Stress

Stress.
Stress: The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given
section and it is denoted by the Greek letter (sigma). The stress in a member of
cross-sectional area A subjected to an axial load P.
Where P is the force exerted and its SI metric unit is Newtons [N], and A is the area
where the we want to calculate the stress of the force that is being exerted at that
area and its SI metric units is square meters m2; the formula for stress is:
P
N
= = 2 =Pa
A m
[ ]
Stress SI metric unit is Newtons per square meters [N/m 2], also called Pascal [Pa].
103 Pa
106 Pa
109 Pa
1 KPa
1 MPa
1 GPa
103 N/m2
106 N/m2
109 N/m2
Average stress over the section rather than the stress at a specific point Q of the
section. Considering a small area A surrounding Q and the magnitude F of the
force exerted on A, we defined the stress at point Q as
= lim
A0
F
A
When U.S. customary units are used, the force P is usually expressed in pounds
(lb) or kilo pounds (kip), and the cross-sectional area A in square inches (in 2). The
stress s will then be expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or kilo pounds per
square inch (ksi).
P= dF= dA
A
A uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of action of the

concentrated loads P and P9 passes through the centroid of the section
considered. This type of loading is called centric loading and will be assumed to
take place in all straight two-force members found in trusses and pin-connected
structures.
However, if a two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically, we find from the
conditions of equilibrium of the portion of member that the internal forces in a given
section must be equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid of the section and a
couple M of moment:
M =P d
The distribution of forces and, the corresponding distribution of stresses, cannot be

uniform.
Shearing Stress.
Different type of stress that is obtained when transverse forces P and P are
applied to a member AB. Passing a section at C between the points of application
of the two forces we obtain the diagram of portion AC. The internal forces must
exist in the plane of the section, and that their resultant is equal to P. These
elementary internal forces are called shearing forces, and the magnitude P of their
resultant is the shear in the section. Dividing the shear P by the area A of the cross
section, we obtain the average shearing stress in the section. Denoting with the
symbol (Tau) where the formula is:
This formula is for a single shear.
ave =
P F
=
A A
The value obtained is an average value of the shearing stress over the entire
section and it cannot be assumed as uniform. Shearing stresses are commonly
found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect various structural members and
machine components.
When we have a double shear, P = F/2 concluding that the formula for a double
shear should be:
ave =
P F /2 F
=
=
A
A
2A
Bearing stress in connections.

Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members they connect, along the
bearing surface, or surface of contact. The bolt exerts on plate A a force P equal
and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt, the force P represents
the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the inside surface of a halfcylinder of diameter d and of length t equal to the thickness of the plate. And the
formula for a Bearing stress is:
b=
P
P
=
A td
Method of problem solution.

Once the problem has been clearly stated, your solution must be based on the
fundamental principles of statics. Every step you take must be justified on that
basis.
The statement of the problem should be clear and precise. It should contain the
given data and indicate what information is required. The solution of most of the
problems you will encounter will necessitate that you first determine the reactions
at supports and internal forces and couples, drawing of one or several free-body
diagrams from which you will write equilibrium equations.
Numerical accuracy.
The accuracy of the solution of a problem depends upon two items: (1) the
accuracy of the given data and (2) the accuracy of the computations performed.
Stress on an oblique plane under axial loading.
In the preceding sections, axial forces exerted on a two-force member were found
to cause normal stresses in that member, while transverse forces exerted on bolts
and pins were found to cause shearing stresses in those connections. The reason
such a relation was observed between axial forces and normal stresses on one
hand, and transverse forces and shearing stresses on the other, was because
stresses were being determined only on planes perpendicular to the axis of the
member or connection. Axial forces cause both normal and shearing stresses on
planes which are not perpendicular to the axis of the member. Similarly, transverse
forces exerted on a bolt or a pin cause both normal and shearing stresses on
planes which are not perpendicular to the axis of the bolt or pin.
If you put a transverse cut, with a certain angle, we can divide into two different
parts were:
F=Pcos
And
V =Psin
The force F represents the resultant of normal forces distributed over the section,
and the force V the resultant of shearing forces. The average values of the
corresponding normal and shearing stresses are obtained by dividing, respectively,
F and V by the area A of the section:
A 0= A cos A =
F
A
V
A
A0
co s
Where A0 denotes the area of a section perpendicular to the axis of the member,
we obtain
=
Pcos
A 0 /cos
P
sincos
A0
Normal stress is maximum when = 0, when the plane of the section is

perpendicular to the axis of the member, and that it approaches zero as
approaches 90. We check that the value of when = 0 is:
m=
P
A0
The shearing stress is zero for = 0 and = 90 and that for = 45 it reaches
its maximum value:
m=
P
P
sin 45 cos 45 =
A0
2 A0
When = 45, the normal stress is also equal to P/2A 0:

'
P
P
2
cos 45 =
A0
2 A0
Stress under general loading conditions; components of stress.

Most structural members and machine components are under more involved
loading conditions. Consider a body subjected to several loads P1, P2, etc. To
understand the stress condition created by these loads at some point Q within the
body, we shall first pass a section through Q, using a plane parallel to the yz plane.
We shall denote by Fx and Vx, respectively, the normal and the shearing forces
acting on a small area A surrounding point Q. Note that the superscript x is used
to indicate that the forces Fx and Vx act on a surface perpendicular to the x axis.
While the normal force Fx has a well-defined direction, the shearing force Vx may
have any direction in the plane of the section. We therefore resolve Vx into two
component forces, Vxy and Vxz, in directions parallel to the y and z axes.
Dividing now the magnitude of each force by the area A, and letting A approach
zero, we define the three stress components:
x
x = lim
F
A
xy = lim
V y
A
A 0
A 0
V xz
xz = lim
A 0 A
We note that the first subscript in x, xy, and xz is used to indicate that the
stresses under consideration are exerted on a surface perpendicular to the x axis.
The second subscript in xy and xz identifies the direction of the component. The
normal stress x is positive if the corresponding arrow points in the positive x
direction.
Only six stress components are required to define the condition of stress at a given
point Q, x, y, z, xy, yz, and zx.
Design considerations.
The largest force which may be applied to the specimen is 31 reached, and the
specimen either breaks or begins to carry less load. This largest force is called the
ultimate load for the test specimen and is denoted by P U. Since the applied load is
centric, we may divide the ultimate load by the original cross-sectional area of the
rod to obtain the ultimate normal stress of the material used. This stress, also
known as the ultimate strength in tension of the material, is
U =
PU
A
If the free end of the specimen rests on both of the hardened dies the ultimate load
for double shear is obtained. In either case, the ultimate shearing stress U is
obtained by dividing the ultimate load by the total area over which shear has taken
place.
Factor of Safety
The maximum load that a structural member or a machine component will be
allowed to carry under normal conditions of utilization is considerably smaller than
the ultimate load. This smaller load is referred to as the allowable load and,
sometimes, as the working load or design load. The remaining portion of the loadcarrying capacity of the member is kept in reserve to assure its safe performance.
The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load is used to define the factor of
safety:
Factor of Safety=F . S .=
all =
U
F.S.
A req =
all =
ultimate load
ultimate stress
=
allowable load allowable stress
P
all
U
F.S.
Selection of an appropriate factor of safety

1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member under
consideration.
2. The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of the structure
or machine.
3. The type of loadings that are planned for in the design, or that may occur in
the future.
4. The type of failure that may occur.
5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis.
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or
because of unpreventable natural causes.
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure.

Stress

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Stress.

A uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of action of the

The distribution of forces and, the corresponding distribution of stresses, cannot be

Bearing stress in connections.

Method of problem solution.

Normal stress is maximum when = 0, when the plane of the section is

When = 45, the normal stress is also equal to P/2A 0:

Stress under general loading conditions; components of stress.

Selection of an appropriate factor of safety

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