Data Processing

PROCESSING OF DATA
The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to

come to some conclusions or to verify the hypothesis
made.
Processing of data is important as it makes further analysis of
data easier and efficient. Processing of data technically
means
1. Editing of the data
2. Coding of data
3. Classification of data
4. Tabulation of data.
EDITING:
Data editing is a process by which collected data is
examined to detect any errors or omissions and further
these are corrected as much as possible before
proceeding further.
Editing is of two types:

1. Field Editing
2. Central Editing.
FIELD EDITING:
This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or illegible
written form of gathered data. Such editing is more effective
when done on same day or the very next day after the
interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
CENTRAL EDITING:
Such type of editing relates to the time when all data
collection process has been completed. Here a single or
common editor corrects the errors like entry in the wrong
place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c. As a rule all the wrong
answers should be dropped from the final results.
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL

CONSIDERATIONS:
Editor must be familiar with the interviewers mind set, objectives

and everything related to the study.
Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the
data collected.
They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the
data sheet.
CODING:
Classification of responses may be done on the basis of
one or more common concepts.
In coding a particular numeral or symbol is assigned to the
answers in order to put the responses in some definite
categories or classes.
The classes of responses determined by the researcher
should be appropriate and suitable to the study.
Coding enables efficient and effective analysis as the
responses are categorized into meaningful classes.
Coding decisions are considered while developing or
designing the questionnaire or any other data collection tool.
Coding can be done manually or through computer.
CLASSIFICATION:
Classification of the data implies that the collected raw
data is categorized into common group having common
feature.
Data having common characteristics are placed in a
common group.
The entire data collected is categorized into various groups
or classes, which convey a meaning to the researcher.
Classification is done in two ways:
1. Classification according to attributes.
2. Classification according to the class intervals.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE THE ATTRIBUTES:

Here the data is classified on the basis of common
characteristics that can be descriptive like literacy, sex,
honesty, marital status e.t.c. or numeral like weight, height,
income e.t.c.
Descriptive features are qualitative in nature and cannot be
measured quantitatively but are kindly considered while
making an analysis.
Analysis used for such classified data is known as statistics
of attributes and the classification is known as the
classification according to the attributes.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE INTERVAL:

The numerical feature of data can be measured quantitatively
and analyzed with the help of some statistical unit like the
data relating to income, production, age, weight e.t.c.
come under this category. This type of data is known as
statistics of variables and the data is classified by way of
intervals.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE CLASS
INTERVAL USUALLY INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING
THREE MAIN PROBLEMS:
1. Number of Classes.
2. How to select class limits.
3. How to determine the frequency of each class.
TABULATION:
The mass of data collected has to be arranged in some kind of
concise and logical order.
Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form
of some statistical tables.
Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and
columns.
OBJECTIVE OF TABULATION:
1. Conserves space & minimizes explanation and descriptive
statements.
2. Facilitates process of comparison and summarization.
3. Facilitates detection of errors and omissions.
4. Establish the basis of various statistical computations.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION:

1. Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.
2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy
reference.
3. Column headings & row headings of the table should be
clear & brief.
4. Units of measurement should be specified at appropriate
places.
5. Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be
placed at appropriate places.
6. Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.
7. The columns & rows should be clearly separated with

dark lines
8. Demarcation should also be made between data of one
class and that of another.
9.
Comparable data should be put side by side.
10. The figures in percentage should be approximated before

tabulation.
11. The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be
properly aligned and adequately spaced to enhance the
readability of the same.
12. Abbreviations should be avoided.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The important statistical measures that are used to analyze

the research or the survey are:
1. Measures of central tendency(mean, median & mode)
2. Measures of dispersion(standard deviation, range, mean
deviation)
3. Measures of asymmetry(skew ness)
4. Measures of relationship etc.( correlation and regression)
5. Association in case of attributes.
6. Time series Analysis
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

Several factor are considered into the determination of the
appropriate statistical technique to use when conducting a
hypothesis tests. The most important are as:
1. The type of data being measured.
2. The purpose or the objective of the statistical inference.
Hypothesis can be tested by various techniques. The
hypothesis testing techniques are divided into two broad
categories:
1. Parametric Tests.
2. Non- Parametric Tests.
PARAMETRIC TESTS:
These tests depends upon assumptions typically that the

population(s) from which data are randomly sampled
have a normal distribution. Types of parametric tests are:
1. t- test
2. z- test
3. F- test
2- test
NON PARAMETRIC TESTS

The various types of Non Parametric Tests are:
1. Wilcox on Signed Rank Test ( for comparing two
population)
2. Kolmogorov Smirnov Test( to test whether or not the
sample of data is consistent with a specified distribution
function)
3. Runs Tests (in studies where measurements are made
according to some well defined ordering, either in time or
space, a frequent question is whether or not the average
value of the measurement is different points in the
sequence. This test provides a means of testing this.
4. Sign Test (this is single sample test that can be used
instead of the single sample t- test or paired t- test.
INTERPRETATION:
Interpretation is the relationship amongst the collected data,
with analysis. Interpretation looks beyond the data of the
research and includes researches, theory and hypothesis.
Interpretation in a way act as a tool to explain the
observations of the researcher during the research period
and it acts as a guide for future researches.
WHY Interpretation?
-the researcher understands the abstract principle underlying
the findings.
-Interpretation links up the findings with those of other similar
studies.
-The researcher is able to make others understand the real
importance of his research findings.
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION:
1. Researcher must ensure that the data is appropriate, trust
worthy and adequate for drawing inferences.
2. Researcher must be cautious about errors and take due
necessary actions if the error arises
3. Researcher must ensure the correctness of the data
analysis process whether the data is qualitative or
quantitative.
4. Researcher must try to bring out hidden facts and un
obvious factors and facts to the front and combine it with
the factual interpretation.
5. The researcher must also ensure that there should be
constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observations, and theoretical concepts.

Data Processing

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Data Processing

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PROCESSING OF DATA

The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to

Editing is of two types:

EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL

Editor must be familiar with the interviewers mind set, objectives

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE THE ATTRIBUTES:

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE INTERVAL:

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION:

7. The columns & rows should be clearly separated with

Comparable data should be put side by side.

10. The figures in percentage should be approximated before

The important statistical measures that are used to analyze

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

These tests depends upon assumptions typically that the

NON PARAMETRIC TESTS

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