MBA - I Semester

Paper Code: MBAC 1002

Managerial Economics

Objectives
To introduce the economic concepts
To familiarize with the students the importance of economic
approaches in managerial decision making To understand the
applications of economic theories in business decisions
Unit I

General Foundations of Managerial Economics - Economic Approach
- Circular Flow of Activity - Nature of the Firm - Objectives of Firms Demand Analysis and Estimation - Individual, Market and Firm demand Determinants of demand - Elasticity measures and Business Decision Making
- Demand Forecasting.
Unit-II

Law of Variable Proportions - Theory of the Firm - Production
Functions in the Short and Long Run - Cost Functions Determinants of
Costs Cost Forecasting - Short Run and Long Run Costs Type of Costs Analysis of Risk and Uncertainty.
Unit-III

Product Markets -Determination Under Different Markets - Market
Structure Perfect Competition Monopoly Monopolistic Competition
Duopoly - Oligopoly - Pricing and Employment of Inputs Under Different
Market Structures Price Discrimination - Degrees of Price Discrimination.
Unit-IV

Introduction to National Income National Income Concepts - Models
of National Income Determination - Economic Indicators - Technology and
Employment - Issues and Challenges Business Cycles Phases Management
of Cyclical Fluctuations - Fiscal and Monetary Policies.
Unit V

Macro Economic Environment - Economic Transition in India - A
quick Review - Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization - Business
and Government - Public-Private Participation (PPP) - Industrial Finance Foreign Direct Investment(FDIs).

References
1. Yogesh Maheswari,
Managerial Economics, Phi Learning,
Newdelhi, 2005 Gupta G.S.,
2. Managerial Economics, Tata Mcgraw-Hill, New Delhi Moyer
&Harris,
3. Anagerial Economics, Cengage Learning, Newdelhi, 2005 Geetika,
Ghosh & Choudhury, ,
4. Managerial Economics, Tata Mcgrawhill, Newdelhi, 2011

*****

UNIT I
Lesson I The Fundamentals Of Managerial Economics

Reading Objective:

At the end of the reading this chapter, the reader will be able to
understand that economics is the study of mankinds attempt to satisfy
their unlimited wants with the help of limited resources. Economics maybe
divided in to 1) Micro Economics and 2) Macro Economics 3) Monitory
Economics and 4) Fiscal Economics. Micro economics deals with the basic
principles of economics like law of demand, law of supply, consumption,
production etc,. Managerial economics deals with the principles of micro
economics as applied to managerial decision making. The reader may also
be able understand the circle flow of economic activity. The circle flow is a
chain in which production creates income, income leads to spending and
spending in turn leads to production activity.
Lesson Outline:

Why study Economics?

Managerial Economics
Nature of Managerial Economics
Circular flow of economic activity
Objectives of the firm
Review questions

Introduction

People have limited number of needs which must be satisfied if
they are to survive as human beings. Some are material needs, some are
psychological needs and some others are emotional needs. Peoples needs
are limited; however, no one would choose to live at the level of basic
human needs if they want to enjoy a better standard of living. This is
because human wants (desire for the consumption of goods and services)
are unlimited. It doesnt matter whether a person belongs to the middle
class in India or is the richest individual in the World, he or she wants
always something more. For example bigger a house, more friends, more
salary etc., Therefore the basic economic problem is that the resources are
limited but wants are unlimited which forces us to make choices.

Economics is the study of this allocation of resources, the choices
that are made by economic agents. An economy is a system which
attempts to solve this basic economic problem. There are different types
of economies; household economy, local economy, national economy and
international economy but all economies face the same problem. The
major economic problems are (i) what to produce? (ii) How to produce?
(iii) When to produce and (iv) For whom to produce?

Economics is the study of how individuals and societies choose
to use the scarce resources that nature and the previous generation have
provided. The worlds resources are limited and scarce. The resources
which are not scarce are called free goods. Resources which are scarce are
called economic goods.
Why Study Economics?

A good grasp of economics is vital for managerial decision making,
for designing and understanding public policy, and to appreciate how an
economy functions. The students need to know how economics can help
us to understand what goes on in the world and how it can be used as a
practical tool for decision making. Managers and CEOs of large corporate
bodies, managers of small companies, nonprofit organizations, service
centers etc., cannot succeed in business without a clear understanding of
how market forces create both opportunities and constraints for business
enterprises.

Reasons For Studying Economics:

It is a study of society and as such is extremely important.
It trains the mind and enables one to think systematically about
the problems of business and wealth.
From a study of the subject it is possible to predict economic
trends with some precision.
It helps one to choose from various economic alternatives.

Economics is the science of making decisions in the presence of
scarce resources. Resources are simply anything used to produce a good
or service to achieve a goal. Economic decisions involve the allocation
of scarce resources so as to best meet the managerial goal. The nature of
managerial decision varies depending on the goals of the manager.
A Manager is a person who directs resources to achieve a stated
goal and he/she has the responsibility for his/her own actions as well as for
the actions of individuals, machines and other inputs under the managers
control.

Managerial economics is the study of how scarce resources are
directed most efficiently to achieve managerial goals. It is a valuable tool
for analyzing business situations to take better decisions.

Prof. Evan J Douglas defines Managerial Economics as Managerial
Economics is concerned with the application of economic principles
and methodologies to the decision making process within the firm or
organization under the conditions of uncertainty


According to Milton H Spencer and Louis Siegelman Managerial
Economics is the integration of economic theory with business practices
for the purpose of facilitating decision making and forward planning by
management

According to Mc Nair and Miriam, Managerial Economics consists
of the use of economic modes of thoughts to analyze business situations.

Economics can be divided into two broad categories: micro
economics and macro economics. Macro economics is the study of the

economic system as a whole. It is related to issues such as determination

of national income, savings, investment, employment at aggregate levels,
tax collection, government expenditure, foreign trade, money supply etc.,
Micro economics focuses on the behavior of the individuals, firms and
their interaction in markets. Managerial economics is an application of the
principles of micro and macro economics in managerial decision making.

The economic way of thinking about business decision making
provides all managers with a powerful set of tools and insights for
furthering the goals of their organization. Successful managers take
good decisions, and one of their most useful tools is the methodology of
managerial economics.
Nature Of Managerial Economics:
1. Managerial economics is concerned with the analysis of finding
optimal solutions to decision making problems of businesses/
firms (micro economic in nature).
2. Managerial economics is a practical subject therefore it is
pragmatic.
3. Managerial economics describes, what is the observed economic
phenomenon (positive economics) and prescribes what ought to
be (normative economics)
4. Managerial economics is based on strong economic concepts.
(conceptual in nature)
5. Managerial economics analyses the problems of the firms in the
perspective of the economy as a whole ( macro in nature)
6. It helps to find optimal solution to the business problems (problem
solving)
Managerial Economics And Other Disciplines

Managerial economics has its relationship with other disciplines
for propounding its theories and concepts for managerial decision making.
Essentially it is a branch of economics. Managerial economics is closely
related to certain subjects like statistics, mathematics, accounting and
operations research.

Managerial economics helps in estimating the product demand, planning of

production schedule, deciding the input combinations, estimation of cost
of production, achieving economies of scale and increasing the returns to
scale. It also includes determining price of the product, analyzing market
structure to determine the price of the product for profit maximization,
which helps them to control and plan capital in an effective manner.

Successful mangers make good decisions, and one of their most
useful tools is the methodology of managerial economics. Warren E
Buffett, the renowned chairman and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway Inc.,
invested $100 and went on to accumulate a personal net worth of $30
billion. Buffett credits his success to a basic understanding of managerial
economics. Buffetts success is a powerful testimony to the practical
usefulness of managerial economics.

Managerial economics has a very important role to play by
helping managements in successful decision making and forward
planning. To discharge his role successfully, a manager must recognize
his responsibilities and obligations. There is a growing realization that the
managers contribute significantly to the profitable growth of the firms.

We can conclude that managerial economics consists of applying
economic principles and concepts towards adjusting with various
uncertainties faced by a business firm.
Circular Flow Of Economic Activity

The individuals own or control resources which are necessary
inputs for the firms in the production process. These resources (factors of
production) are classified into four types.
Land: It includes all natural resources on the earth and below the earth.
Non renewable resources such as oil, coal etc once used will never be
replaced. It will not be available for our children. Renewable resources can
be used and replaced and is not depleted with use.
Labour: is the work force of an economy. The value of the worker is called
as human capital.

Capital: It is classified as working capital and fixed capital (not transformed

into final products)
Entrepreneurship: It refers to the individuals who organize production
and take risks.

All these resources are allocated in an effective manner to achieve the
objectives of consumers (to maximize satisfaction), workers (to maximize
wages), firms (to maximize the output and profit) and government (to
maximize the welfare of the society).

The fundamental economic activities between households and
firms are shown in the diagram. The circular flows of economic activities
are explained in a clockwise and counterclockwise flow of goods and
services. The four sectors namely households, business, government and
the rest of the world can also be considered to see the flow of economic
activities. The circular flow of activity is a chain in which production
creates income, income generates spending and spending in turn induces
production.

The major four sectors of the economy are engaged in three
economic activities of production, consumption and exchange of goods
and services. These sectors are as follows:
Households: Households fulfill their needs and wants through purchase
of goods and services from the firms. They are owners and suppliers of
factors of production and in turn they receive income in the form of rent,
wages and interest.
Firms: Firms employ the input factors to produce various goods and
services and make payments to the households.
Government: The government purchases goods and services from firms
and also factors of production from households by making payments.
Foreign sector: Households, firms and government of India purchase
goods and services (import) from abroad and make payments. On the
other hand all these sectors sell goods and services to various countries
(export) and in turn receive payments from abroad

Chart - 1
Circular Flow Of Economic Activity

The above said four agents take economic decisions to produce
goods and services and to exchange them and to consume them for satisfying
the wants of the economy as a whole. Understanding the opportunities and
constraints in the exchange is essential to take better decision in business.
This is discussed in the forthcoming chapters in detail.

The economy comprises of the interaction of households, firms,
government and other nations. Households own resources and supply
factor services like land, raw material, labour and capital to the firms
which helps them to produce goods and services. In turn, firms pay rent
for land, wages for their labour and interest against the capital invested
by the households. The earnings of the household are used to purchase
goods and services from the firms to fulfill their needs and wants, the
remaining is saved and it goes to the capital market and is converted as
investments in various businesses. The household and business firms have
to pay taxes to the government for enjoying the services provided. On the
other hand firms and households purchase goods and services (import)
from various countries of the world. Firms tend to sell their products to

the foreign customers (export) who earn income for the firm and foreign
exchange for the country. Therefore, it is clear that households supply
input factors, which flow to firms. Goods and services produced by firms
flow to households. Payment flows in the opposite direction (refer chart 1)

Nature Of The Firm

A firm is an association of individuals who have organized
themselves for the purpose of turning inputs into output. The firm
organizes the factors of production to produce goods and services to fulfill
the needs of the households. Each firm lays down its own objectives which
is fundamental to the existence of a firm.
The major objectives of the firm are:
To achieve the Organizational Goal
To maximize the Output
To maximize the Sales
To maximize the Profit of the Organization
To maximize the Customer and Stakeholders Satisfaction
To maximize Shareholders Return on Investment
To maximize the Growth of the Organization

Firms are established to earn profit, to keep the shareholders happy.
To increase their market share, they try to maximize their sales. In the
present business world firms try to produce goods and services without
harming the environment. Firms are not always able to operate at a profit.
They may be facing the operating loss also. Economists believe that firms
maximize their long run rather than their short run profit. So managers
have to make enough profit to satisfy the demands of their shareholders
and to maximize their wealth through the company.

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Review Questions
1. Distinguish between micro economics, macro economics and
managerial economics.
2. What is managerial economics? Why does study managerial economics?
3. Describe the circular flow of economic activity of India.
4. Discuss the nature of the firm.
5. List out the major objectives of the firm.
6. How does managerial economics relate with other disciplines for
propounding its theories?
7. Identify the areas of decision making where managerial economics
prescribes specific solutions to business problems.
8. Discuss the role and responsibilities of a managerial economist.

*****

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12

Lesson II Demand Analysis

Reading Objective:

At the end of reading this chapter the reader will understand
that demand analysis is an important part of economic analysis. The
manufacturers produce and supply goods to meet demand. When the
demand and supply is equal the economic conditions of the country is in
equilibrium position. This demand and supply are market forces which
gives dynamism to the economic conditions of the country. The demand
is not always static. The changes in demand or elasticity of demand gives
room for the managerial decision making like what to produce, how much
to produce, when to produce, and where to distribute the products.
Lesson Outline:

Law of demand
Determinants of demand
Types of demand
Exceptional demand curve
Elasticity of demand
Price elasticity
Income elasticity
Cross elasticity
Demand forecasting
Review questions

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Introduction:

The concepts of demand and supply are useful for explaining what
is happening in the market place. Every market transaction involves an
exchange and many exchanges are undertaken in a single day. The circular
flow of economic activity explains clearly that every day there are a number
of exchanges taking place among the four major sectors mentioned earlier.

A market is a place where we buy and sell goods and services. A
buyer demands goods and services from the market and the sellers supply
the goods in the market. In economics, demand is the quantity of goods
and services that will be bought for a given price over a period of time.
For example if 10 Lakhs laptops are purchased in India during a year at an
average price of Rs.25000/- then we can say that the annual demand for
laptops is 10 Lakhs units at the rate of 25,000/-.

This chapter describes demand and supply which is the driving
force behind a market economy. This is one of the most important
managerial factors because it assists the managers in predicting changes
in production and input prices. The manager can take better decisions
regarding the kind of product to be produced, the quantity, the cost of the
product and its selling price. Let us understand the concept of demand and
its importance in decision making.
Demand: Demand means the ability and willingness to buy a specific
quantity of a commodity at the prevailing price in a given period of time.
Therefore, demand for a commodity implies the desire to acquire it,
willingness and the ability to pay for it.
Law of demand: The quantity of a commodity demanded in a given
time period increases as its price falls, ceteris paribus. (I.e. other things
remaining constant)
Demand schedule: a table showing the quantities of a good that a
consumer is willing and able to buy at the prevailing price in a given time
period. (Table 1)

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Table 1: The Demand Schedule For Coke

Price of Coke (200 ml) In Rupees

Quantity Demanded

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

12

15

15

10

20

Demand Curve:

A curve indicating the total quantity of a product that all consumers
are willing and able to purchase at the prevailing price level, holding the
prices of related goods, income and other variables as constant.

A demand curve is a graphical representation of a demand schedule.
The price is quoted in the Y axis and the quantity demanded over time at
different price levels is quoted in X axis. Each point on the curve refers to
a specific quantity that will be demanded at a given price. If for example
the price of a 200 ml coke is Rs. 10, this curve tells us that the consumer
(the students in a class of 50) would purchase 20 units. When the price
rises to Rs. 50 there was only one student would buy it. The demand
curve, (DD) is downward sloping curve from left to right showing that
as price falls, quantity demanded rises. This inverse relationship between
price and quantity is called as the law of demand. When price changes,
there is said to be a movement along the curve from point A to B.
Graph Demand Curve

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Shifts in Demand:

Shift of the demand curve occurs when the determinants of
demand change. When tastes and preferences and incomes are altered, the
basic relationship between price and quantity demanded changes (shifts).
This shifts the entire demand curve upward (rightward) and is called as
increase in demand because more of that commodity is demanded at that
price. The downward shift (leftward) is called as decrease in demand. The
new demand curves D1D1 and D0D0 can be seen in the Graph below.
Graph Shift In Demand Curve

Therefore we understand that a shift in a demand curve may happen
due to the changes in the variables other than price. The movement along
a demand curve takes place (extension or contraction) due to price rise or
fall.

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Extension And Contraction Of Demand Curve:

When with a fall in price, more of a commodity is bought , then there
is an extension of the demand curve. When lesser quantity is demanded
with a rise in price, there is a contraction of demand.

Graph Extension And Contraction In Demand Curve

From the above graph we can understand that an increase in prices
result in the contraction of demand. If the price increases from P2 to P
then the demand for the commodity fall from OQ2 to OQ. Therefore the
demand curve DD contracts from b to a on the other hand when there is
a fall in price, it results in the extension of demand. Let us assume that the
price falls from P2 to P1 then the quantity demanded OQ2 increases to OQ1
and the demand curve extends from point b to c

Demand function is a function that describe how much of a
commodity will be purchased at the prevailing prices of that commodity
and related commodities, alternative income levels, and alternative values
of other variables affecting demand.

Price is not the only factor which determines the level of demand for
a good. Other important factor is income. The rise in income will lead to
an increase in demand for a normal commodity. A few goods are named as
inferior goods for which the demand will fall, when income rises. Another
important factor which influences the demand for a good is the price of
other goods. Other factors which affect the demand for a good apart from
the above mentioned factors are:

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Changes in Population
Changes in Fashion
Changes in Taste
Changes in Advertising

A change in demand occurs when one or more of the determinants of

demand change and it is expressed in the following equation.
Qd X = f (Px, Pr, Y, T, Ey, Ep, Adv.)
Where,
Qd X = quantity demanded of good X
P x
= the price of good X
Pr = the price of a related good
Y
= income level of the consumer
T
= taste and preference of the consumers
Ey
= expected income
Ep
= expected price
Adv = advertisement cost

The above mentioned demand function expresses the relationship
between the demand and other factors. The quantity demanded of
commodity X varies according to the price of commodity (Px), income
(Y), the price of a related commodity (Pr), taste and preference of the
consumers (T), expected income (Ey) and advertisement cost(Adv) spent
by the organization.
Determinants Of Demand:
There are various factors affecting the demand for a commodity.
They are:
1.Price of the good: The price of a commodity is an important determinant
of demand. Price and demand are inversely related. Higher the price less is
the demand and vice versa.
2.Price of related goods: The price of related goods like substitutes and
complementary goods also affect the demand. In the case of substitutes,
rise in price of one commodity lead to increase in demand for its substitute.

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In the case of complementary goods, fall in the price of one commodity

lead to rise in demand for both the goods.
3.Consumers Income: This is directly related to demand. A change in
the income of the consumer significantly influences his demand for most
commodities. If the disposable income increases, demand will be more.
4.Taste, preference, fashions and habits: These are very effective factors
affecting demand for a commodity. When there is a change in taste, habits
or preferences of the consumer, his demand will change. Fashions and
customs in society determine many of our demands.
5.Population: If the size of the population is more, demand for goods will
be more . The market demand for a commodity substantially changes
when there is change in the total population.
6.Money Circulation: More the money in circulation, higher the demand
and vice versa.
7.Value of money: The value of money determines the demand for
a commodity in the market. When there is a rise or fall in the value of
money there may be changes in the relative prices of different goods and
their demand.
8.Weather Condition: Weather is also an important factor that determines
the demand for certain goods.
9.Advertisement and Salesmanship: If the advertisement is very attractive
for a commodity, demand will be more. Similarly if the salesmanship and
publicity is effective then the demand for the commodity will be more.
10.Consumers future price expectation: If the consumers expect that there
will be a rise in prices in future, he may buy more at the present price and
so his demand increases.
11.Government policy (taxation): High taxes will increase the price and
reduce demand, while low taxes will reduce the price and extend the
demand.

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12.Credit facilities: Depending on the availability of credit facilities the

demand for commodities will change. More the facilities higher the
demand.
13.Multiplicity of uses of goods: if the commodity has multiple uses then
the demand will be more than if the commodity is used for a single
purpose.
Demand Distinctions: Types Of Demand

Demand may be defined as the quantity of goods or services desired
by an individual, backed by the ability and willingness to pay.
Types Of Demand:
1.Direct and indirect demand: (or) Producers goods and consumers
goods: demand for goods that are directly used for consumption by the
ultimate consumer is known as direct demand (example: Demand for T
shirts). On the other hand demand for goods that are used by producers
for producing goods and services. (example: Demand for cotton by a
textile mill)
2.Derived demand and autonomous demand: when a produce derives its
usage from the use of some primary product it is known as derived demand.
(example: demand for tyres derived from demand for car) Autonomous
demand is the demand for a product that can be independently used.
(example: demand for a washing machine)
3.Durable and non durable goods demand: durable goods are those that
can be used more than once, over a period of time (example: Microwave
oven) Non durable goods can be used only once (example: Band-aid)
4.Firm and industry demand: firm demand is the demand for the product
of a particular firm. (example: Dove soap) The demand for the product of
a particular industry is industry demand (example: demand for steel in
India )
5.Total market and market segment demand: a particular segment of
the markets demand is called as segment demand (example: demand for

20

laptops by engineering students) the sum total of the demand for laptops by
various segments in India is the total market demand. (example: demand
for laptops in India)
6.Short run and long run demand: short run demand refers to demand with
its immediate reaction to price changes and income fluctuations. Long run
demand is that which will ultimately exist as a result of the changes in
pricing, promotion or product improvement after market adjustment with
sufficient time.
7.Joint demand and Composite demand: when two goods are demanded in
conjunction with one another at the same time to satisfy a single want, it
is called as joint or complementary demand. (example: demand for petrol
and two wheelers) A composite demand is one in which a good is wanted
for several different uses. ( example: demand for iron rods for various
purposes)
8.Price demand, income demand and cross demand: demand for
commodities by the consumers at alternative prices are called as price
demand. Quantity demanded by the consumers at alternative levels of
income is income demand. Cross demand refers to the quantity demanded
of commodity X at a price of a related commodity Y which may be a
substitute or complementary to X.
Price Demand: The ability and willingness to buy specific quantities of a
good at the prevailing price in a given time period.
Income Demand: The ability and willingness to buy a commodity at the
available income in a given period of time.
Market Demand: The total quantity of a good or service that people are
willing and able to buy at prevailing prices in a given time period. It is the
sum of individual demands.
Cross Demand: The ability and willingness to buy a commodity or
service at the prevailing price of the related commodity i.e. substitutes or
complementary products. For example, people buy more of wheat when
the price of rice increases.

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Exceptional demand curve: The demand curve slopes from left to right
upward if despite the increase in price of the commodity, people tend to
buy more due to reasons like fear of shortages or it may be an absolutely
essential good.

The law of demand does not apply in every case and situation. The
circumstances when the law of demand becomes ineffective are known as
exceptions of the law. Some of these important exceptions are as under.

1. Giffen Goods:


Some special varieties of inferior goods are termed as Giffen goods.
Cheaper varieties millets like bajra, cheaper vegetables like potato etc come
under this category. Sir Robert Giffen of Ireland first observed that people
used to spend more of their income on inferior goods like potato and less
of their income on meat. After purchasing potato the staple food, they did
not have staple food potato surplus to buy meat. So the rise in price of
potato compelled people to buy more potato and thus raised the demand
for potato. This is against the law of demand. This is also known as Giffen
paradox.
2. Conspicuous Consumption / Veblen Effect:


This exception to the law of demand is associated with the doctrine
propounded by Thorsten Veblen. A few goods like diamonds etc are
purchased by the rich and wealthy sections of society. The prices of these
goods are so high that they are beyond the reach of the common man. The
higher the price of the diamond, the higher its prestige value. So when
price of these goods falls, the consumers think that the prestige value of
these goods comes down. So quantity demanded of these goods falls with
fall in their price. So the law of demand does not hold good here.
3. Conspicuous Necessities:

Certain things become the necessities of modern life. So we have
to purchase them despite their high price. The demand for T.V. sets,
automobiles and refrigerators etc. has not gone down in spite of the
increase in their price. These things have become the symbol of status. So
they are purchased despite their rising price.

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4. Ignorance:

A consumers ignorance is another factor that at times induces him
to purchase more of the commodity at a higher price. This is especially true,
when the consumer believes that a high-priced and branded commodity is
better in quality than a low-priced one.
5. Emergencies:

During emergencies like war, famine etc, households behave in an
abnormal way. Households accentuate scarcities and induce further price
rise by making increased purchases even at higher prices because of the
apprehension that they may not be available. . On the other hand during
depression, , fall in prices is not a sufficient condition for consumers to
demand more if they are needed.
6. Future Changes In Prices:

Households also act as speculators. When the prices are rising
households tend to purchase large quantities of the commodity out of the
apprehension that prices may still go up. When prices are expected to fall
further, they wait to buy goods in future at still lower prices. So quantity
demanded falls when prices are falling.
7. Change In Fashion:

A change in fashion and tastes affects the market for a commodity.
When a digital camera replaces a normal manual camera, no amount of
reduction in the price of the latter is sufficient to clear the stocks. Digital
cameras on the other hand, will have more customers even though its price
may be going up. The law of demand becomes ineffective.
8. Demonstration Effect:

It refers to a tendency of low income groups to imitate the
consumption pattern of high income groups. They will buy a commodity
to imitate the consumption of their neighbors even if they do not have the
purchasing power.

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9. Snob Effect:

Some buyers have a desire to own unusual or unique products to
show that they are different from others. In this situation even when the
price rises the demand for the commodity will be more.
10. Speculative Goods/ Outdated Goods/ Seasonal Goods:

Speculative goods such as shares do not follow the law of demand.
Whenever the prices rise, the traders expect the prices to rise further so
they buy more.

Goods that go out of use due to advancement in the underlying
technology are called outdated goods. The demand for such goods does
not rise even with fall in prices
11. Seasonal Goods:

Goods which are not used during the off-season (seasonal goods)
will also be subject to similar demand behaviour.
12. Goods In Short Supply:

Goods that are available in limited quantity or whose future
availability is uncertain also violate the law of demand.

Elasticity Of Demand

In economics, the term elasticity means a proportionate (percentage)

change in one variable relative to a proportionate (percentage) change in

another variable. The quantity demanded of a good is affected by changes
in the price of the good, changes in price of other goods, changes in income
and changes in other factors. Elasticity is a measure of just how much of
the quantity demanded will be affected due to a change in price or income.

Elasticity of Demand is a technical term used by economists to
describe the degree of responsiveness of the demand for a commodity
due to a fall in its price. A fall in price leads to an increase in quantity
demanded and vice versa.

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The elasticity of demand may be as follows:

Price Elasticity
Income Elasticity and
Cross Elasticity
Price Elasticity

The response of the consumers to a change in the price of a
commodity is measured by the price elasticity of the commodity demand.
The responsiveness of changes in quantity demanded due to changes
in price is referred to as price elasticity of demand. The price elasticity
of demand is measured by dividing the percentage change in quantity
demanded by the percentage change in price.
Price Elasticity

= Proportionate change in the Quantity Demanded /

Proportionate change in price

=

Percentage change in quantity demanded

---------------------------------------------
Percentage change in price

Q / Q
= --------- =
P / P

10
------
20

Q
P
P

= change in quantity demanded

= change in price
= price

= quantity demanded

0.5

For example:

Quantity demanded is 20 units at a price of Rs.500. When there is a
fall in price to Rs. 400 it results in a rise in demand to 32 units. Therefore
the change in quantity demanded is12 units resulting from the change in
price of Rs.100.
The Price Elasticity of Demand is = 500 / 20 x 12/100 = 3

25

The Determinants Of Price Elasticity Of Demand

The exact value of price elasticity for a commodity is determined
by a wide variety of factors. The two factors considered by economists are
the availability of substitutes and time. The better the substitutes for a
product, the higher the price elasticity of demand.. The longer the period
of time, the more the price elasticity of demand for that product. The price
elasticity of necessary goods will have lower elasticity than luxuries.
The elasticity of demand depends on the following factors:
1. Nature of the commodity: The demand for necessities is inelastic
because the demand does not change much with a change in price.
But the demand for luxuries is elastic in nature.
2. Extent of use: A commodity having a variety of uses has a
comparatively elastic demand.
3. Range of substitutes: The commodity which has more number of
substitutes has relatively elastic demand. A commodity with fewer
substitutes has relatively inelastic demand.
4. Income level: People with high incomes are less affected by price
changes than people with low incomes.
5. Proportion of income spent on the commodity: When a small part of
income is spent on the commodity, the price change does not affect
the demand therefore the demand is inelastic in nature.
6. Urgency of demand / postponement of purchase: The demand
for certain commodities are highly inelastic because you cannot
postpone its purchase. For example medicines for any sickness
should be purchased and consumed immediately.
7. Durability of a commodity: If the commodity is durable then it is
used it for a long period. Therefore elasticity of demand is high. Price
changes highly influences the demand for durables in the market.
8. Purchase frequency of a product/ recurrence of demand: The
demand for frequently purchased goods are highly elastic than rarely
purchased goods.
9. Time: In the short run demand will be less elastic but in the long run
the demand for commodities are more elastic.

26

The following are the possible combination of changes in Price and

Quantity demanded. The slope of each combination is depicted in the
following graphs.
1.Relatively Elastic Demand (Ed >1) a small percentage change in price
leading to a larger change in Quantity demanded.

2.Perfectly Elastic Demand (Ed = ) a small change in price will change

the quantity demanded by an infinite amount.

3.Relatively Inelastic Demand (Ed < 1) a change in price leads to a smaller

percentage change in quantity demanded.

27

4.Perfectly Inelastic Demand (Ed = 0) the quantity demanded does not

change regardless of the percentage change in price.

5.Unit Elasticity of Demand (Ed =1) the percentage change in quantity

demanded is the same as the percentage change in price that caused it.

Income Elasticity

Income elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of

quantity demanded to a change in income. It is measured by dividing the

percentage change in quantity demanded by the percentage change in
income. If the demand for a commodity increases by 20% when income
increases by 10% then the income elasticity of that commodity is said to be
positive and relatively high. If the demand for food were unchanged when
income increases, the income elasticity would be zero. A fall in demand for
a commodity when income rises results in a negative income elasticity of
demand.

28

The following are the various types of income elasticity:

Zero Income Elasticity: The increase in income of the individual does not
make any difference in the demand for that commodity. ( Ei = 0)
Negative Income Elasticity: The increase in the income of consumers
leads to less purchase of those goods. ( Ei < 0).
Unitary Income Elasticity: The change in income leads to the same
percentage of change in the demand for the good. ( Ei = 1).
Income Elasticity is Greater than 1: The change in income increases the
demand for that commodity more than the change in the income. ( Ei > 1).
Income Elasticity is Less than 1: The change in income increases the
demand for the commodity but at a lesser percentage than the change in
the Income. ( Ei < 1).

29


The positive income elasticity of demand can be classified as unity,
more than unity and less than unity. We can understand from the above
graphs that the product which is highly elastic in nature will grow faster
when the economy is expanding. The performance of firms having low
income elasticity on the other hand will be less affected by the economic
changes of the country.

With a rise in consumers income, the demand increases for superior
goods and decreases for inferior goods and vice versa. The income elasticity
of demand is positive for superior goods or normal goods and negative for
inferior goods since a person may shift from inferior to superior goods
with a rise in income.

30

Cross Elasticiy

The quantity demanded of a particular commodity varies
according to the price of other commodities. Cross elasticity measures the
responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a commodity due to changes in
the price of another commodity. For example the demand for tea increases
when the price of coffee goes up. Here the cross elasticity of demand for
tea is high. If two goods are substitutes then they will have a positive cross
elasticity of demand. In other words if two goods are complementary to
each other then negative income elasticity may arise.

The responsiveness of the quantity of one commodity demanded
to a change in the price of another good is calculated with the following
formula.

Ec

% change in demand for commodity A

------------------------------------------------% change in price of commodity B

If two commodities are unrelated goods, the increase in the price of
one good does not result in any change in the demand for the other goods.
For example the price fall in Tata salt does not make any change in the
demand for Tata Nano.
Significance Of Elasticity Of Demand:

The concept of elasticity is useful for the managers for the following
decision making activities
1. In production i.e. in deciding the quantity of goods to be produced
2. Price fixation i.e. in fixing the prices not only on the cost basis but also
on the basis of prices of related goods.
3. In distribution i.e. to decide as to where, when, and how much etc.
4. In international trade i.e. what to export, where to export
5. In foreign exchange
6. For nationalizing an industry
7. In public finance

31

Demand Forecasting

All organizations operate in an atmosphere of uncertainty but
decisions must be made today that affect the future of the organization.
There are various ways of making forecasts that rely on logical methods
of manipulating the data that have been generated by historical events.
A forecast is a prediction or estimation of a future situation, under given
conditions. Demand forecast will help the manager to take the following
decisions effectively.
The major short run decisions
are:

The major long run decisions

are:

Purchase of inputs
Maintaining of economic
level of inventory
Setting up sales targets
Distribution network
Management of working
capital
Price policy
Promotion policy

Expansion of existing capacity

Diversification of the product
mix
Growth of acquisition
Change of location of plant
Capital issues
Long run borrowings
Manpower planning

The steps to be followed:

Identification of objectives
Nature of product and market
Determinants of demand
Analysis of factors
Choice of technology
Testing the accuracy

Criteria to choose a method of forecasting are:

Accuracy
Plausibility
Durability
Flexibility
Availability

32

The following are needed for demand forecasting:

Appropriate production scheduling

Suitable purchase policy
Appropriate price policy
Setting realistic sales targets for salesmen
Forecasting financial requirements
Business planning
Financial planning
Planning man-power requirements

To select the appropriate forecasting technique, the manager/forecaster

must be able to accomplish the following:
1. Define the nature of the forecasting problem
2. Explain the nature of the data under investigation
3. Describe the capabilities and limitations of potentially useful
forecasting techniques.
4. Develop some predetermined criteria on which the selection
decision can be made.
Demand Forecasting Methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Survey of buyers intension

Delphi method
Expert opinion
Collective opinion
Nave model
Smoothing techniques

7. Time series / trend projection

8. Controlled experiments
9. Judgmental approach
Time Series / Trend Projection

The linear trend is the most commonly used method of time series
analysis. The following are various trend projections used under various
circumstances.

33

linear trend
quadratic trend
cubic trend
exponential trend
double log trend

Y =
Y =
Y =
Y =
Y =

a+bX
a + bX + cX2
a + bX + cX2 + dX3
a e b/x
a Xb

Linear Trend Equation:

Y=a+bX
Y = demand
X = time period

a,b constant values representing intercept and slope of the line. To
calculate Y for any value of X we have to solve the following equations,
(i) and (ii). We can derive the values of a and b through solving these
equations and by substituting the same in the above given linear trend
equation we can forecast demand for X time period.

Y
=
XY =

na + bX
----- (i)
2
aX + bX -----
(ii)

34

Example:
Year

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Sales

22734

24731

31489

44685

55319

91021

146234

107887

127483

97275

Estimate the sales for 2012, 2015 and fit a linear regression equation and
draw a trend line.
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
X = 55

Y
=
XY =

Equation (i) x 3
Equation (iii) (ii)

Sales (Y)
22734
24731
31489
44685
55319
91021
146234
107887
127483
97275

XY
22734
49462
94467
178740
276595
546126
1023638
863096
1147347
972750

X2
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
100

Y= 748858 XY= 5174955

X2= 385

na + bX
----- (i)
2
aX + bX -----
(ii)
748858
5174955
5242006
67051

=
=
=
=

10a + 55b
55a + 385 b
70a + 385 b
15a

----- (i)
----- (ii)
----- (iii)

4470.07 = a
Substitute value of a in equation (i)
748858 =
44700 + 55 b
55b =
748858 44700
b

12802.8

35

Y
Y

=
=

a+bX
4470.07 + 12802.8 X

Sales for 2012

= 4470.07 + 12802.8 (11)

145300.87

Sales for 2015

= 4470.07 + 12802.8 (14)

183709.27

Techniques that should be used when forecasting stationary series
(the demand patterns influencing the series are relatively stable) include
nave method, simple average method, moving average, and autoregressive
moving average (ARMA) and Box-Jenkins method.

When forecasting trend series then, moving averages, simple
regression, growth curves, exponential models and autoregressive
integrated moving average (ARIMA) models and Box-Jenkins methods
can be used.
For seasonal series census X-12, winters exponential smoothing,
multiple regression and ARIMA models can be used.

When forecasting cyclical series econometric models, economic
indicators, multiple regression and ARIMA models can be used.

The major forecasting techniques are: nave, simple average, moving
averages, exponential smoothing, linear exponential smoothing, quadratic
exponential smoothing, seasonal exponential smoothing, adaptive
filtering, simple regression, multiple regression, classical decomposition,

36

exponential trend models, S-curve fitting, Compertz models, growth

curves, census X-12, Box-Jenkins, leading indicators, econometric models
and time series multiple regression may be used.

The causal forecasting models (simple, multiple regression
analysis) will be useful to decide the production, personnel hiring, and
facility planning in the short run. In Time series forecasting models like
decomposition is suitable to decide the new plant, equipment planning.
Moving average and exponential smoothing is used for operations such as
inventory, scheduling and pricing decisions. The autoregressive models,
Box-Jenkins techniques are used to forecast price, inventory, production,
stock and sales related decisions. Neural network method is for forecasting
applications in development phase of the organization.
Apart from the above mentioned statistical methods the survey methods
are also commonly used. They are:
1.
Complete Enumeration Method: the survey covers all the
potential consumers in the market and an interview is conducted to find
out the probable demand. The sum of all gives the total demand for the
industry. If the number of customers is too many this method cannot be
used.
2.
Sample Survey Method: the complete enumeration is not
possible always. The forecaster can go in for sample survey method. In
this method, only few (a sample) customers are selected from the total and
interviewed and then the average demand is estimated.
3.
Experts Opinion: the experienced people from the same
field or from marketing agents can also be taken into consideration for
collecting information about the future demand.
The above discussed qualitative and quantitative methods are commonly
used to forecast the future demand and based on this information firms
will take production decision.

37

Review Questions:
1. Define demand.
2. State the law of demand.
3. Prepare a demand schedule for an apple i-pad in the Indian market.
4. Distinguish between shift in demand and a movement along a demand
curve.
5. List out the factors which determine market demand for a commodity
of your choice.
6. Categorize the types of demand with proper examples.
7. What is meant by industry demand and company demand?
8. Explain perfectly elastic demand and perfectly in elastic demand with
a suitable example.
9. Explain the concept of cross elasticity of demand with an example.
10. Explain the concept of income elasticity of demand and discuss the
importance of income elasticity of demand for a business firm.
11. What are the different types of price elasticity of demand?
12. Explain the slope of income demand curve for a superior and inferior
good.
13. Discuss the cross elasticity of demand with an example.
14. List out the significance of elasticity of demand in managerial decision
making.
15. What is meant by demand forecasting? Why is it important for the
managers of business firm?
16. Why do business entities have to forecast demand?
17. What are the quantitative and qualitative methods of demand
forecasting?
18. Discuss the steps to be followed during demand forecast.
19. Mention the major criteria to choose a suitable forecasting method.
20. Explain the consumer survey method and discuss the merits and
demerits of complete enumeration method and sample survey method.

38

Exercises:
(a) The demand for petrol rises from 500 to 600 Barrels when the price
of a particular scooter is reduced from Rs. 25000 to Rs.22000. Find out
the cross elasticity of demand for the two. What is the nature of their
relationship?
(b) A company has the following demand equation

Q = 1000 3000 P + 10 A

Q = Quantity demanded

P = Product Price

A = Advertisement expenditure

Assume that P = 3 and A = 2000
Suppose the firm drops the price to Rs. 2.50 would this be
beneficial.
Suppose the firm raises the price to Rs. 4.00 while increasing
its advertisement expenditure by 100 would this be beneficial?
Explain
(c) Try to collect 10 to 20 years sales details of a company and forecast
their demand for the next year and find out the demand for the same after
5 years from now. Fit the linear equation and draw the trend line. And
suggest short term and long term decisions to be taken in the organization
to meet the future demand.

*****

39

40

Lesson III Supply Analysis

Reading Objectives:

At the end of this lesson the reader will be able understand that
supply is an independent economic activity but it is based on the demand
for commodities. The managers ability to make more profits depends
upon his ability to adjust the supply to the demand without creating a
surplus while at the same time not t creating a scarcity that will spoil the
image of the company in the eyes of the public. Supply is also sometimes
inelastic and sometimes elastic. The managers have to take wise decisions
to maximize the profits of the firm.

Lesson Outline:

Law of supply
Determinants of supply
Elasticity of supply
Factors influencing supply
Review questions

41

Supply of a commodity refers to the various quantities of the commodity

which a seller is willing and able to sell at different prices in a given market
at a point of time, other things remaining the same. Supply is what the
seller is able and willing to offer for sale. The Quantity supplied is the
amount of a particular commodity that a firm is willing and able to offer
for sale at a particular price during a given time period.
Supply Schedule: is a table showing how much of a commodity, firms can
sell at different prices.
Law of Supply: is the relationship between price of the commodity and
quantity of that commodity supplied. i.e. an increase in price will lead to
an increase in quantity supplied and vice versa.
Supply Curve: A graphical representation of how much of a commodity a
firm sells at different prices. The supply curve is upward sloping from left
to right. Therefore the price elasticity of supply will be positive.
Graph - Supply curve

Determinants Of Supply:
1. The cost of factors of production: Cost depends on the price of
factors. Increase in factor cost increases the cost of production,
and reduces supply.
2. The state of technology: Use of advanced technology increases
productivity of the organization and increases its supply.
3. External factors: External factors like weather influence the supply.
If there is a flood, this reduces supply of various agricultural
products.
4. Tax and subsidy: Increase in government subsidies results in

42

more production and higher supply.

5. Transport: Better transport facilities will increase the supply.
6. Price: If the prices are high, the sellers are willing to supply more
goods to increase their profit.
7. Price of other goods: The price of other goods is more than X
then the supply of X will be increased.
Elasticity of Supply: Elasticity of supply of a commodity is defined as
the responsiveness of a quantity supplied to a unit change in price of that
commodity.


Es =

Qs
Qs
P
P

=
=
=
=

Qs / Qs
------------
P / P

change in quantity supplied

quantity supplied
change in price
price

Kinds Of Supply Elasticity

Price elasticity of supply: Price elasticity of supply measures the
responsiveness of changes in quantity supplied to a change in price.
Perfectly inelastic: If there is no response in supply to a change in price.
(Es = 0)
Inelastic supply: The proportionate change in supply is less than the
change in price (Es =0-1)
Unitary elastic: The percentage change in quantity supplied equals the
change in price (Es=1)
Elastic: The change in quantity supplied is more than the change in price
(Ex= 1- )
Perfectly elastic: Suppliers are willing to supply any amount at a given
price (Es=)

43


The major determinants of elasticity of supply are availability of
substitutes in the market and the time period, Shorter the period higher
will be the elasticity.
Factors Influencing Elasticity Of Supply
1. Nature of the commodity: If the commodity is perishable in nature
then the elasticity of supply will be less. Durable goods have high
elasticity of supply.
2. Time period: If the operational time period is short then supply
is inelastic. When the the production process period is longer the
elasticity of supply will be relatively elastic.
3. Scale of production: Small scale producers supply is inelastic in
nature compared to the large producers.
4. Size of the firm and number of products: If the firm is a large
scale industry and has more variety of products then it can easily
transfer the resources. Therefore supply of such products is highly
elastic.
5. Natural factors: Natural calamities can affect the production of
agricultural products so they are relatively inelastic.
6. Nature of production: If the commodities need more workmanship,
or for artistic goods the elasticity of supply will be high.
Apart from the above mentioned factors future expectations of the market,
natural resources of the country and government controls can also play a
role in determining supply of a good. In the long run, supply is affected by
cost of production. If costs are rising, some of the existing producers may
with draw from the field and new entrepreneurs may be scared of entering
the field.

44

Review Questions:
Define the concept supply and the law of supply.
Collect relevant data and derive a supply curve of an organization.
What do you understand by Price elasticity of supply?
Mention the types of supply elasticity with example.
Explain the factors influencing the elasticity of supply in the
market with an example.

*****

45

46

UNIT II

Lesson IV Production Analysis

Reading Objectives:

At the end of reading of this chapter the reader will be able to
understand that production is a function of land, labour, capital and
organisation. The mangers will have to procure the right level of these
factors based on factors like diminishing marginal utility economies of
large scale operations, law of return, scales etc., with a view of maximizing
the output with minimum cost so as to earn larger profit to the firm/
industry.
Lesson Outline:

Factors of production
Production function
Cobb-Douglas production function
The law of diminishing returns
Law of returns to scale
Iso-quant curve
Expansion path
Review questions

47

Introduction:

Production is an important economic activity which satisfies
the wants and needs of the people. Production function brings out the
relationship between inputs used and the resulting output. A firm is an
entity that combines and processes resources in order to produce output
that will satisfy the consumers needs. The firm has to decide as to how
much to produce and how much input factors (labour and capital) to
employ to produce efficiently. This chapter helps to understand the set of
conditions for efficient production of an organization.
Factors of production include resource inputs used to produce goods and
services. Economist categorise input factors into four major categories
such as land, labour, capital and organization.
Land: Land is heterogeneous in nature. The supply of land is fixed and
it is a permanent factor of production but it is productive only with the
application of capital and labour.
Labour: The supply of labour is inelastic in nature but it differs in
productivity and efficiency and it can be improved.
Capital: is a man made factor and is mobile but the supply is elastic.
Organization: the organization plans, , supervises, organizes and controls
the business activity and also takes risks.

Production Function

Production function indicates the maximum amount of commodity
X to be produced from various combinations of input factors. It decides
on the maximum output to be produced from a given level of input, and
how much minimum input can be used to get the desired level of output.
The production function assumes that the state of technology is fixed. If
there is a change in technology then there would be change in production
function.

Q = f (Land, Labour, Capital, Organization)

Q = f (L, L, C, O)

48


The production managers responsibility is that of identifying
the right combination of inputs for the decided quantity of output. As a
manager ,he has to know the price of the input factors and the budget
allocation of the organization. The major objective of any business
organization is maximizing the output with minimum cost. To achieve the
maximum output the firm has to utilize the input factors efficiently. In the
long run, without increasing the fixed factors it is not possible to achieve
the goal. Therefore it is necessary to understand the relationship between
the input and output in any production process in the short and long run.
Cobb Douglas Production Function:

This is a function that defines the maximum amount of output that
can be produced with a given level of inputs. Let us assume that all input
factors of production can be grouped into two categories such as labour
(L) and capital (K).The general equilibrium for the production function is


Q = f (K, L)

There are various functional forms available to describe production.
In general Cobb-Douglas production function (Quadratic equation) is
widely used

Q = A K L

Q = the maximum rate of output for a given rate of capital (K) and labour (L).

Short Run Production Function:

In the short run, some inputs (land, capital) are fixed in quantity.
The output depends on how much of other variable inputs are used. For
example if we change the variable input namely (labour) the production
function shows how much output changes when more labour is used.
In the short run producers are faced with the problem that some input
factors are fixed. The firms can make the workers work for longer hours
and also can buy more raw materials. In that case, labour and raw material
are considered as variable input factors. But the number of machines and
the size of the building are fixed. Therefore it has its own constraints in
producing more goods.

49


In the long run all input factors are variable. The producer can
appoint more workers, purchase more machines and use more raw
materials. Initially output per worker will increase up to an extent. This
is known as the Law of Diminishing Returns or the Law of Variable
Proportion. To understand the law of diminishing returns it is essential to
know the basic concepts of production.

Measures Of Productivity
Total production (TP): the maximum level of output that can be produced
with a given amount of input.
Average Production (AP): output produced per unit of input AP = Q/L
Marginal Production (MP): the change in total output produced by the
last unit of an input
Marginal production of labour = Q / L (i.e. change in the quantity
produced to a given change in the labour)
Marginal production of capital = Q / K (i.e. change in the quantity
produced to a given change in the capital)

Production Function:

A production function, like any other function can be expressed
and analysed by any one or more of the three tools namely table, graph
and equation. The maximum amounts of output attainable from various
alternative combinations of input factors are given in the table.
The production function expressed in tabular form is as follows.

50

Table - Production Schedule

Labour

TP

AP

MP

20

20

54

27

34

81

27

27

104

26

23

125

25

21

138

23

13

147

21

152

19

153

17

10

150

15

-3

The firm has a set of fixed variables. As long with that it increases
the labour force from 1 unit to 10 units. The increase in input factor leads
to increase in the output up to an extent. After that it start declining.
Marginal production increases in the initial period and then it starts
declining and it become negative. The firm should stop increasing labour
force if the marginal production is zero- that is the maximum output that
can be derived with the available fixed factors. The 9th labour does not
contribute to any output. In case the firm wants to increase the output
beyond 153 units it has to improve its fixed variable. That means purchase
of new machinery or building is essential. Therefore the firm understands
that the maximum output is 153 units with the given set of input factors.

51

The graphical representations of the production function are as shown in

the following graph.
Graph-Production Curves

The graphical presentations of the values are shown in the graph.
The X axis denotes the labour and the Y axis indicates the total
production (TP), average production (AP) and marginal production
(MP). From the given table and graph we can understand all the three
curves in the graph increased in the beginning and the marginal product
(MP) first fell, then the average product (AP) finally total production (TP).
The marginal production curve MP cuts the AP at its highest point. Total
production TP falls when marginal production curve cuts the X axis. The
law of diminishing returns states that if increasing quantity of a variable
input are combined with fixed, eventually the marginal product and then
average product will decline.
When the production function is expressed as an equation it shall be as
follows:

Q = f (Ld, L, K, M, T )

It can be expressed as Q = f1, f2, f3, f4, f5 > 0

52

Where,
Q
Ld
L
K
M
T
f
fi

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Output in physical units of good X

Land units employed in the production of Q
Labour units employed in the production of Q
Capital units employed in the production of Q
Managerial Units employed in the production of Q
Technology employed in the production of Q
Unspecified function
Partial derivative of Q with respect to ith input.

This equation assumes that output is an increasing function of all inputs.

The Law Of Diminishing Returns

In the combination of input factors when one particular factor is
increased continuously without changing other factors the output will
increase in a diminishing manner. Let us assume that a person preparing
for an examination continuously prepares without any break. The output
or the understanding and the coverage of the syllabus will be more in the
beginning rather than in the later stages. There is a limit to the extent to
which one factor of production can be substituted for another. The total
production increases up to an extent and it gets saturated or there wont
be any change in the output due to the addition of the input factor and
further it leads to negative impact on the output. That means the marginal
production declines up to an extent and it reaches zero and becomes
negative. The point at which the MP becomes zero is the maximum output
of the firm with the given set of input factors. This law is applicable in all
human activities and business activities.

For example with two sewing machines and two tailors, a firm can
produce a maximum of 14 pairs of curtains per day. The machines are used
only from 9 AM to 5 PM and the machines lie idle from 5 pm onwards.
Therefore the firm appoints 2 more tailors for the second shift and the
production goes up to 28 units. Then adding two more labour to assist
these people will increase the output to 30 units. When the firm appoints
two more people, then there wont be any change in their production
because their Marginal productivity is zero. There is no addition in the
total production. That means there is no use of appointing two more

53

tailors. Therefore, there is a limit for output from a fixed input factors but
in the long run purchase of one more sewing machine alone will help the
firm to increase the production more than 30 units.
The Law Of Returns To Scale

In the long run the fixed inputs like machinery, building and
other factors will change along with the variable factors like labour, raw
material etc. With the equal percentage of increase in input factors various
combinations of returns occur in an organization.
Returns to scale: the change in percentage output resulting from a
percentage change in all the factors of production. They are increasing,
constant and diminishing returns to scale.
Increasing returns to scale may arise: if the output of a firm increases
more than in proportionate to an increase in all inputs. For example the
input factors are increased by 50% but the output has doubled (100%).
Constant returns to scale: when all inputs are increased by a certain
percentage the output increases by the same percentage. For example
input factors are increased by 50% then the output has also increased by
50 percentages. Let us assume that a laptop consists of 50 components we
call it as a set. In case the firm purchases 100 sets they can assemble 100
laptops but it is not possible to produce more than 100 units.
Diminishing returns to scale: when output increases in a smaller
proportion than the increase in inputs it is known as diminishing return
to scale. For example 50% increment in input factors lead to only 20%
increment in the output.
From the graph given below we can see the total production (TP) curve
and the marginal production curve (MP) and average production curve
(AP). It is classified into three stages; let us understand the stages in terms
of returns to scale.

Stage I: The total production increased at an increasing rate. We
refer to this as increasing stage where the total product, marginal product
and average production are increasing.

54


Stage II: The total production continues to increase but at a
diminishing rate until it reaches the next stage. Marginal product, average
product are declining but are positive. The total production is at the
maximum level at the end of the second stage with a zero marginal product.

Stage III: In this third stage total production declines and marginal
product becomes negative. And the average production also started
decline. Which implies that the change in input factors there is a decline
in the over all production along with the average and marginal.
In economics, the production function with one variable input is illustrated
with the well known law of variable proportions. (below graph) it shows
the input-output relationship or production function with one factor
variable while other factors of production are kept constant. To understand
a production function with two variable inputs, it is necessary know the
concept iso-quant or iso-product curve.

55

ISO-Quants

To understand the production function with two variable inputs,
iso-quant curve is used. These curves show the various combinations of
two variable inputs resulting in the same level of output. The shape of an
Iso-quant reflects the ease with which a producer can substitute among
inputs while maintaining the same level of output. From the graph we can
understand that the iso-quant curve indicates various combinations of
capital and labour usage to produce 100 units of motor pumps. The points
a, b or any point in the curve indicates the same quantum of production.
If the production increases to 200 or 300 units definitely the input usage
will also increase therefore the new iso-quant curve for 200 units (Q1) is
shifted upwards. Various iso-quant curves presented in a graph is called as
iso- quant map.
Iso-cost: different combination of inputs that can be purchased at a given
expenditure level.

The above graph explains clearly that the iso quant curve for 100
units of motor consists of n number of input combinations to produce the
same quantity. For example at a to produce 100 units of motors the firm
uses OC amount of capital and OL amount of labour ie., more capital and
less labour force. At b OC1 amount of capital and OL1 labour force is
used to produce the same that means more labour and less capital.
Optimal input combination: The points of tangency between iso quant
and iso cost curves depict optimal input combination at different activity
levels.

56

Expansion path: Optimal input combinations as the scale of production

expand. From the graph it is clear that the optimum combination is selected
based on the tangency point of iso cost (budget line) and iso- quant ie., a, b
respectively. The point a indicates that to produce 100 units of motor the
best combination of capital and labour are OC and OM which is within the
budget. Over a period of time a firm will face various optimum levels if we
connect all points we derive expansion path of a firm.

Managerial Uses Of Production Function:

Production functions are logical and useful. Production analysis
can be used as aids in decision making because they can give guidance to
obtain the maximum output from a given set of inputs and how to obtain
a given output from the minimum aggregation of inputs. The complex
production functions with large numbers of inputs and outputs are
analyzed with the help of computer based programmes.

57

Review Questions
1. List out the major factors of production (input factors used) in a
cement factory.
2. Define production function and Cobb-Douglas production
function.
3. Write short notes on Marginal Product and Average product.
4. Briefly discuss the concept Returns to scale, increasing and
decreasing returns to scale.
5. Explain the Law of variable proportions.
6. What is Iso-quant?
7. What do you mean by an expansion path?
8. Discuss the managerial uses of production function.

*****

58

Lesson V Cost Analysis

Reading Objectives:

At the end of reading this chapter the reader will be able to
understand the concepts like fixed cost, variable cost, average cost, and
marginal cost. The concept of the marginal costing is the contribution of
the 20th century. The concept like break even analysis, cost volume profit
analysis are the important tools used to take various managerial decisions.
The concept like average revenue decides the level of output to earn profit.
At the same time the concept like marginal cost is the tool available in the
hands of the producers to decide that level of output where MC = AR i.e.,
the equilibrium position of the suppliers and consumers.

Lesson Outline:

Cost of determinants
Types of cost
Short run cost output relationship
Cost output relationship in the long run
Economies of scale / diseconomies of scale
Factors causing economies of scale
Break-Even Analysis
Review questions

59

Introduction:

A production function tells us how much output a firm can produce
with its existing plant and equipment. The level of output depends on prices
and costs. The most desirable rate of output is the one that maximizes total
profit that is the difference between total revenue and total cost.

Entrepreneurs pay for the input factors- Wages for labour, price
for raw material, rent for building hired, interest for borrowed money. All
these costs are included in the cost of production. The economists concept
of cost of production is different from accounting.

This chapter helps us to understand the basic cost concepts and
the cost output relationship in the short and long runs. Having looked at
input factors in the previous chapter it is now possible to see how the law
of diminishing returns affect short run costs.
Cost Determinants

The cost of production of goods and services depends on various
input factors used by the organization and it differs from firm to firm. The
major cost determinants are:
1.Level of output: The cost of production varies according to the quantum
of output. If the size of production is large then the cost of production will
also be more.
2.Price of input factors: A rise in the cost of input factors will increase the
total cost of production.
3.Productivities of factors of production: When the productivity of the
input factors is high then the cost of production will fall.
4.Size of plant: The cost of production will be low in large plants due to
mass production with mechanization.
5.Output stability: The overall cost of production is low when the output
is stable over a period of time.

60

6.Lot size: Larger the size of production per batch then the cost of
production will come down because the organizations enjoy economies
of scale.
7.Laws of returns: The cost of production will increase if the law of
diminishing returns appliesin the firm.
8.Levels of capacity utilization: Higher the capacity utilization, lower the
cost of production
9.Time period: In the long run cost of production will be stable.
10.Technology: When the organization follows advanced technology in
their process then the cost of production will be low.
11.Experience: over a period of time the experience in production process
will help the firm to reduce cost of production.
12.Process of range of products: Higher the range of products produced,
lower the cost of production.
13.Supply chain and logistics: Better the logistics and supply chain, lower
the cost of production.
14.Government incentives: If the government provides incentives on input
factors then the cost of production will be low.

Types Of Costs

There are various classifications of costs based on the nature and
the purpose of calculation. But in economics and for accounting purpose
the following are the important cost concepts.
Actual cost/ Outlay cost/ Absolute cost / Accounting cost: The cost or
expenditure which a firm incurs for producing or acquiring a good or
service. (Eg. Raw material cost)

61

Opportunity cost: The revenue which could have been earned by

employing that good or service in some other alternative uses. (Eg. A land
owned by the firm does not pay rent. Thus a rent is an income forgone by
not letting it out)
Sunk cost: Are retrospective (past) costs that have already been incurred
and cannot be recovered.
Historical cost: The price paid for a plant originally at the time of purchase.
Replacement cost: The price that would have to be paid currently for
acquiring the same plant.
Incremental cost: Is the addition to costs resulting from a change in
the nature of level of business activity. Change in cost caused by a given
managerial decision.
Explicit cost: Cost actually paid by the firm. If the factors of production
are hired or rented then it is an explicit cost.
Implicit cost: If the factors of production are owned by a firm then its cost
is implicit cost.
Book cost: Costs which do not involve any cash payments but a provision
is made in the books of accounts in order to include them in the profit and
loss account to take tax advantages.
Social cost: Total cost incurred by the society on account of production of
a good or service.
Transaction cost: The cost associated with the exchange of goods and
services.
Controllable cost: Costs which can be controllable by the executives are
called as controllable cost.
Shut down cost: Cost incurred if the firm temporarily stops its operation.
These can be saved by continuing business.

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Economic costs are related to future. They play a vital role in business
decisions as the costs considered in decision - making are usually future
costs. They are similar in nature to that of incremental, imputed explicit
and opportunity costs.
Determinants Of Short Run Cost
Fixed cost: Some inputs are used over a period of time for producing more
than one batch of goods. The costs incurred in these are called fixed cost.
For example amount spent on purchase of equipment, machinery, land
and building.
Variable cost: When output has increased the firm spends more on these
items. For example the money spent on labour wages, raw material and
electricity usage. Variable costs vary according to the output. In the long
run all costs become variable.
Total cost: The market value of all resources used to produce a good or
service.
Total Fixed cost: Cost of production remains constant whatever the level
of output.
Total Variable cost: Cost of production varies with output.
Average cost: Total cost divided by the level of output.
Average variable cost: Variable cost divided by the level of output.
Average fixed cost: Total fixed cost divided by the level of output.
Marginal cost: Cost of producing an extra unit of output.
Short Run Cost Output Relationship

Fixed cost curve is a horizontal line which is parallel to the X axis.
This cost is constant with respect to output in the short run. Fixed cost
does not change with output. It must be paid even if 0 units of output are
produced. For example: if you have purchased a building for the business
you have invested capital on building even if there is no production.

63

Total fixed cost (TFC) consists of various costs incurred on the building,
machinery, land, etc.. For example if you have spent Rs. 2 Lakhs and bought
machinery and building which is used to produce more than one batch of
commodity, then the same cost of Rs. 2 Lakhs is fixed cost for all batches.
The total variable costs vary according to the output. Whenever the output
increases the firm has to buy more raw materials, use more electricity,
labour and other sources therefore the TVC curve is upward sloping. The
total cost consists of fixed (TFC) and variable costs (TVC). The TFC of
Rs. 2 Lakhs is included with the variable cost throughout the production
schedule so the total cost (TC) is above the TVC line.
Graph Total Cost Curves

Graph Average Cost Curves

The above set of graphs indicates clearly that the average variable
cost curve looks like a boat. Average fixed cost curve declines as output
increases and it is a hyperbola to the origin. The Marginal cost curve slopes
like a tick mark which declines up to an extent then it starts increasing

64

along with the output. Let us see and understand the nature of each and
every curve with an example. The table and graphs shown below indicates
the total costs curves and average cost curves at various output level.
Table - Cost Schedule
(Rupees in thousands 000)
Output

TC

TFC

TVC

AFC

ATC

AVC

MC

v1200

300

1800

300

1500

300

1800

1500

600

2000

300

1700

150

1000

850

200

2100

300

1800

100

700

600

100

2250

300

1950

75

562.5

487.5

150

2600

300

2300

60

520

460

350

3300

300

3000

50

550

500

700

Graph Average Cost Curves

65

Graph Total Cost Curves

From the above table and set of graphs we can understand that
capital is the fixed factor of production and the total fixed cost will be the
same Rs. 300,000. The total variable cost will increase as more and more
goods are produced. So the total variable cost TVC of producing 1 unit is
Rs.1500 000, for 2 units 1700 000 and so on.
Total cost = TFC + TVC

for 1 unit TC = 300 + 1500 = 1800.

The marginal cost of producing an extra unit is calculated based on the

difference in total cost.
MCn = TCn TCn-1

MC2 = TC2 TC 2-1

2000 1800 = 200

MC for 5th unit = TC of 5th unit minus TC of 4th unit,

in our example 2600 2250 = 350.
AVC also is calculated in the same manner TVC / output = 2600 / 5 = 460
AFC = TFC / output = 300 / 5 = 60.

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Relationship Between Marginal Cost And Average Cost Curve:

The marginal cost and average cost curves are U shaped because of
law of diminishing returns. The marginal cost curve cuts the average cost
curve and average variable cost curves at their lowest point. Marginal cost
curve cuts the average variable cost from below. The AC curve is above
the MC curve when AC is falling. The AC curve is below the MC when
AC is increasing. The intersecting point indicates that AC=MC and that
is the minimum average cost with an optimum output. (No more output
can be produced at this average cost without increasing the fixed cost of
production)
Graph Relationship Between Average Cost And Marginal Cost

Optimum Output And Minimum Cost

The MC and AC curves are mirror image of the MP and AP curves.
It is presented in the graph below.

All organizations aim for maximum output with minimum cost. To
achieve this goal they like to derive the point where optimum output can
be produced with the given amount of input factors and with a minimum
average cost. In the graph the MP=AP at maximum average production.
On the other hand MC = AC at minimum average variable cost. Therefore
this is the optimum output to be produced to achieve their managerial
goals.

67

Graph Optimum Cost And Output

The above set of cost curves explain the cost output relationship in
the short period but in the long run there is no fixed cost because all costs
vary over a period of time. Therefore in the long run the firm will have
only average cost curve that is called as long run average cost curve (LAC).
Let us see how the average cost curve is derived in the long run. This LAC
also slopes like the short period average cost curve (U shaped) provided
the law of diminishing returns prevails. In case the returns to scale are
increasing or constant then the LAC curve will have a different slope. It
will be a horizontal line, which is parallel to the X axis.
Cost Output Relationship In The Long Run

In the long run costs fall as output increases due to economies of
scale, consequently the average cost AC of production falls. Some firms
experience diseconomies of scale if the average cost begins to increase.
This fall and rise derives a U shaped or boat shaped average cost curve in
the long run which is denoted as LAC. The minimum point of the curve is
said to be the optimum output in the long run. It is explained graphically
in the chart given below.

68

Graph Long Run Average Cost Curve

In the long run all factors are variable and the average cost may fall

or increase to A, B respectively but all these costs are above the long run
cost average cost. LAC is the lower envelope of all the short run average
cost curves because it contains them all. At point E the SAC1 and SMC1
intersects each other, in case the organization increases its output from
OM to OM1 they have to spend OC1 amount. In case the organization
purchases one more machine (increase in fixed cost) then they will get a
new set of cost curves SAC2, and SMC2. But the new average cost curve
reduces the cost of production from OC1 to OC2.That means they can
save the difference of C1C2 which is nothing but AB. Therefore in the long
run due to business expansion a firm can reduce their cost of production.
During their business life they will meet many combinations of optimum
production and minimum cost in different short periods. In the long run
due to law of diminishing returns the long run average cost curve LAC
also slopes like boat shape.

Economies Of Scale

Economies of scale exist when long run average costs decline as
output is increased. Diseconomies of scale exist when long run average
cost rises as output is increased. It is graphically presented in the following
graph. The economies of scale occur because of (i) technical economies: the
change in production process due to technology adoption. (ii) Managerial
economies (iii) purchasing economies, (iv) marketing economies and (v)
financial economies.

69


Economies of scale means a fall in average cost of production due
to growth in the size of the industry within which a firm operates.
Diseconomies Of Scale:

Arises due to managerial problems. If the size of the business
becomes too large, then it becomes difficult for management to control
the organizational activities therefore diseconomies of scale arise.
Graph Economies of Scale and Diseconomies of scale

Factors Causing Economies Of Scale:

There are various factors influencing the economies of scale of an
organization. They are generally classified in to two categories as Internal
factors and External factors.
Internal Factors:
1. Labour economies: if the labour force of a firm is specialized in a
specific skill then the organization can achieve economies of scale
due to higher labour productivity.
2. Technical economies: with the use of advanced technology they
can produce large quantities with quality which reduces their
cost of production.
3. Managerial economies: the managerial skills of an organization
will be advantageous to achieve economies of scale in various
business activities.

70

4. Marketing economies: use of various marketing strategies will

help in achieving economies of scale.
5. Vertical integration: if there is vertical integration then there will
be efficient use of raw material due to internal factor flow.
6. Financial economies: the firms financial soundness and past
record of financial transactions will help them to get financial
facilities easily.
7. Economies of risk spreading: having variety of products and
diversification will help them to spread their risk and reduce
losses.
8. Economies of scale in purchase: when the organization purchases
raw material in bulk reduces the transportation cost and maintains
uniform quality.
External Factors:
1. Better repair and maintenance facilities: When the machinery
and equipments are repaired and maintained, then the production
process never gets affected.
2. Research and Development: research facilities will provide
opportunities to introduce new products and process methods.
3. Training and Development: continuous training and development
of skills in the managerial, production level will achieve economies
of scale.
4. Economies of location: the plant location plays a major role in
cutting down the cost of materials, transport and other expenses.
5. Economies of Information Technology: advanced Information
technology provides timely accurate information for better
decision making and for better services.
6. Economies of by-products: Organizations can increase the
economies of scale by minimizing waste and can be environmental
responsible by using the by- products of the organization.

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Factors Causing Diseconomies Of Scale:

1. Labour union: continuous labour problem and dissatisfaction
can lead to diseconomies of scale.
2. Poor team work: Poor performance of the team leads to
diseconomies of scale.
3. Lack of co-ordination: lack of coordination among the work force
has a major role to play in causing diseconomies of scale.
4. Difficulty in fund raising: difficulties in fund raising reduce the
scale of operation.
5. Difficulty in decision making: the managerial inability, delay in
decision making is also a factor that determines the economies
of scale.
6. Scarcity of Resources: raw material availability determines the
purchase and price. Therefore there is a possibility of facing
diseconomies in firms.
7. Increased risk: growing risk factors can cause diseconomies of
scale in an organization. It is essential to reduce the same.
Constant Returns To Scale:

In the long run if the returns to scale are constant then the average
cost of production will be the same. For example : Ananda Vikatan
magazine, started 100 years ago and it was sold in the market for 25 paise
but now it is still sold at a nominal cost of Rs.15. The price increased
because raw material cost and printing and labour costs have also increased
but in the long run the price of the commodity has not increased much.

The constant returns to scale curve is graphically presented below
which indicates that the LRAC is not a boat shaped curve.

72

From the above graph it is clear that in the long run it is possible to derive
a LRAC as a straight line with constant returns to scale.
Economies of scope: producing variety to get cost advantage. In retail
business it is commonly used. Product diversification within the same
scale of plant will help them to achieve success.
Lessons For Managers:
To achieve reasonable return the firm should go for larger plants or
expandtheir plant for optimum utilization of available resources.
Build market share to achieve the scale which in turn reduces the
cost of production.
All business activities of the organization leads to economies of
scale directly or indirectly.

Review Questions:
What is Marginal cost? State its significance in cost analysis.
Define opportunity cost and give an example.
Explain the concepts: AFC, AVC, ATC and MC.
Explain briefly the various types of costs with suitable examples.
Discuss the short run cost output relationship with the graph.
Derive long run total cost curve.
What is the relationship between AC and MC?
Give reasons for the U shape of long run AC curve.
Distinguish between economies of scale and diseconomies of
scale with a graph.
List out the factors that cause economies and diseconomies of
scale.

73

Break Even Analysis

Break even analysis helps to identify the level of output and sales
volume at which the firm breaks even. It means the revenues are sufficient
to cover all costs of production. Various managerial decisions of firms are
taken by the managers based on the break- even point.

It is a study of cost, revenues and sales of a firm and finding out the
volume of sales where the firms costs and revenues will be equal. There
is no profit and no loss. The total revenue is equal to the total cost of
production. The amount of money which the firm receives by the sale of
its output in the market is known as revenue.
Graph Break Even Point

The above graph shows the break- even point of an organization.
The total revenue curve (TR) and total cost curve (TC) is given. When
they produce 50 units the total cost and total revenue are equal that is $
150000 which is at the intersecting point of the curves. Break even point
always denotes the quantity produced or sold to equalize the revenue and
cost.

When the firm produces less than 50 units the revenue earned is
less than the cost of production (TR<TC) therefore in the initial period the
firm incurs loss which is shown in the graph. Through selling more than
50 units the revenue increases more than the cost of production therefore
the difference increases and provides profit to the organization (TR>TC).
It can be calculated with the help of the following formula.

74

 TFC
Break even quantity = -----------------------Selling Price - AVC

TFC + targeted profit

To decide a quantity to achieve a targeted profit =
------------------------
Selling price AVC

Sales - BEP
Safety margin = ---------------------- X 100
Sales

Managerial Uses Of Break-Even Analysis:

1. Product planning: it helps the firm in planning its new product
development. Decisions regarding removal or addition of new
products in their product line.
2. Activity planning: the firm decides the expansion of production
capacity.
3. Profit planning: this helps the firm to plan about their profit well
in advance and at the same time it helps to identify the quantity
to be sold to achieve the targeted profit.
4. Target capacity: the targeted sales quantity helps to decide the
purchase, inventory and management.
5. Price and cost decision: Decision regarding how much the price
of the commodity should be reduced or increased to cover their
cost of production.
6. Safety margin: it helps to understand the extent to which the firm
can withstand their fall in sales.
7. Price decision: the selling price can be fixed based on its expected
revenue or profit.
8. Promotional decision: the firm can decide the kind of promotion
required and how much amount could be spent.

75

9. Distribution decision: Break even analysis helps to improve the

distribution system and for business expansion.
10. Dividend decision: firm can decide the dividend to be fixed for
their shareholders.
11. Make or buy decision: break even analysis helps to decide on
whether to make or buy the product. It means outsourcing or in
house production.
We can conclude that the break even analysis is a useful tool for decision
making at various levels of a business firm in the short and long run.
Therefore it is an essential tool to be used by the Managers.

Review Questions:
1. What is Break- even point?
2. Explain the important managerial uses of break even analysis.

*****

76

Lesson VI Analysis Of Risk And Uncertainty

Reading Objective:

After reading this chapter reader will be able to understand that an
entrepreneur is always working under uncertainty and has to bear risks.
In economic parlance profit is considered as a reward for risk taking.
From the reading of this chapter the reader will understand what are the
risks which are prevalent in the business. Only when an entrepreneur
understands the nature of risks he can secure himself from the risks and
uncertainty.

Certainty is what is prevalent today and we can see or realize it.,
But uncertainty is a situation where one is unsure of what will happen
tomorrow. For instance even the meteorological department may not be
a able to say with any amount of certainty when the south west monsoon,
will set in and how much rain fall it may bring. Therefore the managers
will have to safeguard institutions by making sufficient precautions the
measures.
Lesson Outline:

Types of risks
Managers attitude towards risk
Decisions under uncertainty
Review questions

77

Introduction:

Various managerial decision making theories were discussed in the
previous chapters under certainty but many of the choices that business
people make involve considerable uncertainty. A manager investing in
new product development, adoption of new technology or new market
entry faces various risks. Therefore this chapter focuses on the factors to
be considered by the managers to take better decisions with risk under
uncertain situations.

Types Of Risks:
Economic risk: Choice of loss due the fact that all possible outcomes and
their probability of occurrence are unknown.
Uncertainty: When the outcomes of managerial decisions cannot be
predicted with absolute accuracy but all possibilities and their associated
probabilities of occurrence are known.
Business risk: Chance of loss associated with a given managerial decision.
Market risk: Chance that a portfolio of investments can lose money due to
volatility in the financial market.
Inflation risk: A general increase in the price level will undermine the real
economic value of any legal agreement that involves a fixed promise to pay
over an extended period.
Interest rate risk: The changing interest rates affect the value of any
agreement that involves a fixed promise to pay over a specified period.
Credit risk: May arise when the other party fails to abide by the contractual
obligations.
Liquidity risk: Difficulty of selling corporate assets and investments.
Derivative risk: Chance that volatile financial derivatives could create
losses on investments by increasing price volatility.

78

Cultural risk: Risk may arise due to loss of markets differences due to
distinctive social customs.
Currency risk: Is the probable loss due to changes in the domestic currency
value in terms of expected foreign currency.
Government policy risk: Chance of loss because of domestic and foreign
government policies.

The above listed various types of risks are involved in business.
Therefore it is essential for the manager to understand the type of risk
and strategies to overcome the same. The manager must know the possible
outcomes of a particular event, action or decision.The manager must be
aware of the probability of risks in business. (Probability means likelihood
that a given outcome will occur)

For example; a purchase of share may lead to three probable results
i.e. either the price will increase, decrease or it can be the same. Objective
interpretation relies on the frequency with which certain events tend to
occur. Out of 100 shares, if 25 have increased and 75 have remained in
the same level in the market then the probability of incurring profit is .
If there is no past experience then we go for subjective probability and
based on our perception of occurrence we may measure the probability.
But managers perceptions differ therefore they make different choices.
In general probabilities are measured in two ways they are expected value
and variability.
Expected value: The probable payoffs associated with all possible outcomes
are called as expected value.

Expected value
= P(s) (40/share) + P (f) (20/share)

= (40) + (20) = 25.
Variability: The extent to which the possible outcomes of an uncertain
situation differ. This difference is called as deviation; it means difference
between expected outcome and the actual outcome.

79


Managers attitudes toward risk affect the decision making. The
preference towards risk is classified as, risk loving, risk aversion and risk
neutral.
Risk loving: Arises when the payoff is greater than the expected value.

Risk Aversion: Is the behavior of the mangers when the pay off is less than
the expected value.

Risk neutral: Behavior takes place when the expected value is equal to the
payoff.

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There are four ways to manage the risk and uncertainty:

1. Insurance ( Business risks are transferred through Insurance
Policies)
2. Hedging is a mechanism whereby the expected loss is to be offset
by an expected profit from another contract.
3. Diversification is a method of managing the risk where the risk is
spread to various investments and thus the risk is minimized to
each investment.
4. Adjusting risk is the mechanism whereby the provision is made to
offset the expected loss.
Decision Under Uncertainty:
1. The maximax rule: Deals with selecting the best possible outcome
for each decision and choosing the decision with the maximum
payoff for all the best outcomes.
2. The Maximin rule: Deals with selecting a worst outcome for each
investment decision and choosing the decision with the maximum
worst payoff.
3. The Minimax rule: Deals with determining the worst potential
regret associated with each, decision, then choosing the decision
with the minimum worst potential regret.

The above mentioned criteria may help to measure the minimum
expected opportunity loss. The game theory may help the manager to
overcome various problems and at the same time to take a better decision
in the uncertain business world with minimum risk. Computer based
simulation methods are also available to solve this problem. Sensitivity
analysis which is less expensive and commonly used can also be used.
Review Questions:
1. Discuss the types of risks faced by a business firm.
2. Explain the managers attitude towards risk.
3. Critically examine the Maximin criteria for decision making
under uncertainty.
*****
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82

UNIT III

Lesson VII Market Structure

Reading Objectives:

After reading this lesson the reader will understand that the
economist meaning of market is something different from the common
understanding of the market. In economics, the market is the study about
the demand for and supply of a particular commodity and its consequent
fixing of prices for instance the market may be a bullion market, stock
market, or even food grains market. The market is broadly divided into two
categories like perfect market and imperfect market. The perfect market is
further divided into pure market (which is a myth) and perfect market. The
imperfect market is divided into monopoly market, monopolistic market,
oligopoly market and duopoly market. Based on the nature of competition
and on the number of buyers and sellers operating in the market, the price
for the commodity may be settled at the point where the demand forces
and supply forces agree upon.
Lesson Outline:

Types of market
Perfect market
Pricing under perfect market
Shutdown point
Monopoly market
Profit maximization under monopoly market
Monopolistic competition
Oligopoly market
Kinked demand curve
Price discrimination
Review questions

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Introduction

Market is a place where people can buy and sell commodities. It may
be vegetables market, fish market, financial markets or foreign exchange
markets. In economic language market is a study about the demand for
and supply of a particular item and its consequent fixing of prices, example
bullion on market and foreign exchange market or a commodity market
like food grains market etc. Market is classified into various types based on
the characteristic features. They are classified on the basis of:
Area: family market, local, regional, national and international
Time: very short period, short period, long period, very long period
Commodity: produce exchange, bullion market, capital market, stock
market
Nature of Transaction: spot market, forward market and futures market
Volume of business: whole sale market, retail market
Importance: primary market, secondary market, territory market
Regulation: regulated market, unregulated market
Economics: Perfect market and imperfect market
Market In Economic Sense Implies:
1. Presence of buyers and sellers of the commodity
2. Establishment of contact between the buyer and seller
3. Similarity of the product
4. Exchange of commodity for a price

Classification Of Market Structure Based On The Nature Of Competitor:

1. Perfect market
2. Imperfect market
The imperfect market in turn can be classified as
a. Monopoly market
b. Duopoly market
c. Oligopoly market
d. Monopolistic market/ competition

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The number and relative size of firms producing a good vary across
industries. Market structures range from perfect competition to monopoly.
Most real-world firms are along the continuum of imperfect competition.
Market structure affects market outcomes, ie., the price and quantity of
goods supplied.
Imperfect Competition

Perfect Competition Monopolistic Competition Oligopoly Duopoly Monopoly

The above chart tells us that there are four types of imperfect
competition existing in the present market environment. It is classified
based on the number of buyers, sellers and competitors in the market.
This chapter explains the price determination and profit maximization
methods followed in these markets. Let us understand the meaning of
each competition.
Monopoly market: a market with only one seller and a large number of
buyers.
Monopolistic competition: a market in which firms can enter freely, each
producing its own brand or version of a differentiated product.
Oligopoly market: market in which only a few firms compete with one
another and entry by new firms is impeded/restricted.
Duopoly: market in which two firms compete with each other.
Monopsony: is a market with only one buyer, and a few/large sellers.

Perfect Market

Perfect competition is a market structure characterized by a
complete absence of rivalry among the individual firms. A perfectly
competitive firm is one whose output is so small in relation to market
volume that its output decisions have no perceptible impact on price. No
single producer or consumer can have control over the price or quantity of
the product.

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Characteristic features of perfect market:

1. Large number of buyers and sellers
2. Homogeneous product
3. Perfect knowledge about the market
4. Ruling prices
5. Absence of transport cost
6. Perfect mobility of factors
7. Profit maximization
8. Freedom in decision making
In perfect market, the price of the commodity is determined based on
the demand for and supply of the product in the market. The equilibrium
price and output determination is as shown in the graph.
Graph - Price And Output Determination In The Perfect Market

The demand curve (D) and the supply curve (S) intersect each
other at a particular point which is called the equilibrium point. At the
equilibrium point E the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are
equal (that is OQ quantity of commodity is demanded and the same level
is supplied etc). Based on the equilibrium the price of the commodity
is fixed as OP. This is the fundamental pricing strategy followed in the
perfect market.

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Pricing Under Perfect Competition

Demand and supply curves can be used to analyze the equilibrium
market price and the optimum output.
1. If quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied at a particular
price then the market is in equilibrium
2. If quantity demanded is more than the quantity supplied then
market price may not be stable. i.e., it will rise.
3. If quantity demanded is less than quantity supplied then market
price is fixed not in a equilibrium position.

When the price at which quantity demanded is equal to quantity
supplied, buyers as well as sellers are satisfied. If price is greater than the
equilibrium price, some sellers would not be able to sell the commodity. So
they would try to dispose the unsold stock at a lower price. Thus the price
will go on declining till they get equalized (Qd = Qs). The various possible
changes in Demand and supply are expressed in the following graphs to
understand the price fluctuations in the market.

When the firm is producing its goods at the maximum level, the
unit cost of production or managerial cost of the last item produced is
the lowest. If the firm produces more than this, the managerial cost will
rise. If that firm produces less than that level of output, it is not taking
advantage of the economics of the large scale operation.When the firm
produces largest level of output and sell at the managerial cost, it is said
to be in equilibrium position.There is no temptation to produce more or
produce less level of output. Likewise, when all the firms put together or
the industry produces the largest amount of output at the lowest marginal
cost, the industry is also said to be in the equilibrium

Let us assume that the demand equal to supply Qd = Qs and the
equilibrium point E determines the price as OP. In the short run the
demand for the commodity increases but the supply remains the same.
Then the demand curve shifts to the right and the new demand curve
D1D1 is derived. The demand has increased from OM quantity to OM1.
The new demand curve intersects the supply curve at the new equilibrium
point E1 and the price of the commodity is increased from OP to OP1.
Therefore it is clear that when demand increases without any change in
supply this leads to price rise in the market.

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Graph Price And Quantity Variability When Increase In Demand

If the demand remains the same and the firm tries to supply more

of the commodity, then the supply curve shifts from SS to S1S1 (Graph below). Earlier the equilibrium point was E and the price of the commodity
was OP. Due to change in supply the equilibrium point has changed into
E1 which in turn reduced the price form OP to OP0. Therefore if the firm
supplies more than the demand this leads to price fall in the market.
Graph Price And Quantity Variability When Increase In Price

If the firm changes its supply due to increase in demand then the
possible fluctuations in the price is explained below. Let us assume that
the firm increased its supply 10% , the demand has also increased but not
in the same proportion it increased only 2% ( Qd < Qs). From the
graph we can understand that the equilibrium point E has changed into
E1 which reduced the price of the commodity from OP to OP1.

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Graph Price And Variability When Change In Demand Is Less Than

Change In Supply

On the other hand when there is 10% increase in the demand and
the supply has increased only to 2%, the new demand curve D1D1 and the
new supply curve S1S1 intersect each other at the new equilibrium point
E1.

The price of the commodity is OP at E and it increases from P to
P1 and becomes OP1.i.e. When the demand increases more than the supply
( Qd > Qs ) the price of the commodity will increase.
Graph Price And Quantity Variability When Change In Demand Is
More Than The Change In Supply

The following graph explains clearly that both the demand for the
commodity and the supply increases in the same proportion (i.e. QD =
QS).The shift in supply curve and the shift in demand curve are in the
same level and the new equilibrium point E1 determines the same price
OP level. There is no change in the price when the demand and supply are
equal.

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Graph Price And Quantity Variabilty When Change In Demand And

Supply Equally

Profit Maximization Under Perfect Competition

The primary objective of any business is to maximize the profit.
Profit can be increased either by increasing total revenue (TR) or by
reducing the total cost (TC). The profit is nothing but the difference
between the revenue and the cost.

The total profit = TR TC

Let us assume that whatever produced is sold in the market.

TR = Quantity sold

price

To increase the revenue, it is better to either increase the quantity
sold or increase the price. Therefore while increasing the revenue or
minimizing the total cost of production over a period of time with
attendant economies of scale will widen the difference to gain more profit.

In perfect market, the firms Marginal cost, Average cost, Average
revenue, Marginal revenue are equal to the price of the commodity. The
cost is measured as average cost and marginal cost .When the firm is in
equilibrium, producing the maximum output i.e. cost of the last item
produced is known as marginal cost.The total cost divided by the number
of goods produced will give the average cost. When the firm is operating
in perfect market MC = AC.

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In the same way the revenue available to the firm through selling
goods is called as total revenue.The last item sold is the marginal revenue.
The total revenue divided by the number of items sold is the average
revenue and when the firm is working in the perfect market the MR shall
be equal to AR. Therefore the MC = MR = AR = AC = P in the short run.
The size of the plant is fixed only with the variable factors and the price is
fixed by the demand and supply.
Perfect Market Price Determination
Graph (a)

Graph (b)

The demand for the commodity is expressed in the demand curve
(D) and the supply (S) curve is known as S curve. The point of intersection
of the D curve and S Curve is the equilibrium point (E) where the price
is determined as OP. (Rs.10) The average revenue per unit is also Rs.10
expressed in graph (b) along with the marginal cost (MC) and average cost
(AC) curves. The MC and AC intersect at point K which is equal to the
price OP / AR / MR. Therefore we can say that P=AR=AC=MR=MC at this
level. At this equilibrium point buyers and sellers are satisfied with their
price. The price of the commodity includes the normal profit through the
average cost. The average cost consists of implicit and explicit costs. That
means the organizers knowledge, time, idea and effort is also considered in
the cost of production. Let us assume that in the short run the demand for
the commodity increases, then the change in price and profit are explained
in the graph below.

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Graph - Short Run Profit Maximization Under Perfect Competition

From the above graph we can understand that in the short run
demand curve DD and the short period supply curve SPSC intersects at E
and the price of the commodity is determined as OP. The right side graph
indicates the cost and revenue curves. The average revenue (AR) and
marginal revenue (MR) are equal to the price of the commodity OP. The
short period marginal cost (SMC) and short period average cost (SAC) are
also depicted in the graph. The minimum average cost is selected based on
the equilibrium point Q which produces optimum quantity of OM. The
marginal cost curve and average cost curve intersects at the point Q that
means QM amount (rupees) is spent as marginal as well as average cost.
The SAC is tangential to AR/MR at this point therefore we can conclude
that the price of the commodity is equal to the average cost, average
revenue, marginal cost and marginal revenue ( P = AR = MR = AC = MC )

If the demand increases in the market then the new demand curve
D1D1 intersects the SPSC at the new equilibrium point E1 and the price
increases from OP to OP1. Therefore the average revenue also increases
from AR to AR1. At this situation P1 = AR1 = MR1 but the SMC curve
intersects at Q1 ie., new equilibrium point and the OM quantity has
increased from OM to OM1 in the X axis. The average cost has increased
as M1R.

The profit = Total Revenue (TR) Total Cost (TC)

TR = quantity sold x price

TC = average cost x quantity produced
TR = OM1 x OP1 = OM1Q1P1
TC = M1R x OM1 = OM1RS

Profit =
OM1Q1P1 - OM1RS = P1Q1RS

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In the above graph, the shaded portion of P1Q1RS is the total profit
earned by the firm in the short run but in the long run the organization
will increase the production and will supply more of the commodity.
Ultimately both the demand and the supply gets equalized and the short
run abnormal profit becomes normal. Therefore we can conclude that
even in the perfect market it is possible to earn profit in the short period.

It indicates clearly that in the short run, in any perfect market,
the increase in demand will increase the profit to the businessmen. The
normal profit will be there until it gets equalized with the demand i.e. new
D1D1 with the increased supply of S1S1.

This economic profit attracts new firms into the industry and the
entry of these new firms increases the industry supply. This increased
supply pushes down the price. As price falls, all firms in the industry adjust
their output levels in order to remain in profit maximizing equilibrium.
New firms continue to enter the industry and price continues to fall, and
existing firms continue to adjust their outputs until all economic profits
are eliminated. There is no longer an incentive for the new firms to enter
and the owners of all firms in the industry will earn only what they could
make through their best alternatives.

Economic losses motivate some to exit (shut down) from the
industry. The exit of these firms decreases industry supply. The reduction
in supply pushes up market price and all the firms shall adjust their output
in order to maximize their profit.
Shut Down Point:

If the market price for the product is below minimum average
variable cost, the firm will cease to produce, if this appears to be not just a
temporary phenomenon. When the price is less than average variable cost
it will neither cover fixed cost nor a part of the variable costs. Then the
firm can minimize losses up to total fixed costs only by not producing. It
is therefore regarded as the shut down point.

In the short run, a firm can be in equilibrium at various levels
depending upon different cost and market price conditions. But these are
temporary equilibrium points. Thus at this unstable equilibrium point the

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firm gets excess profits or normal profit and sometimes incur loss also.
Consequences Of Pure Competition

Perfect competition ensures maximum welfare of the people as a
whole. Each firm tends to attain the most efficient size to expand output
and to reduce the average cost of production.
Lessons For Managers
1. Important to enter a growing market as far ahead of the competitors
as possible. When there is fall in supply and increase in prices,
take advantage before the new entrants.
2. Due to profit new entrants are willing to offer ,low priced therefore
a firm should be among the lowest cost producer to ensure its
survival.
3. Differentiation offers temporary relief for competition pressure.
4. Due to globalization firms enjoy advantage of cheap labour and
disadvantage of technology up gradation.

Review Questions:
1. Define the market and market structure.
2. Explain various types of markets with suitable examples.
3. Distinguish between perfect and imperfect market.
4. List out the major characteristic features of a perfect market.
5. Show graphically how an individual firm attains equilibrium
under perfect competition.
6. Explain how the price and output is determined in perfect
competition.
7. Is it possible to earn profit in the perfect competition? Justify.
8. What do you mean by shut down point? Explain why a firm
suffering from losses.
Exercise:

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How will each of the following changes in demand and supply
affect equilibrium price and equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity
in a competitive market; that is, do price and quantity rise, fall or remain
unchanged or are the answers indeterminate because they depend on the
magnitude of the shift. Use supply and demand diagrams to verify your
answers.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Supply increases and Demand is constant

Demand increases and Supply is constant
Supply increases and Demand is constant
Demand increases and Supply increases
Demand increases and Supply is constant
Supply increases and Demand increases
Demand increase and Supply decreases

h. Demand decreases and Supply decreases

Monopoly Market

Mono means single, poly means seller and hence monopoly is a
market structure where only one sells the goods and many buyers buy the
same. Monopoly lies at the opposite extreme from perfect competition on
the market structure continuum. A firm produces the entire supply of a
particular good or service that has no close substitute.
Characteristic Features:
1. A single seller in the market
2. There are no close substitutes
3. There is a restriction for the entry and exit for the firms in the
market
4. Imperfect dissemination of information

This does not mean that the monopoly firms are large in size. For
example a doctor who has a clinic in a village has no other competitor
in the village but in the town there may be more doctors. Therefore the
barrier to the entry is due to economies of scale, economies of scope, cost
complementarities, patents and other legal barriers.

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Profit maximization under Monopoly Competition

For monopolist there are two options for maximizing the profit
i.e. maximize the output and the limit the price or limit the production
of the goods and services and fix a higher price (market driven price). In
monopoly competition, the demand curve of the firm is identical to the
market demand curve of that product. In monopoly the MR is always less
than the price of the commodity.
Profit Maximization Rule:

Produce at that rate of output where MR = MC. From the graph
we can understand the profit maximization under monopoly. X axis
indicates the output and Y the price/cost and revenue. The marginal
revenue curve is denoted as MR. The average revenue curve is AR which is
also the demand curve. MC is the marginal cost curve, It looks like a tick
mark and average cost curve AC is boat shape.
Graph- Profit Maximization Under Monopoly Market

From the above graph it is seen that the demand curve D and
average revenue curve AR are depicted as a single curve. The marginal
revenue curve MR also slopes the same but the MR curve is below the
AR curve. The short run marginal cost curve SMC looks like a tick mark
and the boat shaped average cost curve SAC is also seen in the graph.
The profit maximization criteria of MR=MC is followed in the monopoly
market and the equilibrium point E is derived from the intersection of

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MR and SMC curves in the short run. i.e. MC curve or SMC here intersects
the MR curve from below. Based on the equilibrium point, the output is
the optimum level of production i.e., at OM quantity. The price of the
commodity is determined as OP. On an average the firm receives MQ
amount as revenue. The total revenue of selling OM quantity gives OMQP
amount of total revenue (OM quantity x OP price). The firm has spent MR
as an average cost to produce OM quantity and the total cost of production
is OMRS (OM quantity x MR cost per unit)

Profit

=
=
=

TR - TC
OMQP - OMRS
PQRS (the shaded portion in the graph)

In the short run the monopoly firm will earn profit continuously even
with various returns.
Graph- Monopoly Profit With Increasing Cost

From the above graph it can be understood that the cost of
production (MC, AC) is increasing along with the output but even with
the increasing scale the firm earns PQRS as profit which is the shaded
portion in the graph.

The graph given below explains clearly that the firms cost curves of
Marginal cost (MC) and Average cost (AC) are declining with this slope.
The organization earns PQRS profit but the profit is comparatively lesser
than the previous situation.

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Graph Monopoly Profit Under Decreasing Cost

The third situation explains that the organizations marginal cost
and average cost curves are horizontal and parallel to the X axis. Even
with the constant scale, the firms earns profit as PQRS.
Graph Monopoly Profit Under Constant Cost

Therefore we can conclude by saying that under monopoly market
structure the firm will earn profit even under different cost conditions
and profit maximization takes place. They follow the price determination
condition as MC=MR and never incur loss.
Difference Between Perfect And Monopoly Market:
1. Perfect market is unrealistic in practical life. But slowly certain
commodities are moving towards it. Monopoly market exists in
real time.

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2. Under perfect market only homogenous products are sold but on

the other hand monopoly market deals with different products.
3. Under perfect competition, price is determined by demand and
supply of the market. But in monopoly the seller determines the
price of the good.
4. Monopolist can control the market price but in perfect competition
the sellers have no control over the market price.
5. There is no advertisement cost in perfect market. In other markets
it is essential and it is included in the cost of production and is
reflected in the price.
6. Monopolist sell their products higher than the perfect competitors
except when there is government regulation or adverse public
opinion.
Lessons For Managers:
1. The seller has to fix the price based on the marginal revenue and
marginal cost instead of focusing on their profit.
2. It is essential to understand the substitutes and their market
competition.
3. Under monopoly for certain products buyer has more market
power.
4. Government policies can also change at any time.
5. Monopolist in domestic market may face tough competition from
imported products.
Review Questions:
1. Mention the characteristic features of Monopoly market.
2. Distinguish between monopoly and perfect market.
3. Describe graphically the pricing and profit determination under
monopoly market.
4. A monopolist aims at maximizing price rather than profits, do
you agree with this statement?

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Monopolistic Competition

The perfect competition and monopoly are the two extreme forms.
To bridge the gap the concept of monopolistic competition was developed
by Edward Chamberlin. It has both the elements like many small sellers
and many small buyers. There is product differentiation. Therefore close
substitutes are available and at the same time it is easy to enter and easy to
exit from the market. Therefore it is possible to incur loss in this market.
The profit maximization for each firm, for each product depends upon the
differentiation and advertising expenditure. As every firm is acting as a
monopoly the same logic of monopoly is followed. Each and every firm will
have their own set of cost and revenue curves and the price determination
is based on the rule of MR=MC and they incur varied profits according
to their market structure. But in the monopolistic competition number of
monopoly competitors will be there in different levels. They monopolize
in a small geographical area or a segment or a model.

The demand curve of a monopolistically competitive firm would
be more elastic than that of a purely monopolistic firm. The cost function
of a firm would be that there will not be any significant difference across
different types of structures in the product market. Given the function,
and the corresponding AR and MR curves, and the cost function, and the
corresponding SAC and SMC curves, the price and output determination
of a profit maximizing monopolistically competitive firm could be as
follows.
Graph Pricing Under Monopolistic Competition With Profit

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From the above graph we can understand that under monopolistic
competition firms incur profit which is PP1BB1 the pricing and profit
determination are similar to the monopoly market. MR is marginal
revenue curve AR is average revenue and demand curve. At point E both
MR and marginal cost curve MC intersects. Based on this equilibrium the
product is sold at OP price in the market. The Average cost curve indicates
that the firm has spent QB1 amount per unit but it receives QB through
its sale. Therefore the difference between the two BB1 is the profit margin
which should be multiplied with the total quantity sold OQ which gives
PP1BB1 amount of profit.
Graph Pricing under Monopolistic competition with loss

The marginal revenue curve MR and the average revenue curve AR
that is the demand curve is also represented in the graph. The condition
for product decision is MR=MC. The MR and MC intersect at point E
based on the equilibrium. It is decided to produce OM quantity and the
price of the commodity is fixed at OP in the market. Therefore the total
revenue by selling OM quantity in the market for OP price is equal to OM
x OP = OPRM. But to produce OM quantity the firm has spent MQ as
average cost. Therefore the total cost of production = OM x MQ = OMQS.
Therefore the profit = TR TC


= ORPM OMQS
= - PQRS. (Negative)

That means the cost of production per unit is more than the average
revenue earned per unit. Average revenue = MR and the Average cost =
MQ which is more than the revenue. Therefore the difference QR is the
loss per unit multiplied with OM quantity. PQRS is the total loss to the
organization.
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Lessons For Managers:

1. A firm must concentrate on differentiation and building brand
value.
2. The managers must never be complacent with their profit because
of new entrants.
3. The market is competing with differentiated products at lowest
price.
4. Need not offer at low price always. Through supplying best
products he can retain his price and profit.

Oligopoly Market

This is a market consisting of a few firms relatively large firms,
each with a substantial share of the market and all recognizing their
interdependence. It is a common form of market structure. The products
may be identical or differentiated. The price determination and profit
maximization is based on how the competitors will respond to price or
output changes.
There Are Different Types Of Oligopoly:
1.Pure and perfect oligopoly: if the firm produced homogeneous products
it is perfect oligopoly. If there is product differentiation then it is called as
imperfect or differentiated oligopoly.
2.Open and closed oligopoly: entry is not possible. When it is closed to
the new entrants then it is closed oligopoly. On the other hand entry is
accepted in open oligopoly.
3.Partial and full oligopoly: under partial oligopoly industry is dominated
by one large firm who is a price leader and others follow. In full oligopoly
no price leadership.
4.Syndicated and organized oligopoly: where the firms sell their products
through a centralized syndicate. On the other hand firms organize
themselves into a central association for fixing prices, output and quotas.

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Characteristic Features Of An Oligopoly Market:

1. Few sellers
2. Lack of uniformity in the product
3. Advertisement cost is included
4. No monopoly competition
5. Firms struggle constantly
6. There is interdependency
7. Experience of Group behavior
8. Price rigidity
9. Price leadership
10. Barriers to entry
Price rigidity: the price will be kept unchanged due to fear of retaliation
and prices tend to be strict and inflexible. No firm would indulge in price
cutting as it would eventually lead to a price war with no benefit to anyone.
Reasons for rigidity are: firms know ultimate outcome of price cutting;
large firms incur more expenditure than others; keeping the price low to
reduce the new entrants; increased price rise leads to reduction in number
of customers.

The oligopoly prices are indeterminate. The demand function
is then an important ingredient in the price determination mechanism.
Several theories of oligopoly prices have been developed and each one
of them is based on a particular assumption about the reactions of the
rival firms and the firms actions. The popular models and appropriate
classifications are discussed below.
Oligopoly Models:
1.Cournot oligopoly: There are few firms producing differentiated or
homogeneous products and each firm believes that competitors will hold
their output constant if it changes its output.
2.Stackelberg oligopoly: Few firms and differentiated or homogeneous
product. The leader chooses an output and others follow.

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3.Bertrand oligopoly: Few firms produce identical product. Firms

compete in price and react optimally to competitors prices.
4.Sweezy oligopoly: An industry in which there are few firms serving
many consumers. Firms produce differentiated products and each firm
believes competitors will respond to a price reduction but they will not
follow a price increase.

Kinked Demand Curve

When a firm increases its price, the rival firms do not follow it
by increasing their prices in turn this increases its market share. When a
firm reduces its price rival firms immediately follows it by decreasing their
prices. If they do not do so, customers go to the firm which is offering at
lower price. This is the fundamental behaviour of the firms in an oligopoly
market. Let us understand the unique characteristic feature of kinked
demand curve.
The demand curve in oligopoly has two parts. (i) relatively elastic demand
curve (ii) relatively inelastic demand curve as shown in the graph below.
In oligopoly market firms are reluctant to change prices even if the cost of
production (or) demand changes. Price rigidity is the basis for the kinked
demand curve. Each firm faces demand curve kinked at the currently
prevailing price. At higher prices demand is highly elastic, whereas at
lower prices it is inelastic.
Graph Kinked Demand Curve

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From the graph we can understand that OP is the given price. There
is a kink at point K on demand curve (DD). Therefore DK is the elasticity
segment and KD is the inelastic segment. There is a change in the slope
of the demand curve at K. At this situation the firm follows the prevailing
price and does not make any change in it because rising of price would
contract sales as demand tends to be more elastic at this stage. I would
also fear losing buyers due to competitors price who have not raised their
prices. On the other hand lowering of price would imply an immediate
retaliation from the rivals on account of close interdependence of price,
output movement in the oligopoly market. Therefore the firm will not
expect much rise in sale with price reduction.
Graph Marginal Revenue Curve In Oligopoly Market

The average revenue curve and the demand curve (DD) of an
oligopoly firm has a kink. The kinked average revenue curve implies a
discontinuation in the marginal revenues curve. It explains the phenomenon
of price rigidity in oligopoly market.
Graph Price Rigidity Under Oligopoly Market

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The price output level that maximizes the profits for a firm is
derived from the equilibrium point, which lies at the intersection of the
MC and the MR curves. The price output combination can remain optimal
at the kink even though the MC fluctuates because of the associated gap
in the MR curve. This is shown in the graph. The profit maximizing price
OP and output combination of OQ remains unchanged as long as MC
fluctuates between MC1 and MC2 that is between A and B. Hence there
is price rigidity- it means OP does not change. It is concluded that once a
general price level is reached it remains unchanged over a period of time
in oligopoly market.
Lessons For Managers:
1. Managers should concentrate on their research and development
to bring new products and quality of service to raise their
economies of scale.
2. Due to kinked demand curve, increase in cost of production will
not affect their price.
3. Product differentiation and advertisement play a major role in
increasing market share.

Price Discrimination

Price discrimination means that the producer charges different
prices for different consumers for the same goods and service. Price
discrimination occurs when prices differ even though costs are same. For
example, Doctors charge different fees for different customers. In case they
charge different prices in different markets, people go to the market where
price is low. Then it gets equalized in the long run. There are various types
of price discrimination:
They are:
1. Personal Discrimination
2. Place Discrimination
3. Trade Discrimination
4. Time Discrimination
5. Age Discrimination

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6. Sex Discrimination
7. Location Discrimination
8. Size Discrimination
9. Quality Discrimination
10. Special Service
11. Use of services
12. Product Discrimination
Objectives Of Price Discrimination:
1. To dispose the surpluses
2. To develop new market
3. To Maximize use of unutilized capacity
4. To Earn monopoly profit
5. To Retain export market
6. To Increase the sales
Degrees Of Price Discrimination:
First Degree Price Discrimination:

Firm charges a different price to each of its customers. The maximum
willingness to pay is fixed as price which is called as reservation price. In
perfect market the difference between demand and marginal revenue is
the profit (for additional unit producing and selling). Firms do not know
the customers willingness, therefore different prices. In imperfect market
it is not possible to price for each and every customer.
Graph First Degree Price Discrimination

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Second Degree Discrimination:

Firm charges different prices per unit for different quantities of the
same goods or service. They follow block pricing method. The units in a
particular block will be uniformly priced. The possible maximum price is
charged for some given minimum block of output purchased by the buyers
and then the additional blocks are sold at lower prices.
Graph Second Degree Price Discrimination

Third Degree Discrimination:

Firm segments the customers into groups with separate demand
curves and charges different prices from each group.
In first degree price discrimination, in case of unit wise differing prices,
the second degree price discrimination is a case of block wise differing
prices. In second degree discrimination a part of consumers surplus is
captured. But the third degree is commonly used. The firm divides its total
output into many submarkets and sets different prices for its product in
each market in relation to the demand elasticity.

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Graph Third Degree Price Discrimination

There are two markets I and II their demand curves D1 and D2 is
given. D1 is less elastic and D2 is more elastic demand curve. The firm
distributes OQ1 to market - I at OP1 price and OQ2 to the market II at
OP2 price. Market- I has less elastic demand therefore higher price is
charged.

The pricing mechanisms in different market structures provide
a sound theoretical base to understand how price and output decisions
are made. There are several other methods commonly followed in
practice. However, price discrimination does not receive social and moral
justification in the society.

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Comparison Of Various Market Structure

Perfect

Monopoly

Monopolistic

Oligopoly

Market
Number of
competitors

Many small
Single seller
buyers and
sellers
Product
Homogeneous High
differentiation
differentiation,
no close
substitutes
Information
Complete
Less
and free
information
information

Many sellers

Conditions of Easy to enter

entry and exit and exit

Easy to enter
and exit

Profit
potential

Economic
profit in
short run and
normal in long
run
Clothing

Example

High barriers
due to
economies of
scale
Normal profit Economic
in long run,
profit in long
economic
run and short
profit in short run
run
Agricultural
Railways
products

110

Differentiation
among
competitors
Less
information

Restricted
access to
price and
product
information
High
barriers to
entry
Economic
profit in
both short
and long
run
Automobiles

Review Questions:
1. Define monopolistic competition.
2. What is the difference between monopoly and monopolistic
competition?
3. How does the monopolistic competitor incur loss in the business?
Explain with a suitable graph.
4. What do you mean by oligopoly market? What are its characteristic
features? Give a suitable example for the same.
5. Distinguish between oligopoly and duopoly market.
6. Describe the kinked demand curve with a graph.
7. What is price discrimination? What are its objectives?
8. Discuss briefly the major types of price discriminations with
suitable examples.
9. Explain the major degrees of price discrimination.
10. What are the managerial uses of understanding the market
structure?

*****

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112

UNIT IV
Lesson VIII Macro Economics

Reading Objective:

After reading this lesson the candidate may be able to understand
that the word macro indicates the study about the whole and the word
micro indicates the study at the micro level i.e. about the individuals.
So here macro economics indicates the study about the whole economic
conditions prevalent in the country, like National Income, Employment,
Unemployment, Exports and Imports of the country, GDP of the country,
etc. Apart from this it also includes aggregate demand and aggregate supply
of goods, and the objectives of economic policies. In short, the study about
the whole economy comes under the category of macro economics and the
study about the demand for and supply of the individual goods and its
price level comes under the category of micro economics.
Lesson Outline:

Objectives of Economic policies

National income concepts
Approaches to calculate national income
Factors determining national income
Difficulties in measuring national income
Economic indicators
Key economic indicators of India
Review questions

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Introduction:

Macro economics is the study of aggregate economic behaviour
of the economy as a whole. Macro economics deals with the output,
(total volume of goods and services produced) levels of employment and
unemployment, average prices of goods and services. It also deals with the
economic growth of the country, trade relationship with other countries
and the exchange values of the currency in the international market.

The major factors influencing these outcomes are international
market forces like population growth, consumption behaviour of the
country, external forces like, natural calamities, political instability and
policy related changes such as tax policy, government expenditure (budget)
money supply and various other economic policies of the country. Therefore
it is essential to know the aggregate demand and aggregate supply of the
country.
Aggregate demand: The total quantity of output demanded at prevailing
price levels in a given time period, ceteris paribus.
Aggregate supply: The total quantity of the output the producers are
willing and able to supply at prevailing price levels in a given time period.

These two summarizes the market activity of the economy. But the
economy is disturbed by unemployment, inflation and business cycles.
Various economic policies like Fiscal policy and monetary policy are
followed by the government to achieve the equilibrium between aggregate
demand and aggregate supply.

The following chapters will help us to understand the Macro
Economic concepts, their behaviour and its impact on the economy. Thus,
an understanding of macro economics and policies is of utmost importance
to managers. Managers have to cope with the economic environment at
two levels - firm level and macro level.

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Objectives Of Economic Policies:

The major macro level economic policies framed by the government
of India to achieve the objectives are:
1. To achieve national level full employment
2. To stabilize the price fluctuations in the market
3. To achieve overall economic growth
4. To develop regions economically
5. To improve the standard of living of the people
6. To reduce income inequalities
7. To control monopoly market structure
8. To avoid cyclical fluctuations in various economic activities of the
country
9. To improve the Balance of Payment of the country and
10. To bring social justice in various aspects.
11. Now let us understand the various macroeconomic concepts.
National Income

The purpose of national income accounting is to obtain some
measure of the performance of the aggregate economy. The major concepts
used in the national income calculation are Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), Net National Product (NNP),
personal income and Disposable income.

Gross Domestic Product is the total market value of all final
goods and services currently produced within the domestic territory of a
country in a year. It measures the market value of annual output of goods
and services currently produced and counted only once to avoid double
counting. It includes only final goods and services. It includes the value of
goods and services produced within the domestic territory of a country by
nationals and non nationals.

Gross National Product is the market value of all final goods and
services produced in a year. GNP includes net factor income from abroad.

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GNP = GDP + Net factor income from abroad (income received by Indians
abroad income paid to foreign nationals working in India)

Net National Product at market price is the market value of all
final goods and services after providing for depreciation.

NNP = GNP Depreciation

Depreciation means fall in the value of fixed capital due to wear and tear.
NNP at factor cost is called as National Income:
National income is the sum of the wages, rent, interest and profits paid to
factors for their contribution to the production of goods and services in a
year.

Nnp = Nnp (Market Price) Indirect Tax + Subsidies

Personal income (PI) is the sum of all incomes earned by all individuals
/ households during a given year. Certain incomes are received but not
earned such as old age pension etc.,
Pi = Ni Social Security Contribution Corporate Income Tax
Undistributed Corporate Profits + Transfer Payments.
Disposable income is calculated by deducting the personal taxes like
income tax, personal property tax from the personal income (PI).

Disposable Income = Personal Income Personal Taxes =
Consumption + Saving
Supernumerary income: the expenditure to meet necessary living costs
deducted from disposable consumer income is called as supernumerary
income.

The economy is divided into different sectors such as agriculture,
fisheries, mining, construction, manufacturing, trade, transport,
communication and other services. The gross production is found out
by adding up the net values of all the production that has taken place in

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these sectors during a given year. This method helps to understand the
importance of various sectors of the economy.

Approaches To Calculate National Income:

The Income Approach:

The income of individuals from employment and business, the
profits of the firms and public sector earnings are taken into consideration.

National Income is the income of individuals + self employment
+ profits of firms and public corporate bodies + rent + interest (transfer
payments, scholarships, pensions are not included) this includes the sum
of the income earned by individuals from various input factors such as
rent of land, wages and salaries of employees, interest on capital, profits of
entrepreneurs and income of self employed people. This method indicates
the income distribution among various income groups of people.
The Expenditure Approach:

In this approach national income is calculated by using the
expenditure of individuals, private, government and foreign sectors. i.e.
the sum of all the expenditure made on goods and services during a year.
i.e.
National Income = Expenditure Of Individuals + Govt. + Private Firms

+ Foreigners

GDP = C + I + G + (X-M)

Where,

C = expenditure on consumer goods and services by

individuals and households
I = expenditure by private business enterprises on capital
goods
G = government expenditure on goods and services
(government purchase)
X-M = exports - imports
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The Output Approach:

In this approach we measure the value of output produced by
firms and other organization in a particular time period. i.e. the National
Income = income from agriculture + fishery + forestry + construction +
transportation + manufacturing + tourism + water + energy
Gdp At Market Price + Subsidies Taxes
Gnp At Factor Cost + Net Income From Abroad
Factors Determining National Income:
1. Quantity of goods and services produced by the country. Higher
the quantity of production, higher shall be the national income.
2. Quality of products and services produced in the country will also
determine the national income of a country.
3. Innovation of more technical skills will improve the productivity
which will reflect on national income of the country.
4. Political stability strengthens the national income of an economy.
Difficulties In The Calculation Of National Income:
1. Any income earned abroad have to be included
2. To avoid double counting, value added method should be
considered
3. Services rendered free of charges are not to be included
4. Capital gains, transfer payments are not to be included
5. Changes in price level will also affect the calculation
6. Value of military services will not be taken into consideration.
Problems In Measuring National Income In India:
1. Non monetized sector: there are number of sectors in which the
wages and salaries are provided in kind, not in monetary measures.
2. Illiteracy: due to higher illiteracy rate the results may be biased.

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3. Lack of occupational specification: we have difficulty in

classifying the nature of the job existing in India.
4. Unorganized productive activities: people involved in
unorganized productive activities are not fully covered in the
calculation of national income.
5. Lack of adequate statistical data: Inadequate data leads to
approximation of the calculation.
6. Self consumption: Farm products kept for self consumption are
not considered for the national income calculation.
7. Unpaid Services: services of house wives are not reckoned as
national income.
Uses Of National Income Estimates:
1. National income is a measure of economic growth
2. National income is an indicator of success or failure of planning
3. Useful in estimating per capita income
4. Useful in assessing the performance of different production
sectors
5. Useful in measuring inequalities in the distribution of income
6. Useful in measuring standard of living
7. Useful in revealing the consumption behaviour of the society
8. Useful in measuring the level and pattern of investment
9. Makes international comparisons possible
Difficulties Of Comparing National Income:

It is difficult to compare the national income of a country with
others due to the difference in population size, working hours of labour
force, currency values in the market, consumption pattern of general
public, cultural difference and inflationary pressure of the country. Even
with all the above mentioned difficulties the GDP is the major economic
indicator of an economy.

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National Income And Managers:

The managers of various organizations in different sectors follow
the national income statistics to take managerial decisions at the firm level.
Particularly national income data is useful for the marketing managers,
financial managers, production managers, and advertising agents of any
firm. The macro level policy makers will also use the data for their decision
making. The following chapter provides the details regarding the major
economic indicators of India.

Economic Indicators

The Indian economy is estimated to grow at 6.9 per cent in 2011-12,

after having grown at the rate of 8.4 per cent in each of the two preceding
years. This indicates a slowdown when compared to the previous two years
but even during the period 2003 to 2011. Inflation as measured by the
wholesale price index (WPI) was higher during most of the current fiscal
year, though by the year end there was a clear slowdown. Food inflation, in
particular, has come down to around zero, with most of the remaining WPI
inflation being driven by non-food manufacturing products. Monetary
policy was tightened by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) during the year
to control inflation and curb inflationary pressures. The slowing inflation
reflects the lagged impact of actions taken by the RBI and the government.
Reflecting the weak manufacturing activity and rising costs, revenues of
the centre have remained less than anticipated; and, with higher thanbudgeted expenditure, a slippage is expected on the fiscal side.

The global economic environment, which has been tenuous at
best throughout the year, turned adversely in September 2011 owing to
the turmoil in the Euro zone, and questions about the outlook on the US
economy provoked by rating agencies. However, for the Indian economy,
the outlook for growth and price stability at this juncture looks more
promising. There are signs from some high frequency indicators that the
weakness in economic activity has slowed down and a gradual upswing is
imminent. The key economic indicators of India for the year 2011-12 are
given in the table below.

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Table Key Economic Indicators Of India 2011-2012

121

Table Ratios Of Savings And Investment To Gdp (At Current Market

Price %)

The major national savings and investments are shown in the above
table. In the past five years public sector savings reduced and on other
hand its investment has grown. Households saving and investment has
come down.
Trend in Sectoral Composition of GDP

The sectoral contribution of GDP shows that in the 1950s agricultural
sectors contribution was around 53% but now it has come down to 14% .
After opening up our economy the service sectors contribution has grown
tremendously and it has reached 60%. Industrial growth of our country is
very slow with an increase from 16% in 1950 to 27% in 2012.

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Graph - Gdp Growth Estimates And Projection

The GDP growth estimates of various countries are given in the
above graph. It is found that Chinas growth rate is nearly 10% followed by
India with 7%. Italy and Euro areas have negative growth. It indicates that
Asian countries are growing at a faster rate than the Western countries.
Share Of World Gdp

From the above table we can understand that the share of advanced
economies in the world GDP is declining. It has reduced from 76% to 66%.
whereas in the case of India, it has increased from 1.7% to 2.6%. From this
we can conclude that Indian economy is growing and it is expressed in the
various economic activities of our country. The major economic indicators
are growing at a faster rate. The service sectors contribution towards the
economic development of our country is very high, due to this change the

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employment opportunities created by this sector has also grown at a faster

rate. This is discussed in the following chapters.

Review Questions:
1. Define macro economics.
2. What do you mean by aggregate demand and aggregate supply?
3. What are the major objectives of macroeconomic policies of our
country?
4. Discuss the major National Income concepts.
5. Explain the three national income calculation methods.
6. List out the major difficulties and problems in the national income
calculation of our country.
7. Mention the uses of national income calculation in the managers
point of view.
8. Give an account of major economic indicators of India.
9. Is there any relationship between GDP and saving and investment
of a country?
10. Explain briefly the trend in GDP of India.
11. Explain the managerial uses of knowing macroeconomic
indicators of a country.

*****

124

Lesson IX Employment And Unemployment In India

Reading Objective:

After reading this lesson the candidate may be able to understand
that employment denotes that all able and willing people get a job with
suitable remunerations. Whereas, the concept unemployment includes,
under employment and disguised unemployment. i.e. the people are not
able to get a job commensurate with their qualifications or appear to be
employed but the output available because of their employment is either nil
or marginal. India is a country which not able to achieve full employment
in spite of the efforts made by the Government in different ways. It is
experiencing a situation where one side the willing and able people are not
able to get a job on the other hand, there are many a positions for which
the people are not available.
Lesson Outline:
Employment and unemployment concepts
Types of unemployment
Projection of employment and unemployment of India and the
World
Technology and employment
Indian technology sector
Review questions

125

Introduction:

The principal objective of development planning is human
development and the attainment of higher standard of living for the people.
This requires a more equitable distribution of benefits of development and
opportunities, better living environment and empowerment of the poor
and marginalized. There is special need to empower women who can
act as catalysts for change. In making the development process inclusive,
the challenge is to formulate policies and programmes to bridge regional,
social and economic disparities in as effective and sustainable a manner as
possible.

The projected increase in total labour force during 11th Plan was
45 million. As against this, 58 million employment opportunities are
targeted to be created during the Eleventh Plan. This is expected to reduce
unemployment rate to below 5 per cent. The Eleventh Plan emphasizes
that the growth in various sectors of the economy can be achieved only
if supported by appropriate skill development programmes at various
levels. The Eleventh Plan document has spelt out certain deficiencies in
the skill development scenario in the country as it exists presently. The
thrust of the plan therefore will be on creating a pool of skilled manpower
in appropriate number with adequate skills, in line with the requirements
of the ultimate users of manpower such as the industry, trade and service
sector. Such an effort is necessary to support the employment expansion
through inclusive growth including in particular a shift of surplus labour
from agriculture to non-agriculture.

The basic weakness in our employment performance is the failure
of the Indian economy to create a sufficient volume of additional high
quality employment to absorb the new entrants into the labour force while
also facilitating the absorption of surplus labour that currently exists in
the agricultural sector, into higher wage, non-agricultural employment.
A successful transition to inclusive growth requires migration of such
surplus workers to other areas for productive and gainful employment in
the organized or unorganized sector. Women agricultural workers in
families where the male head has migrated, also require special attention
,given the need for credit and other inputs if they are self-employed in
agriculture or for wage employment if they do not have land.

126


As a manager it is essential to understand the concepts related to
employment and unemployment. Let us see the basic definitions.
Employment:

When persons are holding a job and they perform for any paid
work. Also if workers hold jobs because of illness, strike or vacation, they
are considered as employed.
Full Employment:

When 94-95% of them are employed or highest sustainable level of
employment over the long run is called as full employment.
Under Employment:

Less than full employment is called as under employment.

Unemployment:

When people are not working and are actively looking for work or
waiting to return to work, such a situation may be called as unemployment.
Types Of Unemployment
1. Frictional unemployment: unemployment that occurs naturally
during the normal working of an economy. Temporarily caused
by inefficient movement of people between regions and jobs,
as it takes time for new workers to search and decide for a job.
voluntary switching of jobs, fired or seeking re employment
2. Structural unemployment: The change in industrial structure
of a country, change in Demand and technology ,change in
requirement of skills. Mismatch between demand and supply.
3. Cyclical unemployment: unemployment is more at a particular
time that is due to economic recession, depression and others.
4. Technological unemployment: due to change in technology, new
production and process leads to reduction in work requirement.

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5. Seasonal unemployment: in some industries the work cannot be

there through out the years as it is seasonal in nature.
6. Disguised unemployment: lack of work of the type which would
fully utilize the degree of skill possessed by the workers.

Various categories like, workers, unemployed, labour force, out
of labour force are as explained below:
(a) Workers (or employed): Persons who are engaged in any economic
activity or who, despite their attachment to economic activity, have
abstained from work for reasons of illness, injury or other physical
disability, bad weather, festivals, social or religious functions or other
contingencies necessitating temporary absence from work constitute
workers. Unpaid helpers who assist in the operation of an economic
activity in the household, farm or non-farm activities are also considered
as workers. All the workers are assigned one of the detailed activity status
under the broad activity category 'working or being engaged in economic
activity'.
(b) Seeking or available for work (or unemployed): Persons, who,
owing to lack of work, had not worked but either sought work through
employment exchanges, intermediaries, friends or relatives or by making
applications to prospective employers or expressed their willingness
or availability for work under the prevailing condition of work and
remuneration are considered as those who are seeking or available for
work (or unemployed).
(c) Labour force: Persons who are either 'working' (or employed) or
'seeking or available for work' (or unemployed) during the reference
period together constitute the labour force.
(d) Out of labour force: Persons who are neither 'working' and at the
same time nor 'seeking or available for work' for various reasons during
the reference period are considered to be 'out of labour force'. The persons
under this category are students, those engaged in domestic duties,
renters, pensioners, recipients of remittances, those living on alms, infirm
or disabled persons, too young or too old persons, prostitutes, etc.

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Workers have been further categorized as self-employed, regular
salaried/wage employee and casual wage labourers. These categories are
defined in the following paragraphs.
Self-Employed:

Persons who operate their own farm or non-farm enterprises or
are engaged independently in a profession or trade on own-account or
with one or a few partners are self-employed in household enterprises.
The essential feature of the self-employed is that they have autonomy (i.e.,
regarding how, where and when to produce) and economic independence
(i.e., regarding market, scale of operation and money) for carrying out
operation. The fee or remuneration received by them consists of two parts
- the share of their labour and profit of the enterprise. In other words, their
remuneration is determined wholly or mainly by sales or profits of the
goods or services which are produced by themselves. The Indian scenario
is given below.
Distribution Of Urban Household Type Per Thousand

The distribution of employed persons under various broad Industry
group is given in the following table. Around 50% of the population are
engaged in the primary sectors like agriculture, forestry and fisheries
followed by manufacturing and wholesale, retail business. Construction
industry and retail business are booming in our country and also provides
more employment opportunities in the urban areas. High risk jobs like
mining, financing etc.,do not create much employment.

129

Distribution Of Employed Person By Broad Industry Group Per

Thousand

From the following table on population, labour force, employment
projections in India for the year 2016- 2017 it is observed that the population
in the age group of 15-59 is growing along with the total population. The
forecast says the employment opportunities to be created in 2016-17 will
more. On the other hand the unemployment rate is going to be reduced
to 1.12% from 6.06 %. The global trend for the same year is also discussed
below.

The following two graphs on employment and unemployment
projections for 2016 explains clearly that the total employment opportunities
created by the world is going to grow from 3 % in 2002 to 61% in 2016. But
on the other hand the employment to population ratio is declining. Due
to this decline unemployment rate is growing. Understanding the world
trend and the Indian scenario will help managers take various decisions

130

regarding the human resource allocation and availability. But the world
employment creation is more towards services sector which consists of
more technology oriented jobs. We will understand this in detail in the
following chapter.
Global Employment Trends And Projections 2002-2016

Global Unemployment Trends And Projections 2002-2016

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Technology And Employment

The forecasted demand for IT and IT enabled services are
going to grow to the extent of 5.3 million in 2022 which indicates that
the technology is going to play a major role in creating employment
opportunities in the future. The technology based human requirement of
the world is also growing at a faster way. The developing countries like
India and other Asian countries have more population particularly, India
has the highest young population. India produces more engineers every
year therefore the opportunities can be optimally utilized by our country.
In the recent past, the BPO organizations mushroomed in India but due
to political and economic crisis of USA it has changed now. Therefore the
change in economic activities of the world has an impact in determining
the employment generation of a country.
The next chapter discusses the economic changes of a country with the
help of business cycle model.
Human Resource Requirement In 2022

Source: National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC)

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The above table provides detailed information on the human
resource requirement in the world. Industry wise regional requirement
is forecasted for the year 2030. In developed countries due to aging
population for human resource they depend on developing countries like
India. Therefore we have potential to cater to their requirement in the
future.

133

The Indian Technology Sector A Profile

The key contributor to the Services Sector accounting for 5.8% of
Indias overall GDP
Among the largest employment generators in the organized sector
employing 7.5 million people, estimated to cross the 10 million
mark by 2010
Revenues estimated at USD 71 billion in 2008-09, consistent rise
in growth with 5 year compound annual growth (CAGR) at 27%
Exports constitute two-thirds of overall revenues with a marginally
higher 5 year CAGR of 28.7%.The US and UK remain the largest
export geographies 79%, steady expansion of other export
destinations notably Continental Europe CAGR more than 50%
over FY 2004-08.
Domestic IT revenues estimated at USD 24.3 billion, with a 5 year
CAGR of 24%.
Industrys vertical market exposure well diversified across several
mature and emerging sectors.
BFSI, Telecom and Manufacturing: Among the top 4 verticals for
both export and domest ic market.
ITeS-BPO sector the fastest growing segment of the IT industry in
both the export and domestic market.
Export earnings in 2008-09 estimated at USD 12.8 billion (a 5
year CAGR of 32.9%)
Domestic revenues at USD 1.9 billion a growth of 45.3%
Source: CRISIL, Nasscom

We can conclude that according to NSDC, Nasscom reports the
opportunities specifically technology based is growing in a faster rate
and in other hand the ageing population of these countries are growing.
Therefore India has huge potential of young engineers to cater the needs
of developed countries.

134

Review Questions
1. Define the concepts employment, full employment, under
employment and unemployment.
2. Explain briefly the major types of unemployment existing in India.
3. What do you mean by labour force?
4. Who is called as self employed?
5. Give an account on Indian employment scenario.
6. Discuss the global trend and projection on employment and
unemployment.
7. What do you understand by observing the distribution of
employed by different industry?
8. Discuss the unemployment situation of our country.
9. Is growth in technology creates employment opportunities?
10. As a manager what are the managerial decisions would you like to
take in your organization.

*****

135

136

Lesson X Business Cycle

Reading Objective:

After reading this chapter the candidate may be able to understand
that the economic conditions are changing cyclically. That is because of the
changes in the total demand for certain goods and supply of the same may
be due to the change in the technology or taste etc. this may be normally
analysed in the form of Depression, Recovery, Boom and Recession. The
depression is an economic condition where there is no demand for certain
goods and services may be due to the lack of buying power in the hands of
the public. The Recovery is a stage where the Governments try to halt the
depressionery conditions by injecting buying power in the hands of the
public. So that the increased demand will lead to production, employment,
income and thus growth in the economy. The Boom period is said to be
a prosperous period where economy is at equilibrium at higher level.
Recession is the again the sliding stage. The recessionary conditions in
America in the recent past and the president Barack Obamas fight with it
is a classic example of recession.
Lesson Outline:

Business cycle
Characteristic features of business cycle
Various phases of a business cycle
Theories on business cycle
Review questions

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Introduction

A study of fluctuations in business activity is called business
cycle. Business cycle can be defined as a periodically recurring wave
like movements in aggregate economic activity (like national income,
employment, investment, profits, prices) reflected in simultaneous,
fluctuations in major macro economic variables.

R A Gordon defined business cycle as consisting of recurring
alteration of expansion and contraction in aggregate economic activity,
the alternating movements in each direction being self-reinforcing and
prevailing virtually all parts of the economy.

Characteristic Features Of Business Cycle:

1. It occurs periodically: the fluctuations in economic activities
occur periodically but not at a fixed period of interval.
2. It is international in character: the changes in any economic
activity of a country have impact on economies of the world
(for example financial crisis in US had impact on various other
countries economic activities).
3. It is wave like: the fluctuations indicate ups and downs in various
economic indicators of a country.
4. The process is cumulative: the process is cumulative in nature,
that means change in income level, savings or any other activity
will be in aggregates.
5. The cycles will be similar but not identical: the cycle has ups
and downs but not identical spacing that means the time period
of occurrence will differ.

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Phases Of A Business Cycle:

The business cycle has four phases, Boom, Recession, Slump and
Recovery. In economics it has been observed that income and employment
tend to fluctuate regularly overtime. These fluctuations are known as
business cycle or trade cycle.
Peak / Boom: when the economy is booming national income of the country
is high and there is full employment, the consumption and investment is
high. Tax revenue is high. Wages and profits will also increase. There will
be inflationary pressure in the economy.
Recession: when the economy moves into recession, output and income
fall leading to a reduction in consumption and investment. Tax revenue
begins to fall and government expenditure begins to benefit the society.
Wage demands moderate as unemployment rises, import and inflationary
pressure declines.
Trough: economic activities of the country are low, mass unemployment
exists, so consumption investment and imports will be low. Pricing may be
falling (there will be deflation)
Recovery: as the economy moves into recovery, national income and
output begin to increase. Unemployment falls, consumption, investment
and import begins to rise. Workers demand more wages and inflationary
pressure begins to mount.

The fluctuation in the activities is measured with respect to
a horizontal line indicating a given steady level of economic activity.
However, if the time series reveals a significant long term trend, the
vertical deviations of the reported or actual points from the estimated
trend line are measured and plotted separately to obtain a clear picture

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of the underlying business cycle. Most economic variables go through

ups and downs over time and the economy as a whole experience periods
of prosperity and periods of recession. The measure of prosperity is the
amount of goods/services produced (GDP) during a year. Actual business
cycle are measured by changes in real GDP, that is the market value of all
the goods and services produced within a nations borders, with market
values measured in constant prices (prices of a specific base year).
Expansion or boom: is the period in the business cycle from a trough
up to a peak, during which output and employment rise.
Contractions, recession, or slump: is the period in the business cycle
from a peak down to a trough, during which output and employment
fall.
Recession: a decline in total output (real GDP) for 2 or more
consecutive quarters. Reduction in investment, employment and
production, reduction in income, expenditure, prices and profits
reduction in bank loans. The business expansion stops that leads to
depression.
Depression: the level of economic activity is extremely low. The
income, production, employment, prices, profits of the country is
very low. Organizations fix low price which leads to low profit, low
wages, people suffer, closing down of business.
Recovery: slow increase in output, employment, income and price.
Increase in demand, investment, bank loan, advances. This leads to
recovery, revival of prosperity.
Theories On Business Cycle:
1. Sunspot theory / climate theory: depending on climatic changes
agricultural products are produced. Based on the production other
ancillary units will function therefore the base for any change in
economic activity of the country is climate.
2. Psychological theory: during depression or crisis of any business
organization it is completely based on the psychology of the
entrepreneur as to whether the organization can be revived or
shut down.
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3. Monetary theory: means the demand and supply of money is the

primary reason for economic fluctuations of a country.
4. Over investment theory: if the organizations and individuals
save more and invest a huge amount then their expectations on
increase in their returns.
5. Over savings/ under consumption theory: As per this theory
the increase in savings and investment will bring down the
consumption which will reduce the demand for goods in the
market.
6. Innovation theory: According to this theory more innovations
lead to new technology and new business that leads to prosperity
in the economy.
There are two types of business cycle models, they are (i) Exogenous
model; due to economic shocks like war. (ii) Endogenous model; trade
cycle because of factors which lie within the economic system.
A monetarist explanation: business cycles are essentially
monetary phenomena caused by changes in the money supply. Change in
money supply leads to change in employment and national income which
increases the price. The path to an increased price level is cyclical. The link
between changes in money supply and changes in income is known as the
transmission mechanism.

Review Questions:
1. Define Business cycle, list out its characteristic features.
2. Explain various phases of a business cycle.
3. Discuss the theories on business cycle.
4. Explain the managerial uses of business cycle.
5. Are cyclical fluctuations necessary for economic growth?

*****

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142

Lesson XI Inflation

Reading Objective:

The purpose of studying this chapter is to acquaint with economic
phenomenon of rising prices of goods and services. The law of demand
states the supply remaining constant whenever the demand increases the
prices will grow up. If this happens for a substantially continuous period it
is called as inflation. Depending upon the nature of the rise in prices the
inflation will be called as a creping inflation, walking inflation, running
inflation, galloping inflation and hyper inflation. The tendency of the rise
in prices is not always unwanted. In fact the moderate rise in prices may
lead to additional investment, production, employment and income. But
however the alarming rate of rise in prices may lead to distortions in the
economy. It may Rob Paul and Pay Peter. ie It will affect the fixed income
group of people and benefit the business community .This rise in the
prices will decrease the demand for goods and services and this in turn will
lead to fall in demand for production, investments, output, employment,
income and the GDP .Therefore there is a need for regulating it.
Lesson Outline:

Inflation
Types of inflation
Effects of inflation
Methods of controlling inflation
Review questions

143

Introduction

Inflation is an economic condition in which the aggregate prices
are always increasing in a country. The value of money is falling. Inflation
is nothing but too much of money chasing too few goods. For example
in Zimbabwe the inflationary rate is too high as more than 1000 % and
in turn they require bag full of money for a meal. And the value of their
currency is very low in the market. Inflation means not only sustainable
rise in the price of the goods and services, but the value of the currency
falls in the market and the supply of money in circulation is more.

Deflation is the opposite of inflation. It is a state of disequilibrium
in which a contraction of purchasing power tends to cause or is the effect
of a decline of the price level.

Types Of Inflation On The Basis Of Speed:

1. Creeping inflation: the inflationary rate is less than 2% that
means prices are increasing gradually.
2. Walking inflation: the inflationary rate of a country is around 5%
little more than creeping.
3. Running inflation: the rate of growth in prices are more i.e. the
inflation is growing at the rate of 10%.
4. Galloping inflation: higher growth rate compared to the earlier
stages i.e. the change is around 25%.
The major four types of inflation is depicted graphically in the following
graph. X axis denotes the year and Y axis for rise in price level. Based on
the elasticity and slope we can understand over a period of time sustainable
inflationary situation leads to higher level of inflation in the economy.

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Graph Types Of Inflation

On The Basis Of Inducement:

1. Deficit induced: the deficit in the balance of payments of the
country or fiscal deficit is the reasons for inflation. The value of
the currency is falling due to the above mentioned reasons.
2. Wage induced: due to higher wages and salaries the money supply
in the country increases leading to inflation.
3. Profit induced: higher the profit the organizations earn, they
tend to share with their stakeholders which induces the money
supply and reduces the value of money.
4. Scarcity induced: the raw material and other input factor scarcity
(for example petrol) may induce the price hike in the market.
5. Currency induced: the value of currency fluctuates due to various
internal and external forces.
6. Sectoral inflation: a particular sector of a country may be the
reason for economic growth or money supply. (for example in
India the growth in service sector particularly IT)
7. Foreign trade induced: if the country has unfavorable balance
of payments, that means the countrys exports are less than the
imports, then we need more of foreign currency to make payments
to the exporters ultimately this increases the demand for other
currencies in the market.
8. War time, Post war, Peace time: During war period the
government expenditure on various amenities will induce the
inflation and the production, availability of the commodities will
be low which leads to price hike. To settle down the economy after
war or natural calamities the government spending will be more.

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On the basis of extent of coverage:

Based on the coverage, economists classify the inflation as open
and repressed; Comprehensive and sporadic.
Effects Of Inflation On Various Economic Activities Of The
Country:
On Producers: Producers will earn more profit due to higher prices.
On debtors and creditors: Creditors will be happy to receive more returns
on their lending.
On wage and salary earners: Wage holders will struggle to purchase the
goods and services.
On fixed income group: Income is fixed but the value of the currency
is falling and prices are increasing therefore it is difficult to manage the
normal life. i.e. they are affected.
On investors: Investors will receive more returns on their investments.
On farmers: Farmers will suffer.
On social, moral and political effects: Due to money supply and higher
the cash in hand the social, moral values are declining in the society with
political disturbances.
Demand Pull Inflation:

Inflation will result if there is too much spending when compared
to output. Aggregate demand is greater than aggregate supply which leads
to price hike and inflation. An increase in aggregate demand when the
economy is at less than full employment level will result in an increase
in both price and output. If the economy is at full employment then the
demand will increase which leads to inflation.
Cost Push Inflation:

Inflation is caused by change in the supply side of the economy,
it increases cost of production, prices and inflation. Initially increase in
costs leads to a chain of wage increases which leads to increase in demand
and cost.

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Methods Of Controlling Inflation

Control Of Inflation:

It is clear that the inflationary situation in the long run is not going
to help the economy to grow. Therefore the Government has to take many
steps to overcome this problem. The given list of measures was taken
through monetary and fiscal policy of our country and is explained in
detail in the following chapters.
1.Monetary measures : to control inflation are:
Bank rate
Open market operations
Higher reserve ratio
Consumer credit control
Higher margin requirements
2.Fiscal measures:
Regulating to Government expenditure
Taxation
Public borrowing
Debt management
Over valuation of home currency
3.Others:
Wage policy
Price control measures and rationing the essential supplies
Moral suasion
Anti Inflationary Measures:

The two important tools of macro level economic policy are
monetary policy and fiscal policy. The monetary policy regulates the
supply of money and availability of credit in the economy. It deals with
both the lending and borrowing rates of interest for commercial banks.
These two tools are used to control inflation and mitigate its severity.
Monetary measures: Since too much money is the fundamental problem
in the economy, the central banking authorities use various instruments to
reduce the money supply and credit.

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Fiscal measures: By adopting suitable measures in taxation, public

expenditure and borrowing, the government can curb inflation. The
following chapter discusses these two measures in detail.

Review Questions
1. What is inflation? What are the types of inflation?
2. Write short note on demand pull inflation and cost push inflation.
3. List out the major factors influencing inflation in India.
4. Explain the effects of inflation on various groups of people in the
society.
5. Discuss the causes and control measures of the inflation.

*****

148

Lesson XII Monetary Policy

Reading Objective:

After reading this chapter the reader may be able to understand that
the monetary policy is the policy of the monetary authority namely central
bank of the country to achieve certain goals like controlling the inflation,
deflation, obtaining full employment and economic development of the
country. The objectives of the monetary policy may change from time to
time. In recent past, the people of India were appreciating the Honorable
finance minister Mr.P.Chidambaram, Dr.Y.V.Reddy the former Governor,
Reserve Bank of India and the Dr.D.Subba Rao the present Governor,
Reserve Bank of India for their deft handling of the economic condition of
India from without being affected by the global financial meltdown. The
Monetary authority of the country has certain tools in its hands and uses
it depending upon its understanding of the economic conditions of the
country.
Lesson Outline:

Monetary policy
Objectives of monetary policy of India
Instruments of monetary policy
Limitations of monetary policy
Review questions

149

Introduction

Monetary policy is an important economic tool which is used to
attain many macroeconomic goals. Monetary policy regulates the supply
of money and availability of credit in the economy. It deals with both the
lending and borrowing rates of interest of commercial banks. It aims to
maintain price stability, full employment and economic growth. Reserve
Bank of India (RBI) is responsible for formulating and implementing
monetary policy of India. It was announced twice a year (slack season and
busy season) but now once in a year. It refers to the credit control measures
adopted by the central bank of a country.

The efforts of monetary authorities to increase the benefits of
existing monetary system and to reduce the disabilities in the process of
economic development and growth can be called the monetary policy of
the country.

Objectives Of Monetary Policy Of India:

1. To achieve Price stability
2. To attain Exchange rate stability
3. To avoid the negative impacts of business cycle
4. To experience full employment position
Instruments: The major instruments used to achieve the above said
objectives are
Bank rate: The rate of interest charged by the RBI against the commercial
bank borrowings. If RBI increases the bank rate from 2% to 3% then the
commercial banks rate of interests will go up from for example 7% to 10%
which in turn reduce the public borrowings due to higher interests and
minimize the money circulation in the country.
Reserve ratio: CRR (Cash Reserve Ratio), SLR (statutory Liquidity Ratio)
the RBI insist on commercial banks to keep a certain percentage as reserve
in their hands for ensuring liquidity and regulating credit. The RBI can
increase the CRR from 3% to 15%. In case when the RBI increases CRR

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from 10% to 12% then the availability of money in the hands of banks will
come down. Thus the credit creating capacity of the commercial banks
will be reduced and money supply in the market also will be regulated.
Open market operation: RBI selling the government securities to the
public. In that case instead of having money in the hands the public will
receive certificates for a fixed time period and they will receive interest
against the same. But the money circulation among the public will be
reduced.
Margin requirements: Margin requirement for mortgaging against the
loans will be increased to reduce to credit and it will be reduced to increase
the credit flow.
Credit rationing: The loans and advances are provided only for production
purpose and for essential activities to cut down the money in circulation.
Moral suasion: RBI controls the commercial banks for creating loans and
advances by persuasion through issue of circular.
Direct actions: Sometimes RBI takes direct action against the credit
created by the banks in contravention of the RBI guide line to overcome
the inflationary situation.

Limitations Of Monetary Policy:

1. Monetary policy operates in a broad front
2. Success and failure depends on the banking system of the country
3. It has Institutional restrictions
4. Unorganized money market does not support the monetary policy
5. Existence of non monetized sector also defies RBIs regulation
6. It is not very effective in overcoming depression.

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Monetary Policy And Economic Development:

1. Economic development needs the support of credit planning
2. Improving the efficiency of banking system
3. Decide interest rates
4. Public debt management
Monetary policy refers to various decisions and measures of the monetary
authorities, state and central bank, influencing money supply and credit
situation in the monetary system as a whole with a view to full fill certain
macro economic goals. It deals with the cost of credit and the availability
of credit. Monetary policy is the attempt by the government or its agent,
the central bank, to manipulate monetary variables such as the rate of
interest or the money supply to achieve policy goals.

Review Questions:
1. What do you understand by monetary policy?
2. What are the objectives of monetary policy of India?
3. Explain the major instruments of monetary policy of our country.
4. List out the limitations of monetary policy of India.
5. Highlight the current monetary policy of India.

*****

152

Lesson XIII Fiscal Policy

Reading Objectives:

The purpose of introducing this part in the managerial economics
is to familiarize the candidate about the role played by the Government of
the country in fulfilling certain objectives like, economic stability, price
stability, achieving full employment, promoting exports and achieving
balanced regional growth through the tools like taxation, public barrowing
and deficit financing. These tools are mostly used only in its budget
proposals it may make clear the minds of the reader that the objectives of the
monetary policy and the fiscal policy are more or less the same. Therefore
to achieve the goals most often these two are used in combination. The
managerial economist while taking their managerial decisions will have to
keep in their mind these policies to take wise decisions.
Lesson Outline:

Fiscal policy
Objectives of fiscal policy of India
Key features of Budget 2012-13
Tax proposals
Receipts and expenditure of the government of India
Review questions

153

Introduction:

Fiscal policy is defined as the conscious attempt of the government
to achieve certain macro economic goals of policy by altering the volume
and pattern of its revenue and expenditures and the balance between them.
The major economic goals of fiscal policy are to maintain a high average
level of employment and business activity, to minimize fluctuations in
employment activity, prevent inflation and to produce and promote
economic growth.

The fiscal policy is used to control inflation through making
deliberate changes in government revenue and expenditure to influence
the level of output and prices. It is a budgetary policy. Fiscal policy is the
use of government taxes and spending to alter macroeconomic outcomes
of the country. During the great depression of the 1930s people were out
of work, they were unable to buy goods and services therefore government
had to increase, to regulate macroeconomic values and money supply.

The use of government spending and taxes to adjust aggregate
demand is the essence of fiscal policy. The simplest solution to the demand
shortfall would be to increase government spending. The government
increases its spending through construction of tanks, schools, highways.
This increased spending is a fiscal stimulus. Economic stability is a macro
goal of the fiscal policy of a country whether developed or developing. By
economic stabilization it means; controlling recession or depression and
price stability.

Objectives Of Fiscal Policy:

1. To maintain economic stability in the country
2. To bring Price stability
3. To achieve full employment
4. To provide social justice
5. To promote export and introduce import substitution
6. To mobilize more public revenue
7. To reallocate available resources
8. To achieve balanced regional growth.

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Instruments:

The major instruments to be used to control inflation and to
achieve the above said objectives are (i) Taxation (ii) Public borrowings
(iii) Deficit financing.

Fiscal policy deals with the government expenditure and its
composition. Government expenditures are classified into two categories
as capital expenditure and consumption expenditure. The spending on
construction of road, dams and others are called as capital expenditure.
Government expenditure on consumption of goods and services are called
as consumption expenditure. The interest paid by the government against
the borrowings or national debt is called as interest payment. Governments
transfer of money from one sector to other is called Transfer of payments.

Key Features Of Budget 2012-2013

For Indian economy, recovery was interrupted this year due to
intensification of debt crises in Euro zone, political turmoil in Middle East,
rise in crude oil price and earthquake in Japan. GDP is estimated to grow
by 6.9 per cent in 2011-12, after having grown at 8.4 per cent in preceding
two years. Growth moderated and fiscal balance deteriorated due to tight
monetary policy and expanded outlays. Manufacturing sectors are under
recovery period. The 12th five year plan is to be launched with the aim of
faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth.
Budget Estimates 2012-13
The major estimates are:
1. Gross Tax Receipts estimated at `10,77,612 crore.
2. Net Tax to Centre estimated at `7,71,071 crore.
3. Non-tax Revenue Receipts estimated at `1,64,614 crore.
4. Non-debt Capital Receipts estimated at `41,650 crore.
Temporary arrangement to use disinvestment proceeds for capital
expenditure in social sector schemes extended for one more year. Total
expenditure for 2012-13 budgeted at 14,90,925 crores. Plan expenditure

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for 2012-13 at 5,21,025 crore is 18 per cent higher than Budget Expenditure
of 2011-12. This is higher than 15 per cent projected in Approach to the
Twelfth Plan. Non-plan expenditure estimated at 9,69,900 crore. 3,65,216
crore estimated to be transferred to States including direct transfers to
States and district level implementing agencies. Entire amount of subsidy
is given in cash and not as bonds in lieu of subsidies. Fiscal deficit has
reduced from 5.9 to 5.1 per cent of GDP in 2012-13. Net market borrowing
required to finance the deficit to be 4.79 lakh crore in 2012-13. Central
Government debt is 45.5 per cent of GDP in 2012-13 as compared to
Thirteenth Finance Commission target of 50.5 per cent. Effective Revenue
Deficit to be 1.8 per cent of GDP in 2012-13.

Tax Proposals On Direct Taxes:

1. Exemption limit for the general category of individual taxpayers
proposed to be enhanced from 1,80,000 to 2,00,000 giving tax
relief of 2,000.
2. The upper limit of 20 per cent tax slab proposed to be raised from
`8 lakh to `10 lakh.
3. Proposal to allow individual tax payers, a deduction of upto
`10,000 for interest from Savings bank accounts and upto 5,000
for preventive health check up.
4. Senior citizens not having income from business, proposed to be
exempted from payment of advance tax.
5. Restriction on Venture Capital Funds to invest only in 9 specified
sectors proposed to be removed.
6. Proposal to continue to allow repatriation of dividends from
foreign subsidiaries of Indian companies at a lower tax rate of 15
per cent upto 31.3.2013.
7. Investment link deduction of capital expenditure for certain
businesses proposed to be provided at the enhanced rate of 150
per cent.
8. New sectors to be added for the purposes of investment linked
deduction.
9. Proposal to extend weighted deduction of 200 per cent for R&D

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expenditure in an in house facility for a further period of 5 years

beyond March 31, 2012.
10. Proposal to provide weighted deduction of 150 per cent on
expenditure incurred for Agri-extension services.
11. Proposal to extend the sunset date for setting up power sector
undertakings by one year for claiming 100 per cent deduction of
profits for 10 years.
12. Turnover limit for compulsory tax audit of account and
presumptive taxation of SMEs to be raised from `60 lakhs to `1
crore.
13. Exemption from Capital Gains tax on sale of residential property,
if sale consideration is used for subscription in equity of a
manufacturing SME for purchase of new plant and machinery.
14. Proposal to provide weighted deduction at 150 per cent of
expenditure incurred on skill development in manufacturing
sector.
15. Reduction in securities transaction tax by 20 per cent on cash
delivery transactions.
16. Proposal to extend the levy of Alternate Minimum Tax to all
persons, other than Companies, claiming profit linked deductions.
17. Proposal to introduce General Anti Avoidance Rule to counter
aggressive tax avoidance scheme.
18. Measures proposed to deter the generation and use of unaccounted
money.
19. A net revenue loss of `4,500 crore estimated as a result of Direct
Tax proposals.
Indirect Taxes
Service Tax


Service tax confronts challenges of its share being below its
potential, complexity in tax law, and need to bring it closer to Central
Excise Law for eventual transition to GST. Overwhelming response to the
new concept of taxing services based on negative list.

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1. Proposal to tax all services except those in the negative list comprising
of 17 heads.
2. Exemption from service tax is proposed for some sectors.
3. Service tax law to be shorter by nearly 40 per cent.
4. Number of alignment made to harmonize Central Excise and Service
Tax. A common simplified registration form and a common return
comprising of one page are steps in this direction.
5. Revision Application Authority and Settlement Commission being
introduced in
Service Tax for dispute resolution.
6. Utilization of input tax credit permitted in number of services to
reduce cascading of taxes.
7. Place of Supply Rules for determining the location of service to be put
in public domain for stakeholders comments.
8. Study team to examine the possibility of common tax code for Central
Excise and Service Tax.
9. New scheme announced for simplification of refunds.
10. Rules pertaining to point of taxation are being rationalized.
11. To maintain a healthy fiscal situation proposal to raise service tax rate
from 10 per cent to 12 per cent, with corresponding changes in rates
for individual services.
12. Proposals from service tax expected to yield additional revenue of
`18,660 crore.
Other Proposals For Indirect Taxes
13. Excise duty on large cars also proposed to be enhanced. No change
proposed in the peak rate of customs duty of 10 per cent on
nonagricultural goods.
14. To stimulate investment relief proposals for specific sectors - especially
those under stress.

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Agriculture and Related Sectors: Basic customs duty reduced for certain
agricultural equipment and their parts; Full exemption from basic customs
duty for import of equipment for expansion or setting up of fertilizer
projects up to March 31, 2015.
Infrastructure: Proposal for full exemption from basic customs duty and
a concessional CVD of 1 per cent to steam coal till 31st March, 2014. Full
exemption from basic duty provided to certain fuels for power generation.
Mining: Full exemption from basic customs duty to coal mining project
imports. Basic custom duty proposed to be reduced for machinery and
instruments needed for surveying and prospecting for minerals.
Railways: Basic custom duty proposed to be reduced for equipments
required for installation of train protection and warning system and
upgradation of track structure for high speed trains.
Roads: Full exemption from import duty on certain categories of specified
equipment needed for road construction, tunnel boring machines and
parts of their assembly.
Civil Aviation: Tax concessions proposed for parts of aircraft and testing
equipment for third party maintenance, repair and overhaul of civilian
aircraft.
Manufacturing: Relief proposed to be extended to sectors such as steel,
textiles, branded readymade garments, low-cost medical devices, labourintensive sectors producing items of mass consumption and matches
produced by semi-mechanized units.
Health and Nutrition: Proposal to extend concessional basic customs
duty of 5 per cent with full exemption from excise duty/CVD to 6 specified
life saving drugs/vaccines. Basic customs duty and excise duty reduced on
Soya products to address protein deficiency among women and children.
Basic customs duty and excise duty reduced on Iodine. Basic customs duty
reduced on Probiotics.
Environment: Concessions and exemptions proposed for encouraging the
consumption of energy-saving devices, plant and equipment needed for

159

solar thermal projects. Concession from basic customs duty and special
CVD being extended to certain items imported for manufacture for hybrid
or electric vehicle and battery packs for such vehicles. There is a proposal
to increase basic customs duty on imports of gold and other precious
metals.

Additional Resource Mobilization

Proposals to increase excise duty on demerit goods such as certain
cigarettes, hand-rolled bidis, Pan Masala, Gutkha, chewing tobacco,
unmanufactured tobacco and zarda scented tobacco. Cess on crude
petroleum oil produced in India revised to `4,500 per metric tonne. Basic
customs duty proposed to be enhanced for certain categories of completely
built units of large cars/MUVs/SUVs.
Central Outlay By Sectors (In Crores)
Sectors

Budget outlay

Agriculture

14855

Rural development

48128

Irrigation

489

Energy

155495

Industry and minerals

40581

Transport

109205

Communication

11994

Science & technology and

environment

12713

General economic services

1942

Social services

148060

General services

5536

Total

558172

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The above table indicates that the central outlay for year 2012-13.
It is clear that the highest amount spent on energy which is the need of the
hour followed by social services and transportation. But in other hand the
amount spent on irrigation is very low.

Receipts And Expenditure Of The Government Of India

The Receipts And Expenditure Of The Central Government

The table shows the various receipts and expenditure of the
government which implies that the revenue earned through tax or non tax

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sources are growing year after year. It is estimated to have more revenue
deficit. The revenue deficits are lesser than the fiscal deficit of the country.
The detailed schedule with the percentage change is discussed in the table.

It is concluded that both monetary and fiscal policies are
complementary. The monetary policy influences the money supply,
currency and deposits in banks and the cost of borrowing it. Fiscal policy
is concerned with money which flows in and out of the treasury by means
of taxation, public borrowings, government expenditures and management
of public debt. There fore without coordination of both the policies, in
developing economy the desired objectives cannot be realized.

Review Questions
1. What do you mean by fiscal policy?
2. Briefly explain the instruments of fiscal policy.
3. Give the highlights of the current budget 2012-13.
4. Discuss the central outlay by major sectors.
5. Describe the current receipts and expenditure of central
government of India.
Exercises:

(a) Suppose that you are a member of the Board of
Governors of the RBI. The economy is experiencing a sharp and prolonged
inflationary trend. What changes in
(i) Reserve Ratio
(ii) The discount rate and
(iii) Open market operations
Would you recommend? Explain in each case as to how the changes you
advocate would affect commercial bank reserves, the money supply,
interest rates and aggregate demand.

(b) Suppose that you are a member of the Board of
Governors of the RBI. The economy is experiencing a sharp and prolonged
inflationary trend. What changes in a) reserve ratio b) the discount rate
and c) open market operation would you recommend? Explain in each

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case how the change you advocate would affect commercial bank reserves,
the money supply, interest rates and aggregate demand.

(c) Given the following data about the economy:

Consumption

7000

Investment

5000

Proprietors income

2500

Corporate income taxes

2150

Government expenses

3000

Profits

2500

Wages

7000

Net exports

2750

Rents

250

Depreciation

250

Indirect business taxes

1000

Undistributed corporate profits

600

Net foreign factor income

30

Interest

1500

Social security contribution

Transfer payments

Personal taxes

1650

i. Calculate GDP and GNP with both the expenditure and income
approach
ii. Calculate NDP, NNP,NI and Domestic income
iii. Calculate Personal income.
iv. Calculate Disposable Personal income.

*****

163

164

UNIT V

Lesson XIV Economic Environment And Transition In Indian

Economy

Reading Objectives:

The objective of reading this part of the information is to keep the
students/ readers informed about the latest developments taking place in
our country and also the environment around us and give an introduction
of the New Economic Policy. This shows that a structural change in the
economy has taken place. India has moved away from protectionist policy
to globalizing the Indian economy by liberalizing and privatizing the
industries. The licensing system have been done away excepting a small
number of items, thus creating a new economic environment in which
the managers will have to function. There may be certain negative effects
of globalization but by and large it has facilitated the Indian economy to
grow at a faster rate.

Lesson Outline:

Economic growth and development

Sources of economic growth and development
Pre and post transition
Liberalization
Privatization
Globalization
Review questions

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Introduction

Economic growth is the foremost objective of macroeconomic
policies.
Higher the economic growth higher the national income
which will help solve problems of poverty, unemployment, inflation, and
international trade of a country.
Y
Growth rate = ------------- P
Y = real income (NNP at factor cost)
P = population

Economic growth implies more output and economic development
implies both increase in output and changes in the technology and
institutional arrangement by which it is produced. Input efficiency leads
to growth, allocation of input by sector leads to development. Economic
development is the outcome of conscious and deliberate efforts involved
in planning. Economic growth signifies the progress of an economy under
the stimulus of certain favorable circumstances.

Sources Of Economic Growth And Development:

Economic Factors:
1. Natural resources: Without natural resources it is difficult to
achieve economic development. It highly depends on factor
endowment.
2. Human Resource and population growth: Labour is the most
active factor of production. Therefore sufficient number of quality
labour force is essential.
3. Capital formation and accumulation: Economic growth is a
function of capital formation of a country. Without capital
mobilization it is impossible to develop the economy.
4. Technological progress: Advancement of technology is a key factor
for development and it helps to utilize resources in an effective
manner.
5. Entrepreneurship: Without strong risk taking entrepreneurs an
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industry cannot innovate and introduce new products to the

society.
6. Investment criteria: The investment policy and regulation of a
country improves the investment and in turn helps the economy
to grow at a faster rate.
7. Removal of market imperfection: To develop a countries economy
removal of imperfect market and reducing monopoly market are
essential.
8. Capital output ratio: High capital output ratio indicates the
increase in productivity of capital invested.
Non Economic Factors:
1. Desire for development: Desire to grow in the right direction is
important for the economic development of a country.
2. Widespread education: The growth in the educational sector will
help the society to grow at a faster rate.
3. Social and industrial reforms: Liberal social system, and reduced
disparity helps the economy to grow.
4. Good government: Establishment of consistent law and order is
essential to grow internationally.
Pre Requisites Of Economic Growth:
1. Population growth
2. Removal of monopoly
3. Optimum utilization of resources
4. Development planning and
5. Financial stability
Meier and Baldwin have listed the following areas as important for
government action
1. Government may establish markets
2. Government may establish enterprises at high risk and low profit .

3. Government direction is needed to promote external economies

for balanced growth.
The Government of India set up the Central Statistical Organization

167

(CSO) to monitor the economic growth and expenditure of various

goods and services. The available data from CSO provides the valuable
information on the ongoing economic transition in India.
Table Government Outlay (1950 2011)
Year

GNP

NNP

PCNNP

I plan

1951-56

1.8

1.5

-0.3

II plan

1956-61

9.5

9.4

7.3

III plan

1961-66

9.6

9.5

3.1

Three annual plans

1966-69

12.2

12.2

9.8

IV plan

1969-74

11.1

11

8.5

V plan

1974-79

10.7

10.4

7.9

Annual plan

1979-80

9.4

8.3

5.7

VI plan

1980-85

15.2

15.1

12.7

VII plan

1985-90

14.4

14.2

11.8

Two annual plans

1990-92

15.7

15.5

13.2

VIII plan

1992-97

16.3

16.3

14

IX plan

1997-2002

10.7

10.8

8.8

X plan

2002-2007

12.6

12.4

10.7

Pre Transition:

The economic scenario provided before the adoption of the New
Economic Policy were,
1. Highly autarkic economy: India was experiencing autarky and
closed economic system.
2. Centralized planning: All economic plans were centralized and
controlled at the centre.
3. Protectionist trade policies: Trade policy was closed and not
opened to the world. I.e. it was following a protectionist trade
policy.
4. High tariffs and non tariff barriers: India had high level of tariff
and non tariff trade barriers
5. Capital controls: The capital market was controlled by the
government of India.

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6. Import substitution: Our country had been adopting import

restrictions with large import substitutions.
7. State owned public sector industries: Most of the industries
were owned by the central or state government before economic
reforms.
8. State controlled financial sector: The financial sector was
controlled and monitored by the government.
9. Import Restrictions: Reservation policies like quota system were
followed for imports.
10. Regulated markets: Market for all commodities was regulated by
the government.
11. Administrative prices: Market price was regulated with the help
of price ceiling and by adopting dual pricing policy.
Post Transition:

The economic scenario prevailing as on date i.e. after the adoption
of the New Economic Policy in India after 1991 are:
1. Deregulation and liberalization of the Industries
2. Lowering of the tariffs and easing of import licensing requirements.
3. Export incentives were provided to the exporters to promote
exports.
4. Special Economic Zones were established to promote exports and
encourage exports.
5. Single window licensing policy.
6. Declining incidence of poverty.
7. Divestment of public sector units.
8. Liberalization of the banking and financial sectors.
9. Promotion of Foreign Direct Investments.
10. Tax incentives for capital investment in domestic and foreign
markets
11. Managed exchange rate in the place of controlled exchange rate.
12. Portfolio investment strengthened.

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Barriers To The Faster Economic Growth:

1. Low productivity levels: The economy was opened up but the
productivity level was low to compete in the market.
2. Infrastructure deficiencies: Infrastructure facilities of our
country have not fully improved to meet the targeted economic
growth.
3. Rising public sector debts: The government borrowings and
accumulated debt were high.
4. High subsidies fostering inefficiency: Government provided
more subsidies which in turn increased the inefficiency of the
organizations.
5. Low literacy levels: The literacy rates have not increased at a
faster rate to compete in the open economy.
6. Demographic deficiencies: The demographic deficiencies, did
not support the transitional policies of our country.
7. Rigid labour laws: The labour laws were not favorable to bring in
more Human Resource
8. Functioning of judicial system: Our legal environment also has
not been supportive towards the liberalization of the country.
9. Campaigns against cultural consumerism: Due to transition the
consumer behaviour of the society has changed and hence we are
able to see the cultural commonality, and also campaigns against
the cultural consumerism.
10. Corruption: Along with economic changes corruption has been
pervasive at all levels and has increased.
Growth Potentials Of The Indian Economy Especially After Transition:
1. Large potential markets: Both urban and rural markets of India
are growing at a faster rate.
2. Booming IT and Biotech sectors: India occupies a leading
position in the world in these sectors.
3. Highly professional and scientific manpower: India is having
the third largest technically qualified man Power.
4. Trend towards political decentralization: Now the trend has
started towards decentralization.
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5. Dominant player in south Asian region in certain areas of

economic activity.
6. Competitive Environment has already set in almost all spheres
of life.
Inspite of all the above stated barriers India has great potential to grow
in the future. The major reasons for the growth of the economy are
liberalization of our economy followed by privatization and globalization.

Liberalisation, Privatisation And Globalisation (LPG)

Need For Liberalization:

India has vast natural resources and abundant manpower but our
contribution in the world trade is less than 1%. India has low Per capita
income and Net National product. To improve the same, liberalization has
been recommended. Under the direction of the former Prime Minister P.V.
Narashima Rao the economic reform process was resorted to improve the
position of the Indian economy in the world and to solve the problems of
trade deficit.
Path To Liberalization:

The Government has to release the economy from the restrictive
rules and regulations followed earlier. It was appropriate on the part of the
government of India to implement globalization strategy to pave the way
for economic liberalization.

The Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) model
was developed in 1991 by the then finance minister Dr. Manmohan
singh under the direction of the Prime Minister Shri.P.V.Naraimha Rao .
Structural changes in the Indian economy were :
1. End of the private sector: The government decided to transfer the
loss making public sector units to the private, but there were no
takers, therefore the government went for disinvestment of the
public enterprises including profit making units.
2. Government permitted private sector to set up individual units
without license.

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3. The investment ceiling was lifted and hence the private investment
could go up to any level.
4. The Government approved up to 51% FDI. No permission was
required for hiring foreign technicians and technology.
5. Rehabilitation schemes to reconstruct the sick public sector
enterprises. (board for industrial and financial reconstruction)
BIFR was established.
6. Greater autonomy was given to manage Public sector units.
7. Economy was opened to other countries to encourage exports.
Therefore it encouraged private participation and expected the
rise in exports from India.
Reasons For Implementing The Policy Of Liberalization, Privatization
And Globalization:
1. Excess consumption and expenditure over revenue have been
experienced resulting in heavy government borrowings.
2. Growing in-efficiency in the use of resources.
3. Mismanagement of firms and the economy.
4. Losses of public sector enterprises.
5. Various distortions like poor technological development, shortage
of foreign exchange, borrowing, mismanagement of foreign
exchange reserves etc., have distorted the Economic growth.
6. Low foreign exchange reserves.
7. Burden of national debt and
8. Inflationary pressure on the economy.
Weakness Of LPG Model:
The major weaknesses of Indias LPG model were:
1. Narrow focus
2. Free entry of MNCs
3. Agricultural sector was bypassed
4. Facilitated more imports
5. Capital intensive development

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Liberalization:

Relaxation of government restriction in social and economic
policies was called as liberalization. Trade liberalization means removing
the tariff restriction on the flow of goods and services between countries.
Liberalization is a pre requisite for privatization. Capital market should
be developed to absorb the changes. In India the people were allowed to
start their business without getting license except in limited fields. Due to
this, a number of firms have been started domestically which increased the
production and expanded the market.
Privatization:

Privatization means transfer of assets or service functions from

public to private ownership through franchising, leasing, contracting and

divesture. Disinvestment means disposal of public sector units, equity to
the private sectors. Privatization helps the public sector to modernize,
diversify and make their business more competitive. It increases managerial
efficiency of the organization and revives sick units. But it may result in
income inequality, causing difficulty in maintaining social justice and
public welfare.

Privatization means sale of nationalized industrial units to the
private sector and transferring the revenue available from the public sector
to the private sector by adopting any one of the following methods.
1. Sale of part of nationalized industries to the private
2. Sale of individual assets of Government bodies to the private
3. Creation of competitive spirit of the private sector to the state
enterprises.
Arguments In Favor Of Privatization:
1. Cost: Private sector has productive efficiency therefore their cost
of production have been less than the cost of the goods produced
in the public enterprises.
2. Choice and quality: Private sector spends more on R&D and
they can produce more variety with better quality and offer more

173

3.
4.
5.

6.

choice to the customers, due to their allocative efficiency.

Innovation: Private sectors have efficiency in innovating new
models.
The Invisible hand of the market: Free market forces will ensure
the optimal allocation of resources.
Wider share of ownership: The ownership of the business is well
spread throughout the country and not held in one or in a few
hands.
Reduction in public borrowing and state spending: Privatization
reduces the government borrowings and spending.

Problems Of Privatization

Privatization created more monopoly in the market and inequality

in pricing which had led to negative externalities. Only through creation

of competition and with regulatory measures we can control and minimize
the problems of privatization in the economy.
Why should government own and run firms?
Lower cost: Public sector organizations were productively efficient and
have economies of scale.
Better management: Government organizations have better management
system than private.
Control of monopolies: Public sector enterprises will reduce and control
the monopoly market.
Maximum benefit: Government provides maximum of net social benefits
and not profit.
Greater control of the economy: Public sector can control the economy to
a greater extent.
Fair distribution of resources: The available resources are allocated in an
effective manner.

Apart from the above mentioned reasons Public sector is more
efficient than private organizations. Private enterprises exploit workers
and consumers more than the public sector enterprises. Profit is not the
sole motive for public sector enterprises.

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Globalization

Globalization means integrating the domestic economy with the
world economy, moving towards a new world economic order which leads
to integrated financial markets and trade. Globalization improves the
effective allocation of resources and expenditure of a country along with
economic growth. Globalization has helped developed countries more
than the developing countries. Globalization has completely transformed
the way Indian business used to operate.

Globalization is a process of integration of the world into one
market by removal of all the political, geographical trade and business
barriers among nations. Indian businesses should formulate the following
strategies to overcome the challenges posed by globalization.
1.Behavioral strategy: continuous up gradation of skills, knowledge and
technology of Human Resource is important for empowerment. Efforts
should be made to develop a comprehensive version of managerial strategy
which helps to improve the decision making skills and problem solving
skills of the managers.
2.Operational strategy: producing quality products and maintaining the
international quality is essential in the globalised market. Organizations
must use various methods like TQM, JIT, Kaizen and others to improve
the operational efficiency. Therefore organizations should plan a gradual
transition in technological up gradation.
3.Marketing strategy: to maximize customer satisfaction, to render better
services, and to introduce e-marketing, net marketing etc., Various
marketing strategies should be followed to improve retail environment.
4.Investment for growing FDI: Due consideration should be given to the
exchange rate, other risks like political risk and economic risk.
5.Governance: the business situation changed dramatically over the
last few years. Quality is important for sustainable development in this
competitive environment. Business opportunities are more with tough
competition. Therefore good governance will maximize the value of
shareholders wealth.

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6.Risk management strategy: international business is complex in nature

and it leads to various types of risks. Which can be managed by insurance,
letter of credit, joint ventures, but the top management should consider
broader business strategies to define and overcome these risks.
Effects Of Globalization On Indian Economy
1. Indias share in the world export have increased from .53% (1950)
to 1 % (2005)
2. Foreign exchange reserves had increased to $180billion (2007)
3. Export growth has increased to a maximum of 20 percent per
annum.
4. Current account deficit of 3% has reduced to 1.1%.
5. Reduction in external debt crisis from 8 billion in 1990 to $3billion
in 2006
Benefits to consumers: Consumers were able to get large variety of goods
with improved quality at a reasonable price.
Globalizing - World Evidence:
1. Expanding Trade
2. Increasing capital flow
3. Rising tourism and migration
4. Linking of farthest corners of the world by new technology.
Forces Of Globalization:
1. Revolutionary changes have taken place in the field of Information
technology.
2. Advancement in travel and transportation
3. Liberalization of trade regimes
4. Emergence of trading blocs

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Upshot Of Globalization:
1. Unprecedented economic growth
2. Multi-locational manufacturing
3. Surge in international trade
4. Explosive growth in capital movements
5. Increase in labour movement
6. Emergence of cultural commonalities
The Way Forward:
1. Build on your strength
2. Develop a global force
3. Achieve excellence in areas of ones comparative advantage
4. Build up an effective regulatory system
5. Develop a good social security network
Thus we can conclude by saying that globalization is progressing well world
over, whether we like it or not it is bringing together different nations as
one. We can see the evidence in the Indian economy. Government of India
has also taken many steps towards globalization which has its own merits
and demerits. It is evident that India has potential to face the situation.
This is the macroeconomic environment prevailing in India as well as in
other parts of the world.

Review Questions:
1. Distinguish between economic growth and economic development.
2. List out the sources of economic growth and development of
India.
3. Describe the pre and post economic scenario of India.
4. What are the major barriers to our economic transition?
5. Discuss the growth potential of the Indian economy after
transition.
6. Justify the need for Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization
of our country.

177

7. What are the major weaknesses of LPG?

8. Why government should own and run firms?
9. Define privatization. What are the advantages and disadvantages
of privatization of public enterprise in India?
10. Discuss the effects of globalization on consumers, business and
economy.

*****

178

Lesson XV Business And Government

Reading Objectives:

In the initial stages of planning, the Government was given a prime
of place in the industrial development of our country. Thats why the public
enterprises were in commanding heights in the Indian economy. The
approach of the Government towards economic development is changing
and therefore the reader will also have to understand these changes .
Now a days the concept of public private participation has been gaining
importance world over and also in India. India has adopted this concept
especially in the tertiary sector through projects that strengthen road
ways, railways, bus terminal projects and urban infra structure projects
like solid waste management.
Lesson Outline:

Role of government in India

Public Private Participation
Reasons for Failure of PPP
Review questions

179

Introduction

Government of India directly or indirectly plays a major role in
assisting, encouraging and directing private sector, providing infrastructure
facilities, controlling private economic activity, promoting public and joint
sectors and planning, formulating framework for sustainable economic
development of the country. Overall economy is regulated through fiscal,
monetary policy and trade policies to participate in the globalization.

Role Of Government In India:

1. Individual freedom: Consumers enjoy freedom of consumption,
production and process,
2. Coexistence of public and private sector: Basic industries
requiring heavy investment, and social welfare activities belong
to the public sector and the rest to the private sector.
3. Planning: Detailed planning is for public sector, broader targets
are for the private.
4. Social welfare: Policies are framed to develop backward regions,
increasing employment and infrastructure facilities.
There are various ways in which the government may influence business
operations in a country.
1. Public Enterprises: Sometimes government may involve in the
production of goods and services. If the commodity is a necessary
one and the supply of the commodity is optimized by the
government, It may maximizes the social welfare of the society.
2. Price fixation: The government insists on maximum retail price
to stabilize the price level in the market. Depending upon the
political and economic conditions the government may raise the
prices.
3. Subsidies: States and the Central Government of India provides
various kinds of subsidies to the domestic producers and for the
exporters through various schemes.
4. Direct and Indirect Intervention: Through taxation, Government

180

intervenes in the business directly and indirectly through the

quota system .
5. Control of Monopoly: Monopoly enterprise is harmful to the
welfare of consumers. The government of India passed Monopoly
and Restrictive Trade Practice Act (MRTP) to control them.
Thus the government may participate in the production activities along
with the private enterprise in an economy beside controlling, regulating and
governing the activities of the latter in the general interest of maximizing
the welfare of the people of the country.
Economic Environment Trough Public Private Participation (PPP)

Public Private Participation (PPP) is defined as cooperative

institutional arrangements between public and private enterprise which

has gained wide interest around the world. PPP model is a new way to
handle infrastructure projects. It can benefit both the public and private
sector enterprise. Both the sectors have certain special merits and if we
combine them the result will be better for all with new products and service.
These projects involve many forms of contractual arrangements which are
long term in nature. This reduces pressure on government budgets and
increases value for money in infrastructure.1

According to Van Ham and Koppenjan PPP are co-operation of
some sort of durable activity between public and private actors in which
they jointly develop products and services and share risks, costs and
resources which are connected with these products
The major arrangements between the public and private participation
are:
1. Institutional cooperation.
2. Long term infrastructure contracts. Like construction of Roads
for the public use which reduces the pressure on the exchequer,
but benefits the private through way toll fee.
3. Community development
4. Urbanization and
5. Economic development

181


Both the central government and states are increasingly using the
PPP mode to meet the gaps in the provision of basic services. For the past
10 years India has attracted more private investments which are complex
in nature. Comprehensive cross cutting PPP legislations have been used
more extensively in countries that operate under the civil code. It often
covers aspects such as, specifying which sectors PPP operate in, how
to set tariffs for PPPs, the role of different institution in PPP program,
procurement of PPPs and dispute resolution procedures.
According To The World Bank Report

In Australia, the national government has virtually no role in
state level PPPs. In Canada, the federal governments PPP office acts as a
resource center and promoter of the benefits of rationale for using PPPs,
rather than acting as an advisory body. In South Africa the treasurys PPP
unit plays a role in both guidance and approval. Brazil intends to establish
capacities at the national level to offer detailed guidance to the states in the
development of PPPs.
PPPs in India

Infrastructure shortages are proving as key constraints in sustaining
and expanding Indian economic growth. To overcome this problem India
has decided to double the investment in the next 5 years and one third of
the investment is funded by the private sector. The Government of India
is promoting the expansion of PPP in improving infrastructure facilities
including highways, ports, power and telecom. India follows public
contracting, joint ventures, long term contractual agreements like BOT,
BOOT, BOLT etc.,. In India more than Rs.1000 billion worth PPP projects
are under progress.
Government Of Indias Definition:

According to the government of India , PPP project means a project
based on a contract or concession agreement, between a government or
statutory entity on the one side and a private sector company on the other
side, for delivering an infrastructure service on payment of user charges.
Private Sector Company means a company other than the public and
cooperative enterprise.

182


PPP broadly refers to long term contractual partnerships between
the public and private sector agencies, specifically targeted towards
financing, designing, implementing and operating infrastructure facilities
and services that were traditionally provided by the public sector.
Characteristic Features Of PPPs:
1. Cooperative and contractual relationship: To establish
complementary relationship between the public and private
enterprises. Normally PPPs are for more than 10 years therefore
cooperation is essential to build and strengthen the relationship
in a contractual agreement.
2. Shared responsibilities: The responsibilities are shared based on
the nature of the project and are not always equal.
3. A method of procurement: Through PPPs government procures
the capital, assets or infrastructure and is allowed to play major
roles in planning, finance, design, operation and maintenance.
4. Risk transfer: The government sector transfers the risks to the
private sector that has skills and experience to manage the same.
5. Flexible ownership: The ownership of PPP projects may or may
not be retained by the government .Sometimes private sector
provides only facilities and planning but does not take up the
ownership.
PPP appraisal committee (PPPAC) consists of secretary of Planning
commission, Department of expenditure, Department of legal affairs and
the Department sponsoring the project. Under the chairmanship of the
secretary of department of economic affairs the activities are undertaken.
1. Ministry of finance will be the nodal center for examining,
scrutinizing and making concession agreements.
2. Planning commission will set up a PPP appraisal unit to prepare a
report for improving the concession terms.
3. Department of legal affairs will scrutinize the legal perspective
4. Planning commission and finance ministry will engage experts to
undertake due diligence.
5. For final approval the projects are sent to a competent authority.

183

Benefits Of PPP:
To the public sector: PPP helps the government in raising capital, expertise
and infrastructure to render better service in an effective manner to the
general public.
To the private sector: Private sector gets long term business opportunities,
building relationship with the government and private sector for better
understanding and assistance.

But on the other hand the public sector can lose its control and
efficiency. This may also become time consuming and expensive instead of
cost effective. Some times private sectors may not be flexible in agreements.
Reasons For Failure Of Some PPP Projects


The major reasons for the failure of some PPP projects are
insufficient resources, poor drafts, lack of experience and inadequate
monitoring.

In India over 70% of the projects were on strengthening road
ways and railways and building ports. 11 PPP projects dealt with urban
infrastructure of which 8 were on solid waste management, 2 water
and sanitation and 1 bus terminal project under progress. The total cost
awarded was $339 billion of which 55% was used for ports, 36% for road
ways and 5% on airport development. Confederation of Indian Industries
(CII) has organized many training programs at central and state level.
Many government organizations and civil servants have participated in
it. India could consider the policy legislature framework and information
dissemination to strengthen funds for preparation of PPP projects.
Review Questions:
1. Explain the role of Government in Indian business.
2. Discuss the major support rendered by the government of India
towards business.What is PPP?
3. What are the benefits of PPP? Discuss in the point of view of a
business man and as an individual.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of PPP in India.
*****
184

Lesson XVI Industrial Finance And Foreign Direct Investments

Reading Objectives:

The reader may be able to understand that the foreign investments
into India have always been viewed with suspicion and hence have always
been a controversy. However Government has realized the importance
of allowing foreign investments in various sectors like, investment in
companies, investment in telecom sector, etc. The foreign investments
may come in the form of foreign direct investments, foreign institutional
investments and foreign private investments also. The existing laws like
FERA, Companies act, IRDA act, etc have been amended to provide room
for the private investments into India. It may have positive effects in the
investments in the insurance sector and also in the companies but at the
same time it can also set disturbing trends in the capital market due to
heavy outflow ,example- investments in telecom sector which is rocking
the Indian parliament. But however the benefits of FDIs and FIIs are more
than the problems creaed or likely to create in the country.
Lesson Outline:

Industrial finance
Foreign Direct Investment
Advantages and disadvantages of FDI
FDI in India
Cross border Mergers and Acquisitions
Review questions

185

Industrial Finance

Finance is the life blood of business. It is of vital significance
for modern business which requires huge capital. Funds required for a
business may be classified as long term and short term. It is required for
purchasing fixed assets like land, building, machinery etc., the capital
required to purchase fixed assets is called as fixed capital.
Purpose Of Industrial Finance:
To finance fixed assets
To finance the permanent part of working capital
To finance the growth and expansion of business.

The nature of business determines the amount of fixed capital.
Nature of goods produced determines the level of financial requirement.
If a business is engaged in manufacturing small and simple articles then
it requires small amount of capital. The financial need depends upon the
technology adopted in the organization. The major sources of finance are:
shares, debentures, public deposits, retained earnings, term loans from
bank, loans from financial institution etc.,.

The financial sources are expanded and a major source of finance
comes from foreign direct investment (FDI) due to our economic reforms.

Foreign Direct Investment

Foreign capital plays a vital role in the industrialization and economic
development of a country, as it forms one of the essential determinants
of economic growth of developing countries. Over the past two decades
many countries around the world have experienced substantial growth
in their economies with even faster growth in international transactions,
especially in the form of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The share of
FDI in the world GDP has grown fivefold.

FDI refers to the net inflows of investments to acquire a lasting
management interest (10% or more of voting stock) in an enterprise
operating in an economy other than that of the investor.

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FDI = Equity capital + reinvestment of earnings + short term

capital + long term capital.

FDI is classified as inward FDI and outward FDI. It can be a loan,
collaboration or borrowing. The major investors in FDI are individual,
group, private and public entity.
Need For FDI In India

As India is a developing country, capital has been one of the scarce
resources that are usually required for economic development. Capital is
limited and there are many issues such as Health, poverty, employment,
education, research and development, technology obsolesce, global
competition. The flow of FDI in India from across the world will help
in acquiring the funds at cheaper cost, better technology, employment
generation, and upgraded technology transfer, scope for more trade,
linkages and spillovers to domestic firms. The following arguments are
advanced in favor of foreign capital

Sustaining a high level of investment: As all the under-developed
and the developing countries want to industrialize and develop themselves,
therefore it becomes necessary to raise the level to investment substantially.
Due to poverty and low GDP the saving are low. Therefore there is a
need to fill the gap between income and savings through foreign direct
investments.

Technological gap: In Indian scenario we need technical assistance
from foreign source for provision if expert services, training of Indian
personnel and educational, research and training institutions in the
industry. It only comes through private foreign investment or foreign
collaborations.

Exploitation of natural resources: in India we have abundant
natural resources such as coal, iron and steel but to extract the resources
we require foreign collaboration.

Understanding the initial risk: In developing countries as capital
is a scare resource, the risk of investments in new ventures or projects
for industrialization is high. Therefore foreign capital helps in these
investments which require high risk.

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Development of basic infrastructure: In the recent years foreign
financial institutions and government of advanced countries have made
substantial capital available to the under developed countries. FDI will
help in developing the infrastructure by establishing firms different parts
of the country.

Improvement in the balance of payments position: The inflow FDI
will help in improving the balance of payment. Firms which feel that the
goods produced in India will have a low cost, will produce the goods and
export the same to other country. This helps in increasing the exports.

Foreign firms helps in increasing the competition: Foreign firms
have always come up with better technology, process, and innovations
comparing with the domestic firms. They develop a completion in which
the domestic firms will perform better it survive in the market.

Determinants Of FDI

The determinant varies from one country to another due their
unique characteristics and opportunities for the potential investors. In
specific the determinants of FDI in India are:
Stable Policies: Indias stable economic and socio policies have attracted
investors across border.
Economic factors: Different economic factors encourage inward FDI.
These include interest loans, tax breaks, grants, subsidies and the removal
of restrictions and limitation.
Cheap and skilled labour: There is abundant labor available in India in
terms of skilled and unskilled human resources. Foreign investors will to
take advantage of the difference in the cost of labor as we have cheap and
skilled labors.
Basic infrastructure: India though is a developing country, it has developed
special economic zone where there have focused to build required
infrastructure.
Unexplored markets: In India there is large scope for the investors because
there is a large section of markets have not explored or unutilized.

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Availability of natural resources: India has large volume of natural

resources such as coal, iron ore, Natural gas etc. If natural resources are
available they can be used in production process or for extraction of mines
by the foreign investors.
Advantages Of FDI To The Host Country:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Availability of scarce factors of production

Improves the balance of payments
Building of economic and social infrastructure
Fostering the economic linkage
Strengthening of the government budget.

Disadvantages To Host Country:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Balance of payment depends on improvement of technology

Employment of expatriates
Unhealthy competition
Cultural and political issues

Advantages Of FDI To Home Country:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Improves the availability of raw material

Improves the Balance of payments of the country
It creates more Employment
Creates more Revenue
Builds Political relations
Gets better investment opportunity.

Disadvantages To Home Country:

1.
2.

Too much Exploitation of factors of production

Conflict with the government of host country.

Now let us analyze the sources (countries) from where the FDIs are coming
into India. And a sector wise inflow of FDIs into India.

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The Top 5 Countries Directing Their FDI To India

Country

% of total inflows

Mauritius

42

Singapore

USA

UK

Netherlands

Sector Wise FDI Inflow
Sectors

Percentage

Services sectors (finance and non

finance)

21

Computer software and hardware

Telecommunication

Housing and real estate

Construction

Auto

Power

From the above table it can be understood that around 42% of
FDI to India comes from Mauritius followed by Singapore, USA, UK and
Netherlands. Mauritius is the number one leading FDI investor in the
world as well as for India. The reason is their favourable polices and legal
environment of the country in the form of avoidance of double taxation
when the FDI comes through Mauritius.

If we look at the sector wise classification - financial sector receives
around 20% of the over all FDI of the country followed by computer software
and telecommunication sectors. At present the overseas investment on real
estate and construction has started growing. The auto industry and power
sector receives around 5% each.

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The Flow Of FDI And FII In US Million $

Year

Total FDI flow

FIIs (US (US $mn)

2000

4029

1847

2001

6130

1505

2002

5035

377

2003

4322

10918

2004

6051

8686

2005

8961

9926

2006

22826

3225

2007

34835

20328

2008

37838

-15017

2009

37763

29048

2010

27024

29422

The above trend indicates that the FDI and FII of our country have
grown seven fold with in these 10 years. FII has grown more than 20 times
during this period. But in the first half, it started growing gradually but
after 2005 the growth rate has been very high.
It is evident that the
economy is growing in various dimensions. The financial requirements are
met through cross border mergers and acquisitions along with the direct
investments. Thus it can be concluded that India is taking advantage of the
FDI and FII sources for its development.

Review Questions:
1. Distinguish between FDI and FII.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of FDI to the host and
home country.
3. What are the different forms of foreign funds available to India?
4. Give an account on trend in FDI pre and post liberalization.
5. Discuss the sector wise inflow of FDI in India.
6. What is cross border mergers and acquisition?

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Case: Future outlook of Indian IT Sector:

IT sector has made significant contributions to Indias economic
growth in terms of GDP increase in foreign exchange earnings as well as
employment generation. Its contribution to GDP has increased tenfold in
the last decade from 0.6% to 6% till 2009-10. The sector has helped India
transform from a rural and agriculture-based economy to a knowledgebased economy. Besides this, the lives of people have been positively
influenced by direct or indirect contribution of IT sector to various
parameters such as employment, standard of living, per-capita income etc.
In the last ten years the IT sector in India has grown at an average annual
rate of 28%. India accounts for almost 51% of the global sourcing market.
India has emerged as the preferred destination for IT services owing to the
cost advantage and talent pool. Exports contribute around 75% of the total
revenue from the IT sector in India. However due to increased exportorientation and lesser domestic consumption the sector suffered a major
hit in the recession that shook the globe in 2008-09. In the year 2010,
different economies have started recovering but at varying pace. Indian
companies have subsequently begun tapping other geographical markets
and domestic consumption has also relatively increased.

According to NASSCOM, India can reach $ 130 Billion in IT
revenue by 2015, with CAGR of 14%. With this, it would be contributing
to 7% of annual GDP and creating 14.3 million employment
opportunities. With the government taking active measures to stimulate
the growth of IT sector with the emergence of BPO and KPO over last few
years, India is expected to climb the global value and knowledge chain.
In long-term we can expect the Indian IT sector to see good growth.
Different segments of the sector are set to experience different growth
rates. BPO industry have experienced high growth but the Software and
Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES) segment is expected
to see slower growth.

However, on an individual basis each company has to compete
with other domestic as well as global players. They have to adapt new
business models to compete with global players e.g. Cloud, On-demand
services, and SaaS. With increased threat from countries like China,
the companies will suffer loss unless they change business models.

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It is very important that while investing in a company, an investor
selects a sector, where the long-term future prospects are bright. In the
above case, we have seen that the IT sector is expected to have good growth
in the long run. Also, it is equally important that the company has an
excellent financial track record and its long-term future prospects are
Green (Very Good).
1. What are the growth drivers of the IT sector in India?
2. Why was the Indian IT industry hit more severely during the US
recession?
3. Has Globalization helped India to gain employment opportunities?
4. What is the role of Private sector in IT Industry?
5. Explain the role of IT sector in FDI of India.

*****

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