hitlers submarines. And although the German navy protected its U-boats with concrete
structures and fortications, [S]cience, according to Disney, is developing
an armor-piercing bomb employing the rocket principle. As it nears its target,
a rocket in the tail ignites, driving it down with such terric speed it can knife
its way through steel and concrete. Thereafter, Disney implies that science
will also develop a bomb that can penetrate the earths crust and initiate a small
earthquake, a devastating series of tremors that will destroy every one of the
enemys nearby industrial sites.53 Like the cartographic effects used throughout
the lm, the recurrence of this abstract concept allows Disney to avoid any
detailed explanations and visualizations of the scientic and industrial processes
necessary for the development of such weaponry. For those unacquainted with
physics or aeronautical engineering, arguably most individuals involved in the
production and reception of Victory Through Air Power, this simplistic yet sug-
78
gestive term implies that given enough time, nancial assistance, and military
support science will ensure an Allied victory over both Germany and Japan.
Unlike his wartime shorts, Disneys Victory Through Air Power presented
a sustained, propagandistic argument regarding the importance of an
autonomous air force and the necessity of long-range bombing missions.
Although the movie was a commercial failure, Disney warned audiences not to
dismiss Seversky like those contemporaries of General Mitchell had done years
before, and he believed that his animated productions, especially this featurelm, could motivate American citizens to participate more actively in the war
effort and convince military ofcials that Severskys theories, if put into practice,
would inevitably result in an ultimate Allied victory. After its release, the lm
provoked a wide variety of critical responses some denigrated it as a polemic,
others worried about its didacticism, many praised it as sound pedagogy.
Undoubtedly, it remains to this day one of the oddest movies that the Walt Disney Studios ever produced. Unlike many others that appeared during the Second
World War, this one received no government nancing. It was a privatelyfunded attempt to inuence public policy, one aimed at both military ofcials
and the general public; it was a semi-animated, propagandistic pseudo-documentary that attempted to entertain as well as instruct; it was a peculiar, but
fascinating, vision of aeronautical history and its future potential; and it was
a collaboration that advocated specic wartime strategies and lobbied for the
formal organization of what would become, less than ve years later, the newest
branch of the U.S. armed forces. Unavailable for decades, the lms re-release
in 2004 enables twenty-rst century viewers to reexamine Disneys legacy, to
revisit a wartime production that appeared during a particularly bleak period
for Allied troops, and to watch and re-watch a lm that Disney believed might
actually alter the course of American history.
NOTES
1. According to Steven Watts, [B]y mid1942 over 93 percent of Disney production
was connected to government contracts (229). For more on Disney wartime lms, see
Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (New York :
Houghton Mifin, 1997), 228 242; and Michael S. Shull and David E. Witt, Doing Their
Bit: Wartime American Animated Short Films, 1939 1945 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland,
2004) 74, 129.
2. For Leonard Maltin (Walt Disney: On the Front Lines, DVD, Walt Disney Video,
2004), such lms made military objectives more tangible since they conceptualized
three-dimensional reality and taught pilots many practical, life-saving tips. However,
the efcacy of these lms eventually came into question as the war progressed, especially
the 1942 Wings/Engines/Fuselage/Tail (WEFT). After this system fell into disrepute,
Watts explains, the acronym WEFT was said to stand for wrong every fucking time
(229). Thereafter, the Navy regularly rejected lms in the series because of rampant
errors Sean Grifn, Tinker Belles and Evil Queens: The Walt Disney Company from
the Inside Out (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 3233.
3. For more on Seversky, see Edward Maloney, Sever the Sky: Evolution of Severksy
79
Aircraft (California: Planes of Fame Publishers, 1979) and Judy Rumerman, Alexander
de Seversky and Seversky Aircraft, U.S. Centennial Flight Commission, accessed1 March
2010 at <http://www.centennialofight.gov/essay/Aerospace/Seversky/Aero42.htm>
4. Alexander P. de Seversky, Victory Through Air Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1942), 7, 337343.
5. The New York Times, April 17, 1942, 15. The New York Times, September 13, 1942:
BR8.
6. Speaking of Books , The New York Times, May 10, 1942: BR2.
7. For more on the early debates regarding the efcacy of an autonomous air force,
see Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1987), 4769.
8. Fletcher Pratt, Air Powers Part in the War, The New York Times, May 3, 1942:
BR1. Prescott, Books of the Times, The New York Times, December 18, 1942: 35. Brooks
Atkinson, Our Huge War Task Traced at Harvard, The New York Times, May 31, 1942:
20.
9. The New York Times, May 3, 1942: BR13. The New York Times, May 18, 1942: 13.
For other reviews of Severskys book, see Donald Mitchell, The Dominance of Air
Power, The Nation 154.21 (May 23, 1942), 603 604; and G. W. McGinty, Victory
Through Air Power, Southwestern Social Science Quarterly, 23.3 (Dec. 1942), 295 296.
10. Notes on Books and Authors, The New York Times, April 24, 1942: 15. Isaac
Anderson, Books and Authors, The New York Times, August 2, 1942: BR10.
11. Orville Prescott, Books of the Times, The New York Times, April 20, 1942: 19.
12. Pratt, BR1. Hanson W. Baldwin, Air Powers Role in the Atom Age, The New
York Times, July 3, 1949: BR1. Hanson, Can Air Power Do the Trick? The New York
Times, September 24, 1950: BR4.
13. Leonard Mosley, Disneys World (Maryland: Scarborough House Publishers, 1990),
206.
14. Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells, Introduction: Walts in the Movies,
From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1995), 5.
15. For a detailed description of the strike and an analysis of its aesthetic repercussions, see Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in
the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1997), 403 422.
16. Bob Thomas, Building a Company: Roy O. Disney and the Creation of an Entertainment Empire (New York: Hyperion, 1998), 150 151.
17. Screen New Here and in Hollywood, The New York Times, June 22, 1942: 19;
and Oct. 14, 1942: 29.
18. According to Walts nephew Roy Disney, he and the Disney family traveled to
New York for the premier. The day before the lm opened, as Roy and his mother sat
in their hotel room, they grabbed a box of crayons and wrote Go see Victory Through
Air Power on sheet after sheet of paper, which they then folded into paper airplanes
and threw out of their hotel window.
19. Air Power on the Screen, The New York Times, July 26, 1943: 18.
20. Bosley Crowther, Summer Harvest, The New York Times, August 5, 1943: X3.
21. The New York Times, July 29, 1943: 36.
22. Walter Wagner, Mickey Icarus, 1943: Fusing Ideas with the Art of the Animated
Cartoon, The Saturday Review, September 4, 1943: 18 19; in Eric Smoodin, Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom (New York: Routledge, 1994), 44 47.
23. Thomas M. Pryor, The Screen, The New York Times, July 19, 1943: 13.
24. Watts, 236 237.
25. James Agee, Films, The Nation 157.3 (July 17, 1943), 82. When Agee critiqued
the missing civilians in Victory Through Air Power, he entered into an ongoing public
80
debate regarding precision bombing and its alternatives. Adopted in the postWorld
War I years and celebrated throughout the 1930s and early 1940s, daylight precision
bombing missions were believed to be an effective, even humane, way to attack enemy
installations. But after the destruction of London and what came to be known as the
Baedeker Blitz (the bombing of non-military, historic sites culled from German editions of the popular Baedeker tourist guides), as well as the mounting losses due to German anti-aircraft guns, the RAF and the USAAF began to consider alternative bombing
strategies proposed by Seversky and other like-minded ofcials. By 1945, daylight precision raids diminished as ofcials began to prefer more large-scale bombings campaigns,
such as those carried out against Dresden and Tokyo in February of that year. For more
on the rise and decline of precision bombing, see Sherry (49 58, 260 267); for the
Baedeker Blitz, Martin Gilbert, The Second World War: A Complete History (New York:
Holt, 1989), 319.
26. Theodore Strauss, Donald Ducks Disney, The New York Times, Feb. 7 1943: X3.
27. Alexander P. de Seversky, A Joint Statement about the Motion Picture Victory
Through Air Power by Walt Disney and Major Alexander P. de Seversky, The New York
Times, July 29, 1943: 36.
28. Walt Disney, quoted in Strauss, X3.
29. Disney, A Joint Statement, 36.
30. Although propaganda is often associated with the dissemination of information
by governmental or quasi-governmental organizations, I recur to the term throughout
this essay in order to highlight the fact that many of Disneys productions during these
years were not mere lobbying efforts by the head of an American corporation. From his
government-sponsored trip to South America to the requisitioning of his studios by
the army in late 1942 to the nancing of his many wartime educational lms, Disney
often cooperated and collaborated with military ofcials to bolster homefront support
for American involvement in a two-theatre campaign against the Axis alliance. Although
Victory Through Air Power received no such nancing, Disney quickly established himself
as a man with close ties to the U.S. military throughout the remaining years of the
war.
31. John H. Criders, Eden Joins Quebec Parley; Political Phase Is Reached, The
New York Times, August 19, 1943: 1. Roy Disney, quoted in Thomas, 155. Mosely, 206.
32. Leonard Maltin, The Disney Films (New York: Crown, 1973), 64. In his introduction to On the Front Lines, Maltin restates this hypothesis: H.C. Potter was told by Walt
that it was only after Roosevelt saw Victory Through Air Power that our country made
the commitment to long-range bombing. And that, after all, was the reason Walt committed to making this movie in the rst place.
33. Richard Schickel, The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt
Disney (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968), 269.
34. Walt Disney, Donald Duck Disney, X3.
35. Walter Wagner, Film Phenomena, Saturday Review of Literature, Feb. 6, 1943;
and Mickey Icarus, quoted in Smoodin, 4247.
36. J.P. McEvoy, Disney Goes to War, This Week Magazine, July 5, 1942: 8. McEvoy,
Grant, and Huemer are quoted in Watts 233 234.
37. Matter of Censorship, The New York Times, April 23, 1944: X3. Films Chosen
For Young, The New York Times, Dec. 23, 1943: 23. Films for Young, The New York
Times, Jan. 6, 1944: 18.
38. Bill Nichols, Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), ix.
39. Watts, 234.
40. Victory Through Air Power, dir. H. C. Potter, perf. Alexander P. de Seversky, United
Artists, 1943. For a detailed analysis of Mitchells efforts to promote the autonomy and
81
augmentation of American air power, see Chapter 5 of H. Bruce Franklins War Stars:
The Superweapon and the American Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press,
1988), 91100.
41. William Mitchell, Winged Defense: The Development and Possibilities of Modern
Air Power Economic and Military (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1925).
42. Bill Nichols, Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 34 35.
43. Ibid, x.
44. Paula Rabinowitz, They Must Be Represented: The Politics of Documentary (New
York: Verso, 1994): 6. Bill Nichols, The Voice of Documentary, New Challenges for
Documentary, ed. Alan Rosenthal (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 52.
45. Rosenthal, New Challenges for Documentary, 429.
46. See Mark Clague, Playing in Toon: Walt Disneys Fantasia (1940) and the Imagineering of Classical Music, American Music 22.1 (2004), 91109; Scott Schaffer, Disney
and the Imagineering of Histories, Postmodern Culture: An Electronic Journal of Interdisciplinary Criticism, 6.3 (1996), Last accessed 8 Feb. 2008 at <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/postmodern_culture/toc/pmc6.3.html>.
47. The Douglas XB-19 was an expensive prototype that never saw formal production;
it had a wingspan of more than 200 feet.
48. Schaffer (cit. n. 46)
49. In Cinema 1 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), Gilles Deleuze
analyzes the movement-image, and its relationship to a diverse variety of lms. However, he mentions the cartoon medium only once:
[C]inema is the system which reproduces movement as a function of any-instantwhatever that is, as a function of equidistant instants, selected so as to create an
impression of continuity.... Any other system which reproduces movement through
an order of exposures [poses] projected in such a way that they pass into one
another, or are transformed, is foreign to the cinema. This is clear when one
attempts to dene the cartoon lm; if it belongs fully to the cinema, this is because
the drawing no longer constitutes a pose or a completed gure, but the description
of a gure which is always in the process of being formed or dissolving through
the movement. (5)
50. Severskys theories regarding transcontinental bombing were, in this instance,
an accurate assessment of proposed military technologies at the time. In 1941, the rst
blueprints were developed for what would eventually become the B-36 Peacemaker,
though it would take the company later known as Convair nearly ve years to develop
the rst working prototype.
51. One might argue that there a few exceptions: the Phalanx Close-In Weapon System
(CWIS) is similar to what Seversky imagined, but it is strictly used on Navy combat
ships. And one of the most approximate realizations of Severskys vision, the B-36
(which had machine-gun turrets and cannons), did not formally emerge from the production line until 1948; however, it did not, like the B-29 Superfortress before it, have
independently operated gun turrets and was not designed for mid-air ghting. It was
also bulky and costly and required constant maintenance in order to avoid engine res.
Eventually, after the development of the jet engine, the B-36 became obsolete and production ceased in 1958. For more information on these aeronautical developments, see
John Taylors Combat Aircraft of the World; from 1909 to the Present (New York: Putnam,
1969), Michael Sherrys The Rise of American Air Power (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1987), and Timothy Moys War Machines: Transforming Technologies in the U.S.
Military, 1920 1940 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001).
52. In these segments, Disney and Seversky recapitulate the arguments (which were
82
later disproved) made by various USAAF ofcials that bomber squadrons could, with
the proper weaponry, protect themselves from ghter squadrons.
53. Barnes Wallis designed two bombs for the RAF, the 12,000-pound Tallboy and
the 22,000-pound Grand Slam, that were designed to penetrate the ground near large
structures and destroy them with shockwaves. Although these bombs were dropped several dozen times during the nal few years of World War II (most often on bridges, submarine shelters, and railway tunnels, but also alongside the moored battleship Tirpitz),
they did not have anywhere near the explosive potential of those envisioned by Disney
and Seversky. See Paul Brickhill, The Dam Busters (1951; Pan Books, 1999).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agee, James. Films. The Nation 157.3 (17 July 1943): 82.
Air Power on the Screen, The New York Times, 26 July 1943: 18.
Anderson, Isaac. Books and Authors, The New York Times, 2 August 1942: BR10.
Atkinson, Brooks. Our Huge War Task Traced at Harvard, The New York Times, 31
May 1942: 20.
Baldwin, Hanson W. Air Powers Role in the Atom Age, The New York Times, 3 July
1949: BR1.
_____. Can Air Power Do the Trick? The New York Times, 24 September 1950:
BR4.
Bell, Elizabeth, Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells. From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of
Film, Gender, and Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.
Brickhill, Paul. The Dam Busters. 1951. Pan Books, 1999.
Clague, Mark. Playing in Toon: Walt Disneys Fantasia (1940) and the Imagineering
of Classical Music, American Music 22.1 (2004), 91109.
Criders, John H. Eden Joins Quebec Parley; Political Phase Is Reached, The New York
Times, 19 August 1943: 1.
Crowther, Bosley. Summer Harvest. The New York Times, August 5, 1943: X3.
Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.
Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth
Century. New York: Verso, 1997.
Films Chosen For Young, The New York Times, 23 December 1943: 23.
Films for Young, The New York Times, 6 January 1944: 18.
Franklin, H. Bruce. War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History. New York: Holt, 1989.
Grifn, Sean. Tinker Belles and Evil Queens: The Walt Disney Company from the Inside
Out. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
Maloney, Edward. Sever the Sky: Evolution of Severksy Aircraft. California: Planes of Fame
Publishers, 1979. Rumerman, Judy. Alexander de Seversky and Seversky Aircraft,
U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. http://www.centennialofight.gov/essay/Aerospace/Seversky/Aero42.htm>
Maltin, Leonard. The Disney Films. New York: Crown, 1973.
Matter of Censorship, The New York Times, 23 April 1944: X3.
McGinty, G. W. Victory Through Air Power, Southwestern Social Science Quarterly,
23.3 (December 1942), 295 296.
Mitchell, Donald. The Dominance of Air Power, The Nation 154.21 (23 May 1942),
603 604.
Mitchell, William. Winged Defense: The Development and Possibilities of Modern Air
Power Economic and Military. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1925.
Mosley, Leonard. Disneys World. Maryland: Scarborough House Publishers, 1990, 206.
83
Moy, Timothy. War Machines: Transforming Technologies in the U.S. Military, 1920
1940. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Nichols, Bill. Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.
_____. Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1991.
_____. The Voice of Documentary. In New Challenges for Documentary, edited by
Alan Rosenthal. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987.
Notes on Books and Authors, The New York Times, 24 April 1942: 15.
Pratt, Fletcher. Air Powers Part in the War, The New York Times, 3 May 1942: BR1.
Prescott, Orville. Books of the Times, The New York Times, 20 April 1942: 19.
_____. Books of the Times, The New York Times, 18 December 1942: 35.
Pryor, Thomas M. The Screen, The New York Times, 19 July 1943: 13.
Rabinowitz, Paula. They Must Be Represented: The Politics of Documentary. New York:
Verso, 1994.
Schaffer, Scott. Disney and the Imagineering of Histories, Postmodern Culture: An
Electronic Journal of Interdisciplinary Criticism, 6.3 (1996). http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/postmodern_culture/toc/pmc6.3.html
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.
Screen New Here and in Hollywood, The New York Times, 22 June 1942: 19; 14 October
1942: 29.
Seversky, Alexander P. de. A Joint Statement about the Motion Picture Victory Through
Air Power by Walt Disney and Major Alexander P. de Seversky, The New York Times,
29 July 1943: 36.
_____. Victory Through Air Power. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1942.
Sherry, Michael. The Rise of American Air Power. New Haven CT: Yale University Press,
1987.
Shull, Michael S., and David E. Witt. Doing Their Bit: Wartime American Animated Short
Films, 1939 1945. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004.
Speaking of Books , The New York Times, 10 May 1942: BR2.
Strauss, Theodore. Donald Ducks Disney, The New York Times, 7 February 1943: X3.
Taylor, John. Combat Aircraft of the World; from 1909 to the Present. New York: Putnam,
1969.
The New York Times, 29 July 1943: 36.
The New York Times, 3 May 1942: BR13.
The New York Times, 18 May 1942: 13.
Thomas, Bob. Building a Company: Roy O. Disney and the Creation of an Entertainment
Empire. New York: Hyperion, 1998.
Wagner, Walter. Film Phenomena, Saturday Review of Literature, 6 February 1943.
_____. Mickey Icarus, 1943: Fusing Ideas with the Art of the Animated Cartoon, The
Saturday Review, 4 September 1943: 18 19.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. New
York: Houghton Mifin, 1997.
Section II: Science, Technology,

Mathematics and Medicine
5
The Promise
of Things to Come
Disneyland and the Wonders
of Technology, 1954 1958
Before there was Nova, The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau, or the
National Geographic specials ... there was Disneyland. The weekly anthology
series that premiered on the ABC network in October 1954, though better
known for recycling Disney Studios theatrical productions and promoting
upcoming projects, also offered viewers some of the rst science- and technology-themed documentaries aired on American television.1 Two dozen such
programs were planned, and nine were actually produced. Aired between the
fall of 1954 and the spring of 1958, they transported viewers to otherwise-inaccessible places: the distant past and the near future, the inside of a nuclear reactor and the bridge of a spacecraft, the Antarctic ice cap and the dusty surface
of Mars. Produced by Disney writers, artists, and camera crews in cooperation
with outside experts, they chronicled the technological breakthroughs of the
postwar era: atomic bombs and atomic power, superhighways and supersonic
ight, and the opening of new frontiers on and beyond the Earth. They also
captured the brightly burnished optimism of the era, which regarded technology
as an unambiguous, unmixed blessing.2
Disneyland, created in 1954 as a complement to the soon-to-open Annaheim theme park, originally featured four rotating weekly themes corresponding
to the parks four main areas. Fantasyland weeks would feature fairytales and
talking animals viewers to the world of fairytales and talking animals, Adventureland segments would explore the wonders of nature, and Frontierland
would offer tall tales and true of heroes from Americas past. Disneylands
trips to Tomorrowland less frequent, because the lack of existing material
that t the theme would reveal the promise of things to come, symbolized
84
5. The Promise of Things to Come (Van Riper)
85
by a sleek rocket ship and a stylized atom. The future that unfolded in the six
programs produced specically as Tomorrowland segments was like the theme
park it helped to promote bright, clean, and efcient. They celebrated
along with three contemporary Disney documentaries on the exploration of
Antarctica the power of technology to reshape the world, transform everyday
life, and open new doors to adventure. Conceived and aired in an era (1954
1958) when movies reected the publics ambivalence about technology, the
nine technology-themed lms that aired on Disneyland were unreservedly and
unabashedly cheerful.
Technology on Disneyland: An Overview

The Disneyland programs dealt with subjects familiar enough to Eisenhower-era audiences to need no introduction, but exotic enough to pique the
viewers interest. Three focused on space travel (Man in Space, Man and the
Moon, Mars and Beyond), three on Antarctic exploration (Antarctica: Past and
Present, Antarctica: Operation Deep Freeze, and Antarctica: To The South Pole
for Science) one each on highways (Magic Highway USA), aviation (Man in
Flight), and atomic energy (Our Friend the Atom). Eleven similar programs
conceived but never produced reect the same pattern, covering subjects such
as The Wheel, Communications, The Story of Trains, and Man and His Earth.
Had all the planned episodes been produced, there would have been 20
such programs aired at a rate of roughly ve per year in the rst four seasons (1954 1958) of Disneyland. In fact, only nine aired, seven of them between
September 1956 and May 1958. The high cost of producing such programming
from scratch took its toll, however, and production schedules repeatedly slipped.
Atomic Energy, slated for the rst season, appeared in the fourth season as Our
Friend the Atom. A multi-part episode on the past, present, and future of aviation scheduled for the second season became a single third-season episode
titled Man in Flight, which relied heavily on repurposed footage from Victory
Through Air Power (1943). The episodes that did air were each rebroadcast at
least once, and several were re-edited for theatrical release, in order to amortize
their production costs. Man in Space, Man and the Moon, and Mars and Beyond
were all released as half-hour featurettes, and the three Antarctica lms were
condensed into a single lm titled The Seven Cities of Antarctica and released
as part of the People and Places series.
Science and technology documentaries disappeared from Disneyland, without fanfare or clear explanation, after the programs fourth (195758) season.
The name of the series was changed, for the fth (1958 59) season, to Walt
Disney Presents, the idea of a rotating weekly theme was dropped. The existence
of a designated Tomorrowland segment had, for four seasons, created both a
home and a need for programs like Man in Space and Our Friend the Atom.
86
Section II: Science, Technology, Mathematics and Medicine
When the need for Tomorrowland programming disappeared, episodes dealing with science and technology disappeared along with it. Outlines for projects
dealing with articial satellites, weather control, geology, and oceanography
(originally scheduled for the fourth season) remained on the table, along with
plans for biographies of Leonardo da Vinci and astronomer Edwin Hubble and
a set of episodes titled The Magic of Mathematics (originally scheduled for the
fth season). Elements of these projects resurfaced as theatrical featurettes
Eyes in Outer Space and Donald in Mathmagic Land in 1959, but none was
produced for television.
The nine Disneyland episodes that dealt with science and technology were
neither conceived as a branded series (like the True Life Adventures wildlife
lms or the People and Places travelogues) nor made in a distinctive house
style. Eclecticism in style and content was their hallmark. All nine
episodes were motivated, however, by an effort to educate (and so reassure)
audiences about the technologies transforming their lives, while keeping them
entertained. The Tomorowland segments of Disneyland were, in that sense,
Disney edutainment in its purest form: fact-packed, at Walts insistence, and
yet (beneath their genuine seriousness, and considerable intellectual sophistication) as playfully entertaining and inherently optimistic as any Mickey Mouse
short.
Content
Disneylands science and technology programs were designed to make cutting-edge science and technology interesting to a non-specialist, all-ages television audience. They did so by emphasizing, wherever possible, practice over
theory, action over speech, and the concrete over the abstract. It was an approach
that played not just to the medium of television, but to the strengths of the
Disney Studio, which had built its reputation on its exquisite visuals more than
(as in the case of the Warner Brothers cartoon unit) on clever writing and deft
characterization. The nine programs may have been about ideas, but wherever
possible they showed people and things preferably in vigorous and varied
motion. Even when they used live-action footage the lms were always, in the
broader sense, animated.
Disneys preference for the concrete over the abstract was apparent in the
Antarctica trilogy of lms. Shot by Disney cameramen who accompanied a
1955 56 U. S. Navy expedition to Antarctica, the three lms chronicle, the
establishment of seven research stationsseven cities for science, as the narration describes them on the south polar ice. Aside from a historical segment
at the beginning of Antarctica: Past and Present, the trilogy is really the story
of a complex, high-tech military operation. It depicts a peaceful invasion in
which the weapons are bulldozers and prefabricated buildings, the only defend-
87
ers are annoyed penguins, and the principal enemies are the sudden storms and
ever-present cold. The lms of the Antarctica trilogy, like those shot during
the Allied invasion of Normandy a dozen years before, depict exotic machinery
in constant motion. Icebreakers smash channels through the pack ice with their
reinforced bows, bulldozers shear off ridges of snow and ice and plow them
into newly opened crevasses, giant transport aircraft parachute supplies to the
construction crews waiting below, and snow tractors on broad tank-like treads
haul supplies inland in a steady stream. The high-visibility colors of the equipment red for the bulldozers, bright orange for the outer wing panels of the
airplanes stand out starkly against the all-white background, accentuating
the motion.
The human gures in the Antarctica trilogy are like the soldiers in wartime
combat documentaries: competent, purposeful, and anonymous. The lm does
not reveal their backgrounds, their motivations, their job titles, or except for
a handful of men killed in accidents during the operation even their names.
Anonymous and interchangeable in their heavy clothes, they are shown striding
through underground ice tunnels, raising prefabricated buildings, and setting
off dynamite explosions to expose dangerous crevasses. They are objects, moving in a landscape, and their function in the lms is the same as that of icebreakers and the caterpillar tractors: to act, not to comment or reect or their
actions. The unsolved scientic questions that motivated the massive operation
in the rst place are effectively absent from the Antarctica trilogy. Even in the
third lm, titled To the South Pole for Science, the most memorable moments
are about logistics: the air-dropping of supplies to build the Amundsen-Scott
research station at the bottom of the world. Scientists wait patiently off-screen,
waiting for the men of action the icebreaker crews, the transport pilots, and
the construction gangs to create a sheltered place for them to do their contemplative work.
The Antarctica lms, because they chronicled a large construction project
in an exotic landscape accessible to camera crews, had visual interest to spare.
Man in Flight and Magic Highway USA, though they depicted the development
of particular machines across a variety of times and places rather than a variety
of machines at work in a particular time and place, had similar advantages. The
space trilogy and Our Friend the Atom presented Disney lmmakers with greater
challenges. Much of their content was inherently abstract (like the laws of
motion), many of their settings were beyond the reach of cameras (the inside
of an atomic nucleus, the surface of the Moon), and most of the machines they
described had yet to be built. All four succeeded, however, by applying the same
basic preference for showing over telling, but at a markedly higher level of
sophistication.
Man in Space, the rst of the lms to air, set the tone for the three to
follow. It began by explaining Newtons law of action and reaction the basis
of all rocket propulsion then turned to the combination of gravity and inertia
88
that causes spacecraft to fall around the bodies they orbit. Between the two
halves of this primer in rocket physics came an introduction to rocket engineering: explanations of the principal components in a single-stage V-2 rocket
and of the performance advantages of that multi-stage rockets offer over single-stage ones. The extended discussion of space medicine covered the basics
of that subject, such as the human bodys response to high g-forces experienced
during acceleration (loss of consciousness) and low g-forces experienced in
orbit (disorientation and possible nausea). It was, however, much broader than
the space medicine label suggests. The enumeration of the problems of living
in space touched on the deeply counterintuitive physics of low gravity an
environment where an unanchored astronaut pushing on a wrench will turn
himself instead of the bolt he is trying to tighten. It also explored astronomy,
pointing out that the cosmic radiation and micrometeorites absorbed daily by
Earths atmosphere would be dangerous to astronauts who traveled beyond it,
and touched on the psychological effects of being trapped in a tiny metal box,
oating through the incomprehensible nothingness of space. Each of these
explanations was deftly illustrated by snippets of animation: sneezing dogs,
speeding sports cars, and a hapless space traveler who suffers one low-gravity
indignity after another.
The other three episodes followed a similar pattern, and broadened still
further the range of scientic subjects covered. Our Friend the Atom explained
atomic structure, the nature of radiation, how a nuclear chain reaction works,
and how the controlled chain reaction in a power plant differs from the uncontrolled one in a bomb. Man and the Moon and Mars and Beyond inventoried
the nine planets and thirty-one moons then known to comprise the solar system, discussed the formation of the solar system as a whole, and evaluated the
possibilities of nding life elsewhere within it.3 They described surface conditions on their titular worlds in as much detail as the available data permitted,
noting (for example) the existence of dust storms and polar ice caps on Mars
and two distinct geological provinces light-colored highlands and dark-colored basins on the Moon.4 Mars and Beyond also delved deeply into biology,
summarizing the evolution of life on Earth and speculating on the path that
evolution might have taken on Mars had life emerged there.
All four programs took similar approaches toward advanced technology,
rst introducing and explaining its design features and then showing it in action.
Our Friend the Atom covered the functioning of nuclear reactors in great detail,
and then offered a more general discussion of their applications in electric
power generation, transportation, agriculture, and medicine. The three spacethemed programs introduced audiences to a trio of increasingly capable space
ships, each of which it showed in action on an imaginary mission depicted at
the end of the episode. Man in Space featured a sleek three-stage chemical-fuel
booster capable of lifting a reusable, rocket-powered spacecraft and its tenmember crew into Earth orbit for a day. Man and the Moon showed a four-per-
89
son ship, assembled in Earth orbit, capable of going to the Moon and back
(though not landing) in less than a week. Mars and Beyond presented a 500foot-wide disk-shaped, nuclear-powered ship that could reach Mars in a little
over a year. Other space technology, featured alongside the ships, received similar treatment: satellites, self-propelled spacesuits for zero-g construction work,
and a 100-person space station.
A viewer who paid close attention to all four programs would, in exchange
for the four hours they invested, have received a solid (if somewhat idiosyncratic) introduction to planetary astronomy, classical mechanics, nuclear physics
and engineering, astronautical engineering, space medicine, historical geology,
evolutionary theory, and what would today be called exobiology.5 The programs
greatest strength, however, was not the broad range of topics they covered but
the surprising sophistication with which they approached those topics.
One mark of this sophistication is the extent to which all four programs
assumed some knowledge on the part of the audience. Man in Space, for example, referred to but did not explain the use of a centrifuge to simulate g-forces
in astronaut training, assuming that an average television viewer would be able
to extrapolate its function from seeing it in operation. Man and the Moon,
depicting construction of an Earth-orbiting space station, left viewers to make
connection that the eet of winged rockets making daily deliveries to orbit were
production versions of the prototype shown in Man in Space. Similarly, Mars
and Beyond implied but never stated that the space station constructed in Man
and the Moon served as an orbital home base for the six Mars-bound spacecraft
seen in the nal segment. Our Friend the Atom evoked the destructive power
of nuclear weapons (a critical contrast for its main storyline about the peaceful
uses of nuclear energy) with a handful of mushroom-cloud images and an
oblique sentence or two. It presumed the audience capable of lling in the gaps.
A second aspect of the programs sophistication was their currency. The
step-by-step plan for putting humans in space outlined in Man in Space and
its two sequels fell squarely into that category, though the distance between it
and the plan actually used makes it hard to see that today. Disneyland viewers
already interested in space would have recognized the plan (the four-stage
winged rocket, the 100-man space station, the moon ship) as that outlined in
an eight-part series that had appeared in Colliers magazine in 195253. They
would also have recognized the programs onscreen experts Wernher Von
Braun, Willy Ley, Heinz Haber, and Ernst Stuhlinger as the authors of that
series, and Ley as the author of a follow-up book: Across the Space Frontier.6
Von Brauns detailed explanation of a ight-test program for the rocket, his
specication of hydrazine and nitric acid (then new and experimental) as its
fuel, and the minute level of detail in which the construction of the space station
is described suggest a real plan, worked out in complete earnest. So, too, do
the details of the mission plan that Von Braun describes in Mars and Beyond
4 months accelerating in Earth orbit, 45 days in a spiraling deceleration toward
90
Martian orbit, 13 months total in transit. Indeed von Brauns plan, which Disney
gave life on the screen as Colliers and Viking Press had given it life on the page,
was the most detailed, plausible vision of the future available.7
The last, and most striking, mark of the Disney programs sophistication
was their willingness to tackle complex issues. Our Friend the Atom explained
the physics of nuclear chain reactions, Man in Space introduced the deeply
counterintuitive principles of orbital mechanics, and Man and the Moon
described what would be (if carried out) the most complex construction project
in human history. Mars and Beyond, rather than describing its Mars-bound
eet of spaceships as vaguely atomic powered, had Ernst Stuhlinger carefully
explain how a nuclear-electric ion drive would work.8 Nuclear physics and
rocket science were standard symbols of scientic complexity in the 1950s,
but Disneyland the product of a studio better known for singing dwarfs and
talking animals tackled them with aplomb.
Style
Perhaps because of its strong, long-standing association with fantasy, Disney Studios took care to distinguish its science-factual Tomorrowland programs from science ction. Cultural context helped. Each of the Disneyland
programs on science and technology had close ties to current events: the introduction of the rst jet airliners, the launch of the nuclear-powered submarine
Nautilus, the construction of the interstate highway system, the International
Geophysical Year. The technologies they described were, by the mid1950s, discussed not only in technical journals but hobbyist magazines like Popular
Mechanics, general-interest magazines like Colliers and The Saturday Evening
Post, and books aimed at squarely at the general public (including children).
This, along with the studios successful forays into documentary lmmaking
the True-Life Adventures and People and Places seriescreated a presumption
that the programs were serious documentaries.
A variety of visual elements in the programs themselves reinforced the
point. The lms of the Antarctica trilogy consisted almost entirely of live-action
footage, and the rest made extensive use of it: stock footage, costumed dramatizations, and lectures and demonstrations lmed on studio sets. Where the lms
used animation, it ranged from limited character animation that owed more to
Mister Magoo than Mickey Mouse to the stylized realism used a decade earlier
in Fantasia (1940), Bambi (1942), and Victory Through Air Power (1943). The
colorful, rounded, fully animated characters and richly detailed backgrounds
that had made Disney Studios famous was conspicuously absent.9 The decision
behind this may have been practical traditional Disney animation was expensive or it may have been a conscious attempt to distance the programs from
the fantasy-themed shorts and features for which the studio was known.
91
Onscreen lectures by established authority gures used everywhere but

the Antarctica lms reinforced the air of factuality. Each of the three spacethemed episodes opened with brief introductions in which Walt Disney and
writer-director Ward Kimball assured audiences that the program to follow
was based on scientic fact. Each of the three then turned, after an animated
historical segment narrated by Kimball, to formal presentations by scientists
and engineers such as Willy Ley, Wernher von Braun, and Heinz Haber. Our
Friend the Atom used a more streamlined version of the same formula, making
Haber the sole onscreen expert and giving him Kimballs old role as narratorhost. Magic Highway USA, meanwhile, contented itself with a nameless, suited
and bespectacled trafc engineer.
The lmed lectures instantly established an air of seriousness by recreating
the atmosphere of a classroom. The physical positioning of the onscreen expert,
sitting at a desk or standing beside a chalkboard on a studio set, established
him as the teacher and the viewing audience as the class. Man in Space even
provided an actual audience: a group of Disney artists seated in straight-backed
wooden chairs with notepads and drawing boards in their hands. Linking studio
and living room to form a virtual classroom signaled the viewing audience that
the upcoming segment would be dense and information-rich, requiring their
full attention. It was ideal, therefore, for subjects that were conceptually difcult,
such as orbital mechanics in Man in Space and nuclear chain reactions in Our
Friend the Atom. The format was also well suited to subjects far beyond the
audiences everyday experience, such as space station construction in Man and
the Moon, ion-drive spaceships in Mars and Beyond. The lecture format lent an
air of instant seriousness to such seemingly outlandish subjects. The possibility
that a soberly dressed expert seated behind a desk would deliver anything other
than a serious lecture simply did not exist in the world of 1950s television.10
Disneys use of migr German scientists as onscreen experts reinforced
the seriousness of the lecture segments.11 Their gray suits, formal style of speaking, and thick European accents linked them to scientic authority gures both
real (Freud, Einstein) and imaginary (Flash Gordons Dr. Zarkov). The German
experts were notably stiff in front of the camera, however, and their deliberate,
uninected speech slowed down already slow-paced segments. Wherever possible, Disney tried to soften the German experts stiff formality by providing
visual distractions for the viewer. Willy Leys lecture on rocket physics in Man
in Space was illustrated by chalkboard diagrams that briey come to animated
life. Heinz Habers descriptions of the physical challenges confronting astronauts multi-g acceleration, weightlessness, disorientation were accompanied by a cartoon of a space-faring everyman, who experiences them in
comically exaggerated ways. Von Brauns detailed explanations of future spacecraft in all three space-themed program were delivered next to large, meticulously crafted models of spaceships and space stations. His narrative of a space
station being built in Man and the Moon were accompanied, storyboard-style,
92
by close-up shots of detailed artists renderings. Habers lecture on nuclear

chain reactions in Our Friend the Atom had the best visual aid of all: A tabletop
demonstration in which cocked mousetraps represented unstable atomic nuclei
(of uranium 235, for example) and ping pong balls, balanced atop them, represented the neutrons set free when they split. A single ping pong ball, dropped
onto the table from above, triggered a spectacular urry of activity and enders
the concept of chain reactions instantly memorable.
Disneys stylized, animated realism conferred a different kind of gravity
on the segments in which it was used. Disney studios had used it before: not
only in its most serious-minded feature-length lms, but also in the most selfconsciously serious segments of those lms. It lent a sense of majesty to the
forests in Bambi, as well as to the early scenes of Bambis father and the concluding scenes of the adult Bambi. The animators of Fantasia used it to recreate
the world of the doomed dinosaurs in the Rite of Spring segment. Three years
later, it was used for the apocalyptic climax of Victory Through Air Power: scenes
of American heavy bombers crossing the Pacic and blasting the cities of Japan
into oblivion. The use of stylized realism signaled, in all four cases, a break
from lighthearted moments elsewhere in the same lm and an understanding
that the events depicted should be understood as real even though their details
had been imagined by Disney animators.
The Disneyland programs used stylized realism to depict events for which
there had not been (or could not be) human observers: events for which the
details were, by denition, invented. The stylization deep shadows, clean outlines, and minimal surface detail signaled that the events on-screen had been
freely imagined, rather than drawn from life. The realism normally proportioned human gures, slightly muted natural colors, and practical-looking
machines simultaneously signals that they are tied as closely as possible to
reality, and not just made up. Stylized realism was the preferred motif for
depictions of the distant past and the future. In Man and the Moon, for example,
it was used for a sequence showing the well-understood but never-observed
early history of the solar system, and in still images showing construction of
the orbital space station. The rst manned orbital ight in Man in Space and
the rst manned mission to Mars in Mars and Beyond were rendered in it, as
were sequences depicting the future uses of nuclear energy in Our Friend the
Atom, next-generation air travel in Man in Flight and the highways of tomorrow in Magic Highway USA.12
Stylized realism also served to illustrate subjects that were inaccessible for
reasons other than chronology: the behavior of subatomic particles in Our
Friend the Atom, for example. Mars and Beyond exemplied both approaches.
Stylized realism was used not only in the mission-to-Mars segment, but also
to depict conditions on the surfaces of other worlds, the formation of the primordial Earth, and the surface of a hypothetical Mars (discussed in the next
section) inhabited by complex life. The images of this living Mars recall the
93
images of prehistoric Earth in the Rite of Spring segment of Fantasia, but

(unlike the dinosaurs in Fantasia) are based not on fossil evidence but on
informed speculation about how life might have adapted to a dry, dusty world.
The use of stylized realism to depict the Martian creatures signaled viewers to
treat them, like dinosaurs in Fantasia the rockets in Man in Space, as products
of serious scientic thought.
Segments that dealt with the past gave Disney lmmakers more stylistic
freedom. They could be depicted in conventional documentary style using
live-action footage of real events as in Antarctica: Past and Present or Man in
Space, or stylized animation as in Our Friend the Atom but they did not have
to be. The history of the automobile, the airplane, and the rocket were familiar,
at least in their broadest outlines, to most members of the audience. A straightforward recounting of any of them would, therefore, come across as truthful
even if illustrated with less-than-serious images. Man in Flight, for example,
uses comic-book-style visuals in World War I sequences to illustrate a wholly
serious point: the escalating levels of aerial violence over the Western Front in
the early months of the war, as shouted insults gave way to pistols, ries, and
machine guns. Magic Highway USA featured costumed members of a California
antique-car club simulating the travails of early motorists: choking dust, frequent blowouts, and narrow, rutted roads. Shot in black-and-white,13 the segment was deliberately sped up and accompanied by frenetic piano music,
imitating the frenzied action of a silent lm comedy. Later in the program,
modern road-building equipment is shown at work: rst at normal speed and
then, their reality having been established, over-cranked into a blur of motion
supposedly representing the highway engineers dream of rapid road construction. The normal-speed original serves as an anchor in reality, allowing
the high-speed version to be used for comic effect without sacricing the seriousness of the program as a whole.14
The three space-themed lms indulged in similar visual excess when
depicting the past, but they used limited animation a style pioneered by the
United Productions of America (UPA) animation studio in the late 1940s to
add levity. UPA had already won two Academy Awards for its work by the time
Disneyland premiered in the fall of 1954.15 UPAs style was the antithesis of that
traditionally used by Disney and Warner Brothers. It featured human characters
rather than talking animals, featured consciously two-dimensional drawings,
and set its simplied gures against even more simplied backgrounds. More
than Warner Brothers and far more than Disney, UPA used its animation to
suggest, rather than recreate, the real world.
Limited animation was well suited to the historical segments of space programs because the audience knew many of the individual facts and the basic
outlines of the historical background. Unfamiliar names (John Herschel) and
concepts (steam rockets) slipped easily into a litany of familiar individuals
(Galileo, Newton, Cyrano, Jules Verne), facts (the Chinese invented rockets),
94
and periods (the Dark Ages, the Renaissance, the French Revolution).16 The
animators for the historical segments were thus free to use limited animation
particularly its exaggerated human guresfor comic relief. The use of rockets
for warfare in medieval China was illustrated in Man in Space by two gures
in conical hats ring ever-larger weapons across a gorge at each other, until
both are singed and covered in soot.17 Scenes of a dog sneezing and blowing
himself backward illustrate Newtons law of action and reaction. The Dark
Ages are symbolized in Man and the Moon by a procession of robed, hooded
gures across a darkened landscape. A few scenes later, Cyrano de Bergerac is
pulled through the sky by his ctional rocket, spouting random French phrases
(Cherchez la Femme ... Libert, Egalit, Fraternit!) in cartoon-style speech balloons as he goes.
The historical segment of Mars and Beyond is played even more conspicuously for laughs, and climaxes in a parody of science ction stories about
invaders from Mars, featuring a pipe-smoking scientist, his beautiful secretary,
and a gigantic robot who kidnaps her and hauls her away to Mars. Having set
up a classic pulp-science-ction plot heroic scientist rescues passive woman
from (implied) rape by aliens the parody gleefully turned it inside out. The
scientist is a clueless dolt who fails to notice the hulking robot, the secretary
turns out to be a capable action hero, and by the time the scientist belatedly
arrives on Mars she has done his job by rescuing herself and vanquishing the
Martians. The Martian invasion segment of Mars and Beyond was, by design,
further from reality than any other part of the program. It was also the only
segment in any of the nine programs that was in the sense of Disneys traditional shorts and features entirely made up. The segment also featured Disneys most assured, innovative use of limited animation. The conjunction is
not surprising. Throughout the nine programs, style routinely reected content.
Message
Disneylands nine programs on science and technology presented audiences
with a wealth of specic information: observed facts, well-tested theories, and
informed speculation. They did so straightforwardly and explicitly, in a series
of brief lessons designed to entertain as well as instruct. The nine programs
also, however, conveyed messages about science, technology, and those responsible for their advancement. These messages unlike those in Disneys wartime
propaganda lms and educational shorts were presented subtly and obliquely.
They were delivered by implication, rather than proclamation. The extent to
which viewing audiences absorbed them is unknown and unknowable, but it
seems clear that Disney intended them. The two central ones that scientic
and technological progress is benecial, and that scientists and engineers
95
embody American values are fully consistent with Walt Disneys (and thus
Disney Studios) essentially conservative worldview.18
The advancement of science was a relatively minor theme in the Disneyland
programs, but it was always presented earnestly. The heroically animated scientists in Our Friend the Atom and the double-time parade of broadly drawn
sight gags and caricatured history in the space trilogy present a uniform message: that exploring the universe is an essential part of the human experience.
All four programs treated science as a routine activity that takes place wherever
and whenever humans are free to exercise their minds, and see it as always productive, never destructive. The only dark moments in their historical segments
are those in which free inquiry is squelched by ignorant authorities. Mars and
Beyond, for example, portrayed the millennium between 500 and 1500 AD as
a black period of stupidity, superstition, and sorcery, and illustrated it with
a collage of devils, demons, and skulls. Society, Disney implied, had nothing
to fear from science only from those who would stie it.
The advancement of technology was a far more prominent theme, and
Disneys trademark optimism was more prominently on display. The history
of technology was, in all nine programs, an opportunity for celebration the
ways in which humankinds expanding control of nature improved its quality
of life. Man in Flight and Magic Highway USA, for example, were primarily
historical and explicitly celebratory. Contrasting past and present, they invited
the audience to marvel at how far we (nominally the human race, but practically the industrialized world and specically the United States) had come in
less than a century. The Antarctica trilogy briey acknowledged the rst explorers brief, tenuous forays onto the continent before celebrating, in detail, the
U. S. Navys massive efforts to reshape pieces of it in permanent homes for scientists. Both the Antarctica trilogy, Mars and Beyond, and Our Friend the Atom
all linked, to varying degrees, the advancement of technology to the more efcient control of nature and the access to untapped pools of natural resources
both seen as clearly and unambiguously good.
The possibility that the advance of technology might not be wonderful was
alien to Disneys outlook. The nine episodes sidestepped, glossed over, or altogether ignored the consequences that often make new technologies a mixed
blessing. Man in Flight borrowed footage freely from Victory Through Air Power,
but dropped the earlier lms bellicose narration and used virtually none of its
animated depictions of bombers blasting apart enemy cities. Magic Highway
USA did not dwell on accidents, road rage, or the seas of asphalt that engulfed
the countryside as car travel pushed the suburban frontier outward.19 Indeed,
Magic Highway USA goes on at length about the process of clearing rights-ofway for new highways, celebrating the clear-cutting of trees as evidence of mans
power over nature, and treating the demolition of existing neighborhoods as a
triumph of democracy. Man in Space failed to note that a rocket capable of putting a spacecraft into orbit could also lob a nuclear warhead hundreds of miles
96
into enemy territory, despite the fact that von Braun was then employed designing such weapons for the United States Army.20
Our Friend the Atom was the only one of the nine episodes that even
acknowledged a possible downside to technological progress. It was also, not
coincidentally, the episode that offered the most explicit statement of Disneys
optimism about technological change. Atom began by retelling a folktale from
the Arabian Nights. A sherman nd a bottle caught in his net, opens it, and
in so doing releases a powerful genie that threatens to kill him. The sherman
rst cowers in fear and then, desperate, tricks the genie back into the bottle
and seals it up again. The genie, trapped but still powerful, promises the sherman three wishes if he is released from the bottle. The story itself takes only
a few minutes to tell, but its plot served as the organizing metaphor of Our
Friend the Atom. The genie of atomic energy is released from his bottle when
the rst nuclear chain reaction is carried out in 1938. The genie rst manifests
itself in the form of atomic weapons a devastating force that posed a fearful
threat but is soon imprisoned in nuclear reactors. Thus tamed, he becomes
a powerful but obedient servant eager to grant his new masters wishes for
unlimited energy, more productive agriculture, and new cures for diseases.
Our Friend sidestepped the traditional, cautionary ending of the genieand-sherman story, in which the hero chooses his second or third wish
unwisely and winds up no better off (or, in some versions, far worse off ) than
he was before.21 It twice acknowledged that nuclear weapons can be deadly, but
each time does so briey and obliquely, with bomb-test footage that shows
mushroom clouds but not disintegrating buildings or scorched target ships.
Even these mild images of destruction are quickly followed, however, by reassurance from the narrator. An atomic blast is more than a threat, the narrator
intones in the rst instance. It is also a regretful waste of heat and radiation
that could be harnessed to generate electricity or benet agriculture and medicine. Our third wish, he proclaims the second time around, should be for
the atomic genie to remain our friend ... since he holds the power of both creation and destruction. Our Friend the Atom thus acknowledged that new technologies may bring new risks, but insisted that eliminating those risks requires
only that we make wise choices. True to Disneys optimism, the episode never
even suggests that we might not.
The second major theme in the Disneyland programs that science and
technology reect mainstream American values was presented implicitly
rather than explicitly and by example rather than proclamation. The value of
teamwork, for example, was promoted and celebrated throughout. The historical segments of Man and the Moon, Mars and Beyond, and Our Friend the Atom
reected (even though they did not quote) Isaac Newtons famous acknowledgement of the intellectual debt he owed his predecessors: If I have seen further, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants. There was no room
for revolutionaries or iconoclasts in Disneys history of science, in which knowl-
97
edge is built up by team players who expand and rene the work of those who
went before. Man in Flight and Magic Highway USA presented the history of
technology in similar terms, though the individual engineers and inventors
were less often named. The lms of the Antarctica trilogy depicted teams of
scientists cooperating with one another and with the U. S. Navy. The International Geophysical Year, the ever-present background of the Antarctica lms,
was itself designed to foster international cooperation in science.
The dramatized space missions in each of the three programs depicted the
same model of close collaboration between specialists. The four-stage rocket
that makes the rst ight to Earth orbit in Man in Space carries a crew of ten
that includes a pilot, a navigator, a communication specialist, and various scientists. Its launch site a large complex on a remote atoll in the Pacic
implies the existence of a massive support staff : engineers, technicians,
construction crews, and sailors to run the ships that ferry in supplies and rocket
components. The construction of the Earth-orbiting space station in Man and
the Moon requires the launch of one such rocket a day, and weeks of work by
specialized construction gangs used to living and working in zero gravity. The
50-man crew of the nished station includes entire departments of astronomers,
biologists, meteorologists, doctors, and military observers as well as (presumably) engineers, technicians, and a command staff. Aboard the ship that departs
the station for the rst ight to the Moon, the crewmembers address one another
almost exclusively by job title. The man responsible for maintaining contact
with Earth is never Johnson or Bob or even Sparks, but Radio Operator.
Space will, in Disneys version of the future, be conquered by the Organization
Man.
The scientists and engineers who appeared live in Man in Space, Man and
the Moon, Mars and Beyond, and Our Friend the Atom were models of 1950s
middle-class propriety. They dressed in conservative suits, had neatly combed
hair, spoke in measured tones, and illustrated their talks with slick, professional-looking charts and models. Wernher von Braun, explaining his design
for a four-stage rocket in Man in Space, could just as easily have been a senior
executive at General Motors unveiling a new model of luxury sedan. The animated scientists depicted in the historical section of Our Friend the Atom had
the same square-jawed, well-groomed look. The trafc engineers in Magic Highway USA could have walked out of a Rotary Club meeting in any mediumsized American city. The scientists and engineers who ride the spaceships in
Man in Space and its sequels could all have stepped out of the same air force
recruiting poster as the pilots. Even in broadly comic animated sequences, scientists were never the butt of the jokes. The lone exception the clueless scientist whose secretary is kidnapped by aliens in Mars and Beyond appeared
in a sequence explicitly designed to satirize pop culture clichs.
The Disney programs messages about science and technology were not
new. The idea that scientists and engineers were solid citizens whose work
98
improved everyones quality of life had been a staple of corporate and government public relations for decades, and inspired a brief cycle of Hollywood lms
about scientists and inventors in the 1930s and early 1940s.22 The dominant
image of science and technology in popular culture was, in the 1950s, far less
attering. Malevolent scientists heirs of the half-mad Dr. Frankenstein
joined with their hapless or dangerously nave colleagues to cause mayhem in
lms like The Thing from Another World (1951), Monkey Business (1952), Tarantula (1955), Forbidden Planet (1956) and X: The Man with X-Ray Eyes (1957).
Even positive portrayals of cinematic scientists and engineers Sam Jaffees
advocate of interspecies friendship in The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), James
Stewarts principled metallurgist in No Highway in the Sky (1954), and Spencer
Tracys amiable computer engineer in The Desk Set (1957) emphasized their
eccentricity.
The Disney programs presented scientists and engineers as sober, steady
team players rather than eccentric visionaries. They presented scientic and
technological progress as forces that helped to sustain the routines of everyday
life, rather than subverting or disrupting them. Doing so, Disney helped to rescued scientists from their exile to the fringes of American culture, and made a
bid to reintegrate them into polite society. The Disneyland programs, in short,
created an image of science and technology that their middleAmerican audience could comfortably embrace.
Decline, Fall, and Afterlife

Magic Highway USA, the last of the Tomorrowland segments, aired in May
1958, but the nine science-and-technology-themed segments made for Disneyland never entirely faded away.
Beginning with the 196162 season, Disney Studios moved the series from
ABC to NBC, in order to take advantage of the latter networks color-broadcasting capability.23 Re-titled Disneys Wonderful World of Color, it featured a
number of episodes that recycled cartoon segments (all color and nearly all
comic) from the Tomorrowland programs. Professor Ludwig von Drake, a new
animated character created specically for television, served as the addlebrained expert narrator of the programs (an unacknowledged parody of Ley,
Von Braun, and Haber) and newly animated segments featuring him linked
the older pieces. Elements of Man in Flight became Fly with Von Drake and the
least-serious bits of the three space episodes were collected into Inside Outer
Space. 24 The Von Drake episodes were rebroadcast several times during the
early years of the Disney Channel (1985 1990). Several of the original Disneyland episodes were also rebroadcast, late at night, as part of the networks Vault
Disney programming track aimed at animation enthusiasts and nostalgic BabyBoomers. The three space episodes, along with Our Friend the Atom, were
99
released on a limited edition Tomorrowland DVD in 2006, as part of the Disney

Treasures series.
Disneys decision to exploit the (considerable) comic and nostalgic value
of the programs is understandable. It has tended, however, to obscure the purpose for which they were originally produced and the context in which they
were originally viewed. The programs were meant to entertain, but also to educate and reassure Disneys middleAmerican target audience about the scienceand technology-laden future that was taking shape around them. Over the
course of four television seasons, they did so: always ambitious, and occasionally
brilliant.
NOTES
1. Bill Cotter, The Wonderful World of Disney Television: A Complete History (New
York: Disney Editions, 1997), chapter 2; and J. P. Telotte, Disney TV (Detroit: Wayne
State University Press, 2004), chapter 1 offer historical overviews of the Disney anthology
series.
2. William L. ONeill, American High: The Years of Condence, 1945 1960 (New York:
Free Press, 1986) and David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard, 1993) are useful
overviews of the decade and its zeitgeist by a social historian and a journalist, respectively.
Useful treatments of the popular image of science and technology in the 1950s include:
Marcel C. LaFollette, Making Science Our Own: Public Images of Science, 1910 1955
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Peter Biskind, Seeing Is Believing: How
Hollywood Taught Us to Stop Worrying and Learn to Love the Fifties (New York: Pantheon,
1983), chapter 3; Patrick Lucanio and Gary Colville, Smokin Rockets: The Romance of
Technology in American Film, Radio, and Television, 1945 1962 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002); Michael Scheibach, Atomic Narratives and American Youth: Coming of Age
with the Atom, 1945 1955 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2003); and Paul Boyer, By the
Bombs Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985).
3. Pluto, discovered in 1920, was classied as a planet until 2007. Astronomers using
Earth-based telescopes had, by the mid1950s, identied both of Marss moons, twelve
of Jupiters, nine of Saturns, ve of Uranuss, and two of Neptunes in addition to Earths
own large satellite. Those numbers remained essentially stable until the Pioneer and
Voyager probes reached the outer planets beginning in the mid1970s.
4. A more detailed understanding of the two worlds did not begin to emerge until
ybys and landings by robot probes began in the 1960s.
5. The word exobiology was coined (by Joshua Lederberg) in 1960, but the idea of a
science of extraterrestrial life existed at least as early as 1953, when the term astrobiology was coined to describe it. On the origins and early history of the eld, see Richard
Sullivan, Exobiology, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (Winter 2000), 277285.
6. Leibermann, The Colliers and Disney Series. Cornelius Ryan, ed., Across the
Space Frontier (New York: Viking, 1953).
7. On the shift from Von Brauns gradualist approach to the headlong rush of Mercury,
Gemini, and Apollo, see McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination and Walter A.
McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (1985. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
8. Stuhlingers design used the heat from a nuclear reactor to heat silicone oil, which
would then be passed over a turbine before being cooled and re-circulated. The drive
itself, using electricity from a generator coupled to the turbine, would force a high-
100
velocity stream of electrically charged atoms (ions) out the back of the spacecraft by
passing them between a pair of electrically charged metal plates or grids. The result, for
the spacecraft, would be a slow-and-steady acceleration that could be effortlessly maintained for months at a time.
NASA built its rst ion engine in 1960, and ew its rst ion-drive spacecraft (the
robot probe Deep Space 1) in 1998. For details, see the Jet Propulsion Laboratory web
page Deep Space 1: Solar Electric Propulsion FAQ, accessed 25 September 2007 at
http://nmp.nasa.gov/ds1/tech/ionpropfaq.html
9. On the history of Disney animation generally, see: Frank Thomas and Ollie Johnston, Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life (New York: Abbeville Press, 1984); John
Canemaker, Walt Disneys Nine Old Men and the Art of Animation (New York: Hyperion
Books, 1984); Bob Thomas, Walt Disney and the Art of Animation (New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1958) and Leonard Maltin, The Disney Films, 4th ed. (New York: Disney
Editions, 2000).
10. They have since, of course, become an established feature of American television,
with a lineage that reaches from That Was the Week That Was in the 1960s to The Daily
Show and The Colbert Report in the early twenty-rst century.
11. The best treatment of Von Brauns work on the Disney programs is Mike Wright,
The Disney-Von Braun Collaboration and its Inuence on Space Exploration, Marshall
Space Flight Center History Ofce, http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/disney_article.html (accessed 27 September 2007). See also Bob Ward, Dr. Space: The Life of Wernher
von Braun (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2005), 8793; and Dennis Piszkiewicz, Wernher von Braun: The Man Who Sold the Moon (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005), 83 91.
12. These later lms, though clearly part of the same tradition, exhibit a slightly
greater degree of stylization. Their bolder use of color and self-consciously heroic
gures are somewhat reminiscent of WPA murals from the 1930s.
13. Disneyland was originally aired in black-and-white, but except for a few segments
the science and technology programs were shot in color.
14. For an alternate reading of the over-cranked segments, see J. P. Telotte, Disney
in Science Fiction Land, Journal of Popular Film and Television 33 (Spring 2005), pp.
1221, on pp. 16 17 and 4 5.
15. Gerald McBoing-Boing (1951) and the Mister Magoo short When Magoo Flew
(1953)
16. On the history of secondary-school history teaching and the role of a theoretically
undisputed master narrative, see: Frances FitzGerald, America Revised (New York,
Vintage, 1980); James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995); and Gary B. Nash,
Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching
of the Past (New York: Knopf, 1997).
17. It is almost irresistible, in hindsight, to read the sequence as a sly commentary
on the doctrine of mutual assured destruction promulgated by the Eisenhower administration and its Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles. The studios history of cultural
conservatism suggests, however, makes easy laughs elicited at the expense of the Chinese
a more plausible motivation.
18. On this worldview, see Leonard Moseley, The Disney Version, 3rd edition (Chicago:
Ivan R. Dee, 2007), Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination
(New York: Knopf, 2006), and especially Watts, Magic Kingdom.
19. Disney did take up these issues, lightheartedly, in short lms like Motormania,
considered elsewhere in this book.
20. Both the United States and the Soviet Union routinely used medium- and longrange ballistic missiles as launch vehicles for satellites and spacecraft. See T. A. Heppenheimer, Countdown: A History of Spaceight (New York: Wiley, 1999), chapters 4 and 5.
101
21. One of the best-known examples is W. W. Jacobs 1902 short story The Monkeys
Paw, widely anthologized and available at: http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/mnkyspaw.htm
(accessed 26 September 2007). Spider Robinsons science ction novel The Callahan
Touch (New York: Ace Books, 1993) includes a chapter in which the patrons of a bar,
collectively granted three wishes, analyze how best to use them without falling into such
a trap.
22. Christopher Frayling, Mad, Bad, and Dangerous? The Scientist and the Cinema
(London: Reaktion Books, 2005), 133 166. The subjects of these lms included Louis
Pasteur, Paul Ehrlich, Marie Curie, Thomas Edison, and Alexander Graham Bell.
23. Gabler, Walt Disney, 570 571.
24. Von Drake, voiced by Paul Frees, made a total of eighteen appearances over three
seasons. See Don Markstein, Ludwig Von Drake, Don Marksteins Toonopedia (accessed
22 September 2007), http://www.toonopedia.com/vondrake.htm; and Jeremy Sovereign,
The Ludwig Von Drake Authority (accessed 22 September 2007), http://www.geocities.
com/TelevisionCity/Set/4591
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Cornelius Ryan, editor. Across the Space Frontier. New York: Viking, 1953.
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Heppenheimer, T. A. Countdown: A History of Spaceight. New York: Wiley, 1999.
Jacobs, W. W. The Monkeys Paw. 1902. http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/mnkyspaw.htm
LaFollette, Marcel C. Making Science Our Own: Public Images of Science, 1910 1955/
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
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Fiction to Science Fact, edited by Frederick I. Ordway, 135 146. Wshington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
Loewen, James. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook
Got Wrong. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995.
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American Film, Radio, and Television, 1945 1962. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002.
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Moseley, Leonard. The Disney Version, 3rd edition. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007.
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277285.
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vonbraun/disney_article.html
A Nation on Wheels
Films About Cars and
Driving, 1948 1970
Keeping on the move, Walt Disney told television audiences in May 1958,
is an old custom ... and a good one. Introducing Magic Highway USA, an
hour-long episode of the TV anthology series Disneyland, he described America
as a nation on wheels, its citizens as people who like to go places, and the
highway its the most important symbol of progress. That progress, however,
was a double-edged sword. The automobile and the expanding national highway
system nourished Disneys version of the American dream (and brought millions of visitors to his theme park) but in doing so they corroded the small
towns that he idealized.
Disneys vision of the ideal American community given physical form
in the Main Street U.S.A. section of Disneyland (and later Walt Disney World),
and recreated on screen in lms such as Pollyanna (1960) and Summer Magic
(1963) was modeled on the small Midwestern towns of his childhood.1 It featured a slow pace of life and a strong sense of community. Citizens moved by
foot, by horse, by bicycle, or perhaps occasionally by open-topped car, and had
ample opportunity to interact in the towns parks, cafs, stores, and other public
spaces. The modern automobile that emerged in the 1930sfully enclosed,
sound-proofed, and climate-controlled isolated those inside from pedestrians
and fellow motorists alike. Widening roads and rising speeds also played a role,
reducing interactions between motorists to a small set of messages communicated by ashing lights or simple gestures.2 The new cars more capable, more
reliable, and more widely available encouraged longer journeys, and gradually
redrew the built environment of small towns.3 The lling station on the highway
replaced the railway station, the quick-service hamburger joint competed with
the local caf, and the roadside motel challenged the inn on Main Street.4 Social
atomization replaced the social cohesion that Walt Disney cherished.
103
104
Disney Studios produced ve lms expressly about the relationship of automobiles and society between the end of World War II and it its founders death
in 1966: the animated shorts Motor Mania (1948), The Story of Anyburg USA
(1957), Freewayphobia (1965) and Goofys Freeway Troubles (1965), and the
hour-long live-action documentary Magic Highway USA (1958). Ward Kimball,
producer-director of Magic Highway and one of Disney Studios fabled Nine
Old Men, added a sixth the hybrid featurette Dad, Can I Borrow the Car?
in 1970.
The lms underlying assumption was that automobiles magnied the
effects good and bad of their users behavior. Cars allowed Americans wanderlust to manifest itself as cross-country family vacations and visits to distant
relatives, but they also allowed seemingly minor vices such as impatience and
inattention to trigger catastrophic accidents. The lms, therefore, explained to
viewers how to enjoy the benets of the automobile while minimizing its costs
to society. Their prescription echoed messages in Disneys wartime propaganda
lms and tales from American history: trust the system, respect authority
gures, and (when necessary) subordinate your needs to those of the group.
Good driving was, in the Disney universe, an extension of good citizenship.
Trust the System

The decades immediately following the end of World War II marked the
peak of Americans love affair with experts: with people who knew how things
worked and presumably, therefore, how to improve them. Heroic doctors
(Richard Widmark in Panic in the Streets), wise judges (Spencer Tracy in Judgment at Nuremberg), brilliant scientists (Sam Jaffe in The Day the Earth Stood
Still), ingenious engineers (John Archer in Destination Moon), and even principled politicians (Henry Fonda in Fail-Safe) appeared on screens large and
small.5 The idea that putting the best and the brightest in charge would make
things better, not worse, still seemed reasonable. That love affair with experts,
and consequent faith in the System they controlled, was fully on display in Disneys automobile-themed lms. They presented American cars and the American highway system as the products of a long process of progressive
improvement, guided by the steady hands of experts. Historical accident,
enlightened self-interest, political opportunism, and other random elements
barely register in the Disneys streamlined history of the automobile in America.
Cars and roads are the way they are because experts made them that way.
Magic Highway USA, a history of American roads, used the construction
of the then-new Interstate Highway System as its centerpiece.6 In one segment,
an unnamed trafc engineer marked as an expert by his glasses, serious manner, and command of factual detail explains the systems virtues. It will cover
all 48 states, he notes, stretching from coast to coast and border to border
6. A Nation on Wheels (Van Riper)
105
without a stoplight and paying for itself with new revenue generated and lives
saved. It represents the triumph of the planned over the accidental, the organized over the ad hoc, and we know or we think. The onscreen experts lack
of either a name or an afliation implies that he is no lone genius, but one small
part of a much larger organization of experts
The next long segment of the lm shows other experts at work on a new
road. Serious-looking urban planners bends over maps and complex charts,
identifying trafc problems that make citizens daily lives more complicated.
Equally serious-looking engineers follow, plotting possible routes for a new
highway in order to choose the one that represents the greatest good for the
greatest number. Detailed plans for the new highway arise, by their hands, from
a sea of data: charts, aerial photographs, measurements by surveying crews,
and an avalanche of mathematics. Other representatives of the Authorities
describe the new road at public meetings and negotiate with those whose homes
will be bought up and demolished to make way for it. Both scenes end with
individual citizens signaling their approval with purposeful nods and (in the
case of the displaced homeowners) rm handshakes. The climax of the segment
shows giant machines rolling along the route of the new highway, shouldering
aside Nature and leaving a perfectly designed strip of concrete and asphalt in
their wake. The construction scenes suggest godlike powers at work, but the
Authorities who wield them are neither cruel nor capricious. They have, Magic
Highway implies, only the best interests of society in mind.
The Story of Anyburg USA a seven-minute parable about a town that literally puts the automobile on trial introduces a small crowd of experts. Called
as witnesses, a series of engineers and inventors recite, in rhyming couplets,
their contributions to auto safety. We invented the a safety tire, declare identical twins in lab coats, standing over a comically extreme testing device. And
windshield wipers the law requires, continues a different, baritone voice. I
developed safety glass, condes a gray-haired man, swinging a golf club against
a car windshield and watching it crack into pieces. There are, the lm implies,
countless more engineers and inventors just like them.
The most prominent of the lms other experts is introduced as Cyrus P.
Sliderule, of the Department of Highways. He is balding and bespectacled,
with the dome-like head (and implied large brain) that connoted genius in
the visual language of 1950s cartoons. Everyone in Anyburg speaks in rhyming
couplets, but Sliderule (voice of Thurl Ravenscroft) sings his testimony in an
operatic tenor. He explains how his department labored late from early dawn,
leveling hills and straightening byways, building concrete superhighways. The
resulting roads, he testies, were perfect in their execution: subdivided by
lines, edged with curbs, and posted with helpful signs to guide motorists.
They were everything, in short, that a motorist could want or need.
Or perhaps not everything. The last segment of Magic Highway USA is
speculative, and contemplates the future of cars and highways. Citing serious
106
experts, again unnamed, it imagines nuclear-powered tunneling machines,

tubular highways through hostile terrain, self-steering cars, and cars with turbine, jet, nuclear, and magnetic-levitation propulsion systems. The experts,
will give us a future brighter than we can imagine ... if we will only trust them.
Lawful Authorities
The signs that Cyrus Sliderule describes so proudly in Anyburg USA are
tangible expressions of the law. They permit certain behaviors on the road, and
prohibit others. A different set of laws, meanwhile, limits access to the roads
by setting licensing requirements, typically excluding the very old and (especially) the very young. Both types of limits are imposed by on the individual
driver by (and for the good of society). Not surprisingly, the Disney lms counseled the individual to accept those limits gracefully. The nameless, faceless
Authorities who impose trafc laws, and enforce licensing restrictions are
treated with the same respect as more traditional authority gures like Yensid
the Sorcerer in Fantasia (1940), the King of the Forest in Bambi (1944), and Pa
in Old Yeller (1957). They are owed respect and deference, even if their decisions
seem arbitrary, and their motives unclear.7
No such authority gures appear onscreen in Anyburg USA, but perhaps
not surprisingly for a movie set in a courtroom it takes the law very seriously.
The defense attorney sets out to exonerate the automobile by demonstrating
that bad drivers are the real cause of highway mayhem. With the aid of a magic
screen (like a portable movie screen) he shows three such drivers as they
really are: dangerous criminals whose seemingly minor and harmless transgressions are akin to armed robbery and murder.
Standing side-by-side against a backdrop that suggests a police line-up,
they appear to be ordinary law-abiding citizens. Each is transformed into a violent criminal, however, as the defense attorney describes their violation of the
trafc laws. A stooped, slightly built man carrying an umbrella (guilty of reckless driving, two counts) morphs into a satanic gure with reddish skin, wild
eyes, and a crazed expression. His umbrella becomes a submachine gun, and
he res it indiscriminately into the audience. A primly dressed housewife in a
pillbox hat (charged with hit-and-run) undergoes a similar transformation,
blazing away with an automatic pistol pulled from her handbag. A short, glowering older man, in a dark suit becomes (for his crime of speeding) a snarling,
black-cloaked anarchist wielding a round black bomb with a lit fuse. This is
not an exaggeration, the lawyer insists, preemptively defending his implied
equation of speeding and mass murder. Exaggerated or not, however, the message is clear: The trafc laws demand the same respect that a good citizen pays
to The Law in general.
Dad, Can I Borrow The Car? preaches a similar message to its nominally
107
teenaged audience. Its visual style rapid-re editing, visual non sequiters,
and self-conscious surrealism owes more to Laugh-In, The Monkees, and
Monty Pythons Flying Circus than to The Wonderful World of Disney, but its
deference to authority reects the Disney worldview.8 The original, 20-minute
version of Dad released to theaters in 1970 follows its unnamed hero on his
quest to become a licensed driver, a car owner, and thus though the lm
never makes the connection explicit an adult. Along the way, he encounters
a succession of adult authority gures, who offer him guidance and present
him with challenges he must overcome. The disembodied voice of a driving
simulator keeps up a running stream of advice on safety and proper technique.
His father lectures him on the costs hell be liable for if he borrows the family
car. The examiner (and the signs he drives by) keep up a steady stream of
instructions during the road test he must pass for his license. A used-car dealer
sings the (dubious) praises of the vehicles on his lot, challenging him to nd
the truth beneath the layers of exaggeration.
The lm treats all these encounters as comic, and wraps them in surrealist
touches, but treats the adult authority gures with respect. Even as the driving
simulator runs out of control, or his on-the-road driving test becomes a blur of
quickly passing signs, the intrepid teen hero does his best to keep up and follow
the instructions. He sighs to himself but only to himself about his fathers
lecture on responsibility. He watches the clownish used-car dealer on television,
but contents himself with an expressive Wow as he turns off the set. He does
not even voice much less act on his sense that the Authorities who regulate
his access to driving are capricious. Dad, for all its supercial surrealism, remains
a Disney lm at its core, and in its world far from that of If ... (1968), Easy
Rider (1969), or M*A*S*H (1970) there are no disaffected youth.
Individual and Group

The unseen narrators in Motor Mania, Freewayphobia, and Goofys Freeway
Troubles are both experts and authority gures. Using Goofy as an onscreen
model of bad driving habits, they explain (as experts) why his behavior is dangerous and (as authority gures) admonish the audience to avoid it. Made
nearly twenty years apart (the former in 1948 and the latter two in 1965), they
belong to different parts of the Disney Studios output. Motor Mania, eight
minutes long, stands on its own and has the string-of-gags structure of a typical
Disney cartoon short, while Freewayphobia and Goofys Freeway Troubles, each
fteen minutes long, are clearly companion pieces, and (when viewed together),
have the structure of an illustrated lecture punctuated with visual gags.9 The
three lms present a single message, however: The individual driver must be
willing to put others before himself, and to rein in his own needs and desires
for the good of the group.
108
All three lms are broadly similar, in structure, to the Goofy How To...
shorts, which began with The Art of Skiing in 1941 eventually included nine
installments, of which the last was How to Relax in 1957. Though not uniformly
titled, the How To shorts shared a common format: the off-screen voice of
a stern, authoritative narrator described the proper technique for doing the
activity of the title, while the visuals showed Goofy doing it comically often
spectacularly wrong.10
Motor Mania is primarily concerned with the power of the automobile to
encourage and then to amplify bad behavior. The reason, it implies, is that
cars isolate us from our surroundings. The lm opens with a scene of Goofy,
dressed in a suit and pince-nez glasses, stepping out the front door of his suburban home and striding purposefully toward the garage. The narrator identies
him as Mr. Walker, an average citizen of average intelligence steps out of the
front door of his suburban home and strides purposefully toward his garage.
His actions (tweeting at a small bird, not stepping on an ant, cordially greeting
the narrator) mark him as a kindly man, and the narrator speaks of him glowingly. All that changes, however, when Mr. Walker slides behind the wheel of
his car. His face darkens, his placid expression turns crazed, and eyes grow wild.
Mr. Walker, the narrator intones, is charged with an overwhelming sense of
power, and his whole personality changes. Abruptly he becomes an uncontrollable monster, a demon driver: Mr. Walker is now Mr. Wheeler, a motorist.
The last word is the same grim emphasis that, in a different context, might be
reserved for axe murderer or terrorist.11
Mr. Wheeler lives up to the narrators billing. One transgression follows
another on his trip into town, which becomes a catalog of bad driving habits.
Mr. Wheeler is inattentive when he hits a car, and nearly hits a pedestrian,
while backing out of his driveway ... then maliciously precise when he swerves
through a puddle in order to splash a passerby. He is a dawdling road hog
one moment, straddling the centerline and moving well under the speed limit
the next ... then fuming at the delay caused by a red light, and lamenting thirty
seconds of my life gone. He swerves and its between lanes on the freeway ...
then single-mindedly smashes his way into a tight parking space at the expense
of the cars ahead of and behind him. Of all the bad drivers portrayed in the
six Disney automobile lms, he is the only one who is not simply self-absorbed
or impatient, but deliberately violent and hateful a poster boy for road
rage.
The rampage ends, and the lm delivers its message, when Mr. Wheeler
climbs out of his car and once again becomes the placid Mr. Walker. Going
about his pedestrian business, he nds himself at the mercy of a town full of
cars all of them seemingly driven by clones of his alter ego. He sets a foot in
the crosswalk and it is promptly run over. He tries to cross the street again,
thinking a waiting driver has waved him on, but is knocked back to the curb
again. He steps into the street a third time and, hunted by a driver whose
109
hood ornament looks like a gun sight, is knocked back a third time. Several
indignities later, he winds up clinging to the upper portion of a lamppost while
two anthropomorphized cars snarl and snap at its base like wild dogs. He nds
safety, at last, in his own car, having gained (the narrator observes) a knowledge of how the other fellow feels. To the narrator at least, the lesson is obvious:
Drive safely. Play fair. Give the other fellow a break.
Motor Mania thus envisions driving as a series of discrete interactions
between individuals. It denes cooperation (and thus good driving) as giving
the other fellow a break and trusting that you will be given a break in turn.
Freewayphobia and Goofys Freeway Troubles, on the other hand, envision driving as the banding together of many individuals in pursuit of a common goal.
They dene cooperation (and thus good driving) as acknowledging and conforming to what the narrator of Freewayphobia describes as certain practical
rules and courtesies necessary for mutual protection. Conformity, the narrator
insists, is the key to highway safety Any individual who does not, or will not,
recognize this is a menace to everyone.
The balance of Freewayphobia, and all of Goofys Freeway Troubles present
a taxonomy of such menaces each given a mockLatin name, and each personied by Goofy.12 Driverius timidicus, the timid driver, refuses to adjust to
freeway speeds. He drives well below the speed limit, dawdles in the slow lane,
and attempts to merge by accelerating from a dead stop at the top of the entrance
ramp. Motoramus dgetus, the impatient driver, ceaselessly searches for a chance
to get ahead: weaving through trafc, abruptly changing lanes, and riding the
bumper of slower drivers ahead of him. Neglectorus maximus, the inattentive
driver, keeps his attention on everything but the road ahead. He eats, drinks,
shaves, reads the newspaper, and holds face-to-face conversations with his passengers even when theyre in the back seat. Stupidicus ultimus commits a variety of sins. He fails to maintain his car properly; ignores strange noises, loose
parts, and other signs of trouble; and lls his back seat with unsecured objects
that become projectiles in the event of a collision or sudden stop.
Each of these drivers personally pays the comically animated price for his
transgressions. Goofy is, over the course of the two cartoons, subjected to
crashes, explosions, disintegrating cars, and burial in ying cargo from his own
back seat and garbage from a truck he has rear-ended. They also cause chainreaction collisions, each involving a dozen other drivers and implicitly inconveniencing hundreds or thousands more blocking the free ow of trafc. The
lms refer to such an accident as a boxcar effect, invoking the image of a
string of railroad cars derailing. Goofys various avatars cause a half-dozen of
these catastrophes in the course of the two lms, and the narration implies that
they because they injure or inconvenience so many others are far greater
transgressions than any single-car accident. Goofy sins, in Freewayphobia and
Goofys Freeway Troubles, not against fellow motorists as individuals but against
the community. The freeway system is efcient, but its efciency is fragile: The
110
selsh behavior of even a single driver is enough to temporarily bring the ow

of trafc to a halt, making life worse for everyone.
Conclusion
Disneys automobile-themed lms presented a consistent message that
equated good driving putting the needs of the community ahead of ones own
desires with good citizenship. It was a vision that, despite overtones of socialism, is consistent with Walt Disneys vision of an ideal America, echoing the
calls to individual sacrice made in Disneys wartime propaganda cartoons and
paralleling the message of Disneys tales from American history: that national
unity must, for the good of all, trump even the most deeply held political commitments.
Unlike the studios propaganda shorts and the heroic tales from the past,
however, Disneys lms about driving are imbued with a deep pessimism about
the possibility of achieving the ideals they promote. Humans are, they seem to
imply, naturally selsh and thus naturally bad drivers, determined to pursue
their own needs and desires at the expense of other motorists well-being. All
the lms except Dad, Can I Borrow the Car lecture simultaneously to the characters onscreen and to the audience, but all seem to assume that their messages
will have, at best, a temporary effect. Motor Mania ends not with the narrators
encouragement to give the other fellow a break but with Mr. Wheelers snarled
response: Ahhh shut up! The Story of Anyburg USA reports that, after a
brief period of politeness following the trial, local drivers reverted to their
homicidal ways. Freewayphobia and Goofys Freeway Troubles simply assume
that terrible drivers the four species of menace that Goofy portrays will
always exist. The apparent goal of the lms is not to reform them, but to persuade new drivers whose habits are not yet formed not to emulate them.
Dad, Can I Borrow the Car? meanwhile seems to abandon even that small hope,
with its teenagers-eye-view of driver education and licensing as surreal and
incomprehensible.
Only Magic Highway USA offers an unmistakably optimistic view of a better, safer highway system and an end to accidents. Its nal segment, describing
the highways of the future, shows a family riding from suburb to city in their
bubble-canopied, computer-guided car. The father directing their interactions with the wider world in good 1950s fashion programs their destination
into the dashboard, and the car (in conjunction with computerized highways)
does the rest: accelerating, decelerating, and steering while the family chats
and plays games.13 The segment thus reinforces a theme that ran through all
Disneys automobile-themed lms: better technology makes for a better life.
The family of the future is, when they set out on a journey, allowed to express
one wish: Where they want to go. All decisions, large and small, about how to
111
get there are made by the computer. In that respect, it takes Disneys view of
highway citizenship to its logical extreme: the individual surrendering a (large)
measure of their autonomy to the computer system that looks out for the good
of the community
NOTES
1. See, for example, Neal Gabler, Walt Disney and the Triumph of the American
Imagination (New York: Random House, 2007), p. 18.
2. Tom Vanderbilt, Trafc: Why We Drive the Way We Do (And What It Says About
Us) (New York: Knopf, 2008), 19 39.
3. On the intersection of technological change and social change in the case of the
automobile, see: James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988)
and Rudi Volti, Cars and Culture: The Life Story of a Technology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006). On the culture of cars and driving in America, see: David
L. Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, editors, The Automobile in American Culture (Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983); Cotton Seiler, A Republic of Drivers: A Cultural History of Automobility in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008);
and John Heitmann, The Automobile in American Life (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009);
4. On the history of roadside conveniences in the automobile age, see Chester H.
Liebs, Main Street to Miracle Mile: American Roadside Architecture (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1985); John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle, The Gas Station in America (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); John A. Jakle, Keith A. Sculle, and Jefferson S.
Rogers, The Motel in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and
John A. Jakle and Keith R. Sculle, Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
5. Peter Biskind, Seeing Is Believing: How Hollywood Taught Us to Stop Worrying
and Love the Fifties (1983. New York: Holt, 2000).
6. Dan McNicholl, The Roads that Built America: The Incredible Story of the U. S.
Interstate System (New York: Sterling, 2006) echoes Disneys pro-highway view and lavish visuals. For a more detailed, balanced treatment see Tom Lewis, Divided Highways:
Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (New York: Viking, 1997).
7. Lee Artz, Animating Hierarchy: Disney and the Globalization of Capitalism,
Global Media Journal vol. 1, issue 1, article 9 (Spring 2002). Accessed 24 June 2010 at:
http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/fa02/gmj-fa02-artz.htm
8. Christopher P. Lehman, American Animated Cartoons of the Vietnam War Era: A
Study in Social Commentary in Films and Television Programs, 19611973 (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2006), 147.
9. Cf. Lehman, who sees (p. 53) the 1965 Goofy cartoons as evidence that Disney
was abandoning slapstick humor in its cartoon shorts.
10. The arc of Goofys career as a character is traced in Flora OBrien, Walt Disneys
Goofy: The Good Sport (New York: Macmillan, 1985).
11. On the psychology of driving, see Vanderbilt (cit. n. 2).
12. From 1949 to 1962 Chuck Jones Roadrunner cartoons for Warner Brothers
included freeze-frames in which the two principal characters were identied with similar
mock-Latin names.
13. On similar visions of future transportation systems, see Joseph J. Corn and Brian
Horrigan, eds. Yesterdays Tomorrows: Past Visions of the American Future (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 87108; and Eric Dregni and John Dregni, Follies
of Science: 20th Century Visions of Our Fantastic Future (Golden, CO: Speck Press, 2006),
13 32.
112
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Vanderbilt, Tom. Trafc: Why We Drive the Way We Do (And What It Says About Us).
New York: Knopf, 2008.
Volti, Rudi, Cars and Culture: The Life Story of a Technology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
A Journey Through the

Wonderland of Mathematics
Donald in Mathmagic Land
MARTIN F. NORDEN
A door opens, and a mysterious streak of light pierces a huge darkened

environment. An animated white pintail duck wearing a beige short-sleeved
shirt and matching pith helmet enters the undened space, casting an enormous
shadow as he does so. Carrying a rie, he looks about warily. Mighty strange,
he says in an immediately recognizable quackish voice.
Strange, indeed. So begins Donald in Mathmagic Land, a 27-minute featurette
produced by the Disney studio and released in late June 1959. Starring the eponymous Donald Duck, this episodic, Oscar-nominated lm combines animated and
live-action sequences to introduce its viewers to basic math concepts, a history
of mathematical thinking, and the relevance of math to music, art, architecture,
nature, sports, board games, and other aspects of everyday life. Supplemented by
a similarly titled Dell comic book published a few months later,1 Donald in Mathmagic Land remains one of the Disney studios best-known educational lms.
In a number of respects, Donald in Mathmagic Land is a transitional lm
in the Disney canon. Following in the tradition of the many didactic animated
shorts produced by the studio during World War II and the years thereafter,
Donald in Mathmagic Land was designed as a theatrical lm. Initially paired
with the feature movie Darby OGill and the Little People in 1959, it was an
instant hit. Nevertheless, it played on the big screen at a time when theatrical
short lms were in serious decline as a result of the rise of television, and the
lm itself running more than three times longer than the traditional Disney
short received only limited exhibition in movie theaters.2 Fittingly, perhaps,
it became the rst Disney animated lm to be broadcast in color when the company included it in its premiere episode of Walt Disneys Wonderful World of
Color on NBC-TV in 1961.
113
114
Its greatest impact, however, was still to come. Abundant anecdotal evidence suggests that Donald in Mathmagic Land enjoyed, and continues to enjoy,
considerable success well after its days as a theatrical-featurette-turned-TVepisode. A key achievement in the companys quest to become a major provider
of K-12 educational materials during the 1950s and 60s,3 Donald in Mathmagic
Land has been a staple of math classrooms from the elementary through collegiate levels for decades. Even today, it is regarded as a mathematics teaching
tool virtually without peer.4
Since Donald in Mathmagic Land depends heavily, but by no means exclusively, on factors that had guided previous Disney productions, and this article
examines much-beloved lm in light of those precedents. The Disney studio
had absorbed many lessons as a result of its experiences creating wartime propaganda and instructional lms, and it codied what it learned into a workable
set of principles that included: (1) an instantly familiar and popular character
to which the studio already owned the rights and who could serve as a standin for the audience, (2) a male narrator whose voice of authority would make
unequivocal statements, (3) a visual style that could facilitate relatively quick
and inexpensive production, and (4) the Alice-in-Wonderland idea of placing
the lead character in an unfamiliar environment in the hope that the audience
will share that characters sense of wonder and discovery. These factors, based
on prior Disney successes and failures and abetted by the growing prominence
of Disneyland and its emphasis on fabricated lands, strongly guided the making
of Donald in Mathmagic Land and its comic-book tie-in.5
*
The cartoon, said Walt Disney in late 1959, is a good medium to

stimulate interest. It is an ideal medium for teaching and it has always been my
hope that we could do something that way. But it would have to be of general
interest, yet helpful in teaching. It should be used for opening peoples minds
and meeting their needs. We have recently explained mathematics in a lm
and in that way excited public interest in this very important subject. Donald
in Mathmagic Land stimulated interest in mathematics and turned out very
well.6
At the time Disney uttered these comments, Donald in Mathmagic Land
was a recent and highly conspicuous addition to the long line of educational
animated lms produced by his studio.7 In retrospect, it is hardly surprising
that his company should develop a general-interest mathematics lm at that
particular historical juncture. In October 1957, the Soviets kicked off the Space
Race when they launched the rst Sputnik satellite into a low elliptical orbit
around the earth. The surprise announcement humiliated the United States,
touched off waves of near-panic in some sectors of American society, and considerably increased Cold War tensions. Fearing further setbacks, the federal
7. The Wonderland of Mathematics (Norden)
115
government mounted an aggressive campaign to promote educational projects

that enhanced scientic, technological, and mathematical learning among all
levels of American society.8 The Disney studio, which had already positioned
itself as a signicant educational force in the elds of science, nature, and technology years before the Sputnik launch, was primed for such an eventuality
(indeed, it had anticipated the launch more than a year earlier)9 and needed no
further bidding.
Even if the Sputnik crisis had not occurred, the idea of a mathematics
teaching lm t squarely within the studios educational agenda. Disney himself
had long identied arithmetic as a basic and argued that its advancement by
means of the motion picture screen will give more people in this world an
opportunity to learn it, in his words.10 Importantly, his studio already had
some experience creating math-themed lms. During World War II, it produced
two animated shortsThe New Spirit (1942) and The Spirit of 43 (1943) that
deployed its emergent star, Donald Duck, on two of his most difcult missions:
to convince wartime audiences of the need for income taxes and, furthermore,
to show those audiences how to calculate them. Though the Spirit lms differed notably from Donald in Mathmagic Land in their patriotic and nancially
pragmatic dimensions, the studio was keenly aware of their major impact on
the millions who saw them. The lms success left a deep impression on the
studio and helped shape its postwar educational philosophy.11
An additional consideration that had bearing on the studios decision to
produce a general-interest mathematics lm was the decades-long success of
Mathemagic: Magic, Puzzles and Games with Numbers, a book written by Royal
Vale Heath and originally published by Simon & Schuster in 1933 during the
depths of the Great Depression. Heath, a long-time member of the New York
Stock Exchange, was an accomplished amateur magician who had accumulated
an extensive collection of mathematical games, tricks, and puzzles as a part of
his avocation. Impressed by Heaths vast knowledge of recreational mathematics, the president of the Society of American Magicians, Bernard Ernst, persuaded Heath to take all the math tricks he knew and publish them as a book.
The result was a limited-edition volume that gained a cult following of sorts
during the 1930s. By decades end, Mathemagic was fetching high enough prices
at used-book stores to prompt Simon & Schuster to reissue it in 1940 and to
lead a rival publisher, Doubleday, to produce a competing book two years later.12
Sensing correctly that the market for Heaths work remained strong, Dover
Publications acquired the rights to Mathemagic in 1953 and kept the book in
print well into the 2000s. Though the Disney studio did not formally acknowledge Heath or his (by then) widely available book in the credits for Donald in
Mathmagic Land (and was careful to exclude the e in mathemagic in the
lms title),13 the enduring popularity of Mathemagic assured the studio that
there would be high interest in a mathematics lm, particularly one that made
learning fun.14
116
With general subject matter in hand, the team assembled to create the
lm supervising director Hamilton Luske; sequence directors Wolfgang Reitherman, Les Clark, and Joshua Meador; story contributors Milt Banda, Bill
Berg, and Heinz Haber; and myriad artists and technicians began working
with narrative and visual strategies that the companys founder had put into
play as early as the 1920s. The team members agreed that the central ingredient
in those strategies should be an instantly familiar leading character, and for
that gure they needed to look no further than the sailor-suited waterfowl that
the studio had been cultivating for a quarter-century and that had eclipsed
Mickey Mouse in popularity: Donald Fauntleroy Duck,15 voiced since his initial
1934 appearance by the redoubtable Clarence Nash. The studio had test-driven
Donald in numerous propaganda and training lms during World War II (such
as The New Spirit and The Spirit of 43, noted above) to much acclaim, and,
even before the war had ended, it was making plans to use him for general
teaching purposes. As a Look writer breathlessly observed in April 1945, Symbolically speaking, a celluloid duck is emerging from World War II as the greatest potential educational force this world has ever known. His name is Donald
Duck, and he stands for the international picture language developed and perfected over 25 years by his 43-year-old creator, Walt Disney.16
Though Donald had provided the Disney studio with a solid track record
of didactic accomplishment from the early 1940s onward, the Donald in Mathmagic Land team decided a change was in order and modied this most serviceable character for its new lm. Luske and his animators transformed him
into a kinder, gentler (if still trouble-prone) soul far removed from the apoplectic, much put-upon Donald that had appeared in countless other Disney shorts.
By accident or design, this new Donald bore more than a passing resemblance
to the much more cooperative Everyduck version of Donald that for years
had populated the Dell comic books penned by Carl Barks.17 To enhance their
Donalds toned-down qualities or, at least, not detract from them Luske
and his colleagues jettisoned the bouncy, ironic theme song that had begun
many a Donald Duck short (Whos got the greatest disposition? One guess,
thats who!)18 in favor of an orchestral score as bland as the name of its composer: Norman Buddy Baker.
The Donald in Mathmagic Land team also needed a character that could
serve as a foil to Donald but not remind audiences of Donalds earlier, explosive
self. In particular, the team wanted an authority gure whose informationladen utterances would be taken by Donald and audiences alike as the Truth
with a capital T. Beginning with its rst World War II training lm Four Methods of Flush Riveting (1941), a nine-and-a-half-minute animated short produced
on behalf of its Burbank neighbor, Lockheed Aircraft the Disney studio frequently employed voice-over narrators who commented authoritatively on the
proceedings depicted in the lms. Though the narrator of Four Methods was a
nonprofessional speaker who offered his comments in a monotone, the studio
117
quickly learned the value of having an unseen speaker, almost always male, in
the seat of authority. As Nicholas Sammond has suggested, the studios experience creating government training lms allowed it to develop a voice of scientic authority that eventually extended into its postwar educational
productions.19 It might be added that the studio had a very practical reason for
keeping the narrator off-screen in at least some of its lms; he was one less
character that needed to be animated, a consideration that helped the studio
contain costs while speeding up the production process.20 Freed from the laborious, multi-step process of visualizing and animating a major character, the
studio could focus instead on turning the narrator into a major vocal presence.
Taking its cue from such radio-trained ponticators as Orson Welles and Westbrook van Voorhis (the latter of whom served for years as the March of Time
newsreels Voice of Doom narrator), the Disney studio turned its voice-over
speakers into all-knowing, sagacious, God-like gures. In keeping with the studios newfound edutainment philosophy, the studio often leavened the narrators pronouncements with doses of ironic humor.
In what may have been a nod to the spirit suggested by the titles of The
New Spirit and The Spirit of 43, Luske and his team dubbed the voice of authority in Donald in Mathmagic Land the True Spirit of Adventure, or, as Donald
calls him, Mr. Spirit. Unlike earlier Disney voices of authority, such as those
provided by Fred Shields and John McLeish in such quasi-instructional shorts
as How to Play Golf (1944), How to Be a Sailor (1944), and How to Ride a Horse
(1950), the Spirit frequently engages Donald in conversation and gives him
much individualized attention while serving as his guide. For this new type of
teacherly narrator, the studio turned to journeyman voice actor Paul Frees, who
had worked opposite Clarence Nash in at least one other lm (the 1947 animated
Disney short Crazy with the Heat) and also provided voice-over work for the
Disneyland television program in 1954. Famed for his versatility and in particular for his imitations of Orson Welles, Frees was a natural for the voice of the
Spirit of Adventure. Though Frees and Nash did not receive on-screen credit
for their contributions to the lm,21 Freess biographer, Ben Ohmart, was hardly
alone in his opinion that Freess work as Donald in Mathmagic Lands subdued,
patient narrator was among the actors best vocalizations and helped make the
lm a classic.22
The lms general visual style was another element that the Disney team
needed to modify. During the war years, the studio out of economic necessity
began pursuing a variety of strategies for producing animated lms more simply
and efciently.23 These strategies, which went well beyond keeping the narrator
an off-screen presence in many of its productions, were to have a major impact
on the studios aesthetic values as expressed in its lms. The visual style that
characterized Disney animation during the 1930s and early 1940s a lush, heavily detailed realism that featured rounded shapes and subtle gradations of color
and lighting had given way by the 1950s to modernist visualizations that
118
emphasized atness, angularity, rather blotchy uses of color and lighting, and
reduced background detail. Rooted solidly in concerns both economic and
pragmatic, this new visual sensibility characterized many animated productions
of the time and dened the general look of Donald in Mathmagic Land.24
The lms simplied visual style was complemented by the effects of
another cost-cutting measure, one that harkened back to Disneys Alice lms
of the 1920s: a reliance on rather prosaic live-action imagery. To help illustrate
the relationship of mathematics to such topics as music, architecture, nature,
and sports, Luske and his team included photographic images of such subjects
as a jazz band, a concert pianist and orchestra, the Manhattan skyline, a spider
web, a honeycomb, various ora and sea fauna, and, most famously, a billiards
player who uses the small diamond shapes on the sides of the table to calculate
his shots. Some of the lms shots consist of simple zoom-ins and/or include
low-level animation (such as the superimposed outlines of a pentagram or
the so-termed golden rectangle, for example), while others the ones featuring humans are exceptionally dark and shadowy, perhaps to make them comparable to the animated shots in their relative lack of background detail.
Collectively, the live-action images take up a generous amount of screen time;
indeed, the billiards sequence, directed by Les Clark, represents about a fth
of the lms overall running time and is its longest narrative unit. Despite their
prominence, the images are, virtually without exception, bland and unremarkable.
Before Luske and his associates could gather and edit these images, however, they needed to develop a narrative spine for their lm. They quickly settled
on the story strategy of injecting a lone protagonist into an unfamiliar world
with its own laws and landscapes: in brief, the Alice-in-Wonderland narrative
as distilled from Lewis Carrolls 1865 novel Alices Adventures in Wonderland
and its 1871 sequel, Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There.
This fundamental strategy, which allowed Luske and his team to steer Donald
in Mathmagic Land into decidedly surrealistic terrain, was nothing new at the
Disney studio; it had fascinated its founder for decades. In fact, Disney had
begun his animation career in 1923 by producing Alices Wonderland, a short
lm that featured a very young girl named Alice (played by four-year-old Virginia Davis), who after visiting an animation studio goes home, falls asleep,
and dreams she has traveled to Cartoonland. By the time Disney concluded
his Alice series in 1927 with Alice in the Big League, he had produced more
than fty such lms, each featuring a live-action young actress interacting with
cartoon characters in animated fantasy settings.25 Though the studio began
moving away from the idea of mingling live-action and animation by the start
of the sound-lm era (only to return to it with its postwar educational lms),
it did not forget its founders love of the Carroll material. Among the studios
many animated sound-era shorts, for example, was Thru the Mirror (1936), in
which Mickey Mouse, voiced by Disney himself, falls asleep while reading a
119
book titled Alice Through the Looking Glass and passes through his own looking
glass into a Wonderland dominated by troublesome household furnishings and
hyperactive playing cards.
The studio had already featured Donald Duck in a short loosely modeled
on the Alice-in-Wonderland framework: the Oscar-winning Der Fuehrers Face
(1943), one of the studios most famous pieces of wartime propaganda. In this
eight-minute lm, Donald inexplicably nds himself in a bizarre environment a swastika-festooned land populated by strangely proportioned, goosestepping (and duck-kicking) soldiers only to discover by lms end that he
had been dreaming. The lms original title Donald Duck in Nutziland left
little doubt about the lms thematic kinship to other Disney lms inspired by
the Carroll works.26
The principal lm among those productions was of course Alice in Wonderland, the studios 1951 feature-length animated lm that borrowed heavily
from both Carroll novels.27 The whimsical, tune-laden production had been a
critical and box-ofce op, but its failure did not deter the studio from revisiting
the narrative premise in the late 1950s. In a move that practically guaranteed a
visual and thematic bond between the two lms, the studio assigned the Mathmagic Land project to a number of senior animators who had brought Alice in
Wonderland to the screen eight years before. The three men listed as Donald in
Mathmagic Lands sequence directors Wolfgang Reitherman, Les Clark, and
Joshua Meador had all worked on Alice in Wonderland as animators, and
supervising director Hamilton Luske, a longtime Disney director/animator
renowned for his mentoring abilities, was one of Alices three credited directors.28 In addition, one of Mathmagic Lands three story contributors, Milt
Banta, had helped develop the Alice script.
The Alice-in-Wonderland qualities of Donald in Mathmagic Land are evident from the very start. Within moments after Donalds unexplained arrival
in the number-bedecked terra incognita, he follows footprint-like numerals on
the ground, which the lm quickly reveals to be the work of an entity that
would be quite at home in Alices imaginary world: a bird-like, backward-walking, pencil-headed creature. The creature wordlessly challenges Donald to a
game of tic-tac-toe. The creature uses its pencil head to make its marks on a
crosshatch it etched on the ground, while Donald uses the barrel of his rie to
make his. The creature defeats Donald in mere seconds, prompting the exasperated duck to complain, What kind of a crazy place is this? He hops over
a waterfall-fed stream that features cascading numbers that divide into smaller
numbers when they strike rocks in the stream, and he ends up in an odd forest
lled with trees bearing (and baring) roots bent at ninety-degree angles. Well,
whaddaya know! Square roots! he exclaims. He then encounters a collective
creature that exhibits some thematic resemblance to Alice in Wonderlands
Cheshire Cat: a circle, a triangle, and a rectangle perched on a tree branch. The
geometric gures, each with their own set of legs, coalesce to form a single
120
creature that, like the Cheshire Cat, imparts information from on high to the
storys lost and confused protagonist. Unlike the cat, whose grin is the rst and
last thing the audience sees, the composite creatures mouth appears only after
the three animated geometric shapes come together. After the creature recites
the value of pi erroneously, as it turns out its mouth disappears and it splits
back into separate geometric shapes.29 Its an Alice-in-Wonderland moment,
to be sure.
Lest any viewer miss the connection, Donalds Hello? that echoes
through the bizarre countryside immediately thereafter sets the stage for
another reference. The disembodied voice of the True Spirit of Adventure
answers the wayward waterfowl and tells him where he is. Donald exclaims,
Whats next? to which the Spirit replies: A journey through the Wonderland
of mathematics.
Donald in Mathmagic Land contains numerous other connections to the
studios Alice in Wonderland, the most conspicuous of which occurs when the
Spirit, moving to a discussion of mathematics and games, invokes the centuries-old mathematical game of chess. While the Spirit observes that Lewis
Carroll, a noted mathematician, used a chessboard for a setting in Through the
Looking-Glass, Donald nds himself on a large chessboard confronted by various
chess pieces taller than he. The Spirit then engages in a bit of gender-bending
by transforming Donald into an Alice-like gure. Now wearing a light-blue
dress, a white apron, and a headband the same outt worn by Alice in Wonderlands title character a bewigged Donald immediately nds himself in trouble; hes harassed by the red king and the red queen who think hes a lost pawn,
and he tries to escape, only to be slowed down and then pursued by a red knight.
Still in drag, he is buffeted about the chessboard like a pinball until he does an
ungraceful swan dive off the board. He slides along the oor and crashes into
the front of a large box, its hinged lid open to reveal what appear to be bakery
items and a sign that reads HURRY EAT ONE. He grabs one, downs it, and,
in a very Alice-like development, grows incredibly large incredibly fast. He
looks down on the board, and his high-angle perspective allows the lmmakers
the opportunity to use simple animated movements to show how chess is played.
Though the Donald in Mathmagic Land team had cut a number of visual-design
corners in the process of producing this lm, it did so only minimally here; the
similarity of this brief episodes iconography to that of Alice in Wonderland is
unmistakable.30
The Alice-in-Wonderland quality is even more pronounced in Donald in
Mathmagic Lands comic-book counterpart, an important tie-in product.31
Adapted from the lm by a Dell team consisting of writer Don R. (Don Arr)
Christensen, penciler Tony Strobl, and inker Steve Steere,32 the comic book
omits the Donald-on-safari and the Donald-in-drag material but includes a
framing story that explains Donalds arrival in and eventual departure from
Mathmagic Land. At the start of this framing narrative, Donald nds himself
121
at the mercy of his uncle, Scrooge McDuck. We learn that Donald had borrowed
a mere 89 cents from Scrooge, but the crafty nancier had engineered a loan
for his unsuspecting nephew at the eye-popping interest rate of 30 percent.
Donalds own nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie lend him a book titled Complete
Mathematics, and he works late into the night hoping to come up with a
solution. The more he reads, the more frustrated he becomes. Numbers ...
Figures ... Nothing but trouble! I wish mathematics had never been invented!
he exclaims to no one in particular before falling asleep at his desk. His
lamentations are answered by a visualized entity calling itself the Spirit of
Mathematics, who leads Donald through a numerical universe far more
detailed than, but otherwise similar to, the one depicted in the lm. Donalds
adventures in Mathmagic Land conclude when a character named Nimble
Numbo (imagine Elmer Fudd clad in Mickey Mouses bright red robe and
pointy blue sorcerers hat from Fantasia) reveals a secret to Donald that could
help him escape the clutches of his usurious uncle. Armed with this new information, Donald awakens from his dream and tricks Scrooge into agreeing to a
variation on the wheat-and-chessboard mathematics problem as a means of
settling his debt.33 Preguring Scrooge McDuck and Money, an educational animated short directed by Hamilton Luske in 1967, this framing story reveals a
pragmatic, dollars-and-cents side to math that is completely lacking in the lm
and, more importantly, provides an Alice-like context for Donalds improbable
sojourn.34
Given the Disney companys lengthy and ongoing history of cross-promotional activities, it is probably no accident that the Alice-in-Wonderland
dimension of Donald in Mathmagic Land, in both its lm and comic-book
incarnations, coincided remarkably well with the philosophy behind a relatively
new extralmic development in the Disney universe: Disneyland. The Magic
Kingdom had opened in Anaheim only four years before the lms debut,
and Disney himself saw a distinct parallel between the theme park and the narrative formula that he and his studio had worked with for so many years. Disneyland is like Alice stepping through the Looking Glass, he said simply, adding
that to step through the portals of Disneyland will be like entering another
world.35 From Disneys perspective, it made sense to encourage audiences to
think of the learning process as an adventure that would take them through an
unfamiliar land full of marvels. Just as Donald, who initially looks as if he is
in the midst of an Adventureland safari, is whisked away to ancient Greece to
learn about Pythagoras, pentagrams, and the relationship of mathematics to
music, so too would Magic Kingdom visitors be transported to the theme
parks various lands and learn from their exhibits and installations. At least,
that was the way Disney claimed to have originally envisioned Disneyland: as
an educational venue. It is a place, he said, for people to nd happiness and
knowledge and for teachers and pupils to discover greater ways of understanding and education. Noting further that Disneyland will offer the wonders
122
of Nature and Man for all to see and understand, Disney observed that his
theme park will remind us and show us how to make these wonders part of
our own lives.36 The perspectives that governed Donald in Mathmagic Land
hardly differed.
*
The factors sketched here the instantly recognizable lead character, the
off-screen voice of authority, the modernist look that combined simplied
graphics with fundamental live-action imagery, the general Alice-in-Wonderland narrative do not tell the full story of Donald in Mathmagic Lands enormous popularity in the classroom.37 Nevertheless, I do think the studio was
well aware of these factors and, with an eye toward the postwar educationalmaterials market, carefully modied and packaged them into a production that
contained far more information than the typical Disney short but at 27 minutes
could easily t within a typical classroom period. Though Donald in Mathmagic
Land shows its age in a number of areas (particularly in its representations of
then-current technologies) and contains some problematic assertions, such as
the incorrect pi value, it amply demonstrates the point that the studio had
drawn upon past successes and failures in its approach to it. As Disney observed
several months after the release of Donald in Mathmagic Land, We learned a
great deal during the war years when we were making instruction and technological lms in which abstract and obscure things had to be made plain and
quickly and exactly applicable to the men in the military services. These explorations and efciencies of our cartoon medium must [be used] and extended
in the entertainment eld.38 Donald in Mathmagic Land a theatrical lm that
lent itself exceptionally well to the classroom was very much the product of
that way of thinking.
The author presented a slightly different version of this essay at Hampshire
Colleges Art on the Brain: Exploring the Intersections of the Arts, Neuroscience,
and Society conference, held on June 3 4, 2010, in South Hadley, MA.
NOTES
1. The full bibliographic citation for the comic book is Walt Disneys Donald in Mathmagic Land, No. 1051, Dell Publishing Co., August 1959.
2. For a sample review, see Esquire Short with Darby Puts Donald in Math Land,
Dallas Morning News, 1 August 1959, p. 4. It is possible that the studio envisioned the
lm all along as something other than a theatrical lm and released it to theaters mainly
to get Academy-Award recognition.
3. As Richard Schickel has noted, the company was renting 16mm copies of its lms
to schools as early as 1952 and had become heavily invested in the production of classroom materials such as 35mm lmstrips. See Richard Schickel, The Disney Version: The
Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt Disney (New York: Avon, 1968), 12.
123
4. For example, see the numerous viewer comments online at Amazon.coms listing
of the lm.
5. While I have learned to be wary of secondary sources, especially those found
online, this chapter has beneted from the collective efforts of the webmasters at DisneyBox.com, an unofcial communication center and forum designed primarily for
Chinese fans of Walt Disney and his work. The site contains a stunning number of Walt
Disney quotations culled from multiple primary sources. Unfortunately the bibliographic citations are often rather murky, but the quotes strike my historians eye as
authentic. Whenever I cited quotations from this website, I would rst state the source
as indicated at the site and then follow up with a reprinted in reference to the Disney
quotes section of DisneyBox.com.
6. Walt Disney, From the Wisdom of Walt Disney, Wisdom: The Magazine of
Knowledge for Lifetime Learning and Education, December 1959, 79. Part of this quotation
is reprinted in Dave Smith, Disney A to Z: The Ofcial Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. (New York:
Disney Editions, 2006), p. 198.
7. By the mid1950s, the Disney studio was turning out educationally oriented animated lms in earnest. A rash of lms, typically bearing titles beginning with Im No
Fool or You and Your, appeared during this time. They included Im No Fool with
Fire (1955), You and Your Senses of Smell and Taste (1955), You and Your Food (1955),
Im No Fool with a Bicycle (1955), You and Your Five Senses (1955), You and Your Sense
of Touch (1955), Im No Fool with Fire (1955), You the Human Animal (1955), You and
Your Ears (1956), Im No Fool Having Fun (1956), Im No Fool in Water (1956), How to
Have an Accident in the Home (1956), and Im No Fool as a Pedestrian (1956). These
lms, along with the People and Places and True-Life Adventure series of lms, set the
stage for Donald in Mathmagic Land.
8. Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhowers Response to the Soviet Satellite. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
9. On Oct. 5, 1957 the day after the rst Sputniks launch Disney was asked if
he was startled by the Soviets accomplishment. Not too much, he replied and went
on to explain that space expert Wernher von Braun had predicted the event on Man in
Space, a 1955 episode of Disneys Disneyland TV show. Disney cited in Larry Wolters,
Wonderful World Was Born in the Chicago Winter of 1901, Chicago Tribune, 11 September 1968, B6.
10. Disney cited in Walts Files Byline Stories by Walt Disney, folder 1; reprinted in
<www.disneybox.com/wiki/index.php?title=Disney_Quotes>.
11. Walt Disney: Great Teacher, Fortune, August 1942, 94
12. The book in question is Mathematics Made Easy by Henry Thomas. It promised
magic with gures along with time-saving short cuts and mathematic trickery. Typical
newspaper ads for Mathematics Made Easy suggested that the book would reveal all sorts
of Startling Feats of Mathemagic YOU Can Do! See New York Times, 1 February 1942,
book review section, 32; and New York Times, 9 August 1942, book review sect., 24.
13. However, when Donald asks the True Spirit of Adventure where he is, the Spirit,
voiced by Paul Frees, adds an extra syllable in his reply: Mathemagic Land.
14. Heath became something of a celebrity during the 1940s; he deftly entertained
troops with his mathemagical acumen while on the USO circuit during World War II,
and in 1947 he dazzled more than a thousand fellow prestidigitators as a featured performer at the Society of American Magicians convention in Chicago. Heath would seem
the perfect expert to have consulted on Donald in Mathmagic Land, but the studio
elected to go instead with Heinz Haber, a UCLAbased physicist who had served as scientic advisor on the Man in Space (1955) and Our Friend the Atom (1957) episodes
of the Disneyland television program. Background information on Heath may be found
in Philip Brooks, Notes on Rare Books, New York Times, 17 Mar. 1940, 102; Magical
124
Days Are Here Again, and No Fooling, Chicago Tribune, 30 May 1947, 8; Royal Vale
Heath, New York Times, 27 July 1960, 29; and Gloria W. Heath, Numbers up his Sleeve,
Christian Science Monitor, 15 Jan. 1981, 22. For reviews of Mathemagic, see New Publication, Wall Street Journal, 27 June 1933, 5; Theodore Hall, No End of Books, Washington Post, 3 May 1934, 9; and Lorine Letcher Butler, Mathematics as a Pastime, New
York Times, 2 May 1937, sect. 10, 8.
15. Donalds rarely mentioned middle name is visible on his draft notice in the Disney
animated short Donald Gets Drafted (1942).
16. Walt Disney Teacher of Tomorrow, Look, 17 April 1945, 23.
17. The studio never quite abandoned the old Donald, however. Even the Donald
Duck lms that immediately preceded and followed Mathmagic Land the instructional
shorts How to Have an Accident in the Home (1956) and How to Have an Accident at
Work (1959), developed by other Disney animation teamsfeatured the highly temperamental Donald that audiences had come to love. For more information about Carl
Barks and his important contributions to popular culture, see Thomas Andrae, Carl
Barks and the Disney Comic Book: Unmasking the Myth of Modernity (Jackson: University
Press of Mississippi, 2006).
18. The complete lyrics are as follows: Whos got the greatest disposition? One guess,
thats who! Who never, never starts an argument? Who never shows a bit of temperament? Whos never wrong, but always right? Whod never dream of starting a ght?
Who gets stuck with all the bad luck? No one, but Donald Duck.
19. Nicholas Sammond, Babes in Tomorrowland: Walt Disney and the Making of the
American Child, 1930 1960 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 248.
20. Of course, the Disney studio did not put all of its narrators off-screen. For example, How to Have an Accident in the Home and How to Have an Accident at Work both
feature an animated bird named J. J. Fate, who shares considerable screen time with
Donald (though the two never converse). The studios most famous on-screen narrator
was Ludwig von Drake, who rst appeared in the television series Walt Disneys Wonderful
World of Color in September 1961.
21. In a 1977 interview, Nash remembered Walt Disneys reaction upon learning that
Nashs carefully hidden identity had been revealed to the public. Said he: They had a
policy in those days that we voices [sic] were not supposed to get any publicity, and
somehow or other, my name leaked out. I had nothing to do with it, but he was giving
me he could chew you out. He could do that real well. He can make you feel mighty
darn small. Nash cited in Don Peri, Working with Walt: Interviews with Disney Artists
(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008), 54.
22. Ben Ohmart, Welcome, Foolish Mortals: The Life and Voices of Paul Frees (Albany,
GA: BearManor Media, 2004), 93 94. Frees would go on to provide the voice of authority in other Disney productions, most notably as Ludwig von Drake of Disneys Wonderful
World of Color and the Ghost Host of the Haunted Mansion rides at Disneyland and
Walt Disney World.
23. The studio itself acknowledged this point in a marvelously transparent statement
at the beginning of Four Methods of Flush Riveting. A title card reads: The following
lm uses a simplied technique developed by the Walt Disney Studio to demonstrate
the quickest & cheapest method whereby the animation medium can be applied to
national defense training [italics in original text].
24. Disneys Its a Small World attraction, featured at the 1964 New York Worlds
Fair before moving to Disneyland in 1966, reects a similar modernist visual style. The
most prominent nonDisney animation examples of this trend are the television productions of William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, including The Huckleberry Hound Show
(1958 62), The Flintstones (1960 66), and The Yogi Bear Show (196162).
25. For information on the individual Alice lms, see Graham Webb, The Animated
125
Film Encyclopedia: A Complete Guide to American Shorts, Features, and Sequences, 1900
1979 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000), 1217.
26. According to Disney archivist Dave Smith, the studio changed the lms title only
because of the popularity of the Der Fuehrers Face song, written by Oliver Wallace.
See Smith, 166.
27. This production is not to be confused with the similarly titled live-action sequel
directed by Tim Burton and co-produced by the Disney studio in 2010.
28. For information on Luske, see <legends.disney.go.com/legends/detail?key=Ham+
Luske>. The individual contributions of these four directors to the lm are largely
undocumented. Clark, who along with Reitherman was one of Disneys Nine Old
Men of Animation and had worked on such earlier productions as Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Pinocchio (1940), stated in a 1978 interview with Don Peri that
he directed only the billiard-table sequence; see Peri, 132. Reitherman had a special
knack for handling major action scenes, such as key moments from Fantasia (1940),
Sleeping Beauty (1959), and Pinocchio, and may well have directed Mathmagics chessboard sequence, but the specics of his participation are unknown. For more information
on Reitherman, see <legends.disney.go.com/legends/detail?key=Wolfgang+Reither
man>.
29. Voiced by Paul Frees, the collective geometric character states, Pi is equal to
3.141592653589747, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera. Mathematicians, tending to be a precise lot, have observed that pis correct value to the same number of decimal places is
actually 3.141592653589793.
30. Paul Frees provided the voice for the red king, while Jane Fowler Boyd (who,
intriguingly, served as the live-action model for Malecent in Disneys Sleeping Beauty
that same year) did the honors for the red queen. See Webb, 125.
31. According to one estimate, Dells Donald Duck comics sold around three million
copies per issue at the height of their popularity in the 1950s; see Larry Kart, Happy
Birthday, Uncle Donald, Chicago Tribune, 3 June 1984, M26. It is difcult to say how
frequently or in what capacity the Donald in Mathmagic Land comic book was used as
a supplement for the lm indeed, it is difcult to imagine teachers countenancing
comic books of any sort in the classroom, even ones as informative as this one but
Dell did make it available shortly before the start of the 1959 60 school year.
32. Though Carl Barks was the principal artist associated with the comic-book version
of Donald Duck, the denitive source on Disney comicscoa.inducks.org explicitly
credits the Donald in Mathmagic Land comic book to Christensen, Strobl, and Steere.
See <coa.inducks.org/s.php/x/W+OS+105101>. For more information on Christensens
involvement in the Mathmagic Land comic book, see Mark Evanier, Notes From Me,
POVonline, 16 June 2002 <www.povonline.com/notes/Notes061602.htm>.
33. For a brief discussion of this age-old mathematical problem, see Theoni Pappas,
The Joy of Mathematics: Discovering Mathematics All Around You, 2nd ed. (San Carlos,
CA: Wide World Publishing/Tetra, 1993), 17.
34. Though Scrooge had been a prominent gure in the Dell comic books for years, the
Disney studio did not produce any animated lms with him in them until 1967 with the
aforementioned Scrooge McDuck and Money. However, a Scrooge prototype replete with
tam, kilts, and thick Scottish burr appears in The Spirit of 43 as the Voice of Savings.
35. Disney cited in Walts Files Disneyland Folder; reprinted in <www.disneybox.
com/wiki/index.php?title=Disney_Quotes>.
36. Disney cited in Marty Sklar, Walt Disney WorldBackground and Philosophy, 1967;
reprinted in <www.disneybox.com/wiki/index.php?title=Disney_Quotes>.
37. They also do not directly address the issue of commercial encroachment into the
classroom. This worthy topic I leave to other researchers.
38. Disney, From the Wisdom, 77.
126
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrae, Thomas. Carl Barks and the Disney Comic Book: Unmasking the Myth of Modernity. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2006.
Brooks, Philip. Notes on Rare Books, New York Times, 17 March 1940, 102.
Butler, Lorine Letcher. Mathematics as a Pastime, New York Times, 2 May 1937, sect.
10, 8.
Disney, Walt. From the Wisdom of Walt Disney. Wisdom: The Magazine of Knowledge
for Lifetime Learning and Education. December 1959, 79.
_____. Walts Files Disneyland Folder www.disneybox.com/wiki/index.php?
title=Disney_Quotes
Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhowers Response to the Soviet Satellite.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Esquire Short with Darby Puts Donald in Math Land, Dallas Morning News, 1 August
1959, 4.
Evanier, Mark. Notes From Me, POVonline, 16 June 2002 <www.povonline.com/
notes/Notes061602.htm>.
Hall, Theodore. No End of Books, Washington Post, 3 May 1934, 9.
Heath, Gloria W. Numbers up his Sleeve, Christian Science Monitor, 15 January 1981,
22.
Magical Days Are Here Again, and No Fooling, Chicago Tribune, 30 May 1947, 8.
New Publication, Wall Street Journal, 27 June 1933, 5.
Ohmart, Ben. Welcome, Foolish Mortals: The Life and Voices of Paul Frees. Albany, GA:
BearManor Media, 2004.
Pappas, Theoni. The Joy of Mathematics: Discovering Mathematics All Around You, 2nd
edition. San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing/Tetra, 1993.
Peri, Don. Working with Walt: Interviews with Disney Artists. Jackson: University Press
of Mississippi, 2008.
Royal Vale Heath, New York Times, 27 July 1960, 29.
Sammond, Nicholas. Babes in Tomorrowland: Walt Disney and the Making of the American Child, 1930 1960. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.
New York: Avon, 1968.
Sklar, Marty. Walt Disney World Background and Philosophy. 1967.
Smith, Dave. Disney A to Z: The Ofcial Encyclopedia, 3rd edition. New York: Disney
Editions, 2006.
Walt Disney Teacher of Tomorrow, Look, 17 April 1945, 23.
Walt Disney: Great Teacher, Fortune, August 1942, 94.
Walt Disneys Donald in Mathmagic Land, No. 1051, Dell Publishing Co., August 1959.
Webb, Graham. The Animated Film Encyclopedia: A Complete Guide to American Shorts,
Features, and Sequences, 1900 1979. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000.
Wolters, Larry. Wonderful World Was Born in the Chicago Winter of 1901, Chicago
Tribune, 11 September 1968, B6.
Paging Dr. Disney

Health Education Films,
1922 1973
BOB CRUZ , JR .
Films promoting health education were rst produced during World War
I with the object of raising soldiers awareness of malaria and venereal disease.
They were intended as adjuncts to, or replacements for, lectures by medical
ofcers, and the stern, voice-of-authority tone associated with health education
lms ever since reects those origins. The use of lm as a health-education tool
expanded after the war. In 1922, a U.S. study on the effectiveness of lm in
public venereal disease campaigns identied two goals: to increase popular
knowledge, and to arouse an emotional attitude in the public which will ...
lead to signicant changes in behavior.1 These can be presumed to be the goal
of any health education lm, the emphasis on changing viewer behavior making
such lms unique among educational lms. The Disney studios contributions
to the genre, though not its best known work or even its best known educational
lms, covered a wide range of topics. It touched on familiar public health subjects with lms such as Winged Scourge (1943, about malaria) and VD Attack
Plan (1973, about venereal disease), and ventured into unexplored territory,
with The Story of Menstruation (1946) and Defense Against Invasion (1943).
The public-health that Disney and his studio produced between 1922 and
1973, though varied in topic, share three key elements that set them apart from
the better-known parts of the Disney canon. First, unlike the bulk of Disneys
other peacetime ventures into edutainment, most were never intended for
theatrical release or television broadcast. They were, rather, designed for institutional use: meant to be screened in classrooms and meeting halls for audiences
whose attendance was, if not compulsory, then at least not wholly voluntary.
Second, they were usually produced in partnership with the government or a
business entity, as a means of generating income during periods of limited cash
ow at the Studio. They thus document the rare instances where the Studio had
127
128
to yield ultimate control to a higher authority (which is why so many have

fallen into public domain). Finally, these lms were always conceived with
specic demographics in mind: members of the Latin American working class,
American school-age children, and so forth. Despite these intentions and limitations, however, these lms invariably reect the perspective white, American, and middle-class that Walt Disney and his creative team brought to
virtually every lm the studio produced.
Disney and the Decay of the American

Midwest
The earliest Disney lms associated with health focus on dental hygiene,
Tommy Tuckers Tooth (1922) and Clara Cleans Her Teeth (1926). Tommy was
produced in Kansas City, Missouri, where Walt Disney had started out as an
animator. His studio, Laugh-O-Grams, Inc., started out making modern versions of Little Red Riding Hood and Cinderella, but the bankruptcy of the buyer
for these lms meant the edgling company had no income. By late 1922, Disney
had become so destitute that a local dentist, Dr. Thomas B. McCrum, after
compassionately paying Disneys shoe repair bill, offered him $500 to produce
a live-action lm about dental health,2 which resulted in Tommy Tuckers Tooth.
Disney moved to Los Angeles in 1923 and found success there with his Alice
comedies (featuring a live-action child, Alice, in a world of animated animals),
but by 1926, while the name Disney had become fairly recognizable, a new
contract with his distributor resulted in delayed payments and limited cash
ow. Disney then produced a second lm for Dr. McCrum, Clara Cleans Her
Teeth, for an undisclosed amount (Disney saving money by casting his niece,
Marjorie Sewell Davis, as Clara3). Tommy was distributed to the Missouri school
system,4 and while no such information is known for Clara, it presumably
shared the same fate since available records indicate it lacks a copyright.5 The
lms title cards are telling. Tommys lists McCrums name below the title simply
as Thos. B. McCrum DDS, while Disneys is absent. The title card for Clara
lists credit to the Walt Disney Studio below the title; meanwhile, above the
title, McCrum is credited as the presenter, his name in upper-case letters. The
target audience for these lms is white American middle-class schoolchildren,
and both are live-action narratives (cheaper than animation), set in the sunny
environs of a typical American suburb of the 1920s. However, in this halcyon
landscape, as depicted in both lms, deviations from the social norm such
as poor-looking teeth invite disdain. Tommy opens up with small school-age
children sitting around a female teacher who tells them the true story of two
pre-teen boys: Tommy Tucker and Jimmie Jones. Tommy takes care of himself
and brushes his teeth; Jimmie doesnt brush because he believes its only for
8. Paging Dr. Disney (Cruz)
129
girls. The teacher then cites three reasons for brushing: to avoid toothaches,
to maintain better health overall, and because You will be better looking.
When both boys apply for the same job in an ofce (what the job is or what the
company does is never explained), Tommy is hired while Jimmie is told by the
employer that Tommys neat appearance and good teeth show that he takes
pride in himself. Jimmie promptly visits a dentist (the actual visit is not
shown), then revisits the potential employer, who, impressed by Jimmies
makeover, rewards him with a job alongside Tommy. Subsequently, there is a
demonstration of the proper method of brushing teeth, using a large toothbrush
and an enlarged set of teeth and gums. The lm ends with Jimmie brushing,
followed by the words KEEP YOUR TEETH CLEAN.
Clara, meanwhile, opens with the title character a grade-school-age
girl making friends with a male playmate on her rst day of school, as the
entire class enjoys a snack of crackers and milk. Clara, however, because her
teeth are presumably rotten and painful, downs her food without chewing it.
Later, while the rest of the class brushes their teeth, Clara admits to her male
playmate that she never bothers to brush. The other schoolchildren soon notice
how her front teeth appear to be broken, prompting them to ridicule her as
Snaggle Tooth Susan while openly declaring they will not play with her. That
night, while Clara is asleep, she is visited by an animated trio a toothbrush,
a rinsing mug and a set of pliers the last of whom delivers a stern ultimatum:
that Claras teeth must either be lled or else extracted. The dream scares Clara
into going to the dentist (her presumably extensive dental work is only alluded
to by a title card which reads After several visits to the dentist after which
she is seen exiting the dentists ofce, smiling). Subsequently, she wins back all
of her friends.
Animation in both lms is sparse. In addition to the aforementioned trio
in Clara, in Tommy depicts the cause of a toothache as spoiling leftover food
which invokes mallet-wielding, antennae-bearing acid demons who repeatedly assail the tooth until the nerve is painfully exposed. And when Jimmie
himself develops a toothache, animated lightning bolts radiate from his jaw.
There is also animation recycled from the Laugh-O-Gram Puss in Boots: winged
alarm clocks utter across the screen, in Tommys case, to bridge the passage
of time during Jimmies makeover. Tommy, having preceded Clara, is more
explanatory about basic dental hygiene: the correct method to brush ones teeth
is shown, while a cavity is likened to a hole in a sock that only gets bigger if
not darned. Tommy, however, also implies that poor dental hygiene leads to
poor bodily health, by having a gym instructor remark to Jimmie that he seems
underweight compared to Tommy (who is noticeably portly). And the condition
of Jimmies teeth is confusing: he sports a buck tooth that disappears after his
makeover, but how it got xed is never explained.
The actual message of both lms, however, emanates straight from the
George Babbitt school of health education: it is important to be well-thought-
130
of, and that such respect is not possible without conforming to social norms.
In Tommy, to visually emphasize Jimmies ignorance of dental hygiene, in addition to his buck tooth, his hair is noticeably disheveled and his clothes baggy
compared to Tommy, whose combed hair and necktie are in place from the
start. In Clara, the lms closing sequence illustrates the rewards of middleclass conformity: Clara smiles as she and her schoolmates all brush together.
Of signicance is the fact that the outcomes differ according to gender. For Jimmie, the payoff is economic: he is rewarded with a job. Meanwhile, Clara benets
socially: she is content to win the respect of her male classmate. The good vs.
bad behavior premise of Tommy Tucker, already a common theme in antivenereal disease and anti-liquor lms of the time, would resurface in later Disney health lms. McCrum certainly was the expert on dental health, but the
fact that both lms use bandwagon advertising (e.g., presenting social acceptance as the real impetus for proper dental hygiene) suggests that Disney, a former employee of the Kansas City Ad Company, carefully shaped and rened
the narratives.
Blobs and Parasites Fight the Nazis

The success of Mickey Mouse resulted in Disney and his studio releasing
the rst animated feature, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1938), a nearly
one-and-half million dollar investment which grossed $8.5 million in its initial
release.6 But soon the loss of the European market due to war, an employee
strike and the commercial failures of Pinocchio and Fantasia placed the studio
in dubious nancial straits. Consequently, in 1941, Disney went back to making
educational lms, the rst of which were war bond commercials for the National
Film Board of Canada, using the Three Little Pigs and the Seven Dwarfs. Later,
the Army and the Navy turned to Disney for training and instructional lms
(among them A Few Quick Words #7, a lm on venereal disease now presumed
lost). Eventually, through the efforts of Studio Vice-President and legal advisor
Gunther Lessing, Disney entered into a partnership with the Coordinator of
Inter-American Affairs (CIAA), a U.S. agency set up under Nelson Rockefeller
to monitor Axis presence in South America.7 After making a goodwill tour of
South America for the CIAA (which resulted in the features Saludos Amigos,
1942, and The Three Caballeros, 1943), Disney offered to increase his involvement (and revenue) by making lms to support the agencys health- and educational-related activities in Latin America.
To demonstrate his studios capabilities, Disney produced three lms, the
rst of which was The Winged Scourge (1943), a ten-minute short focusing on
the anopheles mosquito and malaria (a common subject during the war8). The
lm is an odd mix of drama and whimsy. Dark-hued graphics dramatize the
facts of malaria infection: a color-coded world map identies regions where
131
the disease is problematic; transmission is graphically illustrated as a mosquito

goes from host to host, spreading the individual malaria parasites via the
infected human blood in its proboscis; and, nally, the debilitating effect to
humans are shown which inevitably includes death. In one particularly dramatic
graphic, a gigantic mosquito stands over a farmers homestead, its proboscis
plunging through the roof. When the lm presents various methods of prevention and eradication, however, it switches moods. The Seven Dwarfs from Snow
White take center stage to demonstrate the various corrective measures, accompanied by a brighter color scheme, upbeat music (from Snow Whites score)
and a change in the presentational scale of the mosquito (it is the size of a
housey compared to the onscreen Dwarfs, thus making it seem less menacing).
Winged Scourge, however, despite oversight by the CIAA,9 appears to have
been made with no thought to its intended foreign audience, instead featuring
imagery that was more familiar to white middle-class Americans of the time.
The farmer who eventually succumbs to malaria, for example, is portrayed as
a white middle-aged male who, in healthier times, oversees his rolling productive acres, tobacco pipe in hand, from the comfort of a rocking chair on the
steps of his clapboard home. Although Disney cautioned the story crew to avoid
indulging in gags that would dilute the seriousness of the lms message.10 other
aspects of the lm thwart information delivery. For instance, the lm starts off
with mosquito pictured on a Wanted poster a device familiar to American
movie audiences but problematic in this context (even if translated into Spanish
or Portuguese) because illiteracy rates at the time in many Latin American
countries exceeded fty percent.11 Later in Winged Scourge, visuals are presented enlargements of mosquito larva as well as of the malaria parasite
itself which would confuse those unfamiliar with microscopes. The lm was
received favorably overseas in English-speaking countries like Australia, with
the CIAA reporting that by mid1945 the lm had been shown to 1,109,186 people in Central and South America via outdoor showings where two, three and
four thousand people are present.12 Later, however, Latin American educators
found fault with it, criticizing how the farmer in the lm represented more a
malaria-savvy, wealthy landowner than the underprivileged masses who,
through their ignorance and utter destitution, fell prey to the scourge.13
Disneys second lm for the CIAA, Water Friend or Enemy (1943) features Water speaking on its own behalf, explaining how it is used by humans,
whether as a drinking source or a means of waste disposal. The humans this
time are brown-complexioned individuals (although their faces remain
obscured); after drinking contaminated water (colored red, with skulls appearing to indicate its toxic nature), however, they succumb to the diseases it carries
(later identied as typhoid, cholera and dysentery). The emphasis of the lm
is on how to protect a water source from contamination (such as lining a well
with cement), with specic mention of how outhouses must be well-distanced
132
from water sources. The lm ends with the assurance that, if such procedures
are followed, Water will remain a friend. Unfortunately, for all its attempts
to portray indigenous Latin Americans, Waters depictions of rural life emanate
from the American Midwest experience: a family eats at a table which has place
settings, tumblers and a centerpiece; the water wells shown all appear to serve
a single household rather than an entire village. Also, the water collection
devices shown seem extravagant for rural Latin America, requiring substantial
amounts of building materials (namely cement and piping), as well as a rudimentary knowledge of engineering skills. Some of the visual information is
confusing: water gets contaminated when used to ush human refuse, but not
when used to bathe children or wash clothes. Completely out-of-place is the
lms closing recommendation that the viewer have water tested at your local
Health Department.
Eventually, such culturally-skewed representation reached its breaking
point in the third and last lm of Disneys demo lms, Defense Against Invasion (1943), deemed by the CIAA something that would go way over the heads
of the Latin American people, and subsequently never approved.14 The reasons
are obvious: Defense Against Invasion uses visual metaphors that presume a
high degree of familiarity with human biology, focusing as it does on the
immune system and the importance of vaccination. The lm starts off with a
live-action segment wherein four boys in the style of Our Gang (replete
with one portly member, one African-American member, and a scraggly
mutt) visit the doctor to get vaccinated. There is no dialogue; instead a narrator speaks for all the characters, even when the lm switches to animation.
Once the doctor presents a conventional medical cutaway diagram of a male
torso, the interior of the human body is visually likened to a modern city
along the lines of Langs Metropolis, rife with factories and roadways, and populated by millions of identically-rendered anthropomorphized red-blood cells.
Pathogens drawn as black, four-tentacled blobs subsequently threaten this
happy state. A war ensues, the blood cells re artillery at the invaders, but, ultimately, the black pathogens overwhelm the city, everything gets covered in
black ooze, and (in the lms only somber moment) the infected human succumbs. The lm then goes on to explain how vaccination benets the immune
system: harmlessly mimicking lethal pathogens and fooling the blood cells into
stocking up on defenses so that, when genuinely potent pathogens nally do
invade, the blood cells have enough resistance to vanquish them.
Obviously, American middle-class audiences of the time would have had
no problem understanding this metaphoric premise, as evidenced by the fact
that the young boys in the lm know enough medical science to understand
how the doctors story relates to their bodies (although the information is
wrong: antibodies are produced by white blood cells, not the red ones.) But for
rural illiterate adult Latin Americans, such medical knowledge would have been
lacking, thus preventing the images from being understood as a metaphor. The
133
depiction of the bodys city as a gleaming technocracy would have been somewhat confounding. Ironically, at the end of the city sequence the dead victim
is represented by a cofn with two candles burning atop it, and a crucix on
the wall behind a very specic, presumably conscious, nod to the lms
intended, overwhelmingly Catholic audience.)
Fortunately, in 1943, two Disney employees assigned to the CIAA project,
Bill Cottrell and Jack Cutting, decided to gain a better understanding of their
target audience. First, they traveled to Central America and met with local doctors, concluding that educational aids on personal hygiene and nutrition would
be among the most valuable items of education for large masses of people.15
Later that same year, Cottrell and Cutting held the Seminar on Visual Education, which invited Latin American educators to the Disney Studio to meet
and confer with the staffs of the Disney Studio and the CIAA.16 Feedback from
the other side of the cultural divide noted many disconnects. In addition to the
previously-cited criticism of The Winged Scourge, Water Friend or Enemy was
faulted for emphasizing where to locate outhouses when, in fact, 80 percent of
rural Latin Americans had no such facilities.17 Waters use of red to indicate
contaminated water was also a major cultural misre: red, the Disney staff was
told, connotes life and joy to Latin Americans, while contaminated water is
usually thought of as being black (aguas negras).18
Out of such discussion came Health for Americas, a series of lms that
were substantially more culturally aware. These lms entertained less but educated at a more appropriate level for its Third World audience. In Tuberculosis
(1945) and Cleanliness Brings Health (1945), for instance, emphasis is on the
human behaviors that affect disease transmission (preparation of food, washing
of hands, etc), rather than on how bacteria work. Cleanliness also re-deploys
the good vs. bad hygiene premise of Tommy Tuckers Tooth, by comparing
the lifestyle habits of two Latin American families. Infant Care, on the other
hand, simply focuses on the proper way to feed an infant. Hookworm explains
the workings of yet another parasite, its central human gure Careless Charlie
(Ramon in the Spanish-language version) drawn to appear more like a conventional Disney character. (Names were changed in the Spanish and Portuguese versions, but the rest of the foreign language tracks were simply
translations of the original English script.) Additionally, these lms display a
comic strip garishness ordered by Walt Disney himself, who felt that the boldness of the imagery would counter the fact these lms would be shown in 16mm,
poorly projected,19 usually from atbed truck onto a hanging bedsheet.20
Both Disney and the CIAA carefully monitored production. In one
instance, after the CIAA nixed the showing of a high chair in Infant Care (1945),
Walt Disney discovered an albino baby that had somehow made its way into
the closing scenes and ordered it repainted.21 Instances of White American middle-class superiority still persisted, however. In Planning for Good Eating, the
narrator disdains a familys habit of subsisting on a diet of corn and beans
134
(which are nutritious, and the traditional mainstay of many diets in Mexico
and Central America), and they are shown as being miserable due to their limited fare. Later, portly Charlie tries to measure himself up to a portrait of a tall,
athletic, angularly-proled European male, but is told his poor condition is
due to his limited diet. At times, the advice seems out-of-touch. Cleanliness
Brings Health, for instance, recommends using lots of soap when washing everything from bodies to clothes, as if soap and detergent are as readily available
in rural Latin America as they are in an American supermarket. And there is
the continuing implication of the benets of a Protestant work ethic. In The
Human Body, for instance, the narrator tells the lms strapping Latino farm
worker (whose shirt gets ripped off by the hand of his animator for exhibition
purposes) An industrious man like you deserves a nice house to live in. Body
also presents the issue of good health in materialistic terms, citing it as the the
most valuable possession you have when compared to a house and livestock,
while emphasizing how other things are easily replaceable (through hard work
of course), a perspective not necessarily familiar to the impoverished. The net
effect of all this ultimately yields what others have since described as a repetitive
and paternalistic discourse.22
Eventually, the CIAA partnership fell apart. The production of a companion series, Reading for the Americas, intended to promote literacy while still
discussing health, led to heated clashes between educators. The criticism of one
educator made its way to the Mexican press: ...the truth is many illiterates do
not eat well, not because they may not know how ... but because they cant,
they are poor.23 In late 1945, the CIAA terminated its partnership with Disney.
Murder of an Anatomy
Beginning in 1945, Disney expanded his client base for educational lms
to include corporations such as the Johnson and Johnson, General Motors, and
International Cellucotton Company whose lm The Story of Menstruation
(1946) has since become infamous for its depiction (or, rather, lack of depiction)
of female sexual anatomy. As with any educational piece on the topic, the lm
rst explains the biological facts of the process, then advises the viewer on how
to personally address it. Menstruation opens with pastel-colored owers (reused from Fantasias Nutcracker Suite segment) drifting into a room, accompanied by a lullaby-like blend of strings that segues into an oboe solo. The
camera pans over to a plush, pink and white-colored bassinette, where a baby
lies sleeping. The female narrators calm, reassuring tones proceed to explain
how Mother Nature works when it comes to growing up. When the baby
awakens, it smiles into the camera, whereupon it freezes into position and its
body is shown in silhouette; subsequently, the pituitary gland is identied and
135
its role explained, with diagrams then presented to illustrate how the burgeoning female uterine tract and its ovaries function. The rest of the lm advises
the viewer on the care and monitoring of oneself during the menstrual cycle,
eventually referring them to the sponsors accompanying booklet Very Personally Yours for more information. The lms closing iterates the notion of
growing up, although implicit this time around is an increased awareness of
what it means to be female (e.g., the female infant who is shown maturing into
a woman subsequently becomes a mother and smiles at her own female infant).
The lm depersonalizes, however, what it presents as a very personal process.
Females of various ages and body types are shown throughout the lm, yet
none have names. Even the female narrator remains anonymous. None of the
gures speak. With the exception of the mother and child at lms end, they
do not even acknowledge each other, even when sharing the same frame.
The lm gives the distinct impression of female disempowerment. Phrases
such as as a girl grows up ... her body is obeying the orders issued by the pituitary gland and the ovary ... tells the cells in the uterus to multiply and ll
with blood convey a sense that the female body is at the mercy of biological
processes. In many instances, the featured females remain motionless while the
things around or within them move. When it comes to visualizing the cyclic
nature of menstruation, a girl with braids appears center screen, wearing a
pinafore-like dress; subsequently, under her, a clockface appears marked off
with names of the months, its shadowy hand ticking away successive menstrual
periods by the month yet the girl herself remains still. In another instance,
hormonal ow is shown as a series of arrows descending in military-like fashion
from pituitary down to the ovaries, while the female gure that contains them
stays rigid. And while certainly cutaway representations of sexual anatomy
at the time were deliberately abstract, Disneys visual approach to the female
uterine tract seems more akin to what the Studio employed when identifying
hardware in Four Methods of Flush Riveting for the U.S. military, complete with
labels in the same sans-serif font. Even more abstract is the side-view diagram
which illustrates how the uterus lies between the bladder and the rectum:
respectively, they have been stylized to resemble a segment of garden hose and
two upended golf clubs. Thus, in what is perhaps one of the greatest ironies in
the history of the animated lm, the very studio which prided itself on lifelikeanimation (i.e., the bare-breasted centaurettes in Fantasia, as well as the hyperrealism of Bambi) avoided it when it came to ovaries and fallopian tubes.
Ultimately, Menstruations view of femininity is clinical and distanced,
thus reecting the all-male perspective of its production team. The cold expertise of the lms consulting gynecologist Dr. Mason Hohn fails to mask the obvious discomfort of Disneys all-male animation staff with the subject. Whenever
the unclothed female body is called upon to frame inner anatomy, only its silhouette is presented indicating, perhaps, a feeling on the part of the male
heterosexual animators that any detail on the female body would somehow sex-
136
ualize it (previously, however, they had had no such qualms when it came to
the unclothed male gures in the Health for the Americas lms, in particular
the aforementioned shirtless male in The Human Body, who is actually complimented by the narrator on his muscles). And, in what amounts to a startling
complement to the misrepresented immunity-ghting cells in Defense Against
Invasion, the blood in Menstruation is white! Such a deliberate choice invites
all sorts of speculation. Did the animators feel the color red would give the
impression of injury? Were they afraid that owing red liquid would raise questions about leakage and the staining of clothes? (Perhaps this explains the lack
of inclusion of the sponsors product sanitary napkins along with instructions on their use.) Despite the use of a female narrator, the abstract representation of the subject yields the distinct impression of information emanating
from someone with no personal stake in the matter. The relationship between
menstruation and babies is never made clear, leaving the potential for some
young girls to presume that eggs could develop on their own). Musical chords
bookend the lm, but in-between, there is no music, indeed no sound other
than the narrators voice, thus creating a somber mood, devoid of all emotion.
Credits are unavailable for this lm; to date, no Disney employee has
admitted to working on it. Whether American Cotton approached Disney
rst or vice-versa is also unknown. It is noteworthy, however, that, at the
time of Menstruations production, Walt Disneys daughters, Diane and Sharon,
were, respectively, twelve and ten years old. This may be the true genesis of the
lm, as well as better explain its sterile, abstracted view of female sexuality.
The lm had a long, extended shelf life. As late as 1969, it was still being shown
to pre-pubescent female audiences (with the stipulation that the subject not be
discussed with the boys24).
In 1951, as if to send the pendulum of gender swinging the other way, Disney and Cellucotton produced another lm, How to Catch a Cold, a promotional
for Kleenex tissues. The storyline features the character of the Common Man
learning about the care and prevention of the common cold from his anthropomorphized conscience an bespectacled male imp named Common Sense.
The Common Man lives in tract housing in the suburbs (with a wife who has
breakfast waiting for him), sports a business suit, commutes by subway to his
ofce, and works at a desk in an ofce lled with other white males just like
him. He also square-dances and golfs (despite rain) for recreation. Eventually,
he comes down with a cold and ends up in bed. Meanwhile, Common Sense
lectures him about cold germs, using a blackboard and animated chalk drawings
to show how germs spread, then, later, using the analogy of a football game
which pits the Common Mans health against the common cold. The lm ends
with the man understanding the need to remain in bed, and a shot of his hand
grabbing many tissues from a Kleenex box. Presumably because of its innocuous
nature, Cold was released theatrically; consequently, it has a rich palette, a musical score throughout, and full animation (including cold germs made of red
137
Disney Dust). Both characters are voiced by Bill Thompson, a well-known

industry talent, who also voiced the White Rabbit in Alice in Wonderland that
same year. In contrast to The Story of Menstruation, Cold reeks of white male
empowerment: the Common Mans wife and son (both drawn less-detailed
than him) yield to his authority (his wife has breakfast waiting on the table,
his son loses his toy gun when the pop of its cork wakes his napping father,
who then breaks it in two). A driving Protestant work ethic even compels him
to go to work despite his being sick. Of course, this was the audience that Disney
and his staff knew best, right down to the Common Mans blue silk pajamas.
Unlike the Latin American men in the CIAA lms who were constantly being
nudged to become more active for healths sake, the Common Man gets ill
because of overactivity. And unlike the young girls in Menstruation who were
advised to limit exertion, the Common Man pushes on in the face of physical
and environmental adversity. A comic snapshot of the post-war White American middle class male, Cold was the last of Walt Disneys corporate co-productions.
Safety First, VD Last

In the mid1950s, Disney produced two series on health and safety education for television broadcast on the Mickey Mouse Club show: You the Human
Animal and Im No Fool, both hosted by Jiminy Cricket (sporting less detail
than in Pinocchio, and drawn with thick black lines), each with its own theme
song sung by Jiminy. Episodes were fully-animated and ran 8 10 minutes long.
You was a pleasantly informative, science-based series, presenting information
on the anatomy and physiology of human organs connected to the ve senses
(i.e., the eye, the ear, etc). Im No Fool re-used the blackboard-and-chalk-drawings technique of How to Catch a Cold to teach lessons on safety, with Jiminy
cast in for the role played by Common Sense (an appropriate choice given
Jiminys original role as Pinocchios conscience). Fool also re-deployed the good
vs. bad behavior premise of Tommy Tuckers Tooth. Jiminy would rst present
a humorous historical review of an activity such as bicycling. Then the unsafe
and safe ways of how to do the same activity were presented, pitting the goolydrawn Fool (who appeared to be a teenage boy) against the character which
represented the viewer (almost always a small boy). The humor seems deliberately low-key (e.g., bad things would happen to the Fool, but not to point of
being ridiculously violent), presumably so that it would not distract from the
main message of safety. The pedagogic tone of Fool was further enhanced by
always featuring Jiminy among stacks of books or in a schoolroom.
Fools safety messages come through loud and clear because its advice is
simple, and because its target audience was very familiar to Disney and his
staff. More than likely, Fool was concocted as an edutainment alternative to the
138
nger-wagging child safety lms of the 1950s, the grimmest of which were those
of Sid Davis, producer of lms like Live and Learn (1950), about children suffering the consequences of careless behavior (Supposing this were you? the
narrator asks while presenting a boy with a bandaged eye, the result of a gun
accident), and Why Take Chances? (1952), which combines drawings and liveaction footage that show children getting hurt. Prior to Im No Fool, Disney
had touched on the subject of safety in the Goofy cartoons of the 1940s that
cast the character as an inept beginner trying to learn a sport or other recreational activity (The Art of Skiing, 1941, How to Play Golf, 1944). Goofy was also
cast as a smoker trying to quit in No Smoking (1951). Later in the 1950s, Donald
Duck starred in two How to Have an Accident shorts. But these endeavors were
played strictly for laughs (in No Smoking, for instance, Goofy doesnt quit at
lms end). The Im No Fool series, on the other hand, stresses viewer safety,
pleasantly but repeatedly. Jiminy even addresses the viewer directly, much as
the narrator in a Sid Davis lm does. Eventually, both the Im No Fool and You
the Human Animal series were eventually distributed to schools as 16-millimeter
prints, proving so popular that as late as 1973, new episodes were being produced.
In the late 1960s, Fantasia and Alice in Wonderland found new popularity
with members of the counterculture, many of whom had been among the
youngest viewers of the original Mickey Mouse Club. Indeed, Alice, with its
hookah-smoking caterpillar and size-altering mushrooms, proved too popular:
the lm was withdrawn from 16mm rental.25 With Walt Disney gone, perhaps
the studio felt it was time to acknowledge the new social climate by producing
the Triangle of Health series (the title refers to a triangle whose sides represent
Physical, Emotional and Social health), a joint venture with Upjohn Pharmaceuticals. Four one-reel lms were released: Steps Toward Maturity and Health
(1968), Understanding Stresses and Strains (1968), Physical Fitness and Good
Health (1969) and The Social Side of Health (1969), this last-named probably
the closest the Disney studio ever came to making something hip. The lm
focuses on the human need to socialize, its male narrator explaining how How
we get along with others may greatly improve the social side of our health to
its target audience of young adults. The animation is not standard Disney but
resembles more the far-less-detailed work of rival studio Hanna-Barbera. A
jazzy score bookends the lm, while ragtime predominates in the middle. Livefootage from Disneys nature lms is used at one point to illustrate the gregariousness of animals and insects. Like Disneys dental lms, Social also explores
the notion of conformity, but in updated an: the diversity of groups is acknowledged, along with the possibility that one may prefer the companionship of
only a few friends rather than a group. Unfortunately, at times, the narration
comes off more like a Sid Davis lm: the social group, whose members sport
long hair and beards, is described as dedicated to smoking it up, drinking it
down, and experimenting with sex and dangerous drugs, frequently with tragic
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consequences. And the lms depiction of a drug trip turns out to be more
visually engaging than foreboding: after a young man and woman swallow small
white pills, psychedelic patterns oat behind them; then their bodies swirl away
in the same manner as the wraiths in the Night on Bald Mountain sequence
of Fantasia. The lm closes with an acknowledgement that Social is part of
Upjohns continuing program toward a better understanding of health.
A similar effort aimed at children was the What Should I Do? series: The
Flight (1969), The Game (1969), Lunch Money (1970), The New Girl (1970), and
The Project (1970). These were released by the Walt Disney Educational Media
Company, an independent subsidiary created in 1968 from the 16mm rental
division.26 The animation style here is also Hanna-Barbera-like, with characters
that are racially diverse. The name of the series is the question each child asks
when faced with a troubling decision (i.e., whether to tell the truth). The repetitive strategy, however, grows tiresome after awhile.
By the early 1970s, however, the Sexual Revolution was in overdrive. But
with the free love made possible by the Pill there came consequences. From
1965 to 1975, gonorrhea infections tripled, to over 1 million cases per year.27 A
1970 Time article stated that the new sexual climate was clearly suspect.28 The
year 1972 turned out to be a banner one for venereal disease awareness: there
was Newsweek cover story; a documentary by acclaimed lmmaker Richard
Leacock, VD; a lm by Sid Davis, Summer of 63; and PBS Emmy award-winning
special, VD Blues, a one-hour television show featuring music and skits which
Time described as unprecedentedly frank.29 Perhaps so inspired, in 1973, the
education director of the Walt Disney Media Educational Media Company,
Donna George, decided to make VD Attack Plan, which was ultimately released
despite resistance from studio executives such as Disney son-in-law, Ron
Miller.30
The title of the lm is a double entendre: implying preventative strategy,
it actually refers to a planned assault. Like Defense Against Invasion, it employs
an aggressively comic metaphorical approach to the subject of disease. The seriousness of the issue, however, is made evident from the lms start: after a
series of explosions, a narrator announces This is a war story.... It could only
take place within the human body. The main character is the infectious agent
itself: a sergeant in the Contagion Corps, drawn as a purplish blob with a face
but no limbs. Voiced by Keenan Wynn (known both for tough-guy roles in
mainstream movies, and for playing comic heavies in Disney comedies like The
Absent-Minded Professor, 1961 and Herbie Rides Again, 1974), he expounds on
the vulnerability of humans to an audience of similarly-drawn but differentlycolored blobs, the green ones representing gonorrhea, the red ones syphilis.
The human traits which promote the spread of venereal disease are identied
and personied as amorphous shapes as well (Shame, Fear and Ignorance). The war theme continues throughout: the pathogens are humorously
outtted to appear as a battalion (the Sergeant wears a German World War I
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spiked helmet while his troops sport guerrilla berets), and the Sergeant extols
the consequences of chronic infection (Maim em for life!) along with the
possibility of death. Actual human forms, on the other hand, are much more
abstract, depicted only by angular outlines, with gender differentiated via the
broad shoulders of the male vs. the hourglass shape of the female, perhaps to
de-sexualize them and thus avoid any sort of arousal (as might have happened
in Davis lm). Sexual intercourse is mentioned specically, visualized as an
abstraction by overlaying the male and female human gures. When genitals
are discussed, they are identied only by region, via the highlighting of a circle
that covers the hip region in both sexes. The lm is surprisingly contemporary.
Same-sex transmission is acknowledged, and the diseases are referred to their
slang namesclap and syph as is a condom (i.e. a rubber). There is
even an allusion to racial diversity when the human gure designated as a doctor
has an obvious tan complexion. Myths about how one can catch venereal disease
(e. g., from toilet seats) are cited, with the pathogens derisively laughing at
such human ignorance. Rather than imply that such disease is associated with
certain types of individuals (the prostitutes in Davis Summer of 63, for example), the point is made that infection is random, with the frequency of sexual
encounters and the probability of infection likened to gambling. Condoms are
also mentioned by name, though, because of their effectiveness as a barrier, are
discussed as being something of a problem for the pathogens (the reference,
however, was cut in the version released to public high schools). The majority
of the visuals illustrate modes of transmission, the randomness of infection
and, like the early World War I lms on the subject, the consequences of infection eventually documented by photographs of chancre sores and inamed
skin. Shortcomings do occur, however: the score is by George Bruns, who
worked on many Disney lms during the 1960s; consequently, the musical
accents in VD seem lifted from the battle of the toy soldiers in Disneys Babes
in Toyland. Ultimately, the lms effectiveness depends on how much one recoils
at the sight of glistening red lesions on human bodies (such horric visuals
would more than likely remain in the viewers consciousness than the narrators
stern warnings in Davis Summer of 63).
VD Attack Plan did not endure to the same extent as The Story of Menstruation, probably because herpes and AIDS overtook gonorrhea and syphilis
as major STDs, and because the incurable even fatal nature of these new
diseases made the humorous tone of VD inappropriate.
Conclusion
How exactly does one assess Disneys health lms as edutainment? To
begin with, the concept of edutainment didnt originate until sometime in
the late 1940s. Prior to that time, Disneys health lms were considered as legit-
141
imate approved learning aids. His experience when making the Latin American
lms afrms this commitment: he tolerated numerous revisions to his staff s
creative concepts by the CIAA, as well as lengthy periods of review for each
lm. But after his falling-out with the CIAA and the mundane nature of his
corporate projects proved, his frustrated need to entertain won out and he
allegedly told Ben Sharpsteen Lets stick to entertainment. Well make educational lms, but theyll be sugar-coated.31 This is where edutainment really
begins: when Disney abandoned the need for anyones approval of his lms. He
went from being an earnest communicator of knowledge to crowning him and
his studio as the inarguable source of it, in charge of all sugar-coated representation. But health and medical advice cannot be sugar-coated as easily as
live-action seals and beavers. Therefore, in Disneys new edutainment-oriented
kingdom, there was little room for health lms, except for those that focused
on simple matters like the common cold and safety. That, of course, would
later change with the death of Disney and the creation of the Walt Disney Educational Media Company, the so-named entity presumably committed to fortifying the edu in edutainment. Films such as Lunch Money and VD, then,
while they may have the aura of edutainment, were produced by academically
accredited people like Donna George (who earned a PhD while working at the
studio). As such, these later lms are distinct from those made by a staff whose
academic credentials were lacking.
But whether ofcially edutainment or not, all Disney health lms are a
mix of fancy and fact to some degree. Yet because of this, the only valid assessment of their texts rests with their ability to make an impact on their target
audiences. Did this ever happen? In spite of all the cultural disconnects, unfamiliar modes of representation, entertainment and sugar-coating, to what
degree if any did the messages in these lms about changing human behavior reach the viewer? Unfortunately, other than ubiquitous fond memories and
personal anecdotes about lms such as The Story of Menstruation, the Im No
Fool series, or even VD Attack Plan, there appears to a dearth of such documentation.
There is, fortunately, one notable exception: In 1951 and 1953, in Uganda
and in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) respectively, the Social Welfare and Community Development Department analyzed the reactions of illiterate audiences
to the lms Hookworm, The Winged Scourge and The Way Disease Spreads.32
The results were reported in 1955, in the Health Education Journal, in an article
by Ken Pickering, an ofcer with the Development Department. There were,
of course, the expected disconnects: replacement of the soundtracks with vernacular commentary33 to improve clarity of action, while animated gags
such as the one in Hookworm where a latrine ends up automatically built despite
the bumbling antics of its builder, Charlie were attributed to white mans
magic. In the end, however, because audiences understood the need for the
building of something like a latrine, the animated gags were not seen as an
142
impairment to learning. However, unlike the Ugandan audiences, the Gold

Coast audiences, prior to viewing the lms, had not been exposed to relevant
medical information. This had been deliberate: an experiment to determine
audience reaction if it had never heard of the disease, although suffering from
it.34 What Pickering found upon following up with the Gold Coast audiences
a few weeks later was that, although they retained visual images, the images
were out of sequence, and attempts to reconstruct the action produced grossly
distorted ideas,35 thus documenting the power of Disneys vibrant imagery to
make an impact without necessarily educating. But Pickerings report also discusses how such lms affect members of an illiterate society, where superstition
can block the reception of new knowledge about disease. Under these circumstances, Disneys animated imagery acts as more of an opportunistic distraction
than a pedagogic device. The real value of the Disney health lms, Pickering
wrote is less in teaching the new than in breaking down the traditional belief
where it is too erroneous to be used as a starting point for teaching the truth
... by presenting a graphic and credible picture to the mind so realistically that
temporarily the minds resistance to it is overcome.36 He concluded that the
Disney health lms, when carefully monitored and combined with other forms
of teaching, would be valuable in the ght against disease in Africa.
At the same time, however, the potential for the images in a Disney health
lm to impact without necessarily teaching raises questions, namely Did lms
made for American middle class audiences ever induce similar consequences
as those in the Gold Coast audiences? Is it possible that, despite the obvious
high level of literacy of American audiences, Disneys imagery can overwhelm
even the educated mind and simply implant itself with muddled connotations?
While the answer might seem a resounding no, consider The Story of Menstruation and how its reductive images of female sexuality were implanted in
developing female minds over the course of two decades. Was the lms oblique
treatment of the subject a reection of cultural attitudes or were such cultural
attitudes only furthered over the years because this lm, along with its surreptitious, ritualized viewings, indoctrinated adolescent girls into believing this
was how they should regard their own bodies? Or consider the term female
biological clock, which goes at least as far back as 1987 (when it was uttered
by Sally Field in the movie Surrender). Is its ultimate source Menstruations
image of a rigid young girl on a sundial, which was regularly imprinted into
the collective American female consciousness over the course of two decades?
In the world of Disney health lms, such a connection seems as possible as one
between Jiminy Cricket and Sid Davis.
NOTES
1. Karl S. Lashley and John B. Watson, A Psychological Study of Motion Pictures in
Relation to Venereal Disease Campaigns (Washington: United States Interdepartmental
Social Hygiene Board, 1922), pg 3 4.
143
2. Bob Thomas, Walt Disney: An American Original (New York: Simon and Schuster,
1976), 64.
3. Russell Merritt and J. B. Kaufman, Walt in Wonderland: The Silent Films of Walt
Disney (Pordenone, Italy: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto; Baltimore: Dist. by Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 79.
6. Richard Holliss and Brian Sibley, The Disney Studio Story (London: Octopus
Books, 1988), 34
7. Holliss and Sibley, 44.
8. Marianne Fedunkiw, Malaria Films: Motion Pictures as a Public Health Tool,
American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 7 (July 2003): 1050.
9. J.B. Kaufman, South of the Border with Disney: Walt Disney and the Good Neighbor
Program, 19411948 (New York: Disney Editions, 2009), 131.
10. Kaufman, 132.
11. Pablo Astorga, Ame R. Burgs and Valpy Fitzgerald, The Standard of Living in
Latin America during the Twentieth Century, Discussion Papers in Economic and Social
History, no. 54 (Oxford: University of Oxford, 2004), 32.
12. Kaufman, 134.
13. Kaufman, 141.
14. Kaufman, 145.
15. Kaufman, 138.
16. Kaufman, 141.
17. Kaufman, 148.
18. Kaufman, 141.
19. Kaufman, 146.
20. Sean Grifn, Tinker Belles and Evil Queens: The Walt Disney Company from the
Inside Out (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 35.
21. Kaufman, 150.
22. Lisa Cartwright and Brian Goldfarb,Cultural Contagion: On Disneys Health
Education Films for Latin America, in Eric Smoodin, ed., Disney Discourse: Producing
the Magic Kingdom (New York: Routledge, 1994), 170.
23. Kaufman, 172.
24. Personal correspondence with Montana State University female employees
Jeanette Goodwin, Vicki Miller and Diane Steffan (Bozeman, Montana, February 2010).
25. Leonard Maltin, The Disney Films (New York: Crown, 1973), 104.
26. Wade Sampson, Disney Attacks VD: The Rest of the Story, Mouseplanet. Accessed
10 June 2009 at http://www.mouseplanet.com/8854/Disney_Attacks_VD_The_Rest_
of_the_Story.
27. Alan B. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United
States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 175
28. Medicine: VD: A National Emergency, Time, July 27, 1970.
29. Show Business: The VD Blues, Time, October 9, 1972.
30. Sampson, Mouseplanet.
31. Thomas, Disney, 206.
32. James Gibbs, Ken Pickering: Who Is Ko Basake? in Nkyin-Kyin: Essays on the
Ghanaian Theatre (New York: Rodopi, 2009), 18.
33. Ken Pickering, Another Walt Disney Experiment, Health Education Journal 13,
no. 78 (1955): 78.
34. Pickering, 78.
35. Pickering, 80.
36. Pickering, 80.
144
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Astorga, Pablo, Ame R. Burgs and Valpy Fitzgerald. The Standard of Living in Latin
America during the Twentieth Century. Discussion Papers in Economic and Social
History, no. 54. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford, 2004.
Brandt, Alan B. No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States
Since 1880. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Cartwright, Lisa, and Brian Goldfarb. Cultural Contagion: On Disneys Health Education Films for Latin America. In Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom,
edited by Eric Smoodin, 169 180. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Fedunkiw, Marianne. Malaria Films: Motion Pictures as a Public Health Tool American
Journal of Public Health 93, no. 7 (July 2003): 1050.
Grifn, Sean. Tinker Belles and Evil Queens: The Walt Disney Company from the Inside
Out. New York: New York University Press, 2000.
Holliss, Richard, and Brian Sibley. The Disney Studio Story. London: Octopus Books,
1988.
Kaufman, J. B. South of the Border with Disney: Walt Disney and the Good Neighbor Program, 19411948. New York: Disney Editions, 2009.
Lashley, Karl S., and John B. Watson. A Psychological Study of Motion Pictures in Relation
to Venereal Disease Campaigns. Washington: United States Interdepartmental Social
Hygiene Board, 1922.
Maltin, Leonard. The Disney Films. New York: Crown Publishers Inc, 1973.
Medicine: VD: A National Emergency, Time, 27 July 1970.
Merritt, Russell, and J. B. Kaufman. Walt in Wonderland: The Silent Films of Walt Disney.
Pordenone, Italy: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto; Baltimore: Dist. by Johns Hopkins
Pickering, Ken. Another Walt Disney Experiment, Health Education Journal 13, no.
78 (1955): 78.
Pickering, Ken. Who is Ko Basake? in Nkyin-Kyin: Essays on the Ghanaian Theatre,
edited by James Gibbs. 1724. New York: Rodopi, 2009.
Sampson, Wade. Disney Attacks VD: The Rest of the Story, Mouseplanet. http://
www.mouseplanet.com/8854/Disney_Attacks_VD_The_Rest_of_the_Story.
Show Business: The VD Blues, Time, 9 October 1972.
Thomas, Bob. Walt Disney: An American Original. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976.
Section III: Nature

9
Nature Is the Dramatist

Documentary, Entertainment
and the World According to
the True-Life Adventures
EDDY VON MUELLER
Seal Island may have won Walt Disney his most unexpected Oscar. RKO
Pictures, Disneys standing distributor, had balked at handling the two-reeler,
apparently assuming there wasnt much market for a nominally non-ction
short chronicling the family life of the fur seal. It must have seemed especially
out of step with the kinds of movies that had made the Disney studio famous,
animation. With a stable full of talking, singing and dancing animals to choose
from, Walt Disney was promoting, of all things, a documentary in which the
seals were stuck being nothing more than, well, seals.
The cartoon mogul had been struck by a popular childrens story, Matka
and Kotik: A Tale of the Mist-Islands, written by eminent ichthyologist (and,
unfortunately, ardent eugenicist) David Starr Jordan. Jordan, who had helped
negotiate a moratorium on sealing in the remote Pribilof Islands in the Pacic,
where the seal populations had plummeted and where rapacious hunting threatened the animals with imminent extinction, wrote the story from the seals
point-of-view.1 Disney commissioned the picture after seeing the work of pioneering nature cinematographers, Alfred and Elma Milotte, who were shooting
research footage near the famed fur seal breeding grounds that had been saved,
in no small measure, by the conservation treaty Jordan helped to draft, and
presumably, the sentiments his story helped to stir.2 Wildlife documentary production was an undiscovered country for the Disney studio, but Disney put
some of the studios oldest and steadiest hands to work culling and cutting the
footage, and writing and recording a suitable narration. He also ordered one
of his cartoon units to make an animated introduction, to give it his signature
touch. Bypassing RKO, Walts dedicated brother Roy, his perennial Right Hand
145
146
Section III: Nature
and the man in charge of much of the studios day-to-day operation, set up an
in-house distribution arm to push the picture. Christened Buena-Vista, the
subsidiary undertook the rst steps by Disney as a distributor in the fateful
year 1948,3 promoting the rst of what would become a protable, critically
acclaimed and immensely inuential series of nature documentaries, the TrueLife Adventures.
While there had been many lms made featuring actuality footage of animals in the wild and captivity in fact, animal subjects had made for popular
cinema since the very birth of the medium (such as Edisons grisly 1903 spectacle
of industrialized cruelty, The Electrocution of an Elephant, or Jean Painlevs
groundbreaking 1927 underwater views in Loeff Depinoche [The Stickleback
Eggs], to name but a few), Disneys True Life Adventures would become as paradigmatic to the nature documentary as the studios fairy-tale inected musicals
are to the animated feature. The longevity of the franchise certainly helped.
New and re-released lms in the series, which included both shorts and anthological features, played theatrically into the early 70s, and enjoyed an extensive
afterlife on the small screen, appearing on Walts long-running ABC showcase,
which premiered as Disneyland in 1954 and nally gave up the broadcast network ghost as The Wonderful World of Disney in 2008. The nature lms also
played to captive audiences in countless classrooms as part of the studios educational lm service that opened new revenue streams and cultivated life-long
consumers after the war. The Baby Boomers would see True-Life Adventures in
school as 16mm dubs of dubs; as would their kids, born into the brand, on
VHS. In other words, the style, the technique, and, as we will see, the rhetorical
peculiarities of the series born on Seal Island became familiar, at an early age,
to generations of viewers. Which no doubt explains why so much of what we
see today on series like Nature or on niche cable networks like Animal Planet
are so powerfully reminiscent of works orchestrated by the Disney studio
decades ago.
Seal Island was, relatively speaking, a substantial hit even in its initial run,
returning $434,000 on the studios $84,000 investment.4 Legend has it that
when the lm won an Academy Award, Walt advised his brother to go hit someone at RKO over the head with it.5 Interestingly, the award was not in a documentary category. The overwhelming majority of winners for that year, both
feature and short documentaries had been war pictures or propaganda lms of
one kind or another, made by various government-sponsored lm units. In
fact, the documentary category had emerged precisely to acknowledge those
kinds of lms, the rst special award being given to a non-ction lm in
1942, honoring four military lms including Prelude to War, the rst of the
Why We Fight series of propaganda lms, for which the Disney Company had
made animations.6 Seal Island was acknowledged instead in the now-defunct
Best Short-Subject, Two-Reel category, a grab-bag race that included comedies, musical reviews, social problem pictures, and news and non-ction lms
9. Nature Is the Dramatist (von Mueller)
147
(Seal Islands competition in 48 included Samba-Mania, a dance-craze themed

melodrama, and Snow Capers, a round-up of winter sports footage).
It is perhaps tting that the inaugural True-Life Adventure wasnt honored
in the documentary category. The series raises vexing questions about the purpose and practice of commercial non-ction lmmaking. Since the late 1960s,
lmmakers and critics alike have energetically challenged the claims to authenticity made by documentary lms, and questioned as well the tactics and techniques use to substantiate those claims. Like many documentaries, Disneys
nature lms position themselves in a kind of hazy no-mans-land between education or information and entertainment, banking literally, in the case of the
commercial exploitation of such content, on television or in classrooms on
the notion that these two terms are not, as is sometimes suggested, antithetical.
Documentary content frequently employs a variety of technical, narrative, or
aesthetic devices (such as, in the contemporary context, unsteady hand-held
video footage, or talking-head interviews with persons strategically framed
against appropriately authoritative back-drops, say, maps or walls of leatherbound tomes) to reinforce the lms status as a document, as having some
greater delity to some truth or reality beyond its own discourse. Documentaries also borrow extensively from the vast tool-kit of commercial and ction
media, to keep viewers attentive and emotionally engaged (using reaction
shots, for instance, or ironic music, or cross-cutting between multiple temporalities to generate commentary or suspense). Indeed, the fact that the documentary is so frequently and uently imitated in so many ction lms and
television shows, from big-screen mockumentaries like This Is Spinal Tap
and The Blair Witch Project to faux reality and news programs like Flight of the
Conchords and The Daily Show bears witness to the degree to which documentary is as much a calculated construction or a set of formal and narrative
devices as it is a cinema with any uncontested or de facto claim to factuality or
(capitalized) Truth.7
Regardless, then, of who photographed the material we see in the TrueLife Adventures, the creatures and environments the lms reveal to us are shown
only through the often distorting lens of men Walt Disney trusted to execute
his own very particular vision of entertainment, of his audience, and of the
world. Disney, as much discussed and as extensively biographied as any American lmmaker, or indeed, as any American, emerges even in proles created
by his own studio, as a man passionately if not obsessively preoccupied with
the making and maintaining of meticulously controlled imaginary worlds
from his toy trains and soda fountains and miniatures at home, to the Main
Streets and frontiers and jungles in his theme parks, to the Cartoon-lands and
Neverlands and Wonderlands of his animations. All of these environments,
executed at different times in different forms for different constituencies or
modes of consumption, share a fundamental order, or at least, an orderliness,
they are benign microcosms, miniature histories and miniature worlds from
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Section III: Nature
which ugliness and complexity and chaos all are banished. Coming from a company and a creator so singularly preoccupied with control, it is perhaps to be
expected that the live-action nature lms made under the True-Life Adventure
banner have much more in common with the companys cartoons that our conventional understanding of the nature of non-ction lm would seem to allow.
The World as Only Walt Disney Could

Show It to You
As with so many of the texts constituting the Disney canon, Walt cannot
be in any linear way said to be the author of any of the True-Life Adventures.
Made, like most documentaries, by means of monkish patience during principal
photography and strategic editing in post-production, the studios nature lms
were outsourced not to an army of artisans working in a quasi-factory setting,
as was the case with the animations, but to a small highly specialized group of
researchers and technicians, many of whom might spend months on end in the
eld in distant locales, far from the watchful eyes of the boss. The people responsible for the images captured for the series were, moreover, strangers to the
Disney way of doing things, and to the studios peculiarly focused view of lmed
entertainment. Draftsmen, illustrators, performers, painters, sculptors, and
salesmen were all longstanding features of the organizations creative community, but the True-Life Adventures front line was held by a very different breed,
lmmakers more used to tents and torrents than studio politics and the assembly-line system of industrialized production.
The Milottes were prototypical: amateur naturalists, avid conservationists,
and professional photographers, the couple worked on numerous projects for
the series. The couple contributed to Seal Island, Beaver Valley (1950), Natures
Half-Acre (1951), Bear Country (1953), and The African Lion (1955), among others, and captured stunning images of places and behaviors never before recorded
on lm. Their work represents the merging of aesthetic, scientic, and to some
extent polemic concerns that would become prominent in literary and documentary discourses as the modern environmental movement began to coalesce.8
Wildlife and nature photographers and cinematographers were part of what
has been described as a fraternity of scientists, writers and image-makers
whose work took them to ever more distant frontiers, 9 in quest of the new, the
exotic, and the as-yet-unseen. Recording that quest challenged the limits of
cinematic ingenuity and technology. The Milottes and fellow cinematographers
Murl Deusing, Robert Crandall, Paul Kenworthy, Dick Borden and Jack Couffer
all found ways to adapt the apparatus to conditions and applications previously
undreamt of in commercial production. Many of them won the acclaim of their
more conventional colleagues, and nature documentaries continue to demand
149
constant innovation. New wonders gave rise to means of lming them, and the
naturalist-lmmakers of the True-Life Adventures found themselves adding
simultaneously to the scientic record and to the art of cinematography10.
And yet, there is a powerful sense when watches the True-Life features and
shorts, that you are seeing a Disney movie. Walt, well on his way to becoming
more brand-master than movie-maker already, had virtually no exposure to
the people gathering the eye-popping, award-winning footage for his nature
lms, and no experience at all of the places they were working. Still the nished
lms, whether shot in a swamp or a desert or under the sea, are absolutely consistent with the tone and worldview of the studios other content. Though the
ramblers off shooting the lms were outsiders, the construction of the lms
was completed in California, and overseen by old-school Company Men. The
nominal producer of the series (he wrote and directed several as well), Ben
Sharpsteen, had directed dozens of animated sequences and been a principal
producer on both Pinocchio and Fantasia. James Algar, who is credited as the
director of Seal Island, the Oscar-winning The Living Desert, and dozens of
other non-ction lms, also made his reputation in the animation arm, helming
the enormously popular Sorcerers Apprentice segment in Fantasia. Even
Winston Hib Hibler, the mild and tireless voice of the series, and one of the
main writers for the True-Life Adventures aided in the adaptation of story material for the animations, helping to pen the scripts for Cinderella, Alice in Wonderland, and Peter Pan.
It is perhaps in part due to this shared cartoon lineage among the top brass
at the live-action documentary unit that the True-Life Adventures bear so striking a resemblance to the companys renowned animated lms. Walt Disney did
not (and in fact, as we shall see, he could not) exert the kind of direct personal
pressure to mold the new documentary into a form he favored. But looking at
the way the documentary series paints in eerily identical hues such dizzyingly
diverse environments, and how perfectly those portrayals compliment the ctive
universes of Bambi and The Nutcracker Suite in Fantasia, it seems clear that
the architect had so effectively shaped the sensibilities of his disciples and lieutenants, so persuasively promulgated a vision for the works of his company,
that even the unruly raw materials of actuality could be crafted to t it.
The bringing of the natural world, or at least the parts of the natural world
that fortune and skill contrive to capture on lm, into line with the Disney aesthetic and ethos begins with a brush. Each of the True-Life Adventures kicks
off with an animated sequence in which a painted paintbrush enters the frame
and deftly renders the scene or setting we are about to explore. Most often, the
painted scene becomes a literal framing device, bordering a space or window
in which the live-action image appears. The paintbrush, or more broadly, the
hand of the Creator of the text appearing in the text, is an old animation conceit.
Indeed, the trope appears in the very rst animated lm, J. Stewart Blacktons
1900 lm, The Enchanted Drawing. But instead of a live-action conjurer stirring
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Section III: Nature
to life a ctional reality formally dened by the medium is shown using in

short, a real cartoonist is lmed drawing a cartoon character who then proceeds
to frolic about in a two-dimensional, articial environment here the animated
paintbrush is seen to be painting the real world. These new animals and landscapes are not so much discovered and described (the goal and procedure
employed by scientists) by the Disney operation as they are rendered by it, the
natural world being processed and delivered for a consumption as an entertainment. As if by the some kind of inverse rotoscope, the marvelous machine that
allows animators to make a cartoon atop the actions of a living being, the TrueLife Adventures make family-friendly fantasies out of recorded realities.11
The use of sound, too, in these lms, hearkens back to the studios roots
as a cartoon-mill. Very little audio material recorded in the eld makes it into
the mix in the True-Life Adventures, sync sound recording frequently being the
last thing on the minds of one and two-man camera units lming in less than
optimal environments. Some post-synchronous authentic animal calls are
used, but the majority of what we hear in these lms, aside from Hiblers hyperbolical commentary, is music. Music is absolutely fundamental to Disney cinema. Mickey Mouse was, after all, not the rst cartoon superstar (that was Felix
the Cat); he was the rst sound cartoon superstar. Disneys early Silly Symphonies
were organized around music, and set the stage for a host of music-minded
imitators, including the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melody series. All of the Disney animated features were musicals, until the disastrous Black Cauldron in
1985 (now, obviously, the musical model is back). As in 1940s Fantasia, a series
of animations made to illustrate classical compositions, music in Disneys cartoons is often an elemental force, an irresistible rhythm compelling all things
to keep time with it. The practice of putting every motion to music is so closely
associated with the studio that the technique is still called Mickey Mousing.12
Like the primeval Mickey and his pals bobbing constantly to the beat, and
like the marvelously choreographed chases and slapstick brawls animators had
skillfully set to music in the features, the editing and scoring of the True-Life
Adventures keeps actuality carefully in tune. In The Living Desert, for instance,
which won the company their rst documentary award, viscous fumaroles splatter in syncopation to become a symphony of the mud-pots, and in Secrets of
Life, windborne seeds rise with the violins, spin with the harp, and oat down
with the utes. Elsewhere on the soundtracks, still other echoes of the cartoons
can be heard, in the various zings, boings, raspberries, toots, whistles, plunks
and booms foleyed in to punctuate any misstep or accidental collision. These
sound effects, routinely laid down during post-production as acoustic punctuation in cartoons comedies and even some knockabout live-action comedies
(theyre ubiquitous in Paramounts Three Stooges shorts, for instance, and for
that matter, on FOXs popular Americas Funniest Home Videos), seem outlandish contrapuntal when synchronized with ostensibly spontaneous events
taking place in wilderness locales.
151
Beyond the animated prologues and distinctly silly symphonic approach

to sound, we can see this processing of recorded reality into Disney-style ction
entertainment in almost every aspect of the discourse of the True-Life Adventures. Rather than emphasizing the naturalness of the natural world, the settings
for the lms are portrayed with an eye towards the otherworldy: the desert is
fantastically ugly, yet strangely beautiful and seemingly without meaning;
the Arctic is unknown, the Everglades a chapter out of prehistory, the Amazon untouched by man and all his works; Australia a real-life Wonderland.
Even quotidian Nature gets a coat of fairy-dust glamour, the lives of familiar
insects, ducks and even squirrels becoming secret, mysterious, and fantastic in Natures Half-Acre, Water Birds, and Perri.13 And like the imaginary
realms of ction and folklore, these are discursive spaces, their boundaries and
features xed not by cartography but by language, representation and narrative.
We cannot visit the Brazil of Jungle Cats or the savannah of African Lion or The
Living Desert, because they do not t on a map, only in the movies they are,
like most cinematic environments, constructions, composites made from images
recorded in disparate places and times.
The characters in the lms (the players in what we are told again and
again is pageant, story, drama, or saga spontaneously authored for us; Nature,
we are told, is the dramatist) are also composite creations, as articial as the
Frankensteinian entities made in ction lms by the carefully stitching together
movie stars, stunt-doubles, and the backs of stand-ins heads. Filmmakers had
known since the late teens how uidly cinematic space and time could synthesized through editing (for instance, using shots taken from roughly complimentary angles to create the illusion of spatial proximity between the two
images), and the same continuity approach to editing is used in Seal Island
to make several seal pups into one, an adorably Chaplinesque waif waddling
around the crowded rookeries in search of his mother. Other conventions of
continuity obscure elaborate production practices necessary to make possible
the lming of otherwise invisible animal behavior. In The Vanishing Prairie,
prairie dogs in a custom-made cutaway burrow match on the actions of others
lmed months before in situ. Animal eye-lines are created, making the cameras object the cinematic subject, an apparently agitated jaguar made through
montage angry at the mischievous monkey whose hooting image preceded the
cats. In terms of technique, then, the True-Life Adventures are very much conventional Hollywood ction lms, albeit ctions built in large part from materials gathered by documentary camera crews working thousands of miles away.
Such lm narratives, of course, obey their own natural laws, and here
the technically groundbreaking lms in the True-Life series play very safely by
the rules. Each lm, for instance, reveals a powerful protagonal impulse, pulling
a handful of creatures from the abundant wilderness cast (to retain for a
moment the series own theatrical conceits), and foregrounding their stories.
The selection of headliners conforms nicely to the kinds of critters favored by
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Section III: Nature
animators and tellers of childrens tales. Cuteness is denitely preferred, something small, furry and eet. Cuddly little animals are, after all, the staples of
the Disney brand. Rodents, unsurprisingly for the Mouse House, come off particularly well (except for, as we shall see, from the lemmings): prairie dogs are
central to The Vanishing Prairie, the focus of Beaver Valley is self evident, a
ground squirrel dubbed Skinny steals the show in The Living Desert, and a
gray one is the title character in Perri (which was adapted by Hibler from a
story penned by the author of the source material for Bambi, Felix Salten).
Otters, also, get plenty of play, appearing in ve of the lms as comic relief,
fun-loving clowns, gypsies, and carefree vagabonds of the swamp. How
Walt refrained from having them tted with tiny hobo costumes is a mystery.
When predators appears, they are either cast as heavies various carnivores are introduced as killers, assassins, and executioners or softened
up by focusing on their families. Big Bad Wolves are evidently acceptable, when
playing parent, and their offspring are an irresistible attraction. Juvenile jaguars,
lions, grizzlies, polar bears, foxes, wolves, and even alligators appear in the
True-Life Adventures, which frequently use coming-of-age arcs as part of their
narrative formulae. Presumably such stories resonate well for children and their
parents, increasingly, after World War II, the Disney studios core consumers.
It is worth noting that Earth, a theatrical documentary feature inspired by the
mammoth Planet Earth miniseries (itself a production very much in the mode
of the True-Life lms) and nanced and distributed through a new Disney subsidiary, frequently focuses on newborn animals and their families. In addition
to storylines related to rearing the young (Jungle Cat, White Wilderness, The
African Lion, Prowlers of the Everglades, The Worlds Strangest Animals) and/or
growing up to win a mate (Seal Island, The Olympic Elk, Perri, Birds of the
World), the building and maintenance of dwelling places is also a prominent
theme in both The Vanishing Prairie and Beaver Valley (home-making, literally
and guratively, is a frequent motif in Disney product, from the Grannys Cabin
attraction to The Three Little Pigs) The wild, in the True-Life Adventures, turns
out to be rather domestic.
Authentic, Unstaged and Unrehearsed

The adoption of continuity editing and animation aesthetics, the contrapuntal construction of animal lives as domestic and animal habitats as fabulous,
the insistent manipulation of music and sound, all seem to speak to Disneys
preoccupation with control. Animation is, of course an ideal medium for a
control freak, since, as a means of making motion pictures, animation, for all
its labor-intensiveness, affords the lmmaker a formal freedom utterly impossible in live-action production. Since the entirety of the animated image, at
least the kind of animated image that was the specialty of the Disney animation
153
works, is entirely synthetic, every aspect of motion and mise-en-scene can be

directly guided. Hypothetically, there can be in animation no happy accidents
(or accidental gaffes), no spontaneities or improvisations (or ubbed takes to
reshoot, or petulant stars to humor). The real world, its drearily conning
physics, its inconstant weather and its sloppy unpredictable people, cannot
scupper the vision and intentions of the animator. Walt Disney, when he was
most energetically engaged in directed the cartoon operation, made the most
of what Sergei Eisenstein called the imagined omnipotence of animation.14
He brought that enthusiasm to other projects, especially his personal tourist
Utopia, Disneyland. The park recreated in miniature, an idealized composite
landscape, encompassing in a single destination the frontier, the jungle, the
American small town, the landscape of the European fairy tale. As long as it
was not authentic, as long as it was caricature and not replication, Walt Disney
discovered he could make of his Magic Kingdom anything he wanted.15
Needless to say, this concept of control through artice creates a bit of a
dilemma for the documentarian, and even more so for the nature photographer,
whose work is understood in the context of a long and even noble tradition of
natural history that stretches back for hundreds of years. It is well beyond the
scope of this humble work to encompass the vigor and vitriol of the running
debate over authenticity, actuality and truth in documentary cinema, which
indeed constitutes a signicant part of the critical and theoretical literature on
the subject. Sufce it here to say that opinions are strongly held, rigorously
defended and varied, and that in non-ction lmmaking, authenticity and
truthfulness are always an issue. It is seldom a subject of concern in ction
lmmaking, and in animation, never. Whether the Disney brothers, Sharpsteen,
Hibler or Algar ever troubled over the veracity of their rendering of animals
and of the wilderness, they certainly traded on truth as watermark and a fetish.
Even the name of the series, True-Life Adventures, seeks to wed the excitement
and entertainment to truth, the conceptual cornerstone of non-ction media.
Truth, as it turns out, does not stand easily beside Disneys conceptual
cornerstone, control. Logistics, and the practical facts of wildlife prevented
Walt Disney from tweaking with the footage being shot for the True-Life lms.
Post-production manipulations aside, Disney could not insist, as he often did
with other projects, that the players or animators pump up the gag or that a
sequence redone. Filmmakers shooting animal behavior had to negotiate not
the tastes and tirades of a micromanaging mogul, but wind and water and the
moods of spiders and the benevolence of bears. In fact, nature photographers
and cinematographers often resorted to artice themselves, albeit for different
reasons than Walt Disney. Reality, ever an elusive quarry for the cinematographer, was often far more easy to contrive than to capture. Staging certain events
is by no means unheard of in nature cinematography, or rather, creating stages
on which certain events can take place; animals and plants are invariably unpredictable. Vivariums, aquariums, camera traps and other devices had long been
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Section III: Nature
used to make photographic records of hard-to-lm behaviors.16 Many such

tricks of the trade were used in the making of the True Life Adventures, and
some new ones invented.17 Which brings us to White Wilderness and the case
of the lemmings.
This True-Life feature, exploring the Arctic north, includes a variety of
striking animal sequences, as well as the series stunning trademark landscapes.
One core sequence, though, would eventually create a scandal and threaten the
studios vigorously protected and squeaky-clean image. The controversy
erupted in 1983 when Cruel Camera, an award-winning expos produced by
the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, revealed that images included in the
lm of the tiny arctic rodents rushing en masse over a precipice and into the
sea, images that hundreds of thousands if not millions of viewers, many of
them credulous children, had seen, had been faked. The lemmings, loathe to
stay on-script and take the plunge, had to be systematically herded sea-ward,
and then shoved over the brink with the aid of an ingenious, improvised sweeping devices rigged by one of the camera operators. The scandal, in retrospect,
seems perhaps a trie overblown. They were lemmings, doing what we all
expected them to do; accounts of vast populations of lemmings suddenly
appearing and racing into the sea had circulated for centuries (prior to the late
1600s and the work of naturalist John Ray, prevailing opinion held that the
varmints periodically fell from the sky, or sprung spontaneously from decaying
vegetation).18 As late as the 1920s, stories of mass suicide among lemmings
were repeated by naturalists (it is the most puzzling phenomena I know of in
animal life, wrote one respected essayist and observer),19 and the seemingly
suicidal behavior was well enough known to be the basis for a story in one of
print cartoonist Carl Barks Scrooge McDuck comics, published by Disney in
1954.20 Its currency was such that it provoked a somewhat arch admonition
against fostering misinformation in a 1968 issue of The American Biology
Teacher,21 and it remains a common-knowledge clich today, whether we believe
it or not. If there is one thing, then, lemmings are known for, it is for seething
up out of the tundra tussocks and heading for the nearest cliff.
Biologists knew long before the lm was made that lemmings were no
more prone to suicide than they were products of spontaneous generation. Some
lemming species are irruptive, reproductive cycles producing periodic springtime swarms, but these were rodent baby booms dont lead to suicide though
a given migratory path might terminate in the ocean. As the author of the 1968
critique noted, movement to the sea is merely the result of the passive action
of topography. Whats more, the lemmings appearing in the Disney lm, the
collared lemming, isnt known to be irruptive in the rst place. But a lemming
is a lemming, apparently, and we all know what lemmings do. Of course, handwringing from do-gooders in the ASPCA aside, why should anyone be shocked
to discover that the event had been synthesized in the rst place? There is so
much artice in the True-Life Adventures: the music, the multiple cameras
155
recording the event, the staged encounters and seamless match-cuts, all in the
service of creating for the viewers an engaging and dramatic glimpse at the animal world, what matters one more act of manipulation? The hue and cry over
the lms treatment of the lemmings (which excited far more outrage than did
the lms treatment of scientic accuracy) suggests that there are limits to how
far a documentary is allowed to go in manufacturing entertainment out of
actuality, especially a documentary by bearing the Disney name, a name that
by the time White Wilderness was released was already iconic?22
With the discovery of the deception, a trust is broken. It is not a reasonable
trust, or a well-founded one, being based in part of the self-styled virtuousness
of a commercial entertainment company and in part on our own volitional
faith in the self-evident authenticity of the documentary image. Disneys
name, and the products associated with it, had become by the mid1950s virtually synonymous with wholesome, middle-class, family entertainment. The
whiff of dishonesty, let alone of callousness or cruelty, that came with the revelation of the tactics used in White Wilderness sours the atmosphere of safety
and purity the company and its founder strove to create. Whats more, the
atmosphere of authenticity so central to documentary cinema. Brand, content,
rhetoric and technique merge in the True-Life lms to generate a kind of credibility we are loath to contradict, further seduced as we are by music and the
mythopoeic utterances of the unseen and apparently omniscient narrator. It
may be nave for anyone to take at face value the promise in the title sequence,
that the lm we are about to see reveals reality authentic, unstaged, and unrehearsed. Yet that naivet is essential to our enjoyment of almost any of Disneys
entertainments, or indeed, any entertainment.
One might argue that Disneys foray into cutaway prairie dog dens, lemming herding and all the other means by which the True-Life crews got their
shots are ultimately no different from the re-enactments and dramatizations
routinely used in all manner of non-ction media, from small-screen truecrime shows to lavishly produced Hollywood historical epics and docudramas
like Tora! Tora! Tora! or Gettysburg. There, too, events to which cameras were
not originally privy are staged to create a record of what we are encouraged to
assume had actually happened. Such techniques create, as motion pictures
always do, a novel temporality or synthetic present, an is which becomes postfactum proof of a was (in some cases, the recreation is so effective that viewers
have mistaken lmed recreations for documentary footage of actual events!)
By making us all eye-witnesses to the lms version of an events, we become a
crucial part of a mechanism by which that version is sustained, and by which
alternate interpretations are sidelined. And yet in the popular imagination,
natural history had become natural science. The former is open to bias and revision, it is a product of human culture and prone to all the ills and excesses that
attend it. Science, on the other hand, is objective, empirical, absolute. In the
popular imagination, scientic truth is discovered and proven, and it then
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Section III: Nature
becomes permanent. History is written by the winners. Science is written by

no one (or God). Once established, a fact does not change with a new administration, a new millennium. Science is.23
But given the awesome indelibility of fact, the machinations of the makers of the True-Life Adventures make a certain sense. Unlike historical dramas
and many other documentaries, the priority in many wildlife lms is not delity
to the actuality of an event, but rather delity to Nature. That is to say, rather
than limiting themselves to recording only what occurred spontaneously before
the camera, the makers of lms like The Living Desert and White Wilderness
undertake rigorously to generate events and behaviors known to occur
(known here in the sense of having been established in the scientic literature
or documented through observation by professionals). If lemmings dont happen to decide to hurl themselves into the sea when the lm crew is on hand to
capture the magic moment, that happenstance in no way negates the fact that
lemmings do hurl themselves into the sea from time to time. To provoke such
a stampede for the purposes of making a lm, then, merely provides a more
complete picture of lemming nature then the little creatures were able to deliver
on their own. Like a taxonomist, extrapolating a type specimen for a species
from the statistics or from fragmentary remains of dozens of individuals, a
kind of scientic montage is at work, to create as whole a picture as can be
made.
The Endless Pageant

Yet we have seen that these lms are more than Technicolor natural histories or scientic illustrations on celluloid. As narratives and as commercial
entertainments, the True-Life Adventures also fulll a variety of economic and
social functions, and do other kinds of cultural work. As products of a particular
historical moment and of a particularly inuential media source (one which is
if anything even more powerful today), these lms also validate a set of conceptual and ideological positions vis--vis the natural world and about us. Ironically, while the True-Life Adventures show so many vivid and memorable
images of the lives of animals, they say a great deal more about our own.
In these lms, the animal kingdom presents as both the antithesis and the
avatar of human society. Animals are anthropomorphized in the True-Life
Adventures in a way not inconsistent with the talking-animal fantasies the studio
produced, from the anarchic anthropomorphized menagerie from which
Mickey sprang to Goofys apotheosis as a hapless Eisenhower-era everyman,
to retoolings of classic tales with animal casts as in Robin Hood or The Great
Mouse Detective, to folkloric sagas set in worlds without people like The Lion
King. As in those animated lms, animals in the True-Life documentaries are
presented in roles we readily recognize and are assigned human motivations
157
and traits. They dont speak, sing, or wear hats, but their behaviors in the series
are interpreted through a distinctly human lens. A juvenile beaver takes a puritanical turn when he is soberly apprenticed in his fathers trade in Beaver
Valley, and a young bull fur seal throws his weight around to impress the
ladies in Seal Island. In The Living Desert a female tarantula appears as a lethal
lady who devours unwary visitors to her parlor, until her criminal career is
cut short by a female Pepsis wasp, a femme even more fatale the Pepsis female
paralyzes tarantulas and inters them alive in a burrow to act as a living food
supply for her larval offspring.24
There is a conspicuous tension in these lms, then, between an impulse
to humanize the animals, to make them into furry, feathered or fanged people,
and a contrary desire to imagine and image the natural world as it would be
were there no people in it at all. There are virtually no humans to be seen in
any of True-Life Adventures.25 In fact, a great deal of emphasis is placed on the
remoteness of the locales where they are lmed, on the dening absence of
human interference in the events of which we are to be given a privileged
glimpse. Like their predecessors in the 18th and 19th century Georg Stellar,
Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin and the other great amateur explorers the wildlife documentary cinematographers in the 50s and today seem
rapturously fascinated with lming that a somehow unsullied Nature that is
unaltered by the actions of civilization, even as the narrative whittles wonder
down to a suburban scale. Indeed, there are present in the True-Life Adventures
(and in many of the lms that follow, including Earth) two distinct kinds of
time. One temporality belongs to individuals, and is measured by the milestones
of their singular life. It is story-time (or if you prefer, run-time), made dramatic
by the nite and nally terminal experience each living thing has of the world.
For a specic edgling, as for a certain person, there will be a rst ight, and
there will be a last breath. But there is also a deep time in the lms, a temporality
in which individuals are expendable and interchangeable precisely because,
telescoped over millions of years, nothing is traumatic, nothing is a shock. For
an animal character, life can be a desperate struggle, or a gripping drama,
or one long romp. For the desert or the Amazon, or more abstractly still, for
Nature, Life, Earth, on the other hand, it is an eternal pageant, a continuous
cycle, an eternity.
Thus, the True-Life Adventures are hybrids in yet another sense, combining
elements of the funny-animal animation tradition (and of its long line of progenitors in print, fable, and folk culture), in which animals serve as stand-ins
or camouage for recognized human types, and the conventions of classical
Natural History and the literary Wild Animal Story, which seeks to passionately and precisely engage a world in which creation operated under an unalterable order that was unstirred by the domineering interference of man. The
Wild Animal story attempts to portray animals living on their own terms,
rather than dened by their relationships, hostile or congenial, with human
158
Section III: Nature
beings.26 Jordans Matka and Kotik, which had been so instrumental in drawing
Disneys attention to the remote Pribilofs, was one such story. Several others,
such as Felix Saltens Bambi: a Forest Life, Ernest Thompson Setons 1898 Lobo
and a number of tales collected in Jack Londons 1903 smash, Call of the Wild,
were inspirational to Disney and other lmmakers. The form, which enjoyed
a revival with Rachel Carsons clarion 1941 best-seller, Under the Sea Wind (her
rst book), and since has seen a number of major works, some of which, including Watership Down, inspired animated adaptations. In most cases, Wild Animal
Stories are based on direct and intimate knowledge of animal habitats and
behavior.27 When people appear in Wild Animal Stories, they appear most often
as inscrutable interlopers or unfeeling alien threats, in other words, in roles
frequently played by animals in other wilderness narratives. In the landscape
of the Wild Animal Story, it is man who is the Other.
This is certainly the case in the True-Life Adventures, though even when
humanity is edited out, the fact that human beings are doing the editing in the
rst place is one that must be weighed in the balance. Many of the great labors
of Natural History, and the works of the Wild Animal story writers, take place
in the shadow of the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the secular state, a
time during which nature was far more dramatically driven back (some would
say decimated) by the engines of civilization and culture. Naturalists traveled
to the remotest corners of the globe, in part to fulll the encyclopedic project
of post-renaissance scientic inquiry, which envisions modes of knowing in
which all things can be contained and cataloged, and in part to nd an authentic
nature free from the taints of human action. Mapping, trapping, dissecting,
describing the ora and fauna of the Antipodes, the islands of the Pacic, the
interiors of Amazonia and Africa and the Americas, these gentlemen adventurers (most of them, Darwin, Clark, Humboldt and the lot, were men and
moreover men of some position and privilege) were seeking Edensall of which
one by one vanished as their own efforts put such places in the path of their
homelands insatiable appetite for material, markets, and manpower. This quest
remains central to conservationist discourses and to constructions of the natural
world in contemporary media. This nature is cast as that which existed prior
to the impact of human action, notes Elizabeth Garland, it is nature in a state
of nature, not yet subsumed by the modern, social domain.28
Ironically, the wonder, beauty, and abundance natural historians sought
and found in the worlds wildernesses gave abundant incentive to the industries
and institutions that were eager to tame and exploit them. The representations
they made, the lavish, and in many cases, very popular, accounts they wrote,
and the collections they assembled paid tribute to the wonders of the wildernesses that remained, and perversely accelerated their erosion.29 Voyages of discovery inevitably blaze trail for voyages of exploitation. If we imagine these
Brave New Worlds as having no people in them (well, no people that matter
anyway) it is all the easier to take what we want from them whether that be
159
raw materials for industry or a restorative experience as an antidote to modernity.

The same desire to nd and to x by representation an emphatically inhuman state of nature, one uncorrupted by our avarice, is evident throughout the
series. With a sweep of the magic wand, or in this case, brush, the True-Life
Adventures take us from Eden to Eden, from all of which we are banned as by
an angel with a ery sword or at least a park ranger with a sour glance. Nearly
all of the lms in the series were made in uncritical cahoots with the National
Park Service, the Department of the Interior, tourism boards, chambers of commerce and other bureaucracies of with a stake in regulating and usually monetizing nature. None of which is to say the love of Nature with which these
lms are romantically redolent is in any way disingenuous. Far from it; there
is a keen sense in many of the lms that they are revealing the last resorts of
the Wild the prairie, you will recall, is vanishing. And yet for all the elegiac
intonations, the musicality and the anthropomorphizing narration are constantly there to stie interpretation, to forestall reection. And even if humanity
is invisible in the lm, its presence is pervasive, like that of whatever unseen
entity, presumably an employee in the Cosmic Ink and Paint Department,
makes those opening brush strokes at the beginning of each lm that paint a
window in the wall through which we are able to see, possibly distorted and
somehow shrunken, but still lovely, some of what we have lost.
NOTES
1. Beyond a romantically anthropomorphic tendency in the characterization of the
seals, little trace of Jordans story can be detected in Seal Island. It is difcult to imagine
Disney green-lighting even the most oblique adaptation of some of the episodes from
grim lives and deaths of Matkas kin, which include scenes of horric violence and
wholesale slaughter (Jordan, The Story of Matka: A Tale of the Mists,1921, 66). Indeed,
the commercial exploitation of the species, Jordans raison dtre, is excluded entirely
from the pristine wilderness the Disney documentary depicts.
2. It is no coincidence that the Pribilof Islands were at the time commercially, politically and to some extent, ideologically signicant. A treaty negotiated in 1905 between
Russia, Japan and the United States to regulate the hunting of fur seals was a landmark
piece of conservation legislation a ve-year moratorium was declared when the treaty
was ratied six years later and remains an almost unequalled example of international
cooperation. It was also a landmark acknowledgment of how close an expanding America
had become to once remote foreign powers. In 1950s, the islands in the frigid seas
between Alaska and Russia were a point where the Cold War superpowers very nearly
intersected. See Kurkpatrick Dorsey, Putting a Ceiling on Sealing: Conservation and
Cooperation in the International Arena, 1909 1911, Environmental History Review, vol.
15, no. 3 (August 1991), p. 44.
3. In 1948, an cluster of anti-trust actions against the vertically integrated studio system, United States vs. Paramount et al., long delayed by Depression, the excellent attorneys hired by the Hollywood elite, and the Second World War, nally culminated in the
consent decrees that effectively ended the stranglehold on rst-run exhibition the socalled Big Five had enjoyed. It is ironic, and a testament to Disneys occasionally eerily
160
Section III: Nature
good timing, that the studio was integrating distribution at the very moment the bigger
sh in the lm industry pond were beginning to disintegrate. RKO, his reluctant distributor, would in fact be the rst of the major studios to collapse.
4. The series continued to be protable; Beaver Valley, the follow-up to Seal Island,
made $664,000 and cost only $102,000. The Living Desert did still more robust business,
returning over $4 million on an investment of around $300,000 (Lutts, p. 14). Like the
reality television producers of today, Disney discovered that prot margins were broad
when real life provided the stuff of cinema. See Barrier, The Animated Man: A Life of
Walt Disney (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2008), 208; and
Ralph H. Lutts, The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science and Sentiment (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1990), 14.
5. Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination (New York:
Knopf, 2006), 446.
6. It is tempting to see in Why We Fight the forebear of Disneys documentary
methodology, combining actuality footage, images excised from other sources, including
newsreels and even ction lms, and animation, all orchestrated to the exhortations of
an openly jingoistic and shamelessly manipulative voice-over. Many similar tactics
appear in all of the True Life Adventures.
7. Much of documentary criticism and theory wrestles with just such questions,
emphasizing the role played by biases and agendas of the lmmakers, exhibitors, and
audiences in shaping what truths there are in non-ction cinema (see Winston, 2005,
and Nichols, 1981, for excellent and still wholly current overviews of the complexity and
variety of documentary thought and practice). Walt Disney and the True-Life Adventures,
having touched so many viewers and shaped so much content, have an important part
to play in these ongoing inquiries
8. In the late 19th century, movements within Western culture and in particular
American culture valorized encounters with what was perceived to be a retreating natural world as a scientic, medical, aesthetic and even moral remedy for various maladies
aficting the modern, industrial age. Photography, itself very much a product of that
age, was somewhat ironically, the dominant representational instrument in making an
unspoiled and restorative natural world available, at the same time accelerating the its
commodication. Middle-class practitioners who abandoned urban environments to
photograph animals and the wilderness in the eld were both embodying the back-tonature ethos that attended these movements, and providing a practical substitute for
them; by providing images of the natural world to those unable or unwilling to escape
to it. See Kevin C. Armitage, The Nature Study Movement: The Forgotten Popularizer of
Americas Conservation Ethic (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2009).
9. Tucker, Jennifer. Nature Exposed: Photography As Eyewitness in Victorian Science,
p. 64.
10. Walt Disney recognized the dual role played by these globetrotting photographerscientists, referring to them as naturalists who shoot birds. (Barrier, 209)
11. The rotoscope, patented in 1917 by Max Fleischer, one of Disneys most potent
competitors in the silent and early sound eras, is a machine that allows animators to
trace frames from live-action lms. The conceptual forerunner of contemporary motion
capture and digital tracing technologies, the device was used extensively at the Disney
studio to create realistic movement, particularly in the animation of human gures.
12. Chuck Jones, Music and the Animated Cartoon, Hollywood Quarterly, Vol. 1,
No. 4 (July, 1946), 365
13. The language of the voice-overs, many of which were written as well as delivered
by Hibler, echo precisely the studios buzz-speak: the same lexicon from which the
descriptions of the natural world are drawn in the True-Life lms supplies the language
used to push the other elements of Disneys now-sprawling brand.
161
14. OPray, Michael. Eisenstein and Stokes on Disney: Film Animation and Omnipotence, in A Reader in Animation Studies, ed. Jane Pilling (London: John Libbey,
1997).
15. The parks real-life dreamworld, the positioning of Main Street U.S.A. cheek by
jowl with Sleeping Beautys Castle creates a collision of fantasy and actuality that strongly
recalls the blending of documentary cinematography and cartoon aesthetics in the TrueLife Adventures. Steven Watts, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way
of Life. (Boston & New York: Houghton Mifin, 1997), 289.
16. There is a distinction to made here, perhaps a ne one, but a signicant one
nonetheless, between landscape photography and wildlife photography, both of which
are important in the production of documentaries like the ones under discussion. Landscape photography presupposes, and indeed rests wholly upon, the placement of the
apparatus in the place being photographed. Wildlife photography affords far greater
latitude in terms of methodology. Staged scenes of real animals in articial environments,
meant to be seen as views of Africa or Asia, were commonplace by the middle of the
19th century, and lmmakers, like their peers in the biological sciences, are frequently
compelled to create controlled environments in which the phenomena they wish to
record or study can be incited and observed.
17. Filming in remote locales and in often extreme conditions, not to mention trying
to photograph creatures often swift, cryptic or dangerous, demanded innovation on
the part of the True-Life cinematographers.
18. Robert Huxley, ed. The Great Naturalists (London: Thames & Hudson, 2007), 96.
19. John Burroughs, A Sheaf of Nature Notes, The North American Review, vol. 212,
no. 778 (September 1920), 329.
20. Barks, 1954.
21. Henry E. Childs, Jr. Biological Myths: The Lemming Legend, The American
Biology Teacher, vol. 30, no. 8 (October 1968), 660
22. Watts, 405
23. The ontological absoluteness of fact, so essential to empirical science, is shared
to some extent by photography itself, which has long intertwined the two. See John
Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 66.
24. The duel of the spider and the wasp, incidentally, is one of the lms triumphs of
documentary stagecraft. UCLA entomology grad student N. Paul Kenworthy, devised
a means of lming the conict as part of his work towards his PhD.
25. In fact, Disney insisted that footage of both white and indigenous people were
very deliberately excised from the inaugural Seal Island (Gabler, 444); Walt wanted his
True-Life to be a life without of human beings. A somewhat farcical instance of the
erasure of humanity from the natural world as seen in True-Life Adventures comes in
White Wilderness in which the human presence is established only by the cave paintings, as if man, too, is as absent from the current scene as are the Wooly Rhinos and
mammoths.
26. Ralph H. Lutts, ed. The Wild Animal Story (Philadelphia: Temple University
Press, 1998), 7
27. Some of the authors associated with The Wild Animal Story, most notably Seton
and Carson, were amateur or professional naturalists, and produced scientic as well
as popular descriptions of animal behavior. Thus, some of the patina of scientic
authority with which the documentary is often imbued is shared by some Wild Animal
Stories, a fact which made these tales occasionally quite controversial. Seton and Charles
G. D. Roberts were taken on in print by a number of prominent hunters, not least future
president Theodore Roosevelt, who felt the forms insistence on interpreting animal
conduct as the product of consciousness and for stirring up anti-hunting sentiment
162
Section III: Nature
(Roosevelt, Theodore. Nature Fakers, Everybodys Magazine no. 17 [September 1907]:

427430.) Similar controversy attended Walt Disneys 1942 animated adaptation of
Bambi, which so alarmed hunters that the mini-mogul moved the lms American premiere from rustic Maine to the Roxy in New York.
28. The author further notes that for the people already resident in these Edens, this
First-World Idyll of a depopulated, primal wilderness effectively negate them as cultural
and political actors, which opens new questions regarding the unpeopled planet seen in
the True-Life lms. Elizabeth Garland, The Elephant in the Room: The Colonial Character of Wildlife Conservation in Africa, African Studies Review vol. 51, no. 3 (Dec.
2008), 63 65.
29. Of countless instances, the case of Stellers sea cow will serve to illustrate this
tragic irony. First described and drawn by Georg Steller on his voyages in the Bering sea
(later the site of the Milottes work for Seal Island), and made known in posthumous
1751 publication of his Des Bestiis Marinis or Beasts of the Sea. A relative of the manatee
nearly 30 feet long, and the largest animal of its kind in the world, Stellers sea cow was
hunted into extinction in a mere 27 years, surviving not even long enough to be photographed. Leonhard Stejneger, How the Great Northern Sea-Cow (Rytina) Became
Exterminated, The American Naturalist, vol. 21, no. 12 (Dec. 1887), 1068.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armitage, Kevin C. The Nature Study Movement: The Forgotten Popularizer of Americas
Conservation Ethic. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2009.
Barks, Carl. The Seven Cities of Cibola, Uncle Scrooge #7. New York: Dell Publishing,
September, 1954
Barrier, Michael. The Animated Man: A Life of Walt Disney. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 2008.
Burroughs, John. A Sheaf of Nature Notes, The North American Review 212, no. 778
(September 1920): 329.
Childs, Henry E., Jr. Biological Myths: The Lemming Legend, The American Biology
Teacher 30, no. 8 (October 1968): 660 661.
Dorsey, Kurkpatrick. Putting a Ceiling on Sealing: Conservation and Cooperation in
the International Arena, 1909 1911, Environmental History Review 15, no. 3 (August
1991): 2745.
2006.
Garland, Elizabeth. The Elephant in the Room: The Colonial Character of Wildlife
Conservation in Africa, African Studies Review 51, no. 3 (Dec. 2008): 63 65.
Huxley, Robert, ed. The Great Naturalists. London: Thames & Hudson, 2007.
Jones, Chuck. Music and the Animated Cartoon, Hollywood Quarterly 1, no. 4 (July,
1946): 364 370.
Jordan, David Starr. The Story of Matka: A Tale of the Mists. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New
York: World Book Company, 1921.
Lutts, Ralph H. The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science and Sentiment. Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1990.
Lutts, Ralph H. ed. The Wild Animal Story. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.
Nichols, Bill. Ideology and the Image: Social Representation in the Cinema and Other
Media. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
OPray, Michael. Eisenstein and Stokes on Disney: Film Animation and Omnipotence,
in A Reader in Animation Studies, edited by Jane Pilling, 195 202. London: John
Libbey, 1997.
Roosevelt, Theodore. Nature Fakers, Everybodys Magazine, September 1907, 427f430.
163
Stejneger, Leonhard. How the Great Northern Sea-Cow (Rytina) Became Exterminated, The American Naturalist 21, no. 12 (Dec. 1887): 1068.
Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988.
Tucker, Jennifer. Nature Exposed: Photography As Eyewitness in Victorian Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Boston
& New York: Houghton Mifin, 1997.
Winston, Brian. The Tradition of the Victim in Griersonian Documentary. In New
Challenges for Documentary, second edition, edited by Alan Rosenthal, 269 287. Manchester, United Kingdom: Manchester University Press. 2005.
10
Sex, Love, and Death

Disneys True-Life Fantasies
RONALD TOBIAS
The Circle of Life
During the production of the True-Life Adventures (1948 1960), Disney
found himself hampered by the constraints of his own demand that the Adventures be completely authentic, unstaged, and unrehearsed. While his quest
for authenticity didnt exactly preclude the types of narrative that had made his
studio famous, it did inhibit them. Consequently, he conceived the idea of the
True-Life Fantasy as a way to bridge documentary realism with the types of
narrative fantasy that characterized such successful animated features as Snow
White and Bambi. Disneys intentions were simple: he wanted, in his own words,
to use the documentary material straight from nature, but give it a plot [emphasis added].1 He abandoned his claim to remain faithful to nature as it really
was but to create a hybrid of ction and non-ction that emphasized the sorts
of familial and social values that he personally valued as an American. Whereas
nature had previously provided the plots in the True-Life Adventures; Disney
would now provide them, unabashedly.
Perri (1957) was the rst and technically the only example of a category
Disney labeled a True-Life Fantasy. The story of a young female pine squirrel
who negotiates her life in a complex and violent world of the forest, Perri falls
more under the category of an animal fable than of a biological treatise about
the life of Tamiasciurus. Disney later dropped the oxymoronic True-Life Fantasy,
but the lm served an important function for many years as a transitional template for a new species of nature fantasy lm that started coming out of its studios during the 1960s, such as Flash, the Teenage Otter (1961), The Legend of
Lobo (1962), and Yellowstone Cubs (1963).
In many respects, Bambi served as the narrative model for Perri. Both stories share the same cast of characters and virtually the same plot; in fact, both
164
10. Sex , Love, and Death (Tobias)
165
stories were adapted from works by the Austrian writer Felix Salten. Both Bambi
and Perri suffer similar familial tragedies: Bambis mother dies and Perris father
dies. Both are threatened by and survive a raging re. Both stories start in
spring at birth and complete one full reproductive cycle. Both of the main characters explore their worlds with innocence, both nd themselves at some point
in danger of losing their lives, and both fall in love and procreate. And, curiously, both lms rely on concepts of realism.
When Bambi premiered in 1942, critics in certain circles decried Disneys
use of realism in animation. Eastern establishment elites who were out of touch
with (or didnt care about) the popular taste made the argument that the inherent promise of animation lie in its ability to free the world from the laws of
physics. The joy of animation was its ability to defy natural law. If you ran over
a man with a steamroller, then he could either re-inate or turn into a dozen
tiny men who scattered in every direction. Logic did not restrain the imagination. These critics felt that Disneys realism was mundane because it drudgingly
obeyed physical law by mimicking nature.
Mainstream animated America, on the other hand, adored Disneys realism. People had grown weary of hallucinogenic fantasies that had no bearing
on their interests and lives. The powerful familial themes in Bambi resonated
with them. Rather than resist the laws of nature, Disney reafrmed them. More
importantly, perhaps, Disney engaged his audience through sentiment. For
example, he willingly suspended his demand for absolute realism in depiction
in Bambi when it came to facial expression. Animals in the wild could not convey the depth of emotional affect the storyline demanded of them; as a result,
Disney ordered his animators to exaggerate the physiognomy of characters so
as to communicate the full range of sadness, joy, curiosity, puzzlement, and
anger. Bambis round, over-expressive eyes are emblematic of his cuteness and
innocence. But when it came to Disneys renditions of the physical world (which
he had already pregured in the 1937 Silly Symphony cartoon, The Old Mill),
he demanded precision and accuracy.
Disney turned to realism again when he started shooting wildlife on camera. The eleven episodes of True-Life Adventures produced before 1957 had
served as both a starting and a departure point for his True-Life Fantasy. First,
the dramatic appeal of nature on lm had proved irresistibly cost-effective in
comparison to labor- and cash-intensive animation. Secondly, Disneys claim
that he was recording nature not inventing it served as proof to a willing
public that nature indeed reafrmed middle class American social values such
as family, monogamy, and citizenship. And lastly, Disneys nature lms reinforced the popular and deeply rooted conception of nature as a self-regulating,
or homeostatic system.
The ideas of natural stability and resiliency appealed to the public for a
variety of powerful psychological reasons. Stability spoke of permanence, constancy, and, however much as Disney characterized nature as unruly and
166
Section III: Nature
volatile, the audience knew that it nonetheless conformed to a given set of

rational and therefore calculable laws. The seasons come and go, animals are
born and die, and the sun rises and sets. Even though natural catastrophes
might seem capricious, we could nonetheless explicate their etiology.
Disneys nature is an example of classical static stability, a concept derived
from the tendency of a mechanical system to return to a steady state after a
disruption. According to its principles, even though a dynamic play of forces
(either natural or human-made) may deect nature from its steady state, nature
will endure these insults and eventually recover its balance. A powerful and
reassuring concept, it treats nature as a perpetual motion machine.
Disneys nature, like the Garden of Eden, exists in a state of static equilibrium. It is a vision of natural perfection in which everyone and everything
lives in unwavering abundance and harmony and the cumulative effect of the
forces acting upon it as a system equal zero. Change is impossible. For Disney,
the essence of nature was its immutability. Its biological processes remained
stable, constant, and harmonious. When disruptions occurred, whether by geophysical convulsion or the errancy of human beings, Nature invariably restored
itself to its original condition, the same way Disneys elastic cartoon characters
snap back into shape no matter how egregious the physical insult to them.
The animals in Bambi are sentient, articulate creatures such as deer, squirrels, owls, foxes, and rabbits that live a leisurely life, free of violence save for
the calamitous intrusions of Man.2 They consist of a cadre of small, warmblooded animals such as rabbits, birds, skunks, squirrels, and a doughty old
owl, who are well-behaved, polite, thoughtful citizens. Species that normally
prey upon one another, such as the owl and the hare, for example, have reached
a peaceful comity. A royal stag that the community collectively reveres as the
Prince of the Forest assumes the highest position of power and authority as the
forests distant but ever-present patriarch, a role that Bambi is destined to
achieve by virtue of his species, his sex, and his privilege as the stags son.
Perris world is equally static each generation replaces the last but the
tenor of the social community is decidedly different. The animals that got along
in Bambi are no longer so congenial in Perri. In Bambi death was an exception,
caused by outside forces (the hunters); in Perri, however, death is a normalized
process that occurs regularly among its citizens. A mother marten in search
of food for her brood of newborns tries to raid the pine squirrel nest in which
Perri lives with his brothers and sisters. How will nature tip the scale? the
narrator queries in doggerel. Will life or death prevail? Perris father, who
like Bambis father lives outside the home, is motivated by some ancient
instinct to sacrice his life in order to lure the marten away from his family.
In turn, a raccoon threatens the martens nest (albeit unconvincingly). In this
world, death is an inevitable aspect of life. A mother fox kills a rabbit (which,
in turn, a mother bobcat steals to feed her kits) and a goshawk kills a sapsucker.
Death, however, is not existentially indiscriminate, as it is in the case of Bambis
167
mothers. The narrator in Perri makes the point, again in ragged verse, that
this is the perfect plan that nature has contrived / Some must die that others
may survive / ...[But] many live to run away / And death can wait for another
day. For most of the lm Perri must duck a series of animals intent on killing
her, including her obstinate nemesis the marten as well as a swift and cunning
weasel and a goshawk that also try to kill her. Curiously, mothers do the bulk
of killing in Perri. Disney couches the idea of death as a necessary consequence
of mothers trying to feed their young.
He also created an annular sense of time so that events that happen are
part of a perpetual cycle of re-happening. The lm opens with the old saw from
Ecclesiastes about there being a time for every purpose under heaven. This idea
of time structures the lm. Come with us now, the narrator invites us into
the lm, to watch with awe as the seasons change and marvel at the wondrous
way in which [nature] has arranged a time for everything. But time in this
world is not linear; it is circular because static equilibrium does not allow for
change. In The Lion King, for example, the baboon prophet Raki tells the edgling lion Simba that we are all part of the eternal cycle that is the Circle of
Life.3 For the baboon prophet, nature is a closed loop of determined events
(a denition of classical static stability) that reinforces a historically evolved
teleology that every creature, great and small, has a designated place and a purpose. The same patterns repeat themselves season after season. And so in Perri
winter is a time of waiting, spring a time of hunting, summer a time of learning,
and fall a time of preparing followed by the climactic time of together. Time
is, in effect, timeless.
Sex in Disney has always been saccharine. The biological yearning for Perri
to follow natures basic law to nd a mate during a time of together. She
nds herself irresistibly attracted to a bachelor in the neighborhood (with the
echoic name of Porro) who the narrative describes in rhymed couplets as noisy,
brave, and brash / and quite often very rash. Disney erases the aggressive
instinct males in the fantasy lms; instead, the female indicates her willingness
to be courted as she realizes in some vague way that her destiny is entwined
with her neighbor in the nearby tree.... In Disneys nature fantasies, the male
is as coy and virginal as the female. Porro is polite, deferring, and even a bit
ditzy as he labors hopefully with his vast unruly mess of moss and grass he
calls a nest in preparation of Perris moment of fulllment. The couple comes
together as the chorus croons This is Together Time.
Like Bambi and virtually all the featured animals in the True-Life Adventures, Perri lives in a garden that is essentially devoid of human beings.4 But in
Flash, the Teenage Otter (1961), the biggest threat of all emerges from the shadows where he had been skulking all along: Man. Born amongst the ruins of an
old gristmill, Flash lives on a nature reserve surrounded but not surrendered
to Man. All around him, the frontier wilderness (has been) turned under by
the pioneers plow. As long as the animals stay on the reservation, human
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Section III: Nature
beings remain benign, but Flash learns the hard way that if an animal trespasses
into the world of humans, dire consequences follow.
On the reserve, Flashs world is much like Perris. He lives with his mother,
and for some inexplicable reason his father has been banished although he
lingers nearby (like the fathers in Bambi and Perri). The mother, Lutra, is on
a constant shuttle answering the demands of motherhood, [and] responding to
the pleas of her mate. The otter pups greatest virtue is their innocence as they
play tag, follow the leader, and seek-and-nd among the rusting ruins of
human technology. There is danger here as well, when a vixen with ve kits to
feed tries to raid the otters nest. Later, a bobcat ambles into the scene looking
for an easy meal. Flash and his family manage catastrophe adeptly, but when a
misstep sweeps Flash downstream from his family, he suddenly nds himself in
terra incognita, helplessly separated from his mother and the rest of his family.5
In the world off the reservation, families of raccoons and skunks turn into
families of goats and cattle. Mothers remain the same as they watch over their
broods, but Flash must fend for himself in an alien world, and the farther he
goes into it, the more precarious his life becomes. In succession he must endure
a trapper who wants to kill Flash for the $40 he can get for his pelt, a gamekeeper
who wants to kill him because he would compete for sh with shermen, and
nally a pack of dogs that want to kill him out of blood lust.6 By turns, Flash
is trapped, caged, shot at, physically mauled, and then trapped again.
His odyssey couched within the lm is the trek all otters must take every
year as they move between their seasonal hunting, mating, and wintering
grounds. This biological trivia is quickly lost to the more powerful emotional
odyssey that Flash must make from innocence to experience. The world is a
complex and dangerous place. And most of that threat comes from Man.
But not all Disneys humans are out of synchronization with nature. A
faceless bureaucrat of the State Conversation Department, who Flash recognizes as a person who meant him no harm, ultimately returns Flash to the
reserve, where he is reunited with his family and his mate-to-be. The cycle of
life is restored.
In 1962, one year after Flash, the Teenage Otter, Disney released The Legend
of Lobo, the story of a young wolf who has to adapt to encroaching cattlemen.
Lobo undergoes many of the same trials and tribulations as Bambi, Perri, and
Flash. As a pup, Lobo nibbles on the ear of an armadillo, gets cornered by an
irritable rattlesnake, and makes friends with a tortoise and an antelope. The
true conict of the story, however, is about dispossession as the cattlemen systematically kill Lobos family and his pack as they move into the wolf s homelands. With their natural prey, the buffalo, nearly extinct, the wolves have been
forced to hunt cattle, which brings them into conict with the cattlemen.
As Lobo matures, he becomes leader of his own pack and so the cattlemen
focus their sights on him. He becomes a renegade hero wanted dead or alive
ghting against insurmountable odds for the rights of his kind. When a trapper
169
captures Lobos mate, he must come to her rescue, and as he does, Lobo realizes as his father had that wolves cant live near people. Forced to leave,
Lobo takes his pack and goes off in search of a new home.
The fourth lm in what might be called the True-Life Fantasy series of
lms in the late 1950s and early 1960s is Yellowstone Cubs (1963). The plot has
become formulaic: animals are safe in the wilderness and do not belong in the
world of Man. In Yellowstone Cubs, twins Tuffy and Tubby get separated from
their mother early in the lm and get into constant mischief as they come into
contact with a series of intolerant tourists in Yellowstone Park. Meanwhile the
mother, old Nokomis, doggedly tracks down her cubs, an act which the
rangers of the Park misinterpret as hostile. Branded with yellow paint as a
problem bear, Nokomis refuses to abandon her quest for her cubs, which
eventually earns her a death sentence from the rangers. She is reprieved at the
last moment when they realize the nature of Nokomiss true quest. Reinvested
with the title of a good bear, she retreats into the forest with her cubs. At the
same time Disney produced these nature fantasy-lms, he also produced three
box ofce hits about dogs that lived within the human nuclear family: Old
Yeller (1957), Nikki, the Dog of the North (1961), and Big Red (1962). Flash and
Yellowstone Cubs did not perform nearly as well at the box ofce. Even though
the public liked the nature-fantasies, it liked sentimentalized stories about
canine delity and sacrice even more.
From time to time Disney experimented with stories about wild cats, such
as A Tiger Walks (1964), Charlie, the Lonesome Cougar (1967), and Napoleon
and Samantha (1972), but the economic successes of domestic dog and cat stories quickly overshadowed the wild animal fantasies. Although the studios kept
fabled beasts alive in animated lms most notably The Lion King (1994)
the documentary based True-Life Fantasy was, for all intents and purposes,
dead.
Reality: Natures Illusion

While critics of high-brow publications panned the nature-fantasies for
their extreme anthropomorphism, the popular press embraced Disney as a master of using commercial mass media in a manner which would make those
media educationally benecial to persons who attend to their messages
namely children and their parents.7 Many saw Disney as a moral educator
because he presented nature as the ultimate arbiter of what constituted natural
human social behavior. The domestic melodramas of the nature fantasies presume a certain biological reality because they are presented naturalistically.
Audiences understood the fantasies to be realistic portrayals of animal nature
when in fact they were idealized portrayals of human nature. The absorption
of ourselves into Nature is simply the absorption of ourselves into ourselves,
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Section III: Nature
writes Neil Evernden, or rather into our conception of how it ought to be.8
Nature offers compelling models of good and evil, right and wrong, courage and
cowardice, and any other behavior for which society at large seeks guidance.
What audiences did not perceive is the function of animal performance in
the fantasies. In an essay on Perri in 1958, the French lm theorist Andr Bazin
wrote in the journal Cahiers du Cinma It is not the cinema that attributes the
human behavior to animals, but the animals themselves acting before the camera
according to the predetermination that could preside over a dramatic
sequence.9 Bazin captures the relation of the subject to the camera in Disneys
documentary nature fantasies. In the True-Life Adventures, the plot came after
the lming. Filmmakers edited footage shot in the wild to conform to a notion
of story (putatively found in nature), whereas in the nature-fantasies, the plot
came before the lming. Animals and their performances were scripted for the
camera. Plot, a prototypically human construction, came before any meaningful
biological realism.
The traces of reality encoded within the cinematographic image provided
a level of access to nature no one had imagined possible as technical advancements in macro- and telephotography gave the camera the power to penetrate
the intimate details of nature. The need to bring things spatially and humanly
nearer, wrote Walter Benjamin, is almost an obsession today, as is the tendency to negate the unique or ephemeral quality of a given event by reproducing
it photographically. There is an ever-growing compulsion to reproduce the
object photographically, in close-up....10 The viewer quickly came to believe
there was no place a camera couldnt go and nothing it couldnt see. The camera
went everywhere from the tops of trees to the bottom of ponds. The producers
even built sets that prompted viewers to believe they were peeking into the intimate lives of animals in their nests and dens. In the nal analysis, the world of
reality is as constructed as the articial world of animation. (Perri, for example,
was not a single female pine squirrel; rather, she was one of dozens of squirrels male and female alike who died of exhaustion during the rigors of production.) The illusion of nature is compelling because of its constructed visual
reality, but in the end the classroom isnt about nature so much as it is about
human society.
By the 1960s, lm penetrated virtually every city and town in America,
and with the advent of television, into virtually every household. As urbanization and industrialization pushed nature farther away from rapidly expanding
urban centers, people increasingly accepted Disney as a readily accessible surrogate. [A surrogate, moreover, that validates the separation of Man and wild
was necessary for their peaceful coexistence: Man is the disruptive element in
Bambi.... Flash, Lobo, and Nokomis are endangered by contact with humans
... and humans are endangered in turn when wild animals get too close to their
orderly world in Big Red, Old Yeller, and A Tiger Walks.]
Walt Disney is, arguably, our cultures pre-eminent commercial manufac-
171
turer of images and stories about nature. Since Walt Disney the man produced
his rst cartoon short in 1922, his subsequent corporate empire created an
enduring archive of popular works that have gained powerful attraction in the
minds of hundreds of millions of people over many decades. As one bumper
sticker once summarized the Disney effect, The world is watching the United
States, and the United States is watching Walt Disney.11
The power of a culture lies in its ability to create myths. Disneys works
are woven through the warp and woof of the American cultural tapestry. They
have done much to shape our popular myths, beliefs, and fundamental paradigms about nature than any other single cultural force of the last century. The
rhetoric of Disneys images employs schemes of knowledge, power and practice
that relate to a variety of social and cultural relationships that are grounded in
the social interactions between people and between people and nature. By analyzing Disneys narratives about nature (and the way they manipulate the myths
within them), we can appreciate their power to shape our sense of what we
expect of nature, and from it we may begin to limn the moral authority manufactured by Disney Industries over the past century, a moral authority that
has become, either by design or default, an American moral compass.
NOTES
1. Eric Smoodin, ed. Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom (New York:
Routledge, 1994), 59.
2. I use Man in the same way Disney uses it in Bambi: the ethos of a society that
believes civilization is a place created and protected by males
3. Circle of Life, Music by Elton John, lyrics by Tim Rice
4. The forest re in Bambi is caused by careless hunters whom the viewer do not
see, although their presence is made known by their hunting dogs.
5. Disney relied heavily on the theme of separation anxiety: Bambi, Perri, Flash,
and the grizzly twins get separated from their mothers, thus establishing the plotline of
reunion.
6. The hunting dogs in Flash are the same as the savage hunting dogs in Bambi; they
are Mans minions.
7. Ralph Izard, Walt Disney: Master of Laughter and Learning, Peabody Journal of
Education, vol. 45, no. 1 (July 1967), 36.
8. Neil Evernden, The Social Creation of Nature, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 99.
9. Andr Bazin, Les Perils de Perri, Cahiers du Cinma, Vol. 83 (May 1958), pp.
50 53.
10. Susan Sontag, On Photography (New York: Picador U.S.A., 1977), 191.
11. Quoted in Ralph H. Lutts, The Trouble with Bambi: Walt Disneys Bambi and the
American Vision of Nature, Forest & Conservation History, vol. 36 (October 1992), 160.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bazin, Andr. Les Perils de Perri, Cahiers du Cinma 83 (May 1958): 50 53.
Evernden, Neal. The Social Creation of Nature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1992.
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Section III: Nature
Izard, Ralph. Walt Disney: Master of Laughter and Learning Peabody Journal of Education 45, no. 1 (July 1967): 36.
John, Elton, and Tim Rice. Circle of Life. Burbank, CA: Wonderland Music Company,
1994.
Lutts, Ralph H. The Trouble with Bambi: Walt Disneys Bambi and the American Vision
of Nature Forest & Conservation History 36 (October 1992): 160.
Smoodin, Eric, ed. Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Picador U.S.A., 1977.
11
It Is a Small World, After All

Earth and the Disneycation
of Planet Earth
EDDY VON MUELLER
It is always momentous when a noun becomes a verb. The process is

organic and informal, so the moment of metamorphosis is often difcult to
pinpoint. Consider disneyfy. While Walt Disney, who had, to say the least,
a robust sense of his own signicance to modern American culture and
indeed to modern world culture, would by no means displeased to nd his
name thus transformed, there is no evidence that the verb ofcially originated
in the studio. It is in fact unclear when precisely the term appeared. Disneyed
was in used in the late 1970s to describe what the work of enfant terrible Ralph
Bakshi wasnt, and in the mid1980s to describe what the work of Disney defector Don Bluth was. The word may be much older, however, since that which it
aptly describes has been an energetic force in commercial entertainment since
the Ub Iwerks Springtime short appeared as part of Silly Symphonies series
in 1929.1
Even if its origins are obscure, the meaning of disneycation is straightforward enough. It refers to a set of practices, neither exclusively conned to
animation nor unique to the Disney company, designed to convert existing cultural materials into uncomplicated, unthreatening forms attractive to a specic
demographic, the families with small children2 that have long been the cornerstone of the Disney empire.3
Disneycation is visible in all manner of Disney media, but 2009 provided
a superb opportunity to see the process at work. On Earth Day, April 22nd,
amid much ballyhoo, the media giant launched a new subsidiary, Disneynature,
and premiered the feature-length documentary Earth. A live-action, ostensibly
non-ction lm, and therefore very different from the kind of content with
which Disney has been most closely associated, since the True-Life Adventure
series of nature lms was pulled from production. Bringing Earth in line with
173
174
Section III: Nature
Disneys brand and audience make the hallmarks of disneycation stand out
in particularly sharp relief.
That is because Earth is not, technically or wholly a Disney production.
Rather, it is compilation of sorts, a selection of material shot for the documentary mini-series Planet Earth. Aired on the BBC and the Discovery Channel in
late 2006, the globetrotting series had been over ve years in the making, and
had already broken records, won critical plaudits and scooped up multiple
media awards before the feature deal with Disney had been inked.4 But what
made for wildly successful television documentary was not evidently suited to
Disneys signature mode of theatrical family entertainment. Radically abbreviated to t into feature length, completely rescored, boasting a different narrative voice and reecting strikingly different structural strategies and thematic
concerns, Disneys Earth emerges from its makeover a leaner, friendlier lm
that ultimately has far more in common with The Jungle Book and The Lion
King than with the eleven-hour epic of 21st century Natural History from which
it had been carved.
The Epic Documentary Tradition

The disneycation of Planet Earth involves more than shift from one
medium to another (from television to theatrical cinema, the small screen to
the silver, so to speak), it is also a rebranding, and the transformation of a text
made in one documentary lmmaking tradition into and example of another,
very different tradition.
In the early 1950s, when airtime was abundant and competition relatively
scarce, television producers experimented in long-format documentary content.
Created by Henry Salomon, Victory at Sea spanned 26 half-hour episodes and
aired on NBC in 1952 and 1953. Cobbled together primarily from newsreel and
government footage, the series was counted a success, but as the medium
matured and situation comedies, Westerns and quiz shows crowded into primetime, it failed to provide a viable commercial paradigm. In Britain, though,
where a national television service was less at the mercy at the marketplace and
from whence came so many trailblazing television productions, a number of
non-ction programs were made which took advantage of televisions afnity
for serialization and undertook the detailed exploration of topics and issues
too vast to be treated by traditional documentary cinema. The rst of these, a
13-episode history of Western culture and art called, boldly, Civilisation, aired
in 1969. It was the brainchild of art historian and museum curator Sir Kenneth
Clark and lmmaker David Attenborough, who was then in charge of the BBC2
network and who would go on to make the British nature documentary almost
his own for the rest of the 20th century.
The same year, production began on The World at War, a British answer
11. It Is a Small World, After All (von Mueller)
175
to Victory at Sea, which ran to 26 half-hour episodes and began airing in 1973.
Produced by Jeremy Isaacs for Lew Grades innovative ITV Britains rst commercial television network it covered a smaller time period than Civilisation,
but had a broader geographical scope, combining interviews and archival
footage to create a video history of the Second World War. It also featured
voice-over narration by Sir Laurence Olivier, Britains most revered stage and
screen actor, which lent dramatic gravitas and a measure of star-power to the
production, establishing a device that remains important today.
Other British documentary epics followed. Most, including Civilisation,
ultimately found a place in the American market on public television, which
had ample available airtime; a smaller, more exclusive share of the audience;
and a longstanding association with educational content. The documentaries
hewed to a relatively consistent pattern: like World at War and Civilisation, they
are sweeping in scope, feature material shot in a large number of far-ung
locales, and deal with the broadest of topics. The titles, often, say it all: The
Ascent of Man, The Trials of Life, Life on Earth, The Power of Art. The foothold
established by British imports ultimately led a number of epic documentarians
from the UK to ply their trade stateside, notably Adrian Malone, executive producer of The Ascent of Man and one of the series directors, David Kennard. In
1980, the pair would collaborate on the production of Cosmos, a thirteen episode
PBS series that sought to encompass not only the history of science and the
human species, but universe itself.
Cosmos was the most widely-viewed program in the history of non-commercial broadcasting in the United States and began (or, giving Victory at Sea
its pride of place, restored) an American tradition of epic documentaries. These
projects, like Vietnam: A Television History (1983), Eyes on the Prize (1987) and
Ken Burns Civil War (which broke Cosmos PBS ratings record in 1990), Baseball, Jazz (2001) and The War (2007), as well as such cable epics as The Presidents
(2005) and The States (2007), share with the BBC content the signature scope.
Unrestrained by audience attention spans or the exhibitors insatiable need to
turn screens, the documentary epic is free to delve.
On either side of the Atlantic, epic documentaries all feature as well the
guidance of a seemingly omniscient narrator, often either an expert in the matter at hand or a celebrity of the more sober and reliable sort. In some cases, the
series made the experts into celebrities. Cosmos made a star of astronomer Carl
Sagan, for instance, and storyteller Shelby Foote gained considerable cachelending the Civil War his Southern drawl. The grandiose reach and the allknowing voice-over, which link the epic documentary to what Bill Nichols calls
the expository mode of documentary lmmaking,5 renders such lms, however stirringly scored, dramatically cut, or impressively photographed they
might be, essentially didactic.6 They are encyclopedias in moving pictures, farreaching and authoritative enough in handling what they do address to create
the illusion that they have addressed all.
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Section III: Nature
Planet Earth: The BBCs High Denition

Natural History Epic
Planet Earth is a quintessential example of epic documentary encyclopedism. Produced by Alistair Fothergill, a lmmaker trained as a zoologist and a
pivotal member of the BBCs Natural History Unit, the series includes footage
shot by 40 teams working in more than 200 locations, from the Himalayas to
the ocean oor. Fothergill has an impressive pedigree in the form, having previously led the production of the epic documentary The Blue Planet in 2001
and worked under the supervision of David Attenborough on several of his
multi-part nature programs. Attenborough whose venerable, tweedy voice
as been synonymous with wildlife documentaries in the United Kingdom since
the 1970snarrates Planet Earth, which certainly adds to the series air of worldencompassing completeness.7
In terms of its audience and its mode of address, Planet Earth is not as
archly pedantic as many of the BBC epics (including most of Attenboroughs
lms), or as high-minded and elegiac as Ken Burns work for American public
television, Planet Earth is nevertheless emphatically not kid stuff except possibly for kids who happen to enjoy encyclopedias. Like the majority of nonction content which lls much of the cable line-up much of the time, Planet
Earth is geared principally for teens and adults. It contains fairly graphic violence, for example, though sex and violence among the non-hominid fauna is
generally deemed relatively innocuous in educational programming. The tone
and the language of the piece tend toward detail and environmentally ominous
conclusions: We are frequently reminded both of the life-and-death struggles
faced the creatures we meet, as well as of our own complicity in the destruction
of animal habitats.
Though the premier episode promises to show us places untouched by
man, the Hand of Man is constantly felt throughout the series. In addition to
the environmentally-conscious alarms sounded in nearly every episode (deserts
are growing, the snow leopard population has collapsed, disappearing sea ice
is damning the polar bears), humanity is a structuring absence in the program.
Few people appear in the main body of Planet Earth, but the voice-over makes
the viewer acutely conscious of that fact, insisting that we are witnessing events
that rarely seen by human eyes or never lmed before, as if we are discovering a New World by our watching.
This privileged glimpse at a world without people is, of course, an illusory,
secondhand one. Every episode of Planet Earth ends with one or more segments
in which the illusion of a pristine untouched wilderness is self-reexively
swept away, and the people and the machines that made the elephantine epic
possible take center stage. These segments, called Planet Earth Diaries reveal
an almost fetishistic fascination with the cutting-edge equipment employed,
and with trials faced by the bold, dauntless, and determined people using
177
them. This trope makes them into almost heroic gures. The camera crews
become, implicitly, not just recorders of he natural world, but scientist-explorers
in their own right the Darwins and Humbolts of the digital age. Ironically,
technology itself is one of the stars of Planet Earth. Even had traditional cinematography been able to record the distant, deep, dark and frequently dangerous scenes the more compact, more forgiving high-denition digital cameras
capture for the series, the sheer cost of such an undertaking on lm would have
beggared the BBC and its partners.
Unlike ction lms, which generally go to great lengths to keep the operations of the lmmakers decently hidden lest they puncture the imaginary reality of the story-world, Planet Earth is at great pains to frame its depictions of
the natural world with scenes from our world, the real real world. It is as if
the segments featuring the lmmakers are there to assure viewers that yes,
someone actually did follow that impala in a helicopter, or loiter in a war-zone
waiting for goats, or slither up that mountain of guano, swarming with roaches.
In an age when synthetic spectacles made by computers have become routine
(consider the computer-generated jungles in Peter Jacksons revision of King
Kong, or the towering forests and oating mountains in James Camerons
Avatar), reality needs all the corroborating evidence it can get. Thus we are
nally pulled, every hour, out of the surge of unprecedented, eye-popping
images and Planet Earth forcefully reasserts the status of the lm as a lm, or
more specically, a documentary.
Unquestionably, there is beauty here, terrible and splendid, and there is
awe, but there is little wonder in Planet Earth: we believe what we see to be genuine, and we are made to understand how it all came to be. Indeed, we are almost
as awed that the llmmakers got the shot as we are by what it depicts. In a sense,
Planet Earth is a series from which mystery and wonder have been banished,
since it seems as if there is no place on the planet, from the most ice-bound
glacier to the most hidden cave, that cannot be explored, recorded and ultimately
understood, no wilderness so remote or creature so cryptic that it can hide from
the lmmakers (and by extension, our) all-seeing HD gaze. Considered in the
context of epic documentary, nature lmmaking and wildlife photography, Planet
Earth is certainly a masterpiece, but it is never allowed to be magical.
Magic, however, is what Disney is all about. Much had to change, therefore,
before this extraordinary, encyclopedic work could appear in theaters, bearing
the Disney brand and standard.
Planet Disney: Docudrama and the Diminution

of an Epic
The Walt Disney Company is by no means new to documentary. The company has been involved in the making of hundreds of educational and during
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Section III: Nature
the Second World War training and propaganda lms, The True-Life Adventures series of short and feature-length wilderness and wildlife lms, treated
elsewhere in this volume, were seen theatrically around the world, and played
in classrooms and on television well into the 1980s. The True-Life format was,
like most Disney content, tailored for the family audience, and though the last
lm in the series was released in 1960, it is in the likeness of these movies that
Planet Earth was re-made in 2009. The eco-conscious natural history epic was,
in the hands of Walt Disney Studios, expertly whittled into an edifying (if occasionally and accidentally educational), emotionally rich family drama.
Earth running time is exactly 90 minutes: traditionally the ideal length for
movie-goers with kids in tow, and just about exactly one-seventh the running
time of the mini-series. Obviously, a lot of material shot by those bold, dauntless and determined HD teams had to hit the virtual cutting-room oor in the
process. The priorities and practices of disneycation can be seen in what is
taken out, what is retained, and how it is organized. Earth is not a condensed
version of Planet Earth a distillation or reduction concentrating into a denser
lm the essence of the original but rather a diminution, or juvenilization, in
which the concerns and themes of Planet Earth (the very world it discovers and
creates) are made manageable, miniature, and comfortably familiar.
The kinder, gentler, shorter Earth adopts a number of techniques used
extensively in other Disney content, including the True-Life Adventures and in
the sound cartoons on which the studios fortunes were built. The use of music,
in particular, is a conspicuous difference between the small-screen epic and the
big-screen bauble The sequence in which the mating displays of an eye-catching
assortment of Birds of Paradise are syncopated to a thumping base groove, for
example, is straight out of the True-Life Adventures or the rst Silly Symphonies
cartoon, Skeleton Dance. The same technique, known in the lmmaking world
as Mickey-Mousing, is used in a scene in which a troop of baboons wades awkwardly through a ooded inland delta, the mincing rhythm creating a sort of
slapstick tone. Both scenes occur in Planet Earth, but in the mini-series there
is no mood-setting music; the behaviors are acoustically accompanied only by
what seem to be natural sounds recorded on location.
Planet Earth has a musical score, and like all lm music, it inuences the
audiences emotional response to the image track. But the music in Earth is far
more evocative of the kinds of music typical of ction lmmaking, and it is
more pervasive. More pervasive, too, is the use of time-lapse photography.
Time-lapse photography is a favorite technique of nature documentarians.
After all, many processes, from the melting of snows to the springing of buds,
take place to slowly for impatient human observers to mark. The technique
appears frequently in Planet Earth, usually to illustrate a specic phase or
process signicant to the animals under discussion: a forest blushing russet
with the coming of autumn, or clouds rushing into towering formation to pour
rains on the thirsty plains. Time-lapse (and slow-motion cinematography) here
179
may be thought of as a temporal analog to the encyclopedic documentarys

apparently all-encompassing breadth of vision, which can take in everything
from the highest peaks to the bottommost undersea abyss. Neither events blindingly fast nor glacially slow can elude the cameras.
Fast-motion interludes also offer a formal punctuation mark, facilitating
a change in location or focus. Time lapse photography is used in Planet Earth
because we have so much ground to cover; in Earth, because we have so little
time. The time-lapse sequences in Planet Earth enhance the kaleidoscopic,
trans-temporal Gods-eye perspective of the encyclopedic documentary. Earth,
with its smaller scope and briefer span, Earth employs time-lapse in ways that
often seem disconnected from the natural world. The sequences function as a
purely formal gesture a kind of magical seeing that has less to do with the
rhythms of the real world than with the emotions of the audience. Crammed
into so (relatively) short a lm and frequently set to music, the time-lapse
sequences in Earth seem like something out of Fantasia.
Most of the heavy lifting of disneycation in Earth, though, is done on the
level of narrative. Like most works of natural history, Planet Earth favors systematics to thematics, and structures each episode around a specic environment fresh water, desert, forests, and so forth. This allows the lm to remain
global in its perspective, episodes hop nimbly from the Eastern Europe to the
Western United States to Central Asia and keep it at a certain distance from
the actions of individual animals, which admittedly give the lm much of its
emotional impact. If we were given a nutshell to shove its half-a-days worth
of documentary into, we might say that Planet Earth is about our planets
many habitats, and the living things those habitats support.
Earth, on the other hand, is about babies.
The lm opens with twin polar bear cubs (not just cute, but brand-building, plush-toy peddling cute Coca Cola has been using CGI polar bear cubs
as a seasonal sales tool for over a decade) and proceeds to parade baby animals
on the screen throughout all warm-blooded, by the way (invertebrates and
reptiles are most frequently found playing support in Disney cartoons Evinrude the dragony in The Rescuers, Sebastian the crab in Little Mermaid (the
titular amphibians in The Frog Princess are the rst cold-blooded critters cast
in leading roles presuming that the stars of Dinosaur were endotherms).
The perspective is technically still global, but what links these creatures together
is not adaptation and environment, as in Planet Earth, but developmental and
individualized their shared infancy. Species elephant, duck, baboon, whale,
bear doesnt make a difference, the lm suggests. Babies are babies, . Earth
plays, as a result, like the zoological equivalent to the famous animatronic Its
a Small World attraction at Disneyland, in which children of every race and
nation hold hands and sing to the audience across a harmonious, bijou Earth.
To drive this focus on the family home, the adult animals in Earth are consistently and casually referred as mom or dad. In the end, all of the juveniles
180
Section III: Nature
on which we have focused (save one) are alive and well, and the parents have
proven themselves good and responsible guardians. This is not to say, however,
that Earth is devoid of drama. Far from it. The lms most gripping (and manipulative) sequences involve baby animals in peril, a favorite theme of the studio
throughout its history. A young deer is taken by a wolf in the rst act (the wolf,
we are informed, has cubs to feed), and later a pride of lions menace try to separate an elephant calf from the protective circle of his herd during a night attack.
When they nd the vulnerable youngster shielded by trumpeting grown-ups,
the disappointed lions shift their hungry attentions to a solitary male, who
they harry off-screen. Their messy meal, like all blood-smeared scenes of animal
feasting featured in Planet Earth, is not shown in the Disney version.
Finally, bookending the lm, a male polar bear, identied as the father of
the introductory twins, goes after a newborn walrus. This attempt, like the
wolf s, is chalked up to the demands of feeding the family, but the polar bear
fails, and is injured mortally we are told by one of his would-be victims.
If this seems a lot of violence for a family lm, reect for a moment on
the corpse-strewn canon of Disneys animated features, scarcely a single nuclear
family survives with both parents intact, and the lms are full of orphans.
Human children tend to be bereft before the movie begins, as in Lilo and Stitch
and Tarzan, but animals face grimmer prospects. Bambi, Finding Nemo, The
Fox and the Hound, and The Lion King all include the death of a parent, albeit
obliquely. Moreover, most of the cartoon features thrust their young protagonists in deadly harms way at some point. These events are, of course, handled
with care. We do not dwell on explicit scenes of predation or dismemberment,
a nicety of feeling shared by the editors of Earth which, like the more lethal
animations, leave to the real moms and dads watching with their offspring the
unpleasant task of explaining what just happened to Bambis mom or Simbas
dad.
How violence is represented and contextualized in Earth is a fascinating
example of how the same representations of the same events can be spun to
different effects for different crowds. This is the circle of life, that most of us
in our urban lives have lost touch with intones the narration by James Earl
Jones (repeating a refrain from The Lion King, whose patriarch, Mufasa, spoke
in his voice), as a cheetah runs down a gazelle. The pursuit is presented as a
bloodless, balletic slow-mo sequence, with the coup-de-grace neatly cut out,
accompanied by a lovely, melancholic music. A similar sequence, appearing in
both lms, shows a great white shark devouring a ailing sea-lion. The slowmotion sequence is cut differently in Earth, with the one shot in which the
predators jaws close in unambiguous slow motion on the body of the hapless
pinniped is excised. Only shots in which just the sea lions tail can be seen in
the sharks mouth are used. Nature may still be red in tooth and claw in a Disney
lm, but it is a very pretty red, and death, when it comes, is always narratively
reconciled.
181
The lm and the voice-over of Earth create an unambiguous interpretive

framework for understanding the events shown. The shot of the wounded polar
bear dad breaking off his attack on the escaping walruses, during which we
are informed that he will not survive, is followed by a bright, high-angle long
shot of the twins jogging along the snowscape. Their fathers brave spirit will
always live on in their young hearts, says Jones (the voice not only of Mufasa,
but of Darth Vader and CNN), like all of our children, they are the hope of
the future and proof of the resilience of life in this place we all share. Unlike
the omniscient narrator in the mini-series, the function of the voice-over in
Earth is not simply to explain, but also to reassure, to tell us not just what the
events pictured literally are but what they, in this case metaphysically or spiritually, mean. Here, death becomes paternal sacrice, and the Jones sonorous
benediction closes the circle of life: an animals life ends, but animal life endures.
This sort of mythic perpetuity, in which drama can punctuate but never ultimately arrest the closed-circuit spin of a stable and impervious cosmos is wholly
compatible with the magical thinking that underlies much Disney content.
Every night in the park is special, and marked by a parade; every ending is
nally a happy one.
The most profound mark of Earths disneycation is, ultimately, that optimistic outlook. Its source-epic, Planet Earth, depicts life as perpetually standing
on the brink, and puts responsibility for the fragile and threatened natural
world squarely on our shoulders. On Planet Earth, we appear as newcomers:
aliens and usurpers, or, more benignly, chroniclers and collectors. Human ingenuity and perseverance are celebrated in every episode of Planet Earth, but so
too are human rapacity and neglect decried Whether it is the animals that are
under threat or the small, small world itself, as in the case of the vast Lechuguilla
cave system, which has to be sealed off lest spelunking nature-lovers inadvertently destroy its wonders, Planet Earth is an encyclopedia of the endangered.
Even when humanity is not directly implicated in its peril, the natural world
is depicted in the epic as painfully prone to cataclysm, as seen in the fantastical
(but not, in the literal sense, fabulous!) deepwater environments that cluster
round volcanic vents and then are left lifeless when the pattern of eruption
changes. Earth, in good Disney fashion, plays a dramatically different refrain,
reassuring viewers that, though a life may be eeting, Life itself goes on and
on.
NOTES
1. As Donald Crafton, Karl Malden and others have ably chronicled elsewhere, theatrical animation in the United States was varied and competitive, with many players,
series, characters and techniques jostling for screens and market share. Disneys small
studio was initially part of this hungry throng. An important harbinger of things to
come, Springtime sets itself apart from many early sound cartoons, including others
made by Disney, by adopting a bluntly but still distinctly Romantic view of nature,
setting the processes of seasons and animal life jauntily to music.
182
Section III: Nature
2. There is of course an immense market for media targeting exclusively children

content designed in other words to be consumed principally by juveniles absent older
co-viewers. Disney, in fact, creates or distributes many such titles (their Baby Einstein
products and various Mickey Mouse Club franchises spring to mind). Contrasted with,
for instance, Disneys animated and live action features which presuppose that there are
adults present in the theater (that most such lms are in fact now routinely rated PG,
formally acknowledging this assumption), childrens media presents far more simple
and streamlined narratives and structures. Disneyed content, on the other hand, tends
to have a kind of doubled discourse, simultaneously presented to two distinct, if not
sometimes downright oppositional audiences: kids and their caretakers and/or instructors.
3. Some nessing of terms is called for here: Disney as a conglomerate has vast
and varied interests in media, many of them, such as ESPN, more or less completely
disconnected from the family entertainment operation. However, both historically and
colloquially, Disney as a brand remains more intimately associated with its parks, features, and small-screen content.
4. Anthony Crupi, Survival Of the Fittest. Adweek vol. 48, no. 19 (2007), SR4SR6, SR8; Hibberd, James. Discovery, BBC Plot More Planet, Television Week, vol.
26, no. 17 (2007), 3 34.
5. Nichols, Bill. Introduction to Documentary (Bloomington: University of Indiana
Press) 2001, 105 108.
6. To this, as to all rules of genre and cinematic taxonomy, there are some exceptions.
Claude Lanzmanns singular Shoah (1985) for instance, was an immense undertaking,
and runs some nine hours, but never pretends to offer any kind of totalizing perspective
of the Holocaust. While it takes viewers to many of the myriad places where events
tragic and brutal and even courageous occurred, it remains ercely and intimately
engaged, with history and with the human subjects interviewed for the project, rejecting
the lofty objectivity frequently cultivated in lms like Planet Earth.
7. Documentaries made in the UK are routinely re-recorded with American voice
talent. In the case of Planet Earth, the American broadcasts on the Discover Channel
featured a voice-over by Sigourney Weaver, an actress, now 60, then best-known to
most audiences for playing Ripley, the long-suffering protagonist of the Alien lms. Presumably, her unappable, coolly feminine stoicism was deemed an appropriate substitute
for Attenboroughs wry omniscience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crafton, Donald. Before Mickey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Crupi, Anthony. Survival of the Fittest. Adweek 48, no. 19 (2007): SR4-SR6, SR8.
Hibberd, James. Discovery, BBC Plot More Planet, Television Week 26, no. 17 (2007):
3 34.
Nichols, Bill. Introduction to Documentary. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press,
2001.

12
A Past to Make Us Proud

U.S. History According to Disney
MARIANNE HOLDZKOM
In 1630, while traveling to North America from England, John Winthrop,

the new Governor of Massachusetts Bay articulated the aspirations he had for
the new settlement. In his speech, A Model of Christian Charity Winthrop
uttered a phrased that spelled out the importance of the colonists behavior and
success in the Western Hemisphere. He told his fellow Puritans that they would
be like a city upon a hill: The eyes of all people are upon us.... Massachusetts
Bay would be an example to the world and therefore all colonists must behave
accordingly. From this moment on, the idea of America as example has been
a constant in our history. The Revolutionary generation insisted that they could
break the cycle of history and become the safe-haven of liberty for the entire
world. The very existence of America could be philosophy teaching by
example. Abraham Lincoln reminded Americans of their special place in the
world in the Gettysburg Address. Even into the 20th and 21st centuries, the
United States has taken on the role of guardian of liberty and has dedicated
itself, in a number of ways to teach the world how to form democracies and
thrive in them. How successful the U.S. has been at this is questionable, but
one point is clear: Educating the world or attempting to is as American as
apple pie.1
In this spirit, Walt Disney played the role of educator as well: teaching his
middle-class American audience not only about science, nature, health, safety,
and geography, but about their own history. Ive always wanted to do American
History, Disney told Newsweek magazine in 1955. Its due. We have taken too
many things for granted.2 Disney set out, at the height of the Cold War, to
teach his audiences that their past was noble and that they themselves could
rise to the greatness of their ancestors. He focused, therefore, on stories of people who working together created, preserved and expanded the United
States. Disney wanted to present the story of Amercas history in unapologet183
184
ically patriotic terms: history told with head high, chest up, heart bursting
with pride....3
Disney lms that depict events from U. S. History are too numerous to
analyze them all here, but examining selected periods The American Revolution, The Civil War, the Westward expansion and (in Disney lms of the
1990s) the early colonial period provides a clear picture of Disneys attitude
toward American history. Some of these lms and television series deal with
real historical characters; others recreate the spirit of a time or movement. All
show how Disney rewrote the past in order to reshape audiences view of the
present.
According to Scott Alan Metzger, historical lms can allow audiences to
think about a better world by imagining a better past.4 Disneys historical
lms provided audiences with l entertainment in his historical lms while at
the same time giving them a past in which they could be proud of and draw
inspiration from. The themes of unity (or community) and reconciliation
apparent in all of the lms covered in this chapter were central to this goal.
Disney lms about the American past never shied away from depicting tension
and conict, but they nearly always told stories of people standing together,
working as a team or reconciling their differences in order to move on together
and achieve a common goal. These themes are sometimes subtle and other times
like hammer blows to the head, but they are always present.
The intense focus on unity and reconciliation in Disney historical lms
reects the worldview of Walt Disney himself. It stemmed, in part from his
longing for a utopia. In his nostalgia for Marceline, Missouri, the town in which
he grew up, Walt remembered that people in that community cared for one
another and that there was a tolerance in the town as well. Everything was
done in a community help, said Disney. The town worked as one unit. Disney
longed to recapture the sense of well-being, freedom and community he felt
as a child in that town,5 The small-town, collaborative values that Disney cherished were he believed also those of his Studio. The cartoonists strike that
shook the Studio in 1941 shattered its owners utopianism and left him
shocked and dismayed by this strike, taking it as a personal affront.6 Disney
felt that the strike had destroyed the spirit of the studio and he blamed the
turmoil on Communist interference (bent on destroying him personally) rather
than on his own labor policies.7 Lingering bitterness over the strike and concern
over the worldwide spread of Communism may have led Disney more than
a decade later to embrace stories of cooperation and ultimate understanding
between Americans, and to ignore the historical realities that contradicted his
vision. His lms provided as much of an escape for him as they did for his
audience.The Cold War, was may have sharpened their appeal, to Walt if not
to theater audienced: The same ideas that had created the United States and
made it a City Upon a Hill could now save the world by encouraging Americans to set aside their differences and make common cause against the enemy.
12. A Past to Make Us Proud (Holdzkom)
185
Disneys American history lms were designed to teach those broader lessons:
to persuade Americans to embrace the values of their past in order to protect
their present and insure their future.
The American Revolution

Historians of the American Revolution have interpreted that event in various ways: some as an ideological struggle between power and liberty and others
as a conict over not only home rule but over who should rule at home as
Carl Becker once put it. In other words, historians have always recognized the
complexity of the Revolution and have argued that the participants were motivated by many different factors.8 Disneys version of the American Revolution
was far simpler: The colonists were ghting for the right to freedom, not just
for themselves but also for the entire world, and when internal strife arose
among them those who remembered that they were ghting for liberty won
out. The Studios two principal Revolutionary War productionsJohnny
Tremain and the slightly darker, more adult The Swamp Fox depict the American Revolution as a clear-cut ght for freedom in the face of tyranny..
The Swamp Fox, a loosely structured six-part serial that ran as part of the
Disneyland television series from October 1959 through January 1961, told the
story of Colonel Francis Marion, nicknamed The Swamp Fox by the British.
Marions greatest fame came as a militia leader whose guerilla tactics made life
miserable for the British in South Carolina: disrupting supply lines, burning
ships and capturing horses and equipment for the Continental Army.9 To his
credit, Walt Disney effectively used his on-screen introductions to each installment of the series to sketch the history little known to most Americans of
the Revolutionary War in the South. The episodes themselves, however, followed in a long tradition of doing to Marion what Parson Weems (creator of
the cherry tree legend) did for George Washington. They made him more a
symbol than a human being: always heroic, never dishonest. The series itself
however reduced Marion to a crusading outlaw-gure, and in fact referred to
Marion as The Robin Hood of the American Revolution.10 Disney completed
the illusion by casting the tall, handsome Leslie Nielsen as Marion. Nielsen was
known for playing heroic leads at this point in his career (the starship captain
in Forbidden Planet, for example), but given contemporary physical descriptions
of Marion, Wally Cox or Don Knotts would have been a better choice. Marion
was described as nearly forty-eight years old, short and a bit on the frail side,
with his ankles and knees obviously malformed.11
One of the most interesting aspects of the series is its accurate depiction
of the war in the Southern colonies as a civil war between Tories who were
loyal to the crown and Patriots who were in favor of independence. The
American Revolution in the South offered neighbors an opportunity to settle
186
old scores and both Tories and Patriots were guilty of doing so.12 The Swamp
Fox demonstrates the lengths to which such efforts were carried, depicting the
Tories as men bent on revenge who resort to burning barns and shooting Patriots even as the British condemn such practices.13 The Patriots crimes against
their Tory neighbors are (in the series) far less serious, and the men of Marions
gang laugh off their antics. For example, in the rst episode of the series, one
of Marions men arrives at camp with a pig in his arms. The pig escapes, however, and the man tells Marion that it was a Tory pig anyway but that he
didnt steal it; the pig followed him to camp. The historical reality was far
darker, with colonists on both sides resorting to arson and murder.
The second episode, Brother Against Brother, shows a Tory attempting
to burn down his brothers barn and his brother along with it. Marion and his
men show up in the nick of time to save him. In this episode as well, Marions
men are ready to take their revenge on the Tories. His sister-in-law tells him
that they do not fear the British so much as the Tory devils who have just
burned down their barn. His brother Gabe says, A barn for a barn, a house
for a house, a life for a life if necessary. Gabes anger is shared by the rest of
the men, but Marion counsels restraint and reminds them that despite their
differences they are all neighbors. The battles will be forgotten, he warns, but
if a neighbor burns down another neighbors barn or house, those things will
never be forgotten. Revenge, he argues, is unacceptable because Thats what
the enemy does!14
Disney thus maintains a classic good-guys-versus-bad-guys scenario, and
glosses over the historical reality that there were atrocities on both sides of this
ght. Placing blame on both sides would have complicated the plot and, more
importantly, blurred the storys message about the importance of working
together and the consequences of disunity. The Patriots in The Swamp Fox are
strong, Marion tells his men in the rst episode, because they are ghting for
a cause: for their land ... their country.... And thats why well win.15 The
Tories in this series are clearly the misguided men, having foolishly thrown in
their lot with the British enemy rather than making common cause with their
Patriot neighbors against them. It was as the Cold War approached its peak
a particularly powerful message for a staunch anti-communist like Walt Disney
Cold War themes are even more prominent in Johnny Tremain the story
of the early days of the Revolution as experienced by Paul Reveres (ctional)
teenaged apprentice takes a still-more-expansive view. It opens with an accurate map of Boston, Massachusetts in 1773, and features such real historical
gures as Paul Revere, Samuel Adams, James Warren and James Otis as supporting characters even touching on Otiss descent into madness but it is
very much a product of 1957. The lm is dedicated to the youth of the world
... in whose spirit and courage rests the hope of eventual freedom for all
Mankind.16 For Walt Disney, the ultimate goal of the American Revolution
187
was freedom for the world, and he was explicit about the Cold War signicance
of that idea. Johnny Tremain, he noted, is a very pertinent story. What we
were ghting for then, we are ght for now.17
The lm is very clear about what the colonists are ghting for. After the
disaster of Lexington and Concord, General Thomas Gage, Royal Governor of
Massachusetts and commander of British troops there, tells one of his subordinates: Weve experienced more than a defeat, more than a military misfortune. Weve been vanquished by an idea, a belief in human rights. It would
have been news to the British of the 18th century that they did not believe in
human rights. According to Robert Middlekauff, the English were even looked
down upon by other Europeans because they were considered an unstable lot,
obsessed with parliamentary government, with bills of rights and liberty that
cut monarchs down to the size of mayors.18 The landed aristocracy continued
to exercise great inuence in England, and would until parliamentary reform
began in the 1830s, but the citizens of the country were proud of their mixed
monarchy and their established rights. King George III himself admired the
system, writing of the beauty, excellence, and perfection of the British Constitution as by Law established.19 The British may not have expounded on
human rights the way 20th century Americans did, but they certainly saw themselves as head and shoulders above the rest of Europe when it came to protecting
the liberty of their people as even the American colonists acknowledged. By
putting the imagined words of a Stalin or a Khrushchev into the mouth of a
British general, Disney reminded Americans of the 1950s of their new struggle
for freedom.
The Cold War themes in Johnny Tremain do not stop with human rights.
The themes of unity and community are, once again, very prominent. When
Johnny is accused of a crime he did not commit, the sons of Liberty provide a
lawyer for him. When Johnny he that he cannot afford such an attorney because
he is just a nobody. Paul Revere a fellow Son of Liberty as well as his master
and mentor responds, Were all nobodies when we stand alone. The message
resonates with 1950s attitudes, but distorts history, glossing over conicts within
the colonial community regarding the nature of the revolutionary movement,
perpetuating the notion that the colonists in the northern colonies were homogeneously united against the British and that all Americans would reap the
benets of liberty.20 The only prominent Tory in the lm is Johnnys wealthy
uncle, and Johnnys rejection of him returning the christening cup given to
him by his dead mother and stating that this means more to you than it ever
will to me is as much about rejecting unearned wealth and power as it is
about Tory politics.
Both Johnny Tremain and The Swamp Fox demonstrate Disneys dedication
to historical adventure. Disney himself was concerned with historical accuracy
to a point, wishing to get the details of soldiers uniforms and troop movements
correct, but not with the political complexities of the Revolution,21 The over-
188
riding theme in both productions is the righteousness of the American cause

and the importance of standing together. Those who reject either are villains,
and Disney admits no shades of gray on that point.
Westward Expansion: Part I

One major theme in United States history is that of western expansion.
From the time of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to the annexation of Texas
and the Southwest territories after the defeat of Mexico in the Mexican-American War, the United Sates was looking to add more and more land to its boundaries. The concept of Manifest Destiny led Americans to believe that they had
a right to all of the land from the Atlantic to the Pacic. In truth, this desire
for Western lands discounted the prior claims of native peoples and earlier settlers from Mexico, who were systematically displaced and dispossessed. None
of this is evident in Disneys tales of western expansion and exploration. These
focused on trail-blazing heroes and brave pioneers; emphasized their courage,
commitment, and hard work needed; and reiterated the themes of unity, reconciliation and community.
Walt Disney had been considering Davy Crockett for an anthology on
American heroes long, but hesitated. even as the studio was planning the show
because he was afraid that it would feature too much ghting Indians.22 Practicality won out. Having structured his new ABC-TV anthology series, Disneyland, around four rotating themes tied to the theme parks four lands, Disney
decided that Davy Crockett was a perfect t for the Frontierland theme. The
rst of three planned, hour-long programs featuring Crockett debuted on
December 5, 1954, and the frontiersman plain-spoken, fearless and compassionate; able to lick any problem with his wits and his own two hands, as
Time magazine wrote became an overnight sensation.23 Historian Steven
Watts wrote that Walt Disney, with his instinctive feel for cultural pressure
points, half-consciously shaped an ideal, reassuring representation of the American way as it faced a daunting challenge from without.24 The Ballad of Davy
Crockett became a standard on the American Pop Charts and ten million coonskins caps were sold in 1955.25
Davy Crockett: Indian Fighter, the rst of the three original stories, introduces the hero as he is attempting to grin down a bear and is therefore unavailable to report to General Andrew Jackson as requested. Instantly the audience
is aware that this man does things his own way in his own time, and who serves
or dees authority when he feels he needs to. Davy helps the U. S. Army nd
and ght the Indian warrior Red Stick defeating him in hand-to-hand combat but in the end he counsels Red Stick to make paeace, telling him that
White Mans laws could work for the Red Man too, if given half a chance.
When Red Stick asks Davy why he did not kill him when he had the opportunity,
189
Davy answers: Because of another law thats good for all men, red and white
alike: Thou Shalt Not Kill. In the end, Davy and Red Stick shake hands, offering the hope of peace and reconciliation between the Natives and the Whites,
and establishing an approach to Indian-White relations that Disney would run
through Disney lms for decades.
The second in the series, Davy Crockett Goes to Congress (aired January
26 31, 1955) follows Davy Crockett through his brief career in politics. Along
the way, Crockett again promotes peace with Native Americansevidence, perhaps of Walt Disneys concerns about too much ghting Indians. Injuns got
rights. Davy declares on the oor of Congress. Theyre folks same as anybody
else. He makes a speech against Andrew Jacksons Injun Bill the Indian
Removal Act of 1830 which called for the relocation of the Cherokee Nation
and other tribes from eastern states to an area west of the Mississippi River
but makes it plain that Jackson has only the best of intentions, an assertion that
some historians would nd difcult to believe.26 Disney did not want his hero
to go too far, even speaking in opposition to a bill that contemporaries including Chief Justice John Marshall found distasteful. The Disney version of Davy
Crockett is willing to disagree with the leader of the United States, but only up
to a point. He stops short of criticizing the president personally, and instead
blames greedy land speculators for wanting to remove the Indians from the
East. Crockett holds out great hope that the Natives and the Whites can live
together in peace even though Disney knows how the tension between whites
and Indians played out: There was nally peace, but the Indians lost.
The second Crockett tale ends after his speech, leaving Congress and his
political career behind. It glosses over Crocketts defeat in the 1834 election (a
result of his opposition to Jacksons policies) and his legendary comment that
the voters that turned him out can all go to hell, and I will go to Texas. The
last of the original series, Davy Crockett At the Alamo (air date February 23rd28th, 1955) begins with Davy and his pal George on their way to Texas where,
he says, Americans are in trouble and need his help. The trouble is American
immigrants efforts to wrest Texas from Mexican control or, more accurately,
Mexican opposition to those efforts. Davy and George arrive in San Antonio
during the siege of the Alamo by Santa Annas army. Here, as in the previous
episode and in Johnny Tremain, Disney reduces complex politics to a simple
opposition. The last time the audience sees Davy, he is swinging his rie at the
attacking Mexican Army in the walls of the Alamo and the nal verse of the
ballad ends the lm with, Davy, Davy Crockett! Fightin for liberty!
This nal scene in the lm presented Disney with an unpalatable complication that could not be readily glossed over. The public knew full well that
Crockett died at the Alamo, but they did not want to see it in Disneys version.
One letter to the studio read : If you dont get Davy Crockett out of the Alamo
unharmed, the Bonniwell family will go back to Arthur Godfrey next week.27
Disney was torn, but in the end decided that Everybody knows Davy Crockett
190
died at the Alamo! I wasnt going to tamper with history.28 Disney stuck to
history as it was then known.29 The ending of the lm is quite inconclusive yet
gives the audience the sense that Crocketts ending was heroic, as his life had
been. Disney even managed to resurrect him for another two episodes originally
designed to focus on Mike Fink. The shows were revamped to include Davy
and George and were re-named Davy Crockett and the Keel Boat Race and Davey
Crockett and the River Pirates in which Davy teams up with Mike Fink to defeat
some thieves apparently Indians, but (in typical Disney fashion) actually white
men disguised as Indians along the Mississippi River.30
Though unable to resurrect Davy Crockett himself, Disney brought back
Fess Parker in Westward Ho, the Wagons! (1956) another tale of brave pioneers,
Manifest Destiny, and reconciliation with between Native Americans and white
settlers. The lm, set in 1846, centers on a wagon train bound for the Oregon
Territory, acquired from Great Britain the previous year. The lm opens by
reminding the audience that The ruts of the Oregon Trail were not cut by
armies or adventurers but by wagons carrying American families and all their
possessions westward bound with faith in God and the hope of a Promised
Land. As the lm begins, the settlers are anxious to get to friendly Sioux territory and away from the hostile Pawnees. Yet once they reach Fort Laramie
in Sioux territory, a French trader informs the group that the Sioux are upset
because some of their braves were killed by the last wagon train to pass through
the territory. Asked if he thought the Sioux would close the trail, he responds:
How can you guess with an Indian?
The climax of the lm comes when the Sioux chief s son falls off his horse
and is seriously injured. While Many Stars, the tribes healer attempts to save
him, the boy is dying. At this point, Doc Grayson who is not a trained
physician approaches the camp in an attempt to help the boy. The Sioux are
reluctant, but after the boys mother begs her husband to let Grayson try, the
Doc is given access to the child. He is able to save the boy and this brings
peace to the two peoples. The Sioux grant the wagon train safe passage through
their territory and the settlers continue on their way to Oregon.
Here again we see the importance of reconciliation and unity to Disney.
A common humanity between the whites and the Sioux seems to make a resolution between them possible. Yet the reconciliation only takes place when the
white doctor saves the native child. There is a clear implication of white superiority in this scenario. Somehow, the Sioux had survived for centuries without
the medical help of the whites, but only Doc Grayson a man who admits
to being a better mule driver than a doctor has the capability to save the boy.
The message of unity here does not stem from an acknowledgement of equality.
There is a superior race in this lm and once everyone understands that, they
can be united in a common humanity.31
Harmony between the Sioux and the settlers thus restored, the Sioux grant
the wagon train safe passage and escort the settlers through their territory. Rid-
191
ing in parallel lines on either side of the wagons, the Sioux serve as protection
from the hostile Pawnee who are portrayed as less-than-human, as wild savages. They show no human emotions, they steal from the settlers and they
have a wild party in which they dance and shoot off guns. On the other hand,
the Sioux the friendly Indians are seen in family units with human concerns and desires. These are the people to which the whites are reconciled by
Doc Graysons diplomacy and medical knowledge. Clearly, the Disney Studio
of the 1950s believed in good Indians vs. bad Indians. It would appear that
even at Disney there were some people with whom one could not reconcile.
The Civil War

The Civil War for Disney as for other lmmakers has held greater
appeal than the Revolution, but also posed greater challenges: There is no unambiguously heroic Us to take the place of the Patriots, no readily demonized
Them to substitute for King Georges redcoats, and no single issue to match
the Revolutions iconic struggle between freedom and tyranny. Each of Disney
Studios four Civil War lmsThe Great Locomotive Chase (1956), Johnny Shiloh
(1963), Mosbys Marauders (1967), and Menace on the Mountain (1970) solved
this problem in essentially the same way. They took a microcosmic view of the
war, focusing not on the larger issues that pitted brother against brother, but
on the bonds of brotherhood that formed between individual soldiers. The two
lms based on real eventsJohnny Shiloh and The Great Locomotive Chase
illustrate both Disneys embrace of the theme and Disney lmmakers willingness to distort the established facts in order to serve it.
In Johnny Shiloh (1963) Disney retells the story of a real historical gure:
Johnny Clem, the Drummer Boy of Chickamauga. In the story, 10-year-old John
Lincoln Clem runs away from home to join the Union army, he trains as a drummer, and wins the respect of the rest of the platoon. Clem gets his rst taste of
ghting at the Battle of Shiloh where he distinguishes himself by boosting the
morale of his regiment and picks up his nickname, Johnny Shiloh. Captured by
the Confederate army surrounding Chattanooga, e is placed in the care of another
young soldier, Private Jones, with whom he strikes up a friendship.
These two boys serve as the lms versions of the archetypal Civil War soldiers, Johnny Reb and Billy Yank, their dialogue providing the audience
with a glimpse of the soldiers life. In crucial way, however, the two boys are
not typical of either army. They are under eighteen, when the average age of
Civil War soliders was twenty-four,32 and either says much about why he is
ghting, although there is evidence to suggest that soldiers on both sides had
very clear ideas about this issue.33 Jones simply says that his army will lick the
Yanks. He also tells Johnny that he hates The Yanks because they captured
his best friend and sent him to a prison camp. Over their time together, Johnny
192
and Private Jones also argue about who can save the country Abraham Lincoln or Jefferson Davis but the lm largely avoids politics. For Jones, his ght
is now very personal. In this way, Disney brings the huge Civil War down to a
very simple and human scale.
The two boys become friends despite the power relationship between them.
Eventually the trust between them is so complete that Jones who, again atypically for a Civil War soldier, is illiterateasks Johnny to read a letter he receives
from home. 34 It thus falls to Johnny to tell Jones the letters terrible news: that
Jones best friend has died in the Union prison camp. Later, when Johnny
escapes to avoid being sent to a prison camp himself, Jones discovers the escape
attempt, but lets him go, saving his new friend from the fate of his hometown
buddy. Johnny returns to his unit, is given a shiny new Union uniform, but
also decides to keep the clothes he was given in the Confederate camp because
a friend of mine gave them to him. Johnnys friendship with Jones surfaces
again when he is reunited with his guardian Gabe after his escape. Gabe asks
Johnny what the Rebs are like in their camp and Johnny responds that they are
no different from us, and says that hell be glad when the war is over so that
they can stop shooting at one another. Johnny Shiloh thus reiterates, subtly,
Disneys vision of American history: Consensus is the ultimate good, and disunity leads to tragedies like the Civil War. Glossing over the political tensions
that tore the country apart in 1861, the lm proposes that, like Johnny and Private Jones, Northerners and Southerners had more in common than they knew
and that the issues that brought them together their common belief in freedom for example were more powerful than their differences.
The Great Locomotive Chase the story of an 1862 Union attempt to isolate
Chattanooga by cutting the rail line to Atlanta also features two characters
from opposite sides of the war. Adversaries rather than friends, they nd (in
true Disney fashion) much to admire in one another. The mission, carried out
by a party of soldiers led by Union spy James Andrews, involved stealing a train
from Big Shanty (now Marietta) Georgia, and driving it north, tearing up track,
disabling switches, and cutting telegraph lines as they went. They succeeded in
stealing a train, headed by the now famous locomotive The General, but its
conductor, William Fuller, pursued them rst on a handcar and then (after
reaching the next station) in a second locomotive: the Texas.35
Themes of reconciliation gure prominently in the lm. In order for the
raid to succeed, the Union soldiers must literally walk in Southerners shoes:
posing as loyal Southerners and even uncomfortably singing Dixie. This is easier for some of the raiders than for others. Andrews and William Pittinger the
most intelligent and sensitive of the raiders see Southerners as wayward brothers. Pittinger even remarks that he cannot hate the men he is ghting. Another
of the raidersthe rough, belligerent William Campbelltakes exactly the opposite position.36 His intense, personal hatred of Southerners repeatedly endangers
the mission by threatening to blow the raiders cover or causing him to act rashly
193
when threatened. He must learn to control his loathing in order for the raid to
succeed. The lm underscores the value of unity in a later scene, where Pittinger
and Andrews agree that they are ghting for the Union, not against Southerners,
and Pittinger regrets the brother-against-brother nature of the war.
While this story is told strictly from the Union perspective, the Southerners notably conductor William Fuller, whose quick action foils the raid are
all sympathetic characters. To drive the point of reconciliation home, Disney
also includes a scene that is remarkable in its revisionism. Before Andrews is
hanged for his role in the raid, he requests to see Fuller, the man most responsible for its failure. Fuller is reluctant to visit the man who lied to him in order
to steal his train, but does so anyway, clearly uncomfortable as he approaches
the jail cell. The theme of reconciliation continues in the remarkable dialog:
ANDREWS: I wanted you to know Im sorry I had to deceive you.... You whipped
me fair and square. Now that its over, I hoped you wouldnt hold a
grudge.
FULLER: I havent much use for a man who poses as a loyal Southerner and isnt.
ANDREWS: I was ghting for my convictions.... My only weapons were the lies a spy
must tell. Some day the ghtin will be over and both sides will have to
shake hands. I wont be alive to see that day. Could we do it now?
Reluctantly, Fuller shakes Andrewss outstretched hand in the ultimate act of

reunion: a lovely scene that elicits strong emotions from those who view it, but
one that never took place. It is wholly the creation of the Disney screenwriters inspired, perhaps, by symbolic handshakes of reconciliation that did take
place: Grant and Lee at Appomattox in 1865, or Union and Confederate veterans
at the 50th-anniversary commemoration of the Battle of Gettysburg in 1913.37
Here the Disney studio attempted to emphasize a united country by creating
a moment of reconciliation in the past, a moment that never occurred, but
stood for the real unity that Disney wished to emphasize.
That Disney chose to depict the most divisive period of U.S. history with
stories that emphasized the need for unity was, perhaps, a reection of the times
they were made. The Great Locomotive Chase premiered in June 1956, in the wake
of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the murder of Emmett Till (1955),
and the midst of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Johnny Shiloh had its rst broadcast on telecast in early 1963: the year of Letter from the Birmingham Jail, the
assassination of Medgar Evers, and the March on Washington. The country was,
once again, split by regional tensions, and through his Civil War lms, Walt Disney called for the American public to reject strife in favor of reconciliation.
Westward Expansion: Part II

In her book The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American
West, historian Patricia Limerick laments that the conquest of the West by set-
194
tlers to that region dissolved into stereotypes of noble savages and noble pioneers struggling quaintly in the wilderness. The subject of conquest became
the domain of mass entertainment and the occasion for lighthearted national
escapism. There would certainly be some regret about the Native Americans,
but for the most part, Americans chose to see the struggle for Western settlement as a great adventure.38 Disneys numerous productions set in the post
Civil-War West among them Tonka, The Wild Country, Texas John Slaughter,
The Nine Lives of Elfego Baca reect that tendency, glossing over political,
racial, and ethnic tensions in favor of adventure and escape. The two lms discussed here share these themes (and Disneys trademark focus on unity) but
they cover two distinct aspects of western settlement. Ten Who Dared follows
the rst expedition down the Colorado River and is the more adventurous of
the two. The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band deals with issues of
Western settlement not often considered: the development of Western territories and their struggle to join the Union.
John Wesley Powell, a Union Army veteran turned geologist, led two expeditions down the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon in 1869 and 1871.
Powell and his men mapped the course of the river, proved it was navigable,
and made scientic observations. The American public quickly embraced the
journey as a great adventure. The feat of running the wild river in open, oardriven wooden boats was made still more extraordinary by the fact that Powell
had lost his right arm during the Civil War, as he acknowledged in a moving
portion of his journals introduction.39 Powell, however, saw the expedition as
a scientic endeavor, nothing more. Asked why no history of his 1869 trip had
been published, Powell replied that I had no interest in that work as an adventure, but was interested only in the scientic results, and that those had been
published.40 Powell was well aware that the adventure story was writing itself.
In fact, reports had circulated that all but one member of the expedition had
died on the trip, Powell being among the dead. Upon reading his own obituary,
Powell wrote ...it was interesting and rather attering ... to discover the high
esteem in which I had been held by the people of the United States and that
In my supposed death I had attained to a glory which I fear my continued life
has not fully vindicated.41
The rst expedition, carried out by Powell and nine other men, was the
basis of the 1960 Disney production Ten Who Dared. The lm presents the expeditions members as awed heroes, but heroes nonetheless. One member is an
alcoholic whose demon costs the expedition one of its boats. Another, called
simply Missouri, is hiding a prison record. A third, George Bradley, is a veteran of the Civil War who fought for the Confederacy, which greatly disturbs
Powells brother, Walter a former inmate at Andersonville, the infamous
Southern prison camp. Powell says, in the lm, that his brothers experiences
at the camp made him savage, and hopes that the expedition will help him
to come back to his senses. William Dunn is an astrologer, who reads the stars,
195
and has little use for Powells science. Two brothers, a newspaper reporter, and
an Englishman who leaves the expedition partway through round out the crew.
Powell himself is like Davy Crockett, Francis Marion, James Andrews,
and other Disney recreations the wise, paternal leader who stands slightly
apart from his men and always knows best. Like them, he is driven by devotion
to a cause larger than himself in Powells case, science. His men do not appreciate this quality, nor do they understand his dedication to science. At one point
in the lm Dunn, ever-eager to nd gold, suspects that Powell has found some
but will not share. When Powell reveals that his treasures are fossils, the men
lose interest in his nds, but the episode demonstrates the differences between
Powell and his men. In time, the men begin to see Powell as a liability, but they
remain loyal to him as a leader. When he slips off a cliff and is holding on by
his one arm, they come together to save him.
As the expedition continues, the men run out of food and some of them
begin to doubt Powells leadership. Three leave the expedition and climb out
of the canyon to make their own way to civilization. The six who remain with
Powell reach their destination just as he said they would; those who left, the
narrator explains at the end of the lm, died at the hands of hostile Indians.
The closing narration forgives them for their foolishness, stating that they too
are heroes who partook in a journey into the unknown, but the message is
clear: Those who trust their leaders survive. There is safety in unity.
The lm also makes a parallel case for unity in a subplot about the tension
between Walter Powell and George Bradley. When Walter attempts to provoke
Bradley by asking him to sing John Browns Body, Bradley simply replies,
The war is over, Walter. For Walter, however, it clearly is not; he cannot
forget the war or his experiences in it. When George goes out hunting one day,
Walter follows him with a gun, clearly intending to kill him, but instead it is
George who corners Walter at gunpoint. He points his rie at Walter then
lowers it, saying: As I said, the war is over. He helps Walter to his feet and
the two men return to camp after nightfall. They then sing together, evidently
having worked out their problems and Walter is a new man. What is interesting
about this tension is that it is a complete fabrication. Both Walter and Bradley
were described as moody by a Powell biographer, but the postCivil War
antagonism did not exist nor could it have because both of the historical characters were Union veterans! As in The Great Locomotive Chase, Disney created
a scene to emphasize the importance of reconciliation and unity.42 In 1960, the
United States was approaching the one hundredth anniversary of that conict
and the wounds had been reopened by the turmoil of the Civil Rights movement
in the South. The Disney writers carefully remind Americans that, in Bradleys
words, the war is over. Once the memories and hatred of that war are put
aside, the haunted Union veteran, Walter, can move on. Once again, Disney
managed to resolve conict through reconciliation.
Released nine years after Ten Who Dared and set two decades later, The
196
One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band focuses on a different kind of
postCivil-War reconciliation. Set in 1888, the lm tells the story of the Bowers,
a large family full of musically talented people. It is clear early on that Grandpa
Bowers is a die-hard Democrat, for he is concerned this his oldest granddaughter, Alice, has taken up with a Ree-publican, Joe Carder. Carder writes a
newspaper in which he promotes Republican ideas and the need for statehood
for Dakota Territory. Grandpa sees the statehood appeal as a political maneuver,
believing that the Ree-publicans want to split the territory in two, North and
South Dakota, so that the party will get not just two new senators but four.
Unaware of Grandpas political afliation, Carder tells the family that he is
recruiting people the right kind of people, Republican people to move to
Dakota Territory. He makes his case with an inspiring song about Dakota
similar to the title song of Rogers and Hammersteins Oklahoma! that promises a great tomorrow dawning amid a lush landscape of virgin elds with
land for all. The Bowers and other families are convinced (what family interested in westward expansion would not be?) and they pack up and move west.
Forty years after the time of Westward Ho, the Wagons!, the Bowers trip seems
quite easy and comfortable.
Upon their arrival in Rapid City, the family nds a divided community.
There are in fact some Democrats in Dakota Territory and Grandpa sees his
chance to inuence the debate over statehood. Political passions run high, as
they did in the 1880s, and neither side is above a stght over the issue.43 The
main issue for Dakota-territory settlers as the movie makes clear is admission to the union as a state (or two). The lm ends on election night, with
Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland winning the popular vote, but Republican challenger Benjamin Harrison winning the electoral vote and thus the
presidency. With this announcement and the rowdy reaction that goes with it,
Papa Bowers makes an interesting speech in which he calls for healing. He
quotes his father when he tells the people, There is a time to stand up and
ght for what you believe in and a time to join hands and work together or all
the ghting doesnt mean a thing. The people soon learn that both North and
South Dakota will be admitted to the union, but also that Montana and Washington will become states, evening out out the number of Republican and Democratic senators heading to Washington D.C. With unity restored, everyone is
ready to make up and sing!
Family Band is a wonderful piece of entertainment and even manages
to get some of the history correct. Walt Disney died early in its production,
but he would have been pleased to know that yet another message of unity
was released to a nation in turmoil over war, politics and values. The contrast
between the community, reconciled at the end of this lm by a powerful speech
and music and the battles raging in late 1960s America is striking. The lm
provided its audiences with a fantasyland in which deep political rifts can be
healed with a heartfelt speech and a song exactly the kind of thing that
197
Walt Disney liked to do. Like the historical adventures that preceded it at Walt
Disney Studios, it gave the American people a past of which they could be
proud.
History according to the Disney Studio is entertaining. It is lled with
adventure and conict. It is dramatic and touching. In many cases it is also
accurate. Yet Disneys version of American history should be viewed with care.
Walt Disney, and his studio after him, represented the values that Disney himself
believed in: loyalty, honor, the nobility of the American past. The mistakes
made by the people of the past are, in the lms, consistently overlooked in favor
of the messages of unity, community and reconciliation. Disneys history is an
oversimplication of the past, created to remind Americans of their role in the
world. He took his role as educator seriously, and even after his death, the education of the American public continued. The message changed somewhat, but
the theme was still the same. Disney himself, had he lived to see Pocahontas,
Squanto: A Warriors Tale, or the cluster of based-on-a-true-story sports dramas
the studio released in the 1990s, would likely have been pleased that his dream
of national unity was still alive and well, and being taught to a new generation
of Americans.
The author wishes to thank her husband, Al Churella, for his loving support.
NOTES
1. For the quote from Winthrops Model of Christian Charity see Elliott J. Gorn,
et al., Constructing The American Past: A Source Book of a Peoples History, vol. 1 (New
York: Pearson/Longman, 2005), 48. For the American Revolution as an example to the
world, see Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 160.
2. Paul Anderson, The Davy Crockett Craze: A Look at the 1950s Phenomenon and
Davy Crockett Collectibles (Hillside, IL: R&G Productions, 1996), 14.
(Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 291.
4. Scott Alan Metzger, Evaluating the Educational Potential of Hollywood History
Movies in Celluloid Blackboard: Teaching History with Film, ed. Alan Marcus (Charlotte,
NC: Information Age Publishing, 2007), 90.
5. Disney, quoted in Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of The American Imagination (New York: Knopf, 2006), 13 & 18.
6. Gabler, xviii.
7. Gabler, 371, 366.
8. For a small sampling of the various interpretations of the American Revolution
see Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967); Carl Becker, The History
of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760 1776 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), 22 (quote); Gary Nash, The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political
Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1979); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969).
198
9. For the British perspective on the War for Independence, see Christopher Hibbert,
Redcoats and Rebels (Chelmsford, UK: Grafton Books, 1990).
10. Bass, Robert D. Swamp Fox: The Life and Campaigns of Francis Marion (Lexington,
SC: Sandlapper Store, 1959), 3. According to Bass South Carolinians saw Marion as a
latter-day Robin Hood. Disney created another, wholly ctional, Robin Hood gure
several years later, in the three-part drama The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh, starring
Patrick McGoohan as a country priest who (disguised as The Scarecrow,) defended
his parishioners against the excesses of royal tyranny in 1736 England.
11. Rankin, Hugh F. Francis Marion: The Swamp Fox (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell,
1973), 60.
12. John S. Pancake, This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas,
1780 1782 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 1985), 172.
13. Compare this to the depiction of the British in the Mel Gibson lm The Patriot
(2000) in which the evil British trap Patriots in a church and burn them alive.
14. The Swamp Fox , episode 2, Brother Against Brother original air date 30 October
1959. Walt Disney Treasures DVD, 2005.
15. The Swamp Fox, episode one, Birth of the Swamp Fox original air date: 23 October 1959. Walt Disney Treasures DVD, 2005.
16. Johnny Tremain (1957).
17. Walt Disney quoted in Watts, 291.
18. Middlekauff, 10.
19. Middlekauff, 18.
20. See for example, Gary Nash, The Urban Crucible and Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740 1790, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1982).
21. Leonard Maltin introduces The Swamp Fox on Disney Treasures DVD released
in 2005 and discusses Disneys love for history. He says that Disney spent more on the
show than he saw in returns because he wanted it to look good. He also lmed the shows
in color even though they would be broadcast in black and white.
22. Gabler, 513 514.
23. Quoted in Gabler, 516.
24. Steven Watts quoted in Gabler, 516.
25. Gabler, 514 515.
26. See, for example Edward Pessen, Jacksonian America: Society, Personality and Politics (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1978). Pessen argues that Jackson was bent on removing the Indians at any cost.
27. Anderson, 75.
28. Anderson, 75.
29. Many historians now suspect that Crockett survived the Battle of the Alamo and
was later executed by Santa Anna. This version of events elicits strong feelings from
some who cannot bear the thought that Crockett would not have gone down ghting.
In fact, one historian received death threats when he suggested that Crockett surrendered. See Albert Churella, Remember the Alamo!: The Struggle for Texas Independence in Retrieving The American Past (Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2003). See
also Dan Kilgore, How Did Davy Die? (College Station: Texas A&M University Press,
1978).
30. Anderson, 77.
31. For an alternate reading of the healing scene, see Douglas Brode, Multiculturalism
and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment (College Station: Texas A & M
University Press, 2005), 34 37.
32. James McPherson, What They Fought For, 18611865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 1994), 4.
199
33. See for example McPherson as well as Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War
Was Over, (New York: Knopf, 2007). Manning argues that Whatever else occupied
their minds, ordinary Union and Confederate soldiers recognized slavery as the reason
for the war... 4.
34. Eighty percent of Confederate soldiers and ninety percent of Union soldiers were
literate. (McPherson, 4.) While Disney was probably unaware of these statistics, given
the numbers, it makes sense that Johnny is the one with these skills rather than Private
Jones.
35. The General is on display at the Southern Museum of Civil War History in Kennesaw, Georgia where it serves as the centerpiece of the museum and the curators use
Disneys lm as an introduction to it. The Texas is on display at the Cyclorama Museum
in Atlanta. Buster Keatons 1926 lm The General tells the Confederate side of the story,
with Keatons character Johnnie Gray taking Fullers role.
36. Campbell was played by Jeff York, who created several such rough-edged characters for Disney, including brawling keelboat captain Mike Fink in two Davy Crocket
adventures and the mercurial Patriot orator James Otis in Johnny Tremain.
37. On the Gettysburg celebration, see: John Heiser, The Great Reunion of 1913.
Voices of Battle: Gettysburg National Military Park Virtual Tour. National Park Service.
Last updated: September 1998. http://www.nps.gov/archive/gett/getttour/sidebar/
reunion13.htm
38. Patricia Nelson Limerick, Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American
West (New York: Norton, 1987), 19.
39. Powell wrote, I was a maimed man. My right arm gone; and these brave men,
these good men, never forgot it ... my safety was their rst care... Canyons of The Colorado (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), xvii.
40. Powell, xvi.
41. Powell, xv.
42. For an example of both mens temperament see Wallace Stegner, Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West (New York: Penguin Books, 1954), 68.
43. Voter participation in the late nineteenth century was quite high, with one textbook putting the gure at 80 percent of qualied voters participating. See Chapter 20
of John Mack Faragher, et al., Out of Many: A History of the American People (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2006) for a description of Gilded Age politics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, Paul. The Davy Crockett Craze: A Look at the 1950s Phenomenon and Davy
Crockett Collectibles. Hillside, IL: R&G Productions, 1996.
Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967.
Bass, Robert D. Swamp Fox: The Life and Campaigns of Francis Marion. Lexington, SC:
Sandlapper Store, 1959.
Becker, Carl. The History of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760 1776.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960.
Brode, Douglas. Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment.
College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 2005.
Churella, Albert. Remember the Alamo!: The Struggle for Texas Independence in
Retrieving the American Past. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2003.
Faragher, John Mack, et al. Out of Many: A History of the American People. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2006.
200
2006.
Gorn, Elliott J., et al., Constructing The American Past: A Source Book of a Peoples History.
vol. 1. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2005.
Heiser, John. The Great Reunion of 1913. Voices of Battle: Gettysburg National Military
Park Virtual Tour. National Park Service. Last updated: September 1998.
http://www.nps.gov/archive/gett/getttour/sidebar/reunion13.htm
Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels. Chelmsford, UK: Grafton Books, 1990.
Isaac, Rhys. The Transformation of Virginia, 1740 1790. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1982.
Kilgore, Dan. How Did Davy Die? College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1978.
Limerick, Patricia Nelson. Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West.
New York: Norton, 1987.
Manning, Chandra. What This Cruel War Was Over. New York: Knopf, 2007.
McPherson, James. What They Fought For, 18611865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994.
Metzger, Scott Alan. Evaluating the Educational Potential of Hollywood History
Movies in Celluloid Blackboard: Teaching History with Film, edited by Alan Marcus.
Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2007.
Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763 1789, 2nd
Revised Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Nash, Gary. The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American
Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
Pancake, John S. This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas, 1780
1782. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama, 1985.
Pessen, Edward. Jacksonian America: Society, Personality and Politics. Homewood, IL:
Dorsey Press, 1978.
Powell, John Wesley. Canyons of The Colorado. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.
Rankin, Hugh F. Francis Marion: The Swamp Fox. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1973.
Stegner, Wallace. Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second
Opening of the West. New York: Penguin Books, 1954.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Columbia:
University of Missouri Press, 1997.
Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1969.
13
Reviving the
American Dream
The World of Sports
KATHARINA BONZEL
Invincible is not just my story but it can be anyones story as well. Its
about having a dream and overcoming the odds, adversity, and obstacles
that go with making that dream come true.
Vince Papale about the Disney lm that tells his life story1
Time and again Hollywood revisits the magical world of sports. In sports
anything can happen, and lms make dreams come true together they become
an inspirational mix of fact and ction that encourages audiences to believe in
the American Dream. The 2000s brought a veritable wave of lms from the
Walt Disney Company including Remember the Titans (2000), The Rookie
(2002), Miracle (2004), Invincible (2005) and Glory Road (2006) that dramatize true stories from the recent history of American sports Released in a time
of uncertainty and a strained political climate, a time that could be said to have
suffered a crisis of condence in the American Dream, these lms invoked its
strength and vitality.Underlining this revitalization strategy are the lms claims
of authenticity and authority because they are based on true stories and thus
the protagonists dreams and achievements are represented as real demonstrating that the American Dream is not only still alive in this new millennium,
but achievable and worth believing in.
Introduction: The Noughties

Arriving after an era of relative prosperity and growth, in particular in
the information technology industries, the new millennium began with the
bursting of the dot-com bubble; one of the closest presidential elections in U.S.
201
202
history, which gave the presidency to George W. Bush; and the terrorist attacks
of September 11, 2001, all in close succession. These crises were followed immediately by the war on terror, in particular in Afghanistan, and, by extension,
the war in Iraq in search of alleged weapons of mass destruction. The new millennium thus shaped up to be one of various crises of condence: condence
in the electoral process due to the mismatch of the popular and electoral vote
majorities in the 2000 election; condence in the economy with various highprole economic scandals and crises, such as the Enron scandal, the collapse
of the dot-com bubble and more recently the subprime mortgage crisis and
ensuing recession; condence in legitimate sporting successes due to doping
scandals such as the BALCO steroid scandal; and, of course, condence in
national security in light of the September 11 attacks. Together these crises of
condence produced an atmosphere of insecurity, instability and fear that shook
American society and its self-conception. What does it mean to be American
in this new millennium? America, as Bill Clinton famously intoned, is far
more than a place. It is an idea.2 In this it is different from many countries,
most notably those of the Old World, from which the early settlers escaped
in search for a new home where they could live their lives according to their
own ideals and without persecution. Out of this hope and the way immigrants
went after this better life grew the American Dream.
It is not surprising that in these trying times reality TV shows that invoke
the American Dream and champion stories of success such as American Idol, So
you Think You Can Dance and The Apprentice, have proliferated. At the box ofce,
lms indebted to fantasy (e.g. the Lord of the Rings trilogy) and comic books
(e.g. Spider-Man trilogy and The Dark Knight) dominated, providing welcome
relief from reality and featuring clear-cut visions of good and evil.3 While sports
lms do not tend to rule the box ofce, they had a healthy run in the rst decade
of the new millennium. As Kyle Kusz asserts, By the mid1990s an interest materialized among Hollywood executives and American audiences for producing and
consuming lms centered on sport.4 Of the top-grossing sports dramas of the
new millennium, three were produced by the Walt Disney Company (Remember
the Titans, The Rookie, Miracle), with Invincible (at number 11 on the list) just
outside the top ten. Importantly, eight of these lmsincluding the four by Disney-were based on a true story or famous athlete.5 These numbers give an indication of the rising interest in authentic sports dramas and I will argue that
they, in particular those produced by the Walt Disney Company, have revived
and valorized the idea of the American Dream for a new millennium audience.
Based on a True Story

The Disney sports lms based on true stories seem to sit awkwardly in the
company of the classic animated Disney fairy tale fare such as Snow White and
13. Reviving the American Dream (Bonzel)
203
Aladdin or even the live-action lms of the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise.
The sports lms stories, however, are often also a form of legend, differing
from fairy tales only in that they are based on real people in real places in
our real history. These legendary stories frequently feature unlikely yet
real-life heroes, such as the Cinderella-like Vince Papale in Invincible, who
goes, via an open try-out for the Philadelphia Eagles, from being an NFL fan
to being an NFL regular. The sports stories are also all set in the past, ranging
from the 1960s to the 1990s, a necessary distancing in the process of becoming
a sports legend. Miracle, for example, is a lm about the surprise win of the
United States ice hockey team over the heavily favored Soviet Union team at
the 1980 Olympic Winter Games a win that has often been described as one
of the biggest upsets in sports history. Glory Road and Remember the Titans
feature lesser-known stories of racial segregation and subsequent integration
in college and high school sports. The former tells the story of the 1966 Texas
Western College basketball team that won the national championship with the
rst all-black starting lineup in NCAA history. The latter follows the exploits
of the rst integrated football team at a newly desegregated Virginia high school
in 1971. Though less well-known than the events in Miracle, these stories are
elevated to epic journeys, through the narrative dramatization in the lms.
Regardless of the legendary status of the actual event/story, the lms claims
for authenticity go beyond the based on/inspired by a true story tag on the
DVD cover. The lms promotional material and the making of featurettes
often directly address themes of authenticity, and set out to claim verisimilitude
for even the smallest details. Most obvious are the period features of the lm,
such as appropriate clothing, hair styles, decor and music, as well as correctly
depicting physical traits or tics of the real people (coaches, athletes, parents,
etc.) involved. All of these aspects and claims to historical authenticity are not
specic to sports lms and indeed apply to any period lm. However, in the
depiction of the actual sports content, the lmmakers face various unique problems: Firstly, the style of play must be historically accurate, whether this concerns famous play-by-play reenactments, or general playing style.6 Secondly,
this sporting action must be lmed, anachronistically, in a style that is interesting and engaging to a modern audience, which is accustomed to multiple
camera perspectives and endless replays from contemporary sports television
coverage. Thirdly, and crucially, the sports action has to be convincing in the
sense of looking and feeling like real sports action, for, as David Thompson
assures us, sports fans can smell the fake.7
The emphasis on authenticity thus becomes a matter of utmost importance. If the lm fails to convince on any of these levels, it will most likely be
a failure, both commercially as well as critically. I argue, however, that what
these attempts at authenticity ultimately achieve (or in some cases, fail to
achieve) is a sense of emotional authenticity.8 Emotional authenticity appeals
to our senses more than to our minds. If a lm feels true, if the audience iden-
204
ties with the team, if it is disappointed in their losses, if it celebrates their

wins, in short, if the lm draws the audience in and gets them to emotionally
invest in the characters and the story, it has achieved emotional authenticity.
This sense of emotional authenticity is not only necessary in order to involve
the audience, but, more importantly, because it allows the lmmakers to deviate
from the real events, and turn real events into an engaging, cohesive lm narrative. Because of the framework of technical authenticity (of style, music,
ticks, sports action, etc.) that has functioned to build emotional authenticity,
the narrative can be shaped and dramatized to best capitalize on this framework.
Since the ultimate truth about a certain event will always remain elusive, these
lms aim at emotional truthfulness to draw in their audience.
Emotional Authenticity and the

American Dream
Audiences strong identication with the characters and the events displayed, which in turn helps to strengthen their belief in the American Dream
as put forward by the lm. The American Dream as a concept seems to resist
a steadfast and hard denition. Jim Cullen argues that it is precisely this ambiguity and exibility that is the secret to both its power and longevity, and Wilber
Caldwell concurs when he points out that the right kind of dream must be
promising without being a promise.9 Only then can it be a motivational force
for the dreamer, and lead him/her to a successful outcome of that dream. Paradoxically, for the American Dream to work, it needs a certain chance of failure.
Within the genre of the sports lm, not only do the sporting contests themselves
hold signicant potential to invoke the American Dream, they also function
on another level as a symbol or metaphor for the dreams of the protagonists.
Usually, winning the game means winning i.e. achieving ones dreams.
While the lms in question here vary in their depiction of team sports and
individual achievement, they keep the crucial balance between what Walter
Fisher has called the materialistic and moralistic myth of the American
Dream.10 While the materialistic side of the dream caters to individual success,
most commonly expressed in a rags-to-riches story, the moralistic myth invokes
values of tolerance, charity, compassion, and true regard for the dignity and
worth of each individual.11 Fishers understanding of the American Dream as
possessing two sides, a yin and yang of sorts, is useful as it sums up various
competing denitions of the American Dream.12 It also offers insight into the
appeal of the American Dream for a wide variety of Americans, as it is an incredibly exible and vague, yet immediately emotive idea.13
In Invincible, for example, the American Dream is bound to the personal
achievement of the central character Vince Papale and his rise from substitute
teacher and bartender to professional football player. The lm is set against a
205
backdrop off lay-offs and workers strikes in Philadelphia in the 1970s, raising
the stakes of Papales struggle to achieve his dream of becoming a professional
football player, as it will directly impact his nancial livelihood. In typical ragsto-riches fashion, he overcomes difcult obstacles such as the unlikely success
in the open try-out of the Philadelphia Eagles and the lack of respect of the
professional players to become a regular player on the eld. Yet, his success
and his status as a member ofthe team remains precarious and indeed the lm
does not end with this achievement. instead, itsignals the instability of success
by placing another obstacle in Papales way:his less-than-glorious pro football
debut, which nearly gets him kicked off the team. This setback reminds the
audience that achieving ones dream is an ongoing process rather than and end
in itself.
Driving through his old neighborhood and seeing kids play football with
his Eagles number taped to their shirts, Papale realizes that, as a local South
Philly boy, the people of Philadelphia identify strongly with him. The nal
galvanizing moment for Papale comes during head coach Dick Vermeils pep
talk before Papales second game, in which he refers to the working class battles
of the time: The people of Philadelphia have suffered. You are what they turn
to in times like these! You are what gives them hope! Lets win one for them!
During this motivational speech, the camera closes in on Papale until he alone
lls the screen. He is thus singled out as the potential saviour of both the team
and the people of Philadelphia, representing their hopes and dreams through
his example. Papale eventually wins the game for the Eagles after he forces a
fumble on an opposing player. In doing so he reafrms the possibilities of the
American Dream as the sport becomes a metaphor for life in general. Audiences
can relate to his plight not because they understand and know football, but
because they can literally see the obstacles (e.g. the tackles of the opposing players) that he needs to overcome to achieve his dream of becoming an Eagle.
His training and playing visualize the hard work, determination and will power
necessary to be successful.
Furthermore, Papale not only achieves the materialistic side of the American Dream by becoming a professional football player after having been laid
off from his teaching job, but he does so decently and with respect for his fellow
players and friends, whom he continuously helps, and who in turn come to
respect him and, in the case of his teammates, welcome him into the professional football brotherhood. Invincible thus becomes a parable about the struggles of life and the American Dream.
The other Disney lms follow Invincibles example of balancing the two
sides of the American Dream, despite their different narratives. The characters
not only achieve signicant nancial improvement (if sometimes modest rather
than over-the-top riches), but also achieve ongoing change for the better in
society in general. Glory Road and Remember the Titans particularly foster the
hope of social improvement in their narratives of ending racism and upward
206
mobility for underprivileged black boys through sports. The Rookie highlights
in a similar vein to Invinciblethe idea that it is never too late to fulll your
dream. Protagonist Jim Morris, high school teacher and baseball coach, becomes
the second-oldest rookie in major league baseball history after losing a bet to his
students and having to go to the open try-outs of the Tampa Bay Devil Rays.
Once again, it is not excessive richness and fame that is portrayed as success
unlike what is promised by shows like American Idolbut a relatively short, modest as a relief pitcher.14 This makes the American Dream achievable, as is shown
by this exchange between Morris and a fan: Hey, Morris! Can I have your autograph? I turned around and it was a big policeman. He said, You give guys like
us a ghting chance.15 Such relatively modest, achievable versions of success
are likewise celebrated in the closing credits of each of these lms, which outline
the subsequent careers of the real athletes depicted beyond the timeline of the
lm. These true life conclusions build on the audiences emotional involvement
to support the validity and accessibility of the American Dream.
Miracle differs slightly from the other lms in that it is more concerned
with the moralistic myth of brotherhood as Fisher calls it, then with the materialistic side of the American Dream. In Miracle the American Dream is bound
up rmly with the American way of life, which many Americans perceived
in the wake of the second Arab oil embargo, the Iranian hostage crisis, and the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan to be under attack. This Cold War context
cast the ferocious, quasi-professional Soviet team as symbols of renewed Soviet
aggression. Legendary coach Herb Brooks wife Patti reminds him that the
semi-nal against the Soviet Union is more than a hockey game to a lot of
people when he complains about fans and reporters turning the game into a
political event. Similarly, the lm is much more than just a movie, which is
demonstrated not least by the war-laden rhetoric at the end of the lm, when
Coach Brooks describes the best moment of his career in a nostalgic voice-over
over shots of a sea of American ags:
Ah, it was here. The sight of twenty young men of such differing backgrounds, now
standing as one. Young men willing to sacrice so much of themselves, all for an
unknown.
In post9/11 America this could equally be said about the militarys

involvement in the war on terror. However, the voice-over continues and
refers directly to the importance of the American Dream in such trying times:
A few years later the U.S. began using professional athletes at the Games Dream
Teams. I always found that term ironic, because now that we have Dream Teams,
we seldom ever get to dream. But on one weekend, as America and the world
watched, a group of remarkable young men gave the nation what it needed most
a chance, for one night, not only to dream, but a chance, once again, to believe.
The voice-over not only rejects the over-professionalization of sports today

and thus conjures up the ideals of amateur sports and its rewards, but also
207
asserts the signicance of the American Dream in both the past and the present:
the importance of every American having a chance to live their dream. Like the
title of the lm, it recalls the question that ABC-TV broadcaster Al Michaels
shouted over the nal buzzer: Do you believe in miracles? Yes!
Conclusion
The wave of based-on-a-true-story sports lms produced by the Disney
Company at the start of the new millennium served to revitalize the American
Dream, in both its materialistic and moralistic embodiments, as a source of
strength and vision in a nation beleaguered by war and economic recession.
Building on careful attention to technical authenticity, the lms created a sense
of emotional authenticity that fostered the audiences identication with the
characters depicted, and encouraged belief in their successes. Echoing the theme
song of the classic Disney lm Pinocchio, When You Wish Upon A Star, the
lms demonstrated how both individual and social obstacles could be successfully overcome, and offered inspiration, reassurance, and hope that ones dreams
could, indeed, become true.
NOTES
1. See http://www.vincepapale.com/movie.html accessed 10/01/09.
2. As quoted in Calvin C. Jillson, Pursuing the American Dream: Opportunity and
Exclusion over Four Centuries, American Political Thought (Lawrence: University Press
of Kansas, 2004), 1.
3. See http://www.boxofcemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm, accessed 22/12/2008 for
a list of all time box ofce hits (domestic grosses). The top ten lms of the new millennium so far are: The Dark Knight (2008), Shrek 2 (2004), Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead
Mans Chest (2006), Spider-Man (2002), Star Wars: Episode III Revenge of the Sith
(2005), Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003), Spider-Man 2 (2004), The
Passion of the Christ (2004), Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), Finding Nemo
(2003).
4. Kyle W. Kusz, Remasculinizing American White Guys In/Through New Millenium Sports Dramas, Sport in Society, vol. 11, no. 2 & 3 (March 2008), 209 226, on p.
210.
5. See http://www.boxofcemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=sportsdrama.htm accessed
22 December 2008. The top ten sports dramas of the new millennium are: Seabiscuit
(2003), Remember the Titans (2000), Million Dollar Baby (2004), The Rookie (2002),
Rocky Balboa (2006), Coach Carter (2005), Miracle (2004), Cinderella Man (2005), Friday
Night Lights (2004), and Ali (2001).
6. Basketball, for example has undergone dramatic changes in playing style since the
1960s. See for example: Aram Goudsouzian, King of the Court: Bill Russell and the Basketball Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010); and
Jeffrey Lane, Under the Boards: The Cultural Revolution in Basketball (Lincoln, NE: Bison
Books, 2007).
7. Quoted in Jones, Down on the oor and give me ten sit-ups: British Sports Feature Film, Film & History, vol. 35, no. 2 (Spring 2005), 29 40.
208
8. See Mikko Salmela, What Is Emotional Authenticity? Journal for the Theory of
Social Behaviour vol. 35, no. 3 (2005):209 230.
9. Wilber W. Caldwell, Cynicism and the Evolution of the American Dream (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006), 47.
10. Fisher builds his denition of myths on Joseph Campbells, and he states that the
functions [of these two myths] are to provide meaning, identity, a comprehensive
understandable image of the world, and to support the social order. Walter Fisher,
Reafrmation and the Subversion of the American Dream. Quarterly Journal of Speech
59 (1973): 160 167, on p.161.
11. Fisher, 161.
12. See, for example: Jim Cullen, The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea
That Shaped a Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Cal Jillson, Pursuing
the American Dream: Opportunity & Exclusion over Four Centuries (Lawrence: University
Press of Kansas, 2004); and Jennifer Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
13. See Cullen, The American Dream.
14. Morris played 20 games for the Rays over two seasons in which they were a struggling last-place team that nished 69 92 and 69 93.
15. As quoted in Failure Magazine http://www.failuremag.com/arch_sports_jim_
morris.html, accessed 9 January 2009.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Caldwell, Wilber W. Cynicism and the Evolution of the American Dream. Washington,
DC: Potomac Books, 2006.
Cullen, Jim. The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea That Shaped a Nation. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Fisher, Walter. Reafrmation and the Subversion of the American Dream. Quarterly
Journal of Speech 59 (1973): 160 167.
Goudsouzian, Aram. King of the Court: Bill Russell and the Basketball Revolution. Berkeley
and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010.
Hochschild, Jennifer. Facing Up to the American Dream. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1996.
Invincible the Movie. Vince Papale: Speaker, Author, Spokesperson. http://vincepapale.com/meet-vince-papale/movie/
Jillson, Calvin. C. Pursuing the American Dream: Opportunity and Exclusion over Four
Centuries. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.
Jones, Glen. Down on the oor and give me ten sit-ups.: British Sports Feature Film.
Film & History 35, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 29 40.
Kusz, Kyle W. Remasculinizing American White Guys In/Through New Millenium
Sports Dramas Sport in Society 11, no. 2 & 3 (March 2008): 209 226.
Lane, Jeffrey. Under the Boards: The Cultural Revolution in Basketball. Lincoln, NE: Bison
Books, 2007.
Salmela, Mikko. What Is Emotional Authenticity? Journal for the Theory of Social
Behaviour 35, no. 3 (2005):209 230.
Zasky, Jason. The Unnatural. Failure Magazine. http://failuremag.com/index.php/feature/article/the_unnatural/
14
Beyond the Ratoncito

Disneys Idea of Latin America
BERNICE NUHFER-HALTEN
Walt Disneys perception of Latin America and its citizens is no different

from his perception of the United States. A trip to one of his theme parks will
testify that his idea of the U. S. is just that an idea, not a reality, and a reection
of what Disney wanted the U. S. to be, rather than what it really is. Disneys
manipulation of cultural reality into idealized fantasy was not limited to his
own country, however; it extended to depictions of the rest of the world. Saludos
Amigos! (1942) and Three Caballeros (1944)lms designed to interpret Latin
America for wartime U. S. audiences were among the earliest remakings of
other cultures, presenting Latin America and Latin Americans not as they were
but as Walt Disney thought they ought to be.
Disneys role in U. S. attempts to literally remake Latin America in its own
image is well-documented. Wartime health education lms for the Latin American market lectured their audiences on nutrition, sanitation, and disease control (holding up the farms of the Midwestern U. S. as a model). Disney comic
books served as Ariel Dorfman demonstrated in How to Read Donald Duck
(1971) as vehicles to promote U. S. political agendas: glorifying capitalism,
normalizing social and economic inequality, and trivializing protest and dissent.
Dorfman, in his discussion of one such comic book, describes an incident in
which Donald offers a group of protestors free lemonade, causing them to drop
their signs (and their ideals) and rush to him to slake their thirst:
This strategy, by which protest is converted into imposture is called dilution: Analyze
an unusual phenomenon of the social body and symptom of a cancer, in such a way
that it appears as an isolated incident, removed from its social context, so that it can
be then automatically rejected by public opinion as a passing itch. Just give yourself
a scratch, and be done with it. Disney, did not, of course, get this little light bulb all
on its own. It is part of the metabolism of the system, which reacts to the facts of
the situation by trying to absorb and eliminate them. It is part of a strategy, consciously or unconsciously orchestrated.1
209
210
These techniques are, as Dorfman observes, indicative of Disneys larger strategy: seeking to absorb Latin America by diluting its identity, reducing it from
being the other to being just like us. It was an approach that Disney would
return to, a decade later, in its People & Places series of documentaries (1954
1960) and in more benign fashion in the theme park attraction Its A Small
World.
Good Neighbors and Wartime Diplomacy

Saludos, Amigos! and The Three Caballeros are best understood in the context of World War II. Walt Disney and his company signed on to the war effort
more emphatically than any other Hollywood studio. In fact, the Disney studio
complex, unlike any other in Tinsel Town, was protected by sand bags and
anti-aircraft guns during the war, because it was considered an enemy target.2
Disneys contributions to the war effort included hundreds of training lms
and dozens of propaganda shorts, as well as Victory Through Air Power (1943):
a feature-length lecture on the military value of strategic bombing that climaxed
with the obliteration of Japan from the air.
Disneys fervent support of the war effort extended beyond military affairs,
however, and into the realm of wartime diplomacy, specically the Good
Neighbor Policy toward Latin America.3 Begun under the Hoover administration and expanded by the Roosevelt administration, it repudiated armed
intervention in favor of engagement with strong, proU.S. local leaders and
aggressive exports of American culture. The public face of the Good Neighbor
Policy emphasized collective security. The Conference for the Maintenance of
Peace, held in Buenos Aries in 1936, produced pledges of mutual consultation
in the event of an external threat. Two years later, in Lima, nations participating
the 8th Pan-American Conference agreed to present a united front against possible Axis aggression in the Western Hemisphere. Orchestrated by U. S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull, the agreement was a signicant diplomatic
achievement, signed by a number of governments whose leaders admired Hitler
and Mussolini. When war came, all countries in Latin America did declare war
on the Axis powers, and Mexico and Brazil even sent forces to ght. Argentina,
which had leaned toward the Axis early in the war, was the last to endorse the
conict, nally declaring war at the last possible moment March of 1945
two months before the end of hostilities in Europe.
The value of such agreements for the United States ultimately went well
beyond lining up allies. They prevented the Axis from opening a diplomatic or
military second front in Latin America, and encouraged a steady ow of agricultural products and raw materials even in wartime. The Ofce of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA) a bureau of the U.S. government
established in 1940 was the focal point of such efforts within the government.
14. Beyond the Ratoncito (Nuhfer-Halten)
211
Its mission was to promote increased cooperation between the U.S. and other
American states, and reinforce the One For All and All for One message of
the Good Neighbor Policy. The CIAA was short-lived (abolished in 1946, its
functions transferred to the Department of State), but it was active throughout
World War II, with Nelson A. Rockefeller as the rst Coordinator.
John Hay Whitney, the head of the CIAAs Motion Picture Division, asked
Disney and members of his creative team to make a goodwill tour of Central
and South America in 1941. The tour, aside from its inherent publicity value,
was intended to gather material for a series of up to a dozen short, animated
lms. Each lm would highlight a different country, simultaneously educating
American audiences and building goodwill toward the United States in Latin
America.4 Four of the shorts were packaged into Saludos Amigos! and three
more into The Three Caballeros. A planned third compilation, to be titled Cuban
Carnival, was never completed.5
Saludos Amigos!
The shortest of all of Disneys feature lms a mere 42 minutes in
length Saludos Amigos! was rst released in Brazil in August of 1942, fully six
months before its U.S. premiere in February 1943.6 It consists of four separate
cartoons that highlight Peru (Lake Titicaca), Chile (Pedro), Argentina (El
Gaucho Goofy), and Brazil (Aquarella do Brasil). The production mixes
classic Disney animation, with comedy and musical numbers, interspersed with
live action scenes of the actual Disney artists on their goodwill tour of Latin
America. The presence of familiar Disney characters like Donald Duck and
Goofy, as well as new ones like the hero of Pedro, make the lm feel like
lighthearted family entertainment. It is marketed that way on DVD, listed
(despite its brief length) with the studios classic animated features like Bambi
and Cinderella. The original, educational purpose of the lm is clear both in
the individual cartoons and especially in the material that links them.
The last words in the opening titles (which are themselves backed by a
song, Saludos Amigos, extolling brotherhood among nations) express: Sincere appreciation for the courtesy and cooperation shown to us by the artists,
musicians and our many friends in Latin America. The rst scenes afterward
show Disney artists ying to South America in order to be educated: to learn
about local peoples and their cultures and nd, in them, inspiration for new
cartoons. The live-action image dissolves into an animated plane ying across
an animated map, tracing the Disney groups journey from Brazil to the Argentine to Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. When live action returns, with the next scene,
it shows a Peruvian marketplace along the shores of Lake Titicaca. The audience
has thus been drawn from seeing the animators to standing alongside them and
seeing what they see. The narrators voiceover supplies information that is,
212
implicitly their thoughts: that, for example, local tastes run to bright-colored
clothes, and conservative hats. A Peruvian woman passes, carrying a small
child on her back in a sling, and the narrator (the animators thoughts) refers
to the sling as a rumble seat for the baby. This is, the narrator explains, just
what the artists are after, and the camera shows an artists hands sketching the
woman and baby on a pad the artists interpretation of what artist and audience have implicitly seen together.
The transition from seeing alongside the artists to seeing through their
work is repeated several times. A live-action scene of a man playing a ute for
three children kids becomes a close-up of womans hand drawing a picture of
a boy with a ute (accompanied by the narrators commentary about strange
and exotic Peruvian music handed down from Inca ancestors. A live action
sequence of burros and llamas used as pack animals is accompanied by a
voiceover comparing llamas to aristocrats whose cooperation (and tolerance
for heavy loads) is limited, compared to that of the ever-willing burros (peasants?). Artists hands then sketch the llamas portraits, adding eyeglasses that,
along with their haughty expressions, give the impression they are too good to
carry heavy loads like the less-intelligent burros. The camera shows a series of
still pictures studies of rural, agricultural Peruvian scenes in stylized illustration by Disney artists and then introduces the result: a little travelogue
of Peru as seen through the eyes of a celebrated American tourist. The tourist,
Donald Duck, then appears in a pith helmet and safari jacket, binoculars in
hand and baggage close by, sitting on a sign that says Lake Titicaca.
The long sequence that followsLake Titicaca, the rst of the four cartoons that make up the core of the lm shows Donald Duck exploring Peru.
It appears on the surface appears to be purely entertainment with no underlying
message, but fragments of factual information are woven through it as the basis
for gags. The narrator, for example, describes the symptoms of the altitude
sickness that Peru induces in tourists, and Donald (who scoffs at rst) suffers
each in turn in comically exaggerated form. The lm also strives to connect
the Latin and Anglo cultures. One of its longest sequences involves Donalds
encounter with a young Peruvian boy and his llama. The two try on each others
clothes, take each others picture, and listen to each other play native music
(Donalds is a jazz tune) on the boys ute. Cross-cultural friendship between
Americans whether Latin or Anglo is as easy as saying hello, the lm suggests.
The second cartoon begins with live-action scenes that purports to depict
its origin. A Disney team, ying across the Andes, is inspired by the scenery
and the memory of mail planes that y through the mountain passes. From this
comes the sketches of little airplane named Pedro that represents Chile, and the
scene (in a now-familiar pattern) shifts from live-action scenes of the mountains, to artists drawings of mountains and a hand drawing the little plane.
Before the actual airliner sets down at Santiago, the character has taken shape,
213
and the opening words of the narration are show on a page rolled into a typewriter: Once upon a time at a small airport near Santiago, Chile, lived three
airplanes. A papa plane (a mail plane), a mama plane, and a baby plane named
Pedro. The animated sequence tells the story of how Pedro is called on, when
his parents are sick, to y the mail route to Mendoza, Argentina. It takes the
form of a typical Disney adventure. On the trip he comes eye-to-eye with a
menacing condor a character that Disney could have developed, but did not
a storm, and the tallest peak in the Andes: Aconcagua. Struggling to climb high
enough to clear the mountains, Pedro disappears and his parents, back at the
aireld, think he is gone. Disneys trademark optimism prevails, however, and
it all ends happily as Pedro limps home bouncing along the runway with
the mail.
Pedro is, except for a few incidental geographic details, strictly entertainment. El Gaucho Goofy, the third cartoon, shifts the balance back toward
education. It is introduced by a transition to a map of the Andes and live-action
shots of the Disney crew ying into Buenos Aires. Scenes of the city shots of
prominent buildings, with factual, travelogue-style narration follow. Then
the location shifts from the city to the Pampas, and lm shifts to the familiar
pairing of live-action scenes and artists hands interpreting them. The theme
is life of the gauchos, and the images are rural and traditional. We see demonstrations of riding prowess; an asado (or Argentine open-air barbecue), and
folk dances: not the modern tango of Buenos Aires, but the country dances of
the Argentines. Notice how closely these steps resemble the old time square
dances of North America, narrator says, reducing Latin America to another
version of Anglo America.
The reduction of the Pampas to an extension of the U. S. West continues
in the cartoon itself, with a further comparison between the two cattle cultures.
We couldnt help compare the life of the Argentine gaucho to that of our own
cowboy, the lm says, presenting Goofy as the latter. Carried from Texas to
Argentina by a magical wind, Goofy is outtted with a gauchos clothing and
equipment each item given its Spanish name, by the narrator and in onscreen
text and turned loose in a series of slapstick encounters with an his dinner
(at an asado), an ostrich, and his own horse. Like other Goofy shorts of the
1940s, El Gaucho Goofy contrasts the narrators calm, authoritative voice
with Goofys wild, ailing on-screen actions. The narrator delivers education,
while Goofy provides entertainment.
The fourth and nal cartoon of Saludos, Amigos! splits education and entertainment more sharply. The introductory sequence follows a now-familiar pattern of travelogue-style tourist scenery, images of artists sketching, and
close-ups of their work, including a new animated character: parrot Jos Carioca, Disneys characterization of the typical Brazilian. Crowd scenes, of Rio
streets and of Carnival, are prominent, but Disney chooses to show only lightskinned Brazilians. This clearly a white-washed view of multi-cultured Brazil
214
continues through the segment; eventually a few darker-complected people are

shown, but none of African descent, despite their major presence in Brazil. In
the pre-integration U. S., this view of Latin America would have been more
palatable less threatening than Brazils multiracial reality.
The cartoon itself, Aquarella do Brasil (Watercolor of Brazil) features
something that was missing in the animated sequences of other countries: identiable music. The songs Brazil and Tika Tika, composed and (in the rst
case) sung by Brazilians, provide the soundtrack to a mostly formless story.
The rst half shows an animated paintbrush sketching animated watercolorstyle images of Brazilian nature, which turns into ora and fauna dancing to
the music in a fantasy reminiscent of the Nutcracker sequence of Fantasia
(1940).7 The second half introduces Donald Duck and Jos Carioca, who hit it
off and explore the nightlife of Rio together. They share a drink at a sidewalk
caf and Jose sings Brazil while Donald learns to dance the samba. Jose speaks
to him mostly in rapid-re Portuguese, with occasional lines in English, but
Donald (who nds a stack of dictionaries no help) somehow grasps his meaning
anyway. Cross-cultural understanding, the lm implies, is requires only a faceto-face meeting and good intentions.
The Three Caballeros

The Three Caballeros, the second feature-length lm Disney made at the
request of the CIAA, uses the same structure as Saludos, Amigos!, joining together
four cartoons that would later be able to be shown separately in order to generate
more income to amortize the studios costly feature-length productions. These
cartoons, like those in the earlier lm, each highlight different parts of Latin
America: the Pacic Coast and Galapagos Islands (The Cold Penguin),
Argentina (The Gauchito), Brazil ( Have You Been to Bahia?), and Mexico.
The framework of the lm, however, reects its homogenization of Latin American cultures with one another and with Anglo culture. The title song begins
with a song whose lyrics indicate this dilution of cultures on the part of Disney,
introducing the three title characters as happy adventurers in snappy serapes
and sombreros. The fact that one of the characters the parrot Jos Carioca
is from Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken and Mexican-styled sombreros are
not worn, is glossed over by Disney, seemingly implying that all Latinos are the
same.8 The opening sequence shows Donald Duck opening a large, wrapped
package whose tag reads, in Spanish: Congratulations to Donald Duck on his
birthday, Friday the 13th, from his friends in Latin America. The date is meant
to resonate with the bad luck that Donald repeatedly suffers onscreen, but in
Hispanic cultures Friday the 13th is not considered unluckyTuesday the 13th is.
The tag changes into English as Donald reads it, but the date remains the same,
implying that the Anglo superstition about Friday the 13th must be universal.
215
The large box, once opened, reveals several smaller boxes, the rst of which
yields a movie projector and lm. The lm proves to be a nature documentary,
on the birds of South America Donalds feathered cousins, the narrator
says that is narrated by a Professor Holloway.9 The documentary, which
combines visual gags with serious narration briey describing (and giving the
common Spanish names of ) real South American birds, frames The Three
Caballeros rst two cartoon segments, each of which thus becomes a lmwithin-a-lm-within-a-lm. The documentarys panorama of native Latin
American birds relatives of Donalds including amingos and other tropical
birds, presents a good cross section of Latin America. It also stands out because
it does a better job of synthesizing the disjointed sequences than in Saludos
Amigos! with its series of clumsy transitions.
The rst two cartoon shorts are, like the Pedro segment of Saludos Amigos!, essentially light-hearted entertainment with little educational content.
The title character of The Cold Penguin, for example, lives at the South Pole
in an igloo and wears snowshoes (penguins are from Antarctica, though not
the South Pole; snowshoes are from the Arctic). As usual, its all the same to
Disney). Disney thus squanders an opportunity toe educate viewers about South
America by choosing to produce a vignette on penguins at the South Pole who
live in North Pole igloos. Only the fact that Pablo the penguin leaves the frozen
South Pole and sails past cities on the West coast like Santiago and Lima keeps
the segment from being a total non-sequitur. The second cartoon, Gauchito,
features an old gaucho narrating an adventure (or telling a tall tale?) featuring
himself as a boy. He sets out to capture a condor, discovers a ying donkey
instead, and dreams of becoming wealthy by racing it against men on horses.
Details of Argentine culture are slipped in around the edges of the story. The
boy is shown (like Goofy) dressing in a gauchos traditional clothing, each item
of which is given its Spanish name. During a esta scene, the revelers in the
background are dancing the traditional Argentine dance called Zamba, and
playing traditional games. The boy wins the horse race (described in the rapid
speech of a U. S. track announcer), but before he can claim his prize of 1000
pesos, the donkey spots a hornero bird and ies after it, dragging him along.
We were never heard from again, says the narrator of his younger self, ending
the lm rmly in the realm of classic Disney fantasy.
The Three Caballeros cuts back to Donald who extracts a second present
from the large package: a book, titled Brasil, whose pop-up pages become the
framing device for the lms third cartoon segment: Have You Been to Bahia?
The cartoon itself, in which Jos (now Joe) Carioca from Saludos, Amigos! is
once again Donalds friend and guide, is (even more than Gauchito) an exercise
in pure fantasy. Initially the fantasy is romantic. Joe sings the song Bahia over
profuse, pulsating animation (derivative of Fantasia) depicting his memories of
the seacoast city: lush jungles, a white bird in ight, ornate buildings, colorful
water, and moonlight. Then it turns stylized surreal, with simple animation
216
(derivative of Disneys Alice in Wonderland) showing Joe multiplying into four

smaller characters, Donald shrinking to their size, and the two of them embarking on a journey through the pages of the book: psychedelia, with a Latin twist.
These production techniques served to portray the Latin Americans and their
cultures as palatable, yet exotic. The scenes (visually the most elaborate in
either lm) are clearly of an Other place not the United States and yet are
(compared to earlier segments and to Saludos Amigos) oddly unspecic. Except
for the tropical foliage, they could have been anywhere, and even with it they
could be almost any tropical paradise. Is this another dilution?
Transported into the world of the book, Joe and Donald are on a street in
Bahia. A shadow comes around the corner: a live-action image of a woman
with cookies on her head, superimposed over the animated background. She is
portrayed by Aurora Miranda, whose sister Carmen represented Hollywoods
image of Latina exoticism. The live-action woman greets the cartoon birds and,
joined by other live-action Brazilians (all male) they walk through an animated
street scene of Bahia. The womans song segues into another, sung by a man
selling oranges. Donald clearly attracted to the woman is jealous of the citrus salesman, who she just as clearly prefers. Eventually, she kisses Donald and
his eyes undulate to the music. Colors pulse, multi-hued confetti rains down,
inanimate objects come to life, and live humans become animations. The line
between reality and fantasy is crossed and re-crossed, leaving the audience
to wonder what is real, what is not.
Stereotyped images are the Bahia segments primary, regrettable lesson
for the audience. It presents Latinas as supercial, sexual seductress sirens
who speak in double entendres and turns Donald Duck, the lms representative of the U. S., into a sex-starved, horny individual whose only thought is
to copulate with this enchanting seductress. Latin men fare little better. At one
point two who are dancing with the woman face off (in silhouette) in an
intensely competitive dance. Their kicks and arm thrusts suggest a stylized
knife ght, and they morph (still in silhouette) into animated ghting cocks,
then back into dancing men. The woman is clearly implied to be the object of
their competition and her (sexual?) favor the prize to the winner. Donald,
unable to compete with such hot-blooded men, returns to his own world with
Joe, his memories of Bahia accompanied by a cardboard moon dangled from
above on a rope, and centered around beautiful girls. End of sequence/end
of seduction.
The fourth and nal segment of The Three Caballeros, which takes Donald
and Joe to Mexico, appears at rst to recreate their experience in Brazil. Donald
opens his third present and the screen explodes into psychedelia reminiscent
of the 1970s in design and behavior wild colors swirl, and instruments play
themselves. Donald is pulled in different directions like the image in a kaleidoscope, then inates into a piata that Joe explodes with a touch of his cigar.
A rooster emerges wearing a Charro hat and pistols, which he proceeds to re
217
off thus representing the stereotypical Mexican bandolero. He shakes Donald

and Joes hands so vigorously that all their money and belongings shake out on
the ground: a literal Mexican shakedown, reinforcing Anglo stereotypes of
Mexicans as thieves. The long psychedelic scene ends, however, with the three
birds locking arms and reprising the title song. Keeping with the lms political
mission, they declare undying friendship for one another, but tellingly make
one exception: If a woman is involved, its every man for himself.
The central section of the Mexico segment is the most openly didactic
of the entire lm. Panchito, the Mexican rooster, describes Mexican Christmas
customs to Donald, and narrates a brief history of how Mexico City was
founded. Xochimilco is portrayed by an illustration of the rafts in the garden
waters that endure to this day. Other scenes include Mexican women, boats
full of couples and owers. The illustrations drawn, but not animated
resemble those in childrens books: realistic, but stylized. The cultural details
are also stylized. The music accompanying the Mexico City segment, for example, is tropical, and not the Mexican music of that region. Mexico, it appears,
is all the same to Disney.
Panchito invites Donald and Joe to y on a magic serape Disneys image
of a Mexican ying carpet and turns the illustration of Xochimilco into a
photograph that the three birds enter. In Brazil, Donald and Joe interacted with
live human gures in an animated landscape; in Mexico, the pattern is reversed.
The three friends and their magic serape are the only animated elements in live
action scenes. They y over a 1940s-era car driving by beautiful green elds;
over mountains and a river; and past shing boats with large nets like insect
wings. Flying out of and into the book several times, they visit several regions
of Mexico, each time observing people and events that, because they are live
humans, are meant to be taken as representative of Mexico as it is.
The air of realism is, to some extent, earned. Disney makes an effort to
show the geography of the country and some of the local differences among
Mexican states and regions. There are also pervasive distortions, however. The
Mexicans shown in the crowd scenes often appear to be of European descent,
and sometimes appear to be mestizo, but are never indigenous. Like the Caucasian-dominated Brazilian crowds in Saludos Amigos!, this whitewashing of
Mexican made Latin Americas multiracial reality more palatable to U. S. audiences still used to racial segregation but it undercuts the lms claims to reality.
The irony is particularly strong when the trio visits Vera Cruz and dances the
Lilongo, a local dance, with noticeably European-looking dancers.
The dance in Vera Cruz also reiterates Disneys conviction that all American culture Latin or Anglo is, at some basic level, interchangeable. Donald
dances with one of the women, he music transitions from the local dance to jitterbug, and Donald dances wildly. It is something he recognizes. When Joe Carioca joins in, the music takes on a bit of Brazilian rhythm. U. S. viewers are
thus invited to lean back and smile at the conrmation of their fondest hopes:
218
They are the same as us, arent they? The lm suggests that Americans can
travel abroad, but remain in a hermetically sealed capsule of familiar cultural
artifacts, with no fear of contamination by the Other they have come to see.
Today, U. S. tourists can experience can achieve such results by eating at a
McDonalds when they go abroad, but Disneys lms hinted that they could do
so even in the 1940s.
The nal realistic scene places the serape and its three passengers over liveaction shots meant to represent the beach in Acapulco. Donald, even more
aroused by Mexican women than he had been by Brazilian ones, dives toward
the sand and spends the remainder of the lm in the grip of frustrated sexual
desire.10 He chases (European-looking) women on the beach, swoons over a
(European-looking) woman singing You Belong to My Heart, the classic
Solamente una vez. Donald oats along, entranced by the music. The singers
face is replaced by several guitars, the guitars turn into lips and they all kiss
Donald. He goes shooting off like a rocket through a surreal landscape of owers. Donalds rocket contrail is lush owers and his behavior is nothing short
of orgasmic. The lms images grow increasingly surreal as Donald appears to
grow increasingly sex-crazed. He swoons over women engaged in a Busby
Berkeley-style water ballet, becomes part of a three-bird chorus line in which
his animated legs (along with Joes and Panchitos) are replaced by live-action
womens legs), and deliriously imagines himself dancing with and kissing
women who morph into owers and cactuses.
Mexican women are clearly and unambiguously the instigators of Donalds
uncontrollable sexual behavior. They make him delirious, uncontrollable, and
irrational turn him, in other words, into a slave to passion. The lm does not
emerge from its surreal nal sequences, but ends in an explosion of reworks
that spell out The End in Spanish, Portuguese, and English in turn. It thus
leaves Donald in the grip of his sexual insanity, and U. S. viewers with the noneto-subtle message Latins in general and Latin women particular are hypersexual, seductive, and dangerous.
Conclusion
Disney Studios responded to the call of the U.S. Government foster mutual
understanding between the United States and Latin America by using the simplest of techniques stereotyping. Elsewhere, they attempted to reduce the differences between Anglo and Latino America by diluting Latino culture so that
it could be assimilated by the Anglo-American world. These efforts could have
been much more effective had Disney made the effort to understand the Latino
cultures. Instead, it took the most supercial cultural aspects and combined
them with the vaguest of U.S. notions of what Latino culture is, and produced
two very uneven short feature lms. In fact, the very structure of them each
219
with almost independent constituent parts that could be later cannibalized for
the purpose of recuperating the expense of their production contributed to
the problem. Given only a brief time to capture an entire national culture, Disney artists focused on the vivid and recognizable ... and then exaggerated them.
The resulting lms, though they implicitly and explicitly framed their images
and stories as educational, were more successful at reinforcing what U. S. viewers already believed about Latin America.
Did Disney, in the end, contribute to the U. S. Governments goal of convincing Latin America to join its war effort? It probably helped, but the stereotypes and garish oversimplications it helped to perpetuate probably had a
greater and more lasting impact upon the United States.
NOTES
1. Ariel Dorfman, From the Vaults: Donald Duck. http://www.adorfman.duke.
edu/vaults/donald_duck/inner_pages/excerpts_lemonade.htm
2. Thomas Doherty, Projections of War: Hollywood, American Culture, and World
War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
3. On the Good Neighbor Policy, see Irvin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy:
United States Politics in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979)
and Frederick B. Pike, FDRs Good Neighbor Policy: Sixty Years of Generally Gentle Chaos
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005). On its cinematic dimension, see: Dale Adams,
Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDRs Good Neighbor Policy, Quarterly Review of
Film and Video vol. 24, no. 3 (2007), 289 295.
4. The denitive history of the Latin American tour and the making of the lms is:
J. B. Kauffman, South of the Border with Disney: Walt Disney and the Good Neighbor Program, 194148 (New York: Disney Editions, 2009). Footage of Disney and his artists in
Latin America was edited into a short documentary, also titled South of the Border with
Disney, available on the DVD edition of Saludos Amigos and The Three Caballeros. The
contemporary documentary Walt and El Grupo (dir. Theodore Thomas, 2009) tells the
same story with the benet of hindsight. On the unproduced Cuban Carnival project,
see Wade Sampson, The Lost Caballero, Wades Wayback Machine; accessed 21 June
2010 at http://www.mouseplanet.com/8154/The_Lost_Caballero .
5. The Latin American lms were Disneys rst attempts to construct feature lms
by combining short originally designed to be seen separately. See David Scott Diffrient,
Cabinets of Curiosities: A Critical History of the Animated Package Feature, from
Fantasia to Memories. Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television, vol. 26, no. 4
(2006), 505 535, on pp. 511513.
6. Ironically, the set-up of the Saludos, Amigos! DVD includes English and Spanish
only, not Portuguese. This was odd because of the fact the lm debuted in Brazil.
7. The animated paintbrush motif would reappear, later in the decade, as the opening
to Disneys True-Life Adventure nature documentaries.
8. On Hollywood stereotypes of Latinos generally, see: Alfred Charles Richard, Jr.
Censorship and Hollywoods Hispanic Image: An Interpretive Filmography, 1936 1955
(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003).
9. The voice of Professor Holloway is that of actor Sterling Holloway, who went
on to voice Disneys version of Winnie the Pooh.
10. Donalds hypersexuality in The Three Caballeros has attracted more critical attention than any other aspects of the two lms. See, for example: Julianne Burton, Don
220
Juan(ita) Donald and the Imperial Patriarchal Discourse, in Reframing Latin America,
ed. Eric Kristofer Ching, et al. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), 228 236; Jose
Piedra, Pato Donalds Gender Ducking, Jump Cut, no. 39 (June 1994), 7282, 112;
Douglas Brode, Multiculturalism and the Mouse (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006),
231233; and Julianne Burton-Carvajal, Surprise Package: Looking South with Disney, in Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom, ed. Eric L. Smoodin (London:
Routledge, 1992), 131146.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, Dale. Saludos Amigos: Hollywood and FDRs Good Neighbor Policy, Quarterly
Review of Film and Video 24, no. 3 (2007): 289 295.
Brode, Douglas. Multiculturalism and the Mouse. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.
Burton-Carvajal, Julianne.Surprise Package: Looking South with Disney. In Disney
Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom, edited by Eric L. Smoodin. London: Routledge, 1992.
Burton, Julianne. Don Juan(ita) Donald and the Imperial Patriarchal Discourse. In
Reframing Latin America, edited by Eric Kristofer Ching, et al., 228 236. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 2007.
Diffrient, David Scott. Cabinets of Curiosities: A Critical History of the Animated
Package Feature, from Fantasia to Memories Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and
Television 26, no. 4 (2006): 505 535.
Doherty, Thomas. Projections of War: Hollywood, American Culture, and World War II.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
Dorfman, Ariel. From the Vaults: Donald Duck. http://www.adorfman.duke.edu/
vaults/donald_duck/inner_pages/excerpts_lemonade.htm
Gellman, Irvin F. Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Politics in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979.
Kauffman, J. B. South of the Border with Disney: Walt Disney and the Good Neighbor Program, 194148. New York: Disney Editions, 2009.
Piedra, Jose. Pato Donalds Gender Ducking Jump Cut, no. 39 (June 1994): 7282, 112.
Pike, Frederick B. FDRs Good Neighbor Policy: Sixty Years of Generally Gentle Chaos.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.
Richard, Alfred Charles, Jr. Censorship and Hollywoods Hispanic Image: An Interpretive
Filmography, 1936 1955. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003.
Sampson, Wade. The Lost Caballero, Wades Wayback Machine. http://www.mouseplanet.com/8154/The_Lost_Caballero
15
Locating the Magic Kingdom

Spectacle and Similarity
in People and Places
CYNTHIA J. MILLER
Introduction
History tells us that Disneys Magic Kingdom can be found in central
Florida, that it came into existence in 1971, and that Walt himself never lived
to see that happen. But in reality, Disney brought his magic kingdom into being
more than a decade before. It was expansive, spectacular, and vibrant; brimming
over with color and drama, and untouched by time. It was the world, seen
through the lens of a camera; a camera held by many hands, but by aimed and
focused by the vision of Walt Disney. One by one Samoa, Morocco, Switzerland, Japan all were drawn together beneath the kingdoms banner, to create
the magical landscape of Disneys People and Places.
As an anthology series, Disneys People and Places delivered culture-asspectacle into the viewing lives of American audiences for over half a decade,
beginning with the Academy Award-winning title The Alaskan Eskimo in 1953,
and concluding with The Danube in 1960. The years in between saw the production of fteen additional short lms, covering a range of cultural groups
and locations, from Lapland to the Antarctic, and the lifeways from which they
ostensibly derive their shared identities. In these short lms, which typically
run no more than 30 minutes, viewers are ushered into segments of daily life,
contextualized by voiceover narration, that make the strange familiar, and highlight the beauty, rather than the challenge, in difference.
Cornerstones in Disneys efforts at edutainment, the lms produced under
the People and Places series name were created to grant audiences in the United
States a glimpse of the cultural wonders of the world beyond the countrys borders. In 1959, Disney observed that Most of the worlds people will never travel
to strange and faraway lands...1 and that belief was, undoubtedly, one of the
221
222
motivators that led to the creation of the People and Places series. With each
new episode, the magic kingdoms inuence was extended. True to the series
title, the lms situate people in their places, and those places, in turn, serve as
the narratives primary orientation. Affective, spiritual, economic, and cultural
ties to landscape are often framed as dening characteristics, even in a Western
culture such as Wales, where, to illustrate the persistence of artisanal skills,
viewers are told: Give a Welshman a witch-hazel wand and hes apt to weave
a bit of magic. This framework automatically primitivizes these cultural Others
in an era in which American culture draws its identity from scientic and technological innovation. The rest of the world is cast, by comparison, as children
of nature, frozen in time, and dened by traditional occupations rather than
progress.
In this way, People and Places celebrates, commemorates, and seeks to
retain echoes of the past in the rapidly-changing present. Although a noted
innovator in the entertainment industry, Disneys lament of social and cultural
progress is clear: In an era where modernity threatens to create fundamental
change in gender roles, the family, and the economy, the past, with its wealth
of ancient lore stands as a golden age that, once lost, will never return. People
and Places wraps the cultures it represents in a rhetoric of primitivism, where
customs are unchanged by time, undisturbed by the march of progress, and
rural lifeways are cast as old ways ... carefully preserved by people who cherish
ancestral cultures and ancient legacies. The series seeks to capture and preserve these stories before they become only dim memories, as a remedy for the
anxiety of change.
People and Places addresses another set of social anxieties, as well. From
the midst of an apprehensive Cold War America, these lms speak in reassuring
tones to both the fearful and the curious, reminding viewers that, regardless
of the supercial cultural differences in costume, food, crafts, and dwellings,
human universals exist that create common bonds and basic human problems
of hopes, aspirations, and ambitions. Everywhere the camera looks, children
cause mischief, girls fret about their appearances, family is a primary bond,
and success is achieved through hard work. Disney offers these reminders of
similarities with the hope of strengthening the bonds of good will and understanding by which all men can exist together in peace suggesting that within
these short lms lie Cold War morality tales for Americas internal and foreign
relations.
The American Worldview

Emerging from the midst of the Cold War, Disneys People and Places series
spoke to the uncertain social and ideological landscape of American audiences
in uncharacteristically subtle, and perhaps unintended, ways, working in a curi-
15. Locating the Magic Kingdom (Miller)
223
ous tension with and against policies and initiatives of the postwar era.
While much has been written about Walt Disneys political orientation, afliations, and activities during the war and the postwar years, the People and Places
series suggests degrees of complexity not always fully considered in discussions
of Disneys cultural production. The series presented positive, outward-focused
messages about cultural Others, but those messages were still produced in the
midst of a broad, and often conicting, array of ideas about the representation
of cultural groups and their natural and social worlds that were inuenced as
much by American economics and industry as by politics and ideology.
The rst half of the twentieth century had been dominated by the See
America First campaign, designed to promote national tourism as a ritual of
citizenship.2 The campaign, which originated in the interwar years, encouraged
Americans to refocus their cultural, recreational, and environmental lenses on
domestic sights, rather than investing in European or other foreign travel. First
by train, then by automobile, Americans were offered authentic experiences
of their countrys own people and places, casting tourists as pioneers and explorers in their own land. Through the creation of a canon of national tourist sites
that included national parks such as Yellowstone and the Grand Canyon, and
casting Native Americans, Chinese, Mormons, and other groups as accessible
cultural others, the campaign mapped an idealized American history and tradition across the American landscape, dening an organic nationalism that
linked national identity to a shared territory and history.3
These efforts to rmly ground Americans national identity in the countrys
natural and cultural landscape, as well as to keep American dollars at home,
also functioned as an effective means of keeping the cultural and touristic interests of middle-class Americans focused close to home, while people and places
farther aeld became the purview of adventurers, explorers, and anthropologists.
Americans resulting disconnection from foreign cultures was reinforced
by fears of communism, espionage, and subversion, along with the anxieties
accompanying the Atomic Age. The anti-communist activities of J. Edgar
Hoover and Senator Joseph McCarthy, along with related investigative committees formed in both the Senate and the House of Representatives kept the
American publics fears and suspicions simmering, always ready to erupt into
a boil with each new escalation of political heat. With scandals of alleged
inltration and sympathy animating the news, Americans were mistrustful of
difference and, heeding the warnings that abounded in the countrys civic culture and popular culture alike, fearful of outsiders. Adding to these fears was
uncertainty about the wisdom and outcomes of large-scale scientic progress,
particularly developments related to the atomic bomb, and the potential for
that progress to overreach collective morality and social controls.4
Disneys numerous armed forces lms, along with the studios wartime
propaganda cartoons, had already rmly situated the studio in the political
224
landscape of the times, with tongue-in-cheek offerings like Donald Gets Drafted
(1942) and the classic Der Fuehrers Face (1943), the blatantly antiNazi Education for Death (1943), as well as war bond promotions emphasizing the war
effort on the homefront, such as the 1942 productions of Donalds Decision and
All Together Now, both made for the National Film Board of Canada. Taken
together, these productions not only supported the countrys wartime interests,
but served to reinforce the climate of fear, mistrust, and ethnocentrism that
pervaded World War II America. By 1953, however, Disneys contributions to
postwar popular culture grew more complex than they had been when the oppositions of war seemed to make mapping ideologies of good and evil so clear.
With the People and Places anthology series, the studio put forth images of individuals and groups outside the countrys borders that urged middle-class American audiences to reconsider these cultural Others, casting them as the objects
of fascination, rather than fear.
The series primitivizing framework diminished audiences Atomic Age
fears by freezing its subjects in a non-industrial moment in time, and by so
doing, offering unspoken reassurances of American technological supremacy.
Only Switzerland, a nation of legendary neutrality, is portrayed through the
use of any urban images at all. Progress and innovation are recast here, from
sources of Atomic Age anxiety to reminders of traditional American national
identity and cultural dominance, making Cold War angst unnecessary a message that was reinforced by the studios 1957 lm Our Friend the Atom, along
with its Tomorrowland theme park exhibit and companion book. The book
reminds readers that this converging set of media include a picture of the
future life of man as it would be shaped by the fabulous achievements of science.5 Science, of course, that was not found in the cultures represented in
People and Places.
Disneys subtle, or perhaps unintentional, reassurances, present throughout the series, along with his stated hope that the anthologys lms would
broaden cultural understandings leading to peace for all men, pregured the
corporations adoption of the Its a small world theme by over a decade.6 They
also marked a distinct departure from the countrys Cold War environment of
suspicion, paranoia, and isolationism, emphasizing human universals over
supercial cultural differences.
Learning About People and Places

Following the model established in the wildlife-focused True-Life Adventures, People and Places brought then-rare glimpses of the world to Disney audiences, infusing the cultural and natural worlds with wonder, while at the same
time making those wonders comprehensible and familiar. With these two series,
Disney took his place among a constellation of travel-focused entertainers and
225
educators in the United States whose lineage reached back into the nineteenth
century. The People and Places series, in particular, was situated, though perhaps
uneasily, amidst the evolving traditions of both travelogues and ethnographic
lms, borrowing elements from each, yet never realizing the potential of either.
The travel genre was one of the most popular and developed genres in
early lm, and the competition for upper and middle-class movie-goers imaginations was steady and erce.7 Images and tales of Jack Londons 1907 voyage
on his yacht Snark thrilled traveling show audiences, as they chronicled his
encounters with Solomon Islanders and other Pacic tribal groups.8 The American Museum of Natural History sponsored and lmed a number of Asiatic
ethnographic and zoological expeditions from 1916 through 1930; lms of Arctic
and Antarctic journeys were even more plentiful, such as those carried out by
Amundsen (1910), Scott (1910), Lerner (1914), and Shackleton (1914 1917);
Albert Blinkhorn offered Hunting Wild Game in the South Pacic (1914), while
the Amazon was captured by J. Campbell Besley (1915). Later, travelers such
as Burton Holmes, Lewis Cotlow, Martin and Osa Johnson, and Lowell Thomas
were familiar gures who brought the worlds exotic locales to life for Americans
as they ventured into the twentieth century.
While these lms shared locations and subjects with ethnographic lms
cinematic documentations of cultural groups that were typically the products
of anthropological research their impulses to lm the worlds primitive,
wild, or exotic people and places had very different origins, processes, and generally, results. Early ethnographic lms, such as Edward Curtiss In the Land of
the Headhunters (1916), Robert J. Flahertys Nanook of the North: A Story of Life
and Love in the Actual Arctic (1922), and Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B.
Schoedsacks, Grass (1925) focused not only on difference, but on investigating
its meaning, as well.9 Considered to be the rst commercially successful feature-length documentary, Flahertys lm was a hybrid of narrative and documentary that included staged or steered actuality scenes integrated with the
lmmakers documentary footage. The lm was later critiqued for its manipulation of the subjects lived reality in order to illustrate traditional lifeways.10
Flaherty, a self-dened explorer artist, claimed that a lmmaker must often
distort a thing to catch its true spirit a philosophy that spoke to the heart of
the adventure travelogue genre.11
As the process of ethnographic lmmaking became institutionalized, standardized rules for lm documentation were established: logs of activities (much
like an anthropologists eldnotes) were required. Seizing on the problems of
truth raised by cinma vrit in the 1920s, restrictions were placed on dramatic
angles or movement, and editing was permitted only for representativeness,
rather than for narrative effect.12 In this way, ethnographic lm diverged sharply
from travelogues and adventure lms, seeking different truths, in different
ways.
Following the Lumiere tradition of placing the world within ones reach,13
226
these travelers, adventurers, and cultural educators explored, and exploited,

cinemas power of exhibition the power of making images seen.14 As travelogues, their lms harkened back to what Tom Gunning has called the cinema
of attractions of the early 1900s presenting images that directly addressed
spectators, and were, in and of themselves, the objects of curiosity, attention,
and fascination spectacles in their own right, rather than images in search of
a narrative. For Gunning, the combination of actuality in the form of
undramatized individuals and events and novelty in the form of new cinematic technology like the Biograph or Vitascope created the attraction of
early cinema. As cinema became narrativized, beginning in 1907 and culminating in the appearance of feature lms, moving picture images shifted from
self-contained attractions to elements of dramatic expression, changing both
uses and expectations of images in lm.
While travelogues continued to place an emphasis on the exotic well into
the mid-twentieth century, by the 1930s these popular shorts and feature lms
were joined by a strong new wave of lms inuenced by the increasing prominence of the automobile in American culture and its enhancement of the See
America First campaign. While travel lecturers such as Burton Holmes had
occasionally included footage of New York, Chicago, and other cities in their
presentations, these new travelogues focused on and celebrated the cities of the
United States and Canada, along with well-known foreign destination spots of
the rich and famous, such as Cuba and the Riviera. Emphasizing these locations advances in transportation, social, economic, and industrial progress,
and increasing popularity, these new additions to the genre greeted audiences
with a message far different from their more exotic counterparts. They were
designed to encourage tourism. Rather than addressing audiences as spectators
of people and places that were strikingly foreign, these new travelogues spoke
to audiences as potential tourists, minimizing difference, or framing it as
supercial. They reassured viewers of the comfort and safety of these locales,
supported by images of people just like them, enjoying familiar food, engaging
in familiar forms of recreation, and creating relationships with locals who were
not really all that different from themselves. Increasingly, in the post-war era,
the non-ction lming of difference and the exotic fell to ethnographic lmmakers, as popular culture in the Cold War United States focused its lens toward
home.
While not produced until the following decade, Disneys anthology lms
part natural history and part ethnography, part documentary and part staged
action demonstrate clear roots in these earlier traditions. However, they neither sought to create the air of adventure of early travelogues nor did they replicate ethnographic lms efforts toward unadorned truth. Instead, the People
and Places series relied heavily on a careful crafting of difference that was
vibrant and compelling, yet non-threatening. This and other elements of visual
spectacle helped to blur whatever boundaries might have existed between the
227
cinema of attractions and later, narrative cinema, combining elements of both

to colonize people and places from around the world as wondrous subjects of
the Magic Kingdom.
Creating Cultural Edutainment

The People and Places series is part of a long tradition of American edutainment focused on the marvels and mysteries of the world outside the countrys borders. The decades leading up to the twentieth century were the heyday
of the traveling show, as tent shows, Wild West extravaganzas, lectures, circuses,
vaudeville troupes, and Chautauqua all traveled from town-to-town in good,
barnstorming fashion. Between 1870 1920, one of the most popular among
these traveling shows was the travel lecture or travelogue presentation, which
brought the wonders of the world to audiences in both cities and rural areas,
rst via hand-painted glass slides, illuminated by the light of a magic lantern,
and later, through the new medium of lm, a spectacle in itself.
But these early silent cinema portrayals were by no means the only, or even
the most spectacular, of culture-focused edutainment at the turn of the century.
Dime museums inexpensive urban edutainment venues that combined
knowledge with spectacle boasted collections of the bizarre and exotic that
included artifacts and memorabilia from remote regions of the world, along
with historical wax tableau and oddities of nature. On a much larger scale,
the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition (or Chicago Worlds Fair), a celebration
of American exceptionalism and technological progress, was conceptualized
as a veritable encyclopedia of civilization.15 And for the fairs over 27 million
spectators, civilization was dened by the juxtaposition of scientic and
technological progress, on one hand, and the ethnographic villages found on
the Midway Plaisance. These realistic village exhibits showcased foreign
and exotic people and lifeways, and were designed to afford visitors the opportunity to measure the progress of humanity toward the ideal of civilization presented in the White City.16 The exposition would join the continuing traditions
of travelogues, adventure writing and photography, ethnographic museums
and lms, and exploration lms, in serving as a template for the representation
of strange and exotic cultures into the twentieth century, and for decades to
come.17
Disney Studios entered into the business of cultural representation a bit
more opportunistically, from the worlds of animation and nature lms. The
story of Disneys animated cartoon Bambi setting the studio on the path to the
True-Life Adventure series is well known, but the next chapter in the tale, a bit
less so, as the footage that brought the rst True-Life Adventure, Seal Island
(1948), into being would also serve as Disneys inspiration for the People and
Places series. Alaskan lmmakers and conservationists Alfred and Elma Milotte
228
had already been contributors to the landscape of North American nature travelogues when they were hired by Disney to lm the Alaskan wilderness. The
pair, amateur naturalists who had been lecturing and showing lms on the area,
submitted footage not only of the natural environment, but of human interaction with it. Chronicles of hunting and other subsistence activities, creating
a built environment, enacting rituals and celebrations, and carrying out family
life were all included as part of a holistic representation of wilderness life. The
Academy Award-winning featurette, The Alaskan Eskimo drew its life, not from
the impulse to document the lifeways of a vanishing cultural group, but from
the cutting room oor, created from footage deemed unsuitable for Seal Island
when Disney insisted that the wildlife lm not include the presence of humans.
Both lms launched successful series that ran until 1960, sharing the voice of
narrator Winston Hibler and the guiding hand of producer Ben Sharpsteen,
down their respective paths to success. Under Sharpsteens guidance, the two
anthology series brought eleven Academy Awards to Disney Studios, with eight
of the thirteen True-Life Adventures and three of the seventeen People and Places
series being honored.
But the two series shared something even more profound: Disneys trademark interpretive framework. In good documentary fashion, the People and
Places series promised audiences its own version of true-life adventure. Each
installment of the anthology opened with an on-screen afrmation of the lms
value as a chronicle of culture, and assuring audiences that what they were
about to see was authentic:
This lm is one in a series presenting interesting people and the places in which they
live. All the scenes are authentic and the stories are factual.
But in both People and Places and the True-Life anthology, we nd the natural and cultural worlds drawn into the magic kingdom and recast to entertain,
educate, and promote a worldview compatible with Disneys vision. In that
vision, colors splashed across the screen a bit brighter, challenges were met and
overcome a bit easier, and both hard work and mischievous antics were carried
out with the best of intentions. Musical scores, from the jaunty and satirical to
the sweeping and romantic, were the unied voice with which Disney spoke,
regardless of time, geography, or subject. Mocking horns, swelling strings, and
the clatter of clumsy percussion crafted comedy, drama, and intentionality in
the worlds of humans and animals alike. If it can be said that Disneys liveaction animal features engaged in anthropomorphizing attributing human
motivation, emotion, and personality to animals then a similar process can
be observed in People and Places treatment of children in Portugal, the elderly
in Lapland, women in Japan, and men in Morocco. Lives are choreographed,
personalities set to music, and all are reinterpreted through the lens of middle
class American norms, values, and expectations. And while The Alaskan Eskimo
and all of the culture-focused lms that followed it in the series were created
229
with an eye toward chronicling unique, traditional, non-industrial cultural production, they also shared a number of common themes that spoke directly to
these American values and expectations, reinforcing audiences beliefs in their
own day-to-day lived realities as they portrayed the lives of others across the
globe.
American Values, Around the World

Glistening shores, lush green valleys, billowing deserts, and highways
made of ice all are interwoven with the lifeways they shape, and by which
they are, in turn, shaped. The People and Places series takes its audiences
from Alaska to Thailand in the 1954 Siam, and onward, to Europe [Switzerland
(1955), Sardinia (1956), Portugal (1957), The Danube (1960)], the United Kingdom [Scotland (1958), Wales (1958)], Asia [Japan (1960), The Ama Girls (1958)],
the Pacic and South Pacic [Cruise of the Eagle (1959), Samoa (1956)],
Fennoscandia [Lapland (1957)], North Africa [Morocco (1957)], the polar
regions [Men Against the Arctic (1955), Seven Cities of Antarctica (1958)] and
at home to the then-heart of the magic kingdom itself, Disneyland, U.S.A.
(1956). Place plays a signicant role in these lms, in part, for the audience
appeal of breathtaking natural environments, but more importantly, for the its
impact on subsistence activities, occupations, foodways, transportation, recreation, the structure of social relationships, and the production and use of material culture. The emphasis of Disneys edutainment here is squarely on cultural
geography, setting the issue of global politics carefully aside. Brief glosses are
offered for the complex political status of places such as Wales (Not a nation,
in the accepted sense, since she pays allegiance to the British crown) and Lapland (A place, but not a nation), but no additional mention of political or
ideological orientation is made. In each case, place is treated locally, rather than
as part of a larger whole; as the foundation, over time, for each groups distinctive and unique culture.
These close ties to place-as-landscape serve to create a rustic demeanor
for each of the anthologys featured groups, framing them as close to, if not
embedded in, nature, even when, as audiences are shown in the cases of
Samoans and the Alaskan Eskimo, those groups are forced to battle the elements. In a telling scene from Lapland, audiences are informed that In his
kinship with nature, the Lap nds little to be desired. He has a ne, free life in
a land of crisp air and clean water while Samoas elaborate customs and ceremonies are explained as arising as a remedy to boredom: Providing for their
simple needs takes up only part of their time, so they have developed elaborate
customs and ceremonies to make their tranquil existence more exciting. Even
in the case of Switzerland, where the ngerprints of progress are more apparent
than in any other of People and Places culturally-focused lms, Disney ushers
230
viewers into life in a small village, advising that the Swiss have two indestructible bonds: Democracy and the mountains.
Simple, primitive, and isolated, the portrayals of these groups resonate with descriptions of non-industrialized cultures throughout the history
of Western cultures, as members of civilized societies crafted categories of
self and other that privileged prevailing notions of progress. These frameworks often constructed romantic, or at least sympathetic, portrayals of the
noble savage, as found in Charles Dickens nineteenth century description
of the Alaskan Eskimo as loving children of the North who are forever happy
with their lot.18 Disneys portrayals, just over a century later, are not all that
far from those of Dickens, both creating images that stood in stark contrast to
the cultures of industrialized progress of their respective audiences.19
Ties to nature are nowhere more evident than in the anthologys treatment
of subsistence activities and occupations. Lives are intertwined with the natural
landscape as the skills to herd, sh, gather, farm, build, and create are learned
and perfected over the lifecourse. It is often these skills that dene an individuals role in the family or community, and bring meaning to the chores and
tasks of daily life. For the Moroccos Blue Men, or Tuaregs, livelihood, domestic
labor and even social relationships are all centered on the camel. According to
the Tuareg proverb, He who has no milk in his home has nothing. He who
has no milk has no friends.20 In Wales, an 80-year-old woman gathers cockles
in much the same way as she learned at age eight, while a young housewife
practices baking scones (A Welsh girls reputation as a housewife depends on
her skill with a scone). A group of young boys in Portugal dream of one day
becoming toureiros bullghters and use young heifers as sparring partners,
while others apprentice as oarsmen on sturdy, but graceful, shing boats. Their
Samoan counterparts learn to participate in making copra, spreading the tender
coconut meat to dry in the sun, the little ones earnestly standing watch against
marauding chickens. From Alaska, where women sew communally as groups
of men build, to Japan, where a long drumline is formed on the beach as community members pound seaweed to remove impurities, nature provides challenges and raw materials that create links to the past, shape visions of the
future, and order the lived realities of Disneys subjects.
And whether in Siam or Samoa, the family is the element around which
those day-to-day realities turn. As the basic economic and social unit, the family
structure informs all daily activities. Women oversee the domestic chores, while
men serve as the public face of the family, and viewers are instructed that cooperation in the key to success.21 Even The Blue Men of Morocco, which follows
the journey of nomadic Tuaregs across a sea of sand to bring their camels to
market in distant Marrakech, illustrates this division, with the womens side of
the family tent reserved for cooking, weaving, and other homemaking chores,
while the mens side is designated for hospitality. Only in the award-winning
Ama Girls, Disneys thirteenth People and Places offering, are women featured
231
working in a paid occupation, rather than in a family or community-centered

subsistence activity (such as farming, horticulture, or animal husbandry). The
lm features young women of the Japanese seacoast who are trained to dive for
shellsh and a mineral-rich seaweed known as heaven grass. American viewers, grappling with the place of women in their own workforce are reassured
that the Ama girls, who are of superior stamina and exceptional physique
also neglect no opportunity to look their prettiest, and only dive because they
are better able than men to stand the icy waters. When families in Portugal, the
tenth People and Places lm, are seen industriously transforming grapes into
wine, it is the women toil in the vineyards, harvesting the fruit, after which the
men cheerfully roll up their shorts, lock arms, and stomp the grapes until their
legs are blue all choreographed, of course, to a playful, soundtrack that seeks
to transform communal labor into vaudeville-like comedy.
The timelessness of these customs, skills, and ceremonies is central to the
portrayals in People and Places. The capture and preservation of old ways
that are unchanged by time, undisturbed by the march of progress was Disneys focus throughout the anthology. The series contains footage of lifeways,
craftsmanship, ceremonies, costumes, and indeed, even landscapes, that have,
undoubtedly, given way to the pressures of progress and globalization, making
them invaluable visual records of cultural traditions. It can also be argued that
the anthology represents an equally valuable window into the global outlook
and cultural identity of America in the 1950s and 1960s even more so given
the iconic status of Walt Disney, and the studios pivotal role in cultural production in the postwar era. However, that impulse to preserve is a doubleedged sword, and in People and Places, it has also led to a tendency to primitivize
and essentialize the groups it seeks to celebrate. The series lms repeatedly
cast local knowledge and non-industrial production as primitive, whether in
reference to handcrafts, harvesting, or habitats, in Sardinia or Scotland. Even
in The Danube, where villagers explicit connection to history is illustrated
through deliberate reenactment, designed to express cultural pride, those taking
on historical roles are seamlessly visually integrated with scenes of present-day
subjects in ways that blur the line between past and present. Narration suggests
that the problems of the Atomic Age can be drowned in the golden foam of
the scenic river that unites the villages on its banks in a shared history. With a
similar focus on history, voiceover narration in Wales advises that the Welsh
cling to the old ways, focusing on hand-hewn water wheels, family factories,
and women baking cakes over an open re, without framing those traditions
within the larger picture of the countrys twentieth-century complexities.
Seen through the lens of Disneys cameras, these palpable links between
present and past, whether visually inferred or made explicit through narration,
distance the cultures of People and Places from the realities and anxieties of
their audiences. They also create the need for a common language through
which daily life can be understood across cultures, in order to assure American
232
audiences that beneath the spectacle and strangeness of cultural detail, they and
the individuals on the screen share a common humanity common aspirations,
and basic human problems, as Disneys own words assured them. For Disney,
one strategy was the seemingly-universal language in which the studio was
already uent: comedy. Girls everywhere plot to snare boys; community food
stores are framed as the sh national bank; and bullght practice is glossed
as the Portuguese equivalent of Little League, creating structures of meaning
comprehensible to American audiences. Across the series cultures, the antics
of small children are framed in ways designed to elicit not only laughter, but
nods of recognition from American parents. Japanese toddlers, playing at sailing
tiny handmade boats in The Ama Girls, are cast as Nautical Nippers of Nippon,
while in Lapland, when a small boy, full of determination, struggles to cut himself a snack with a knife that would elicit gasps of panic from American adults,
Hiblers narration observes that it is customary to eat with ngers and forego
forks, but this little lad may soon forego ngers! And of course, these youngsters conrm what all parents in Disneys audiences suspected: Children all
over the world hate to go to bed.
The elderly have their role in this cultural comedy, as well, when the camera
focuses on an elderly Lap woman drawing contentedly on her pipe. Framed as
a parody of both age and gender, the image seeks to remind viewers that the
character that comes with advanced age is also universal. Nearly thirty years
earlier, however, when a parallel scene in the 1928 lm Simba, depicted an elderly tribal woman, the Queen of Lumbwa, pufng on a cigar, critics were
outraged at the lmmakers attempts to create vaudeville out of difference. Disney, whose animation and True-Life Adventure output in those intervening
years had been trademarked by satire and the imposition of comedy, received
no such criticism, raising unanswered questions about whether and in what
ways the studios history in cartoon animation affected the reception of Disneys
edutainment efforts.
These questions are not the only complexities related to the ways in which
the studios history is interwoven in the People and Places series. In addition to
the fourteen cultural groups represented in the anthology, it also includes three
lms focused on military projects in science and technology, continuing the
studios wartime relationship with the government, and making the series an
uneasy combination of narrative essays on culture and progress. These curious
additions, highlighting Coast Guard projects in the Arctic (Men Against the
Arctic) and the Pacic Ocean (The Cruise of the Eagle), and the creation of Naval
bases in the Antarctic (Seven Cities of Antarctica) stand in sharp contrast to the
majority of the series depictions of primitive cultures, timelessly situated in
nature. The anthology is further complicated by the inclusion of Disneyland,
U.S. A., the sixth lm in the People and Places series. A study, in fact, of a place
that wasnt. The lm, like the theme park, celebrates American exceptionalism,
innovation, and consumerism or seeks, as Mitsuhiro Yashimoto observes in
233
his essay on Tokyo Disneyland, to equate the commodication of daily life ...
with American nationalism.22
The inclusion of these lms leads to questions about what constituted people or places meriting inclusion in the series. Despite Walt Disneys own journey
to Latin America in the summer of 1941, and the studios production of the features Saludos Amigos (1942) and The Three Caballeros (1944), no Latin American
cultures received attention in People and Places. Neither did the Navajo, a group
that was the focus of two Disney projectsNavajo Adventure (1957) and The
Navajo, Children of God (1967). However, Navajo culture is included in a companion book of the same name, written by Jane Werner Watson, with a foreward
by Walt Disney, in which only the cultural groups featured in the anthology
appear. These Navajo lms, created ten years apart, attest to the signicant role
played by cultural education themes in Disneys output, and yet, taken together,
they demonstrate how severely the studios perspective on what it meant to
chronicle culture had fallen out of step with social progress in America. In 1966,
the year before Children of God was released, anthropologists Sol Worth and
John Adair were also working on Native American lm. The pair facilitated the
creation of The Navajo Film Themselves an ethnographic project in which a
small group of Navajo was asked to make 16 mm. black-and-white lms about
how they saw themselves, and how they wanted to be seen by outsiders.23 Thus,
both Disney productions share similar essentializing traits that marked adventure ethnography of the 1950s effectively freezing the Navajo in time while
progress in elds like visual anthropology had moved the documenting of culture in directions that were more in-touch with subjects lived realities.
Conclusion: The World as Magic Kingdom

But reality, even in Disneys non-ction productions, was a shifting term,
and I would argue, not the primary motivator in the creation of the People and
Places series. If reality had been at issue, there existed a range of continuallydeveloping documentary methods that might have served as models. The work
of the series, then, was about something more something more fundamental
to American national identity, to the countrys Cold War ethos, and to solving
the dissonance between valorizing progress, on the one hand, and maintaining
a romantic nostalgia for a simpler, more certain time, on the other about
helping audiences locate themselves in a postwar world. Disney accomplished
all of these through his lms portrayals of individuals and communities around
the world, creating a multi-dimensional picture of Americas place in the world
that left its own people feeling safe, reassured, and condent about their place.
Through those portrayals, Disney both created structures of difference
and collapsed them, narrating lives and landscapes that, while foreign and
strange, contained values, characteristics, and relationships that mainstream
234
Americans recognized as part of themselves. Perhaps, more than that, those

images contained values, characteristics, and relationships that audiences recognized as the best parts of themselves, creating nostalgia for a Golden Age that
existed before the rapid social change brought about by war.
It is here, in the ability to simultaneously exoticize and familiarize Americans cultural Others, that we nd the true creation of Disneys magic kingdom.
In People and Places portrayal of cultural wonders of bold, unique, colorful
difference lies the magic; in its reassurance that, despite those differences,
there are human universals that make us all comprehensible that the Cold
War world really was a small world after all lies the kingdom. Long before
any physical representation of a Magic Kingdom came into being, Disney
had already drawn Americans, and the rest of the world, inside.
NOTES
1. Walt Disney, Foreword in Jane Werner Watson, Walt Disneys People and Places
(New York: Golden Press, 1959), np.
2. Marguerite Schaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880 1940.
(Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2001), 4.
3. Schaffer, 122
4. For discussions of the range of responses to advances in technology, see Paul S.
Boyer, By the Bombs Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the
Atomic Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994; Stephen J. Whiteld,
The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).
5. Dust jacket. Our Friend the Atom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956).
6. The Disney attraction Its a Small World originated with the Pepsi Pavilion at
the 1964 Worlds Fair, themed after the eponymous song, commissioned by Disney. The
attraction was transferred to Disneyland in 1966, where it grew into a key theme in the
parks Fantasyland. Its a small world includes representations from Europe, Asia,
Africa, Latin America, the Arctic and Antarctic, the South Pacic, and the United States,
emphasizing unity and interconnectedness.
7. Charles Musser, American Vitagraph 18971901 in Cinema Journal, vol. 22 no.
3, Spring 1983, 47.
8. Martin Johnson, who accompanied London on his voyages, forged his early travelogue career using still images and footage from his voyages with London.
9. Grass, the least known of these, was set in the area then known as Persia (now,
Iran). The lm documents Bakhtiari herdsmen on their annual trek from winter to summer pastures.
10. It should be noted that this technique was common practice among documentaries
of the day, though foreign to the goals of even early ethnographic lm.
11. Richard Barsam, Non-ction Film: A Critical History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), 46 54.
12. Known as the cinema of truth, one of cinma vrits hallmarks at the time was
the use of stylized camera work and editing, along with staged action to problematize
the notion of truth.
13. Tom Gunning, The Cinema of Attractions: Early Film, Its Spectator and the
Avant-Garde in Thomas Elsaesser (ed.), Early Cinema: Space, Frame, Narrative (London: British Film Institute, 1990), 56.
14. Fernand Leger, A critical essay on the plastic qualities of Abel Gances lm The
235
Wheel, in Edward Fry (ed.), Functions of Painting, trans. Alexandra Anderson (New
York: Viking, 1973), 21.
15. Rydell, np; see also Reid Badger. The Great American Fair: The Worlds Columbian
Exposition and American Culture (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1979).
16. Ibid.
17. In fact, Cleveland, Ohio, modeled its 1936 Great Lakes Exposition directly after
the Columbian Exposition, including a Streets of the World exhibition.
18. Charles Dickens, Our Phantom Ship on an Antediluvian Cruise in Household
Words, April 16, 1851.
19. In the case of the Alaskan Eskimo, narration observes that the Eskimo build their
homes by instinct, and that, while they do not have many possessions, their treasure
is their way of life.
20. Jane Werner Watson, Walt Disneys People and Places (New York: Golden Press,
1959), 89.
21. Made explicit in this quote from Ama Girls.
22. Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto, Images of Empire: Tokyo Disneyland and Japanese Cultural Imperialism in Eric Smoodin (ed.), Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom. AFI Film Readers Series (Oxford: Taylor and Francis, 2004), 192.
23. For more on this project and other early visual auto-ethnographies, see Sarah
Pinks Visual Interventions: Applied Visual Anthropology (Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books,
2009), and Sol Worth and John Adairs Through Navajo Eyes: An Exploration in Film
Communication and Anthropology (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Badger, Reid. The Great American Fair: The Worlds Columbian Exposition and American
Culture. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1979.
Barsam, Richard. Non-ction Film: A Critical History. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1973.
Boyer, Paul S. By the Bombs Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of
the Atomic Age. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Dickens, Charles. Our Phantom Ship on an Antediluvian Cruise in Household Words,
April 16, 1851.
Disney, Walt. Foreword in Walt Disneys People and Places, written by Jane Werner
Watson, np. New York: Golden Press, 1959.
Gunning, Tom. The Cinema of Attractions: Early Film, Its Spectator and the AvantGarde in Early Cinema: Space, Frame, Narrative, edited by Thomas Elsaesser, 56
London: British Film Institute, 1990.
Leger, Fernand. A critical essay on the plastic qualities of Abel Gances lm The Wheel,
in Functions of Painting, edited by Edward Fry, translated by Alexandra Anderson,
2127. New York: Viking, 1973.
Musser, Charles. American Vitagraph 18971901 Cinema Journal 22 no. 3, (Spring
1983): 4 47.
Our Friend the Atom. Dust Jacket. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956.
Pink, Sarah. Visual Interventions: Applied Visual Anthropology. Oxford, UK: Berghahn
Books, 2009.
Rydell, Robert. All the Worlds a Fair: Visions of Empire at Americas International Expositions, 1876 1916. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Schaffer, Marguerite. See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880 1940. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2001.
Watson, Jane Werner. Walt Disneys People and Places. New York: Golden Press, 1959.
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Whiteld, Stephen J. The Culture of the Cold War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1991.
Worth, Sol, and John Adair. Through Navajo Eyes: An Exploration in Film Communication
and Anthropology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972.
Yoshimoto, Mitsuhiro. Images of Empire: Tokyo Disneyland and Japanese Cultural
Imperialism in Disney Discourse: Producing the Magic Kingdom, edited by Eric
Smoodin. 181199. AFI Film Readers Series. Oxford: Taylor and Francis, 2004.
16
Americas Salesman
The USA in Circarama
SARAH NILSEN
The United States pavilion at the 1958 Brussels Worlds Fair was an ideological project constructed in order to push European visitors toward a positive
outlook on the United States at a time when the nations international reputation
was being severely challenged by Soviet propaganda. President Dwight Eisenhowers second term was beset with concerns that his Administration was not
dealing with its diplomatic, military, and domestic problems. Many Europeans
feared the rapid militarization of the United States and its concomitant expansion of atomic power and additionally condemned its racial injustice. The Brussels Worlds Fair offered the U.S. government an opportunity to calm these fears
and present an equitable image of the nation abroad. The fair exemplies the
type of soft psychological warfare developed in the Eisenhower administration
in order to propagate a positive image of America throughout the world. The
United States pavilion was constructed to create an actual space that would
become America for its visitors, and this was an America demarcated by its
ideological imperatives. Even though the fties are often characterized as a
time of the homogenization of American life and the solidication of traditional
values against the onslaught of the communist threat, the difculty on the part
of both state and private entities to develop a coherent and stable national
image to put on display for an European audience points to the inadequacy of
the conception of American popular culture as a hegemonic force. This chapter,
through the analysis of a lm produced specically to capture the image of
America for an international audience, argues that Hollywood as a perceived
hegemony in fact did not present a coherent and recognizable image of American national identity and that American propagandists struggled during this
period to attempt to articulate and present an acceptable image of America for
international consumption.
The exhibit that had the best success in attracting and selling the American
237
238
way of life to Europeans at the Brussels Worlds Fair was created by Walt Disney.
Housed in a separate theater attached to the American pavilion, the 360-degree
travelogue lm, The USA in Circarama, was projected continually for visitors
throughout the day. As Walt Disneys rst foray into building a worlds fair
attraction , the lm proved to be a major hit for the Eisenhower administration
mainly because Disney captured a saleable image of America that had eluded
ofcial American propagandists.
Disney as a Propagandist
Walt Disney saw himself as a producer of lighthearted popular entertainment. He shied away from overt messages, and even resisted the title of propagandist even after, at the governments request, he took on the role. Disneys
transformation into an ambassador for the United States government and the
American way of life was shaped by two signicant events: a strike within the
Disney Studios and the entry of the United States into the Second World War.
Firstly, the conversion of the Disney studio into wartime production
marked Walt Disneys rst direct involvement with the production of propaganda lms for the government. Twenty eight percent of the Disney studio personnel were drafted into the war, and seventy ve percent of the studios output
was targeted for the government. These lms included animated instructional
lms for the armed forces, such as Four Methods of Flush Riveting, along with
jingoistic cartoon shorts including The New Spirit, which had been commissioned by the Treasury Department to convince the general public to pay their
income taxes in order to support the war effort. Additionally, Disney threw
himself into producing two packages lms, Saludos Amigos! and The Three
Caballeros, for the Ofce of Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, an ofce
created in 1940 in order to promote relations between the United States and
Latin America. By the wars end, Disney is estimated to have produced between
150 and 300 hours of government movies. These lms kept the studio from
bankruptcy and closure. Though Disney reportedly expressed to Treasury
Department ofcials his fear of being labeled a propagandist in the public mind
and the damage that it might cause to his reputation as a whimsical, nonpolitical artist, his extensive involvement in government backed, proAmerican propaganda lms provided Disney and the studio with the expertise in the
production of effective political messages for a popular audience.1
Secondly, the bitter and divisive studio strike in 1941 convinced Disney of
the existence of a communist conspiracy to destroy his studio. The strike converted Disney into an avowed anti-communist and directly led to his assumption of the position of the rst vice president of the Motion Picture Alliance
for the Preservation of American Ideals, an industry organization publicly
opposed to leftist inuences in the lm industry. In September 1947, when the
16. Americas Salesman (Nilsen)
239
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) under Chair J. Parnell

Thomas began its investigations of Communist inuence in Hollywood, Disneys name was among a list of forty ve Possible Friendly Witnesses compiled
by the FBI. And Disney was also among the select group of friendly witnesses
initially called to testify. In his testimony before the Committee, Disney claimed
that the 1941 strike had been supported by Commie front organizations and
that throughout the world all the Commie groups began a smear campaign
against [him] and [his] pictures.2
By the nineteen fties, Walt Disney was viewed by American intelligence
agencies as a singular gure in Hollywood who could be relied upon to spread
the ofcially sanctioned message of the American way of life. Before the CIA
backed overthrow the Iranian government in 1952, the American Embassy in
Tehran sent a classied message to the Department of State suggesting that if
the Department is considering the production of lms of more obvious propaganda type, that a short motion picture, probably of ten minutes duration,
that pokes fun at the communist system without mentioning it as such, would
nd an appreciative audience in Iran. Further, if this lm were done in the style
of Disney, using his technique with the familiar Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck,
Pluto, and so forth, the reception would be further enhanced.3 By 1954, J.
Edgar Hoover had made Disney into a special agent in charge contact for the
FBI. In an ofce memorandum to Hoover, the Los Angeles special agent in
charge wrote that because of Mr. Disneys position as the foremost producer
of cartoon lms in the motion picture industry and his prominence and wide
acquaintanceship in lm production matters, it is believed that he can be of
valuable assistance to this ofce and therefore it is my recommendation that
he be approved as an SCA contact.4
Even with his stellar reputation as a spokesman for the American way of
life, Disney had his work cut out for him. The HUAC investigations of Hollywood had signicantly altered the tenor of the popular discourse and the perception of lm as a form of escapist entertainment. Questions about the
communist inltration of American lm production had transformed lm, in
the public mind, into a political medium capable of projecting ideologically
potent images. Both the popular press and government ofcials debated and
lamented the distorted image of America that Hollywood was popularizing
abroad. Norman Cousins, the editor-in-chief of the Saturday Review of Literature and a well-known advocate of liberal causes including nuclear disarmament, wrote a well-publicized three-part editorial in the Saturday Review titled
The Free Ride in 1950 in which he argued that Soviet propaganda was not
nearly as damaging as the grotesquely distorted view of the American people
being created abroad by our own motion pictures.5 The overriding complaint
about the image that Hollywood was propagating was two-fold and linked.
Firstly, Hollywood lms created the impression that most Americans were
excessively materialistic. As Cousins described, We dont all live in plush
240
duplex apartments with elaborate cocktail bars and retinues of servants. We

dont all sleep in kingsize beds with silk topsheets nor do we all arise languidly
at noon for breakfast in bed.6 Coupled with the decadence and hedonism of
American capitalism that Hollywood lms broadcast internationally was the
celebration of immorality and criminality. We have more than our share of
humanitys faults, but we by no means monopolize them, Cousins editorialized. Nor are we predominantly a nation of murderers, gangsters, idlers, deadbeats, dipsomaniacs, touts, tarts, and swindlers, as Hollywood would have us
appear.7
The assault by Cousins on Hollywood lms and their detrimental effect
on international perceptions of American society was reective of widespread
concerns about Hollywood within the government and elicited a heated
response from Eric Johnston, the president of the Motion Picture Association
of America who had replaced Will Hays in 1945. Unlike Hays, who had been
hired to exercise his authority within and on the lm industry, Johnston was,
from the outset, designated as chief Washington lobbyist for the movie studios.
Johnston found Cousins arguments too reductive and he argued that American
democracy was necessarily linked to consumerism and materialism, and it was
something Hollywood lms should aunt as a means of selling the American
way. What would Mr. Cousins have us do? Johnston asked. Can we paint
the American scene in lm without showing our automobiles, our telephones,
our bathtubs, our better clothes, better roads, higher buildings, refrigerators,
radios, and household conveniences?... These dazzling gadgets are products of
a democracy, and we have them in such a multitude largely because we work
and live by the rule of democracy.8
Walt Disneys extensive work for the government and his overt stance
against Communism made Disney into the one of the few Hollywood executives
that the Eisenhower government (and also most Americans) found to be a true
American patriot who could be trusted to effectively present the American message abroad. Walt Disney was the only Hollywood studio executive chosen by
the Cambridge Study Group for the Brussels Universal and International Exhibition at MIT, along with a group of Americas top business and cultural leaders,
to help determine the thematic basis for the American pavilion at the fair. The
study group was composed of the key members of the CIA-funded Center for
International Studies (CENIS). CENIS was contracted by the State Department
as the initial planning group for the Brussels Worlds Fair. The CENIS study
group for the fair, in a series of meetings conducted between 1956 and 1958,
attempted to articulate a comprehensive strategy for the exhibit that would
present for European visitors The Undiscovered Country. Of all the nations,
great and small, the study group argued, the United States today is probably
the most widely known and also the most widely misunderstood. To this day,
ours, to the foreigner, remains an undiscovered country. The fact is disquieting.... Thus beyond the efforts of our statesmen, our diplomats, our overseas
241
information services, there is an urgent need to bring to ordinary men and

women abroad the true picture of what we are and what we are after. The
group struggled over the challenge of selling the free market system abroad
through the use of soft power techniques, the fair planners needed to determine,
basically what has set our nation apart, enabling it to achieve in a relatively
short span of years a pinnacle of economic and social supremacy and world
leadership?9
Because of his close governmental ties and his espousal of corporate capitalism as the American way, Walt Disney was ideally suited to manage the challenge that faced the Cambridge study group. The groups initial interview of
Disney was conducted by Robert Warner, the Coordinator of U.S. Building
Exhibits, along with John Hench, one of the designers of the Disneyland park,
at the Burbank studio on January 8, 1957. The summary of the meeting stated
that these gentlemen came up with almost nothing but that they had asked
for time to study the problem. Disney did suggest that it was important that
we emphasize the fact that we are a people who like to enjoy ourselves. He felt
we should play down the idea that we only want money and said we must avoid
bragging about money and leisure.10
Warner spent a day touring Disneyland during his visit and by the end of
January began negotiations with Walt Disney for the production of a 360-degree
lm comparable to the parks Circarama attraction. With a proposed budget of
a million dollars for the new lm, the search began for an ofcial sponsor of
the exhibit. James Plaut, the Deputy Commissioner General of the Brussels
Exhibition wrote Howard Cullman, the Commissioner General, that after due
consideration, we feel that this would be the ideal vehicle for Ford. This is based
on the fact that General Motors will have a big show in the Belgian section and
that Ford is very keen to do something spectacular for the Belgian market....
We are prepared to go so far as to call the undertaking Fordarama which ought
to interest them.11 The selection of a major automobile company for sponsorship of the lm was a logical choice since the original Disneyland attraction
was paid for by American Motors and was shot with a camera mounted to a
car.
Disney and Circarama

The development of Walt Disneys Circarama occurred at a time when
movie attendance had signicantly declined in the United States due to the
marked increase of television viewership and other leisure activities. Disney
had a hand in both, producing the television anthology series Disneyland for
ABC beginning in 1954 and opening his Disneyland theme park in 1955.
Through the use of television, Disney was able to market his park and his stockpile of lms to a new and ready audience. In addition, he was able to develop
242
a symbiotic relationship with corporate sponsors that would fund his projects
in exchange for the promotion of their products. Disneys reliance on corporate
backing for his theme park was unprecedented.
The future envisaged in the Tomorrowland area of the Disneyland park
was based on the prosperity and progress offered by corporate capitalism. Similar to the New York Worlds Fair of 1939 and its theme of Building the World
of Tomorrow, its images of the future were dominated by a consumer culture
that foregrounded the benecent success of the free enterprise system. The
three main exhibitions in Tomorrowland at the time of the opening of Disneyland were American Motors Circarama, the Richeld show called The World
Beneath Us, and TWAs Flight to the Moon. All three exhibits emphasized
lm innovations that combined education and entertainment in order to showcase Disneyed corporate promotions. Corporate involvement in sites of leisure
activity was common throughout the early twentieth century especially at
worlds fairs. As Tom Gunning has noted, worlds fairs provided an image of
the world wide power of capitalism; they transformed a market place into a
symbolic landscape that not only celebrated but exemplied modernity; and
they formed a spectacle in which commodity provided the entertainment, and
the commodity form of entertainment itself was raised to a new technical perfection.12 But Disney greatly expanded corporate involvement in his theme
park by using other corporations monetary investment in pavilions to create
a distinctly Disney-based product that would serve as a source of public relations
advertising masked by the lure of entertainment. Although the Disneyland television program proved to be an unexpected success, Disneyland itself was considered a risky investment before its opening. Therefore, companies that chose
to enter into an agreement with Disney at the park were counting on the popularity of the Walt Disney name to provide them with a distinctly white, middle-class, suburban audience and clientele.
In order to understand the evolution of the Circarama phenomenon that
proved so popular at the Brussels Worlds Fair of 1958, it is instructive to chart
the history of the ride within the context of Disneyland itself. Circarama was
designed for a multitude of reasons beyond standard lm exhibition. It was
part travelogue, part patriotic anthem to the American way, and predominantly
an advertisement within a corporate sponsored playground. By the time Disneys
Circarama reached Brussels, it had undergone signicant development and
renement as a product of Disneys synergy. The Circarama technology was
originally developed by Ub Iwerks, who had been with Walt Disney since the
start of their animation careers, but had by the 1950s been consigned to the
engineering barns because of interpersonal conicts. The Circarama exhibition
required considerable nancial investment for its initial development. A contemporaneous article in Business Film, the industrial lm journal, made special
mention of the complexity and ingenuity involved in this new widescreen technology. Even considering Disneys well-known perfectionism, his extensive
243
investment in the technological development of Circarama signaled his condence in the ability of this one-of-a-kind experience to effectively reach crowds
of consumers.
The format of the original Circarama lm was that of a traditional travelogue, A Tour of the West, displayed on a new 360-degree screen. The selection
of a travelogue as the source material for the lm can be traced to the recent
development of Disneys True-Life series of nature documentaries, which began
with Seal Island in 1948. These documentaries became a regular feature of the
original Disneyland television series, and in the 1950s Disney created another
related documentary series, People and Places, which did for cultural geography
what the True-Life Adventures did for natural history. As Margaret King has
shown, these documentaries anthropomorphized nature by transforming animals and their environments into human scenarios. They also used the symbolic
landscapes of the United States in order to create lms ooded with American
optimism and manifest destiny.13 James Algar, who wrote ve Academy-Awardwinning pictures for Disney, including Natures Half Acre, The Living Desert
and The Vanishing Praire and also directed several wartime lms produced by
the studio for the U.S. Armed Forces, was the scriptwriter for The USA in Circarama.
Disneys interest in Circarama was a direct product of his desire to compete
with the hugely successful widescreen formats that transformed lm exhibition
in the fties. It also provided Disney with the opportunity to establish his own
specialized exhibition spaces for his lms. Television became one aspect of Disneys expanding role as an exhibitor. With the Circarama lms, he was able to
turn theaters themselves into attractions. The difference between Disneys
widescreen developments and other popular widescreen technologies such as
Cinerama, was that the lm was only one element in an integrated theatrical
experience that also included dioramas, narration, and the actual integration
of products into the show.
Even with the considerable nancial investment in the Circarama technology, and the enlistment of many of Disneys most talented Imagineers, the
development of Circarama was not without its setbacks. The rst prototype of
the 360-degree camera consisted of eleven cameras that caused eyestrain and
dizziness. In his quest for perfection, Disney challenged his crew to eliminate
this visual defect. Engineers discovered that the problem was that because the
entire camera lens faced outwards, they did not share exactly the same focal or
nodal point. In order for the system to work properly, the cameras had to be
aimed and focused at the same central nodal point. The engineers were able to
quickly solve the problem and the second generation required only nine cameras, all focused into the same centralized focal point, which was a highly polished, angled mirror. The system worked awlessly.
The nanciers of the Circarama exhibit were American Motors and Kelvinator appliances (the producers of the durable goods par excellence of the
244
fties) who invested $350,000 into developing the show in order to make
friends who will eventually become customers for cars or appliances.14 American Motors needed the potentially vast audience available at Disneyland probably more than Disney needed their investment. In 1955, American Motors had
lost nearly seven million dollars, and it lost another twenty million in 1956.
Even though the company was experiencing a nancial crisis, American Motors
recognized the potentially great economic returns that an investment in a ride
at Disneys amusement park might mean. They eagerly invested their money
into a project that was entirely under the control of Disney. The company would
actually run out of money just as Disney was about to start shooting, and the
lm was completed in two weeks with most of the nal footage made up of test
shots that were run to see if the equipment worked.
Circarama, with its eleven projectors, showed audiences simultaneously
where you are, where you are going and where you have been. Like television,
the lm was one element in a broad display of consumer goods. The theater
contained softly lit displays of Kelvinator appliances, and around the open portion of the screen was a sampling of automobiles. Kelvinator, as a manufacturer
of home appliances, had devised a series of successful advertisements at the end
of the war that showed the transformative powers of its appliances in bringing
together the postwar family in their dream homes. By the time that Kelvinator
was placing its appliances into the Circarama exhibit, the dream that its ads
evoked as a possible future reality had indeed become true for many Americans.
The newest refrigerators, stoves, and dishwashers were lling the homes of
America, helping to build a strong and robust economy.
The Disneyland Circarama lm opened with a line of Kelvinator appliances presented: one on each screen supposedly in order to give the audience
the feeling of the medium.15 This was an audience that had already become
familiar with Disneys method of combining entertainment with corporate
sponsorship through his television show. The appliances and automobiles were
recognizable friends for the fans of the television show who had been primed
for months with regular updates about the building and opening of the park.
And yet this blatant commercial placement, though typical of television, was
not a standard experience for lm viewers. Most Americans held the view that
the cinema was supposed to be a place where you could escape from all those
annoying commercials seen on network television.16 But the wonder of the
new widescreen technology and the sensory overload that the experience created
facilitated audience acceptance of the placement of products within the screen
as yet another enchanting Disney creation. As The New York Times described
two weeks after the park opened, For the most startling innovation in movie
presentation, one will have to visit Disneyland.... Walt Disney and the Eastman
Kodak Company have hit upon the ultimate in audience participation or envelopment, via a 360-degree screen.... The effect of viewing a motion picture that
is going on all around you is fantastic. Particularly overpowering is the sense
245
of motion, or moving with the picture.17 No mention or judgment was made

concerning the fact that the lm was part of a large advertising campaign
directed to the ideal consumers the nuclear family that ooded the park
grounds.
Circarama was targeting the predominantly middle-class, Southern Californian audience who arrived from the suburbs in their American Motors station wagons. As car travel became a favorite leisure activity for the postwar
middle-class, Circarama provided a ready inducement to begin planning next
summers trip to all the great American sights. This tour of Americas great
parks and historical sites was a crucial rite of passage for most middle-class
American families, and Disney knew how to market that desire to his audience
through the The Tour of the West Circarama experience. Spectators were placed
in the drivers seat of a Nash automobile providing them with a rst person
hypervisuality that opened up the visual eld to a 360-degree panorama. The
viewers trip began with a leisurely tour of the shoppers paradise of Beverly
Hills which then abruptly shifted to a police chase on Wilshire Boulevard
accompanied by a loud siren screech. The journey continued on to Monument
Valley, and the Grand Canyon. These families were already very familiar with
the iconographic sites of the American West via the Western shows that dominated television screens in the fties. The proliferation of narratives about the
mythical Western frontier was key to the construction of American exceptionalism during the Cold War. A Tour of the West was a journey into the majestic
landscape that gave birth to this nation. Disney transformed the miniaturized,
black and white, television image of the West into a color saturated, 360-degree,
sensory sensation. This was the ultimate road trip that provided the viewer
access to the most awe inspiring sites, their beauty and splendor enhanced by
the technological wonders of the newest cameras and lm stock. Free of the
tedium of the road, devoid of kitschy tourist sites, this family road trip was a
patriotic journey into the mythical space of American national identity.
Disneys rst Circarama lm was a travelogue of Americas most popular
tourist destinations in the Western United States. Even though it was a main
attraction in Tomorrowland, the only futuristic image provided by the exhibit
was the lm technology that Disney devised in order to out-do all other new
widescreen formats. As Business Screen reported, Bigger and wider screens
are the unmistakable trend of movie presentation. The best way to predict
the future of movie presentation then, was to go to the end of the line the
widest possible screen is a complete circle.18 The technological imperative of
the Circarama camera and projector demanded images that would exploit the
grand scale that the medium provided. Therefore the cinematographers sought
out scenic environments that would foreground the awe inspiring rather than
the intimate or the personal. Spectators were meant to naturally align the products of corporate capitalism that surrounded them in the Circarama theater
with the spectacular and iconographic images of America presented on screen
246
thus directly linking consumption with national pride. The Circarama exhibit
stood alongside other Tomorrowland theme park attractions that similarly
incorporated lm images with corporate slogans. Overall, Disneys world of
the future in Tomorrowland was a corporate park fronted with the faade of a
fairground. Disneys conception of the future looked back to the successes of
the past in order to pave the way for the new glories of the American corporate
future.
The USA in Circarama

Though many elites began to attack Disney for his sentimentality and antiintellectualism in the fties, he had become a symbol of postwar American
society and its middle-class, All-American values. During this period, the Disney Studio was entering into a period of unprecedented integration and expansion into television, the Disneyland theme park, and live action lms while
maintaining its animated productions. Considering the high level of studio
demands it is surprising that Walt Disney was eager to produce a Circarama
lm for the U.S. government. Yet at this time, Disneys live action lms were
regularly being shot in Europe and Walt Disney had become a frequent visitor.
The Hollywood studios were rapidly expanding their markets into Europe as
the U.S. lm market plummeted and the development of The USA in Circarama
provided an ideal opportunity for Disney to directly address the middle-class,
mainstream European audiences that were already fans of Disney productions.
Additionally, the funds provided by the corporate sponsors for the lm would
give the studio the monies needed to further develop the Circarama attraction
at the park.
The Ford Motor Company was the only corporation solicited for sponsorship of The USA in Circarama and the funding negotiations were contentious.
Andrews, the regional executive responsible for English, Canadian and German
manufacturing for, believed that the International Division couldnt hope to
get a half million dollars worth out of it from an advertising point of view.19
Eventually, the Ford Motor Company Fund offered $200,000 to be spent on the
production and exhibition of the lm with the understanding that Ford would
have no rights to the equipment and the lm after the fair. The United States
government provided the rest of the $412,000 total budget with $100,000 allotted to Walt Disney for the production of the lm. The lm went into production
in October of 1957, and a preview of an hour of raw footage was provided for
Robert Warner and Walt Disney in November. The footage shot, per the requests
of Ford, included a tour of the River Rouge plant including shots of their test
track. Shooting continued through November, with the crew photographing
aerial shots of San Francisco, the Grand Canyon, and the Southwest. The production was halted in December after the studio requested and failed to secure
247
an additional $100,000 or more to complete the lm. Bill Anderson, the executive vice president of Walt Disney Studios, wrote Warner that this show would
be delivered at a real nancial loss to Walt Disney Productions but, as always
the case, all of the money is put into brick, mortar and furnishings with little
or nothing left for the entertainment portion. Warner attended a preview
screening of the lm in March and wrote to Cullman that he had been told by
Anderson that in addition to the $100,000 we paid them for the production,
they have about $100,000 of their own money sunk into it. Off the record, I
doubt it. However, the lm is very good and I am sure this is going to be a
tremendous attraction.20 The USA in Circamara had been lmed across the
United States to provide a continuous panorama of America. The cameramen
traveled in a Lincoln Premier and a modied Ford station wagon, and their
shooting schedule was broken into three parts. The rst shots were of a wheat
harvest in upper Montana which had a dynamic climax shot from on top of the
station wagon as nine combines harvested in unison. After the wheat harvest,
shooting occurred at Yellowstone National Park and then at the worlds largest
open pit copper mine in Utah. The second shooting segment went on to capture
fall foliage in New England, the harbors and bridges of New York, and the bustle
of Times Square. Then it was off to Rockefellers newly restored Colonial
Williamsburg in Virginia, now a mecca for tourists. Next came the steel mills
of Pittsburgh, and the Santa Fe Railroads vast freight yard in Kansas City.
Mounted on top of a caboose, the speed of the cameras was undercranked in
order to speed up the action in the yard. A major sequence of the lm was shot
at the Ford Motor Companys River Rouge plant. After this, it was off to a
gigantic supermarket with acres of parked cars, then a modern-day cowboy
cattle roundup, ending on a vignette of the oil industry near Tulsa. The last
shooting segment required the assistance of a B-52 bomber. Since Disney
insisted that no parts of the plane should be visible in the image, the Disney
engineers devised a boom that would lower the camera seven feet beneath the
plane. This segment was thematically a repeat of the Disneyland attraction. The
aerial shots captured the stunning grandeur of the American West,tarting with
Monument Valley, including several trips through the Grand Canyon, and culminating with Hoover Dam and a sunset over the Golden Gate Bridge. Then
itt was back to the station wagon for a few trips across the Bay bridges, running
shots of the San Francisco cable cars, and night shots in Chinatown. In all,
more than one-hundred thousand feet of 16-millimeter Kodachrome Commercial lm was exposed during a year of shooting. This footage was edited to
create the 18-minute lm.
Structured as a visual journey across America, the lm was a unique addition to the Disney oeuvre. Unlike the propaganda shorts produced for the U.S.
government during the war, The USA in Circarama did not rely on the comedic
antics of the Disney animated characters to present an overtly political message.
And unlike the True-Life Adventures and their heavy reliance on the close-up
248
shot to bring the viewer into the natural environment, this lm was limited to
the panoramic shot. But several aspects of the lm do distinguish it as a Disney
production. Firstly, Walt Disney was eager to appropriate the newest lmic
technology to create a transformative cinematic experience. Similar to his pioneering work with sound and color lm, Circarama was Disneys response to
Cinerama. And Disney relied heavily on technical expertise of Ub Iwerks to
develop the camera and projector for the process. Secondly, the lm is framed
within a capitalist discourse that reveals a clear faith in capitalism as the engine
that drives the American Dream and provides Americans with the highest standard of living in the world. The USA in Circarama is an optimistic celebration
of a country dened by growth, innovation, and success. And the reasons for
American exceptionalism are linked by the lm to hardworking pioneers who
embodied the American ideals of faith, integrity, and individual initiative.
Those traditional values, it suggests, are what sustains the nation and guarantees
its continued dominance.
At the Brussels Worlds Fair, the lm was presented in three languages
English, French, and Flemish with live narrators who engaged in a round
robin conversation and would adapt their comments to their respective middle-class, European audiences. Opening on a sunrise over the New York harbor
to the tune of America the Beautiful, the narration is descriptive of the scenes
being projected on the screen. Welcome to America the narrators begins and
they continue to explain that during the few brief moments of this lm, we
shall attempt to catch the essence of the American panorama. The lm takes
the viewer on a journey across the nation ending at dusk at the San Francisco
bridge. At the end, the lm cuts back to New York for a nal image of the Statue
of Liberty. The lm is structured as a re-enactment of the emigrant journey
into the Promised Land of American bounty and leisure in the midst of natural
wonders. With its use of cameras positioned on airplanes and automobiles,
America becomes in the lm a land in constant motion. The engines of the
American economy are rendered through images of colossal industrial plants
that illustrate the manufacturing strength of the nation. This was the image of
America that visitors understood and expected. There was no self-conscious
pretense or cynical elitism in these images. America was a global industrial
powerhouse that was still deeply rooted in its heritage as recreated in Williamsburg and its present day cowboys. The corporate forces behind Fords River
Rouge plant provided the workers there with the leisure to shop in immense
modern supermarkets. These were the iconic images of America that were
immediately recognizable to Europeans and it was based on combining Americas modern corporate wonders with a nostalgic and sentimental presentation
of the traditional values of small-town America.
The lm was the smash hit of the fair. Surveys of top attractions at the
American pavilion at the Brussels Worlds Fair consistently placed the Circarama
as the number one attraction. Long lines formed outside the theater throughout
249
the time of the fair, causing twenty people to pass out in the heat. Girl guides
were pulled from the exhibit after getting hurt attempting to handle the crowds.
Warner reported to Turner Shelton, the director of Motion Pictures for the
USIA, that this is the nest propaganda weapon I have ever seen.21 George
Allen, the director of the USIA, after viewing the exhibit was quite prepared
to take the equipment over on the spot for use in later USIA exhibits and trade
shows. Walt Disney spent four days at the fair, and was initially averse to letting
the government use the lm and the equipment following the show. Happily,
Warner wrote to the USIA, Walt Disney is a tremendously public spirited person and he nally agreed, with the understanding that it would not be shown
in North American and would only be used by the government.22
Descriptions of audience responses to the lm emphasized the emotional
and sensational impact that the experience provided rather than consideration
of the political or ideological signicance of the images. The Atlantic Monthly
exclaimed, The 19 minute movie, a masterpiece by Disney, sweeps its audience
through the United States with one dramatic gesture. Americans walk out,
heads high, tears in the eye, still hearing the strains of America the Beautiful.
Visitors from abroad burst out with their favorite superlatives, Fantastique,
magnique, formidable! 23 It seemed as there were no dry eyes after they
saw Disneys vision images of America. The Christian Century reporter
exclaimed that Going back to The Hague, among all the hundreds I fell in
with the elderly Dutch couple with whom I had shared a compartment coming
down. They had had a ne but wearying day. The high point? Circarama! It
was worth all the standing and waiting, the wife told me. When it ended, I
felt I had really seen America and met your people. And then the beautiful
scenery, with America the Beautiful swelling up at the end we both had
tears in our eyes when the lights came on.24 The actual scope of the screen
enveloped the spectators and made them part of the vast vistas of a free, vibrant
and productive society on the move. This was the image of a world leader that
Europeans understood; technology and industry lead the American people forward into a divinely appointed land of liberty and abundance. After several
years of testing Circarama before an American audience, Disney had perfected
his technique in marketing the American corporate culture to a middle-class
audience.
The visceral experience of the lm that caused spectators to cover their
eyes, and to sway along with the images, created within them a vicarious
sensation of being part of the action. Through his application of the wide
screen format, Disney was able to generate the feelings of sentimentalism and
wholesomeness that the American pavilion failed to create. The wide screen
technology created a new viewership experience for spectators that resulted in
a wow effect. As Variety reported, The auditors stand in the center and thus
have the sense of complete audience-participation in the degree that one rollercoaster number had to be excised because of the equilibrium impact. The view-
250
ers would lean back so far, because of the overly realistic effect, as to fall on
their backs. Almost the same thing happens in one scene as the auto-bus climbs
a steep grade and then descends on the other side.25 The technology made the
lm into a ride that was driven by the viewers response to a visual onslaught.
Circarama was a cinema of attraction that was new and unique for the spectators who were accustomed to the single screen theater with stationary seating.
As lm screens were expanding due to the onslaught of television, Disney
contrived to control both the medium of television and the advent of wide
screen technology. As Tony Bennett shows in his discussion of the new 180degree cinema shows at Blackpool Pleasure Beach that opened in the 1980s,
whereas thrill rides take the normally stationary body and hurtle it through
space, [these rides] hurtle the vision through space whilst xing the body as
stationary.26 Disney was able to make the particularity of local American culture, its supermarkets, cowboys, and New England churches, and transform
them into a universally shared experience and moreover create within the spectator the desire to become part of that landscape and society that the Circarama
presented. As the trade journal Business Screen explained, The best product
we have to sell to the people whose curiosity brings them to the Worlds Fair
is American progress and our way of life. In fullling this assignment, movies
tell a big story and tell it convincingly27 The best achievement overseas for the
USIA was provided by Walt Disney, whose Circarama tour of the United States
seemed to surround the viewer with beautiful scenery and well-scrubbed faces.
It was a hit in Casablanca, Moscow and Djkarta.28 This may explain why an
in-house Disney publication issued as part of educational programs for young
people calls Circarama the culmination of lm technology. A section titled
From the Silent Movies to Circle-Vision 360: The Art of Filmmaking
explained that in the Main Street Cinema, the silent lm tells a story. In Circle-Vision 360, lm not only tells a story, but also communicates a sense of
involvement, learning and a whole range of human feelings. Comparing the
two lms makes it easy to see how lm is growing as a form of communication.29
Walt Disney was one of Americas foremost cultural diplomats at the height
of the Cold War. International exhibitions were considered particularly important events at which the State Department and the USIA could present a saleable
image of American ideology to a waiting audience. But as the Brussels Worlds
Fair illustrated, these government displays, created by panels of American
experts, were incapable of moving their audiences. These tastemakers lack of
consensus and awareness translated into displays that alienated and confused
their target audience. Walt Disney, with his years of experience as Americas
entertainer, was much better prepared to teach the world the supposed rightness
of the American way of life. His combination of corporate skills and entertainment savvy moved the heartstrings of the middle-class, and his sentimental
251
nationalism made his audiences weep in understanding. Disneys values were

simple and straightforward, his message of a triumphant consumer culture easily sold to the European market. As he explained, You dont build it for yourself. You know what the people want and you build it for them.30 Disneys
USA in Circarama clearly showed who was best equipped to sell America to the
world; by the fties, Walt Disney had become Americas best salesman.
NOTES
1. Neal Gabler, Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination (New York:
Knopf, 2006), 389
(Boston: Houghton Mifin, 1997), 284.
3. G. Edward Wells, Motion Picturesthe Film Two Cities, in Records of Department of State 1950 1954 (National Archives, 1950).
4. Eric Smoodin, Animating Culture: Hollywood Cartoons from the Sound Era (New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 161.
5. Norman Cousins, The Free Ride, Part II, The Saturday Review of Literature 33,
no. 4 (1950), 20.
6. _____, The Free Ride, The Saturday Review of Literature 33, no. 3 (1950), 25.
7. Ibid., 25.
8. Eric Johnston, Messengers from a Free Country, The Saturday Review of Literature 33, no. 9 (1950), 11.
9. Theme Development Staff Discussions, in Max Frank Millikan Papers (Cambridge: MIT Institute Archives, 1956).
10. Interview with Walt Disney and John Hench, in Max Frank Millikan Papers
(Cambridge: MIT Institute Archives MC 188, 1957).
11. James Plaut, Letter to Cullman, in Records of Minor Congressional Commissions
(National Archives 1957).
12. Tom Gunning, The World as Object Lesson: Cinema Audiences, Visual Culture
and the St. Louis Worlds Fair, 1904 Film History 6, no. 4 (1994), 423 434.
13. Margaret King, The Audience in the Wilderness: The Disney Nature Films,
Journal of Popular Film and Television 24, no. 2 (1996) .
14. David Gonzales, The Rockefellers at Williamsburg: Backstage with the Founders,
Restorers and World-Renowed Guests (McLean, VA: EPM Publications, 1991), 110.
15. Techniques at Disneys Tomorrowland, Business Screen 16, no. 4 (1955), 38
39.
16. Jon Bigness, Coming to a Theater near You, More TV-Like Commercial Northwestern, September 5 1999., D1.
17. Techniques at Disneys Tomorrowland, Business Screen 1955., 3738.
18. Ibid., 37.
19. Thurston Davies, Letter to Robert Warner, in Records of Minor Congressional
Commissions (National Archives, 1957).
20. Robert Warner, Letter to Howard Cullman, in Records of Minor Congressional
Commissions (National Archives 1958).
21. _____, Letter to Turner Shelton, in Records of Minor Congressional Commissions
(National Archives, 1958).
22. _____, Letter to Robert Sivard, in Records of Minor Congressional Commissions
(National Archives 1958).
23. Madeleine May, Overheard at the Fair, Atlantic Monthly, August 1958., 70.
24. Margaret Frakes, One Day at Brussels, Christian Century, October 1 1958, 1109.
252
25. Disneyland Circarama Is Wow as Transported to Brussels Big Expo, Variety,

April 30 1958.
26. Tony Bennett, Formations of Pleasure (London: Routledge, 1983), 151.
27. Film at Brussels, Business Screen 19, no. 4 (1958), 32.
28. Richard Dyer MacCann, Film and Foreign Policy: The USIA, 196267, Cinema
Journal, vol. 9, no. 1 (1969), 179.
29. The Walt Disney World of Entertainment, (Burbank, CA: Walt Disney Publications,
1984), 31.
30. Ibid., 171.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bennett, Tony. Formations of Pleasure. London: Routledge, 1983.
Bigness, Jon. Coming to a Theater near You, More TV-Like Commercial Northwestern,
September 5 1999, D1D4.
Cousins, Norman The Free Ride. The Saturday Review of Literature 33, no. 3 (1950):
24 25.
_____. The Free Ride, Part II. The Saturday Review of Literature 33, no. 4 (1950): 20
21.
Davies, Thurston. Letter to Robert Warner. In Records of Minor Congressional Commissions: National Archives, 1957.
Disneyland Circarama Is Wow as Transported to Brussels Big Expo. Variety, April 30
1958.
Film at Brussels. Business Screen 19, no. 4 (1958).
Frakes, Margaret. One Day at Brussels. Christian Century, October 1 1958, 1109.
Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 2006.
Gonzales, David. The Rockefellers at Williamsburg: Backstage with the Founders, Restorers
and World-Renowed Guests. McLean, VA: EPM Publications, 1991.
Gunning, Tom. The World as Object Lesson: Cinema Audiences, Visual Culture and
the St. Louis Worlds Fair, 1904 Film History 6, no. 4 (1994): 42244.
Interview with Walt Disney and John Hench. In Max Frank Millikan Papers. Cambridge: MIT Institute Archives MC 188, 1957.
Johnston, Eric. Messengers from a Free Country. The Saturday Review of Literature
33, no. 9 (1950): 9 12.
King, Margaret. The Audience in the Wilderness: The Disney Nature Films. Journal
of Popular Film and Television 24, no. 2 (1996): 60 69.
MacCann, Richard Dyer. Film and Foreign Policy: The Usia, 196267. Cinema Journal
9, no. 1 (1969): 23 42.
May, Madeleine. Overheard at the Fair. Atlantic Monthly, August 1958, 69 70.
Plaut, James. Letter to Cullman. In Records of Minor Congressional Commissions:
National Archives 1957.
Smoodin, Eric. Animating Culture: Hollywood Cartoons from the Sound Era. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993.
Techniques at Disneys Tomorrowland. Business Screen 16, no. 4 (1955): 38 39.
Techniques at Disneys Tomorrowland. Business Screen 1955, 38 39.
Theme Development Staff Discussions. In Max Frank Millikan Papers. Cambridge:
MIT Institute Archives, 1956.
The Walt Disney World of Entertainment. Burbank, CA: Walt Disney Publications, 1984.
Warner, Robert. Letter to Howard Cullman. In Records of Minor Congressional Commissions: National Archives 1958.
253
_____. Letter to Robert Sivard. In Records of Minor Congressional Commissions:

National Archives 1958.
_____. Letter to Turner Shelton. In Records of Minor Congressional Commissions:
National Archives, 1958.
Watts, Steven. The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life. Boston:
Houghton Mifin Company, 1997.
Wells, G. Edward. Motion Pictures the Film Two Cities. In Records of Department
of State 1950 1954: National Archives, 1950.

Katharina Bonzel holds an M.A. from the Humboldt Universitt zu Berlin, and is
currently completing her Ph.D. in the Cinema Studies program of the School of Culture and Communication at the University of Melbourne. Her research focuses on
the representation of national identity in lm, with particular emphasis on sports
lms. Her article Soccer to the Rescue: How the Miracle of Bern Gave Germans Back
Their Identity Twice appeared in the journal Sporting Traditions, and she has presented papers on sports, lm, and national identity at international conferences in
Australia, Europe, and the United States.
Bob Cruz, Jr., holds a degree in paleontology from Yale University. He is currently
an MFA candidate in the Science and Natural History Filmmaking Program at Montana State University. His research analyzes the origins of the Disney True-Life Adventures series, their contested status as documentaries, and their impact on later wildlife
lmmakers and the contemporary natural history lm format. He has made lms on
earth science topics particularly fossil birds and extinction eventsfor the National
Park Service and Montanas Museum of the Rockies.
Douglas A. Cunningham is a major in the United States Air Force, and assistant professor of English at the U.S. Air Force Academy. He has published in Screen, Cineaction,
The Moving Image, and Critical Survey, among other journals. He holds a Ph.D. in
lm studies from the University of CaliforniaBerkeley, where he wrote his dissertation
on representations of masculinity in the World War II training lms made by the
First Motion Picture Unit of the United States Army Air Forces. He is editing a volume
of essays on Alfred Hitchcocks classic psychological thriller Vertigo (1956) for Scarecrow Press.
Marianne Holdzkom holds a Ph.D. in early American history from Ohio State University. Her elds of specialization include the American Revolution, the history of
religion and U.S. cultural history. Her interest in the depiction of history in popular
culture began with her doctoral dissertation, Parody and Pastiche: Images of the
American Revolution in Popular Culture, 1765 1820. She published An Inconvenient
Founding Father: Adapting John Adams for Popular Culture in the edited anthology
The Theme of Cultural Adaptation in American History Literature and Film: Cases
When the Discourse Changed (2009). She is currently an assistant professor of history
at Southern Polytechnic State University in Marietta, Georgia.
Richard J. Leskosky recently retired from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he earned his Ph.D. in linguistics, and where he taught animation history
255
256
courses in the Unit for Cinema Studies for more than twenty-ve years. His work has
appeared in Animation Studies, Film History, The Velvet Light Trap, as well as journals
in the natural and social sciences. He continues to work on animated lm genres, and
on the nineteenth century optical devices that created the illusion of motion decades
before the cinema.
Cynthia J. Miller is a cultural anthropologist, specializing in popular culture and
visual media. She holds a Ph.D. from McGill University, teaches in the Institute for
Interdisciplinary Studies at Emerson College, in Boston, and is an associate editor of
Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies. Her writing
has appeared, most recently in Why We Fought: War in Film, Television and History
(2008), Heroes of Film, Comics, and American Culture (2009); Cultural Adaptation in
American History, Literature, and Film (2009); Sounds of the Future: Essays on Music
in Science Fiction Film (2010). She is editing the volume Too Bold for the Box Ofce:
A Study in Mockumentary for Wayne State University Press, and working on The Encyclopedia of B Westerns for Scarecrow Press.
Sarah Nilsen is assistant professor of lm studies at the University of Vermont. She
holds an MFA in screenwriting from the American Film Institute and an M.A. and
Ph.D. in critical studies from the University of Southern California. Her areas of
interest include Walt Disney, the popular culture of the Cold War, and cultural diplomacy. She has published articles on gender and ethnicity in The Mickey Mouse Club
and the role of Davy Crockett in shaping American gun culture in the 1950s. Her book
Projecting America: Film and Cultural Diplomacy at the Brussels Worlds Fair of 1958,
is forthcoming from McFarland.
Martin F. Norden teaches and writes about lm as a professor of communication at
the University of MassachusettsAmherst. He received his undergraduate and graduate
degrees from the University of Missouri. He has written extensively on images of disability in lm, and is the author of The Cinema of Isolation: A History of Physical Disability in the Movies (1994) and co-editor of the forthcoming Making Differences:
Images of Disability in Popular Culture. He has also edited volumes on The Changing
Face of Evil in Film and Television (2007) and The Birth Control Films of Margaret
Sanger and Lois Weber (forthcoming).
Bernice Nuhfer-Halten is a Cuban-Polish-American veteran educator who teaches
Spanish and French as foreign languages. She holds a Ph.D. in Spanish literature from
Florida State University, and has been afliated for almost a quarter of a century with
the faculty of Southern Polytechnic State University, a branch of the University System
of Georgia. Her research interests include lm, deconstruction of poetry by computer
application, the impact of study abroad on second language acquisition, and applied
linguistics. She recently received a grant to imbue the entire campus with foreign language acquisition through the campus-wide use of Rosetta Stone software in several
languages.
Bella Honess Roe is a lecturer in lm studies at the University of Surrey in the United
Kingdom. She holds a B.A. in philosophy from Cambridge University, and an M.A.
and Ph.D. in critical studies from the University of Southern California. Her doctoral
thesis (Animating Documentary) was a study of the epistemological and phenomenological implications of the convergence of animation and documentary, and an
investigation of the historical precedent for the hybridization of the two seemingly
257
antithetical forms of media. Her work has appeared in Film International, Animation:
An Interdisciplinary Journal, and the British Journal of Film and Television. She teaches
courses on lm analysis, cultural industries, and documentary history, and is currently
at work on a monograph on animated documentaries.
John D. Thomas is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of English at Rutgers, specializing in American literature. He holds degrees in English and history from the
University of South Carolina and Baylor University. His work on the ction of Edgar
Allan Poe, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Edith Wharton has appeared in Critique: Studies
in Contemporary Fiction, the F. Scott Fitzgerald Review, the Edith Wharton Review,
and Notes on Contemporary Literature. His work on Victory Through Air Power is
rooted in a long-standing interest in wartime novels and lms, and his presentation
on the lm at the 2006 Film and History Conference on The Documentary Tradition
was one of those that created the impetus for this book.
Ronald Tobias, a natural history lmmaker, holds an MFA from Bowling Green State
University. He is a founder of the MFA Program in Science and Natural History Filmmaking at Montana State University, where he teaches natural history and science
lmmaking, screenwriting, and documentary production. He is the author of six
books, including the Insiders Guide to Writing for Screen and Television (1997) and 20
Master Plots and How to Build Them (1993). His screen credits as director, writer, and
producer include more than 30 nature documentaries, which have aired on PBS, the
Discovery Channel, the National Geographic Channel, and Animal Planet, as well as
on networks in Germany, Sweden, and Japan.
A. Bowdoin Van Riper is a historian of science and technology who teaches in the
Science, Technology, and Society program at Southern Polytechnic State University,
a branch of the University System of Georgia. His work on the history of geology and
archaeology, the history of aerospace technology, and images of science and technology
in popular culture centers on the cultural impact of scientic and technological
change. He is the author of Men Among the Mammoths (1993), Science and Popular
Culture (2002), Imagining Flight: Aviation and the Popular Imagination (2003), and
Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology (2004; reprinted 2007), and is currently at work on The Hollywood History of Science and Technology (Scarecrow Press).
Eddy von Mueller is a lecturer in the Department of Film and Media Studies at Emory
University in Atlanta, where he teaches courses in animation, Asian cinemas, lm
and television history, and lmmaking. His 2005 feature The Lady from Sockholm,
co-directed with Evan Lieberman, has been screened in over 30 lm festivals around
the world. In addition to numerous reviews and commentaries for the popular press,
he has published articles on the samurai lms of Akira Kurosawa, police procedurals
in print and on screen, and silent adaptations of Shakespeare. His rst book, Synthetic
Cinema: Technology, Aesthetics and the Impact of Animation on Contemporary Filmmaking, is currently being prepared for publication.
Index
Bakshi, Ralph 173
Bambi (1942) 1, 47, 90, 92, 106, 135, 149,
152, 158, 164 168, 169, 170, 180, 211, 227
The Band Concert (1935) 20
Banda, Milt 116, 119
Barks, Carl 116 154
Barnes, Howard 67
Battle of Dunkirk 75, 76
Bear Country (1953) 148
Beard, Charles 65
Beaver Valley (1950) 148, 152, 157
Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971) 2
Berg, Bill 116
The Big Bad Wolf 18 19
Big Red (1962) 170
The Black Cauldron (1985) 150
Blue Men of Morocco (1957) 228, 229, 230
Bluth, Don 173
Bray, John Randolph 15
Brazil 210, 211, 213 214, 215 216, 217
Brooks, Herb 206 207
Bruns, George 140
The Absent-Minded Professor (1961) 7

Academy Awards 42, 44, 47, 57, 59, 113,
119, 145, 146, 149
advertising 41, 243 245
The African Lion (1955) 6, 148, 151, 152
agriculture 46 48, 247
Air Power and Armies (1945) 36
airplanes 18 19, 47, 50, 57, 64, 68, 73 77,
95, 212213, 247
Alaska 64, 74, 75, 76, 227228, 229
The Alaskan Eskimo (1953) 6, 221, 228, 229
Algar, James 149, 153, 243
Alice lms 118 119
Alice in Wonderland (1950) 118 121, 137, 216
The Ama Girls (1957) 6, 229 231, 232
American Dream 201, 204 207
American exceptionalism 183 185
Andrews, James 192193
animation 33, 35, 44, 90, 211213, 215
216; caricatured 73, 139 140; life-like 1
2, 5, 17, 2223, 29 30, 44 48, 54, 70
75, 9293, 217218; maps 29, 42, 45 48,
50, 75 76, 105, 130, 147, 151, 186, 184,
211, 213; schematic 2124, 29 30, 43
44, 45, 93 94, 117118, 135 136
Antarctica 7, 84, 85, 86 87, 92, 93, 95, 96,
215, 221, 229, 232
Antarctica: Operation Deep Freeze (1957)
85
Antarctica: Past and Present (1956) 85, 86,
93
anti-communism 238 241
Argentina 210, 211, 213
The Art of Skiing (1941) 108, 138
The Ascent of Man (television series) 175
Atomic Energy (unproduced lm) 85
Attenborough, David 174, 175, 176
Australia 131, 151
Austria 7, 165
automobiles 8, 103 111, 240, 244, 248
Call of the Wild (book) 158

Canada 9, 15 24, 40, 43, 59, 131, 154, 224,
226
Capra, Frank 41, 47
Carioca, Jos (cartoon character) 214,
215 218
Carson, Rachel 158
Charlie, the Lonesome Cougar (1967) 8, 169
Chicken Little (1943) 5758
Chile 211, 212213
China 63, 74, 94
Churchill, Frank 18
Churchill, Winston 68
Cinderella (1950) 1, 128, 149, 211
Circarama 10, 237251
Civil War 7, 184, 191193, 194 195
The Civil War (television series) 175
Civilisation (television series) 174, 175
Clara Cleans Her Teeth (1926) 43, 128 130
Clark, Les 116, 118, 119
Babes in Toyland (1961) 140

Bahia 215 216
259
260
Index
Cleanliness Brings Health (1945) 133 134

Clem, Johnny 191192
Cleveland, Grover 196
Cold War 9, 10, 85 98; passim 114 115,
183 185, 186 188, 206 207, 222224,
226, 233 234, 239 251
Colliers (magazine) 41, 89 90
comic books 2, 113, 114, 116, 120 121, 202,
209
Communications (unproduced lm) 85
Cosmos (television series) 175
Cottrell, Bill 133
Cousins, Norman 239 240
Cruise of the Eagle (1958) 229, 232
Cutting, Jack 133
Dad, Can I Borrow the Car? (1970) 8, 104,
106 107, 110
The Danube (1960) 221, 229, 231
Darwin, Charles 157, 158, 178
Davis, Sid 138, 139, 142
Davy Crockett (19551956) 4, 7, 188190, 195
De Bergerac, Cyrano 94
Defense Against Invasion (1943) 127, 132,
136, 139
dental hygiene 43, 128 130
Der Fuehrers Face (1943) 5, 21, 5254, 59,
64, 69, 119, 224
Dickens, Charles 230
Dinosaur (2000) 179
Disney, Roy 3132, 68, 145
Disney, Walt 170 171, 173, 196 197; commitment to education 4, 114, 121122,
136; involvement in production 24, 48
49, 133, 152153; promotion of strategic
bombing 65, 66 68; views of America
183 184, 237241
Disney Channel 2, 98
Disneyland (television series) 2, 5, 117,
241, 242, 243; edutainment lms broadcast on 6, 58 59, 113, 146; edutainment
lms produced for 6 7, 84 85, 90, 92
95, 98, 185 186, 188 190; unproduced
episodes of, 85 86
Disneyland (theme park) 5 6, 121, 221,
241245
Disneyland U.S.A. (1958) 229, 232
Donald Duck 1, 138, 239; in Donald in
Mathmagic Land 113 122; in lms about
Latin America 209, 212, 214 218; in
propaganda lms 5, 19 20, 24, 41, 48
51, 5254, 224
Donald in Mathmagic Land (1959) 4, 8, 9,
59, 86, 113 122
Donald in Nutziland see Der Fuehrers Face
Donalds Better Self (1938) 19 20, 43
Donalds Decision (1941) 19 20, 43, 57, 59,
224
Dopey 1718
Dumbo (1941) 1, 47, 53
Earth (2009) 8, 10, 157, 173 174, 177180
Eden, Garden of 158, 159, 166
Education for Death (1943) 5, 21, 52, 54
55, 58, 59, 64, 69, 224
edutainment (denition) 2, 3 4
Edwards, Cliff 49, 53
Eiffel Tower 75
election of 1888 196 197
English Channel 74, 75
Escape to Witch Mountain (1975) 2
ethnographic lm 225 227, 233
evolution 9, 47, 88, 92
exploration 194 195, 225
extraterrestrial life 89, 9293, 94
Eyes in Outer Space (1959) 59, 86
Fadiman, Clifton 65
Fantasia (1940) 4 5, 8, 31, 42, 59, 90, 92
93, 106, 121, 130, 134, 135, 138, 139, 149,
150, 179
Farmyard Symphony (1938) 48
Felix the Cat 150
Ferdinand the Bull (1938) 42
The Fight (1969) 139
Fighting Prince of Donegal (1966) 7
Finding Nemo (2003) 180
First Motion Picture Unit (U.S. Army Air
Forces) 27, 3237
Flash, the Teenage Otter (1961) 164, 168
170, 171
Fleischer, Max 15, 55
Flowers and Trees (1932) 1
Fly with Von Drake (1963) 2, 98
food 46 48, 5152, 53, 133 134
Food Will Win the War (1942) 46 47, 63
Foote, Shelby 175
Ford Motor Company 245 247
Four Methods of Flush Riveting (1940) 4,
16 17, 21, 22, 23, 42, 63, 116, 135
The Fox and the Hound (1981) 180
Frees, Paul 117
Freewayphobia (1965) 4, 8, 104, 107, 109
110
Der Fuehrers Face (1943) 5, 21, 5254, 59,
64, 69, 119, 224
Fuller, William 192193
Gage, Gen. Thomas 187
The Game 139
Gannett, Lewis 65
gauchos 213, 215
Germany 5, 46, 53, 58, 66, 75, 78, 231
Geronimi, Clyde 54, 57
Ghana 141142
Ghosts of the Abyss (2003) 8
Index
Glory Road (2006) 201, 203
Goebbels, Josef 55
The Gold Coast see Ghana
Golden Eggs (1941) 46
Good Neighbor Policy 43, 46, 48, 58, 210
211
Goofy 8, 4143, 44, 104, 107110, 111, 138,
156, 211213, 215
Goofys Freeway Troubles (1965) 4, 8, 104,
107, 109 110
Gring, Hermann 53, 55
The Grain That Built a Hemisphere (1943)
4748
Grand Canyon 245, 247
Grant, Joe 69
The Great Depression 19
The Great Locomotive Chase (1956) 7, 191
193, 195
The Greatest Game Ever Played (2005) 8
Grierson, John 16, 22
Haber, Heinz 89, 9192, 98, 116
Harper, Brig. Gen. Robert W. 30 34
Harrison, Benjamin 196
Heath, Royal Vale 115
Helvering, Guy 48
Hibler, Winston 149, 150, 152, 228
High Level Precision Bombing (1944) 28 37
highways 104 106
Hirohito (Emperor of Japan) 46, 51, 53
Hitler, Adolf 21, 46, 51, 53 59, 74 75, 76,
77, 211
Hookworm (1945) 133, 141
How to Be a Sailor (1944) 117
How to Catch a Cold (1951) 59, 136 137
How to Fire a Lewis Gun (1917) 15
How to Have an Accident (1956, 1959) 138
How to Play Baseball (1942) 45
How to Play Golf (1944) 117, 138
How to Read an Army Map (1917) 15
How to Read Donald Duck (book) 209
How to Relax (1957) 108
How to Ride a Horse (1950) 117
Hubble, Edwin 86
Huemer, Dick 69
Huey, Dewey, and Louie (characters) 49,
121
The Human Body (1945) 134
Humboldt, Alexander von 157, 158
Im No Fool (lm series) 59, 137138, 140,
141
IMAX 8
Indians 4748, 188 191, 195, 233
Infant Care (1945) 133
International Geophysical Year 90, 97
Invincible (2005) 201, 202, 203
Ireland 7
261
Iron Will (1994) 8

Ising, Rudolf 32
Islands of the Sea (1960) 6
Iwerks, Ub 173, 242, 248
Jackson, Andrew 189
Jackson, Wilfred 50
Japan (1960) 221, 228, 229
Jiminy Cricket 49, 59, 137, 142
Johnny Shiloh (1963) 191192, 193
Johnny Tremain (1957) 7, 10, 185 188
Jordan, David Starr 145, 158
The Jungle Book (1967) 1, 174
Jungle Cat (1959) 151, 152
Justin Morgan Had a Horse (1972) 8
Kimball, Ward 91, 104
King, Jack 51
Kinney, Jack 53
Krasna, Capt. Norm 34, 35
Lapland (1957) 6, 221, 229, 232
Latin America 5, 10, 40, 4748, 130 134,
209 219, 233, 238
Latin names 109
laws of motion 8788, 94
The Legend of Lobo (1962) 169, 170
lemmings 154 155
Leonardo da Vinci 86
Lessing, Gunther 130
Leventhal, Jack 15
Ley, Willy 89, 91, 98
Life (magazine) 41, 67
Lilo and Stitch (2002) 180
Lion King (1994) 2, 4, 156, 167, 169, 174, 180
The Little Mermaid 179
The Living Desert (1953) 4, 149, 150, 151,
152, 156, 157, 243
Lobo (book) 158
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation 16, 40, 42, 116
London, Jack 158
Los Angeles Examiner (newspaper) 71
The Love Bug (1968) 4
Lunch Money (1970) 139, 141
Luske, Hamilton 116 119, 121
Magic Highway USA (1958) 4, 85, 87, 91,
92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 103 105, 110 111
Maginot Line 75 76
Man and the Moon (1955) 59, 85, 88 90,
91, 92, 94, 96, 97
Man in Flight (1957) 2, 85, 87, 92, 93, 95,
97, 98
Man in Space (1955) 24, 59, 85, 8788, 89,
90 95, 97
Marion, Francis 185 186
Mars and Beyond (1957) 4, 59, 85, 88 90,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95 96, 97
262
Index
Mary Poppins (1964) 2

Matka and Kotik: A Tale of the Mist-Islands
(book) 145, 158
McEvoy, J. P. 69
McLeish, John 117
Meador, Joshua 116, 119
Mein Kampf (book) 53, 54, 55, 57, 66
Men Against the Arctic (1955) 6, 232
Merrill, Lt. Col. Walt D. 31, 3233
Mexico 210, 216 218
Michaels, Al 207
Mickey Mouse 1, 5, 20, 52, 116, 118, 121,
130, 150, 156, 239
The Mickey Mouse Club (television series)
59
military training lms 1516, 2124, 2737
Milotte, Albert and Elma 145, 148, 225
Minnie Mouse 24, 5152
Miracle (2004) 4, 8, 10, 201, 202, 203,
206 207
Miracle of the White Stallions (1963) 7
Miranda, Aurora 216
Mississippi River 189 190
Mr. Walker & Mr. Wheeler (cartoon characters) 108 109
Mitchell, Brig. Gen. William 28 29, 30,
64 65, 7173, 78
money 16 21, 43, 48 50, 121
Monument Valley 245, 247
Morganthau, Henry J. 48 49
Morris, Jim 206
Mosbys Marauders (1967) 191
Motor Mania (1948) 8, 104, 107109, 110
Mulan (1998) 2, 8
multiplane camera 1, 44
music 4 5, 93, 140, 150, 178 179, 212, 214,
216 218, 228
Music Land (1935) 44
Mussolini, Benito 46, 53, 210
Napoleon and Samantha 169
narrative elements: authority gures 42
43, 52, 59 70 72, 84, 89 92, 98, 104
106, 114, 117, 134 137, 194 195; behavior
modeling 1720, 50 52, 106, 108 110,
128 130, 133 134, 137139; comic relief
1718, 19 20, 21, 22, 48, 49, 5253, 93
94, 139 140, 209 218; familiar characters 1721, 4143, 49 53, 107110, 112
122, 209 220
Nash, Clarence 116, 117
National Film Board of Canada 9, 15 17,
1724; passim 224
Native Americans see Indians
Natures Better Built Homes (1960) 2, 7
Natures Half-Acre (1951) 148, 151
Navajo Adventure (1957) 233
The Navajo, Children of God (1967) 233
Naziism 5, 18 19, 50, 53 58, 59, 66, 75,

76, 224
Nehemkis, 1st Lt. Peter R. 3133
The New Girl (1970) 139
The New Spirit (1942) 49 50, 115, 117
New York, NY 247, 248
New York Herald Tribune 65, 67
New York Times 30, 64 65, 244
The New Yorker (magazine) 65
Newton, Isaac 87, 93, 94, 96
Nielsen, Leslie 185
The Nine Lives of Elfego Baca (1958 1959)
7, 194
No Smoking (1951) 138
nuclear energy 88 90, 9192, 95, 96
The Old Mill (1935) 44
Olivier, Laurence 175
The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band (1969) 10, 194, 195 197
Oscars see Academy Awards
Oswald the Rabbit 44
Our Friend the Atom (1957) 7, 59, 84, 85,
87, 88 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 9798, 224
Out of the Frying Pan and into the Firing
Line (1942) 24, 5152
Panchito (character) 216 218
Papale, Vince 203, 204 205
Pearce, Perc 33 36
People and Places (lm series) 6, 85, 86,
90, 221234, 243
Perri (1957) 151, 152, 164 168, 170
Peru 211212
Philadelphia Eagles 204 205
Physical Fitness and Good Health (1969)
138
Pickering, Ken 141142
Pinocchio (1940) 1, 31, 130, 137, 149, 207
Planet Earth (television series) 174, 176
179, 181
Planning for Good Eating (1946) 133 134
Pluto (character) 20, 24, 41, 51, 52, 239
Pocahontas (1995) 4, 8, 197
Pocahontas II: Voyage to a New World
(1998) 8
Potter, H. C. 68
Powell, John Wesley 194 195
Prescott, Orville 65
The Princess and the Frog (2009) 179
The Project (1970) 139
propaganda lms 5, 9 15 21, 28 31, 41
45, 48 59, 58 59, 64 83, 70 78, 114,
146, 210 211, 223 224, 237240, 247
Pryor, Thomas 67
race 188 191, 203, 205 206, 213 214, 216
218
Index
Ravenscroft, Thurl 105
Reason and Emotion (1943) 52, 55 57, 59
Reitherman, Wolfgang 116, 119
Remember the Titans (2000) 8, 10, 201,
202, 203, 205
The Rescuers (1977) 179
Revere, Paul 186, 187
Revolutionary War 7, 183 188
RKO Pictures 145, 146
Rob Roy: The Highland Rogue (1954) 7
Roberts, Bill 47, 55
rockets 88 89, 91, 93 95, 9798
Rolls, C. S. 74 75, 77
The Rookie (2002) 8, 201, 203, 206
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 19, 68, 210
Roving Mars (2006) 4, 8
Sagan, Carl 175
Saludos Amigos! (1942) 5, 130, 209 210,
211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 233, 238
Samoa (1956) 221, 229, 230
Saturday Review of Literature (magazine)
239 240
science 7778, 84 86, 89, 94 95, 9798
science ction 94, 97, 98
Scotland 7, 229, 231
Scrooge McDuck (character) 51, 121
Scrooge McDuck and Money (1967) 121
Seal Island (1948) 6, 1457147, 148, 149,
151, 152, 157, 227228, 243
See America First 223, 226
Seton, Ernest Thompson 158
Seven Cities of Antarctica (1958) 7, 85, 229,
232
The Seven Dwarfs (characters) 131
Seven Wise Dwarfs (1941) 1718
Seversky, Maj. Alexander de 5, 28 29, 59,
64 67, 70 72, 74 78
sexuality 134 136, 216 218
Sharpsteen, Ben 6, 46, 50, 141, 149, 153,
228
Shields, Fred 117
Siam (1954) 6, 229, 230
Siberia 74
Silly Symphonies (cartoon series) 17, 18,
42, 44, 52, 57, 59, 150, 159, 165, 173, 178
Skeleton Dance (1929) 178
Sleeping Beauty (1959) 1
Smith, Art 54
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1938) 1,
17, 45, 130
Social Side of Health (1969) 138 139
Soviet Union 203, 206 207
space exploration see Man in Space, Man
and the Moon, Mars and Beyond
The Spirit of 43 (1943) 50 51, 59, 115, 117
The Spirit of 76 (painting) 47
Sputnik 114 115
263
Squanto: A Warriors Tale (1994) 8, 197

Steamboat Willie (1928) 1
Steel and America (1965) 8
Steps Toward Maturity and Health (1968)
138
Stop That Tank! (1942) 2123, 24
The Story of Anyburg USA (1957) 104 106,
110
The Story of Menstruation (1946) 9, 127,
134 137, 140 142
The Story of Trains (unproduced lm) 85
Stuhlinger, Ernst 89 90
The Swamp Fox (1959 1961) 4, 7, 185 188
swastika 19, 20, 53, 54, 55, 57, 75, 76, 119
Switzerland (1955) 6, 221, 224, 229
Sword and the Rose (1953) 7
Sword in the Stone (1963) 2
Tarzan (1999) 180
Taylor, Deems 59
Technicolor 1, 17, 21, 29, 30, 32, 156
technology 84 86, 95 97, 103, 105 106,
110 111
Ten Who Dared (1960) 4, 7, 194 195
Texas John Slaughter (1958 1961) 7, 194
This Week (magazine) 69
Thomas, Frank 32
Thompson, Bill 137
The Three Caballero (1945) 4, 5, 130, 209
211, 214 218
The Three Little Pigs (1933) 1719, 42, 130,
152
Thrifty Pig (1941) 18 20, 63
A Tiger Walks (1964) 169, 170
Time (magazine) 66, 70, 188
To the South Pole for Science (1957) 4, 85,
87
Tommy Tuckers Tooth (1922) 9, 43, 128
130, 133
Tonka (1958) 194
travelogue 245 248
Treasure Island (1950) 4
Trouble on the Mountain (1970) 191
True-Life Adventures (lm series) 2, 90,
146 159, 164 165, 167, 170, 178, 224,
228, 243, 247
True-Life Fantasies (lm series) 10, 164
171
Tuberculosis (1945) 133
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954) 6
Uganda 141142
Under the Sea Wind (book) 158
Understanding Stresses and Strains (1968)
8, 138
United Artists 17, 18
United Productions of America (UPA) 93
United States Army Air Forces 2737
264
Index
United States Government: Central Intelligence Agency 240 241; Department of

Agriculture 46 47; Department of the
Interior 159; Department of the Navy
28; Department of State 211, 239 240,
250; Department of the Treasury 48 49,
238; National Park Service 159; Ofce of
the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA) 47, 52, 131134, 147, 211,
214; United States Information Agency
249 251
United States Navy 7, 28, 29, 63, 66, 67,
95, 97, 130; exploration of Antarctica by
86 87, 95
The USA in Circarama (1958) 238, 243,
246 248
V-for-Victory 50, 51
The Vanishing Prairie (1954) 151, 152, 159,
243
VD Attack Plan (1973) 9, 127, 139 141
Vermeil, Dick 205
Victory at Sea 174 175
Victory Through Air Power (1943) 2, 5, 9,
41, 59, 63; attitude toward science 76
78; footage reused 2, 85; impact on U.S.
Army Air Force leaders 2731, 33 34,
36 37; as propaganda 70 78; reception
66 70; visual style 7276, 90, 92
Victory Through Air Power (book) 64 66
video recordings 2, 8, 70, 99, 204, 211
von Braun, Wernher 59, 89 92, 96 98
Wagner, Walter 67, 69
Wales (1958) 221, 229, 230, 231
Walt Disney Educational Media Company
139, 141
Walt Disney Presents (television series) see
Disneyland (television series)
Walt Disney Studio: association with fan-
tasy 12, 5; production of classroom

lms 115, 122, 134 136, 137140, 146; repurposing of existing lms 2, 6 7, 17,
20 21, 5759, 98 99, 134; work with
corporations 8, 138 139, 242248; work
with governments 17, 2731, 33 34, 36,
40 41, 48 49, 65 66, 237239; work
with independent lmmakers 145 149;
Water Friend or Enemy (1943) 131132,
133
Watership Down (book) 158
The Way Disease Spreads (1945) 141
Westward Ho, the Wagons! (1956) 190 191
What Should I Do? (lm series) 139
The Wheel (unproduced) 85
White Wilderness (1958) 154 156
Why We Fight (lm series) 41, 45, 55, 146
The Wild Country (1970) 194
Winged Scourge (1943) 127, 131, 133, 141,
Winthrop, John 183
The Wonderful World of Color (television
series) see Disneyland (television series)
The Wonderful World of Disney (television
series) see Disneyland (television series)
The World at War (television series) 174
175
World War I 15 16
Worlds Fairs 227, 237238, 240 241,
248 249
The Wright Brothers 75
Wynn, Keenan 139 140
Yellowstone Cubs (1963) 164, 169
Yellowstone National Park 247
You the Human Animal (lm series) 137
138
Ziemer, Gregor 54

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