96

Appendix
I: Formulas and Definitions

Formulas & Definitions

Algebra
Exponents
Quadratic Formula
Binomial Theorem
Difference of Squares
Zero, Rules of
Probability

97

Appendix
II: The Elusive Formulas - Part 1

Geometry
Triangle
Pythagorean Theorem
Herons Formula
Angles

Geometry

98

Geometry
Slope Formula
Distance Formula
Parabola

99

Trigonometry
Law of Cosines
Law of Sines

100

Trigonometry
Complex Numbers
Area of Triangle
Conics
General Form
Standard Form

101

Measurement

Measurement
Distance
Area
Weight
Electricity
Probability
Multiplication Principle
Permutations

102

Definitions

Permutations of Objects not all Different

Combinations
Arrangements with replacement
Probability, Fundamental rule of
Independent Events
Dependent Events
Mutually Exclusive Events
Complimentary Events
Expected Value
Binomial Probability

http://www.math.com/tables/

103

Appendix
III: The Elusive Formulas - Part 2
The Elusive Formulas2
Section A Symbol Table



, +

, iff

for all
there exists
the empty set
is an element of
is not an element of
the set of natural numbers
the set of integers
the set of rational numbers
the set of real numbers
the set of complex numbers
is a subset of
or
and
union
intersection
implies
is equivalent to

a1+a2+a3+a4+a5+...+an

i 1
n

a
i 1

(a,b) = d
[a,b] = d

a1a2a3a4a5an

2nd Edition: finalized August 1, 2001

Original Edition: finalized May 23, 2001
W(a)
V(a)
M(a)
P(a)
|a|
a
a
a:b:c
a:b:c::d:e:f

e
log b  a  c

number of factors of a
sum of the factors of a
Euler Phi Function
Mobius Function
absolute value of a
greatest integer function
least integer function
ratio of a to b to c
ratio of a to b to c=ratio of d to e to f
pi 3.141592653589793
euler number 2.718281828459
bc = a

log  a  c

10c = a

n!
nPr

n(n1)(n2)(n3)(n4)321
n!
r! = n(n1)(n2)(nr+1)

nCr

n
or
r

n!
r!(n  r)!

n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r+1)

n(n  1)(n  2)...(2)(1)

a { b  mod c  a and b leave the same remainder

when divided by c.

d is the gcd of a and b

d is the lcm of a and b

Section A Algebra

The Elusive Formulas pages are used with permission from: www.nysml.org/Files/formulas.pdf

104

Section B Algebra
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

(a b)3 = a3 b3 iff a = 0 or b = 0 or (ab) = 0

a3 b3 = (a b)(a2 # ab + b2)
a3 + b3 + c3 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca)
a4 + b4 + c4 2a2b2 2b2c2 2c2a2 = -16s(s a)(s b)(s c) when 2s = a+b+c
an + bn = (a + b)(an1 + bn1) ab(an2 + bn2)
an bn = (a b)(an1 # an2b + an3b2 # an4b3 + + a2bn3 # abn2 + bn1) [ an + bn is only true for odd n.]
(a b)n = nC0an nC1an1b + nC2an2b2 nC3an3b3 + nC4an4b4 nCn-2a2bn2 + nCn-1abn1 + nCnbn
a(a+1)(a+2)(a+3) = (a2+3a+1)2 1
Arithmetic Series: If a1, a2, a3, ..., an are in arithmetic series with common difference d:
nth term in terms of mth term
an = am + (n m)d
n
n  a1  a n  n  2a1  (n  1)d 
ai
Sum of an arithmetic series up to term n

2
2
i 1
Geometric Series: If a1, a2, a3, ..., an are in geometric series with common ratio r:
th
a n a1r n 1
n term of a geometric series

ai
i 1

Sum of an infinite geometric series

n

i
i 1

n(n  1)
2

i2
i 1

n(n  1)(2n  1)
6

a1 (1  r n )
1 r

Sum of a non-constant (r 1) geometric

series up to term n

i 1

i 1

n (n  1)
4

a1
iff |r| < 1
1 r
4

n  n  1  6n 3  9n 2  n  1

i 1

30

If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn1 + an-2xn2 + an-3xn3 + ... + a1x + a0 = 0, ai is a constant, then

-a
Sum of roots taken one at a time
ri = n 1

(the sum of the roots)

an
a
ri rj = n  2
Sum of roots taken two at a time

an
iz j

Sum of roots taken p at a time

i z jz...z k

ri rj ...rk = (-1) p

a n p
an

Rational Root Theorem

If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + an-3xn-3 + ... + a1x + a0 is a polynomial with integer coefficients and
b is a rational root of the equation P(x) = 0 (where (b, c) =1), then b | a and c | a .
0
n
c

x
x

If P(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients and P(a + bi) = 0, then P(a bi) = 0.
If P(x) is a polynomial with rational coefficients and P(a + b c ) = 0, then P(a b c ) = 0.

Section B - Algebra
Algebra Arithmetic Series; Geometric Series; Rational Root Theorem

Section B - Algebra
Used with permission from:

NYSME(New York State Math League)

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

105

Section C Number Theory

x

Number Theory mainly concerns and , all variables exist in unless stated otherwise
Divisibility: a,b , a0: a | b k such that ak = b
1|a, a|0, a|(a)
a|b a|bc
a|b b|c a|c
a|1 a=1
a|b a|c a|(bc)
a|bc (a,b) =1 a|c
a|b b|a a=b
a|b c|d ab|cd
a|c b|c (a,b)=1 ab|c
Modulo Congruence: a,b,m , m0: a b (mod m) m | (a-b)
Suppose that a{b (mod m), c{d (mod m), and p is prime; then:
ag { cg (mod m)
ab { cd (mod m)
(g,p)=1 gp-1 { 1 (mod p)
ag { cg (mod m)
ab { cd (mod m)
(p-1)! { -1 (mod p)
M(m)
(g,m)=1 g
{ 1 (mod m)
hf{hg (mod m) (m,h)=1 f{g (mod m)

x
x
x
x

Fibonacci Sequence
Sequence of integers beginning with two 1s and each subsequent term is the sum of the previous 2 terms.
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144, ...
F(1)=F(2)=1, for n3, F(n)=F(n-1)+F(n-2)


Let \ = Golden Ratio =

 , then F(n) = \

5 1

  -\ 

-n

2
F(n)F(n+3) F(n+1)F(n+2) = (-1)n

x
x

Farey Series [Fn]

Ascending sequence of irreducible fractions between 0 and 1 inclusive whose denominator is n
F3 = 10 , 13 , 12 , 23 , 11 ; F7 = 10 , 71 , 16 , 15 , 14 , 72 , 13 , 52 , 73 , 12 , 74 , 53 , 32 , 75 , 34 , 54 , 65 , 76 , 11

if

a
b

, dc , and

e
f

are successive terms in Fn, then bcad = decf = 1 and

c
d

a e
bf

Number Theory Functions

The following number theory functions have the property that if (a,b)=1, then f(ab)=f(a)f(b)
Tau Function: Number of factors of n:

W(n) =

1  D 
i

i 1

1D
m
Di
pi i  1
j
p
=

i 1 j 0
i 1 pi  1

Euler Phi Function: Number of integers between 0 and n that are relatively prime to n
m
m

1
D
D 1
M(n) = pi i  pi i
= n 1 
pi
i 1
i 1

Sigma Function: Sum of factors of n:

V(n) =

Mobius Function:

if n is divisible by any square t 1

0

otherwise:

P(n) =

if n is has an even number of prime factors

1
1
if n is has an odd number of prime factors

Section C - Number Theory

Divisibility; Modulo Congruence: Fibonacci Sequence; Farey Series; Number Theory Functions

Section C - Number Theory

Used with permission from:

www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

106

Divisibility Rules
f

a n  , 0 a < n

Given integer k expressed in base n 2, k = a 0  a1n  a 2 n 2  a 3n 3  ... =

Note: a m a m 1...a 0

Basic/Specific

Divisor (d)
3, 9

i 0

  a n  , secondary subscript omission implies base10: a

n

i 0

m a m 1 ...a 0

Criterion
If a 0  a1  a 2  a 3  a 4  ... is divisible by 3 or 9

10 a 
i

i 0

If a 0  a1  a 2  a 3  a 4  ... is divisible by 11

11
7, 13

If a 2 a1a 0  a 5a 4 a 3  a 8a 7 a 6  a11a10 a 9  ... is divisible by 7 or 13

2m, 5m

If a m 1a m  2 a m 3 ...a 0 is divisible by 2m or 5m

Truncate rightmost digit and subtract twice the value of said digit from the remaining
integer. Repeat this process until divisibility test becomes trivial.

7
d | nm


If  a
If  a

If a m 1a m  2 a m 3a m  4 ...a 0

is divisible by d

General

factor of
 a 2m 1a 2m  2 ...a m 1a m  a 3m 1a 3m  2 ...a 2m 1a 2m  ... is divisible
m 1a m  2 ...a 1a 0
n
n
n
nm 1
factor of
 a 2m 1a 2m  2 ...a m 1a m  a 3m 1a 3m  2 ...a 2m 1a 2m  ... is divisible
m 1a m  2 ...a1a 0
n
n
n
nm + 1
d = xy,
( x | k and y | k ) d | k
(x,y)=1
Truncate rightmost digit and add # k times the value of said digit from the remaining
d | kn1
integer. Repeat this process until divisibility test becomes trivial.

Section D Logarithms

For b an integer ! 1 ,
log b  a  c b c a

log b  b  1

log  a c  c log  a 

log a  b  log b  c  log a  c 

log a  b 

log b 1 0
log  abc  log  a   log  b   log  c 

log a  b  log b  a  1

Section E Analytic Geometry

Distance between line ax + by + c = 0 and

point (x0, y0) in 2D plane:
| x 0a  y0 b  c |

log  b 

log  a 

Distance between the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0

and point (x0, y0, z0) in 3D space:
| x 0a  y0 b  z 0 c  d |

a 2  b2

a 2  b2  c2

Section F Inequalities
x
x
x

+: the set of all positive real numbers; : the set of all negative real numbers
a2 + b2 2ab;
a2 + b2 + c2 ab + bc + ca; 3(a2 + b2 + c2 + d2) 2(ab + bc + cd + da + ac + bd)
The quadratic-arithmetic-geometric-harmonic mean inequality: for ai > 0
n
1

 ...  a1n

a1
a2
a3
Section C - Number
Theory
Divisibility Rules
iff
a
=
a
1
2=
Section D - Logarithms
Section E - Analytic Geometry

d n a1a 2 a 3 ...a n d

a3 = a4 = = an.

a1  a 2  a 3  ...  a n
a  a 2  a 3  ...  a n
d 1
, with equalities holding
n
n
1

k>1 and large x: 1 < k x < x x < log(x) < x k < x < x log(x) < xk < xlog(x) < kx < x! < xx
x IfDconstant
Section
- Logarithms
Section E - Analytic Geometry Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.
Used with permission from: www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

107

x
x

nd

(a1 +a22)(b12+b22)

Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality- For 2 degree: (a1b1+a2b2)

with equality holding iff
a1:a2::b1:b2. In general, for any 2 sequences of real numbers, ai and bi, each of length n:
(a1b1+a2b2+a3b3++anbn)2 (a12+a22+a32++an2)(b12+b22+b32++bn2) with equality holding iff
a1:a2:a3: :an::b1:b2:b3: :bn.
Chebyshevs Inequality- If 0a1a2a3 an, 0b1b2b3 bn, then:
(a1+a2+a3++an) (b1+b2+b3++bn) n(a1b1+a2b2+a3b3++anbn)
a  a  ...  a n
Jensens Inequality- For a convex function f(x): f(a1)+f(a2)+f(a3)++f(an) n f 1 2
. More
n

generally, if b1+b2++bn=1 and bi>0, then: b1f(a1)+b2f(a2)+b3f(a3)++bnf(an) f(b1a1+b2a2+b3a3++an)

Section G Number Systems

x
x

= natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

Algebraic numbers: numbers that can be solutions to polynomial equations with integer coefficients:

23 , 5 23  7 5 , ...
Transcendental numbers: numbers that cannot be solutions to polynomials: e, , ...
o is the ratio of the length of the circumference to the length of the diameter of a circle
5

o e = lim 1  1x 
x of

if we define the square root of 1 to be i, then:

o = complex numbers = a+bi, where a,bR
Complex Numbers in
Rectangular & Polar

e = cos + i sin = cis

(a+bi)n = (r cis )n = rn cis(n)

a2 + b2 = r2;
tan = b a ;
a = r cos ;
b = r sin
Z = a + bi = r cis
(polar form of a complex number)
The magnitude of Z, represented by
|a+bi| = a 2  b 2
cis (+) = cis cis
T
cis (-) = cis
cis J

Section F - Inequalities
Section G - Number Systems

Section F - Inequalities
Section G - Number Systems
Used with permission from:

www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

2,

108

Section H Euclidean Geometry I (The Triangle)

Stewarts Theorem

Angle Bisector

man + dad = bmb +cnc

bm = cn;

d = bc - mn

Cevas Theorem

Centroid (medians)

AFBDCE AE BFCD
VD VE VF


1
AD BE CF

AM BM CM
2
MD ME MF
KAFM = KFBM = KBDM = KDCM
= KCEM = KEAM = 16 KABC
Nagel Point

Circumcenter (bisectors)

Menelaus Theorem

ADBE CF DBECFA

Orthocenter (altitudes)

AFC ~ AEB ~ OEC ~ OFB

BDA ~ BFC ~ OFA ~ ODC
CEB ~ CDA ~ ODB ~ OEA
Golden Triangle

a
b
c
= 2R
sin A sin B sin C
Extended Law of Sines

Joins semi-perimeter points

to vertices

The 4-5-6 Triangle

The 13-14-15 Triangle

ABC ~ DAB; = 36 = /5
CD BC  CD
5 1
2
BC
CD
The 8-8-11 Triangle

K = 84; R = 658 ; r = 4

Trisectors of the largest angle

has length 6

A = 2B;

K=

15 7
4

Section H - Euclidean G. I (Triangle)

Stewarts Theorem; Angle Bisector; Menelaus Theorem; Cevas Theorem; Orthocenter; Circumcenter Nagel Point Golden Triangle

Section H - Euclidean G. I (Triangle)

Used with permission from:

www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

109

A Triangle and Its Circles

ABC has sides a, b and c and angles A, B, and C.

The radius of the inscribed circle is r.
The radius of the circumscribed circle is R.
The area of the triangle is K.
The semi-perimeter of the triangle is s.
The altitude to sides a, b, c are ha, hb, hc
respectively.
The angle bisectors to angles A, B, C are ta, tb, tc
respectively.
The medians to side a, b, c are ma, mb, mc
respectively.
'))& '))&
The circles tangent to each line AB , BC ,
'))&
CA and directly next to sides a, b, c are called excircles Ia, Ib, Ic respectively.
The radii to ex-circles Ia, Ib, Ic are ra , rb , rc
respectively.
The distance from I to circumcenter is d.

Area Formulas of the Triangle

c hc
ab sin C
abc
c 2 sin A sin B
K=
K=
K=
K= s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)
K=rs
K=
2
4R
2
2sin C
For planar triangle with vertices P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), P3(x3 y3)
Coordinates of the centroid are
x1 y1 1
1

x1  x 2  x 3 y1  y 2  y3
K
x 2 y 2 1
,

2
3
3

x 3 y3 1
Basic Edge Inequalities
Basic Angle Identities
Law of Cosines
Law of Tangents

ra rb  rb rc  rc ra = s
c sin A2 sin B2
r=
cos C2
sin C2

tc =

 s  a  s  b 
ab
2 a bs  s  c 
ab

a+b>c, b+c>a, c+a>b

A+B+C = 180, {a,b,c} (0,)
a2 + b2 = c2 + 2ab cos C
tan(A)tan(B)tan(C) = tan(A)+tan(B)+tan(C)

Assorted Identities
4mc2 = 2a2 + 2b2 + c2
D = R 2Rr
2

K
sc

rc
tan C2
tc =

r
sc

2ab cos C2
ab

Area Formulas of the Triangle; Triangle Assorted Identities; Triangle & its Circles

Used with permission from:

www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

r2 =

(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)
s

ra  rb  rc r = 4R
1 1 1 1
 
r ra rb rc

 s  a  s  b 
s s  c

cos C2

3 ma  mb  mc
d
d1
4
abc

ab
ab

tan C2

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

s s  c
ab

tan  A 2 B 

tan  A 2 B 

110

Section I Euclidean Geometry II (The Quadrilateral)

General Quadrilateral Diagonals

General Quadrilateral Midpoints

E and F are midpoints of AC and BD

KGAB KGCD = KGBC KGDA
K = 12 ACBDsin AGB
2

AB  BC  CD  DA

AC  BD  4EF

If
2

Circumscribed Quadrilateral

AH
HD

DG CF BE
=n
GC FB EA
K
n2 1
Then: EFGH
K ABCD (n  1) 2
Cyclic Quadrilateral

A + C = B + D = 180

AB  CD BC  AD = s; KABCD = rs
If QuadABCD is also cyclic, then
K=

ABCDBCAD
Parallelogram

1 1

a b

 s  ABs  BC s  CD s  DA 
BCAD  ABCD

AC BCCD  DAAB

BDAC

BD ABBC  CDDA

Rectangle

2(BC  BA ) BD  AC
Three Pole Problem

if a || b || c, then

KABCD =

1
c

For all point P: PA  PC PB  PD

Quadrilateral with Diagonals

AC A BD K = 12 ACBD
2

AB  CD

BC  DA

Section I - Euclidean G. II (Quadril.)

Ptolemys
Theorem:
General Quadrilateral Diagonals; General Quadrilateral Midpoints; Circumscribed
Quadrilateral;
Cyclic Quadrilateral; Parallelogram; Rectangle

Section I - In
Euclidean
G. ,IIBD
(Quadrilateral)
any QuadABCD
AC d BC AD  AB CD , with equality holding iff QuadABCD is cyclic.
Used with permission from: www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf
Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

111

Section J Euclidean Geometry III (The Circle)

Circles

AEC BED

1
2

Circles 2

 BD

 AC


Power of the point: AE BE

AB AG ; DAF

CE DE

AB

1
2

 CE

 DF


AD AC AF AE

Section K Trigonometry

sin = c ; cos = a ; tan = c

a
b
b
15
18
30

sin

6 2
4

cos

6 2
4

tan

2 3

5 1
4

25 5
4
5 1 2

sin = AB ; cos = OA ; tan = BC

36

25 5
4

5 1
4

25 5

3
2 5 5
5 1
Pythagorean
Odd-Even Functions
sin2 + cos2 = 1
sin(-) = -sin()
2
2
1 + tan = sec
cos(-) = cos()
1 + cot2 = csc2

45

2
2

tan(-) = -tan()

Multiple
Angles

tan 3 T  3 tan T
tan 3 =
3 tan 2 T  1

Pythagorean: Odd-Even Functions; Summation of Angles, Multiple Angles

www.nysml.org/Files/Formulas.pdf

5 1
4

25 5
4

75

6 2
4

6 2
4

5 1 2

sin 4 = 4sincos(cos3sin)
cos 4 = sin4 + cos4 6cos2sin2
4 tan T 1  tan 2 T 
tan 4 =
tan 4 T  6 tan 2 T  1

Section J - Euclidean G. III (Circle)

Section K - Trigonometry
Used with permission from:

60

3
2 3
2 5 5
Summation of Angles
sin ( r ) = sin()cos() cos()sin()
cos ( r ) = cos()cos() # sin()sin()
tan  T  r tan  J 
tan ( r ) =
1 # tan  T  tan  J 

sin 3 = 3sin 4sin3

cos 3 = 4cos3 3cos

sin 2 = 2 sin cos

cos 2 = cos sin
2 tan T
tan 2 =
Section J - Euclidean G. III (Circle)
1  tan 2 T
Section K - Trigonometry

54

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

112

Sum to Product
Tr J
T# J
sin sin = 2sin
cos

2
2
T J
TJ
cos + cos = 2 cos
cos

2
2
T J TJ
cos cos = 2sin
sin

2 2
sin  T r J 
tan tan =
cos T cos J
Square Identities

sin2 = 12 (1-cos2)
cos2 = 12 (1+cos2)
tan2 =

1  cos 2T
1  cos 2T

Product to Sum

sin sin = 12 [cos() cos(+)]

cos cos = 12 [cos() + cos(+)]
sin cos = 12 [sin() + sin(+)]
tan tan =

Cube Identities
3sin T  sin 3T
sin3 =
4

cos  T  J   cos  T  J 
cos  T  J   cos  T  J 

Angle Identities
1  cos T
sin T 2 r
2

cos3 =

3cos T  cos 3T
4

cos T 2

1  cos T
2

tan3 =

3sin T  sin 3T
3cos T  cos 3T

tan T 2

1  cos T
1  cos T

tan (/2) Identities

2 tan T2
sin =
1  tan 2 T2

cos =

Authors:

Ming Jack Po (Johns Hopkins University)

Kevin Zheng (Carnegie Mellon University)

Proof Readers:

Jan Siwanowicz (City College of New York)

Jeff Amlin (Harvard University)
Kamaldeep Gandhi (Brooklyn Polytechnic University)
Joel Lewis (Harvard University)
Seth Kleinerman (Harvard University)

Programs Used:

Math Type 4, 5
CadKey 5
Geometers Sketchpad 3, 4
Microsoft Word XP
Mathematica 4.1

References:

IMSA Noah Sheets

Bronx Science High School Formula Sheets, Math Bulletin

Trigonometry
Sum to Product; Product to Sum; Square Identities; Cube Identities;

Used with permission from

www.nysml.org/

Copyright (c) 2002 Ming Jack Po & Kevin Zheng.

1  tan 2
1  tan 2

T
2
T
2