INTEGRALS

Chapter

287

INTEGRALS
v Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain because it is there, so
a good mathematics student studies new material because
it is there. JAMES B. BRISTOL v

7.1 Introduction
Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the
derivative. The original motivation for the derivative was
the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of
functions and calculating the slope of such lines. Integral
Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and
calculating the area of the region bounded by the graph of
the functions.
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its
derivative f exists at each point of I, then a natural question
arises that given f at each point of I, can we determine
the function? The functions that could possibly have given
G .W. Leibnitz
function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or
(1646 -1716)
primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives
all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the function and such
process of finding anti derivatives is called integration. Such type of problems arise in
many practical situations. For instance, if we know the instantaneous velocity of an
object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, i.e., can we determine the
position of the object at any instant? There are several such practical and theoretical
situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral
calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the following types:
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given,
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph of a function under certain
conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and
definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus.

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There is a connection, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, between

indefinite integral and definite integral which makes the definite integral as a practical
tool for science and engineering. The definite integral is also used to solve many interesting
problems from various disciplines like economics, finance and probability.
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of indefinite and definite
integrals and their elementary properties including some techniques of integration.

7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation

Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function,
we are given the derivative of a function and asked to find its primitive, i.e., the original
function. Such a process is called integration or anti differentiation.
Let us consider the following examples:
We know that

d
(sin x ) = cos x
dx
d x3
( ) = x2
dx 3

and

... (1)
... (2)

d x
(e ) = e x
... (3)
dx
We observe that in (1), the function cos x is the derived function of sin x. We say

x3
and
3
ex are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of x2 and ex, respectively. Again, we note that
for any real number C, treated as constant function, its derivative is zero and hence, we
can write (1), (2) and (3) as follows :

that sin x is an anti derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly, in (2) and (3),

d x
d
d x3
(e + C) = e x
(sin x + C) = cos x ,
( + C) = x 2 and
dx
dx 3
dx
Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above cited functions are not unique.
Actually, there exist infinitely many anti derivatives of each of these functions which
can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of real numbers. For this reason
C is customarily referred to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by
varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or integrals) of the given function.
d
F (x) = f (x) , x I (interval),
More generally, if there is a function F such that
dx
then for any arbitrary real number C, (also called constant of integration)
d
[ F (x) + C] = f (x), x I
dx

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289

{F + C, C R} denotes a family of anti derivatives of f.

Thus,

Remark Functions with same derivatives differ by a constant. To show this, let g and h
be two functions having the same derivatives on an interval I.
Consider the function f = g h defined by f (x) = g (x) h(x), x I

df
= f = g h giving f (x) = g (x) h (x) x I
dx

Then

or
f (x) = 0, x I by hypothesis,
i.e., the rate of change of f with respect to x is zero on I and hence f is constant.
In view of the above remark, it is justified to infer that the family {F + C, C R}
provides all possible anti derivatives of f.
We introduce a new symbol, namely,

f (x) dx

which will represent the entire

class of anti derivatives read as the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.

Symbolically, we write
Notation Given that

f (x) dx = F (x) + C .

dy
= f (x) , we write y =
dx

f (x) dx .

For the sake of convenience, we mention below the following symbols/terms/phrases

with their meanings as given in the Table (7.1).
Table 7.1

Symbols/Terms/Phrases

Meaning

f (x) dx

Integral of f with respect to x

f (x) in
x in

f (x) dx

f (x) dx

Integrate
An integral of f
Integration
Constant of Integration

Integrand
Variable of integration
Find the integral
A function F such that
F(x) = f (x)
The process of finding the integral
Any real number C, considered as
constant function

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We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions.
From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae
(referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below
which will be used to find integrals of other functions.
Derivatives

Integrals (Anti derivatives)

d xn + 1
n

=x ;
(i)
dx n + 1

n
x dx =

x n +1
+ C , n 1
n +1

Particularly, we note that

d
( x) = 1 ;
dx

dx = x + C

(ii)

d
( sin x ) = cos x ;
dx

cos x dx = sin x + C

(iii)

d
( cos x ) = sin x ;
dx

sin x dx = cos x + C

(iv)

d
( tan x ) = sec2 x ;
dx

sec

(v)

d
( cot x ) = cosec2 x ;
dx

cosec

(vi)

d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x ;
dx

sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

(vii)

d
( cosec x ) = cosec x cot x ;
dx

cosec x cot x dx = cosec x + C

d
1
1
(viii) dx sin x =
;
1 x2

x dx = tan x + C
2

x dx = cot x + C

dx
1 x

= sin 1 x + C

d
1
1
(ix) dx cos x =
;
1 x2

d
1
1
(x) dx tan x =
;
1 + x2

1 + x2 = tan

d
1
1
(xi) dx cot x =
;
1 + x2

1 + x2 = cot

(
(

dx
1 x
dx

dx

= cos 1 x + C

x+C

x+C

INTEGRALS

1
d
1
sec
=
x
(xii) dx
;
x x2 1

dx

1
d
1
(xiii) dx cosec x =
;
x x2 1

dx

d x
(e ) = e x ;
dx
d
1
( log | x |) = ;
(xv)
dx
x

e dx = e

(xiv)

d ax
x

=a ;
(xvi)
dx log a

291

= sec 1 x + C

x 1
= cosec 1 x + C

x 1

+C

x dx = log | x | +C
x
a dx =

ax
+C
log a

Note In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various
A
functions are defined. However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind.
7.2.1 Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral
2
Let f (x) = 2x. Then f (x) dx = x + C . For different values of C, we get different
integrals. But these integrals are very similar geometrically.
Thus, y = x2 + C, where C is arbitrary constant, represents a family of integrals. By
assigning different values to C, we get different members of the family. These together
constitute the indefinite integral. In this case, each integral represents a parabola with
its axis along y-axis.
Clearly, for C = 0, we obtain y = x2, a parabola with its vertex on the origin. The
curve y = x2 + 1 for C = 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola y = x2 one unit along
y-axis in positive direction. For C = 1, y = x2 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola
y = x2 one unit along y-axis in the negative direction. Thus, for each positive value of C,
each parabola of the family has its vertex on the positive side of the y-axis and for
negative values of C, each has its vertex along the negative side of the y-axis. Some of
these have been shown in the Fig 7.1.
Let us consider the intersection of all these parabolas by a line x = a. In the Fig 7.1,
we have taken a > 0. The same is true when a < 0. If the line x = a intersects the
parabolas y = x2, y = x2 + 1, y = x2 + 2, y = x2 1, y = x2 2 at P0, P1, P2, P1, P2 etc.,
dy
respectively, then
at these points equals 2a. This indicates that the tangents to the
dx
2
curves at these points are parallel. Thus, 2 x dx = x + C = FC (x) (say), implies that

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MATHEMATICS

Fig 7.1
the tangents to all the curves y = FC (x), C R, at the points of intersection of the
curves by the line x = a, (a R), are parallel.

Further, the following equation (statement) f (x) dx = F (x ) + C = y (say) ,

represents a family of curves. The different values of C will correspond to different
members of this family and these members can be obtained by shifting any one of the
curves parallel to itself. This is the geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral.
7.2.2 Some properties of indefinite integral
In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of indefinite integrals.
(I) The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other in the
sense of the following results :

d
f (x) dx = f (x)
dx
and

f (x) dx

= f (x) + C, where C is any arbitrary constant.

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293

Proof Let F be any anti derivative of f, i.e.,

d
F(x) = f (x)
dx

f (x) dx = F(x) + C

Then
Therefore

d
dx

f (x) dx =
=

d
( F (x) + C )
dx
d
F (x) = f (x)
dx

Similarly, we note that

f (x) =

f (x) dx

and hence

d
f (x)
dx

= f (x) + C

where C is arbitrary constant called constant of integration.

(II) Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of
curves and so they are equivalent.
Proof Let f and g be two functions such that

d
d
g (x ) dx
f (x) dx =

dx
dx
or

d
f (x) dx g (x) dx = 0
dx

Hence

f (x) dx g (x) dx =

or

f (x) dx = g (x) dx + C

{ f (x) dx + C , C R}
{ g (x) dx + C , C R} are identical.

So the families of curves

and

C, where C is any real number

Hence, in this sense,

f (x) dx and g (x) dx are equivalent.

(Why?)

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MATHEMATICS

A Note The equivalence of the families { f (x) dx + C ,C R} and

{ g (x) dx + C ,C R} is customarily expressed by writing f (x) dx = g (x) dx ,
1

without mentioning the parameter.

(III)

[ f (x) + g (x)] dx = f (x) dx + g (x) dx

Proof

By Property (I), we have

d
[ f (x) + g (x)] dx = f (x) + g (x)
dx
On the otherhand, we find that

d
d
f (x) dx + g (x) dx =

dx
dx

... (1)

f (x) dx + dx g (x) dx

= f (x) + g (x)
Thus, in view of Property (II), it follows by (1) and (2) that

... (2)

( f (x) + g (x) ) dx = f (x) dx + g (x) dx .

(IV) For any real number k,

Proof By the Property (I),

Also

d
k
dx

f (x) dx

f (x) dx = k

f (x) dx

d
k f (x) dx = k f (x) .
dx
= k

d
dx

f (x) dx = k

Therefore, using the Property (II), we have

f (x)
f (x) dx = k

f (x) dx .

(V) Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite number of functions
f1, f2, ..., fn and the real numbers, k1, k2, ..., kn giving

[ k1 f1 (x) + k2 f 2 (x) + ... + kn f n (x)] dx

= k1 f1 (x) dx + k2 f 2 (x) dx + ... + kn

f n (x) dx .

To find an anti derivative of a given function, we search intuitively for a function

whose derivative is the given function. The search for the requisite function for finding
an anti derivative is known as integration by the method of inspection. We illustrate it
through some examples.

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295

Example 1 Write an anti derivative for each of the following functions using the
method of inspection:
(ii) 3x2 + 4x3

(i) cos 2x

1
,x0
x

(iii)

Solution
(i) We look for a function whose derivative is cos 2x. Recall that

d
sin 2x = 2 cos 2x
dx
or

cos 2x =

d 1

1 d
(sin 2x) =
sin 2 x
dx
2
2 dx

1
sin 2 x .
2
(ii) We look for a function whose derivative is 3x2 + 4x3. Note that
Therefore, an anti derivative of cos 2x is

d 3
x + x 4 = 3x2 + 4x3.
dx
Therefore, an anti derivative of 3x2 + 4x3 is x3 + x4.
(iii) We know that

d
1
d
1
1
(log x) = , x > 0 and [log ( x)] =
( 1) = , x < 0
dx
x
dx
x
x
Combining above, we get
Therefore,

x dx = log x

d
1
log x ) = , x 0
(
dx
x
is one of the anti derivatives of

1.
x

Example 2 Find the following integrals:

x3 1
(i) 2 dx
x

(ii)

2
(x 3

+ 1) dx

(iii)

3
(x 2

Solution
(i) We have

x3 1
2
x2 dx = x dx x dx

(by Property V)

+ 2 ex

1
) dx
x

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MATHEMATICS

x1 + 1
x 2 + 1

+
C
+ C 2 ; C , C are constants of integration

1
=
1
2
1+1
2 +1

x2
x 1
x2 1
C

C2 =
+
+ + C1 C 2
=
1
2
1
2 x
x2 1
+ + C , where C = C1 C2 is another constant of integration.
=
2 x

Note From now onwards, we shall write only one constant of integration in the
A
final answer.
(ii) We have
2

(x 3 + 1) dx = x 3 dx + dx
2

+1

5
x3
3
+ x + C = x3 + x + C
=
2
5
+1
3
3

(iii) We have

x
(x 2 + 2 e

1
1
) dx = x 2 dx + 2 e x dx dx
x
x
3

+1

x2
+ 2 e x log x + C
=
3
+1
2

2
= x
5

5
2

+ 2 e x log x + C

Example 3 Find the following integrals:

(i)
(iii)

(sin x + cos x) dx

(ii) cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx

1 sin x
dx
cos 2 x

Solution
(i) We have

(sin x + cos x) dx = sin x dx + cos x dx

= cos x + sin x + C

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297

(ii) We have

(cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx = cosec

x dx + cosec x cot x dx

= cot x cosec x + C
(iii) We have

1 sin x
1
sin x
dx =
dx
dx
2
2
cos x
cos x
cos 2 x
2
= sec x dx tan x sec x dx

= tan x sec x + C
Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by f (x) = 4x3 6, where F (0) = 3
Solution One anti derivative of f (x) is x4 6x since

d 4
(x 6 x) = 4x3 6
dx
Therefore, the anti derivative F is given by
F(x) = x4 6x + C, where C is constant.
Given that

F(0) = 3, which gives,

3 = 0 6 0 + C or C = 3
Hence, the required anti derivative is the unique function F defined by
F(x) = x4 6x + 3.
Remarks
(i) We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is F + C, where C is any
constant. Thus, if we know one anti derivative F of a function f, we can write
down an infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any constant to F
expressed by F(x) + C, C R. In applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an
additional condition which then determines a specific value of C giving unique
anti derivative of the given function.
(ii) Sometimes, F is not expressible in terms of elementary functions viz., polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are
therefore blocked for finding

x2

f (x) dx . For example, it is not possible to find

dx by inspection since we can not find a function whose derivative is e x

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MATHEMATICS

(iii) When the variable of integration is denoted by a variable other than x, the integral
formulae are modified accordingly. For instance
4
y dy =

y4 + 1
1
+ C = y5 + C
4 +1
5

7.2.3 Comparison between differentiation and integration

1. Both are operations on functions.
2. Both satisfy the property of linearity, i.e.,
(i)

d
d
d
[ k1 f1 (x) + k2 f 2 (x)] = k1 f1 (x) + k2 f2 (x)
dx
dx
dx

(ii)

[ k1

f1 (x) + k2 f 2 (x)] dx = k1 f1 (x) dx + k2

f 2 (x) dx

Here k1 and k2 are constants.

3. We have already seen that all functions are not differentiable. Similarly, all functions
are not integrable. We will learn more about nondifferentiable functions and
nonintegrable functions in higher classes.
4. The derivative of a function, when it exists, is a unique function. The integral of
a function is not so. However, they are unique upto an additive constant, i.e., any
two integrals of a function differ by a constant.
5. When a polynomial function P is differentiated, the result is a polynomial whose
degree is 1 less than the degree of P. When a polynomial function P is integrated,
the result is a polynomial whose degree is 1 more than that of P.
6. We can speak of the derivative at a point. We never speak of the integral at a
point, we speak of the integral of a function over an interval on which the integral
is defined as will be seen in Section 7.7.
7. The derivative of a function has a geometrical meaning, namely, the slope of the
tangent to the corresponding curve at a point. Similarly, the indefinite integral of
a function represents geometrically, a family of curves placed parallel to each
other having parallel tangents at the points of intersection of the curves of the
family with the lines orthogonal (perpendicular) to the axis representing the variable
of integration.
8. The derivative is used for finding some physical quantities like the velocity of a
moving particle, when the distance traversed at any time t is known. Similarly,
the integral is used in calculating the distance traversed when the velocity at time
t is known.
9. Differentiation is a process involving limits. So is integration, as will be seen in
Section 7.7.

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299

10. The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other as
discussed in Section 7.2.2 (i).

EXERCISE 7.1
Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of inspection.
1. sin 2x
2. cos 3x
3. e 2x
2
3x
4. (ax + b)
5. sin 2x 4 e
Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20:

1
) dx
x2

6.

(4 e

+ 1) dx

7.

9.

2
x
(2 x + e ) dx

10.

x x dx 11.

x3 + 3x + 4
dx

13.

x3 x 2 + x 1
x 1 dx 14.

(1 x)

3x

(1

(ax

8.

12.
15.
17.

x ( 3x + 2 x + 3) dx
2
(2 x 3sin x + 5 x ) dx
2

18.

(A)

(B)

2 3 1 2
x + x +C
3
2
3

2 2
3 2 1 2
x + 2x 2 + C
x + x +C
(C)
(D)
3
2
2
d
3
f ( x) = 4 x3 4 such that f (2) = 0. Then f (x) is
22. If
dx
x
1 129
1 129
4
3
(B) x + 4 +
(A) x + 3
8
8
x
x
(C)

x4 +

1 129
+
8
x3

(D)

x3 +

x dx

(2 x 3cos x + e ) dx
sec x (sec x + tan x) dx

16.

21. The anti derivative of x +

equals
x

+ bx + c) dx

x3 + 5 x 2 4
dx
x2

sec 2 x
2 3sin x
dx
19.
20.
dx.
cosec 2 x
cos 2 x
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.

1 3
x + 2x 2 + C
3

1 129

8
x4

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MATHEMATICS

7.3 Methods of Integration

In previous section, we discussed integrals of those functions which were readily
obtainable from derivatives of some functions. It was based on inspection, i.e., on the
search of a function F whose derivative is f which led us to the integral of f. However,
this method, which depends on inspection, is not very suitable for many functions.
Hence, we need to develop additional techniques or methods for finding the integrals
by reducing them into standard forms. Prominent among them are methods based on:
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
3. Integration by Parts
7.3.1 Integration by substitution
In this section, we consider the method of integration by substitution.
The given integral

f (x) dx

can be transformed into another form by changing

the independent variable x to t by substituting x = g (t).

Consider

I=

Put x = g(t) so that

We write

f (x) dx

dx
= g(t).
dt
dx = g(t) dt

Thus

I=

f ( x) dx = f ( g (t )) g (t ) dt

This change of variable formula is one of the important tools available to us in the
name of integration by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful
substitution. Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs
in the integrand as illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
(i) sin mx
(ii) 2x sin (x2 + 1)
(iii)

tan 4

x sec2
x

(iv)

sin (tan 1 x)
1 + x2

Solution
(i) We know that derivative of mx is m. Thus, we make the substitution
mx = t so that mdx = dt.
1
1
1
Therefore,
sin mx dx = m sin t dt = m cos t + C = m cos mx + C

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301

(ii) Derivative of x2 + 1 is 2x. Thus, we use the substitution x2 + 1 = t so that

2x dx = dt.

2 x sin (x

Therefore,

+ 1) dx = sin t dt = cos t + C = cos (x2 + 1) + C

1

(iii) Derivative of
x = t so that

x is
1
2 x

1 2
1
x =
. Thus, we use the substitution
2
2 x

dx = dt giving dx = 2t dt.

tan 4 x sec 2 x
2t tan 4t sec2 t dt
4
2
=
dx
= 2 tan t sec t dt
Thus,

t
x
Again, we make another substitution tan t = u so that
sec2 t dt = du
2 tan 4t sec 2t dt = 2 u 4 du = 2

Therefore,

u5
+C
5

2
tan 5 t + C (since u = tan t)
5
2
5
= tan x + C (since t = x )
5
=

tan 4 x sec 2

Hence,

dx =

2
tan 5
5

x +C

Alternatively, make the substitution tan x = t

(iv) Derivative of tan 1 x =

1
. Thus, we use the substitution
1 + x2

tan1 x = t so that

dx
= dt.
1 + x2

sin (tan 1 x)
1 + x 2 dx = sin t dt = cos t + C = cos (tan 1x) + C
Now, we discuss some important integrals involving trigonometric functions and
their standard integrals using substitution technique. These will be used later without
reference.

Therefore ,

(i)

tan x dx = log sec x + C

We have

sin x

tan x dx = cos x dx

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MATHEMATICS

Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt

dt
Then
tan x dx = t = log t + C = log cos x + C

tan x dx = log sec x + C

or
(ii)

cot x dx = log

sin x + C

cos x

We have

cot x dx = sin x dx

Put sin x = t so that cos x dx = dt

dt
Then
cot x dx = t = log t + C = log sin x + C
(iii)

sec x dx = log

sec x + tan x + C

We have

sec x (sec x + tan x)

dx
sec x + tan x
Put sec x + tan x = t so that sec x (tan x + sec x) dx = dt
dt
Therefore, sec x dx = = log t + C = log sec x + tan x + C
t

sec x dx =

(iv)

cosec x dx = log cosec x cot x + C

We have

cosec x (cosec x + cot x)

dx
(cosec x + cot x)
Put cosec x + cot x = t so that cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx = dt
dt
So
cosec x dx = t = log | t | = log |cosec x + cot x | + C

cosec x dx =

= log

cosec 2 x cot 2 x
+C
cosec x cot x

= log cosec x cot x + C

Example 6 Find the following integrals:
(i)

sin

x cos 2 x dx

(ii)

sin x

sin (x + a) dx

(iii)

1 + tan x dx

INTEGRALS

Solution
(i) We have

sin

x cos 2 x dx = sin 2 x cos 2 x (sin x) dx

2
2
= (1 cos x) cos x (sin x) dx

Put t = cos x so that dt = sin x dx

Therefore,

sin

x cos 2 x (sin x) dx = (1 t 2 ) t 2 dt
t3 t5
2
4
= (t t ) dt = + C
3 5

1
1
cos3 x + cos5 x + C
3
5

(ii) Put x + a = t. Then dx = dt. Therefore

sin x

sin (x + a) dx =

sin (t a)
dt
sin t
sin t cos a cos t sin a
dt
sin t

= cos a dt sin a cot t dt

= (cos a) t (sin a) log sin t + C1
= (cos a) (x + a) (sin a) log sin (x + a) + C1
= x cos a + a cos a (sin a ) log sin (x + a ) C1 sin a

sin x

Hence,

sin (x + a) dx = x cos a sin a log |sin (x + a)| + C,

where, C = C1 sin a + a cos a, is another arbitrary constant.

cos x dx

dx

(iii)

1 + tan x = cos x + sin x

1
= 2

(cos x + sin x + cos x sin x) dx

cos x + sin x

303

304

MATHEMATICS

1
1
= 2 dx + 2

cos x sin x

cos x + sin x dx

x C1 1
= 2+ 2 +2

cos x sin x

cos x + sin x dx

... (1)

cos x sin x
dx
cos x + sin x
Put cos x + sin x = t so that (cos x sin x) dx = dt
Now, consider I =

dt
= log t + C2 = log cos x + sin x + C 2
t
Putting it in (1), we get
I=

Therefore

dx

1 + tan x = 2 +

C1 1
C
+ log cos x + sin x + 2
2 2
2

C C
x 1
+ log cos x + sin x + 1 + 2
2 2
2
2

C C
x 1

+ log cos x + sin x + C , C = 1 + 2

2 2
2
2

EXERCISE 7.2
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 37:
1.

2x
1 + x2

2.

4. sin x sin (cos x)

6.

( log x )2

x
5. sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b)

7. x x + 2

ax + b

1
9. (4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 10. x x

12. (x

15.

1
1) 3

x
9 4x2

3.

1
x + x log x

8. x 1 + 2 x 2
11.

x2
13.
(2 + 3 x 3 )3

14.

16. e2 x + 3

17.

x
,x>0
x+4

1
,x>0
x (log x) m
x
ex

INTEGRALS

etan x
18.
1 + x2

e2 x e 2 x
20. 2 x
e + e 2 x

e2 x 1
19. 2 x
e +1

21. tan (2x 3)

22. sec (7 4x)

2cos x 3sin x
24. 6cos x + 4sin x

25.

27.

28.

sin 2x cos 2 x

1
cos x (1 tan x)2
cos x
1 + sin x

sin x

(1 + cos x )

1
33. 1 tan x

34.

tan x
sin x cos x

37.

1 x2

cos x
x

1
32. 1 + cot x

x3sin tan 1 x 4
1+ x

26.

sin 1 x

29. cot x log sin x

31.

36.

23.

sin x
30. 1 + cos x

(x + 1) ( x + log x )

305

35.

(1 + log x ) 2
x

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 38 and 39.

38.

39.

10 x9 + 10 x log e10 dx

x10 + 10 x
(A) 10x x10 + C
(C) (10x x10)1 + C

equals
(B) 10x + x10 + C
(D) log (10x + x10) + C

dx

sin 2 x cos2 x equals

(A) tan x + cot x + C
(C) tan x cot x + C

(B) tan x cot x + C

(D) tan x cot 2x + C

7.3.2 Integration using trigonometric identities

When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we use some known identities
to find the integral as illustrated through the following example.
2
Example 7 Find (i) cos x dx

(ii) sin 2 x cos 3 x dx

3
(iii) sin x dx

306

MATHEMATICS

Solution
(i) Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1, which gives
cos2 x =

cos

Therefore,

x dx =

1 + cos 2 x
2
1
1
1
(1 + cos 2x) dx = dx + cos 2 x dx

2
2
2
x 1
+ sin 2 x + C
2 4

(ii) Recall the identity sin x cos y =

Then

sin 2 x cos 3 x dx

1
[sin (x + y) + sin (x y)]
2

1
sin 5 x dx sin x dx

1 1

cos 5 x + cos x + C
2 5

(Why?)

1
1
cos 5 x + cos x + C
10
2
(iii) From the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x 4 sin3 x, we find that
=

sin3 x =

sin

Therefore,

3sin x sin 3x
4

x dx =

3
1
sin x dx sin 3x dx

4
4

=
Alternatively,

sin

3
1
cos x + cos 3x + C
4
12

x dx = sin 2 x sin x dx =

(1 cos

x) sin x dx

Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt

Therefore,

3
2
2
sin x dx = 1 t dt = dt + t dt = t +

t3
+C
3

1
cos3 x + C
3
Remark It can be shown using trigonometric identities that both answers are equivalent.
= cos x +

INTEGRALS

307

EXERCISE 7.3
Find the integrals of the functions in Exercises 1 to 22:
1. sin2 (2x + 5)
2. sin 3x cos 4x
3. cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x
3
3
3
4. sin (2x + 1)
5. sin x cos x
6. sin x sin 2x sin 3x
7. sin 4x sin 8x
10. sin4 x
13.

cos 2 x cos 2
cos x cos

16. tan4x
19.

1
sin x cos3 x

8.

1 cos x
1 + cos x

11. cos4 2x

9.

cos x
1 + cos x

12.

sin 2 x
1 + cos x

14.

cos x sin x
1 + sin 2 x

15. tan3 2x sec 2x

17.

sin 3 x + cos3 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x

18.

20.

cos 2 x

( cos x + sin x )

cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x
cos 2 x

21. sin 1 (cos x)

1
cos (x a) cos (x b)
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
22.

23.

24.

sin 2 x cos 2 x
sin 2 x cos2 x dx is equal to
(A) tan x + cot x + C
(C) tan x + cot x + C

(B) tan x + cosec x + C

(D) tan x + sec x + C

e x (1 + x)
cos2 (e x x) dx equals
(A) cot (exx) + C
(C) tan (ex) + C

(B) tan (xex) + C

(D) cot (ex) + C

7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions

In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them
for integrating many other related standard integrals:
dx
xa
1
=
log
+C
(1) 2
2
x+a
2a
x a

308

MATHEMATICS

dx

dx

(2)

a 2 x 2 = 2a log

(3)

x 2 + a 2 = a tan

(4)

(5)

(6)

dx
2

x a

dx
a2 x2
dx
2

x +a

a+x
+C
ax

x
+C
a

= log x + x 2 a 2 + C

= sin 1

x
+C
a

= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C

We now prove the above results:

(1) We have

1
1
=
2
(x a) (x + a)
x a
2

Therefore,

1 (x + a) (x a ) 1 1
1

2a (x a ) (x + a ) 2a x a x + a
1

dx

dx

dx

x2 a 2 = 2a x a x + a
=

1
[ log | (x a)| log | (x + a)|] + C
2a

xa
1
log
+C
2a
x+a

(2) In view of (1) above, we have

1
1 (a + x) + ( a x)
1 1
1
=
+

2
2a (a + x) (a x) = 2a a x a + x
a x
2

INTEGRALS

Therefore,

dx

a2 x2

309

1 dx
dx
+

2a a x
a + x

1
[ log | a x | + log | a + x |] + C
2a
1
a+x
log
+C
=
2a
ax
=

ANote The technique used in (1) will be explained in Section 7.5.

(3) Put x = a tan . Then dx = a sec2 d.

dx
a sec 2 d
Therefore,
x2 + a 2 = a 2 tan 2 + a 2
1
1
1
1 x
+C
= d = + C = tan
a
a
a
a
(4) Let x = a sec . Then dx = a sec tan d .
dx
a sec tan d
Therefore,
x2 a 2 = a 2 sec2 a 2
= sec d = log sec + tan + C1
= log

x
x2
+
1 + C1
a
a2

2
2
= log x + x a log a + C1
2
2
= log x + x a + C , where C = C1 log |a|

(5) Let x = a sin. Then dx = a cos d.

Therefore,

dx
a2 x2

a cos d
a 2 a 2 sin 2

1
= d = + C = sin

(6) Let x = a tan . Then dx = a sec2 d.

Therefore,

dx
x2 + a2

=
=

x
+C
a

a sec 2 d

a 2 tan 2 + a 2
sec d = log (sec + tan) + C1

310

MATHEMATICS

x
x2
log
+
+ 1 + C1
=
a
a2
2
2
= log x + x + a log | a | + C1

2
2
= log x + x + a + C , where C = C1 log |a|

Applying these standard formulae, we now obtain some more formulae which
are useful from applications point of view and can be applied directly to evaluate
other integrals.
(7) To find the integral

dx

ax 2 + bx + c , we write

c
b c b2
2 b
a
x
x
a
x
+
+
=
+

ax + bx + c =

+
a
a
2a a 4a 2

Now, put x +

c b2
b
2
= t so that dx = dt and writing 2 = k . We find the
a 4a
2a

integral reduced to the form

1
dt
depending upon the sign of

2
a t k2

c b2
2
a 4a

and hence can be evaluated.

(8) To find the integral of the type

dx
2

, proceeding as in (7), we

ax + bx + c
obtain the integral using the standard formulae.

(9) To find the integral of the type

px + q

ax 2 + bx + c dx , where p, q, a, b, c are

constants, we are to find real numbers A, B such that

d
(ax 2 + bx + c) + B = A (2ax + b) + B
dx
To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and the
constant terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is reduced to
one of the known forms.
px + q = A

INTEGRALS

(10) For the evaluation of the integral of the type

( px + q ) dx

ax 2 + bx + c
as in (9) and transform the integral into known standard forms.
Let us illustrate the above methods by some examples.

311

, we proceed

Example 8 Find the following integrals:

(i)

dx

x 2 16

(ii)

dx
2 x x2

Solution
(i) We have
(ii)

dx

dx
2x x

dx

x 2 16 = x 2 42
2

1
x4
log
+ C [by 7.4 (1)]
8
x+4

dx
1 ( x 1)

Put x 1 = t. Then dx = dt.

Therefore,

dx
2x x

dt
1 t

1
= sin (t ) + C

[by 7.4 (5)]

1
= sin (x 1) + C

Example 9 Find the following integrals :

(i)

dx

x 2 6 x + 13

(ii)

dx

3x 2 + 13x 10

(iii)

dx

5 x2 2 x

Solution
(i) We have x2 6x + 13 = x2 6x + 32 32 + 13 = (x 3)2 + 4
So,
Let
Therefore,

dx

x 2 6 x + 13 = ( x 3)2 + 22 dx
x 3 = t. Then dx = dt
dx

dt

x 2 6 x + 13 = t 2 + 22 = 2 tan
=

1
x3
tan 1
+C
2
2

t
+C
2

[by 7.4 (3)]

312

MATHEMATICS

(ii) The given integral is of the form 7.4 (7). We write the denominator of the integrand,

2 13x 10

3x 2 + 13 x 10 = 3 x +
3
3

2
2

13 17
3
x

=
6 6 (completing the square)

dx

1
dx

2
2
3
13 17
+

6 6

Thus

3x 2 + 13x 10

Put x +

13
= t . Then dx = dt.
6

Therefore,

dx

3x 2 + 13x 10

1
3

dt
17
t2
6

17
6 +C
log
=
1
17
17
3 2
t+
6
6
1

[by 7.4 (i)]

13 17
x+
1
6 6 +C
log
=
1
13 17
17
x+ +
6 6

1
6x 4
log
+ C1
17
6 x + 30

1
3x 2
1
1
+ C1 + log
log
17
x+5
17
3

1
3x 2
1
1
log
+ C , where C = C1 + log
17
x+5
17
3

INTEGRALS

(iii) We have

dx
5x2 2 x

Put x

dx

313

2x

5 x2

1
5

dx

1 1

x
5 5

(completing the square)

1
= t . Then dx = dt.
5

Therefore,

dx
2

5x 2x

dt
1
t2
5

1
log t + t 2
5
5

+C

[by 7.4 (4)]

1
1
2x
log x + x 2
+C
5
5
5

Example 10 Find the following integrals:

(i)

x+2

2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 dx

(ii)

x+3
5 4x + x2

dx

Solution
(i) Using the formula 7.4 (9), we express

d
2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 + B = A (4 x + 6) + B
dx
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
x+2= A

1
1
and B = .
4
2
x+2
1
4x + 6
1
dx
2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 = 4 2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 dx + 2 2 x 2 + 6 x + 5

4A = 1 and 6A + B = 2 or A =
Therefore,

1
1
I1 + I 2
4
2

(say)

... (1)

314

MATHEMATICS

In I1, put 2x2 + 6x + 5 = t, so that (4x + 6) dx = dt

Therefore,

I1 =

dt

= log t + C1

2
= log | 2 x + 6 x + 5 | + C1

and

I2 =

Put x +

dx

2x2 + 6 x + 5 = 2

... (2)
dx

x 2 + 3x +

5
2

1
dx

2
2
2
3 1
+
+
x

2 2

3
= t , so that dx = dt, we get
2
I2 =

1
2

dt
1
t +
2

1
1
2
2

tan 1 2t + C2

3
1
1
= tan 2 x + + C2 = tan ( 2 x + 3) + C 2
2

Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get

x+2

2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 dx = 4 log 2 x

+ 6x + 5 +

[by 7.4 (3)]

... (3)

1
tan 1 ( 2 x + 3) + C
2

C1 C2
+
4
2
(ii) This integral is of the form given in 7.4 (10). Let us express
where,

C=

d
(5 4 x x 2 ) + B = A ( 4 2x) + B
dx
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
x+3= A

2A = 1 and 4 A + B = 3, i.e., A =

1
and B = 1
2

INTEGRALS

Therefore,

1
dx =
2
5 4 x x2
x+3

( 4 2 x ) dx +
5 4 x x2

315

dx

5 4 x x2

1
I +I
2 1 2

... (1)

In I1, put 5 4x x2 = t, so that ( 4 2x) dx = dt.

Therefore,

I 1=

( 4 2 x ) dx =
5 4x x

dt
= 2 t + C1
t

= 2 5 4 x x 2 + C1
Now consider

I2 =

dx
5 4x x

... (2)

dx
9 (x + 2) 2

Put x + 2 = t, so that dx = dt.

Therefore,

I2 =

dt

t
= sin 1 + C2
3
3 t
2

1
= sin

[by 7.4 (5)]

x+2
+ C2
3

... (3)

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain

x+3
5 4x x

= 5 4x x 2 + sin 1

x+2
C
+ C , where C = C2 1
3
2

EXERCISE 7.4
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23.
1.

4.

3x 2
x6 + 1
1
9 25 x 2

2.

5.

x 1

7.

x2 1

8.

1
1 + 4x 2
3x
1 + 2x4

x2
x6 + a 6

3.

6.

9.

( 2 x )2 + 1
x2
1 x6
sec 2 x
tan 2 x + 4

316

MATHEMATICS

10.

x + 2x + 2

13.

( x 1)( x 2 )
4x + 1

16.

2x + x 3
6x + 7

19.

22.

( x 5 )( x 4 )

11.

14.

17.

20.

1
9x + 6x + 5

12.

1
7 6 x x2

15.

8 + 3x x 2
x+2

18.

x 1
x+2
4x x

21.

( x a )( x b )
5x 2
1 + 2 x + 3x 2
x+2
2

x + 2x + 3

5x + 3

x+3
2
x 2x 5

23.

x 2 + 4 x + 10

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 24 and 25.

24.

dx

x 2 + 2 x + 2 equals
(A) x tan1 (x + 1) + C
(C) (x + 1) tan1x + C

25.

dx
9x 4x2

(B) tan1 (x + 1) + C
(D) tan1x + C

equals

(A)

1 1 9 x 8
sin
+C
9
8

(B)

1
8x 9
sin 1
+C
2
9

(C)

1 1 9 x 8
sin
+C
3
8

(D)

1
9x 8
sin 1
+C
2
9

7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions

Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials in the form

P(x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) 0. If the degree of P(x)
Q(x )
is less than the degree of Q(x), then the rational function is called proper, otherwise, it
is called improper. The improper rational functions can be reduced to the proper rational

INTEGRALS

functions by long division process. Thus, if

where T(x) is a polynomial in x and

317

P(x)
P (x)
P(x)
is improper, then
= T(x) + 1 ,
Q(x )
Q(x)
Q(x )

P1 (x)
is a proper rational function. As we know
Q(x)

how to integrate polynomials, the integration of any rational function is reduced to the
integration of a proper rational function. The rational functions which we shall consider
here for integration purposes will be those whose denominators can be factorised into
linear and quadratic factors. Assume that we want to evaluate

P(x)

P(x)

Q(x) dx , where Q(x)

is proper rational function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of

simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction decomposition. After this,
the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following
Table 7.2 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with
various kind of rational functions.
Table 7.2

S.No. Form of the rational function

Form of the partial fraction

1.

px + q
,ab
(x a) (x b)

A
B
+
xa xb

2.

px + q
(x a) 2

A
B
+
x a ( x a )2

3.

px 2 + qx + r
(x a ) (x b) (x c)

A
B
C
+
+
xa xb xc

4.

px 2 + qx + r
(x a) 2 (x b)

A
B
C
+
+
2
x a (x a)
xb

5.

px 2 + qx + r
(x a) (x 2 + bx + c)

A
Bx + C ,
+ 2
x a x + bx + c

where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further

In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.

318

MATHEMATICS

dx

Example 11 Find

(x + 1) (x + 2)

Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Therefore, by using the form of
partial fraction [Table 7.2 (i)], we write

A
B
1
+
=
x +1 x + 2
(x + 1) (x + 2)

... (1)

where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably. This gives

1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1).
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get
A+B=0
and
2A + B = 1
Solving these equations, we get A =1 and B = 1.
Thus, the integrand is given by

1
1
1
+
=
x +1 x + 2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
Therefore,

dx

(x + 1) (x + 2)

dx

dx

x +1 x + 2

= log x + 1 log x + 2 + C
= log

x +1
+C
x+2

Remark The equation (1) above is an identity, i.e. a statement true for all (permissible)
values of x. Some authors use the symbol to indicate that the statement is an
identity and use the symbol = to indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e., to
indicate that the statement is true only for certain values of x.
Example 12 Find

x2 + 1
x2 5x + 6 dx

x2 + 1
is not proper rational function, so we divide
x2 5x + 6
x2 + 1 by x2 5x + 6 and find that
Solution Here the integrand

INTEGRALS

319

5x 5
5x 5
x2 + 1
1+ 2
=1+
=
(x 2) (x 3)
x 5x + 6
x2 5x + 6

A
B
5x 5
+
=
x2 x3
(x 2) (x 3)
So that
5x 5 = A (x 3) + B (x 2)
Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 5
and 3A + 2B = 5. Solving these equations, we get A = 5 and B = 10
Let

Thus,
Therefore,

Example 13 Find

x2 + 1
5
10
+
= 1
2
x2 x3
x 5x + 6

1
dx
x2 + 1
x2 5x + 6 dx = dx 5 x 2 dx + 10 x 3
= x 5 log | x 2 | + 10 log | x 3 | + C.
3x 2

(x + 1)2 (x + 3) dx

Solution The integrand is of the type as given in Table 7.2 (4). We write

3x 2
A
B
C
+
+
=
2
2
x + 1 (x + 1)
x+3
(x + 1) (x + 3)
3x 2 = A (x + 1) (x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x + 1)2
= A (x2 + 4x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x2 + 2x + 1 )
Comparing coefficient of x 2, x and constant term on both sides, we get
A + C = 0, 4A + B + 2C = 3 and 3A + 3B + C = 2. Solving these equations, we get
11
5
11 . Thus the integrand is given by
A = ,B =
and C =
4
2
4
3x 2
11
5
11

= 4 (x + 1)
2
2
4 (x + 3)
(x + 1) (x + 3)
2 (x + 1)

So that

Therefore,

3x 2

(x + 1)2 (x + 3)

11 dx 5
11 dx
dx

2
4 x + 1 2 (x + 1)
4 x+3

11
5
11
log x +1 +
log x + 3 + C
4
2 (x + 1) 4

x +1
11
5
+
log
+C
4
x + 3 2 (x + 1)

320

MATHEMATICS

x2
dx
Example 14 Find 2
(x + 1) (x 2 + 4)

Solution Consider

x2
and put x2 = y.
( x 2 + 1) ( x 2 + 4)

Then

y
x2
=
2
2
(y + 1) (y + 4)
(x + 1) (x + 4)

Write

y
A
B
+
=
(y + 1) (y + 4)
y +1 y + 4

So that
y = A (y + 4) + B (y + 1)
Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 1
and 4A + B = 0, which give
A=

Thus,

Therefore,

1
3

and B =

4
3

x2
1
4
+
=
2
2
2
2
(x + 1) (x + 4)
3 (x + 1) 3 (x + 4)
x 2 dx
1
4
dx
dx
(x 2 + 1) (x 2 + 4) = 3 x 2 + 1 + 3 x 2 + 4

1 1
4 1
1 x
+C
= tan x + tan
3
3 2
2
1 1
2
1 x
+C
= tan x + tan
3
3
2
In the above example, the substitution was made only for the partial fraction part
and not for the integration part. Now, we consider an example, where the integration
involves a combination of the substitution method and the partial fraction method.
Example 15 Find

( 3 sin 2 ) cos

5 cos2 4 sin d

Solution Let y = sin

Then

dy = cos d

INTEGRALS

Therefore,

( 3 sin 2 ) cos

321

(3y 2) dy

5 cos2 4 sin d = 5 (1 y 2 ) 4 y
3y 2

y 2 4 y + 4 dy

( y 2)2 = I (say)

A
B
+
y 2 (y 2)2

3y 2

3y 2

Now, we write

( y 2)

[by Table 7.2 (2)]

Therefore,
3y 2 = A (y 2) + B
Comparing the coefficients of y and constant term, we get A = 3 and B 2A = 2,
which gives A = 3 and B = 4.
Therefore, the required integral is given by
I = [

3
4
dy
dy
+
] dy = 3
+4
2
y 2 (y 2)
y2
(y 2)2

1
= 3 log y 2 + 4
+C
y2

= 3 log sin 2 +

4
+C
2 sin

= 3 log (2 sin ) +

4
+ C (since, 2 sin is always positive)
2 sin

Example 16 Find

x 2 + x + 1 dx
(x + 2) (x 2 + 1)

Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Decompose the rational function
into partial fraction [Table 2.2(5)]. Write

A
Bx + C
x2 + x + 1
+ 2
=
2
x + 2 (x + 1)
(x + 1) (x + 2)
Therefore,

x2 + x + 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2)

322

MATHEMATICS

Equating the coefficients of x2, x and of constant term of both sides, we get
A + B =1, 2B + C = 1 and A + 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get

3
2
1
A = , B = and C =
5
5
5
Thus, the integrand is given by
2
1
x+
x2 + x + 1
3
3
1 2x + 1
+52 5 =
+ 2
=

2
5 (x + 2) x + 1
5 (x + 2) 5 x + 1
(x + 1) (x + 2)

Therefore,

3 dx
1
2x
1
1
x2 + x + 1
(x 2 +1) (x + 2) dx = 5 x + 2 + 5 x 2 + 1 dx + 5 x 2 + 1 dx

3
1
1
log x + 2 + log x 2 + 1 + tan 1 x + C
5
5
5

EXERCISE 7.5
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21.

3x 1
(x 1) (x 2) (x 3)

1.

x
(x + 1) (x + 2)

4.

2x
x
5. 2
(x 1) (x 2) (x 3)
x + 3x + 2

1 x2
6.
x (1 2 x)

7.

x
(x + 1) (x 1)

9.

10.

2x 3
2
(x 1) (2x + 3)

5x
11.
(x + 1) (x 2 4)

13.

2
(1 x) (1 + x 2 )

14.

2.

8.

1
2
x 9

3.

x
(x 1) (x + 2)
2

3x 1
(x + 2) 2

3x + 5
x x2 x + 1
3

x3 + x + 1
12.
x2 1
15.

1
x 1
4

[Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by x n 1 and put xn = t ]

16.

x (x n + 1)

17.

cos x
(1 sin x) (2 sin x)

[Hint : Put sin x = t]

INTEGRALS

18.

(x 2 + 1) (x 2 + 2)
(x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 4)

19.

2x
(x + 1) (x 2 + 3)
2

20.

323

1
x (x 4 1)

1
[Hint : Put ex = t]
(e 1)
Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises 22 and 23.
x dx
22.
equals
( x 1) ( x 2)
21.

(A) log

( x 1)2
+C
x2

(B) log

( x 2) 2
+C
x 1

x 1
(C) log
+C
x2
23.

dx

x ( x2 + 1)

(D) log ( x 1) ( x 2) + C

equals

1
2
(A) log x log (x +1) + C
2
1
(C) log x + log (x 2 +1) + C
2

1
2
(B) log x + log (x +1) + C
2
1
2
(D) log x + log (x +1) + C
2

7.6 Integration by Parts

In this section, we describe one more method of integration, that is found quite useful in
integrating products of functions.
If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a single variable x (say). Then, by
the product rule of differentiation, we have
d
dv
du
(uv) = u + v
dx
dx
dx
Integrating both sides, we get
dv
du
dx
uv = u dx + v
dx
dx
du
dv
or
... (1)
u dx dx = uv v dx dx
dv
Let
u = f (x) and
= g (x). Then
dx
du
= f (x) and v = g (x) dx
dx

324

MATHEMATICS

Therefore, expression (1) can be rewritten as

i.e.,

f (x) g (x) dx

= f (x) g (x) dx [ g (x) dx] f (x) dx

f (x) g (x) dx

= f (x) g (x) dx [ f (x) g (x) dx] dx

If we take f as the first function and g as the second function, then this formula
may be stated as follows:
The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) (integral
of the second function) Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first function)
(integral of the second function)]
Example 17 Find

x cos x dx

Solution Put f (x) = x (first function) and g (x) = cos x (second function).
Then, integration by parts gives

x cos x dx

= x cos x dx [

d
(x) cos x dx] dx
dx

= x sin x sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C

Suppose, we take

f (x) = cos x and g (x) = x. Then

x cos x dx

= cos x x dx [
= ( cos x )

d
(cos x) x dx] dx
dx

x2
x2
+ sin x
dx
2
2

Thus, it shows that the integral x cos x dx is reduced to the comparatively more
complicated integral having more power of x. Therefore, the proper choice of the first
function and the second function is significant.
Remarks
(i) It is worth mentioning that integration by parts is not applicable to product of
functions in all cases. For instance, the method does not work for

x sin x dx .

The reason is that there does not exist any function whose derivative is

x sin x.
(ii) Observe that while finding the integral of the second function, we did not add
any constant of integration. If we write the integral of the second function cos x

INTEGRALS

325

as sin x + k, where k is any constant, then

x cos x dx

= x (sin x + k ) (sin x + k ) dx
= x (sin x + k ) (sin x dx k dx

= x (sin x + k ) cos x kx + C = x sin x + cos x + C

This shows that adding a constant to the integral of the second function is
superfluous so far as the final result is concerned while applying the method of
integration by parts.
(iii) Usually, if any function is a power of x or a polynomial in x, then we take it as the
first function. However, in cases where other function is inverse trigonometric
function or logarithmic function, then we take them as first function.
Example 18 Find

log x dx

Solution To start with, we are unable to guess a function whose derivative is log x. We
take log x as the first function and the constant function 1 as the second function. Then,
the integral of the second function is x.
d
Hence,
(logx.1) dx = log x 1 dx [ dx (log x) 1 dx] dx
1
= (log x) x x dx = x log x x + C .
x
Example 19 Find

x e dx
x

Solution Take first function as x and second function as ex. The integral of the second
function is ex.

x e dx
x

Therefore,

Example 20 Find

x sin 1 x
1 x2

x
x
= x e 1 e dx = xex ex + C.

dx

Solution Let first function be sin 1x and second function be

First we find the integral of the second function, i.e.,

Put t =1 x2. Then dt = 2x dx

x dx
1 x2

x
1 x2

326

MATHEMATICS

Hence,

x dx

Therefore,

1 x

x sin 1 x
1 x

1
2

dt

2
= t = 1 x

dx = (sin 1 x) 1 x 2

1
1 x

( 1 x 2 ) dx

2
1
= 1 x sin x + x + C = x 1 x sin x + C
2

Alternatively, this integral can also be worked out by making substitution sin1 x = and
then integrating by parts.
Example 21 Find

sin x dx

Solution Take ex as the first function and sin x as second function. Then, integrating
by parts, we have
I = e x sin x dx = e x ( cos x) + e x cos x dx

= ex cos x + I1 (say)
... (1)
Taking e and cos x as the first and second functions, respectively, in I1, we get
x

I1 = e x sin x e x sin x dx
Substituting the value of I1 in (1), we get
I = ex cos x + ex sin x I or 2I = ex (sin x cos x)
ex
(sin x cos x) + C
2
Alternatively, above integral can also be determined by taking sin x as the first function
and ex the second function.

Hence,

x
I = e sin x dx =

7.6.1 Integral of the type

We have

[ f (x) + f (x)] dx

x
x
I = e x [ f (x) + f (x)] dx = e f (x) dx + e f (x) dx
x
x
= I1 + e f (x) dx, where I1 = e f (x) dx
x

... (1)

Taking f (x) and e as the first function and second function, respectively, in I1 and
integrating it by parts, we have I1 = f (x) ex

f (x) e dx + C
x

Substituting I1 in (1), we get

x
x
x
I = e f (x) f (x) e dx + e f (x) dx + C = ex f (x) + C

INTEGRALS

Thus,

[ f ( x ) + f ( x )] dx = e x f ( x ) + C

Example 22 Find (i) e x (tan 1 x +

(x 2 + 1) e x
(x + 1)2 dx

1
) dx (ii)
1 + x2

Solution
x
1
(i) We have I = e (tan x +

1
) dx
1 + x2

1
1 + x2
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [ f (x) + f (x)].

Consider f (x) = tan 1x, then f (x) =

Therefore, I = e x (tan 1 x +
(ii) We have I =

1
) dx = ex tan 1x + C
1 + x2

2
(x 2 + 1) e x
x x 1 + 1+1)
dx
e
[
] dx
=

(x + 1) 2
(x + 1) 2

= ex [

2
x2 1
2
x 1
] dx = e x [
+
+
] dx
2
2
(x + 1)
(x +1)
x + 1 (x +1) 2

2
x 1
, then f (x) =
(x + 1)2
x +1
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [f (x) + f (x)].
Consider f (x) =

Therefore,

x2 + 1 x
x 1 x
(x + 1)2 e dx = x + 1 e + C

EXERCISE 7.6
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 22.
1. x sin x
2. x sin 3x
3. x2 ex
5. x log 2x
6. x2 log x
7. x sin 1x
1

9. x cos x
13. tan 1x

10. (sin x)

14. x (log x)2

11.

x cos 1 x

1 x2
15. (x2 + 1) log x

4. x log x
8. x tan1 x
12. x sec2 x

327

328

MATHEMATICS

x 1 + sin x
18. e 1 + cos x

x ex
(1 + x) 2

16. ex (sinx + cosx) 17.

(x 3) e x
20.
(x 1)3

1
x 1
19. e 2
x x

21. e2x sin x

1 2x
22. sin
2
1+ x
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.

23.

24.

2 x3

x e

dx equals

(A)

1 x3
e +C
3

(B)

1 x2
e +C
3

(C)

1 x3
e +C
2

(D)

1 x2
e +C
2

sec x (1 + tan x) dx equals

(A) ex cos x + C

(B) ex sec x + C

(C) ex sin x + C

(D) ex tan x + C

7.6.2 Integrals of some more types

Here, we discuss some special types of standard integrals based on the technique of
integration by parts :
(i)

(i)

Let I = x 2 a 2 dx

x 2 a 2 dx

(ii)

x 2 + a 2 dx

(iii)

a 2 x 2 dx

Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we

have
2
2
I = x x a

= x x a
2

1
2

2x
2

x a2

x2
2

x a

x dx

2
2
dx = x x a

x2 a2 + a2
x2 a2

dx

INTEGRALS

2
2
2
2
2
= x x a x a dx a

2
2
2
= x x a Ia

dx
2

x a2

dx
x2 a2
dx

2
2
2
2I = x x a a

or

329

x2 a2

x
a2
2
2

log x + x 2 a 2 + C
x
a

2
2
Similarly, integrating other two integrals by parts, taking constant function 1 as the
second function, we get

x 2 a 2 dx =

I=

or

(ii)

x 2 + a 2 dx =

1
x
2

x2 + a2 +

a2
log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2

a2
x
1
2
2
x
a
x

+
sin 1 + C

a
2
2
Alternatively, integrals (i), (ii) and (iii) can also be found by making trigonometric
substitution x = a sec in (i), x = a tan in (ii) and x = a sin in (iii) respectively.
a 2 x 2 dx =

(iii)

Example 23 Find

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx

Solution Note that

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =

(x + 1) 2 + 4 dx

Put x + 1 = y, so that dx = dy. Then

x 2 + 2 x + 5 dx =

Example 24 Find
Solution Note that

y 2 + 22 dy

1
y
2

1
(x + 1) x 2 + 2 x + 5 + 2 log x + 1 + x 2 + 2 x + 5 + C
2

y2 + 4 +

4
log y + y 2 + 4 + C
2

3 2x x 2 dx
3 2 x x 2 dx = 4 (x + 1)2 dx

[using 7.6.2 (ii)]

330

MATHEMATICS

Put x + 1 = y so that dx = dy.

Thus

3 2x x 2 dx =

4 y 2 dy

1
4
y
y 4 y 2 + sin 1 + C
2
2
2

1
x +1
(x + 1) 3 2 x x 2 + 2 sin 1
+C
2
2

[using 7.6.2 (iii)]

EXERCISE 7.7
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 9.
1.

4 x2

2.

1 4x 2

3.

x2 + 4x + 6

4.

x2 + 4x + 1

5.

1 4x x 2

6.

x2 + 4x 5

7.

1 + 3x x 2

8.

x 2 + 3x

9.

1+

x2
9

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 10 to 11.

10.

1 + x 2 dx is equal to

(A)

1
x
1 + x 2 + log x + 1 + x 2
2
2

(B)

2
(1 + x 2 ) 2 + C
3

) +C

(C)

2
x (1 + x 2 ) 2 + C
3

1
x2
1 + x 2 + x 2 log x + 1 + x 2 + C
(D)
2
2

11.

x 2 8 x + 7 dx is equal to

1
( x 4)
2
1
( x + 4)
(B)
2
1
( x 4)
(C)
2
1
( x 4)
(D)
2

(A)

x 2 8 x + 7 + 9log x 4 + x 2 8 x + 7 + C
x 2 8 x + 7 + 9log x + 4 + x 2 8 x + 7 + C
x 2 8 x + 7 3 2 log x 4 + x 2 8 x + 7 + C
x2 8x + 7

9
log x 4 + x 2 8 x + 7 + C
2

INTEGRALS

331

7.7 Definite Integral

In the previous sections, we have studied about the indefinite integrals and discussed
few methods of finding them including integrals of some special functions. In this
section, we shall study what is called definite integral of a function. The definite integral
has a unique value. A definite integral is denoted by

a f (x) dx , where a is called the

lower limit of the integral and b is called the upper limit of the integral. The definite
integral is introduced either as the limit of a sum or if it has an anti derivative F in the
interval [a, b], then its value is the difference between the values of F at the end
points, i.e., F(b) F(a). Here, we shall consider these two cases separately as discussed
below:
7.7.1 Definite integral as the limit of a sum
Let f be a continuous function defined on close interval [a, b]. Assume that all the
values taken by the function are non negative, so the graph of the function is a curve
above the x-axis.
The definite integral

a f (x) dx

is the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the

ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-axis. To evaluate this area, consider the region PRSQP
between this curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b (Fig 7.2).
Y
S

X'

P
O a = x0 x1 x2
Y'

y=

)
f (x

M
C

D
L

A
B
xr-1 xr

R
xn=b

Fig 7.2

Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals denoted by [x0, x1], [x1, x2] ,...,
[xr 1, xr], ..., [xn 1, xn], where x0 = a, x1 = a + h, x2 = a + 2h, ... , xr = a + rh and
xn = b = a + nh or n =

ba.
We note that as n , h 0.
h

332

MATHEMATICS

The region PRSQP under consideration is the sum of n subregions, where each
subregion is defined on subintervals [xr 1, xr], r = 1, 2, 3, , n.
From Fig 7.2, we have
area of the rectangle (ABLC) < area of the region (ABDCA) < area of the rectangle
(ABDM)
... (1)
Evidently as xr xr1 0, i.e., h 0 all the three areas shown in (1) become
nearly equal to each other. Now we form the following sums.
n 1

sn = h [f(x0) + + f (xn - 1)] = h f ( xr )

... (2)

r =0

Sn = h [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + + f (xn )] = h f (xr )

and

... (3)

r =1

Here, sn and Sn denote the sum of areas of all lower rectangles and upper rectangles
raised over subintervals [xr1, xr] for r = 1, 2, 3, , n, respectively.
In view of the inequality (1) for an arbitrary subinterval [xr1, xr], we have
sn < area of the region PRSQP < Sn
... (4)
As n strips become narrower and narrower, it is assumed that the limiting
values of (2) and (3) are the same in both cases and the common limiting value is the
required area under the curve.
Symbolically, we write
lim Sn = lim sn = area of the region PRSQP =
n

a f (x)dx

... (5)

It follows that this area is also the limiting value of any area which is between that
of the rectangles below the curve and that of the rectangles above the curve. For
the sake of convenience, we shall take rectangles with height equal to that of the
curve at the left hand edge of each subinterval. Thus, we rewrite (5) as
b

a f ( x)dx
b

or
where

a f ( x)dx

= lim h [ f (a ) + f (a + h) + ... + f (a + (n 1) h]
h 0

= (b a) lim

h=

1
[ f (a) + f (a + h) + ... + f (a + (n 1) h]
n

... (6)

ba
0 as n
n

The above expression (6) is known as the definition of definite integral as the limit
of sum.
Remark The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval
depends on the function and the interval, but not on the variable of integration that we

INTEGRALS

333

choose to represent the independent variable. If the independent variable is denoted by

t or u instead of x, we simply write the integral as

a f (t ) dt or a f (u) du instead of

a f ( x) dx . Hence, the variable of integration is called a dummy variable.

Example 25 Find

0 (x

+ 1) dx as the limit of a sum.

Solution By definition
b

a f ( x) dx
where,

= (b a ) lim

h=

1
[ f (a ) + f ( a + h) + ... + f (a + (n 1) h],
n

ba
n

In this example, a = 0, b = 2, f (x) = x2 + 1, h =

20 2
=
n
n

Therefore,
2

0 (x

+ 1) dx = 2 lim

1
2
4
2 (n 1)
[ f (0) + f ( ) + f ( ) + ... + f (
)]
n
n
n
n

= 2 lim

(2n 2)2

1
22
42
[1 + ( 2 + 1) + ( 2 + 1) + ... +
+ 1 ]
2
n
n
n
n

= 2 lim

1
1
[(1 + 1 + ... + 1) + 2 (22 + 42 + ... + (2n 2) 2 ]





n
n
n -terms

= 2 lim

1
22
[n + 2 (12 + 22 + ... + (n 1)2 ]
n
n

= 2 lim

1
4 (n 1) n (2n 1)
[n + 2
]
6
n
n

= 2 lim

1
2 (n 1) (2n 1)
[n +
]
n
3
n

= 2 lim [1 +
n

2
1
1
14
4
(1 ) (2 )] = 2 [1 + ] =
3
n
n
3
3

334

MATHEMATICS

Example 26 Evaluate

2 x

0 e

dx as the limit of a sum.

Solution By definition
1
n

2 x

0 e dx = (2 0) lim

2
4
2n 2
0

n + e n + ... + e n
e
e
+

Using the sum to n terms of a G.P., where a = 1, r = e n , we have

1
[
0 e dx = 2 nlim
n
2 x

2n
e n 1

1 e2 1
] = 2 lim
2
n n 2
n
e 1
en 1

2 (e 2 1)
= e2 1
2

en 1
lim
2
2
n

[using lim

h 0

EXERCISE 7.8
Evaluate the following definite integrals as limit of sums.
5

1.

a x dx

4.

1 (x

x) dx

2.

0 ( x + 1) dx

5.

1 e

dx

3 2

3.

2 x

6.

0 (x + e

dx
2x

) dx

7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

7.8.1 Area function
We have defined

a f ( x) dx

as the area of

the region bounded by the curve y = f (x),

the ordinates x = a and x = b and x-axis. Let x
be a given point in [a, b]. Then

f ( x) dx

represents the area of the light shaded region

Fig 7.3

(e h 1)
=1]
h

INTEGRALS

335

in Fig 7.3 [Here it is assumed that f (x) > 0 for x [a, b], the assertion made below is
equally true for other functions as well]. The area of this shaded region depends upon
the value of x.
In other words, the area of this shaded region is a function of x. We denote this
function of x by A(x). We call the function A(x) as Area function and is given by
x

A (x) =

f ( x ) dx

... (1)

Based on this definition, the two basic fundamental theorems have been given.
However, we only state them as their proofs are beyond the scope of this text book.
7.8.2 First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be
the area function. Then A(x) = f (x), for all x [a, b].
7.8.3 Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
We state below an important theorem which enables us to evaluate definite integrals
by making use of anti derivative.
Theorem 2 Let f be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be
an anti derivative of f. Then

f ( x ) dx = [F( x )] ba = F (b) F(a).

Remarks
(i) In words, the Theorem 2 tells us that

a f ( x) dx = (value of the anti derivative F

of f at the upper limit b value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a).
(ii) This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a method of calculating the
definite integral more easily, without calculating the limit of a sum.
(iii) The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral is that of finding a function
whose derivative is equal to the integrand. This strengthens the relationship
between differentiation and integration.
(iv) In

a f ( x) dx , the function f needs to be well defined and continuous in [a, b].

For instance, the consideration of definite integral

since the function f expressed by f (x) = x( x
1 < x < 1 of the closed interval [ 2, 3].

1
1) 2

x( x 2 1) 2 dx is erroneous

is not defined in a portion

336

MATHEMATICS

a f ( x) dx .

Steps for calculating

(i) Find the indefinite integral f ( x) dx . Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep
integration constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get
b

a f ( x) dx = [F ( x) + C] a = [F(b) + C] [F(a) + C] = F(b) F(a) .

b

Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the definite
integral.
b
(ii) Evaluate F(b) F(a) = [F ( x)] a , which is the value of

a f ( x) dx .

We now consider some examples

Example 27 Evaluate the following integrals:
(i)

3 2

2 x

dx

(ii)

(30

(iii)

x dx
( x + 1) ( x + 2)

(iv)

4 sin 3
0

3
x 2 )2

dx

2 t cos 2 t dt

Solution
x3
= F ( x) ,
3
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem, we get
3

2
(i) Let I = 2 x dx . Since

2
x dx =

I = F (3) F (2) =
(ii) Let I =

3
x 2 )2

(30

Put 30

3
x2

27 8 19
=
3 3 3

dx . We first find the anti derivative of the integrand.

= t. Then

3
x dx = dt or
2

2
x dx = dt
3

2 1 2
1
2 dt

= F ( x)
dx = 2 = =
Thus,
3
3
3
t
3

3
t
(30 x 2 )
(30 x 2 )2

INTEGRALS

337

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have

9

2
1

I = F(9) F(4) =
3
3
(30 x 2 )
4

=
(iii) Let I =

2
1

2
1
1
2 1 1 19

= =
3 (30 27) 30 8
3 3 22 99

x dx
( x + 1) ( x + 2)

Using partial fraction, we get

x dx

( x + 1) ( x + 2)

So

x
1
2
=
+
( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
= log x + 1 + 2 log x + 2 = F( x)

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have

I = F(2) F(1) = [ log 3 + 2 log 4] [ log 2 + 2 log 3]

32
= 3 log 3 + log 2 + 2 log 4 = log
27
(iv) Let I =

4
sin 3
0

3
2t cos 2 t dt . Consider sin 2t cos 2 t dt

Put sin 2t = u so that 2 cos 2t dt = du or cos 2t dt =

So

sin

2t cos 2 t dt =

1
du
2

1 3
u du
2

1 4 1 4
[u ] = sin 2t = F (t ) say
8
8

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of integral calculus

1
I = F ( ) F (0) = [sin 4 sin 4 0] =
4
8
2
8

338

MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 7.9
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20.
1.

4.

8.

12.

16.

1 ( x + 1) dx

2.

0 sin 2x dx

4
cosec

2
cos 2
0

x dx

0 cos 2x dx

9.

13.

dx

x dx

3.

5.

5x2
17.
x2 + 4 x + 3

31

2 x dx

1 x2
x dx

5 x 2 + 6 x + 9) dx

5 x

e dx

dx

7.

10.

0 1 + x2

14.

0 5 x 2 + 1 dx

2 x2 + 1

4
(2sec 2
0

6.

1 (4 x

x + x3 + 2) dx

2x + 3

0 tan x dx
3

dx

x2

11.

2 x2 1

15.

0 x e

18.

0 (sin

dx

x
x
cos 2 ) dx
2
2

x
) dx
4
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
6x + 3

19.

0 x2 + 4 dx

21.

(A)

22.

2
3
0

(A)

20.

0 (x e

+ sin

dx
equals
1 + x2

(B)

2
3

(C)

(D)

12

(B)

12

(C)

24

(D)

dx
equals
4 + 9 x2

7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution

In the previous sections, we have discussed several methods for finding the indefinite
integral. One of the important methods for finding the indefinite integral is the method
of substitution.

INTEGRALS

To evaluate

339

a f ( x) dx , by substitution, the steps could be as follows:

1. Consider the integral without limits and substitute, y = f (x) or x = g(y) to reduce
the given integral to a known form.
2. Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new variable without mentioning
the constant of integration.
3. Resubstitute for the new variable and write the answer in terms of the original
variable.
4. Find the values of answers obtained in (3) at the given limits of integral and find
the difference of the values at the upper and lower limits.

Note In order to quicken this method, we can proceed as follows: After

performing steps 1, and 2, there is no need of step 3. Here, the integral will be kept
in the new variable itself, and the limits of the integral will accordingly be changed,
so that we can perform the last step.
Let us illustrate this by examples.
Example 28 Evaluate

15x

x 5 + 1 dx .

Solution Put t = x5 + 1, then dt = 5x4 dx.

3

Therefore,

4
5
5x x + 1 dx =

t dt =

2 2
2
t = ( x 5 + 1) 2
3
3
1

Hence,

15x

2 5
x + 1 dx = ( x + 1) 2
3
1

3
3

2 5
5
2
= (1 + 1) ( 1) + 1 2
3

3
3

2
4 2
2 2
2 0 2 = (2 2) =
3
3
3

Alternatively, first we transform the integral and then evaluate the transformed integral
with new limits.

340

MATHEMATICS

Let
t = x5 + 1. Then dt = 5 x4 dx.
Note that, when
x = 1, t = 0 and when x = 1, t = 2
Thus, as x varies from 1 to 1, t varies from 0 to 2
1

15x

Therefore

x 5 + 1 dx =

t dt
2

3
3
3

2 2
2
2
4 2
t = 2 2 0 2 = (2 2) =
=
3
3
3
3

tan 1 x
0 1 + x2 dx
1
Solution Let t = tan 1x, then dt =
dx . The new limits are, when x = 0, t = 0 and
1 + x2

when x = 1, t = . Thus, as x varies from 0 to 1, t varies from 0 to .

4
4
1

Example 29 Evaluate

Therefore

tan x
dx =
1 + x2

4
t
0

t2 4
2
1 2
dt = 0 =
2 16
2 0
32

EXERCISE 7.10
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 8 using substitution.

2
0

sin cos5 d 3.

x x + 2 (Put x + 2 = t2)

5.

8.

1 x 2 x2 e

x
0 x 2 + 1 dx
1

1.

4.

6.

0 x + 4 x2

dx

2.

7.

dx

1 x 2 + 2 x + 5

0 sin

2x
dx

2
1+ x

sin x
2
0 1 + cos 2

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 9 and 10.

1

9. The value of the integral

(A) 6

(B) 0

( x x3 ) 3
dx is
x4
(C) 3

10. If f (x) =

0 t sin t dt , then f (x) is

(A) cosx + x sin x

(C) x cosx

(B) x sinx
(D) sinx + x cosx

dx

(D) 4

2x

dx

INTEGRALS

341

7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals

We list below some important properties of definite integrals. These will be useful in
evaluating the definite integrals more easily.
P0 :

a f ( x) dx = a f (t ) dt
b

P1 :

f ( x) dx = f ( x) dx . In particular,

P2 :

a f ( x) dx = a f ( x) dx + c

P3 :

a f ( x) dx = a f (a + b x) dx

P4 :

f ( x) dx = f (a x) dx

f ( x) dx = 0

f ( x) dx

(Note that P4 is a particular case of P3)

2a

P5 :

P6 :

2a

f ( x) dx = f ( x) dx + f (2a x) dx
a

f ( x) dx = 2 f ( x) dx, if f (2a x) = f ( x) and

0
0 if f (2a x) = f (x)

P7 :

(i)

a f ( x) dx = 2 0

(ii)

a f ( x) dx = 0 , if f is an odd function, i.e., if f ( x) = f (x).

f ( x) dx , if f is an even function, i.e., if f ( x) = f (x).

We give the proofs of these properties one by one.

Proof of P0 It follows directly by making the substitution x = t.
Proof of P1 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then, by the second fundamental theorem of
calculus,

we

have

a f ( x) dx = F (b) F (a) = [F (a) F (b)] = b

a

Here, we observe that, if a = b, then

f ( x) dx

f ( x) dx = 0 .

Proof of P2 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then

b

and

a f ( x) dx
c
a f ( x) dx
b
c f ( x) dx

= F(b) F(a)

... (1)

= F(c) F(a)

... (2)

= F(b) F(c)

... (3)

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MATHEMATICS

Adding (2) and (3), we get

a f ( x) dx + c

f ( x) dx = F(b) F(a) = f ( x) dx
a

This proves the property P2.

Proof of P3 Let t = a + b x. Then dt = dx. When x = a, t = b and when x = b, t = a.
Therefore
b

a f ( x) dx

= b f (a + b t ) dt
b

a f (a + b t ) dt

a f (a + b x) dx by P

(by P1)

Proof of P4 Put t = a x. Then dt = dx. When x = 0, t = a and when x = a, t = 0. Now

proceed as in P3.
Proof of P5 Using P2, we have

2a

2a

f ( x) dx = f ( x) dx +

f ( x) dx .

Let

t = 2a x in the second integral on the right hand side. Then

dt = dx. When x = a, t = a and when x = 2a, t = 0. Also x = 2a t.
Therefore, the second integral becomes
2a

2a

Hence

f ( x) dx = f (2a t ) dt =
a

f ( x) dx =

f (2a t ) dt =

f (2a x) dx

f ( x) dx + f (2a x) dx
0

Proof of P6 Using P5, we have

Now, if

2a

f ( x) dx = f ( x) dx + f (2a x) dx

... (1)

f (2a x) = f (x), then (1) becomes

2a

0
and if

f ( x) dx =

f ( x) dx + f ( x) dx = 2 f ( x) dx,

f (2a x) = f (x), then (1) becomes

2a

f ( x) dx =

f ( x) dx f ( x) dx = 0

Proof of P7 Using P2, we have

a

a f ( x) dx = a f ( x) dx + 0
Let

f ( x) dx . Then

t = x in the first integral on the right hand side.

dt = dx. When x = a, t = a and when
x = 0, t = 0. Also x = t.

INTEGRALS

= f (t ) dt + f ( x) dx

a f ( x) dx

Therefore

343

f ( x) dx + f ( x) dx
0

(by P0) ... (1)

(i) Now, if f is an even function, then f (x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes
a

a f ( x) dx = 0

f ( x ) dx + f ( x) dx = 2 f ( x) dx

(ii) If f is an odd function, then f (x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes

a

a f ( x) dx = 0
Example 30 Evaluate

f ( x) dx + f ( x) dx = 0
0

x3 x dx

Solution We note that x3 x 0 on [ 1, 0] and x3 x 0 on [0, 1] and that

x3 x 0 on [1, 2]. So by P2 we write
2

x3 x dx =

1 ( x

1 ( x

x) dx + ( x 3 x) dx + ( x3 x) dx
0

x) dx + ( x x 3 ) dx + ( x3 x) dx
0

x4 x2
x2 x4 x4 x2

+
=

+
2 1 2
4 0 4
2 1
4

1 1 1 1
1 1
= + + ( 4 2)
4 2 2 4
4 2
=

Example 31 Evaluate

1 1 1 1
1 1
3 3
11
+ + +2 + = +2=
4 2 2 4
4 2
2 4
4

4
sin 2

x dx

Solution We observe that sin2 x is an even function. Therefore, by P7 (i), we get

sin 2 x dx = 2 4 sin 2 x dx
0

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MATHEMATICS

4
0

= 2

(1 cos 2 x)
dx =
2

4
(1 cos
0

2 x) dx

1
1

4 1
= x sin 2 x = sin 0 =
2
4 2
2
4 2

0
Example 32 Evaluate

Solution Let I =

x sin x

0 1 + cos2 x dx
x sin x

0 1 + cos 2 x dx . Then, by P , we have

4

( x) sin ( x) dx
1 + cos 2 ( x)

or

I=

sin x dx
( x) sin x dx
I
= 0
2
1 + cos x
1 + cos 2 x

2 I = 0

sin x dx
1 + cos 2 x

sin x dx
2 0 1 + cos 2 x
Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt. When x = 0, t = 1 and when x = , t = 1.
Therefore, (by P1) we get

or

I=

I=

1
1

= 0

dt

2 =
2
1+ t

dt

1 1 + t 2

1
dt
since
is even function)
2 (by P7,
1+ t2
1+ t

1 1
1
1
= tan t 0 = tan 1 tan 0 = 0 =
4
4

Example 33 Evaluate
Solution Let I =

1 sin

1sin

x cos 4 x dx

x cos 4 x dx . Let f(x) = sin5 x cos4 x. Then

f ( x) = sin5 ( x) cos4 ( x) = sin5 x cos4 x = f (x), i.e., f is an odd function.

Therefore, by P7 (ii), I = 0

INTEGRALS

Example 34 Evaluate

Solution Let I =

2
0

2
0

2
0

345

sin 4 x
dx
sin 4 x + cos 4 x

sin 4 x
dx
sin 4 x + cos 4 x

... (1)

Then, by P4
I=

sin 4 ( x)
2

sin 4 ( x) + cos 4 ( x )
2
2
Adding (1) and (2), we get

Hence

2I =

I=

Example 35 Evaluate

Solution Let I =

Then, by P3

2
0

1+
6

I=

dx =

2
0

cos 4 x
dx
cos 4 x + sin 4 x

sin 4 x + cos 4 x

dx = 2 dx = [ x] 2 =
4
4
0
0
2
sin x + cos x

dx
1 + tan x

dx
= 3
tan x
6

cos x dx
cos x + sin x

cos + x dx
3 6

cos + x + sin + x
3 6

3 6

sin x
dx
sin x + cos x

Adding (1) and (2), we get

2I =

... (2)

3
dx

= [ x] =

= . Hence I =
3 6 6
12

... (1)

... (2)

346

MATHEMATICS

Example 36 Evaluate
Solution Let I =

2
0

2
log
0

sin x dx

log sin x dx

Then, by P4
I=

2
0

log sin x dx = 2 log cos x dx

0
2

Adding the two values of I, we get

2I =

2
0

( log sin x + log cos x ) dx

2
0

( log sin x cos x + log 2 log 2) dx (by adding and subtracting log 2)

2
log
0

sin 2 x dx 2 log 2 dx
0

(Why?)

Put 2x = t in the first integral. Then 2 dx = dt, when x = 0, t = 0 and when x =

t = .
Therefore

2I =

1
2

0 log sin t dt 2 log 2

2 2
= 0 log sin t dt log 2 [by P6 as sin ( t) = sin t)
2
2

2
log
0

sin x dx

log 2 (by changing variable t to x)

2

= I log 2
2
Hence

2
log
0

sin x dx =

log 2 .
2

,
2

INTEGRALS

347

EXERCISE 7.11
By using the properties of definite integrals, evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 19.

1.

4.

2
cos 2
0

2
0

7.

10.

2.

x dx

cos5 x dx
sin 5 x + cos5 x

2
0

sin x
sin x + cos x

x (1 x) n dx

8.

5 | x + 2 | dx

4
log
0

(1 + tan x) dx

0 (2log sin x log sin 2 x) dx

x dx
12.
0 1 + sin x

13.

2
0

16.

0 log (1 + cos x) dx

18.

sin x cos x
dx
1 + sin x cos x

sin 7 x dx

sin 2 x dx
3

sin 2 x + cos 2 x

5.

15.

dx 3.

2
0

6.

9.

0 x

x 5 dx

2 x dx

2
sin 2

11.

14.

17.

x dx

cos5 x dx
x
dx
x + ax

x 1 dx

19. Show that

f ( x) g ( x) dx = 2 f ( x) dx , if f and g are defined as f (x) = f(a x)

0

and g(x) + g(a x) = 4

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 20 and 21.
20. The value of

2
( x3

2
log
0

(A) 0
21. The value of
(A) 2

+ x cos x + tan 5 x + 1) dx is

(B) 2

(C)

4 + 3 sin x

dx is
4 + 3 cos x
3
(B)
(C) 0
4

(D) 1

(D) 2

348

MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 37 Find

cos 6 x

1 + sin 6 x dx

Solution Put t = 1 + sin 6x, so that dt = 6 cos 6x dx

1

Therefore

cos 6 x 1 + sin 6 x dx =

1 2
t dt
6
3

Example 38 Find

Solution We have

Put 1

(x
x5

1
x) 4

( x4
x5

1
x) 4

1 2 2
1
(t ) + C = (1 + sin 6 x) 2 + C
6 3
9

dx
1

1
(1 3 ) 4
x
dx =
dx
x4

1
3
= 1 x 3 = t , so that 4 dx = dt
3
x
x
1

1
1 4
4
1 4
( x 4 x) 4
1 4
Therefore
=
dx
t
dt = t 4 + C = 1 3 + C

5
3 5
15
x
3
x

x 4 dx
Example 39 Find
( x 1) ( x 2 + 1)

Solution We have
1
x4
= ( x + 1) + 3
2
2
x x + x 1
( x 1) ( x + 1)

= ( x + 1) +

Now express

1
( x 1) ( x 2 + 1)

1
A
Bx + C
+ 2
=
2
( x 1) ( x + 1)
( x 1)( x + 1)

... (1)

... (2)

INTEGRALS

So

349

1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x 1)
= (A + B) x2 + (C B) x + A C
Equating coefficients on both sides, we get A + B = 0, C B = 0 and A C = 1,

1
1
which give A = , B = C = . Substituting values of A, B and C in (2), we get
2
2
1
1
1
1
x

=
2
2
2
2( x 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2( x + 1)
( x 1) ( x + 1)
Again, substituting (3) in (1), we have

... (3)

1
1
1
x
x4

= ( x + 1) +
2
2
2
2( x 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2( x + 1)
( x 1) ( x + x + 1)
Therefore
x4
x2
1
1
1
=
+ x + log x 1 log ( x 2 + 1) tan 1 x + C
dx
( x 1) ( x 2 + x + 1)
2
2
4
2

Example 40 Find

log (log x) + (log x)2 dx

1
Solution Let I = log (log x) +
dx
(log x)2

1
dx
(log x)2
In the first integral, let us take 1 as the second function. Then integrating it by
parts, we get
= log (log x) dx +

I = x log (log x)
= x log (log x )
Again, consider
dx

we have

1
dx
x dx +
x log x
(log x)2
dx
dx
+
log x
(log x) 2

... (1)

dx

log x , take 1 as the second function and integrate it by parts,

log x = log x x (log x)2 x dx

... (2)

350

MATHEMATICS

Putting (2) in (1), we get

x
dx
dx
x

+
+C
x log (log x)
2
2 =
log x
(log x)
(log x)
log x

I = x log (log x)

Example 41 Find

cot x + tan x dx

Solution We have

cot x + tan x dx = tan x (1 + cot x) dx

Put tan x = t2, so that sec2 x dx = 2t dt
I=

or

dx =

2t dt
1+ t4

1 2t

dt
I = t 1 + 2
4
t (1 + t )

Then

= 2

Put t

1
= y, so that
t

1
1

1 + 2 dt
1 + 2 dt
(t 2 + 1)
t
t
=2
dt = 2
2
2 1
t4 +1
1
t

t + 2

+2
t

1 + 2 dt = dy. Then
t

I = 2

dy
2

y +

( 2)

= 2 tan 1

1
t
y
t
+ C = 2 tan 1
+C
2
2

t2 1
1 tan x 1
2 tan 1
+ C = 2 tan
+C
2 tan x
2t

sin 2 x cos 2 x dx

Example 42 Find

Solution Let I =

sin 2 x cos 2 x

9 cos 4 (2 x)

9 cos 4 2 x

dx

INTEGRALS

351

Put cos2 (2x) = t so that 4 sin 2x cos 2x dx = dt

I=

Therefore

1
4

Example 43 Evaluate

dt

9t
3
2

1
1
t
1

sin 1 + C = sin 1 cos 2 2 x + C

4
4
3
3

x sin ( x) dx

x sin x for 1 x 1

Solution Here f (x) = | x sin x | =

3
x sin x for 1 x 2

Therefore

3
2
|
1

x sin x | dx =

1
1

x sin x dx + 2 x sin x dx
1

x sin x dx 2 x sin x dx
1

Integrating both integrals on righthand side, we get

3
2
|
1

2 1 1 3 1

= +
2 2

=
Example 44 Evaluate

x dx

0 a 2 cos2 x + b 2 sin 2 x
x dx

Solution Let I =

( x) dx

0 a 2 cos2 x + b2 sin 2 x = 0 a2 cos2 ( x) + b2 sin 2 ( x)

=
=
Thus

x cos x sin x
x cos x sin x 2
x sin x | dx =
+

+
2

1
2 1

dx
x dx
2
2
2
2
0
a cos x + b sin x
a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2

dx

dx
a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x

0 a 2 cos 2 x + b 2 sin 2 x I

2I = 0

(using P4)

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MATHEMATICS

or

I=
2

2
0

dx
dx
= 2 2 2
(using P6)
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
a cos x + b sin x
a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x

sec2 x dx
a 2 + b 2 tan 2 x

(dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x).

Put b tan x = t, so that b sec2 x dx = dt. Also, when x = 0, t = 0, and when x =

,
2

t .

2
dt
1 1 t


.
=

=
I=
tan
0
2 ab
b 0 a 2 + t 2 b a
a 0 ab 2

Therefore,

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7

Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 24.
1.

4.

6.

9.

12.

1
x x3

2.

1
3
x 2 ( x 4 + 1) 4

5x
( x + 1) ( x 2 + 9)
cos x
2

4 sin x

x3
8

1 x
15. cos 3 x elog sinx

5.

7.

1
x+a + x+b

1
1
x2

1
x3

[Hint:

sin x
sin ( x a )
sin 8 cos8 x
1 2sin 2 x cos 2 x

3.

x ax x
1
1
x2

1
x3

8.

[Hint: Put x =

1
1
x3

6
1
+
x

a
]
t

, put x = t6]

e5 log x e 4 log x
e3 log x e2 log x

11.

1
cos ( x + a) cos ( x + b)

ex
13.
(1 + e x ) (2 + e x )

14.

1
( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4)

16. e3 logx (x4 + 1) 1

17.

f (ax + b) [f (ax + b)]n

10.

sin 1 x cos 1 x
, x [0, 1]
sin 1 x + cos 1 x

18.

sin 3 x sin ( x + )

19.

20.

1 x
1+ x

2 + sin 2 x x
e
21.
1 + cos 2 x

22.

x2 + x + 1
( x + 1) 2 ( x + 2)

INTEGRALS

x 2 + 1 log ( x 2 + 1) 2 log x
1 x
23. tan
24.
1+ x
x4
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 25 to 33.
1

25.

1 sin x
ex
dx 26.
1 cos x

4
0

31.

2
sin
0

33.

1 [ x 1| + | x 2 | + | x 3 |] dx

28.

sin x + cos x
dx
sin 2 x

29.

2
0

30.

4
0

32.

0 sec x + tan x dx

35.

0 x e dx = 1

sin x cos x
dx 27.
cos 4 x + sin 4 x

dx
1+ x x

2 x tan 1 (sin x) dx

cos 2 x dx
cos 2 x + 4 sin 2 x
sin x + cos x
dx
9 + 16 sin 2 x

x tan x

Prove the following (Exercises 34 to 39)

34.

36.
38.

dx

1 x2 ( x + 1) = 3 + log 3

x17 cos 4 x dx = 0

4
2
0

tan 3 x dx = 1 log 2

40. Evaluate

1 23x

0e

2 sin 3
0

37.

39.

0 sin

x dx =

2
3

x dx =

1
2

dx as a limit of a sum.

Choose the correct answers in Exercises 41 to 44.

41.

dx

e x + e x

is equal to

(A) tan1 (ex) + C

(C) log (ex ex) + C
42.

(B) tan1 (ex) + C

(D) log (ex + ex) + C

cos 2 x

(sin x + cos x)2 dx is equal to

(A)

1
+C
sin x + cos x

(C) log |sin x cos x | + C

(B) log |sin x + cos x | + C

(D)

1
(sin x + cos x)2

353

354

MATHEMATICS

43. If f (a + b x) = f (x), then

(A)

a+b
2

a f (b x) dx

(C)

ba
2

a f ( x) dx

44. The value of

(A) 1

a x f ( x) dx

0 tan

is equal to

(B)

a+b
2

a f (b + x) dx

(D)

a+b
2

a f ( x) dx

2x 1

dx is
1 + x x2

(B) 0

(C) 1

(D)

Summary

Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. In the differential calculus,

we are given a function and we have to find the derivative or differential of
this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to find a function whose
differential is given. Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of
differentiation.
d
F( x) = f ( x) . Then we write f ( x) dx = F ( x) + C . These integrals
Let
dx
are called indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of
integration. All these integrals differ by a constant.
From the geometric point of view, an indefinite integral is collection of family
of curves, each of which is obtained by translating one of the curves parallel
to itself upwards or downwards along the y-axis.
Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:
1. [ f ( x) + g ( x)] dx =

f ( x) dx + g ( x) dx

2. For any real number k,

f ( x) dx = k f ( x) dx

More generally, if f1, f2, f3, ... , fn are functions and k1, k2, ... ,kn are real
numbers. Then

[k1

f1 ( x) + k2 f 2 ( x) + ... + kn f n ( x )] dx

= k1 f1 ( x) dx + k2

f 2 ( x) dx + ... + kn f n ( x) dx

INTEGRALS

Some standard integrals

x n +1

(i)

x dx = n + 1 + C , n 1. Particularly, dx = x + C

(ii)

cos x dx = sin x + C

(iii)

sin x dx = cos x + C

(iv)

sec

(v)

cosec

(vi)

sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

(vii)

cosec x cot x dx = cosec x + C (viii)

(ix)

(xi)

1 + x 2 = cot

x dx = tan x + C

dx
1 x

(xv)

= cos 1 x + C

dx

x
(xiii) a dx =

355

x+C

ax
+C
log a

dx
x2 1

= cosec 1 x + C

(x)

x dx = cot x + C

dx

1 x

= sin 1 x + C

dx

1 + x 2 = tan

x+C

(xii)

e dx = e

(xiv)

(xvi)

x dx = log | x | + C

dx
2

+C

= sec 1 x + C

x 1

Integration by partial fractions

P( x)
,
Q( x)
where P(x) and Q (x) are polynomials in x and Q (x) 0. If degree of the
polynomial P (x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial Q (x), then we
Recall that a rational function is ratio of two polynomials of the form

may divide P (x) by Q (x) so that

P ( x)
P( x)
, where T(x) is a
= T ( x) + 1
Q( x)
Q( x)

polynomial in x and degree of P1 (x) is less than the degree of Q(x). T(x)
being polynomial can be easily integrated.

P1 ( x)
can be integrated by
Q( x)

356

MATHEMATICS

P1 ( x)
as the sum of partial fractions of the following type:
Q( x)
A
B
px + q
+
=
,ab
x a x b
( x a ) ( x b)

expressing
1.

2.

px + q
( x a) 2

A
B
+
x a ( x a)2

3.

px 2 + qx + r
( x a ) ( x b) ( x c)

A
B
C
+
+
x a x b x c

4.

px 2 + qx + r
( x a ) 2 ( x b)

A
B
C
+
+
2
x a ( x a)
xb

5.

px 2 + qx + r
( x a) ( x 2 + bx + c)

A
Bx + C
+ 2
x a x + bx + c

where x2 + bx + c can not be factorised further.

Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the
fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves
some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the
integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard
integrals.
(i)

tan x dx = log

sec x + C

(iii)

sec x dx = log

sec x + tan x + C

(iv)

cosec x dx = log

(ii)

cot x dx = log

sin x + C

cosec x cot x + C

Integrals of some special functions

dx

xa
+C
x+a

dx

a+x
+C
ax

(i)

x2 a 2 = 2a log

(ii)

a 2 x2 = 2a log

(iii)

dx

x 2 + a 2 = a tan

x
+C
a

INTEGRALS

(iv)

(vi)

dx
x2 a2
dx
2

= log x + x 2 a 2 + C (v)

dx
2

a x

357

x
+C
a

= sin 1

= log | x + x 2 + a 2 | + C

x +a
Integration by parts
For given functions f1 and f2, we have

f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) dx = f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) dx dx f1 ( x) f2 ( x) dx dx ,

i.e., the

integral of the product of two functions = first function integral of the

second function integral of {differential coefficient of the first function
integral of the second function}. Care must be taken in choosing the first
function and the second function. Obviously, we must take that function as
the second function whose integral is well known to us.

e x [ f ( x) + f ( x)] dx = e x f ( x) dx + C
Some special types of integrals

x 2 a 2 dx =

x 2
a2
x a 2 log x + x 2 a 2 + C
2
2

(ii)

x 2 + a 2 dx =

x 2
a2
x + a 2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2
2

(iii)

a 2 x 2 dx =

x 2
a2
x
sin 1 + C
a x2 +
2
2
a

(i)

(iv) Integrals of the types

dx

ax 2 + bx + c or

dx
2

can be

ax + bx + c

transformed into standard form by expressing

2

c
b c b2
2 b
ax2 + bx + c = a x + x + = a x +

+
a
a
2a a 4a 2

px + q dx

(v) Integrals of the types

ax 2 + bx + c or

px + q dx
ax 2 + bx + c

can be

358

MATHEMATICS

transformed into standard form by expressing

d
(ax 2 + bx + c) + B = A (2ax + b) + B , where A and B are
dx
determined by comparing coefficients on both sides.
px + q = A

We have defined

a f ( x) dx as the area of the region bounded by the curve

y = f (x), a x b, the x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a

x

given point in [a, b]. Then

f ( x) dx represents the Area function A (x).

This concept of area function leads to the Fundamental Theorems of Integral

Calculus.
First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Let the area function be defined by A(x) =

f ( x) dx for all x a, where

the function f is assumed to be continuous on [a, b]. Then A (x) = f (x) for all
x [a, b].
Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and
let F be another function such that
f, then

d
F( x) = f ( x) for all x in the domain of
dx

a f ( x) dx = [ F( x) + C]a = F (b) F (a) .

This is called the definite integral of f over the range [a, b], where a and b
are called the limits of integration, a being the lower limit and b the
upper limit.