Empire of The Aztecs

G R E A T E M P I R E S O F T H E PA S T
EMPIRE OF
THE AZTECS
GEP-Aztec FNL.indd 1
10/19/09 2:22:37 PM
G r e a t e m p i r e s o f t h e pa s t
Empire of Alexander the Great
Empire of Ancient Egypt
Empire of Ancient Greece
Empire of Ancient Rome
Empire of the Aztecs
Empire of the Incas
Empire of the Islamic World
Empire of the Mongols
Empires of Ancient Mesopotamia
Empires of Ancient Persia
Empires of Medieval West Africa
Empires of the Maya
G r e a t e m p i r e s o f t h e pa s t
EmpirE of
ThE AzTEcs
BarBara a. Somervill
louiSe m. Burkhart, hiStorical conSultant
Great Empires of the Past: Empire of the Aztecs

Copyright 2010 Barbara A. Somervill
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Somervill, Barbara A.
Empire of the Aztecs / Barbara A. Somervill.
p. cm.(Great empires of the past)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60413-149-9 (hardcover: acid-free paper)
ISBN 978-1-43812-884-9 (e-book)
1. AztecsJuvenile literature. 2. AztecsSocial life and customsJuvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.
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CONTENTS
Introduction
PA RT I
H I STORY
CH A P T ER 1
Building an Aztec Homeland
17
CH A P T ER 2
The Triple Alliance
33
CH A P T ER 3
The Spanish Conquest
51
PA RT I I
SOC I E T Y AN D C U LT U R E
CH A P T ER 4
Aztec Society
73
CH A P T ER 5
Daily Life Among the Aztecs
91
CH A P T ER 6
Religion, Art, and Science
111
Epilogue
131
Time Line
141
Glossary
143
Bibliography
145
Further Resources
149
Picture Credits
152
Index
153
About the Author
160
10/19/09 2:22:41 PM
inTroducTion
MORE THAN 20,000 YEARS AGO, THE LAND THAT IS NOW
called Mexico was a rugged wilderness. The climate was cooler, and the
land was rich and fertile. Rivers cut through valleys. They filled lakes
or poured into the Pacific Ocean to the west or the Gulf of Mexico to
the east.
A region in central Mexico stretched south through modern-day
Guatemala and Honduras. Today, that area is called Mesoamerica (the
word means middle America). Over many centuries, distinct groups
of people lived in Mesoamerica and developed great cultures. They
included the Maya, the Olmecs, the Toltecs, and the Mixtecs. (A culture is the religious, social, and artistic beliefs and customs of a group
of people.) Starting in the 14th century, a people who called themselves
the Mexica created the last of the great Mesoamerican cultures. The
Mexica are better known in history as the Aztecs, and the lands they
ruled in central Mexico made up the Aztec Empire.
The Aztecs did not dominate huge areas of land, as did other great
ancient empire-builders, such as the Romans and the Persians. But,
like the Romans and Persians and others who created empires, the
Aztecs united different peoples under their rule. They created wealth
for themselves by taking tribute from the peoples they and their allies
conquered. (Tribute is something of value paid by one state to another
as proof of loyalty or obedience, or to secure peace or protection.) The
Aztecs controlled their empire for more than 100 years. Only the invasion of the Spanish, beginning in 1519, ended their rule.
opposite
This illustration shows

the founding of the Aztec
capital city, Tenochtitlan.
The name means place of
the prickly pear cactus.
EmpirE of thE aztEcs
CONNECTIONS
What Are Connections?
From Unknown
origins
No one knows the true origins

of the Aztec people. Legend
throughout this book, and all the books in the Great
claims that Huitzilopochtli,
Empires of the past series, there are connections boxes.
the patron god of the Aztecs,
they point out ideas, inventions, art, food, customs, and
gave the people their original
more from this empire that are still part of the world today.
nameMexica. (A patron god
Nations and cultures in remote history can seem far away
is one who is honored as the
from the present day, but these connections demonstrate
protector of a particular people,
how our everyday lives have been shaped by the peoples
place, or thing.) Only the myths
of the past.
of the Aztecs remain to tell us
where they came from and how
they began.
The tale begins in Aztlan, the legendary first home of the Aztecs.
The name means place of the herons in Nahuatl, the language of the
Aztecs and other nearby peoples. The Aztec legends say that in Aztlan,
seven tribes lived in seven caves. The tribes were the Acolhua, Tepanecs,
Xochimilca, Tlalhuica, Tlaxcalans, Chalca, and Aztecs. Together, all
these people were known as the Chichimec. They were hunter-gatherers
How Is It
and lived a simple existence. Hunter-gatherers are people who hunt game
Pronounced?
animals, fish, and gather wild fruit, roots, nuts, and berries to feed themChichimec:
selves. They spent most of their time searching for food.
CHEE-chee-mehk
At some point, the first six tribes left the caves. But the land where
Huitzilopochtli:
they
settled became extremely dry and suffered from a long drought (a
hweet-see-lohprolonged period with no rain). As food became more difficult to find,
POHCH-tlee
the tribes had no choice but to leave. Eventually, they settled in the ValMexica:
meh-SHEE-kuh
ley of Mexico. This was not a joint venture, however. The six individual
Mixtec:
tribes traveled in search of six separate homes. Each tribe established
MEESH-tek
its own culture.
Quetzalcoatl:
The Aztecs did not leave with the others. They stayed behind waitkeht-sahl-KOH-ahtl
ing for a message from their gods, who would tell them when to leave.
T
Tenochca:
Some 300 years later, an eagle came to rest near the Aztecs cave and
teh-NOHCH-kuh
T
Teotihuacan:
cried out, Let us go. The people took this as a sign that it was finally
tay-oh-tee-HWAHtime for them to leave. Other Aztec legends say that it was the god
kahn
Huitzilopochtli who told the people to leave.
Texcoco
The Aztecs left Aztlan in about 1100. They became nomads
tesh-KOH-ko
wandering people with no permanent homeand had very little luck in
finding a good place to settle. For a time, they found a temporary home
Introduction
at Tula, the city of the Toltecs. At that point, the Toltec civilization was
declining. As the last of the Toltecs followed their king-priest, Huemac,
in leaving their capital, the Aztecs moved on, as well.
Having left one great but ruined city, the Aztecs arrived in another
great city that had also been abandoned. This was Teotihuacan, known
as the home of the gods (although it had been built by the Olmecs). The
Aztecs were impressed by the two great pyramids and the temple to
the god Quetzalcoatl. They studied the paintings on the walls that told
them the story of the people who had once lived in Teotihuacan.
Squatters in the Valley of Mexico

Finally, after traveling for more than 100 years, the Aztecs arrived in
the Valley of Mexico around 1195. They were the last of the Chichimec
to reach that fertile valley. The Valley of Mexico was big enough to
provide land and food for all seven tribes. But by the time the Aztecs
arrived, the best land was already taken by the peoples who had settled
there hundreds of years earlier. About 40 city-states (cities that function as separate kingdoms) had developed in the valley. Some of the
strongest belonged to the Culhua, Acolhua, Chalca, and Tepanecs. The
Tepanecs had built a small empire in the region.
The Aztecs were forced to settle on very poor land in a place called
Chapultepec (which means grasshopper hill). The Culhua claimed this
land, but they had little use for the rocky soil. However, they still had
rights to the land, and the Aztecs were squatterspeople who settle
on someone elses land without permission. Because of the rocky soil,
raising crops in Chapultepec was hard. The Aztecs, though, considered
the challenge part of their destiny. They settled in and Chapultepec
became their home for 40 years.
The Aztecs time at Chapultepec ended when an evil sorcerer, or
wizard, named Copil arrived in the land. Copil believed that the Aztecs
were responsible for the death of his mother and wanted revenge on
them. According to the legend, he used evil magic to create trouble
between the Aztecs and the local chiefs. Copil arranged for troops of
warriors to attack the Aztecs, believing that the entire culture would
be wiped out.
However, Copils powers as a wizard were not strong enough to
overcome the sun god, Huitzilopochtli. The sun god revealed the evil
plot to his priests, who, in turn, warned the Aztec warriors about the
coming attack.
Searching for Aztlan

According to a map
drawn by Alexander von
Humboldt (17691859),
an influential German
geographer, Aztlan was
located near the Great
Salt Lake in Utah. He
based this on the writings of a 17th-century
Spanish priest. At least
one modern scholar has
suggested that Aztlan
was located closer to
the north of the Valley of
Mexico. Another says
information about the
true location of Aztlan
may have been lost forever in 1428, when the
Aztec ruler Itzcoatl (ca.
1360ca. 1440) supposedly destroyed many of
his peoples historical
documents. But most
historians say that Aztlan
was not a real place. It
was just a name for the
mythical first home of
the Aztecs.
Empire of the aztecs

Huitzilopochtli ordered his priests to have Copil killed. Warriors
found the wizard and cut off his head. They also cut out his heart. The
chief priest took Copils heart to Lake Texcoco and threw it as far as he
could.
Meanwhile, the Culhua attacked and killed the Aztec leader.
Homeless again, the Aztecs pleaded with their enemies to give them
some land on which to live. The Aztecs were forced to settle on land
that was even worse than Chapultepec. Their new home, Tizaapan, was
covered with volcanic rocks and crawling with poisonous snakes.
Despite the harsh conditions at Tizaapan, the Aztecs stayed for
nearly 25 years. They cleared the land for farming and killed off the
snakes. The Culhua king believed that the Aztecs would see this harsh
land and move on, and was surprised when he learned that they were
still in Tizaapan. He asked the Aztecs to join in an alliance with him,
which the Aztecs agreed to do. Together, they would have the most
fearsome army in the Valley of Mexico.
By now, the Aztecs had adopted many aspects of the cultures of
the Toltecs in Tula and the Olmecs in Teotihuacan. They added Quetzalcoatl, the Toltecs favorite god, to their long list of gods. These gods
advised and led their followers. They also demanded blood sacrifices,
which created new problems between the Aztecs and the Culhua.
In Their Own Words
T he Travels of the A ztecs

An ancient Aztec song describes the
wanderings of the Aztecs before they reached
the Valley of Mexico. Here is a part of it:
From where do you come?

Thus nowhere could they settle,
they were always thrown out,
everywhere they were persecuted.
As they came,
as they went along their road,
they were no longer received
everywhere,
they were rejected everywhere,
no one knew their face.
Everywhere they were asked:
Who are you?
10
The song goes on to list some of the

places the Aztecs passed through, including
Tula and Chapultepec.
(Source: Carrasco, David, and Eduardo Matos
Moctezuma. Moctezumas Mexico: Visions
of the Aztecs World. Rev. ed. Boulder, Colo.:
University of Colorado Press, 2003.)
Introduction
This statue of the god
Quetzalcoatl was made by
the Toltecs. The Aztecs
adopted many of the Toltec
gods.
Following orders from the god Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec priests

asked the king of the Culhua if he would marry his daughter to their
sun god. The king thought his daughter was receiving a great honor.
The marriage would cement the link between the two tribes forever.
The young Culhua bride arrived in Tizaapan for the wedding,
but it was not the ceremony her father expected. The king of Culhua
arrived with wedding gifts, including tobacco, flowers, paper, rubber, and food. He was given a chance to worship his daughter and her
11

groom, Huitzilopochtli, in a
shrine (a holy building dedicated to a god). In the shrine,
he saw a young priest wrapped
in some versions of the story that describes the aztecs
in his own daughters skin.
arrival at their new home, the eagle held a snake in its
The Aztecs had sacrificed the
beak. t
today, the symbol of the nation of mexico shows this
Culhua kings daughter.
version of the story. the emblem, which appears on the
The fury of the king over
countrys flag and coins, shows an eagle sitting on a cactus,
his daughters death was so
holding a snake in its beak.
great that he ordered his Culhua warriors to attack the
Aztecs and show no mercy.
The warriors were told to hunt down the Aztecs and kill them all.
The Aztecs fled and hid in the swampland of Lake Texcoco for weeks.
Again, the Aztecs were homeless.
CONNECTIONS
The Eagle Image
the cactUs, the eagle, and a homeland

The Aztecs were now in the lands of the Tepanecs. Their ruler let them
live on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, a swampy marsh. In
return, they were required to pay tribute and help the Tepanecs fight
their enemies.
As they huddled in the marsh, the Aztecs finally received the
sign for which they had been waiting. One of their priests had a
vision of Huitzilopochtli. The god told the priest to have the Aztecs
look for an eagle that lived in a prickly pear cactus and fed on brightly
colored birds, scattering their feathers. On one of the marsh islands,
the Aztecs saw an eagle perched on a cactus. The cactus grew on
the exact spot where the heart of the sorcerer Copil had landed after
the Aztecs killed him. In the eagles claws was a bird with bright
feathers.
Diego Durn (ca. 15371588), a Spanish priest, later recorded the
Aztecs story of what they felt when they saw the priests vision fulfilled:
How did we merit so much good fortune? Who made us worthy of
such grace and goodness and excellence? . . . We have found our city
and site. . . (quoted in The History of the Indies of New Spain).
To the Aztecs, the eagle represented the sun and their sun god,
Huitzilopochtli. The cactus stood for the hearts that they would
12
Introduction
offer to the god. And the bird in the eagles claws represented the
fallen enemy warriors who would provide the hearts. The location
was special, too. The reeds of the swamp reminded them of the
city of Tula, the old Toltec city the Aztecs had reached during their
travels. Tulas name meant place of rushes. Near the cactus, the
Aztecs built a temple to Huitzilopochtli. On this site, they would
later build the Templo Mayor, or Great Temple, in honor of their sun
god.
The Aztecs gained several new names once they ended their travels and settled in central Mexico. The people who lived in the capital
of Tenochtitlan were called the Tenochca. They took their name from
the city, which means place of the prickly pear cactus. The Tenochca,
together with the people of the neighboring city of Tlatelolco, formed
the people known today as Aztecs.
The term Aztec comes from Aztlan, the place where the Aztecs first
lived. But the Aztecs did not generally call themselves Aztecs. The word
The national flag of

Mexico features an
eagle-and-snake design
that recalls the mythical
founding of Mexico City
by the Aztecs.
13
CONNECTIONS
was first commonly used in the

19th century, and referred to the
Mexica and similar Nahuatlspeaking groups around them
Mexico was sometimes used as a name for the mexica city
in central Mexico.
of tenochtitlan.
t
that word is the source of the name of the
Aztec was also the name
modern nation of mexico. t
today, descendants of the aztecs
given to the entire empire of
are still sometimes called Mexica.
the Mexica peoplewhat is
referred to in this book as the
Aztec Empire. In this book,
the Mexica people and their empire will be referred to by the name
they are known todaythe Aztecs.
Mexica and Mexico
14
PA RT I
HISTORY
BUILDING AN AZTEC HOMELAND
THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE
THE SPANISH CONQUEST
10/19/09 2:22:45 PM
C h aPt e r
Building An
AzTEc homElAnd
ARCHAEOLOGISTS HAVE LONG BEEN FASCINATED WITH THE
ancient cultures of Mesoamerica. These scientists study the remains
of art, buildings, and items used by ancient people in their daily lives.
Archaeologists believe that the earliest people in present-day Mexico
arrived in about 21,000 b.c.e. They base this belief on bones found at
Tlapacoya, southeast of modern Mexico City.
For about 14,000 years, the early people of todays Mexico were
nomadsthey moved from place to place searching for the best food
sources. These nomads were hunter-gatherers. Much of the game they
hunted is still common in the area, including deer, rabbits, rats, ducks,
geese, and gophers. They took turtles, mussels, and fish from the water.
They also hunted three animal species that are now extinct: an antelope species, a variety of horse, and massive mammoths.
Eventually, the people learned how to domesticate certain plants
taking seeds from wild crops, planting them, and taking care of the
plants that grew. Farming requires people to stay in one place while the
plants grow, so between 7000 and 5000 b.c.e., some people who farmed
began living in small, temporary villages until the harvest. They grew
chilies, squash, and avocados. They also domesticated two grains
amaranth and teocintle. Once domesticated, the grains became their
staple foods. Teocintle slowly evolved into the grain now called corn.
Over time, the seasonal farming villages became more permanent.
People experimented with growing more vegetables, including beans,
pumpkins, and gourds. They began raising fruits, such as the zapotl, a
sweet, plum-like fruit. They also grew sunflowers, which were valued
for their seeds.
opposite
The Pyramid of the

Sun rises above the site
of the ancient city of
Teotihuacan, in todays
Mexico.
1
CONNECTIONS
Honoring Corn
from its origins in mexico, corn has become
one of the most widely grown crops in the
world. in many countries, it is called maize. this
comes from the spanish word matz, which
came from the tano
t
indian word mahiz.
Before the spanish arrived, corn had
already spread far beyond its origins in mexico. it was grown by native peoples across
the americas.
the aztecs valued corn so much that

they referred to corn dough as our flesh.
they also worshipped the goddess Xilonen,
who watched over the corn harvest. some
mexican-americans in california still honor
Xilonen by holding a ceremony for teenage girls who are named for her. the event
marks the girls passage from childhood to
adulthood.
People also developed tools to use in their homes. One of the most
ancient tools was a grinding slab called metlatl in Nahuatl. The people
also began weaving baskets and mats and doing woodwork. They made
traps, fishing rods, spears, and darts. They tanned the hides from the
animals they hunted and crafted the hides into sandals, belts, and
slings for hunting.
As farming replaced hunting and gathering as the main way to
get food, people began domesticating farm animals. Early Mesoamericans raised dogs and turkeys for food. They did not have large
animals they could ride or use to pull carts, such as horses, oxen, or
cattle. So they traveled along rivers and lakes on rafts and canoes, or
walked.
The skills, culture, and beliefs of the Aztecs were shaped by the
great Mesoamerican cultures that came before themparticularly the
Olmecs, Toltecs, and Mixtecs. To understand the Aztecs, it is first necessary to know something about their ancestors.
the olmecs
Starting about 1500 b.c.e., the Olmecs developed the first complex
society in Mesoamerica. Historians do not know what the Olmecs
called themselves. The name used for them today comes from the
Aztec word Olmeca, which means rubber peoplethe Olmecs lived
in the region where rubber trees grew.
1

The Olmecs created an advanced
culture based on farming, particularly
corn. The upper classes of rulers, warriors, and priests (sometimes called
shamans) lived in cities, while the
common farmers lived in rural areas.
Remains of the Olmec cultureearth
mounds and pyramidshave been
found at several sites, including two
known today as San Lorenzo and La
Venta.
The Olmecs were builders. La
Venta, located on an island in a swamp,
featured a cone-shaped mound of clay
more than 100 feet high. Historians have
found several earthworks, or mounds,
in San Lorenzo that served a religious
purpose. The most important mound
there reaches 150 feet high. It was built
by hundreds of workers using hand tools
and carrying the dirt up the slope by the
basketful. San Lorenzo also had a stone
system for draining wastewater. This
drainage system is the oldest ever found
in the Americas.
The Olmecs were also sculptors. They carved massive stone
heads, some measuring as much a 10 feet high. The heads have flat
faces, broad noses, and thick lips. The heads appear to be wearing
helmets, and several archaeologists think the heads represent Olmec
kings. The stone heads found in San Lorenzo are especially remarkable because they were made from stone originally found about 50
miles away. Workers had to cut the stone from the mountains and
haul it to its final site. Archaeologists believe the Olmecs did this by
putting log rollers under the stone as they pulled it along.
There are no definite dates for the Olmec culture. They probably thrived from about 1500 to 400 b.c.e., but their impact on other
emerging cultures in the region lasted long after the Olmecs had
disappeared. They introduced the idea of human sacrificekilling
humans as a gift to their gods. They practiced bloodletting, which
Giant stone heads like

this one are the most
well-known artifacts
of the Olmec culture.
Archaeologists think the
giant heads represented
the Olmec kings.
19
CONNECTIONS
The Metlatl
the metlatl is one of the oldest household
tools in the americas. it has been used since
about 7000 b.c.e. in some places, it is still
used today.
in ancient times, the women first soaked
corn kernels overnight in a clay pot filled
with water and the chemical lime or ashes
from a fire. the lime or ashes helped soften
the kernels and also added calcium. in the
morning, the women put the softened ker-
nels into the metlatl and used a rock shaped

like a rolling pin with flattened sides (the
metlapillia Nahuatl word that means child
of the metlatl) to crush them.
the metlatl usually had three legs to
hold the stone at an angle so that crushing
the grain was easier. the women took the
prepared corn and used it to make tortillas or tamalesdishes that are still eaten
today.
means making a person bleed as part of a religious ceremony. Both

the Maya and the Aztecs also practiced sacrifices and bloodletting.
The Olmecs also began the idea of building temples in the shape of
pyramids. From the top of these tall buildings, they offered sacrifices
and hoped to get closer to their gods. They also created a system for
writing down ideas in stone using imagesan early form of writing.
the BUsy city oF teotihUacan

As the Olmec culture disappeared, large city centers arose in the
Mesoamerican region. These central, independent cities dominated
surrounding towns and villages, in an arrangement sometimes called
city-states. The greatest city-states from 300 b.c.e. to 250 c.e. were
Teotihuacan, Tikal, Monte Albn, and Cuicuilco. Wealthy classes
emerged, gaining their riches primarily through land ownership
(running big farms) or military means (winning wars). But these citystates grew and thrived far more through trade than by conquering
others.
In the Valley of Mexico, the two major city-states were Teotihuacan and Cuicuilco. At more than eight square miles in area, Teotihuacan was the largest city built in the Americas before the arrival
of Christopher Columbus (14511506) in 1492. It was located in a
fertile valley close to sources of water, making it easy to farm. The local
20
Building an Aztec homeland

area also had large quantities of
green obsidian, and this volcanic
glass was traded for food, highly
prized tropical bird feathers, and
seashells. Teotihuacan became
known for its outstanding artiin 2006, archaeologists found a large slab covered with
sans (skilled workers who make
carvings that were believed to be the work of the olmecs.
things by hand), particularly
the stones carvings date to about 600 B.C.E. and feature
those who worked with obsidimages or symbols sometimes called glyphs. the stone
ian. The city was located on a
slab has been named the cascajal block, after the spot in
main route to the coast. Travelers
mexico where it was found.
and traders moving between the
the slab weighs 26 pounds and is 14 inches long, 8
Valley of Mexico and the Pacific
inches wide, and 5 inches thick. Some archaeologists call
coast went right through Teotithe carvings an early form of writing, though the olmecs
huacan, helping trade expand.
did not have the type of alphabet used today. So far, the
Cuicuilco emerged a little
glyphs have not been decoded. Scientists hope that
before Teotihuacan and may have
additional finds will give them clues about the meaning
had as many as 20,000 residents.
of the ancient writing.
It had a number of pyramids and
a canal that carried water to irrigate farms. The citys location,
however, led to its end. Sometime between 100 and 50 B.C.E., the local
volcano erupted and destroyed Cuicuilco. Lava covered most of the
farmland, making it impossible to grow food locally. The people who
survived the eruption moved to Teotihuacan.
By 1 C.E., Teotihuacan had more than 40,000 residents. Five
hundred years later, the citys population may have reached 200,000,
making it one of the largest cities in the world. Teotihuacan continued
to grow in an organized fashion. It featured broad avenues and large
pyramids that were temples to the gods. At the pyramids, people made
offerings (left gifts) for their gods. Human sacrifices may have been
made at the pyramids as well. Another large structure, the Palace of the
Jaguars, was at the far end of the Avenida de los Muertosthe Avenue
of the Dead. Priests paraded along the avenue during religious rituals.
Teotihuacan thrived until about 650 C.E., when enemies from the
north attacked and a great fire destroyed the city. For some unknown
reason, the people did not rebuild the city. Instead, the population
began moving to other growing cities. Within a few hundred years, the
great city of Teotihuacan was deserted.
New Old Writing
21
10/19/09 2:22:47 PM

The stunning remains of
the Pyramids of the Sun
and Moon in the ancient
city of Teotihuancan are
now a protected World
Heritage Site.
Some historians believe the people of Teotihuacan may have contributed to their citys ruin. In their quest to build the most beautiful
city, they damaged the areas environment. They dug up the land surrounding the city to get the lime that was needed for making plastera major ingredient in the citys buildings. As the city grew, the
need for plaster increased and more land was destroyed. Eventually,
the damage was too great. The soil on the surrounding land could not
grow enough food, and hunters could not find enough game to feed
the people. It became harder to bring food to the city, so people began
leaving.
the toltecs
By 900, a new culture was emerging in northern Mexico, in the city
of Tula. The people there were the Toltecs. They spread their culture
through wars and trade, and influenced many other cultures in what is
22

today Mexico and Guatemala. The Toltecs took certain aspects of the
Teotihuacan culture, such as styles of art and architecture, and added
them to their own culture.
The Toltecs also spread their belief in the god Quetzalcoatl.
The gods name means quetzal-feathered serpent (the quetzal is a
colorful bird found in Central America). The Toltecs believed this
god was a skilled warrior and created human beings. According to
Aztec mythology, Quetzalcoatl was the son of the leader of an ancient
people; he left home so that he could become the ruler of the Toltecs.
Under his rule, the people were respected as great artists and scientists. Quetzalcoatl was later fooled by Tezcatlipoca, a god of evil
and trickery, who took the form of a sly human. Tezcatlipoca tricked
Quetzalcoatl into leaving the Toltec lands, but Quetzalcoatl promised
to return at a later date.
The city of Tula grew as a center for crafts and religious events.
By 1000, the population reached about 60,000 people. Artisans
shaped obsidian into knives and spearheads, as well as bowls,
plates, jugs, and storage jars. These goods were traded in the citys
marketplace.
The Pyramids of Teotihuacan

the Aztecs gave the city of teotihuacan its
name; it means the place where the gods
were created. they believed the city was
located in an ancient area where two older
gods sacrificed themselves to become new
gods, the sun and the moon. the Aztecs
used the names of those powerful gods to
describe teotihuacans two largest pyramids, the pyramid of the Sun and the pyramid of the moon.
the builders of the pyramids wanted to
show their respect for the gods, so they
painted the temples bright red, making them

glow in the sun. the people of teotihuacan
built the pyramid of the Sun above a cave
that was thought to be a link to the underworld, the place where spirits lived.
the pyramids of teotihuacan and other
ancient remains there led the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and cultural organization (UNESco) to name the city a World
heritage Site. this means teotihuacan is
recognized as having special historical and
cultural importance.
23
10/19/09 2:22:49 PM
What Is Your Name?

Toltec was not the
cultures own name for
itself. As with many
ancient peoples, what
they called themselves
is unknown. The name
used for them today
came from the Aztecs. In
Nahuatl, toltecatl is the
word for craftsman or
artisan. Toltec was the
name the Aztecs later
used for the people who
passed on the Teotihuacan tradition of quality
craftsmanship.
People from the outlying farms and villages flocked to Tula for
the many religious festivals held there. Priests paraded through the
center of the citys main plaza and onto the two pyramids where
human sacrifices were held. Each temple featured chacmools. A
chacmool was a stone figure with a bowl where its stomach would be.
During a human sacrifice, the victims heart was flung into the bowl
of the chacmool. Temples also had racks for displaying the skulls of
sacrifice victims. These rituals eventually became part of the Aztecs
religious beliefs.
Tula had two ball courts where teams competed by passing a rubber ball through a hoop. This game was mainly religious, not sporting.
It celebrated the victories of god-heroes over the gods of death. Teams
fought hard to win because the losing team was usually sacrificed at the
temple.
The empire of the Toltecs came to an end some time between 1150
and 1200. Enemies overran Tula. The city was burned and was never
rebuilt. The Toltec culture faded away, but many of its customs were
carried on by other peoples.
The Endangered Quetzal

the quetzal, a sacred bird to the ancient
peoples of mesoamerica, is one of the most
beautiful birds in the americas. its feathers
were so valued by the aztecs that only priests
and emperors could wear them. instead of
killing the birds to acquire the feathers, people plucked them from the birds tail. in the
days of the aztecs, killing a quetzal was a
crime punishable by death.
the quetzal lives in remote rain forests
from southern mexico to Bolivia. its tail
feathers are extremely long, shimmering
24
emerald-green plumes. When the bird flies,

the tail shows white underneath.
modern humans have not honored the
quetzal the way the aztecs did. the colorful feathers have been used in the fashion
trade and fetch very high prices. the value of
quetzal feathers has encouraged poaching
(illegally capturing animals). these poachers
often kill the birds to take their feathers. the
combination of poaching and loss of habitat
has put this aztec treasure on the endangered species list.
Building an aztec homeland

This chest plate (or
chimalli) was made by
Mixtec craftspeople using
gold and turquoise. The
Mixtecs were well-known
for their ability to make
beautiful gold objects.
the mixtecs
The Mixtecs lived in three mountainous areas of present-day Oaxaca.
The region is sometimes called the Mixteca. Their culture was at
its height between 940 and 1500. The Mixtecs first lived on hilltops
before spreading out into nearby valleys. They never developed large
cities to rival Tula or Teotihuacan, but they had many other accomplishments. For example, they were known for remarkable gold work.
The Mixtecs also developed a writing system that influenced other
Mesoamerican cultures. They used a combination of written signs and
pictures to record historical information. Records of the marriages,
births, and deaths of nobles were painted on deerskin. Wars, victories,
and changes from one king to the next were also recorded. Every document was dated with the day and year, which has enabled historians
to follow the events that affected the Mixtec people. Only eight of the
original Mixtec historic documents survive to this day.
2
EmpiRE of thE AztEcS
Records of the Past

the mix tecs and other people of mesoamerica
recorded information in what is today called a codex
(the plural is codices). A codex is an ancient manuscript text in book form. the mixtec codices were
made from strips of bark, paper, cloth, or deerskin that
are about 13 feet long and about 6 inches high. these
were folded in accordion-style pleats, so that when
opened, the reader saw two pages at a time. the two
outer pages were glued to pieces of wood that served
as covers.
the Aztecs and other people of central mexico also
produced codices, even after the Spanish arrived. these
looked more like modern books than the older accordion-style codices.
today, codices from before and after the Spanish
conquest provide historians with information on life in
mexico hundreds of years ago. Some of these codices
were taken to Europe and placed in book collections,
where they were forgotten for several centuries. today,
a codex is sometimes named for the city where it is
kept, such as the paris codex and the Dresden codex.
The Mixtecs were one of

the peoples the Aztecs conquered. While many Mixtecs no
doubt were sacrificed at Aztec
temples, some Mixtec goldsmiths went to the Aztec capital,
Tenochtitlan, to make jewelry for
their new rulers. Mixtec nobles
who remained in their mountain regions paid their tribute
to Aztec rulers in gold. That
wealth was just part of the riches
the Aztecs acquired as they built
their empire.
BUilding
TenOchTiTlAn
One mountain range, the Sierra

Madre Occidental, runs along the
Pacific Ocean to the west. The
other, the Sierra Madre Oriental,
rises in the east. Another range,
the Sierra Ajusco, marks the
southern edge of the Aztecs territory. The region is now called
the Valley of Mexico. Actually,
it is a basina large area of land
marked by sloping sides.
The Valley of Mexico had five lakes, and the Aztecs chose to
settle on two islands in swampy Lake Texcoco. These island locations
had good conditions for raising crops. They also had some problems.
The swamp was full of insects and building materials were hard to
find. But the Aztecs had canoes and could travel easily through the
swamp. And an island was easier to defend than a site on land.
The Aztecs founded their new city, Tenochtitlan, in 1325. The
city measured five square miles. Its name came from tenochtli, the
Nahuatl word for prickly pear cactus. As it grew, Tenochtitlan
26
10/19/09 2:22:52 PM

looked like a mountain erupting from the lake, and it dominated the
landscape. It became the capital of the Aztec Empire.
A sister city, called Tlatelolco, was started on a neighboring island.
It later became the Aztec center for trade and grew to be nearly the
same size as Tenochtitlan.
Water was critical for the Aztecs survival. Canals linked together
smaller plots of land called chinampas. These were small islands
the Aztecs built in shallow waters so they could grow crops. Small
footbridges connected the chinampas so farmers could easily move
between them as they worked. The waterways between the chinampas provided transportation routes for the islands inhabitants. Fish
and waterfowl were plentiful on the lake. These added protein to the
Aztecs mainly vegetarian diet.
Stone water channels brought fresh water into the city for drinking and bathing. The Aztecs bathed every day, and wealthy Aztecs frequently had steambaths in their homes. Sewage and trash were placed
on barges, and much of the sewage became fertilizer for the crops
raised on the chinampas.
Aztec engineers produced
an island city much like Venice,
Italy, which is famous for its
canals. In Tenochtitlan, canals
were used as streets and people
traveled everywhere by canoe.
Architects created three causeA Mixtec site being studied by archaeologists today
ways (raised roads) to connect
shows that the Mixtecs used cremation, or burning a
the city to the mainland. The
corpse, in their burial rituals. The burial site currently
transportation links enabled the
being excavated (dug out and examined) shows that creAztecs to carry food and goods
mation was used as far back as 3,000 years ago.
to and from the citys market,
According to Andrew Balkansky, an archaeologist
trade with other peoples, and go
from Southern Illinois University, it is possible the Mixtecs
to war.
believed that burning a corpse released the persons soul
Tenochtitlan was one of the
from the body. The idea was that, basically, youd have
finest cities of ancient Mexico.
someones soul ascend to the heavens in the smoke,
The central part of the city feasaid Balkansky (quoted in National Geographic News,
tured massive stone temples,
April 9, 2008). Historians think the Mixtecs believed cresprawling palaces for the emperor
mation brought their spirits closer to the gods.
and the royal family, gardens,
Mixtecs in the News
27
10/19/09 2:53:12 PM
CONNECTIONS
Open Markets
in the 14th century, the open market in tenocht
titlan attracted 25,000 people, who gathered
to buy and sell goods. Everything the aztecs
produced could be traded in the market. artisans set up stalls and traded lengths of fine
cloth or sacks of dried maize. Vendors sold
seashells and silver, bright blue turquoise, and
vegetables grown on nearby farms.
the market was a bustling place where
slaves, commoners, and royalty mixed in
an effort to get a good deal. haggling, or
Which Is the Older

Sister?
By traditional accounts,
Tlatelolco was founded
in 1358, more than 30
years after Tenochtitlan.
In recent years, however,
archaeologists have
uncovered evidence that
challenges this date. In
1992, they found remains
of a pyramid at Tlatelolco
that dated from 1325. And
in 2007, the remains of an
even older pyramid were
found there, suggesting it
was built before Tenochtitlan was established.
2
arguing over an items price, was essential.

No deal was considered final without this
kind of discussion.
today, almost every mexican city and
town has an open market. farmers bring
fruits and vegetables to sell. clothing, jewelry, leather goods, and pottery are also for
sale. Just as in aztec times, buyers and sellers expect to discuss how much an item is
worth. prices go up and down with the discussion, until an agreement is reached.
and even a zoo. The outer edges of the island had dozens of small
farms and small homes made of adobe, a building material made by
mixing sand, straw, and water and letting it bake in the sun.
The Aztec gods and goddesses were always present, and the city
had many temples, plazas, and sacred ball courts. For the Aztecs,
Tenochtitlan became a holy city and was the place where all major
religious festivals were held. Since schools were most often attached
to temples, the city also developed into a center of learning.
The first temple was built in 1325 and was dedicated to Huitzilopochtlithe god who had guided the Aztecs to their new home. That
earliest temple was not a grand pyramid made of stone, but a simple
altar (a platform where religious ceremonies are held) and a hut made
from sticks and mud. Over time, the Aztecs built newer and larger
temples right over the old ones. Before the beginning of the 15th
century, the Aztecs had already built a temple that rose 50 feet high.
Later, an even larger temple reached into the skies. To the Aztecs,
the heavens above were sacred, and the temples great height brought
them closer to that holy place.
Over time, the population of Tenochtitlan expanded. At the height
of the Aztec Empire, nearly 200,000 people lived on the crowded island.
The city was divided into quarters. Each of the four quarters was further divided into neighborhoods, called calpulli. Each quarter had 12

to 15 calpulli. A calpulli had a temple and priests, a school, homes,
gardens, and streets. Although major religious events were held at the
temple in the citys center, smaller festivals were celebrated within the
calpulli.
Like other empire builders, the Aztecs believed their gods had chosen them for success. Keeping the gods favor was important to the ruling classes, so they would continue to enjoy the benefits of ruling other
peoples. At times, that meant conquering enemies and offering some of
them as sacrifices. Many Mesoamerican peoples believed that the gods
thrived on human blood. Without blood, the gods would be dissatisfied
and the people would suffer.
But the Aztecs also had practical reasons for seeking to expand
their empire. As they conquered lands, they received valuable tribute
that made their rulers rich. The rulers enjoyed the power their wealth
and control gave them. They also enjoyed the idea that they were
blessed by the gods.
The First Tlatoani

About 50 years after the founding of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec named
their first tlatoani, or king. The word tlatoani means he who speaks
well. Many historians consider Acamapichtli (r. ca. 13751395) to
be the first true tlatoani of Tenochtitlan. He founded the dynasty, or
ruling family, that would eventually build the powerful Aztec Empire.
Acamapichtli, though, was not a native of Tenochtitlan or even an
Aztec. He was a Culhua.
The Aztecs had a reason for going outside their own tribe to choose
a king. To start a noble dynasty they needed a real, legitimate nobleman. They admired the Toltec culture, and Acamapichtli may have
been directly related to Toltec leaders.
One of Acamapichtlis strategies to unite the Aztecs was marrying
the daughters of 20 calpulli leaders. Having many wives was the privilege of royalty. Through marriage, Acamapichtli made sure he had the
support of the local leaders. He also made sure that his sons would lead
the people, since they would have family ties to all the local leaders.
When Acamapichtli began his rule, the Aztecs were still paying
tribute to the more powerful Tepanecs. In exchange, Tenochtitlan
enjoyed the protection of the Tepanecs and Aztec merchants could
trade in the Tepanec marketplace in Azcapotzalco.
How Is It
Pronounced?
Acamapichtli
ah-cah-mah-PEECHtlee
Cuicuilco
kwee-KWEEL-coh
Huitzilihuitl
wheet-see-LEE-wheetl
Metlatl
MAY-tlahtl
Oaxaca
wah-HAH-kuh
Tenochtitlan
teh-nohch-TEE-tlahn
Tezcatlipoca
tess-kah-tlee-POHkuh
Tlatelolco
tlah-tay-LOL-ko
Tlatoani
tlah-toh-AH-nee
29

The Aztecs also sent soldiers to fight in the army of the Tepanecs. This arrangement helped the Aztec warriors gain experience in
military matters. Eventually, Acamapichtli decided to use those skilled
warriors for his own benefit. With an experienced army behind him,
Acamapichtli went to war against the nearby Chalca people. The war
began right after Acamapichtli took power and went on past his death.
It was finally won by the Aztecs under Huitzilihuitl (r. 13951417),
Acamapichtlis son.
Acamapichtli proved to be an excellent choice as leader. He introduced many changes that benefited the people of Tenochtitlan. He
developed a basic legal code, and later tlatoani would add new laws
to the code. Under Acamapichtli, the importance of religious rites,
including human sacrifice, grew. With the need to thank the gods for
the Aztecs good fortune, Acamapichtli thought all citizens should take
part in religious ceremonies.
In Their Own Words
Hymns to Huitzilopochtli
Huitzilopochtli, the god who led the Aztecs out
of Aztlan, was the god of war and the sun. This
excerpt from a longer hymn suggests his role
as the sun god. (Plumes are long feathers.)
A lord of battles;
And of him it was said
That he hurled his flaming serpent,
His fire stick;
Which means war,
Huitzilopochtli, the young warrior,
Blood and burning;
Who acts above! He follows his path!
And when his festival was
Not in vain did I dress myself in yellow
celebrated,
plumes,
Captives were slain. . . .
for I am he who has caused the sun to rise.
Other hymns focused on Huitzilopochtlis

role as the god of war. Here is part of one of
them.
A maker of war,
An arranger of battles,
30
(Source: Garibay K., Angel Maria, editor.

Veinte himnos sacros de los Nahuas. Mexico
City: National University of Mexico Press,
1958; and The Hymn of Huitzilopochtli.
Rig Veda Americanus. Daniel G. Brinton,
translator. Available online. URL: http://www.
sacred-texts.com/nam/Aztecs/rva/rva01.htm.
Accessed October 14, 2008.)

In the city, Acamapichtli
started many building projects.
The population was growing,
and the city needed more land.
Acamapichtli ordered that the
islands size be increased by fillAccording to Aztec legend, a priest named tenoch was
ing in swampland with soil. He
the first leader of the Aztecs who settled in tenochtitlan.
also ordered city houses made of
But he was not considered a tlatoani. for a time, tenochcane and reeds to be replaced by
titlan and tlatelolco had separate governments (although
stronger houses made of stone.
by about the 1470s they were united) and tenoch ruled
This way, if there were severe
only tenochtitlan.
storms, the homes would protect
tenoch was said to be a highly regarded chief who
the islands people. At the same
was elected to power by the council of eldersa group
time, the Aztecs began building
of wise and respected men in the community. in Aztec
larger stone temples on the site of
art, he is shown wearing white robes and seated on a
the first pyramids.
reed mattwo symbols of his leadership.
Acamapichtli gave his dynasty
tenoch is traditionally believed to have died in about
a solid foundation. A council
1370. But historians disagree about whether he is a real
of eldersa group of wise and
person or a mythical leader.
respected men in the communitychose each new Aztec tlatoani based on his battle skills and
leadership ability. When Acamapichtli died in 1395, he left behind many
sons who formed the basis of the royal family. One of those sons, Huitzilihuitl, was chosen by the council of elders to follow his father as tlatoani.
Legendary Leader
31
10/19/09 2:22:54 PM
Ch aPter
ThE TriplE AlliAncE

WHEN HUITzILIHUITL BECAME Tl
T ATOANI,
ATOANI THE AzTECS
were still subjects of the Tepanecs in Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to
them. In a clever diplomatic move, Huitzilihuitl married the daughter of
the Tepanec ruler Tezozomoc (r. ca. 13671426). He hoped that the marriage would make Tezozomoc reduce the high taxes the Aztecs paid.
The idea worked. Tezozomoc married off his daughters to nobility
in both Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlanthe two cities in which the Aztecs
lived. Looking with favor on his children, the Tepanec ruler reduced the
amount of tribute the Aztecs had to pay. However, Huitzilihuitl still had
to send warriors to fight in the Tepanec army. These Aztec warriors
helped Tezozomoc conquer the neighboring tribes and collect tribute
from his neighbors.
Huitzilihuitl had impressed the council of elders with his talents as
a warrior. And he introduced a major change that advanced Aztec warfare. During his reign, the military began to use 30-foot-long canoes
that carried up to a dozen men. This change gave the Aztecs a huge
advantage. Wars were always fought on fields that could be reached by
walking. An army that walked completely around a large lake needed
rest before getting on with the business of fighting. The Aztec military
began transporting its men in canoes, and the soldiers arrived ready for
battle.
When Huitzilihuitl died in 1417, the Aztec elders elected Chimalpopoca (r. 14171426) as tlatoani. Chimalpopoca was chosen because
he was Tezozomocs favorite grandson. Since Chimalpopoca was not
yet an adult, the Aztecs needed an older man to serve as the regenta
opposite
Motecuhzoma II, shown

here in a Spanish painting
from the 16th century,
was a gifted leader, a great
builder, and a skilled
warrior.
33
How Is It Pronounced?
Axayacatl
ah-shah-YAH-cahtl
Chimalpopoca
chee-mahl-poh-POHkuh
Itzcoatl
eetz-KOH-ahtl
Motecuhzoma
moh-tehk-SOH-muh
Nezahualcoyotl
neh-sah-hual-KOHyohtl
Tezozomoc
tay-soh-SOH-mohk
Tlacaelel
tlah-cah-El-el
Tlacopan
tlah-KOH-pahn
person appointed to rule until the real ruler is ready. Tezozomoc

appointed himself regent.
Tezozomoc was an oppressive ruler. He placed great demands
mostly heavy taxeson his people. By the time Chimalpopoca was
mature enough to rule, he was considered too incompetent to assume
the responsibilities, and so he never became tlatoani. As a result, Tezozomoc ruled for almost 60 years. No one knows how old he was when he
diedalthough some historians claim he lived to be over 100 years old.
When he finally died, he left two problems behind for the Tepanecs.
First, he never trained anyone to take his place. This lack of planning on
his part lead to the second problem. Tezozomocs son Maxtla (d. 1428)
expected to be the next ruler, but the Tepanec council of elders chose
one of his brothers instead. Maxtla took care of the situation by killing
his brother and any other Tepanec enemies and taking over as leader.
By this time, Chimalpopoca had become an adult. He had supported the choice of Maxtlas brother, and Maxtla considered the Aztec
tlatoani to be his enemy. Shortly after Maxtla killed his brother, someone sneaked into the Aztec royal palace and killed both Chimalpopoca
and his infant son. All eyes turned toward Maxtla as the murderer, but
the Aztecs were too weak to take on the Tepanec army. In addition,
Maxtla used his army to cut off the Aztecs from their usual sources of
trade. The Aztecs were filled with a desire for revenge, but would have
to wait.
Forming the Triple Alliance

The Aztec council of elders elected Itzcoatl (r. 14271440) to be the
next tlatoani. Itzcoatl was the son of Acamapichtli and a slave woman.
Itzcoatl worshipped the god Huitzilopochtli and wanted that god to
receive the highest honors offered by the Aztec people. He also wanted
to throw off the rule of Maxtla and the Tepanecs. His nephew Tlacaelel
(ca. 13971487) helped him carry out his plans.
Itzcoatl soon gained two allies in his struggle against Maxtla and
the Tepanecs. One was the Texcoco prince Nezahualcoyotl (14021472).
When he was a young man, Nezahualcoyotls father was killed by the
Tepanecs and he was forced to live in exile (away from his homeland)
for many years. After Itzcoatl became tlatoani in Tenochtitlan, Nezahualcoyotl regained his place as ruler of Texcoco. Nezahualcoyotl hated
34
T h e Tr i p l e A l l i a n c e
the Tepanecs, and Itzcoatl was his uncle. It seemed fitting that the two
would form an alliance.
The leader of Tlacopan then joined the alliance. In 1428, the three
banded together to rid themselves of the Tepanecs. They formed the
Triple Alliance, the political unit that led the Aztecs to expand their
empire from coast to coast.
For the battle with the Tepanecs, drums called the Aztecs warriors
to action. They and their allies met in the fields near Maxtlas troops.
The Aztecs screamed with all their might and charged the Tepanec
warriors. Maxtlas forces were so stunned by the Aztecs actions that
they failed to react. The Aztec warriors fell on them, killing and
wounding many of Maxtlas men.
This was so shocking because it was not typical of warfare at the
time. Generally, the warriors in front of an army made a huge amount
of noisedrums, stamping feet, chanting, and whistling. While this
happened, another group of warriors slipped around to the sides of the
battlefield and tried to surround the opposition. Maxtlas troops may
have been stunned because the Aztecs normally drew the enemy to
them and surrounded them, but this time they attacked head on.
The Tepanecs retreated into the city of Azcapotzalco with the
Aztec warriors in hot pursuit. The Aztecs destroyed buildings and
tore apart temples in Azcapotzalco. They killed the people and left the
bodies to rot on the ground. This also was not typical of the time. The
Aztecs rarely killed their opponents, preferring to wound them. The
opponents could then be used as slaves, sacrifices, workers, or to fill out
the ranks of the Aztec army.
Maxtla hid in one of the palace steambaths, but he was quickly
found and brought to Nezahualcoyotl, the ruler of Texcoco. The
young prince finally took revenge for his fathers death and killed
Maxtla. Warriors set fire to the once-great Tepanec city of Azcapotzalco, and it was soon reduced to rubble. Its people lay dead in the
streets or became slaves. The city center eventually became a slave
market.
The Aztecs and their allies took everything of value that they
found in Azcapotzalco. The Triple Alliance divided up the territory
once ruled by the Tepanecs and began collecting tribute. Tenochtitlan
and Texcoco each took two shares of the Tepanec wealth, and Tlacapan
took one share.
New Source of Water

During Chimalpopocas
reign, he began a major
building project that
greatly helped his
people. As Tenochtitlan
grew, the demand for
fresh water increased.
Chimalpopoca built an
aqueduct, an artificial
channel specifically
designed to carry water
over long distances.
The aqueduct was 7.5
miles long and brought
in water from springs
located outside the
city, near a mountain
called Chapultepec. The
aqueduct was made
from mud, so over the
years the rushing water
wore away its sides. The
Aztecs later built a new
aqueduct of stone along
the path of the first one.
35

The change that took place
in the Valley of Mexico was dramatic. Instead of everyone paying the Tepanecs and providing
soldiers for their army, the three
allies enjoyed their first taste
of independence. This was not
the end of the Tepanec Empire,
tlacaelel served as a chief advisor for several Aztec tlathough. Other Tepanec cities
toque (the plural of tlatoani). Some historians consider
continued to thrive, but they did
him to be the true power in the Aztec government during
not have nearly as much power as
the first decades of the empire.
the Aztecs.
During itzcoatls rule, government officials destroyed
One Tepanec stronghold that
all the old documents and records of the mexica migraresisted the rise of Aztec power
tion. Not all historians agree, though, that this actually hapwas Coyoacan. The Aztecs sent
pened. if it did, it was most likely tlacaelel who ordered
ambassadors to Coyoacan. The
the destruction of these records. tlacaelel sought to
citys leaders provided a feast,
get rid of any evidence that showed the Aztecs humble
then insulted their guests. They
roots as nomads. he wanted the Aztecsand othersto
forced the ambassadors to dress as
believe they were always a noble, powerful people.
women and return to Tenochtitlan
in that way. Itzcoatl was furious.
He immediately declared war.
The Tepanecs in Coyoacan did not fully understand the strength
of the enemy they had enraged. The Aztec troops and their allies built
large fires around the walls of Coyoacan. They cut off the water to the
city and put rotting flesh on the fires. The stink from the burning flesh
was unbearable.
Finally, the Tepanec army left the protection of Coyoacan and set
out to meet the Aztecs in battle. The Aztecs were smart warriors. A
small force circled around and attacked the Tepanecs from behind.
With fierce warriors at the front and the rear of their troops, the
Tepanec warriors fled for their lives. Once more, the combined forces
of the Triple Alliance were too strong for their enemies.
The power of the Triple Alliance spread throughout the Valley of
Mexico. Ruling such a large, spread-out group had its problems. The
biggest problems were transportation and communication. The limited
transportationeither on foot or in a canoehindered the ability of
tlatoque to get from place to place quickly. With little transportation,
communicating changes in laws or announcing wars and taxes took
time.
The Power Behind

the Tlatoani
36
10/19/09 2:22:56 PM
t h e tr i p l e A l l i a n c e
The three leaders of the Triple Alliance also wanted their people
to follow a standard code of laws. They developed laws that were
simple and easy to understand, and each law had a specific punishment. No judge could give harsher sentences to his enemies or easier
punishments to his friends. People could not use the law to injure
their enemies, since making false accusations against others also
brought penalties. Most major crimes were punished by death, either
by stoning or strangulation. Most minor crimes had combined penalties of paying the victim for his or her loss and/or becoming a slave. In
general, the Aztecs seemed to have obeyed the laws, and their culture
did not accept wild or rebellious behavior from adults or children.
In Tenochtitlan, Itzcoatl turned his attention to the needs of his
people. He expanded farming by developing more chinampas in the
southern region of his empire. He also built more roads, temples, and
another causeway leading into the capital city. Before Itzcoatl, the
Aztecs were subjects ruled by others. Once the Triple Alliance defeated
the Tepanecs, the Aztecs became the rulers of their own empire. They
emerged as the most powerful of the three allies, and they built a culture that thrived on power and wealth.
A Princeand a Poet?
Nezahualcoyotl is remembered as one of
ancient mexicos greatest tlatoque. he
earned fame as an architect, engineer,
warrior, and lawmaker in the city-state of
texcoco. During his rule, he established a
library, a zoo, and a university for scholars
and poets.
he also was once considered a great
poet. A 17th-century Aztec-Spanish historian claimed Nezahualcoyotl wrote many
works. (that historian was also the tlatoanis
great-great-great-great-grandson, fernando
de Alva ixtlilxochitl, ca. 15681648.) for several centuries, people accepted the idea that
Nezahualcoyotl was a poet.
in recent years, however, historians have
realized that all the poetry said to have been
written by him was, in fact, written by others. Nezahualcoyotl may or may not have
been a poet. if he was, none of his poems
survives. it is likely that ixtlilxochitl was simply bragging about his famous ancestor.
Nezahualcoyotl, though, is still honored
in mexico. he appears on the 100-peso bill.
37
10/19/09 2:22:58 PM
Motecuhzoma
A Friend from
an Enemy
Tlacopan was actually
under Tepanec rule just
before the Triple Alliance
was formed. But the
ruler there was a son of
Tezozomoc who thought
he had a good claim to the
throne of the Tepanecs.
Because his claim was
ignored by the Tepanec
ruler, Maxtla, who was
also a son of Tezozomoc,
Tlacopans loyalty to
Maxtla was weak. When
Aztec forces invaded Tlacopan, they were greeted
as allies and not enemies,
because the ruler had
already agreed to side
with Itzcoatl against
Maxtla.
38
In 1440, Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina (r. 14401469) became the new

tlatoani. Motecuhzoma combined noble blood with proven military
skill. He was a son of Huitzilihuitl, the second tlatoani, and a cousin
of Itzcoatl. He was also a member of the council that chose the next
tlatoani. When the election was discussed, he was the natural choice
among the possible candidates.
From the start, Motecuhzoma was determined to expand Aztec
rule. Like all empires, the Aztecs believed they had the right to rule
over their neighbors. They may even have believed that it was their
destiny to rule all the land between the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico. Motecuhzoma knew the way to achieve this was by making the
gods happy.
As tribute poured into the city of Tenochtitlan, Motecuhzoma put
the empires wealth to work. He began a long-range plan to address the
needs of his people. He richly rewarded his soldiers after their conquests
and shared some of the empires wealth with the nobles. He made sure
his people were fed, had jobs, and were protected. He built close alliances
with the peoples who had been conquered earlier. He strengthened the
city with many building projects, including more roads into the city and
new housing. He also ordered new temples be built throughout the city.
Motecuhzoma honored the history of the Mexica people. He knew
the legends of Aztlan and the story of the seven tribes emerging from
the seven caves. He sent an expedition of 60 sorcerers to find Chicomoztoc, the Place of the Seven Caves. There, Motecuhzoma believed,
they would find the mother of the god Huitzilopochtli. He gave the sorcerers cloth, gems, and other riches to give to the gods mother.
The expedition backtracked along the path the Mexica had
taken. They went to Teotihuacan and Tulatwo cities where the
Mexica had spent several years as they journeyed south. They continued northward and came to a great lake, where they traveled by
canoe to a mountain island. There, they learned that the fortunes
of the Aztecs would fall because the god Huitzilopochtli would lose
power.
When they returned to Tenochtitlan, the sorcerers told
Motecuhzoma of their journey. They reported what they had learned:
That the Aztec world was coming to an end. Motecuhzoma was not
happy to hear that his people and his favorite god were doomed. Natu-
ral disasters that soon struck
seemed to lend weight to the sorcerers words.
Unusual events in nature
were long considered a sign of
unhappy gods or evil human
activities. Soon after the sorcerers return, a cloud of locusts
Nearly all the Aztec names in this book can be spelled in
swept into the valley and ate all
more than one way. that is because the Aztecs did not
the crops. These were most likely
have an alphabet. the history of the Aztecs was passed
cicadas that followed their natuon orally or through writing using glyphs. Because each
ral 17-year cycle of life, and not
glyph is a symbol for a whole word, Aztec writing does
a disaster sent by the gods. Still,
not offer clues to how those words were pronounced.
whatever their source, the insects
When the Spanish arrived, they wrote down the Aztec
ate all the food and the people
names they heard using Spanish letters and Spanish probegan to starve. Motecuhzoma
nunciations. Not everyone heard the words pronounced
had to feed his people from the
the same way, so they came up with different spellings.
royal granaries, where grain was
motecuhzoma is probably the most difficult name of
stored. To prevent such an event
them all. in different places, one might find montezuma,
from happening again, many peomoctezuma, motecuhzoma, or mutezuma. today, scholple were sacrificed on the Aztecs
ars who study the Aztecs and the Nahuatl language they
temple altars.
spoke prefer motecuhzoma. that is the version used in
More disasters followed. In
this book.
1449, heavy rains and hail caused
the water level of Lake Texcoco
to rise. The flooding filled the
streets of Tenochtitlan with mud. Hail destroyed many of the crops,
while other fields and chinampas lay under water. Nezahualcoyotl came
to Motecuhzomas aid, and the pair built a nine-mile-long dike (a wall
built to prevent flooding) that held back the rising water and reduced
the amount of salt in the water. This made farming easier.
The following year, frosts killed the crops. That meant for several
years the farmers had not produced enough food to feed the people. The
royal granaries were nearly empty, and, with nearly 1 million people to
feed, the situation became desperate. Then, after the floods, the Aztecs
went through a drought (a long period with no rain). It was so hard to
make a living that many people sold themselves into slavery. This was
not always a solution, though, since so little food was available that even
the wealthy went hungry.
Montezuma or
Motecuhzoma?
39
10/19/09 2:22:59 PM
A Delicate Balance
With their military success, the Aztecs turned
themselves into an
imperial power. (Imperial refers to an empire
and its actions.) But that
power did not mean others liked or respected
them. In the same way
that the Aztecs hated the
Tepanecs, the peoples
who were forced to pay
tribute to the Aztecs
hated them. The Aztecs
found themselves in a
difficult position. If they
were too demanding,
their subjects would
rebel. If they were too
easygoing, their subjects
would ignore Aztec
demands. This problem
remained a concern for
future Aztec tlatoque.
The Aztecs wondered how they could make their gods happy again.
A religious ceremony that had once called for the sacrifice of a handful
of turkeys or a jaguar now called for the sacrifice of many people. They
hoped this human sacrifice would satisfy their gods. The prophecies
seemed to be coming truethe world was coming to an end.
The end of the Aztecs many troubles came in 1454. In that year,
Motecuhzoma started to rebuild the Great Temple, the pyramid that
included the major temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. Also in 1454,
the people celebrated the New Fire Ceremony, which took place when
the two Aztec calendars began again on the same day. This ceremony
began with a period of fasting (not eating). Then, a new fire was lit in
the temple and carried around to light fires in the hearths (fireplaces) of
the citys people. The hearth was the center of family life, where women
cooked food and performed religious rituals. The New Fire Ceremony
also included human sacrifices to honor the gods.
Work on the Great Temple required building stone. Since the
Aztecs territory had no suitable building stone, they got it by going to
war with people who controlled the best building supplies. Once the
Aztecs conquered these other cultures, they took the stone as tribute
and the conquered people as labor for the building projects.
The city-state of Chalco, about 20 miles from Tenochtitlan, was
known for its building stone. It was not yet part of the empire, but the
Aztec army quickly changed that. Human sacrifice to Huitzilopochtli
was also part of Motecuhzomas military strategy. Captives from
Chalco were marched to Tenochtitlan and sacrificed. The Aztecs now
had plenty of stone available for Huitzilopochtlis temple.
After Motecuhzoma
Motecuhzoma died in 1468, and the council of elders met to choose a
new tlatoani. They decided on Motecuhzomas brilliant advisor, Tlacaelel. But he refused the job. Instead, he suggested Motecuhzomas son
Axayacatl (r. 14691481). This was an unusual choice, because Axayacatl was young and untried in war. But Tlacaelel had a lot of influence,
and Axayacatl became tlatoani.
From the beginning of his rule, Axayacatl faced some difficult
problems. The first was a rebellion in the neighboring market city of
Tlatelolco. That city had become wealthy because it was a major trading site. The people of Tlatelolco had worked hard for their wealth
40
and resented having to pay tribute to the capital city. Before disagreements broke out into warfare, Axayacatl tried a popular solution: He
married his sister to the lord of Tlatelolco. Marriage was a common
way to end disputes, but this marriage did not solve the problem.
Instead, it created a new one: The bridegroom did not like his bride
and treated her badly.
In Their Own Words
T he Search for Chicomoztoc

In the 16th century, Spanish priest Diego
Durn wrote about Motecuhzomas decision
to seek the Place of the Seven Caves. Here
is part of Durns history. At this point in the
story, the sorcerers have found Coatlicue,
the gods mother, and tell her about the
wealth of the Aztec Empire.
We wish you to know that Motecuhzoma
now rules over the great city of MexicoTenochtitlan. . . . [T]he city is free, is
prosperous. Roads have been opened
to the coast, to the sea, to all the land,
and these are safe. Tenochtitlan is now
the mistress, the princess, the leader and
queen of all the cities, all of which pay
obedience to her. For now the Aztecs have
found the mines of gold and silver and
precious stones; they have discovered the
home of rich feathers. . . . Motecuhzoma
sends you these gifts, which are part
of the wealth of your magnificent son
Huitzilopochtli and which the king [with
Huitzilopochtlis help] has won. . . .
(Source: Durn, Diego. The History of the Indies
of New Spain. Translated by Doris Heyden.
Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press,
1994.)
Motecuhzoma sent a group of

sorcerers to find the Aztec goddess Coatlicue (shown here), the
mother of the god Huitzilopochtli.
41
No one knows for sure

what the Temple of
Huitzilopochtli really
looked like, but this 1722
engraving offers one
possible design.
42
Axayacatl now had only

one choice to keep Tlatelolco
in line. He sent troops to
block all roads leading to the
city. His men then attacked
and took over the marketplace. Tlatelolcos ruler hid in
the temple, where Axayacatl
found and killed him. Axayacatls men destroyed the temple, looted the city, and killed
many of the inhabitants.
Axayacatl was thrilled by
the success of his first battle.
He decided he would test his
abilities by expanding his
empire to include the more
powerful Tarascansthe main rivals of the Aztecs in the west. They
lived in and around Lake Patzcuaro. Their main city was Tzintzuntzan
almost directly west of Tenochtitlan.
Like the Aztecs, the Tarascans were a military power that expanded
by conquering other groups. As a result of their expansion, they controlled areas that produced honey, cotton, feathers, salt, gold, and copperitems the Aztecs wanted. Forty thousand Aztec warriors marched
toward the Tarascan city. They set up camp and sent ambassadors to
meet with the Tarascan military leaders.
The Aztec ambassadors told the Tarascans that if they did not
accept Aztec rule, they would be destroyed in battle. The Tarascans
ignored the warning and attacked the Aztecs. The Tarascans had
better weapons and were highly skilled warriors. They soon had the
Aztecs running in retreat. The Aztecs tried to recover from the loss
by launching a sneak attack on the Tarascan military camp. The
Tarascans were not fooled and defeated the Aztecs again. When
the Aztecs returned to Tenochtitlan, fewer than 2,000 warriors had
survived.
Axayacatl had lost a major battle, but he remained tlatoani. His
officials continued to collect tribute from the nine regions under the
tlatoanis control. Then, there was a major shift in the balance of power
among the three members of the Triple Alliance. In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl, the king of Texcoco, died. Texcoco was left without a strong ruler,
and Axayacatl increased his power and the amount of tribute he collected. The Aztec tlatoanis wealth grew enormously. He had a special
treasure chamber hidden in his palace where he stored his personal
gold, silver, gems, feathers, jewelry, and fine cloth.
Nine years after Nezahualcoyotl died, Axayacatl became sick and
also died. His brother Tizoc (r. 14811486) became tlatoani, but he was
an extremely poor choice. He was a terrible military leader, and his first
venture into war was a bitter disappointment.
In 1481, Tizoc led his troops in his first war as tlatoani. They
fought the Otomi at Metztitlan. The adventure cost the lives of more
than 300 warriors and they brought home only about 30 or 40 prisoners. This, by Aztec standards, was a humiliating defeat.
Tizoc lasted only five years as tlatoani and accomplished very little.
He died mysteriously and may have been poisoned. Certainly, everyone
was relieved when his more capable brother, Ahuitzotl (r. 14861502),
assumed power.
Powerful Names
in Aztec times, children got their formal name
from the official day of their birth according to the sacred or religious calendar. this
calendar had 260 days. the name would be
a number and a day name, such as 7 Rain.
however, since there were only 260 days
in the calendar, there were only 260 formal
names. With thousands of people, too many
people shared the same formal name.
So most Aztecs were known by a nickname. these names, much like the names
of native people throughout the Americas,
were based on the characteristics of a person, animals, birds, flowers, and even clothing. for example, a person might be called
Shining hummingbird, maize flower, or River
Woman.
the tlatoque also had nicknames. Ahuitzotl means the water beast, chimalpopoca means smoking shield, itzcoatl means
obsidian serpent, and motecuhzoma
ilhuicamina means angry lord who shoots
arrows at the sky. these were powerful
names for powerful men.
43
10/19/09 2:23:01 PM
A BrilliAnT MiliTArY leAder

Ahuitzotl began his reign in 1486. Unlike his brother, Ahuitzotl had a
brilliant military mind. As soon as he took office, he began planning a
campaign of wars to expand the Aztec Empire. Ahuitzotl was adding a
new layer to the top of the Great Temple, to make it even taller. The celebration of its completion would be marked by a magnificent sacrifice,
and the Aztecs needed to collect a sufficient number of captives.
No one knows how many people were sacrificed in the four-day
celebration for Huitzilopochtlis temple. The number may have been in
the thousands. So many prisoners of war were sacrificed that the event
was the bloodiest celebration the Aztecs ever had.
War and Human Sacrifice

there are stories of the Aztecs sacrificing
hundreds and even thousands of people
a year, but these stories are exaggerated.
Some were told by the conquering Spanish
as a way to justify their own violence in taking over Aztec lands. Some were told by the
Aztecs themselves to glorify their ancestors.
But when historians look at the most reliable, most specific descriptions of Aztec rituals and actually count the number of human
sacrifices they demanded, the number is in
the dozens per year. occasionally, special
events were observed with extra sacrifices.
Ahuitzotls temple dedication in 1487 is one
famous example. But there is no evidence
for the high numbers of sacrifices regularly
mentioned in some accounts.
Still, human sacrifice was a major focus of
Aztec state rituals. Warfare was conducted
so that soldiers were captured alive for sacrifice. (this meant there were much fewer
deaths in war than in European warfare of
the time.) this practice has lead to stories
that the Aztecs made war with the purpose of
capturing people for sacrifice. capturing victims for sacrifice was one of the many ways
they justified their warfare. But the Aztecs
also expanded their empire to gain access to
the riches of their neighbors: cotton, chocolate, jade, quetzal feathers, turquoise, building stone, and other items of value.
in this way, their wars of expansion were
very similar to the later conquests of the
Spanish. And they were similar in another
way, too. the Aztecs and the Spanish were
both motivated by a desire for power and
glory. they assumed wealth was their welldeserved reward for their military success.
44
10/19/09 2:23:04 PM
t h e tr i p l e a l l i a n c e
Next, Ahuitzotl turned his attention to unconquered lands surrounding the Aztec Empire. Between 1491 and 1495, the Aztecs brought
the region of Oaxaca fully under their rule. The defeated peoples there
included the zapotec. To the west and south of Tenochtitlan, Ahuitzotl
took control of Acapulco, on the Pacific Ocean, and the prized region
of Soconusco, where cacao beans (which are used to make chocolate)
grew. Gold and cotton also poured in as tribute from newly dominated
regions.
By this time, the empire of the Triple Alliance had expanded so far
that the three city-states lost their ability to control the people under
their rule. The burden of constant taxing and providing young men to
The Aztec leader Ahuitzotl

carried this featherwork
shield. It shows a mighty
beast holding a knife
between its teeth.
4
Tenochtitlan Rebuilt
In the early 1500s, a
flood poured through
Tenochtitlan, destroying
many homes, farm plots,
and public buildings. The
Aztecs offered sacrifices
to please their gods and
make the waters retreat.
As the water levels
lowered, the Aztecs saw
how badly their city had
been damaged. Ahuitzotl
immediately ordered that
the city be rebuilt.
Stonemasons (people
who work with building stone), carpenters,
and other craftspeople
arrived in Tenochtitlan.
They built magnificent
palaces that were surrounded by plazas, open
streets, and gardens.
The dikes that held back
the water were made
stronger so that flooding
would not damage the
city again. The city that
was nearing its 200th
birthday took on a new
look.
46
fight in the army was heavy for those who had been conquered. They
believed that the Aztecs had bled their homelands dry so that rulers
in Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan could sit on their jaguar-skin
thrones wearing fine clothes and jewelry.
When the Aztecs conquered a people, they usually left the local
ruler in place. That ruler became responsible to the leaders of the Triple
Alliance. He collected tribute and sent it on to the capital cities. He
administered Aztec laws and arranged for young men to serve in the
military. In return, the Triple Alliance offered the region protection
from outside invasion, a sense of security, and a large trading network.
There was no way for the Aztecs to actually control all the people
in the lands they had conquered. They simply had too few warriors
and officials to enforce their rule. Their success lay in the ever-present
threat of punishment for any rebellion and in the willingness of the
local leaders to go along with Aztec wishes.
The Aztec expansion created a never-ending cycle that eventually
led to their destruction. They sought more wealth, and that meant they
needed to conquer more people. The cost of clothing, arming, and feeding an army, as well as supplying soldiers, put more demands on the
conquered people. The endless need for more tribute to pay for the army
was a terrible burden that could only be completely filled by conquering
still more people. The Aztec Empire under Ahuitzotl grew, but so did its
problems.
Another Motecuhzoma
The next tlatoani was Motecuhzoma II (r. 15021520), who was also known
as Motecuhzoma XocoyotzinMotecuhzoma the Younger. This distinguished him from his great-grandfather, Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina.
Motecuhzoma IIs father, another Axayacatl (dates unknown), died
when his son was 1 year old. Motecuhzoma II was raised in the royal
household, studied to be a priest, and knew a great deal about the Aztec
religion. He was in his early 20s when Ahuitzotl died.
The new, young tlatoani was a gifted leader. He personally led his
armies in 43 military victories. But Motecuhzoma II was not just a warrior. He built a double aqueduct to deliver more fresh water to Tenochtitlan. At times, he sneaked into the city wearing a disguise to discover
if his latest orders were being carried out. In disguise, he offered bribes
to the city judges to find out if any were dishonest. He wanted the
Aztecs to have an efficient, honest legal system.
Teotihuacan
Xocotla
Cholula
Motecuhzoma II believed that it was important to set nobles apart

from commoners (ordinary people). He introduced laws about what
clothing people were allowed to wear and the size of their houses.
Only nobles were allowed to wear cotton, and only certain nobles could
wear red or purple. Nobles could live in two-story homes; commoners
could not.
To make sure that members of the royal court were loyal to him,
Motecuhzoma II removed from office anyone he distrusted and filled
palace jobs with people close to him. He also removed servants who
had served previous tlatoque. He won the loyalty of leaders from the
Throughout the 14th and

early 15th centuries, Aztec
rulers accumulated more
territory for their empire.
This map shows the Aztec
Empire at its height, before
the arrival of the Spanish
in 1520.
47

provinces by giving palace jobs to their sons. He thought rebellious
leaders would think twice before attacking the city where their sons
lived and worked.
Motecuhzoma IIs palace had no equal. The grand home was
basically a square. Inside was a central plaza that featured lush gardens and peaceful courtyards and fishponds. The tlatoani also had a
zoo, complete with jaguars, coyotes, and snakes. The sprawling stone
building constructed around the plaza had more than 300 rooms. The
Aztecs bathed daily, and the palace had more than 100 bathing rooms
In Their Own Words
Two Views of Motecuhzoma II

The Aztecs and the Spanish regarded
Motecuhzoma II in very different ways.
A description from the Codex Mendoza
focuses on his qualities as a great leader.
The Codex Mendoza was written about 20
years after the Spanish conquest by Aztec
speakers of Nahuatl. It contains a history of
the Aztec rulers and their conquests, a list of
the tribute paid by the conquered peoples,
and a description of daily Aztec life.
It was most likely commissioned by
a Spanish governor named Antonio de
Mendoza (14951552) to give to Charles V,
the king of Spain. The document is in Aztec
hieroglyphs with Spanish explanations and
commentary. This is some of what it said
about Motecuhzoma II.
Motecuhzoma was by nature wise, an
astrologer, a philosopher, and skilled in
all the arts, civil as well as military. His
subjects greatly respected him because
of his gravity, demeanor, and power; none
of his predecessors, in comparison, could
approach his great state and majesty.
48
The Spanish were interested in very

different aspects of the tlatoani. Bernal Daz
del Castillo (ca. 1492ca. 1581), a Spanish
priest who traveled with the invading Spanish,
focused on Motecuhzoma IIs appearance.
The Great Montezuma was about 40 years
old, of good height and well proportioned,
slender and spare of flesh, not very
swarthy, but of the natural colour and
shade of an Indian. He did not wear his
hair long, but so as just to cover his ears,
his scanty black beard was well shaped
and thin. His face was somewhat long,
but cheerful, and he had good eyes and
showed in his appearance and manner
both tenderness and, when necessary,
gravity. He was very neat and clean and
bathed once every day in the afternoon.
(Source: McNeill, William, Sr., ed. The Berkshire
Encyclopedia of World History, Vol. 3. Great
Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Publishing Group,
2005. Available online. URL: http://drs.asu.
edu/fedora/get/asulib:144831/PDF-1. Accessed
October 15, 2008; and Daz del Castillo, Bernal.
The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico.
Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2004.)
t h e tr i p l e a l l i a n c e
and steambaths. The twoCONNECTIONS
story building needed so many
rooms and baths because the
royal household included sevthe worms motecuhzoma ii served his guests were not
eral main wives and a number
worms at all. they were larvae, or undeveloped insects,
of secondary wives. Also in the
that live near agave plants. agave is commonly called the
palace were the tlatoanis chilcentury plant or maguey.
dren, servants, and guards.
the aztecs believed that agave was a sacred gift from
There were libraries to
the gods. they used the juice to make pulque, an alcoholic
store government documents
beverage. they ate parts of the plant, and they also used it
and music rooms for entertainto make pens, nails, sewing needles, and thread. the aztecs
ment. Bustling kitchens served
wove the agave fiber into cloth worn by all commoners.
up meals in sprawling dining
t day, agave is used to make the alcoholic beverages
to
halls, feeding guests on venitequila and mezcal. the agave worms once roasted for
son (deer meat), turkey, fish,
food are put into bottles of mezcal. the worms are also
wild ducks and geese, and the
still served in some restaurants in mexico.
ever-present dishes made from
maize. Honored guests were
served roasted agave worms
with a sauce made from avocados and red chilies. The tlatoani loved
chocolate, which was often served as a drink spiced with chili peppers.
The palace was not just the royal home. It was also a business
office, much as the White House in Washington, D.C., serves as both
the U.S. presidents home and office. Included in the palace were apartments for many nobles. Judges and military leaders lived under the
tlatoanis watchful eye.
Thanks to years of conquest and tribute, Motecuhzoma II was able
to lead a good life in his palace. Some of his subjects might have complained about the tribute they paid, but they still feared the power of
the Triple Alliance. Motecuhzoma IIs comfortable life, however, took
a dramatic turn in 1519, with the arrival of foreigners from across the
ocean.
Agave and Its Worms
4
CHAPTER
THE SPANISH CONQUEST

THERE ARE TWO SIDES TO EVERY STORY, AND THE CONFLICT
between the Aztecs and the Spanish is no different. From the Aztec
viewpoint, the Spanish were brutal invaders who showed no respect
for their leaders, their religion, and their customs. The Aztecs could
not understand the Spanish greed for gold and silver. They thought the
Spanish were dirty, since bathing was not popular among Europeans at
the time.
From the Spanish point of view, the Aztecs were uncivilized and
unchristian. They sacrificed human beings and worshipped false gods.
The Spanish believed they worshipped the only true god, Jesus Christ,
and wanted to convert the Aztecs to their faith. The gold, silver, and
other precious items they took were, they believed, their reward for
doing this good work.
The Spanish who came to the New World were known as conquistadors, the Spanish word for conquerors. They were soldiers and
adventurers seeking glory and wealth, while also providing a service for
their king. The Spanish king hoped to spread the Roman Catholic faith,
gain new lands, and acquire wealth.
The Spanish interest in the Valley of Mexico began with a conquistador named Juan de Grijalva (ca. 14891527), who arrived in Cuba in
1511. In April 1518, Grijalva set sail from Cuba, heading west. He traveled the coast of Mexico, stopping at small villages (the people he met
were not Aztecs). The Spanish received gifts, which they brought back
to Diego Velsquez (ca. 14651522), the governor of Cuba. The gifts
amounted to a small treasure: about $4,000 worth of gold and more
than 600 axes made of copper.
This 16th-century
illustration shows the
fateful meeting between
Spanish explorers (seated
with headdress) and Aztec
people.
Old and New World

Old World and New
World were terms once
used by Europeans who
were exploring the world.
The Old World refers to
Europe. The New World
refers to North and South
Americaan area of the
world that was new to
Europeans.
51
10/19/09 2:46:21 PM
Tarnished Copper
Copper was unknown
in Spain at that time. So
the Spanish had no idea
what metal their axe
gifts were made of. Since
copper shines a bright
reddish brown when it
is polished, they thought
perhaps they had been
given low-grade gold.
When they arrived back
in Cuba, the copper had
tarnished, turning first
dark brown and then
green. The Spanish felt
they had been cheated.
Malintzins Name
Historians do not know
what Malintzins name
was before she met
Corts. The Spanish
baptized her as a Roman
Catholic and gave her
the name Marina. The
Nahuatl language does
not have an R sound, so
the local people called
her Malina. The tzin was
later added to her name
as a sign of honor.
2
Velsquez was pleased with the gifts and anxious to send representatives to the Yucatan Peninsula, the part of southeastern Mexico that
juts out into the Gulf Mexico. (Today the region includes Belize and
part of Guatemala.) This area was inhabited by the Maya people.
The governor wanted to see exactly how much wealth he could
collect for the Spanish king, Charles V (15001558). The king received
20 percent (known as the royal fifth) of any riches found in the New
World. But the governor, his representatives, and any men taking part
in an expedition received a share of the remaining 80 percent. The
possibility of becoming rich encouraged men to take part in dangerous
expeditions.
the corts expedition

In the fall of 1518, Velsquez agreed to give Spanish conquistador
Hernn Corts (14851547) two or three ships to use for a new expedition to the Yucatan Peninsula. Raising more money on his own, in
1519 Corts set sail from Cuba with 11 ships, 500 men, horses, and
provisions.
With such a large force, Corts had gone beyond Velsquezs orders.
Cortss expedition was supposed to be an exploratory mission, aimed
at checking out possibilities for future conquest. Now Velsquez feared
Corts would try to conquer territory for himself. He sent an order to
remove Corts as commander. Corts, however, decided to press on. He
sailed from the Cuban capital of Santiago to the ports of Trinidad and
Havana, where he took on more supplies. He then ignored Velsquezs
order to stay in port and left for Mexico.
The trip from Cuba to Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula was a short 120
miles. Corts dropped anchor and went ashore. His fleets first stop was
the island of Cozumel (Maya for island of the swallows), off the eastern coast of the peninsula. The local Maya people watched the ships sail
in and the soldiers come ashore, and hid in the surrounding woods.
Corts and his men looted the town, destroyed statues of the local
gods, and put up a Christian cross. After searching the woods and
rounding up the local people, Corts found one man who spoke Spanish. The man told Corts there were bearded men who lived six days
journey from Cozumel.
Corts knew that some Spanish men had been shipwrecked eight
years ago, and hoped the bearded men might be the survivors of that
the Spanish conquest

wreck. Eventually, he found one of them, Gernimo de Aguilar (ca.
14891531). This was an incredible stroke of luck. Aguilar had learned
Maya and became Cortss translator.
A woman named Malintzin (ca. 1501ca. 1550) also joined Cortss
expedition. Malintzin was a central Mexican woman who had been sold
into slavery to the Maya. Little is know about her life before she joined
Cortss expedition, though some sources say she was the daughter of a
chief who lived near the Tabasco River in southeastern Mexico.
This woman spoke both Maya and Nahuatl, which enabled her
to translate for Corts. The first conversations Corts had with Aztec
messengers and leaders went through two translations: Corts spoke
Hernn Corts
hernn corts was born in 1485 in medelln, a poor village in the rugged region of
Estremadura, Spain. he was a sickly child,
but grew into a strong man. his parents
arranged for him to study the law, but corts
was interested only in becoming a soldier.
At the age of 18, corts sailed for hispaniola, an island in the West indies. Several
years later, corts left hispaniola for cuba,
where he became involved in raising cattle
and shipping. corts was the first European
to raise cattle in cuba, but the life of a farmer
did not interest him. he wanted gold and
riches.
As soon as he heard that Juan de
Grijalva had sailed to a land called mexico
and found gold there, corts was anxious
to leave cuba. he set sail for mexico in 1519,
and eventually made history by conquering
the powerful Aztec Empire.
A statue of Hernn Corts stands in

Medillin, Spain.
53
10/19/09 2:23:07 PM
IN THEIR OWN WORDS
Cor ts Claims the

Land for Spain
in his history of the corts expedition, The Discovery
and Conquest of Mexico, Spanish priest Bernal Daz del
castillo said the first thing corts did when he came
ashore in cozumel was declare that the lands he found in
mexico now belonged to the Spanish king. he described
the ceremony in which corts made this claim.
There and then Corts took possession of that land
for His Majesty, performing the act in His Majestys
name. It was done in this way; he drew his sword and
as a sign of possession made three cuts in a huge
tree called a CIBA, which stood in the court of that
great square, and cried that if any person should raise
objection, that he would defend the right with the
sword and shield which he held in his hands.
to Aguilar in Spanish, Aguilar

spoke to Malintzin in Maya, and
Malintzin spoke to the Aztecs
in Nahuatl. Traveling with the
Spanish, she quickly learned
their language and eventually
Corts did not need Aguilar as
a translator. She later played
an important role for Corts,
helping him recruit Nahuatlspeaking allies.
MOTecUhzOMA
ii sends
Messengers
Word was sent to Motecuhzoma

II that strangers had arrived in
his land. He was concerned
and curious and wanted to find
(Source: Daz del castillo, Bernal. The Discovery and Conquest
out more. So he immediately
of Mexico. cambridge, mass.: Da capo press, 2004.)
sent messengers to meet with
them. Corts had moved along
the coast to an area controlled by the Totonacs. This was where
Motecuhzoma IIs messengers first met Corts.
The messengers were under orders to feed the guests, give them
gifts, and basically check them out. The Aztecs arrived dressed for
an event of great importance. They presented the Spanish with items
the Aztecs treasured: a serpent mask inlaid with turquoise, a garment
made of feathers, necklaces of shells, and items made of gold. The Spanish had no interest in the feathers and shells, but they were delighted to
see the gold.
Corts decided to put on a show that would impress his hosts.
He had his men ride along the beach in full armor, waving their
swords. He fired his cannon, which scared the Aztecs because they
had no knowledge of gunpowder. He told the Aztecs that in the
morning they would have hand-to-hand combat as a test of strength.
He gave them swords, spears, and leather shields. It will take place
very early, at daybreak. We are going to fight each other in pairs,
54
10/19/09 2:23:07 PM

and in this way we will learn the truth. We will see who falls to the
ground (quoted in The Aztec Account of the Spanish Conquest of
Mexico).
The messengers were very confused. They had followed their customs and the orders of their ruler. They expected the Spanish to offer
friendship in return. But it seemed the Spanish strangers were not satisfied. They had challenged the Aztec messengers to combat. They were
messengers, not warriors. It would have been very inappropriate for
them to fight the Spanish, and they did not.
The Incredible Life of

Gernimo de Aguilar
in 1511, a Spanish sailing ship ran aground
in the shallow water off Jamaica. the ship
sank and the 20 or so crew members made it
into a lifeboat. they drifted on the ocean for
13 days. they had no provisions, and nearly
half died before winds and current carried
them to the coast of the Yucatan peninsula.
once ashore, the local maya people
captured them and prepared to sacrifice
them at an upcoming festival. two of them,
Gernimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero
(dates unknown), escaped just before the
festival and fled.
once again they were captured, but this
time it was by a rival chief. According to
Aguilar and Guerrero, he treated them well,
although he also made them his slaves.
these shipwrecked Spanish brought
with them a host of European diseases,
including influenza, measles, smallpox, and
typhus. A terrible plague of disease swept

through the village where Aguilar and Guerrero lived. they were the only survivors.
Aguilar struck out in search of other Spanish people, but Guerrero decided to live
among the maya.
When the maya hernn corts met told
him about some bearded men, corts
decided to send them a letter by messenger.
in the letter, corts set a meeting time. But
the time to meet came and went. corts
assumed his letter had never been delivered, so he sailed on. he did not get far
before one of his ships began leaking and
corts ordered the fleet back to cozumel for
repairs.
While the repairs were being done, a man
paddling a canoe approached the fleet. his
clothes were so tattered that he was nearly
naked. the canoe paddler was Aguilar.
55
10/19/09 2:23:10 PM
Decorative treasures such

as this double-headed
snake ornament were
part of the horde of gifts
presented by the Aztecs to
Corts.
When the messengers returned

to Tenochtitlan, they reported on
what had happened. They told
Motecuhzoma II about the cannon.
They described the Spanish armor and
horses, which they thought were large
deer. The Aztecs had never seen horses
before. To them, these were deer that grew so big
they could carry men on their backs.
The strangers also looked unlike any people the
Aztecs knew. They had light skin and some had yellow hair. Their hair
was curly. Their beards were long and bushy. The Aztecs had darker
skin, straight, dark hair, and very light beards that they kept shaved.
The Aztec army was so powerful that Motecuhzoma II believed he
had nothing to fear. But he did want to know more about these strangers. Motecuhzoma II immediately sent more men to speak with the
Spanish. This group consisted of warriors, prophets, and wizards. They
brought with them a group of captives to be sacrificed, just in case the
strangers were gods.
The Spanish watched the captives being sacrificed in horror.
Dishes were cooked and served, and sprinkled with the blood of the
scarified victims. The Spanish refused to eat the feast put before them.
The Aztecs now knew that the strangers were not gods, because their
gods would have welcomed these offerings. The Spanish were clearly
men. But the Aztecs still did not know what these strangers from far
away intended to do in their lands.
Making Alliances
Corts arrived at a time when the Aztec Empire was stretched so far
that it could not realistically control all its territory. Subject peoples
were paying an increasingly heavy burden in tribute and warriors. And
the Triple Alliance was weakening. Many of the people under Aztec
control were looking for a way to break free.
While they were on the coast, Corts and his men were in the
land of the Totonac. These people were part of the Aztec Empire and
resented the tribute they had to pay. Corts convinced them to become
his allies against the Aztecs. Other subject peoples, also angry after
long years of domination by the Aztecs, would later join Corts, giving
him thousands of allies.
56

Corts also used violence to
secure allies. At times, he raided
villages while the people were
asleep and committed terrible
acts of war, such as chopping off
peoples hands. The native peoples had never seen such brutal
warfare. The cruelty of the Spanthe Spanish felt it was their duty to preach about chrisish convinced some of the Native
tianity to anyone who was not Roman catholic. When
Americans that it was better to
meeting the native peoples of the New World, they felt
join the strangers than to fight
obliged to convert them to the catholic faith. in letters
them.
corts sent home, he described one way this was done.
Among the Totonac, Corts
he wrote, the captain reproved them for their evil
learned about Tenochtitlan and
practice of worshipping their idols and gods, and made
its great wealth. The riches of the
them understand how they must come to the knowledge
city were only 200 miles away,
of our holy faith; and he left them a wooden cross planted
and he wanted them. But there
on a height, with which they were well pleased . . .
were rumblings among his crew.
(quoted in hernn corts, Letters from Mexico).
Some wanted to head back to
this excerpt shows how little respect the Spanish
Cuba to tell Governor Velsquez
had for the religions of the native peoples they met.
what they had found. Corts had
they regarded these religions as evil and wrong. the
no intention of allowing them to
part about the local people being well pleased with the
do so, because he did not want
wooden cross was probably an exaggeration.
other men to follow him and
share in the great wealth of the
Aztecs. To prevent a rebellion
among his men, he sank their ships. Then he turned west and began the
long march inland.
As they traveled, the Spanish faced the Otomi in battle. Once
again, the difference between native and Spanish customs favored the
Spanish. The Otomi had rituals that had to be observed before a battle.
Among the peoples of Central America, these rituals were respected
and one army would not attack another while they were practicing
their pre-battle ritual. But the Spanish did not know about these customs and probably would not have cared even if they had known. They
slaughtered the Otomi as they were preparing for the battle. News of
the Spanish victory spread quickly.
When the Spanish met the Tlaxcalans, they found an ally.
The lords of Tlaxcala knew that the Otomi were excellent warriors
and that the Spanish had slaughtered them. Not wanting to face a
Preaching
Christianity
57
10/19/09 2:23:12 PM
CONNECTIONS
similar fate, the Tlaxcalans

welcomed the invaders. They
provided information about
the trip to Tenochtitlan and
several million years ago, ancestors of todays horses
honored their Spanish guests
roamed North america. Eventually they became extinct,
in every way.
so the aztecs and the other peoples of the New World had
At this time the Tlaxcanever seen these powerful, fast animals. all the horses
lans were enemies of Cholula,
that eventually ended up in North and south america were
and decided to use their allidescendants of the horses the spanish brought.
ance with the Spanish to purthe horse would play an important role in the culture of
sue their own goals. They told
Native american groups in mexico and what became the
Corts that Cholula was an
U.s. southwest and the Great plains. the Native americans
evil city and that its people
used the horses in warfare, just as the spanish did. parts of
were allies of the Aztecs. The
mexico developed an economy based on ranching, and the
Spanish headed for Cholula
first vaqueros, or cowboys, emerged there. many of the first
ready for battle.
mexican cowboys were mestizopeople of mixed spanish
Word was sent to Cholula
and Native american ancestry.
that the Tlaxcalans and their
today, a type of horse first bred in mexico is called the
t
friends came in peace. The
azteca. the breeders wanted a horse similar to the ones
warriors of Cholula welcomed
that came from spain in the 16th century.
the Tlaxcalans and the men
with them as friends. They
met in the main plaza without armor or weapons. The Spanish then blocked off the exits from
the plaza and began killing the Cholultecas. They stabbed them and
pierced them with their spears. The Spanish entered the temple and
destroyed the idol of Quetzalcoatl. (An idol is an image of a god that is
believed to be sacred.)
Word of the Cholulteca defeat reached the Aztecs. They had no
idea that the Cholultecas had been tricked by the Tlaxcalans and the
Spanish. The Aztecs believed that the Spanish had met and beaten the
Cholultecas in a fair battle, as the Aztecs did when they fought their
enemies. When the Aztecs went to war, they followed the accepted customs of their people. At times, they would even send weapons to their
enemies to make sure the fight was fair. The Aztecs assumed the Spanish waged war the same way. If they defeated the Cholultecas, these
strangers must possess a powerful army.
At that point, Motecuhzoma II sent some warriors to turn back the
Spanish and their allies as they approached Tenochtitlan. But the ruler
Spanish Horses


The temple at Cholula was
the site of a massacre of
native peoples by Corts.
of the mighty Aztec Empire simply did not realize the extent of the
threat, and his efforts were too little.
The Spanish Arrive in Tenochtitlan

The Aztecs sent even more gifts, and this time the Spanish liked them
better. They included items made of gold and of quetzal feathers. With
all these gifts, the Aztecs were trying to impress the Spanish. They
wanted the Spanish to see the great power the Aztecs had and make
them realize they could not compete with the Aztec army. If the Spanish feared the Aztecs, perhaps they would leave.
The Spanish, though, did not understand the meaning of these
gifts. They thought the gifts meant to please them, when in fact, they
were subtle threats. And once the Spanish had seen the gold, they were
determined to march on.
This was another way that the Aztecs and the Spanish differed.
The Aztecs could not understand the interest the Spanish had in gold.
To the Aztecs, gold was valuable only for the beautiful things that
could be made from it. The Aztecs did not have an economy based
on moneygoods were exchanged by trading one item of value for
59

another. The Aztecs did not
have gold coins; they had works
of art and jewelry.
The Aztecs also highly
valued quetzal feathers, cacao
beans, and shells. To the SpanThis is how the Spanish described their attack on Cholula
ish, gold was the most valuable
and the terror that followed.
thing in the world. They did
When Cholula had been stormed and destroyed, and a
not treasure it for its beauty,
great host of people killed and plundered, our armies
but for its value as money. They
marched forward again, causing terror wherever they
went, until the news of the destruction spread through
did not appreciate the works
the whole land. The people were astonished to hear
of art given to them. Once the
such strange reports, and to learn how the Cholultecas
Spanish got their hands on gold,
were defeated and slain in so short a time, and how
they quickly melted the art and
their idol Quetzalcoatl had not served them in any
jewelry into bars called ingots,
way.
which were easier to transport.
Finally, the Spanish arrived
(Source: Lon-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press,
in Tenochtitlan, with thousands
1990.)
of Tlaxcalan warriors and other
allies by their side. By this time,
Corts had heard much about
Motecuhzoma II and Motecuhzoma had heard much about him. The
people of Tenochtitlan came out in droves to see the strangers. Gossip
and rumors filled the air, as the Spanish marched over the causeway
and into the city. People sat in canoes on both sides of the causeway and
lined the streets.
Motecuhzoma II met his guests at the gates to the city. The Aztec
tlatoani wore his finest clothes and jewelry when he met the Spanish
conquistador. He sat on a litter, a type of portable couch, and was carried by the nobles of the city. He stepped down from the litter and placed
necklaces of gold and precious stones around Cortss neck. Corts placed
a necklace of pearls and cut glass around the neck of Motecuhzoma, but
was held back by two lords when he tried to embrace the tlatoani.
Motecuhzoma II reportedly greeted Corts in a manner that
is typical Aztec polite speech. He suggested that the Spanish were
welcome to treat the city as if it was their home. But Corts did not
understand the customs of Nahuatl speech-making. He chose to see
the speech as meaning the Aztecs were ready to surrender to him and
King Charles. He then wrote back to the Spanish king, making it look
In Their Own Words
Spreading the News

of Destr uction
60

as if Motecuhzoma II was willing to submit to him. In fact, this was
not true. Cortss mistake was a combination of misunderstanding and
exaggeration. He exaggerated because he was already in trouble with
Governor Velsquez and hoped he could win the favor of the king.
The Spanish were very interested in what they saw of Tenochtitlan. Corts described the city as built on an island in a great salt lake.
He said that it was as large as Seville, a city in Spain. The layout of the
cityhalf streets on land and half canalsimpressed the Spanish. They
were also interested in the temples, the palaces, and the thriving market. The Spanish may or may not have noticed that the city was remarkably cleansomething that could not be said for Spanish cities in the
1500s. The Aztecs bathed daily and kept their streets and homes clean.
The Spanish bathed rarely and cleaned their streets even less often.
While the Spanish were fascinated by everything they saw, they
were not impressed with the Aztec religion. Motecuhzoma II arranged
for Corts to visit the Great Temple, the holiest place in Tenochtitlan.
The tlatoani went with them, and the group went up the 114 steps to
the top of the pyramid. Corts asked to see the Aztec gods, and was
shown the many idols that were kept in the temple. Three sacrifices
had taken place that day and blood covered the walls. The hearts of the
victims burned in front of the idols.
The sights and smells revolted Corts. He wrote that he told
Motecuhzoma II, I do not understand how such a great Prince and wise
man as you are has not come to the conclusion . . . that these idols of yours
are not gods, but evil things that are called devils (quoted in Bernal Daz
del Castillos The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico). Corts had offended
the tlatoani in the worst possible way. He even asked if he could place a
cross, the symbol of the Roman Catholic Church, in the Aztec temple.
Corts and his men accepted Motecuhzoma IIs invitation to stay
at his palace, although they felt nervous about their situation. They
were outnumbered and, even with their superior weapons, they knew
the Aztecs could easily kill them. Corts wrote to King Charles that the
tlatoani was under arrest, but that is very unlikely.
Eventually, though, Motecuhzoma II did come under Cortss
direct control. The constant presence of the Spanish, with their strange
and fascinating ways, slowly influenced Motecuhzoma. They began to
surround him day and night, and eventually separated him from his
lords and priests. Then they used the threat of their superior weapons
to take him under their control.
Aztec Markets
The Spanish admired
the large, orderly markets of the Aztec cities.
After seeing Tlatelolco,
Tenochtitlans sister city,
Bernal Daz del Castillo
wrote in The Discovery
and Conquest of Mexico
that each kind of merchandise was kept by
itself and had its fixed
place marked out. Let us
begin with the dealers in
gold, silver, and precious
stones, feathers, mantles, and embroidered
goods. Then there were
other wares consisting
of Indian slaves both
men and women. . . . In
another part there were
skins of tigers and lions
of otters and jackals,
deer and other animals
and badgers and mountain cats. . . .
61

Under an armed Spanish guard, Motecuhzoma II led the Spanish
to the royal treasure room. The invaders ignored the things the Aztecs
valued most and collected all the gold. They set fire to the feathers and
other items they did not want. The Spanish also went through the royal
palace, taking whatever precious stones and items of value they found.
Corts and his men had found the fortunes they had hoped for. Bernal Daz del Castillo wrote in The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico,
When I saw it, I tell you, I was amazed. . . . [I] had never in my whole
life seen riches like it before.
Since Corts and his small force could never directly take over
Tenochtitlan, he made a more subtle plan. He wanted to keep
Motecuhzoma II as a prisoner in his palace and use him as a puppet. The tlatoani would rule the Aztecs in whatever way the Spanish
wanted. This plan never worked out, though. As soon as the Aztecs
In Their Own Words
Two Versions of Motecuhzomas Speech

The Aztecs wrote down their version of the
meeting between Corts and Motecuhzoma
II. Here is a modern translation of part of the
Aztec tlatoanis greeting.
Our lord, you are weary. The journey has
tired you, but now you have arrived on the
earth. You have come to your city, Mexico.
You have come here to sit on your throne,
to sit under its canopy.
The kings who have gone before, your
representatives, guarded it and preserved
it for your coming. The kings Itzcoatl,
Motecuhzoma the Elder, Axayacatl, Tizoc
and Ahuitzotl ruled for you in the City of
Mexico. The people were protected by their
swords and sheltered by their shields.
Do the kings know the destiny of those
they left behind, their posterity? If only
62
they are watching! If only they can see

what I see!
No, it is not a dream. I am not walking
in my sleep. I am not seeing you in my
dreams. . . . I have seen you at last! I
have met you face to face! I was in agony
for five days, for ten days, with my eyes
fixed on the Region of the Mystery. And
now you have come out of the clouds
and mists to sit on your throne again.
This was foretold by the kings who
governed your city, and now it has taken
place. You have come back to us; you
have come down from the sky. Rest now,
and take possession of your royal houses.
Welcome to your land, my lords!
Corts also wrote to King Charles V of

Spain, offering his view of what Motecuhzoma
II said.

realized Motecuhzoma II was being controlled by the Spanish, they
stopped obeying his orders.
A Massacre and a Retreat

The year 1520 brought problems for Corts. In the early spring, Governor Velsquez sent troops to arrest him for defying the governors
orders. Cuban troops under the command of Pnfilo de Narvez
(ca. 14781528) landed on the coast of Mexico, and word quickly
arrived in Tenochtitlan that more Spanish had arrived. Corts put
Lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado (ca. 14851541) in charge of the city
(Alvarado had been on Grijalvas first expedition to Mexico in 1518).
Corts took as many soldiers and allied warriors as he could with
him to the coast.
For a long time we have known from the

writing of our ancestors that neither I, not
any of those who dwell in this land, are
natives of it, but foreigners who came
from very distant parts; and likewise
we know that a chieftain of whom they
were all vassals brought our people to
this region. And he returned to his native
land and after many years came again, by
which time all those who had remained
were married to native women and had
built villages and raised children. And
when he wished to lead them away again
they would not go, not even admit him
as their chief; and so he departed. And
we have always held that those who
descended from him would come and
conquer this land and take us as their
vassals. So because of the place from
which you claim to come, namely from
where the sun rises, and the things you
tell us of the great lord or king who sent
you here, we believe and are certain that
he is our natural lord, especially as you

say that he has known of us for some
time. So be assured that we will obey you
and hold you as our lord in place of that
great sovereign of whom you speak; and
in this there shall be no offence or betrayal
whatsoever. And in all the land that lies in
my domain, you may command as you
will, for you shall be obeyed; and all that
we own is for you to dispose of as you
choose. Thus now as you are in your own
country and your own house, rest now
after the hardships of your journey.
(Source: An Aztec Account of the Conquest
of Mexico. Modern History Sourcebook,
Fordham University. Available online. URL:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/
Aztecs1.html. Accessed May 22, 2008; and
Montezumas Speech, from The Fall of the
Aztecs. Conquistadors. Available online. URL:
http://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/
cortes_e03.htm. Accessed June 22, 2008.)
63

Corts arrived on the coast to confront Narvez. Rather than meet
with Narvez and discuss the situation, Corts chose to attack at night.
His men ambushed Narvez, who was surprised at how quickly Corts
defeated him. Those soldiers who survived the ambush joined forces
with Corts.
While Corts was gone, Alvarado took advantage of his position.
By now, Motecuhzoma II was a prisoner of the Spanish. The Aztecs
wanted to hold the annual celebration in honor of Huitzilopochtli.
The Spanish were interested in watching such a festival even though
they were disgusted by Aztec human sacrifices. Representatives from
Tenochtitlan went to the palace and asked if they might hold the festival. They got permission to do so.
The celebration required extensive preparations. For example,
those participating needed to make a statue of Huitzilopochtli. The
local women began grinding seeds. The night before the event, the
Aztecs built their model of Huitzilopochtli from a paste made of the
ground seeds spread over a stick frame, much like papier-mch. Artisans dressed the statue with feathers and painted its face. They added
gold jewelry, turquoise, and other finery fit for their god. The young
warriors prepared to dance and sing, which was one of the most important parts of the ritual.
The festival started with a parade through the main plaza. The
people filled the plaza, cheering the warriors who would perform the
serpent dance. The people sang and danced. That was when everything
went wrong.
Alvarado ordered his men to attack the people in the plaza. The
Spanish blocked the gates into the plaza, which prevented people
from leaving, and they proceeded to kill as many Aztecs as they could.
Alvarado justified the attack by claiming it was a way to prevent the
human sacrifices he heard would occur at the ceremony. But it is more
likely that he saw it as a convenient opportunity to kill a lot of warriors.
The dancing warriors were not armed and could not defend themselves
from the Spanish attack.
The Spanish had made a terrible mistake. Up to this point, the
Aztecs had been peaceful, even when the Spanish imprisoned their tlatoani. But this unexpected act of extreme violence enraged them. Many
came running with clubs and spears. A battle began, as the Aztecs
attacked with all their power. They outnumbered the Spanish, who
quickly retreated to the palace.
64

When Corts returned to Tenochtitlan, the situation was desperate. The Spanish fought back, shooting their guns and cannon, but
there were simply too many Aztecs. Corts tried to gain Motecuhzoma
IIs help to end the fighting and bring peace to the city. Motecuhzoma II
told the people to put down their weapons and give up. But by this time,
the council of elders had made Motecuhzoma IIs brother Cuitlahuac (r.
1520) the tlatoani. No one listened to Motecuhzoma II, and the fighting continued. The former tlatoani soon died in the raging battle.
Corts realized that the Spanish needed to leave the city. Rain poured
down, aiding his men in their retreat. Just before midnight on July 1, 1520,
the Spanish and their Tlaxcalan and other allies tried to sneak away in the
middle of the night. But they were seen by the Aztecs, who were familiar
with all the roads in the city. The Spanish were caught on the causeway
to Tlacopan and surrounded by Aztecs in canoes. The Aztecs let loose a
In Their Own Words
T he Death of Motecuhzoma
There are several versions of how
Motecuhzoma II died. Here, Corts presents
his view.
Mutezuma . . . was asked to be taken out
onto the roof of the fortress where he
might speak to the captains of his people
and tell them to end the fighting . . . he
received a blow on his head from a stone
and the injury was so serious that he died
three days later.
Bernal Daz del Castillo wrote:

[T]here was such a shower of stones and
javelins that Montezuma was hit by three
stones, one on the head, another on the
arm, and the third on the leg. . . .
And Fernando de Alva Corts Ixtlilxochilt,

the great-great-great-great-grandson of
Nezahualcoyotl, offered another version:
It is said that an Indian killed him with

a stone from his sling, but the palace
servants declared that the Spanish put
him to death by stabbing him in the
abdomen with their swords.
Still other Aztecs accounts say the

Spanish strangled Motecuhzoma II. Today,
no one knows for sure how he died.
(Source: Corts, Hernn. Letters from Mexico.

Translated and edited by Anthony Pagden.
New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
1986; Idell, Albert, editor and translator. The
Bernal Daz Chronicles. Garden City, N.Y.:
Dolphin Books, 1956; and Lon-Portilla,
Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1990.)
65

storm of arrows. The Spanish fired their cannons, but the Aztecs rowed
their canoes in a zigzag pattern to avoid the cannon balls.
When the Spanish and their allies reached the Toltec canal, Aztecs
in canoes grabbed the Spanish by the legs and pulled them into the
water. They held them underwater until they drowned. Some soldiers
threw themselves into the water. Between the heavy armor the Spanish wore and the gold that weighted them down, the soldiers could not
swim to safety. The bodies of men and horses floated in the water.
Two-thirds of the fleeing Spanish died, along with nearly 1,000
Tlaxcalan warriors who fought with the Spanish. Corts wept for the
loss of men, horses, and treasure.
The few survivors headed for the safety of Tlaxcala. Most were
wounded at least once. With enemies on all sides, the Spanish and their
allies had no place to rest. They ate what maize they could scavenge and
also cooked and ate the meat of their dead horses. Before they could
reach Tlaxcala, though, they had to fight the Aztecs again.
On the plains of Otumba, the two armies met. In a desperate move,
Corts captured one of the Aztec generals. The Spanish were vastly
outnumbered, but this bold move caused the Aztecs to retreat. The
route to Tlaxcala was open, and the Spanish headed to the home of
their greatest allies.
The Spanish Return

Now the Spanish wanted more than just gold from the Aztecs. They had
managed to gain control of Tenochtitlan once, and they wanted it back.
They also wanted revenge for the conquistadors who had been killed.
At Tlaxcala, the soldiers healed and Corts built up his army with both
Spanish and local allies. Spanish reinforcements arrived from other
areas. And, increasingly, the native peoples joined with the Spanish
because they felt optimistic that they would be able to defeat the Aztecs.
Back in Tenochtitlan, the people began to think that they had seen
the last of the Spanish and breathed a sigh of relief. Then, in September,
the Aztecs suffered a terrible blow. Smallpox, brought by the Spanish
to all of the New World, raced through the population. Diseases such
as smallpox had been present for so long in Europe that many Europeans had been exposed to them and had some immunity against their
effects. But the peoples of the New World had never encountered these
diseases and had no immunity at all and no medicine to relieve the
coughs, fevers, blisters, and sores that came with smallpox.
66
In Their Own Words
T he Great Miser y
Bernardino de Sahagn (ca. 14991590) was
a Spanish priest who was sent to Mexico to
convert the native peoples to Christianity.
Sahagn eventually learned Nahuatl and
collected Aztec writings and conducted
interviews in that language. He and his
students compiled 12 books from these
native sources. Some of the writings were
translated into Spanish, but most were not.
They are now known as the Florentine Codex
or General History of the Things of New
Spain.
This is what the Florentine Codex had to
say about the smallpox epidemic:
It caused great misery. Some people it
covered with pustules, everywhere, the
face, the head, the breast, etc. Many indeed
perished from it. They could not walk; they
could only lie at home in their beds, unable
to move, to raise themselves, to stretch out

on their sides, or lie face down, or upon
their backs. If they stirred they cried out
with great pain. Like a covering over them
were the pustules.
On some the pustules broke out far apart.
They did not cause much suffering, nor
did many die of them. Many others were
harmed by them on their faces; face and
nose were left roughened. Some had their
eyes injured by them; they were blinded.
Many were crippled by itthough not
entirely.
The pestilence lasted through 60 day
signs before it diminished.
(Source: The Fall of the Aztecs. Conquistadors.
Available online. URL: http://www.pbs.
org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_e03.htm.
Accessed June 22, 2008.)
The epidemic lasted for just over two months and left thousands
dead. Cuitlahuac may have been one of the victims, although historians are not sure. In any event, he died in 1520 and Motecuhzoma
IIs nephew Cuauhtemoc (r. 15201521) was chosen as tlatoani. The
young man possessed the bravery needed in a leader during this time
of crisis.
Meanwhile, Corts prepared his counterattack. It had been almost
two years since Corts first arrived in Mexico. The handful of Spanish soldiers who had come on his first expedition had been reinforced
by Narvezs surviving men and also by additional ships from Cuba.
Cortss father even sent a shipload of men and supplies from Spain.
Eventually, even long-term allies like the Acolhua, Nezahualcoyotls people, started splitting away and joining with the Spanish. They
thought they were gaining their independence from the Aztec Empire.
67

They had no idea what they were getting into: 300 years of Spanish
colonial rule, impoverishment, and loss of power.
In December 1520, Cortss troops and allies marched toward the
heart of the Aztec Empire. Using native workers, the Spanish had built
12 brigantines (a type of sailing ship) that Corts planned to use to
cross Lake Texcoco. More than 8,000 Native Americans took apart and
carried the ships to the lake, then reassembled them. Cortss plan was
to set up a siege. In this military tactic, an army surrounds a city or fort
and prevents it from receiving supplies or more troops.
When Corts arrived, he cut off the island on which Tenochtitlan was
built. On May 30, 1521, the Spanish launched the brigantines they had
brought in pieces to the shores of Lake Texcoco. They used their ships to
attack the Aztecs on the causeways and to stop canoes from crossing the
lake to bring supplies. The Spanish cut the flow of fresh water into the city.
Corts knew that a city without food and water could not survive.
In Their Own Words
Broken Bones Lit tered the Road

In the years after the Spanish invasion,
several Aztec poets wrote elegiespoems
written for the dead or after a great loss.
Here is part of one found in Tlatelolco. It
dates to the 1540s or 1550s.
Note the powerful image of shields, which
are meant to defend the city, being used in
desperation to toast a few worms for a starving
person or to protect a crumbling wall.
Thus in our place this happened; we saw
it, we will marvel at it. The crying, the pity
caused us to suffer exhaustion.
Broken bones littered the road; crushed
heads, roofless houses, walls were made
red with blood.
Worms crawled through noses in the
streets; the house walls were slippery
with brains.
68
The water was dyed red with blood. Thus

we went along; we drank the brackish
water.
Still, there an adobe foundation, here a
well protected with a shield.
Still, in vain someone might toast
something on a shield.
We ate tzompantli wood, grass from the
salt flats, the adobe bricks, the lizards,
mice, bits of dust.
Worms were toasted on a shield; there,
on the fire the meat was cooked. They
are it.
(Source: Courtesy of John Frederick Schwaller,
translator, copyright 2008, all rights
reserved.)

When it became clear that the Spanish were a serious threat, the
Aztecs defended themselves fiercely and heroically, and adapted to
Spanish styles of fighting. But they were abandoned by their allies and
subjects and besieged in Tenochtitlan. They held out as long as they
could, with Cuauhtemoc valiantly leading them. But their fresh water
and food supplies were cut off and they were starving, drinking salty
lake water, and eating worms, mice, weeds, and anything else they
could find.
Corts was amazed by the city of Tenochtitlan and did not want to
destroy it. The Spanish wanted to conquer Mexico and then live as noblemen on big estates with the native people working for them and paying
tribute to them. But in the end, because the Aztecs refused to surrender,
destroying Tenochtitlan was the only way he could conquer it.
The Aztecs held out for 80 days. During that time, Corts and his
troops landed on the southern shore of the island. They fought their
way through the city, advancing street by street, meeting heavy resistance. They destroyed entire calpullis to prevent Aztec warriors from
ambushing them.
Slowly, the whole southern part of the island gave way to the Spanish attack. But conquering the entire island would take more than two
months. Finally, Cuauhtemoc realized his people could not win and he
surrendered. The historian Alva Ixtilxochitl later wrote, On the day
that Tenochtitlan was taken, the Spanish committed some of the most
brutal acts ever inflicted upon the unfortunate people of this land.
The cries of the helpless women and children were heart-rending. The
Tlaxcalans and other enemies of the Aztecs revenged themselves pitilessly for old offences and robbed them of everything they could find
(quoted in The Fall of the Aztecs).
After his defeat, Cuauhtemoc was taken prisoner by Corts and
tortured. The conquistador finally executed Cuauhtemoc in 1525,
when he feared the former Aztec tlatoani might lead a rebellion against
Spanish rule.
National Hero
Cuauhtemoc has become
a national hero in Mexico
for his bravery fighting
against a foreign invader.
A statue of Cuauhtemoc
was put up in Mexico
City in 1887, and today
boys are sometimes
named after him. Some
of the more prominent
Cuauhtemocs of recent
years include the soccer
star Cuauhtemoc Blanco
(b. 1973) and the political leader Cuauhtemoc
Cardenas (b. 1934).
The End of an Empire

The fall of Tenochtitlan marked the end of the Aztec Empire. Tlatelolco
soon fell as well. The Aztecs still chose their own leaders, but those
men had to obey the Spanish. Some rulers who promised loyalty to
Spain were allowed to govern their local communities, but they, too,
had to answer to Spanish officials.
69
This map, drawn in 1524,

shows what Europeans
believed the Aztec Empire
looked like.
0
Some high-ranking Spanish men married local noblewomen, because few Spanish
women settled in the colony.
Even when they did come,
those women never married native men. Over time,
the mestizo children of the
Spanish settlers and native
women also took important
roles in the society of New
Spainthe Spanish name for
the former Aztec Empire and
other parts of modern-day
Mexico.
The gold Corts craved
made its way into the treasury of King Charles and into the pockets of Corts and his men.
Thousands of Spanish moved to Mexico to settle and exploit the land.
There was not all that much gold in Mexico, but there was plenty of
silver. Eventually silver mining became a major source of wealth for the
Spanish, who forced the native people to work long hours under terrible
conditions in the silver mines.
With the Spanish conquest, the Roman Catholic Church sent
priests as missionaries to convert the native people. Charles V and later
Spanish rulers took this effort very seriously. Many Aztecs who wished
to become Catholic were allowed to keep their estates, which was a
major incentive. Catholicism became the religion of Mexico, as it is to
this day.
But the Aztec Catholics did not practice their faith as most Europeans did. The native people who accepted Catholicism adapted it to
suit their own religious traditions. They emphasized public rituals,
sacred images, and making offerings. Churches were typically built on
or near the sites of the old temples, reusing the same building materials and even pieces of statues or whole carvings. Human sacrifice was
abandoned with little regretwhich showed that it was mainly an
activity of the Aztec warrior state.
As more Spanish arrived, they slowly took over all of Mexico and
Central America. The land that was once home to great, independent
civilizations was now completely under foreign control.
PA RT I I
SOCIETY AND
CULTURE
AZTEC SOCIETY
DAILY LIFE AMONG THE AZTECS
RELIGION, ART, AND SCIENCE
10/19/09 2:23:16 PM
C h aPt e r
AzTEc sociETy
THE AzTECS HAD VERY DEFINITE IDEAS ABOUT SOCIAL
classes. The three social classesnobility, commoner, and slavewere
clearly defined and strictly maintained. The nobility or the upper class of
Aztec society was the pipiltin. The commoners were part of the macehualli. People were born into their class, and few ever rose above it.
The social rules for professions were even more rigid. Children of
goldsmiths became goldsmiths, farmers children were farmers, scribes
sons were scribes, and so on.
Although the majority of people had no choice about their lifestyle
or career, some highly gifted children did rise above their parents status. Young men all trained for the military. A skilled warrior could earn
wealth by his brave deeds and could also rise in social statusalthough
the chances for this rise were slim. Another opportunity for success
came through talent. Skilled weavers, outstanding singers, and very
smart boys could also advance. Boys who showed promise in the macehualli school could be sent to the calmecac, a school for nobles.
Another way to rise above low status was to be promised to the
priesthood. Parents could commit their children, boys or girls, to the
temple at birth. One reason to commit a child to the priesthood was the
improved standard of living. Children in the temple were fed, housed, and
clothed. They did not need to fear dying of hunger in times of famine.
opposite
Aztec soldiers dressed in

magnificent uniforms.
Eagle warriors, as
represented by this statue,
were one of the two
specially honored classes
of Aztec soldiers.
PiPilTin, the noBility

The Aztec noble class began with Acamapichtli, the first tlatoani. He
had several wives and many children. He created a ruling dynasty. The
3
Calmecac
kahl-MeH-kahk
Calpixqui
kahl-PEESH-kee
Calpulli
kahl-POO-lee
Chinampas
chee-NAHM-pahs
Macehualli
mah-seh-WALL-ee
Pipiltin
pee-PEEL-teen
Pochteca
pohch-TAY-kuh
74
closer a person was connected to his family through marriage or blood,

the more prestige they had.
Nobles gained status through good marriages to others with wealth
or power, military success, or service to the empire. Members of this
group filled high positions in the government, owned private land, and
gained other advantages. By the mid 1300s, the noble class had become
an established social group, the pipiltin. People were born into the
nobility or rose to noble status by acts of military heroism. Noble status
was hereditaryit was inherited from parents to children, and never
lost. If nobles married commoners, their children were also part of the
nobility.
Despite their privilege, nobles were not expected or allowed to be
lazy. Even the highest noble was expected to work, achieve, lead in the
military, and make sacrifices. The Aztecs would not support a group of
rich people who did no work and lived only for pleasure.
Still, there were some obvious advantages to being a noble. The
pipiltin lived well and ate well. Many had estates with grand, two-story
housesan honor not allowed commoners. They ate meat and fish,
vegetables, fruits, and had the best foods available. Nobles were allowed
to wear gold jewelry and cotton clothing, and they usually wore bright
colors. Motecuhzoma II made it illegal for commoners to wear cotton,
and anyone who defied that law suffered the death penalty.
Being noble also brought responsibilities. The extent of these
responsibilities was drilled into the minds of the young at school.
Noble girls and boys attended the calmecac, which was attached to the
temple. Girls and boys attended separate schools. Under the guidance
of the priest-schoolmaster, children learned to pray, fast, and sacrifice.
They were taught to suffer pain by cutting themselves as part of blood
sacrifices. They also learned Aztec history and customs by reading
codices. The boys trained to be warriors, which was an obligation of all
male Aztecs.
All noble men had jobs. They were expected to run their estates
and also have another position. Many became government administrators and managed such tasks as tax collecting, road building, temple
building, or farming. In addition to these jobs, they might also be asked
to serve as judges or military leaders. Others became priests in one of
the many Aztec temples.
Noble women were expected to oversee the workings of their
home. This could be a big job. A noble woman was expected to attend
Aztec Society
to the same chores as a commoner wife, although she might have many
servants to do the actual work. Still, she had to make sure all family
members, slaves, and workers were fed, housed, and clothed. The cleaning of the home, the health of its members, and the early education of
the children were also her responsibility.
The Tlatoani
Every altepetl (city-state, although some were quite rural) had a tlatoani. Each was like a king. After the Aztecs defeated the Tepanec and
began their military expansion, the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan ruled as an
emperor. He was the most powerful and feared of all Aztecs.
The tlatoani was the commander-in-chief of the military and
the high priest of the religion. Every decision he made influenced the
people of the empire. If he called for higher taxes, the people had to pay.
He could condemn a person to death, take away wealth, or declare war.
During a famine, the tlatoani could open the royal granaries and feed
the peopleor order more human sacrifices to please the gods.
The tlatoani always came from the Aztec royal family, which was
extensive. There were many brothers and sisters, children, cousins,
aunts and uncles, and husbands and wives. Tlatoque were allowed to
have up to 100 wives, so they usually had plenty of children.
To choose the tlatoani, a council of eldersall noblespicked
from among four candidates. All were usually close relatives of the previous tlatoani. These candidates were young men who showed the most
intelligence, the greatest wit, and the most courage in battle. Aztec
tlatoque did not automatically pass their office on to their sons. However, in some city-states this was the practice. For example, in Texcoco
Nezahualcoyotl was followed by his son, Nezahualpilli, who passed his
office on to his son, Cacamac.
Once chosen, the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan was tlatoani for life.
When he took office, the Aztecs held a huge coronation ceremony. The
new tlatoani went to the top of a temple to hear lectures by the elders.
The lectures were called the huehuetlatolli, or speeches of the elders.
The tlatoani learned what his new job required and the tremendous
responsibility he was taking on. All Aztecs depended on him.
A massive feast and the presentation of gifts followed the lectures.
Every noble guest gave the tlatoani a present. He looked on at the feast
and the entertainment from a throne decorated with feathers, and he
Lords of the Aztecs

While the tlatoani was
the supreme power
within a city-state, he
sometimes gave land
to a class of nobles
called tetecuhtin (the
singular was a tecuhilt).
These lords, as they
are sometimes called
in English, could pass
their lands on to their
descendants when they
died. Like a tlatoani,
the tetecuhtin received
tribute. This came from
the commoners who
worked the lords lands.
Some nobles below the
tetecuhtin in social rank
owed loyalty to them,
and might live near a
tecuhitls palace so they
could provide service to
their lord.
75
Priestly Hair
Spanish Priest Bernal
Daz del Castillo wrote
about the hair of the
Aztec priests he saw:
They wore their hair
very long, down to the
waist, with some even
reaching down to the
feet (quoted in The
Discovery and Conquest
of Mexico). As soon as
boys began studying
for the priesthood, they
began growing their hair
long. Adult priests never
cut their hair. They tied it
back with a white ribbon
and covered it with soot.
Daz noted that after a
sacrifice, the priests hair
was covered with blood.
wore a fine robe and a magnificent crown. From then on, he led a life of
great luxury and much greater responsibility.
Aztec Priests
After the tlatoani, the most powerful positions in Aztec society were
held by the high priests. There were two high priests and many ranks of
priests below them, similar to ranks of military leaders. It was the main
job of the priests to keep the gods happy and let the people know what
they needed to do to make the gods content.
The highest ranks of priests belonged to the noble class, the pipiltin. Other priests could come from any social class, and many children
were promised to serve in the priesthood.
Priests performed many roles in the temple. Some supervised the
business of the temple, while others prepared for and performed sacrifices. Some priests were destined to be teachers and taught boys in the
calmecac. The most powerful priests worked in the Great Temple that
served the sun god and the god of rain. Priests could also belong to the
military. They marched to war beside their fellow soldiers.
Lower ranked priests, usually from commoner families, served the
higher priests. They dressed all in black. Some also painted their bodies
black while others wore long black cloaks with hoods.
Women could become priestesses. This was an excellent life for
women who did not marry. Priestesses served the many goddesses the
Aztecs worshipped. Like priests, the priestesses had many jobs within
their temples. Some also took on the role of their goddess in parades
and festivals. Certain priestesses took part in human sacrifices to goddesses, while others gave followers gifts of maize or other foods.
Warriors
War was a way of life for the Aztecs. Warriors went to war with great
joy. Courage, strength, and fearlessness in the face of the enemy were
qualities much admired in the Aztec culture.
Warriors began their training as children. The Aztec military
had no permanent soldiers, but it did have a full range of professional
officers. The leading commander was the tlatoani, which is one reason
why bravery in combat was a qualification for becoming the tlatoani.
76
Aztec Society
After the tlatoani, the
highest and most powerful
positions in Aztec society
were held by the high
priests. Headdresses made
of gold and feathers helped
show their importance.
Every healthy man age 17 and up was expected to fight whenever he

was called upon.
Soldiers dressed in magnificent uniforms. There were two honored groupsjaguar knights and eagle knights. Members of those
troops wore special helmets and carried special shields. A jaguar
warrior might wear a uniform made of animal skins, while an eagle
warrior had a helmet shaped like the sharp beak of an eagle. They
also wore their hair in distinctive styles that drew attention to their
rank and their heroic acts on the battlefield. The greater the feats
displayed, the more elaborately a warrior dressed and decorated
himself.
A warrior had to be skilled in the use of several weapons: spears,
slings, bows and arrows, darts and dart-throwers, knives, and swords.
The blades of weapons were made from sharpened obsidian, which was
very sharp but easily broken.
Historian Miguel Lon-Portilla (b. 1926), an authority on the
Aztecs, wrote (in The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico), A war or battle always commenced with a certain
ritual: shields, arrows, and cloaks of a special kind were sent to
the enemy leaders as a formal declaration that they would soon be
attacked. This explains the Aztecs surprise when the Spaniards, their
A Priestesss Life
Young girls might be
dedicated to the temple
as children, even if they
would not become priestesses. Such girls usually lived in the temples
and learned specific
jobs within the temple
grounds. Most priestesses did not usually
carry out religious rites.
They were housewives
of the temple, cleaning,
gardening, and cooking for the gods and the
priests who served them.
77
CONNECTIONS
The Jaguar and the Ocelot

the jaguar was a very important animal to
the Aztecs. it is the largest wildcat in the
Americas and is a fierce hunter. Because
jaguars see well at night, the Aztecs associated them with tezcatlipoca, the god of
night.
the Aztecs chose the jaguar as a symbol
for some of their best warriors because of
the big cats bravery. their word for the jag-
uar was ocelotl. today, that word is the root

of the name of another wildcat, a smaller
relative of the jaguar called the ocelot.
An ocelot is twice the size of the average housecat and has a spotted coat. many
ocelots live in the rain forests of central and
South America. But they can also be found
as far north as texas. ocelots are currently
endangered.
guests, suddenly turned on them without any apparent motive and

more importantwithout the customary ritual warning.
The goal of war was not to kill the enemy but to expand territory and collect captives. Warriors struck the enemy in the legs with a
sword. Success for a warrior was based on the number of captives taken.
This was sometimes a way for a commoner to gain a promotion in rank
and possibly even become a noble.
In the 11th month of each year, the tlatoani gave out military honors and awards. These might include special weapons and badges of
distinction, shields, swords, cloaks, and loincloths.
The army was divided into small groups of about 200 men that
were like modern platoons. The basic large unit, like todays battalion,
had about 8,000 men. A major war would see as many as 25 units, or
200,000 warriors, heading to battle.
Along with the warriors were porters to carry supplies. Before a
war began, communities were warned in advance. Each calpulli was
expected to provide 400 warriors, along with supplies. Towns had their
orders to provide quantities of maize, tortillas, salt, beans, fresh and
dried chilies, corn meal, and pumpkin seeds to feed the troops.
MACEHUALLI, The cOMMOners

Commoners had a wide range of jobs. They were merchants, traders,
artisans, craftsmen, and farmers. Merchants and traders provided the
78
10/19/09 2:23:17 PM
Aztec Society
goods available in the markets. Traders traveled far and wide to collect the products that were sold. Because the Aztecs had no wagons or
other vehicles to carry their goods, traders moved their goods by canoe
if there were waterways, or they had slaves called porters carry their
products on their backs.
Traders, called pochteca (the singular is pochtecatl), traveled on
foot to distant nations. They traded for luxury items, such as brilliantly
colored feathers, gems, and animal hides. Some pochteca also traded in
slaves. The travel was dangerous, and some traders wisely took warriors
with them along with the porters needed to carry their goods. Smart
pochteca never wore fancy clothing or announced their wealth. They
traveled in plain clothing and often at night so they did not attract the
attention of robbers. Some traders traveled in groups for safety.
Farmers grew their own food and paid tribute in the form of crops.
They could also sell any extra crops in the marketplace. Farmers who
An Aztec warrior had to

be skilled in using a spear.
These are atlatl, or spear
throwers. They are made
of gold and covered with
designs showing gods
and warriors. Gold items
were made for show and
ceremony, and were not
taken into an actual battle.
79
10/19/09 2:23:18 PM

This panel from a larger
work made of deerskin
shows Yacatecuhtli, the
god of merchants, at the
upper left and scenes of
merchants in the other
squares.
did not have access to a local market to sell their extra food traded with
a traveling pochtecatl.
slaVes
The lowest social class consisted of slaves. People could become slaves
as punishment for committing crimes. Stealing and selling stolen goods
were punished by slavery. So was kidnapping children with the idea of
selling the children as slaves. Some cities were required to provide a
specific number of slaves each year as part of their tribute. They went
hunting for those slaves from cultures beyond the Aztec Empire.
Some slaves were former enemies who had been captured during
a war. Most captured men would consider slavery far better than the
other alternative they facedsacrifice. Prisoners of war could only
become slaves or sacrifices.
Most people volunteered to enter slavery. To the Aztecs, free people were entitled to live their lives as they saw fit. If they chose to sell
themselves into slavery, that was fine. By doing so, they would always
have food, clothing, and shelter.
0
Aztec Society
Finally, some people became slaves through debt. A family might
enter into a business arrangement with someone who was wealthy. The
parents could sell one of their sons to the official or noble in return for
land, food, or a home. This was a common practice when food was in
short supply. During such a crisis, it was better to sell a child into slavery than to watch that child starve to death.
The life of an Aztec slave was not as difficult as it has been for
slaves in other cultures and at other times. Aztec slaves were always
fed, housed, and clothed, and male slaves did not have to serve in the
military. Since the Aztecs went to war regularly, military service was
dangerous. Slaves did not have to pay taxes. This was a real advantage
in a society that taxed everything.
On the other hand, slaves were not considered citizens. They were
property, like any other object. Slaves worked for a master, usually a
man. They might do farm work, serve in a household, or be a porter
Tlatelolco Market
the largest market was in tlatelolco. A shopper could find everything from lengths of
rough cloth to golden necklaces, simple clay
pots to ornately carved wooden chests, and
corn to exotic foods such as spirulinaa
type of algae from the surface of ponds
and beetles.
in addition to traders, the marketplace
was also a place for artisans and craftspeople to sell the goods they made. this was
the place where skilled weavers or dyers
offered their goods for sale. the Aztecs
had many skilled craftspeople, including
leather workers, stone workers, brick makers, gold and silversmiths, feather artists,
and potters.
the market offered services, as well. customers could get a haircut, hire a porter who
would carry items for them, or grab a bite to
eat in a caf. the merchants and craftspeople, however, were the main focus, and they
had to follow strict rules.
At the tlatelolco market, each business day
began and ended with the beating of a drum. All
the sellers of a particular item were restricted to
certain areas of the market. Everyone had to
use the same standard measurements for selling items by length or volume. the merchants
also could not change the prices of goods,
because these were set in advance. if government officials caught merchants trying to cheat
a buyer, the merchants were punished.
81
10/19/09 2:23:20 PM
Slave Traders
Slave traders were
among the most
respected pochteca in
Aztec society. They were
called tlaltlanime, which
means washers of
slaves. This name refers
to the fact that slaves
had to be bathed before
they were sacrificed.
The slave traders were
the wealthiest of all traders. They were honored
because some of the
slaves they provided
played such an important role in religious
ceremonies.
82
for a trader. Female slaves spun thread, wove cloth, mended clothes,
and cooked food. These were the same tasks expected of a commoners
wife.
Several things made Aztec slavery different from slavery in some
other cultures. Slaves could learn and work in skilled trades, and many
slaves held positions of importance in a household. A slave could be
a scribe, who wrote official documents, or an accountant, who kept
financial records. Slaves were allowed to own property, buy and sell
goods, and save money.
Slaves were allowed to marry and raise children. They could
marry other slaves, or they could marry free men or women. Marriage
to a slave did not mean giving up ones freedom, and slaves could eventually become free. Children born of slaves were not slaves. They were
considered free, and being the child of a slave was not embarrassing.
In fact, the great tlatoani Itzcoatl had a mother who was a slave.
Generally, new slaves were traded in a slave market. The slaves
were brought to market with wooden collars around their necks. They
were tied to a long pole to prevent escape. While it was easy to buy new
slaves, slave owners could not easily sell any of their current slaves. The
law allowed the sale only of slaves who were violent or lazy. Such a slave
could be bought and sold for work three times. After that, the next
purchase usually was for the festival of Panquetzaliztli, held at harvest
timethis festival required the sacrifice of slaves. No one wanted to
sacrifice a hard-working, valuable slave. Instead, many bought lazy
slaves specifically for the sacrifice.
The buying and selling of slaves was a bustling, profitable business.
An average slave cost about 20 cotton cloaks. A talented or skilled slave,
such as a singer or a scribe, might cost as much as 40 cotton cloaks. Two
commoners could live for an entire year on what it would cost to buy a
singer or a scribe.
Most slaves were not Aztec. They were brought to the empire as
captives. However, all slaves had an opportunity to gain freedom. A
slave who was being sold in the market could try running away when
he or she was put up for sale. If the slave reached the rulers palace
before being caught by his or her owner or the owners son, the slave
became free. No one else in the city was allowed to help the slaveholder by stopping the runaway slave. To interfere in the chase was
a crime, and the person who committed this crime was punished by
being made a slave.
Aztec Society
The Calpulli
In Aztec society, every person regardless of social status belonged to a
calpulli. As the people moved into the cities, calpulli evolved into districts or neighborhoods. Each calpulli had its own leader, council, temple, and schools. Each had its own calpulli council and was responsible
for choosing council leaders to keep the district running smoothly. The
districts were political divisions, much like voting districts in todays
counties, cities, or towns. When the Spanish arrived in Tenochtitlan,
the city had 80 calpulli.
In rural areas, the calpulli owned land as a group. The farmers worked the land together and used water owned by the calpulli
members. The calpulli paid tribute as a group, and everyone worked
to ensure an excellent harvest. That harvest paid the tribute, fed the
people, and provided surplus crops that the calpulli members could
trade at the market.
How the Aztecs Earned a Living

In Aztec culture, every healthy person was expected to work. Children
learned when they were toddlers that they would have to work to live.
The economy was based on farming, so most people earned their living
by growing food. The main crop was maize or corn, the staple food of
the Aztec diet.
The people who lived in cities had more luxuries than those in
farm districts. The people of Tenochtitlan needed an active, vital economy to support their larger homes and their higher social status. At the
height of the Aztec Empire, the citys population varied from 100,000
to 300,000 people. Those people needed food, services, arts, and goods.
The city supported farming, crafts, and an active religious life.
Farming was the heart of the Aztec economy. The people needed
food and clothing, and farming provided both. The Aztecs had only
hand tools to help them farm, and they had no large animals to assist
them, such as horses, mules, or oxen. The Aztecs grew a wide range of
vegetables, including avocados, beans, chilies, squash, tomatoes, and
onions. For grain, they grew maize and amaranth. Farmers also raised
turkeys and dogs for meat.
The land the Aztecs farmed was not fertile enough to grow all the
food needed to support the population. So the Aztecs needed to find a
way to produce more food. They found ways to irrigate, or bring water
Valuable Cotton
Cotton cloth was highly
valued. But it could not
be grown in the Valley of
Mexico because it is too
cool there. Cotton was
imported from lower,
warmer territories to the
south, in todays state
of Morelos in Mexico.
Cotton came into the
Aztec Empire as trade or
tribute. In fact, the desire
for cotton was a motivation for the Aztecs first
conquests.
83
CONNECTIONS
Building Chinampas
the process of making chinampas was simple. first, canals were cut through the marshes
and swamps. the farmer then marked out
a square plot, using mud and plants to form
walls to hold back the water. mud was then
placed on mats made from reeds, which lined
the bottom of the plot.
Willow trees were planted along the
walls of the plot. When the trees took root,
they acted like anchors that kept the walls
of the chinampas in place. At that point, the
chinampa could be used for planting maize.
the use of chinampas did not die out with
the end of the Aztec Empire. they are still
used today in a region southeast of mexico
city, particularly near a lake called Xochimilco. farmers grow maize, flowers, and
vegetables on their island farms.
The gardens of Xochimilco are all that

remain of the Aztec island farms known as
chinampas.
from its source to their farms. They also used fertilizers (chemicals that
help crops grow). The Aztecs also built raised platforms of soil, called
terraces, to grow food on hillsides. Their most original idea, however,
was their island farms, chinampas.
Planting, weeding, and harvesting maize on a chinampa was hard
work. Everyone in a farming family took part in the work. Once the corn
was harvested, each ear of maize had to be shucked (the outer husk pulled
off) and the kernels removed from the cob. The corn was then dried and
stored. Although the corn could be used as dried kernels, it was normally
made into a dough, which was used to make porridge or tortillas. Farmers often paid their taxes in the form of fresh or dried corn.
Extra food could be traded in the town market. Cloth, leather,
wooden items, and any other crafts could also be traded in the marketplace. The Aztecs had no coins or paper money, but they did use cacao
beans as a form or currency.
84
10/19/09 2:23:21 PM
Aztec Society
Cacao beans were precious to the Aztecs, who used them to make
chocolate. The beans were small and portable. A person could easily
carry a pouch with several hundred cacao beans and use them to buy
goods or services anywhere in the Aztec Empire. Cacao beans were
often used in local markets to buy tools, clothes, leather for sandals,
and jewelry. Gold, silver, and precious stones were expensive and cost
plenty of beans.
The two largest markets were in Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.
These were held outdoors in specific market areas. Market day was a
celebration of food, crafts, and color. People from every calpulli and
from neighboring towns went to these markets to buy or trade goods.
This was a place where a farmer could trade avocados for a length of
rope or tomatoes for an axe head. There was cloth, leather, jewelry, pottery, carvings of stone and woodany item an Aztec farmer or craftsmen produced was for sale.
The market was a place for socializing, too. The market at Tlatelolco often had a crowd as large as 25,000. The sellers, often professional market women, laid out their goods on mats on the ground.
Shoppers moved from vendor to vendor, looking for the food or goods
they needed.
Government Officials
The tlatoani was the head of the Aztec government. As the empire grew,
the tlatoani needed more people to make the government function.
These officials were chosen by the tlatoani and reported directly to him.
Officials were public servants, much as governors, mayors, generals, and senators are today. The Aztecs expected such officials to meet
high standards. They had to be loyal, honest, and morally superior. Any
public official who was dishonest was punished.
Historian Jacques Soustelle writes (in Daily Life of the Aztecs),
[T]he laws and customs were terribly severe: woe to the drunken judge,
the over accommodating judge; woe to the dishonest civil servant. The
sentence of the king of Texcoco was always quoted as an examplehe,
hearing that one of his judges had favoured a noble against a macehualli, had the unrighteous justice hanged. If the power was very great,
the duties were very heavy.
Being a government official offered great rewards but made even
greater demands. Usually, high officials were landowners who often
85
Women in
Government
The Aztecs of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco never
had women as rulers.
But in some towns in the
Valley of Mexico, women
could hold positions
of power. In Chalco, a
woman named Xiuhtoztzin (r. 13401348) had
the title of queen. Tezozomocs grandmother was
also said to have ruled as
a queen. Women could
also play a part in royal
succession, or the passing of power from parent
to child. Motecuhzoma
Ilhuicaminas daughter Atotoztli (dates
unknown) was the family
link between that tlatoani
and the next, Atotoztlis
son Axayacatl.
had property in several areas. They spent much of their time traveling
between estates. In the meantime, the work of the estate had to be done.
Trusted stewards, or top aides, made sure an estate was productive while
the owner worked as an officer of the courts, judge, tax collector, or military leader. The owner might also be an ambassador to another city-state
or a schoolteacher. The demands of public service were heavy, particularly for a judge, who might have to oversee the execution of a convicted
criminal or sit in a court session that lasted up to 10 or 12 hours.
The primary jobs of a government official were overseeing the
planting and harvests, and collecting taxes and tribute. The main tax
collector was the calpixqui, who might have been little more than a
trained servant. The calpixque (plural form) reviewed the economy and
agriculture of the district for which they were responsible.
Calpixque lived in the main town or district that they looked after.
They kept track of how productive agriculture was, noting problems
such as drought or insects. The calpixque also noted any trade with
outside groups and any increased income or surpluses in products
produced in the town. If the area needed a new public building, better
roads, or slaves to care for public facilities, a calpixqui was responsible
for making sure these things happened. If there was a famine, a calpixqui sent a message to the tlatoani. In turn, the tlatoani might say the
town did not have to pay tribute that season or the town could draw on
the tlatoanis stores of dried maize for food.
The calpixqui hired scribes to keep up with the amount of work
involved in their jobs. Scribes kept records of the current events in the
town, the taxes owed and paid, and other public activities.
Aztec Laws
Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina is often credited with making sure the
Aztec legal system was honest and fair. The Aztecs certainly had a
collection of laws before Motecuhzoma became tlatoani. But he did
introduce new rules that made sure the laws would be applied in the
same way for everyone.
Trials could be held throughout the empire. A jury heard the evidence against the accused person. The jury consisted of a head judge,
who ran the trial, and several other judges as well. They listened to witnesses who saw the crime or looked at other evidence. If the criminal was
an important person or a noble, the trial might be heard by the tlatoani.
86
Aztec Society
The jury decided whether a person was guilty. The head judge then
passed sentence on anyone found guilty. Guilty people knew that there
was no room for mercy. The sentences were already set out in the legal
code.
Anyone tried and convicted in a lower court could appeal the
verdict to a council, much like todays supreme court. The tlatoani
appointed judges to this council.
The tlatoani was not only the Aztecs government leader, he was
also the head judge. The laws were very simple, and the punishments
were severe. People learned from an early age that they had to obey the
law. The Aztecs wanted order in their society, and they got it.
The Aztecs had the same types of crimes that society has today.
However, not all criminals were treated equally. Aztec nobles who committed crimes generally received harsher sentences than commoners.
They lived a life of privilege and were expected to know better than to
commit a crime. Thus, they deserved greater punishment if they were
found guilty.
In Their Own Words
Order in the Cour t

Most judges were nobles, although some
were chosen by the tlatoani from among
commoners who were well brought up and
were good warriors. Spanish priest and
historian Bernadino de Sahagn noted some
of the qualities the ruler looked for in good
judges.
Such as these the ruler gave office and
chose as his judgesthe wise, the able,
the sage; who listened and spoke well;
who were of good memory; who spoke
not vainly or lightly; who did not make
friends without forethought nor were
drunkards; who guarded their lineage
with honor; who slept not overmuch,
[but rather] arose early; who did nothing
for friendships or kinships sake, nor for

enmity; who would not hear or judge a
case for a fee. The ruler might condemn
them to death; hence they performed
their offices as judges righteously.
The last sentence explains that if a judge

unfairly favored one person, such as a friend
or relative, or took a bribe, he could be
executed.
(Source: Sahagn, Bernardino de, General.
History of the Things of New Spain (Florentine
Codex). vol. 8. Translated by Charles E. Dibble
and Arthur J.O. Anderson. Reprint. Santa Fe,
N.M.: School of American Research and the
University of Utah Press, 1979.)
87
This page from the Codex

Mendoza shows the tribute
paid to Aztec rulers by
people living in the empire.
Treasondisloyalty to the governmentwas the worst of crimes. A traitor

was put to death, the family lost all its
property, and the children were sold into
slavery. The sentence for anyone convicted of murder, adultery (cheating on
a spouse), or major theft was death. This
was also true for people caught moving
a field boundary marker. These markers
showed who owned what land, so moving
one amounted to stealing land.
People who were drunk in public
had their heads shaved and their houses
destroyed. For a second offense, the
drunken person was put to death. Any
commoner found wearing cotton clothing was put to death. Cutting down a living tree also brought the death penalty.
Death sentences were usually carried
out by stoning, beating, or strangling
the guilty person.
People who committed lesser crimes
were expected to make good on what
they had done. For example, a thief had
to return stolen goods. Several crimes
earned a sentence of slavery. Handling
stolen property, kidnapping, and minor
theft meant a criminal would be sold as
a slave. Anyone in the marketplace caught selling poor quality goods
lost their property. The penalty for committing slanderspeaking
falsely about someonewas having ones lips cut off. With such severe
penalties for crimes, the Aztecs were a very law-abiding people.
Paying Taxes and Tribute

Everyone in the Aztec Empire paid tax and tribute, except for the tlatoani, high officials, priests, children, orphans, and slaves. Commoners
paid with their work. Artists and craftsmen paid with goods. Towns,
88
Aztec Society
cities, and conquered nations
In Their Own Words
paid with crops, cotton, animals, precious metals, paper
anything that had value.
Spanish priest Diego Durn noted some of the more
Government officials were
unusual forms of tribute the Aztec rulers collected from
charged with determining how
their subjects.
much was owed from each
These nations paid tribute to the Mexicans with live
province and recording the paybirds, the most precious with rich plumage; some
ment. Tribute was paid on a
green, other red or blue; parrots, big and small, and
regular schedule, usually once
all kinds of elegant colored birds, eagles, eagle-owls,
or twice a year.
sparrow-hawks, kestrels, crows, herons, geese, big
The majority of the tribute
goslings.
went to supporting the tlatoani
There were wild animals of all kinds; tribute was paid
and his vast household. The
with live lions and tigers, and wild cats; all kids of wild
tribute was not spread evenly
animals, they were brought in cages. Then snakes,
among the people living in the
big and small poisonous and non-venomous, wild
and tame. . . . Even centipedes, scorpions, spider, they
empire. The tlatoani, nobles,
asked for them in tribute, thus making themselves
and priests got the majority of
lords of every creature; everything was theirs and
the taxes paid. The commonbelonged to them!
ers, merchants, and traders
paid the taxes.
(Source: Durn, Diego. The History of the Indies of New Spain.
Each town paid taxes based
Translated by Doris Heyden. Norman, Okla.: University of
on it particular situation. Some
Oklahoma Press, 1994.)
were required to maintain the
tlatoanis palaces, while others
were expected to feed the royal
household. The Codex Mendoza records the annual fees paid by seven
towns as 4,000 mantles and loincloths, 800 bales of dried chilies, 20
bags of down feathers, two war-dresses and shields, three strings of
precious stones, and two plates inlaid with turquoise (quoted in Law in
Mexico Before the Conquest).
Payment in Insects
89
Ch aPt e r
dAily lifE Among

ThE AzTEcs
THE BASIC UNIT OF AzTEC LIFE WAS THE HOUSEHOLD.
Households were usually comprised of people who were related. A
household could be just a mother and father and their children, or two
related families, or a family plus aunts, uncles, and grandparents..
In fact, there is no Nahuatl word for family. The closest thing
is cemithualtin, which means those of one courtyard. In a city, the
family group might all live in one large house or in a cluster of houses
connected to one another.
Political power was mostly in the hands of men. At home, the
father was the head of the family, but the mother was nearly equal in
many ways. Both had very specific roles to play in making sure the
family had what it needed. The women did not do mens work and the
men did not do womens work, but both were seen as equally important to the functioning of society and, in fact, the entire world.
Women depended on men to grow corn, but men were just as
dependent on women to process it into tortillas and other foods.
Men won glory through battle, but often women were the healers
who tended to them when they came home wounded. Women were
supreme in certain important household areas, such as making
cloth.
The high priests of the Aztec religion were all men, but at home,
women maintained the sacred hearth fire, swept (which maintained the
ritual purity of the home), made daily offerings to the fire and household gods, and performed rituals when their husbands were away at war
that would help ensure their success in battle. In some cases, particularly with craftsmen, wives also helped their husbands with their jobs.
opposite
This illustration shows

a typical Aztec marriage
ceremony. Marriage was
an important ritual for the
Aztecs, and all marriages
were arranged by the
families of the bride and
groom.
Cuicacalli
kwee-kah-KAH-lee
Macehualtin
mah-say-HWAHLteen
T
Telpochcalli
tell-pohch-KAH-lee
1

Both mothers and fathers played a role in raising and educating children. Mothers raised the youngest boys and girls. As a boy
grew older, his father took charge of teaching him the skills he would
need as an adult. Boys usually followed in their fathers trade. Fathers
also taught sons how to farm and fish. As girls grew up, they learned
from their mothers the household duties they would perform. These
included the key tasks of making offerings and carrying out household
religious rituals.
hOMe sWeeT hOMe

Throughout history, people usually built their homes using whatever
local materials were most plentiful. For the Aztecs, this was adobe
bricks. Brick makers used the water, clay, and reeds of their land to
form building blocks. Adobe bricks were dried in the sun and were
strong and solid. But they could fall apart in heavy rains.
Most houses were small, one-room structures. The doorways
were square, the roofs flat, and the walls thick. One advantage of a flat
roof was that it provided added
sleeping space on hot nights.
Nobles and wealthy merchants might have two-story
homes made of stone. These
homes had gardens, pools, and
a central courtyard for shade.
With both girls and boys, parents used strict punishWealthy families could afford
ments to make sure the children learned their tasks
larger homes, and the highest
well and took them seriously. Even when their children
nobles lived in palaces.
were young, parents punished them for laziness or
Even humble homes had all
disobedience.
the basics a family needed. All
At around 8 years old, children might be stuck with
houses had hearths on which
cactus spines on their hands as a punishment. parents
to cook, although large homes
might also pinch their arms or ears. When they were
had actual kitchens. There was
older, the children could be beaten with sticks as punishalways a place to wash, a place
ment for poor performance. the worst children faced
for sleeping, and a shrine for
was parents who made them breathe in the smoke of
family religious rites.
roasting chili peppers.
Homes did not have a lot of
furniture. Both the rich and the
Strict Parents
92
10/19/09 2:23:23 PM

The lines at the bottom of
these Aztec pots suggest
that they were used for
grinding pepper.
Riches in the Garbage

poor slept on reed mats called petlatl. The quality and comfort of
the mats the rich owned may have been better than the mats owned
by peasants, but they were basically alike. The mats and blankets
were placed on a platform called tlapechtli, which served as a bed. In
poorer homes, bed mats also provided seating in the daytime.
The highest nobles sat on low chairs made of wicker. Some had
cushions, and many had raised backs against which the sitter could
lean and rest. Only the tlatoani and the highest nobles had what
might be considered fine furniture. This furniture followed the
same basic design as other Aztec furniture, but it was covered with
embroidered cloth or skins of jaguars or other animals instead of
reed mats.
The Aztecs stored blankets, household goods, and clothing in
chests. Most people had wicker or reed chests and baskets for storage.
Only the wealthy had wooden chests. Food was stored in pottery jars.
Every kitchen, no matter how crude, had a bowl and a grinding stone
for making dried corn into dough.
The Aztecs kept their

homes very clean. In
rural areas, garbage
from the home was
thrown into heaps next
to or behind the building.
These piles are called
middens, and the remains
of them are sometimes
uncovered today. Middens are important finds
for archaeologists. By
studying the items people
threw awaysuch as
the remains of broken
clay pots and plates, tools
used for spinning, and
small religious objects
the archaeologists learn
more about Aztec life.
93
Unwanted House Guests

the Aztecs believed ants, frogs, and mice
brought bad luck. people thought a swarm of
ants in a house was a curse on the homeownersperhaps an enemy planted something
evil in the floor of a persons home. that evil
thing erupted into a swarm of ants. Since the
Aztecs slept and ate on floor mats, a swarm
of ants could be particularly unpleasant.
frogs and toads were common enough in
Aztec times. the only ones that brought bad
luck were those that ended up in a persons

home. the croaking drove people mad!
finally, there was the mouse, a common
thief who ate grain and other foods, leaving
homeowners hungry. the Aztecs believed
that if a person ate maize that had been nibbled
by mice, that person would become like the
mousea thief who sneaks into the homes of
others and steals from them.
FOOd And drinK

The foods the Aztecs loved the most are available in any Mexican restaurant today. They are the foods of the Americas: corn, beans, squash,
tomatoes, peppers, and avocados.
The staple grain was corn, or maize. From childhood, girls learned
how to make tortillasflat bread made from corn meal. The Aztecs ate
tortillas every day. They were served filled with beans, vegetables, or
meats. Farmers took tortillas into the field for their afternoon meal.
Tamalli (todays tamales) was maize dough filled with chilies,
beans, or meat and formed into a ball. The dough was then steamed in a
clay pot, much like a dumpling. Atolli was maize porridge to which fruit
or chilies were added for flavor. Pozolli, a soup with whole corn kernels,
was filling and nutritious. Today it is known as pozole in Spanish.
The Aztecs raised only two domestic animals for meat: dogs and
turkeys. They did not have cattle, pigs, or sheep until after the arrival
of the Spanish. Meat was expensive, and the protein source for most
people was beans, which were eaten daily. Hunters added to the average
diet by providing deer, rabbit, ducks, geese, and other birds. Grasshoppers and agave worms were roasted and eaten, along with other kinds of
protein-rich insects and larvae.
94
10/19/09 2:23:25 PM
Daily Life among the aztecs

Grains, vegetables, and fruits made up most of the Aztec diet.
In addition to maize-based foods, tomatoes and chilies were common. The tomatoes were distant relatives of todays tomatoes. There
were smaller and fewer varieties were available. Chili peppers provided a full range of hotness, from very mild to mouth-searing hot.
The Aztecs also ate onions, sweet potatoes, jicama, peanuts, and
popcorn.
The chip-and-dip dish called guacamole today was actually a
sauce in Aztec times. It is made with avocados, tomatoes, and onions.
It was added to a dish fit only for the tlatoani and his guestsroasted
agave worms. The Aztecs used salt and chili peppers to season their
In TheIr Own wOrds
R ich Food, Poor Food

a meal in aztec times varied, depending
on the wealth of the person eating and the
occasion. spanish priest and historian Bernal
Daz del castillo described in his journal one
of motecuhzoma iis dinners. (a brazier is
a small device used to hold coals when
cooking food.)
His cooks prepared over 30 kinds of
dishes for every meal, done the way he
liked them; and they placed small pottery
braziers under them so they wouldnt get
cold. They prepared over three hundred
plates of the food Montezuma was going
to eat, and more than a thousand plates
for the guard. . . . Every day they cooked
chicken, turkey, pheasant, partridge,
quail, tame and wild duck, venison, wild
pig . . . hares, rabbits, and many varieties
of birds and other things that grow in this
country. . . .
in contrast to this daily banquet for the

tlatoani, Bernardino de sahagn described
the poor choices offered at a feast thrown

by a commoner.
But among those who were only
commoners . . . only miserably, in poverty
and want, were receptions and invitations
made. Not as much was offered one as
was required and customary. . . . Many
things were omitted or spoiled. Thus
[the feast] was a failure and fruitless . . .
perhaps only leftovers, bitter sauces, and
stale tamales and tortillas were offered
them.
(source: Daz del castillo, Bernal. The Bernal Daz
Chronicle. tr
t anslated and edited by albert
idell. Garden city, N.Y.: Dolphin Books, 1956;
and General History of the Things of New
Spain (Florentine Codex). Vol. 4. t
translated by
charles E. Dibble and arthur J. o. anderson.
reprint. santa fe, N.m.: school of american
research and the University of Utah press,
1979.)


Only the richest Aztec
households would serve
cocoa, often in fancy
vessels such as this one
shaped like a hare.
food. They also used a flavoring popular today: vanilla. Vanilla comes
from the seed pod of a variety of orchid. It is still found in Mexican
dishes. For those who could afford it, a meal was finished with a cup
of chocolate.
The major alcoholic beverage of the Aztecs was octli. Brewers
collected sap from the agave plant. The sap would be boiled and fermented until it was as smooth as honey. The drink was loaded with
vitamins and had less alcohol than todays beer. People still sometimes drank enough to get drunk, though. The Aztecs had many rules
meant to keep people from drinking too much, but they were not
always followed.
96
CONNECTIONS
Ancient Treats
popcorn and chewing gum are popular treats
in the United states, and both have roots in
mesoamerican culture. the average american chewed 300 sticks (or chiclets or lumps)
of gum a year. While the aztecs did not have
watermelon-, grape-, or mint-flavored varieties, they did chew gum. they chewed chicle
(the natural gum of a tropical evergreen tree),
bitumen, and other gums and saps to clean
their teeth.
the oldest ears of corn ever used to make
popcorn were found in the Bat cave in cen-
tral mexico. the scientists who found this

popcorn in 1948 saw kernels much like those
popped today. in fact, they took a handful of
the kernels and popped them in hot oil. poof!
antique popcorn!
how old was that corn? it was tested
and found to be 5,600 years old. historians
believe that early people popped the corn
by placing it on very hot stone. When the
kernels popped, they flew into the air. the
waiting snackers had to be quick to catch the
flying popcorn.
what they wore

The Aztecs liked bright colors and they found ways to add color to their
clothing. They used vegetables and animals to create dyes for their
thread and cloth. Brilliant scarlet came from certain insects that lived
on prickly pear cacti. Dyes from shellfish produced rich purples, while
indigo from plants dyed cloth dark blue. Depending on how they were
used, dyes from brazilwood trees produced red, pink, or coral. Logwood
could be used to dye cloth pink, blue, or green. Annatto seeds, from a
tropical tree, turned cloth yellow, and iron oxide could be used to create
blacks and rusty reds.
The cloth itself was made from agave fiber or cotton. Women spun
the fiber into yarn or thread, then wove the cloth into fabric. All women
were expected to know how to weave, but skilled weavers and dyers
were in high demand.
Aztec commoners and slaves wore very few clothes. Cloth made
from agave fiber was cheap, white, and long-wearing. Male slaves might
only wear a cloth wrapped around their waist and between their legs,
called a loincloth. If a man was a merchant or trader, the loincloth
might have colorful embroidery.
Men also wore sleeveless cloaks made from agave for commoners or cotton for the nobility. These cloaks were usually rectangular,

CONNECTIONS
and were sometimes worn

by women as well. The cloak
was called a tilmatli. Cloaks
were dyed an array of different
the word chocolate is probably derived from the Nahuatl
colors.
word chocolatl. cocoa comes from the aztec word cacaMany garments featured
huatl. the original aztec hot cocoa recipe was a mixture of
patterns or symbols woven into
ground cacao beans, water, and chili peppers. it was spicy,
the fabric. Common symbols
not sweet. and it was not always served hot.
included the sun, seashells,
the spanish removed the peppers, heated the drink,
fish, feathers, cacti, rabbits,
and sweetened it with sugar. the British made another
and butterflies.
changemilk replaced the water.
Women wore skirts (cueitl)
that wrapped around their
bodies. Loose blouses fell over
the skirts. The blouses were sleeveless tunics, called huipilli. Wealthy
women wore fancier clothes than poor women. They also had more
clothing. Poor people rarely had more than one change of clothing.
Members of the noble class and religious leaders wore clothing that
was heavily decorated, though similar in style to the clothes worn by
commoners. Symbols of a nobles position were woven into or embroidered on clothing or in a headdress. Colors symbolized a persons
status, so there were rules about the use of color. Priests wore black or
dark green cloth, often embroidered with bones or skulls, symbolizing a
priests role in human sacrifices. The tlatoani was the only one allowed
to wear teal or turquoise (two shades of blue).
Gold, silver, and turquoise were often used to decorate clothing
and hair. Nobles wore necklaces, earrings, pendants, and bracelets. The
use of feathers, furs, and other forms of decoration was common, but
only the highest nobles could wear the brilliant green feathers of the
quetzal.
Hot Chocolate
girls and women

Women in the Aztec world were expected to be hardworking, clean,
and do whatever was necessary to run the household. Some, however,
took on jobs outside the home, serving as priestesses, doctors, and vendors in the markets.
Most practical training for girls from the commoner class, the
macehualli, took place at home. The first lessons dealt with cloth. At
4 years old, girls began to learn how to spin thread. By 14, they were


Aztec clothing was often
brilliantly dyed with colors
taken from nature.
learning how to weave. During their lives, women would be responsible

for spinning yarn, weaving and dying cloth, and for making, washing,
and repairing clothes. Cloth was not only used for clothing, but also to
pay tribute. Any extra cloth produced was a form of wealth that could
be traded for other household goods. A daughter who could weave fine
cloth was worth much to her family.
Girls also needed to learn their manners and obey their elders.
Young girls did not disagree with their elders or complain about work.
A girls moral outlook on life was important. No man wanted to marry
a woman who was not kind, obedient, honest, respectful, and skilled in
making a home.
Once a girl reached 12 or 13 years old, she could easily run a household. Girls of this age knew how to grind corn into dough, form it into
tortillas, and cook meals. They could weave, dye, and sew cloth into
clothing. They knew how to clean the home, care for children, and shop
in the market.
99
10/19/09 2:53:13 PM

Between 12 and 15, girls
joined boys at the neighborhood
cuicacalli (house of song).
At this school, they learned to
dance, sing, and play musical
instruments. These talents were
many Aztecs went barefoot much of the time. Sandals
important for family gatherings
were the only type of shoes worn. Cactli were sandals
and religious events. By learnwith fiber or leather soles, a woven upper portion, and
ing these skills, the students also
laces that wrapped around the ankle and calf to keep the
learned more about their culture
shoes in place.
and what was expected of them
the sandals Aztec nobles wore for everyday wear
when they became adults.
were huaraches, much like those found in shoe stores
Girls of the noble class, the
today. the soles were single pieces of leather, with
pipilti,
also needed to know
woven strips of leather on top. Nobles added decorahow to clean, weave, and cook.
tions of precious metals or stones, or the skins of wild
They also learned singing, dancanimals, such as jaguars. Some added bright feathers to
ing, and music. One option open
their footgear.
to a nobles daughter that was
not open to common girls was
becoming a priestess.
Once a woman of the macehualli class was married, her life took
on a certain routine. Women rose at sunrise or before and went to bed
at sunset. Early in the morning, they built a fire in the hearth. The
first meal was corn porridge, and it was eaten every day. Women spent
their mornings doing the tasks they learned as girls: washing, cleaning,
childcare, cooking, and making cloth or clothing.
The Aztecs ate three meals a day, so cooking and cleaning took
up many hours. The biggest meal was at noon, followed by more work
and a light supper. Women who lived on a farm might work both in
the home and in the fieldsa double load, because men did not work
around the house.
Noble women had less work to do. A woman with a wealthy or
powerful husband usually had servants to do the housework and the
cooking. She was ultimately responsible for her home, though, and
supervised the work of her servants. Such a woman might spend her
afternoons visiting with other wealthy women.
The wife or daughter of a merchant might be expected to help sell
goods in the marketplace. Some women were professional marketers;
Fancy Footwear
100
10/19/09 2:23:26 PM

others just sold the extra products of their households. Women who
were expert weavers or dyers might also have a chance to sell their work
and earn extra money.
One other professional option for a woman was the job of a midwife. Midwives helped women give birth. Many also learned how to be
healers. They learned which herbs could be used to cure sickness, how
to set broken bones, and how to stitch wounds.
In Their Own Words
Advice for Girls

Huehuetlatolli can be translated as sayings
of the elders. It is a collection of advice that
represents the Aztecs ideals, and includes
speeches and sayings for every occasion.
The Huehuetlatolli were collected and
written down by Juan Bautista (ca. 1535
1590), a priest and historian. Bautista was a
great-grandson of Nezahualcoyotl and was
Spanish on his fathers side.
Here is a section that offers advice for
girls.
Dont be careless, dont be negligent, dont
fall behind, you who are my jewel, you who
are my quetzal feather. . . . Attend carefully
to the water and the grinding stone. And
take hold of and lift up the sauce bowl and
the basket. Lay them and carry them in
front of people, next to people. Dont throw
them down and break them, dont lay them
down recklessly. Youre to lay them down
carefully and calmly. And youre not to go
around like a crazy person, youre not to
go around panting and laughing, youre
not to go looking up ahead and from side
to side, youre not to go looking all around
at people, youre not to look people in
the face. Youre just to go straight ahead,
youre just to look straight ahead, when

you go in front of people or pass people
or meet people, so that you will acquire
honor and respect there, so that no one
will bother you, nor will you bother anyone
else, and so that hospitality and respect
will exist in moderation. And sing well,
speak well, address people well, answer
people well, make requests well. Speech is
not something to be bought and sold. . . .
And lower your head, bow down before
other people, beside other people.
Show respect and deference to others.
Dont offend them. Go about calmly and
tranquilly. Show people love, ask them for
things, be kind to them, give them a little
something. Dont give people nasty looks,
dont be greedy. . . .
And dont torment anyone, dont do harm
to anyone, dont make fun of anyone, for
then it is you wholl be tormented. And
dont devote yourself to or divert yourself
with wickedness. . . .
(Source: Bautista, Juan. Huehuetlatolli.
Translated by Louise M. Burkhart. Personal
correspondence, September 25, 2008. From
Mexico: M. Ocharte (printer), 1600.)
101
Marriage
Tying the Knot
In the United States and
other English-speaking
lands, people sometimes
say that when two people marry, they tie the
knot. In an Aztec wedding ceremony, people
did not say this, but they
did act it out. Part of the
brides blouse and the
grooms cloak were tied
together, showing they
were now joined as husband and wife.
Keeping Them Close

The Aztecs believed that
if young girls ate while
they were standing up,
they would end up marrying someone who took
them far from their home.
Since most parents
wanted their daughters
close by, they always
made sure the girls ate
sitting down.
102
Marriage was an important ritual for the Aztecs and included the families of both the bride and groom. When a young man reached the age
for marriagelate teens or early 20shis family met with his schoolmasters. This was a formal meala kind of ritual graduation ceremony.
The parents announced that their son would no longer attend classes.
Instead, the young mans parents looked for a wife for their son.
Several women who were in their late teens might be considered.
It was up to the young mans parents and other relatives to choose one.
The bride might be a woman the groom already knew or a complete
stranger. Once the bride was chosen, women from the young mans
family were sent to the brides home to ask for her hand in marriage.
The decision was left to her family, not to the bride.
There were an endless number of tasks that needed to be done before
the actual ceremony took place. The family consulted a fortuneteller to
determine a good day for the marriage. The young couple needed to be
married under a favorable sign if the marriage was to be successful. The
brides family collected cocoa, flowers, tobacco and pipes, and corn to
make tamales.
On the day before the wedding, a feast took place at the brides
home. To get ready for the feast, the bride bathed and washed her hair.
She dressed in a heavily embroidered blouse and skirts and wore red
feathers on her body. She wore makeup, which might have been the only
time she did so during her life. That night, both families went to the
grooms home, where the wedding would take place.
The wedding took place by the family hearth. There was singing,
dancing, and feasting. In the same way that brides and grooms today share
bits of wedding cake, the bride and groom fed each other tamales. Then
the pair went to their room, where they prayed together for four days.
The newly married couple received gifts of food, household goods,
pottery, and other items. Then they would usually move in with the
husbands family. However, the household structure was so flexible that
they could end up in their own household, living with other relatives, or
even living with the wifes parents. Since women usually married within
their calpulli, they rarely ended up far from their parents home.
Birth and Babies

The purpose of every marriage was to produce children. The brides
primary task was to become a mother. The couple wanted sons because

sons took care of their parents when they got old. Sons could take over
a business, a trade, or farmland.
Aztec families loved their children. Each birth was a blessing,
and each child was treasured. When a woman reached her seventh or
eighth month of pregnancy, a midwife came to help her from that time
through the delivery of her baby. Midwives made sure pregnant mothers were well fed and healthy.
When the baby was born, the midwife blessed the baby and honored the new mother for her bravery and strength. The cutting of the
In Their Own Words
T he Warrior Mother
The Aztecs believed that giving birth was
as much a battle as warfare was for men. A
victory meant the birth of a healthy baby.
Women who were defeatedwho lost
their lives in childbirthwere considered as
noble as men who died in battle. Here is part
of the ceremony midwives performed after
a woman successfully gave birth.
a goddess who, along with Quetzalcoatl,

helped create the human race. The eagle
and the jaguar were two sacred animals to
the Aztecs.
The midwife also spoke if the woman
died in childbirth. Here is part of her blessing.
The last two lines suggest the Aztecs belief
that the dead mother would live forever as
a goddess.
O my daughter, O valiant woman, you

worked, you toiled.
O My little one, my daughter, my
You soared like an eagle, you sprang like a
beloved mistress,
jaguar,
you have wearied yourself, manfully you
you put all your strength behind the shield;
have fought.
you endured.
By your labors, you have won our Lords
You went forth into battle, you emulated
Eternally, you shall live and joy and
noble death, glorious death. . .

our Mother Cihuacoatl Quilaztli,
gladness
and now our lord has seated you on the
next to, beside, our mistress, the divine
Eagle Mat, the Jaguar Mat.
woman.
You have spent yourself, O my daughter,

now be tranquil.
Emulated means copied and tranquil

means calm. Cihuacoatl Quilaztli was
(Source: Knabb, T. J., editor. A Scattering of

Jades: Stories, Poems, and Prayers of the
Aztecs. Translated by Thelma D. Sullivan. New
York: Touchstone Books, 1994.)
103
Taking on
Responsibility
Girls began spinning
thread at age 4, sweeping at 12, grinding maize
at 13, and weaving at
14. At 4, a boy might be
responsible for fetching
water. He learned how
to fish at age 6, and a
14-year-old boy might be
fishing on his own from
a canoe.
umbilical cord was important. A boys cord was given to warriors to

take to a battlefield, so they could bury it there. This act symbolized
the boys future role as a warrior. A girls cord was buried by the hearth.
These two events symbolized the lives of adults: men as warriors,
women as cooks and keepers of the sacred hearth.
Aztec parents called in a fortuneteller as soon as a child was born.
That person arrived with the tonalamatl, the Book of Days. The fortuneteller decided which signs would influence the childs life. Then the
fortuneteller set a date and time for the babys naming. This would usually be four days after the birth.
On the fourth day, the family held a ritual bathing ceremony. The
bath took place on a mat made of reeds. Items that would be important in the childs life were placed on the mat. For a girl, the items
might be a spindle used for spinning thread, pots and pans, and foods.
For a boy, the items would relate to a craft or trade: farm tools for a
farmer, weapons for a warrior, and so on. The baby was washed and
raised to the sky in each direction. The midwife gave the baby his or
her name. Children then ran through the village calling out the babys
new name.
Mothers raised their children to follow the customs of the time.
Children were taught from birth that they must behave well and do as
they were told. Up to the age of 3 or 4, children played in the home.
They had simple toysdolls for girls and tools or weapons for boys.
Education started early. Young people were trained from age 4 to
meet their responsibilities to the family, the calpulli, and the Aztec
Empire.
Education
Aztec children were expected to go to school when they came of age.
The actual age when they went is not clear. It could be as young as 7
or as old as 14 or 15. The school a student attended depended on social
class and gender. The basic education of a boy was through his father
and the school. For a girl, her main teacher was her mother.
Children of the macehualtin class went to a local school. This
school, the telpochcalli (youth house), was usually next door to or
attached to the local temple. The boys learned trade skills, got military training, and learned how to be good citizens. They also learned
the history of the Aztec Empire and the basic elements of the Aztec
104

religion. Schooling for girls in
CONNECTIONS
the macehualtin class included
dancing, singing, playing a
musical instrument, and the
chicago has the second-largest mexican-american populabasic elements of good citizention of any U.s. city (Los angeles has the largest). in one
ship. This took place before
part of the city, officials have started their own version of a
the girl was old enough to get
telpochcalli. almost all of the students trace their roots to
married.
mexico, and they learn a great deal about mexican art and
Children of the nobility
culture. classes are conducted in both English and spanish.
attended a calmecac. Girls and
they also celebrate certain mexican holidays, such as the
boys went to separate schools,
Day of the Dead. after classes, they can learn mexican folk
where they learned the respondances. some of these dances have aztec roots.
sibilities of being nobles. This
included Aztec history, how to
govern the lower classes, and
fulfilling their responsibilities to the empire. The schools were run by
priests and were attached to temples. Many boys who went to the calmecac were expected to become managers, either of their own land or in
the Aztec cities.
Boys of the macehualtin class who were gifted or talented might
attend a calmecac. Those sons would be destined to have better careers
than their fathers.
At age 15, boys moved on to further studies in the calmecac or
attended a cuicacalli. At the calmecac, the students took on added
religious responsibilities. They also learned astronomy, poetry, writing,
and mathematics. Students with talent in art might be pointed toward
a career in architecture (designing buildings). Others might learn about
the law or advanced ideas in farming. At the cuicacalli, the students
learned singing and dancing.
The Aztecs used a form of hieroglyphics for writing. The glyphs
were symbols that represented real objects. These might be people,
animals, weather events, crops, or other items that appear in daily life.
All cultures that lived in Mexico before the arrival of the Spanish used
some form of hieroglyphic writing.
Documents were all handwritten. The job of tlacuilo (writer or
scribe) was honored. There was no printing, and the Aztecs did not
have books like the ones published today. But they did produce written
documents. Book-length works were written on bark paper and folded
up like an accordion.
A Modern Telpochcalli
10

After the Spanish conquest, a handful of books were
written that recount the history
and culture of the Aztecs before
The Aztec elders offered advice on how a young man
the Spanish arrived. They were
should behave. Here is an excerpt. It was written down
written in Nahuatl and some
by Spanish priest Andrs de Olmos (ca. 14851571).
also had notes in Spanish. In
(Maguey is another name for agave, a plant grown for
addition, many manuscripts
its strong fibers.)
were produced that combined
pictures with Nahuatl text writAct! Cut wood, work the land,
ten using the European alphaPlant cactus, sow maguey;
bet. The Aztecs learned to use
You shall have drink, food, clothing.
the European alphabet and were
With this you will stand straight.
writing their own chronicles,
With this you shall live.
letters, and other documents in
For this you shall be spoken of, praise;
it by the 1540s.
In this manner you will show yourself to your parents
These later Aztec works
and relatives.
are called codices (codex is the
singular). These codices were
(Source: Len-Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture.
bound on the side, like regular
Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.)
books. All were sent back to
Europe, where they were kept as
curiosities. Today, they are named after the cities in Europe where they
are now located or after the people responsible for collecting them.
In Their Own Words
Advice for Boys
Sports and Games

Games were popular among nobles and commoners, and they liked to
bet on the outcome. Most Aztec games had a religious or community
purpose. Some games, such as the Aztec ball game, could be part of
a ritual ceremony. The most popular Aztec game was tlachtli, a ball
game with either two opponents or two opposing teams. Tlachtli is
sometimes translated as simply the ball game. Only nobles played the
game. Ball games often took place as part of the ritual leading up to
human sacrifices.
Tlachtli was played on a field bounded by two walls. The court was
shaped like an I and measured 210 feet long and 35 feet wide. The goal
of the game was to shoot a ball through a stone ring. The ball weighed
about 9 pounds and was made of solid rubber. Contestants could
106

use only their feet, knees, and
CONNECTIONS
hips to shoot the ball. No players could touch the ball with
their hands. Players wore loinstarting in 2008, children in mexico city were required to
cloths and a wide leather belt
learn a second language in the classroomNahuatl, the
or girdle designed to protect
language of the aztecs. although only a tiny percentage
the body from harm. The first
of the 20 million people in mexico city speak Nahuatl, the
team to put the ball through
government wants the children of mexico city to be proud
the ring won.
of their heritage.
Tlachtli was a major specNahuatl was once spoken by everyone in the aztec
tator sport. The public was
Empire. But now, authorities believe that less than 1 percent
allowed to attend, and Aztecs
of mexico citys population speaks Nahuatl. they hope
bet heavily on the outcome.
to increase that number. already, mexican colleges offer
Nobles bet gold, precious
courses in Nahuatl, and across mexico, more than 1 million
stones, cloth, and feathers. They
people speak it.
also bet slaves and land. People
most English-speaking people may not realize that they
could bet their personal freealready
know several Nahuatl words. Coyote, tomato, avodom, committing themselves to
cado, and chili come from Nahuatl, as does that most delislavery if they lost their bet.
cious
of wordschocolate.
The Aztecs also played
games of chance. Patolli was
like a dice game, played with
marked beans. The game was played on a stone table that was shaped like
a cross. The end of each branch of the cross had a space, and play began
in the middle, or home base. The cross was divided into squares, and
markers were moved according to the throw of the dice. If a person got
two dots, he or she moved the marker two spaces.
Pieces moved around the grid. A complete circuit of the grid
allowed the player to remove his or her own piece from play. The
opponent had to pay one marker to the player whenever a piece was
removed from play. The game ended when one player lost all his or
her markers.
Do You Speak Nahuatl?
old age and death

The Aztecs honored people who lived to an old age. The elderly were
considered wise, and their family and calpulli sought their advice.
They sat on the local councila political group that governed the
calpulli. Much like grandparents today, they would warn their children and grandchildren about the problems one might face in life.
10
Fans packed the seats on

the side of this court where
the ball game known as
tlachtli was played.
10
The elderly demanded and received respect from all. Elderly warriors
received aide from the government, included housing and money for
food.
The Aztec religion offered elders a way to prepare for their death. If
they had committed some serious crime or sin, for example, they could
make a formal confession. Although Aztec laws carried harsh treatments for crimes, a confession provided the confessor with protection.
Such a confession usually occurred when people were very old or knew
they were about to die, since they could only confess once during their
lifetime.
Dead bodies would be either buried or cremated (burned). The
treatment depended on how a person died. People who drowned were
always buried. Death from certain diseases, such as leprosy, gout, or
dropsy, along with the unusual death by a lightning strike, also required
burial. Women who died while giving birth were honored and buried in
the temple cemetery. Death by any other means meant cremation.
An Aztec Confession
confessions were made to a divinera person who could understand the gods wishes.
the diviner for a confession served the goddess tlazolteotl.
After confessing their wrong actions, the
confessors had to fast (not eat for a long
period), perform a bloodletting, then go at
night to one of the shrines built for women
who died during childbirth. the confes-
sors wore only a paper skirt decorated with

designs associated with tlazolteotl.
they left the skirt behind at the shrine
a symbol that they had left behind their
sins. they then went home naked in the
dark. Being naked in public was considered
shameful, so this was a serious way to show
remorse!
The deaths of nobles were treated differently from the deaths of

commoners. When a nobleman died, his wives and servants could
choose to join him in that death. However, this was not required.
The noblemans body was washed, dressed in fine clothes, and
bound in a crouched position. Binding cloths held the body in that position. Then the body was cremated until nothing was left but ashes. The
ashes were placed in a jar, along with a piece of jade, and the jar was
buried under the floor of the persons home.
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10/19/09 2:23:28 PM
Ch aPter
rEligion, ArT,
And sciEncE
RELIGION, ART,
ART LITERATURE, AND MUSIC WERE CLOSELY
linked in the Aztec world. The Aztecs had a complex religion with
hundreds of gods and goddesses and a wide variety of rituals. Many
Aztec beliefs and the gods connected to those beliefs were taken from
cultures that had been conquered at earlier times. The Aztecs sometimes chose to worship the other peoples gods instead of forcing the
conquered people to worship theirs.
The Aztecs believed that the gods influenced every aspect of a persons life, from birth to death. They thought that personal tragedy was
the punishment of the gods, just as thunder, lightning, too much or too
little rain, sickness, and famine were direct results of unhappy gods.
Today, human sacrifice is probably the best-known part of the
Aztec religion. But it was not as common as some sources claim. In
addition to human sacrifice, people also offered the gods food, sporting
events, dramatic festivals, and bloodletting. It was a common practice
at certain religious events for priests and commoners to pierce their
skin with cactus spines and offer their blood to the gods.
The Aztecs built massive temples specifically for holding sacrifices.
Each temple, called a teocalli, had sacred pools for ritual bathing, gardens, and housing for priests. The human hearts and flesh offered were
seen as food for the gods. Making sacrifices was one way to win the
gods favor so they would continue to help the Aztecs thrive as a people.
A sacrifice might have just one victim, a few had many more, but very
few took the lives of hundreds of captives. While many sacrifice victims
were people captured in war, they were not always men. Women, children, and slaves could also be sacrificed. To remind the people and the
opposite
Tlaloc, the god of rain and

water, was one of many
gods in the Aztec culture.
Chalchiuhtlicue
chahl-chew-TLEEkway
Chicomecoatl
chee-koh-may-KOHahtl
Coatlicue
koh-ahtl-EE-kway
Teocalli
tay-oh-KAH-lee
111
The Whistle of Death

more than 15 years ago, archaeologists
found a human skeleton buried in an aztec
temple. the skeleton held a skull-shaped
whistle made of clay in each bony hand.
in the summer of 2008, musician roberto
Velazquez, an expert in the sounds made by
the peoples of mexico before the spanish
arrived, made an exact replica of the whistle,
and blew into it. the shrill, windy screech
made his spine tingle.
Velazquez is one of many researchers
looking into how the aztecs may have used
music and other sounds in their lives. Weve

been looking at our ancient culture as if
they were deaf and mute, says Velazquez
(quoted in recreating the sound of aztec
Whistles of Death, cNN.com). i think all of
this is closely tied to what they did, how they
thought. Experts think that these whistles
of death may have been blown by victims
before they were sacrificed on the temple
altars, to aid them on their journey into the
afterlife.
gods of the sacrifices made, temples had racks to display the cleaned
skulls of those sacrificed.
reaching the aFterliFe

The Aztecs believed in an afterlifea form of life after death. The quality
of that afterlife did not depend on how a person behaved during their life.
An Aztecs destination in the afterlife depended on how the person died.
The persons body or ashes remained on earth, while the soul
began the voyage to one of several afterworlds. Sacrifice victims and
warriors who died in battle immediately went to join Huitzilopochtli,
the god of sun and war. The dead warriors were said to travel with the
sun as it moved through the sky from dawn to noon. The warriors
souls stayed in the eastern paradise for four years and then returned to
earth as hummingbirds.
Women who died while giving birth to their first babyif the child
had not yet been born before they diedwent to the western part of the
suns paradise. These women escorted the sun as it moved from noon to
sunset. They also returned to earth on certain days, then went back to
112

the western sky. When they came back, they caused children to become
sick and haunted their former husbands.
People who died from drowning, lightning, and diseases associated
with water were buried and went to Tlalocan, the paradise of the rain
gods. The rain god, Tlaloc, selected certain individuals and sent these
deaths to them on purpose. Children sacrificed to Tlaloc also arrived
here.
Spirits of children who died while still breast-feeding went to the
highest heaven, where the creator god and goddess lived. These children were still considered innocent and pure. They sucked milk from
the blossoms of a great tree until they could be sent to earth as new
babies.
Everyone who did not go to the afterworlds already described ended
up in the underworld, called Mictlan. The journey into Mictlan was difficult. But once there, it was not a bad or punishing place. If anything,
Mictlan was just boring.
The Long Road to Rest

the dead faced a long, difficult journey to
reach the afterworld of mictlan. the souls
journeying there went through nine steps,
and the trip took four years. A soul had to:
1. cross a deep river called
Apanohuaya
2. pass between tepetl monamictia,
two mountains that were joined
together
3. climb an obsidian mountain called
itztepetl
4. go through eight gorges and eight
valleys, where icy winds cut like
knives
5. be pierced by arrows, which was

called temiminaloyan
6. travel among wild creatures that ate
human hearts
7. enter a place with waving flags
where they were met by a lizard
called Xochitonatl; this lizard signaled the end of the journey was
near
8. cross nine rivers called
chiconahuapan
9. finally reach the place of rest in
mictlan
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10/19/09 2:23:32 PM
Gods and Goddesses
A decorated human skull

honors Tezcatlipoca, one
of the Aztec creator gods.
114
The Aztecs honored three major gods

who were important forces in their lives.
Beneath those three gods was a second
level of gods, then a third, and hundreds of gods filled the lesser ranks. The
responsibilities of gods overlapped, and
many gods were in charge of more than
one area. There were several war gods,
for example. Each had other responsibilities, and while one might be responsible
for victory, another tricked humans into
going to war.
The three primary gods were
Huitzilopochtli, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. Huitzilopochtlis name means hummingbird left. Huitzilopochtli was the god of the sun. His name refers to the position of the sun
during the winter, when it is on the left as it crosses from east to west. He
is identified with the winter dry season, which is the time for war. He was
also the lord of the south, the lord of the day, and the patron god of the
Aztec people. The Aztecs believed that Huitzilopochtli was in a constant
struggle with the forces of the night to keep humans alive.
Tezcatlipoca, the smoking mirror, was a war god as well. He was
also the god of magic and death. His name comes from the black obsidian mirror he was said to carry. Tezcatlipoca was missing a foot, which
was said to have been eaten by a monster as Tezcatlipoca dragged the
earth from the waters and created the land. Tezcatlipoca could be
impulsive and bad-tempered but he was not really evil. He sent things
like hurricanes and temptation, but could also send good fortune and
remove the effects of sin through the confession ritual.
Quetzalcoatl, the quetzal-feathered serpent, was the god of civilization, priests, and learning or knowledge. This god was responsible for
the Aztec story of creation. Quetzalcoatl took the form of the morning
star, and his twin brother was the evening star (Venus). He battled the
stars that filled the night sky and, finishing the battle at dawn, was the
last star to retire before the sun rose.
Among the most powerful goddesses were Coatlicue, Chalchiuhtlicue, and Chicomecoatl. Like the gods, goddesses had many
responsibilities.

In Nahuatl, Coatlicue means the one with the skirt of serpents.
She and several other goddesses were associated with the power of
both the earth and women to create life. They were also associated
with death and decay, since they give rise to new life. Coatlicue was the
mother of the gods and the one who gave birth to the moon and stars.
She was also the mother of Huitzilopochtli. Coatlicue was sometimes
a mother, sometimes a grandmother, and always the patron goddess of
women who die giving birth. She was shown with snakes in her skirts,
wearing a necklace featuring human hearts, hands, and skulls. These
images suggest that life is not always a beautiful thing and dangers
sometimes await.
Chalchiuhtlicue, the one with the skirt of precious jade, was the
goddess of lakes, streams, and rivers. This goddess was sometimes
shown with a river flowing from her. Chalchiuhtlicue was married to
the god of rain, Tlaloc. She was the goddess who unleashed the great
flood that ended the fourth world. This flood washed away the evil
people of the earth. In Aztec mythology, the world began again and we
are now in the fifth world.
Chicomecoatl, seven-serpent, was the goddess of corn. Without
her, the Aztecs thought there would be no cornand most Aztecs ate
corn in some form three times a day. Chicomecoatl was represented as
a young woman wearing a necklace of golden ears of corn. She also held
ears of corn that looked like feathers. Each fall, a young girl who was
supposed to represent the goddess was sacrificed. The Aztecs believed
that if Chicomecoatl appreciated the sacrifice, they would have a plentiful harvest.
The Rabbit in
the Moon
When they looked at
the moon, Europeans
thought they could see
a persons facethe
man in the moon. The
Aztecs saw something
completely differenta
rabbit.
According to an Aztec
legend, when the moon
first appeared, it was as
bright as the sun. The
gods wanted to make a
clear distinction between
night and day, so one
of them threw a rabbit
against the moon to
make it darker. The rabbit
struck hard, and its body
left a permanent mark.
The face of the moon
was bruised and the
dark, rabbit-shaped mark
has remained for all time.
The Aztec Calendar

The Aztecs had an excellent understanding of astronomy, the study of
the movements of the stars and planets. They mapped the movements
of these heavenly bodies and realized the clear relationship between
these movements and the passage of time.
The Aztec calendar was far more complex than the calendar used
today. In fact, they had two calendars that followed separate cycles.
One calendar covered 365 days. It had 18 months that lasted 20 days
each, with a five-day period at the end to even out the year. The fiveday period was believed to be highly unlucky, and it was expected that
disasters would occur during this evil time.
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10/19/09 2:23:32 PM
The Months of the

Aztec 365-Day Calendar
MONTH NAME
PATRON GOD (S)
Atlcahualo
(stopping water)
tlaloc, chachihutlicue children sacrificed to the water gods
tlacaxipehualiztli
(flaying people)
Xipe totec
priests dance, men flayed, warriors

sacrificed
tozoztontli (the
little vigil)
coatlicue, tlaloc
flayed skin buried, children sacrificed
hueytozoztli (the
great vigil)
centeotl,
chicomecoatl
New maize blessed, maidens sacrificed
toxcatl (the dry

time)
tezcatlipoca,
huitzilopochtli
Ritual performers sacrificed to the major

gods
Etzalcualiztli (meal tlaloque

of maize and beans)
human sacrifice by drowning, ritual

bathing
tecuilhuitontli
(small feast)
impersonators of the gods sacrificed
huey tecuilhuitl (the Xilonen

great feast)
huixtocihuatl,
Xochipilli
REQUIRED RITES
feast of the young corn, lords offer gifts

and foods for commoners
Each Aztec month had a name, patron gods responsible for overseeing the time, and demands on the Aztec people. The Aztec 365-day
calendar was both a way of keeping track of time and a list of religious
responsibilities.
The other calendar was a religious calendar. It covered 260 days
and was called the tonalpohualli, or the count of days.
The tonalpohualli can be thought of as two linked wheels. Each of
the 20 days of the month that appeared on one wheel had an individual
name. The day names were snake, lizard, house, wind, crocodile, flower,
rain, flint, movement, vulture, eagle, jaguar, cane, grass, monkey, dog,
116
10/19/09 2:23:35 PM
tlaxochimaco
(laying flowers)
huitzilopochtli
Gods decorated with flower wreaths,

feasts of cornmeal cakes and turkey
10
Xocotl huetzi (the

fall of fruit)
Xiuhtecutli
Victims sacrificed to the fire gods by

being burned alive
11
ochpaniztli
(sweeping roads)
tlazolteotl
Sweeping houses and roads
12
teotleco (descent
of the gods)
tezcatlipoca
Welcoming the gods return to earth,

sacrifices by fire
13
tepeilhuitl (feast of tlaloc

the hills)
honoring the rain gods, human

sacrifices, cannibalism
14
Quecholli (precious mixcoatl-camaxtli

feather)
hunting and fasting, sacrificial games,

feasting
15
panquetzaliztli
huitzilopochtli
(raising the banner)
homes and fruit trees decorated with

banners, many human sacrifices
16
Atemoztli (water
falling)
tlaloc
feast honoring the water god, children

and slaves sacrificed
17
tititl (stretching)
ilamatecuhtli
magic to bring more rain, women

beaten until they cry
18
izcalli
(resuscitation)
Xiuhtecuhtli
feasting on tamales stuffed with green

vegetables
19
Nemontemi (the
empty days)
None
five days considered unlucky, no rites

or rituals
water, rabbit, deer, and skull (death). Each name had a specific glyph
that appeared on the calendar. On the second wheel were the numbers
1 to 13. When the two wheels moved together, each day name appeared
next to a number. The numbers continued to repeat until the 20 day
names and 13 numbers reached 260 days, marking the complete religious calendar.
Once every 52 years, the 260-day calendar and the 365-day calendar ended on the same day and then started again. Thus, the Aztecs
divided time by groups of 52 years. This time grouping would be similar
to the modern concept of centuries.
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10/19/09 2:23:38 PM
The Calendar Stone

the Aztecs who lived in tenochtitlan had no
need for a calendar hung on the wall. they
had the calendar Stonea carved, circular
stone calendar that weighed 24 tons and
measures 12 feet across and 3 feet thick.
it was carved from a single piece of basalt
rock.
the calendar Stone was buried under
rubble when the Spanish conquered tenochtitlan. it remained hidden for 250 years. then,
in 1790, workers making repairs to the cathedral in mexico city found the stone. it is now
kept in mexico citys National museum of
Anthropology.
the stone is not really a calendar, but a
visual image of the Aztecs view of the cosmos and time. in the stones center is the
face of tlaltecuhtli, the earth goddess. She is
looking up through the solar disk (the stone
would have been placed flat on the ground).
She is associated with the fifth creation or
age, which goes by the calendar name four
motion. Surrounding tlaltecuhtli are the
signs associated with the four creations that
came before the current one.
The earth goddess Tlaltecuhtli is at the

center of this massive calendar stone,
which illustrates the Aztec conception of
time and space.
the carvings on the stone are highly
detailed. they feature the 20 animals associated with the days of the month in the 260day calendar. the stone also shows serpents
and scenes of the four worlds said to have
existed before present-day earth. the intricate artwork of the stone is even more amazing considering the fact that the Aztecs had
only stone tools.
ArTs And crAFTs

The Aztecs had no iron or bronze tools. They relied on bone, wooden,
and stone tools to create the items needed for daily life and their art.
The stones used were obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass,
and chert, a hard, dark rock. They made blades, sharpening tools,
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10/19/09 2:23:41 PM

and drills from these materials. Using these tools, the Aztecs created
massive stone carvings as well as small, detailed figures.
Throwing Out
Many excellent examples of Aztec carving are on display in Mexico
the Pots
Citys National Museum of Anthropology. A statue of Coatlicue is one
Archaeologists have
example of large Aztec art. The statue is nearly nine feet high and is
learned about ancient
incredibly detailed. The goddesss necklace of hearts and hands and her
Aztec pottery thanks to
skirt of snakes are precisely carved.
one of their customs:
The Aztecs created art as a form of religious expression and a way
When a 52-year calendar
cycle came to an end, all
to honor their gods. Some Aztec art featured pictographspictures
household goods were
that represent words, ideas, or sounds. Common pictographs range
destroyed. By studying
from jaguars and snakes to beetles and representations of lightning or
pieces of broken pottery
wind. They sometimes appear on temple walls.
and whole pots that were
Statues were mostly made of stone, although small figures carved
thrown away, archaeologists have learned about
from jade and quartz have been found in Aztec ruins. Other large
changes in Aztec art.
statues were made of clay. Some statues were freestanding, while
others were reliefsthey projected out from the sides of buildings.
Both kinds decorated temples. Stone sculptures represented popular
gods or the victims sacrificed to those gods. In addition to the gods,
artisans carved figures of humans and animals.
Aztec artists also made paintings and drawings. The pictures of
the gods were not realistic, but
were meant to symbolize things
about them. Bright colors were
used in these paintings. Paints
were made by grinding materials
found in naturesuch as stones,
A bestiary is basically a catalog of animals. the Aztecs
shells, and plantsinto a fine
created their own bestiary in the form of statues. Existpowder and mixing them with
ing Aztec statues represent the animals common to their
oil. Bright orange, yellow, red,
fields and forests: jaguars, coyotes, dogs, eagles, turkey
green, and blue are typical Aztec
buzzards, snakes, and ducks. there are also statues of
paint colors.
toads and frogs, fish, and even insects.
Aztec craftsmen created
the animals are carved from stone and semi-precious
masks and warrior art for use
gems.
After the Spanish arrived, copper was also somein religious ceremonies. Maktimes used. many statues are on display in the National
ing masks was a skilled craft
museum of Anthropology in mexico city, and in traveling
that was in great demand. Masks
exhibits throughout the world.
were worn for many religious rituals. The masks of warriors were
The Aztec Bestiary
119
10/19/09 2:23:43 PM

designed to frighten the enemy.
In addition to masks, ceremonial
costumes also included headdresses, or large, fancy headgear.
Most headdresses and many
items of clothing for religious
events featured feathers, and the
Aztecs had feather artists to proAn elaborate feathered headdress has long been associduce these works of art.
ated with motecuhzoma ii. it includes 400 green quetzal
Few of the exquisite feathfeathers and gold ornaments. this headdress was said to
erwork
headdresses and outbe worn by motecuhzoma ii, but more likely it was given
fits made for nobles and priests
to Spains King charles V as a gift. the headdress was
still exist. The fragile feathers
then thought to have been passed on to several differare not easily preserved, and so
ent European nobles before ending up in the museum of
Aztec featherwork is not very
Ethnology in the Austrian capital of Vienna.
well known. The amantecatl,
in 2006, the mexican government asked Austria to
or feather artist, crafted unique
give back the headdress. Even though it most likely never
works that were visually brilliant
belonged to motecuhzoma, it is the only known Aztec
and dynamic.
headdress in the world and is an important part of mexiFeather artists collected
can culture. Under Austrian law, however, the Vienna
feathers
from throughout the
museum is not allowed to let others borrow it or to give it
empire. They glued the feathers
away. the headdress remains in Vienna.
onto a backing that was supported
by a framework. The feathers used
were from the brilliantly colored
tropical birds of the region. Once finished, a feather headdress or cloak
was a remarkably beautiful work of art.
Weaving was also considered an art, although all Aztec women
could weave cloth. Even though the skill was common, there were
women whose work was exceptional. A weaver with great skill was
a woman of great worth to her family and her calpulli. Designs and
colors woven into the cloth told where a person came from and that
persons status in society. Cloth gave clues to the religion, hunting
styles, important gods, and people in the culture. Today archaeologists use these clues to learn the age of cloth and which people produced it.
Cloth was used for warmth (clothing) and for rituals (sacrifice). It
could also be used as a form of currency. In the Aztec markets, lengths
of cloth were an important part of the trading system. Cloth could
Motecuhzomas
Headdress
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10/19/09 2:23:44 PM

pay for a basket of dried corn,
leather for sandals, or fruit. It
could also pay the tax collector.
Cotton was the most valuable fabric used by the Aztecs,
but they also wove cloth from
fibers taken from the agave plant
and from palm fibers. Valuable
weavings were used as offerings to the gods. They draped
the inner rooms of temples and
palaces. They wrapped newborn babies and the dead before
burial or cremation. A bride
might bring cloth as a form of
payment called a dowry, which
went to her new husband.
Pottery was a practical art
form. Pots were used for cooking, storing, and serving food.
Most Aztec pottery had red,
black, white, or orange glazes.
Typical Aztec pottery was not
made on a potters wheel but
was molded by hand. Most
pots featured designs related
to the gods or to the calpulli
to which the potter belonged.
The district of Cholula was
so well known for its superior red-and-black pottery that
Motecuhzoma II refused to eat
off any plates that were not
made in Cholula.
In Their Own Words
T he Feather A r tist
The Florentine Codex is the name given to 12 books
created under the supervision of Bernardino de Sahagn
between approximately 1540 and 1585. One section of
the codex explains the habits and skills that distinguish
bad artisans from good ones. Here are some of the
qualities of the good and bad feather artists.
Amantcatl: the feather artist.
He is whole; he has a face and a heart.
The good feather artist is skillful,
Is master of himself; it is his duty
To humanize the desires of the people.
He works with feathers,
chooses them and arranges them,
paints them with different colors,
joins them together.
The bad feather artist is careless;
He ignores the look of things,
He is greedy, he scorns other people.
He is like a turkey with a shrouded heart,
Sluggish, coarse, weak.
The things that he makes are not good.
He ruins everything that he touches.
(Source: Len-Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture.
Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.)
Literature
Aztec literature, like Aztec works of art, was based on religion. It
explained creation, major events in nature, and the efforts of the
121
Aztec Writing
The Aztecs did not write
words using letters.
Instead, they wrote using
glyphsrepresentations of things and ideas,
much like the picture
writing of the Egyptians.
This system of writing
is called hieroglyphics.
The hieroglyphics told of
great victories, brilliant
warriors, human sacrifices, and events from
Aztec daily life. They
were carved into monuments and also written
down in books.
122
gods on behalf of or opposed to human beings. Every god had his or

her myths; every religious event had poetry and tales as part of the
ritual.
Myths explained how the earth was formed and how people
came to exist. The Aztecs believed that in the beginning, the world
was ruled by darkness. Their world began with the coming of
light. The universe also went through periods of birth, death, and
rebirth.
The first age was called Four Water. In this period, the gods created humans from ashes and fed them acorns. Chalchiuhtlicue, the
water goddess, ruled the first age, which ended when floods covered
the world.
The second age was called Four Jaguar. During Four Jaguar, human
beings were all giants. Tezcatlipoca ruled Four Jaguar, which ended
when the sun fell from the sky and set the world on fire. In this dark
world, the surviving people were eaten by jaguars.
The third age was called Four Rain. Tlaloc, the god of thunder,
lightning, and rain, ruled the world of Four Rain.
The fourth age was called Four Wind and was ruled by Quetzalcoatl. This period ended when a terrible hurricane destroyed the land
and blew all the people from the world. A few people survived by being
changed into monkeys, and those monkeys hid in the forests.
Nanahuatzin ruled the fifth age, which is called Four Movement.
The current world is the fifth age. Four Movement began when Nanahuatzin threw himself into a fire and became the sun. It will end with
earthquakes.
Aztec poetry covered the basic themes of nature, acts of heroism,
nobles, and religious rites. In Aztec times, poetry was performed in
public, usually accompanied by a melody. The Spanish called the Aztec
poems cantares, which is the Spanish word for songs or chants. The
Nahuatl word is cuicatl.
Although many poems were recited as part of religious rituals,
it was equally common to have poetry at banquets or victory feasts.
The drums beat out the rhythm, dancers whirled about in colorful
costumes, and the poet sang of love, bravery, nature, and sadnessall
the same topics about which poets write and singers sing today.
Some of these poems might be considered epic poetry, which
tells the stories of great heroes or important historical events. These
include Cuauhcuicatl (songs of the eagle) and Yaocuicatl (warrior
The Aztec Creation Story

the Aztecs had several stories about how
the world was created, taken in from the
various peoples they conquered. one of
these stories features Quetzalcoatl and
tezcatlipoca.
Quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca looked
down from their place in the sky and saw
only water. As they watched, a gigantic goddess lay on the water. She had many mouths
and was eating everything she could find.
the two gods knew that if they created anything, the goddess would eat it. in an effort
to stop her, they transformed themselves
into two huge serpents and went down into
the water. one of them grabbed the goddess by the arms while the other grabbed
her around the legs. Before she could resist,
they pulled until she broke apart. her head
and shoulders became the earth and the
lower part of her body became the sky.
the other gods were angry at what

Quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca had done.
they decided to make it up to the goddess
for losing her arms and legs. they would
create all the things people needed to survive from the rest of her body. from her
hair they created trees, grass, and flowers.
her eyes were used to make caves, fountains, and wells. Rivers poured from her
mouth. the hills and valleys that filled the
land burst from her nose. mountains rose
up from her shoulders.
the goddess was still not happy,
though. the people heard her cries in the
night. She cried because she hungered for
human blood and could not give people
food unless she drank. So she is fed with
the blood of humans and with their hearts.
in turn, she feeds humans from the earth.
there is no end to this cycle.
songs). Other poetry focused on daily life. These include Xochicuicatl

(flower songs) and Huehuecuicatl (songs of the elders). Flower songs
told about the beauty and pleasures of nature. There were songs about
spring and the first sprouting of corn.
MUsic And dAnce

Music and dance accompanied most religious festivals, including human
sacrifices. Drums set the beat for warriors to march to war and
announced the celebration of victory. While war and sacrificial songs
were most common, music also told the story of the Aztec culture. Songs
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Official Records
Along with writing
poetry and myths, the
Aztecs produced many
official records. The
governing of an empire
required a great deal of
paperwork. Districts
paid taxes. Merchants
recorded sales and
profits. Armies recorded
victories. People owned
land. And the Aztecs had
many religious events.
The Aztecs had scribes
to keep records of their
works. Each scribe
had a specific area of
knowledge, much like we
have historians, accountants, and people who
register births, deaths,
and deeds. The Aztecs
recorded so much information that Tenochtitlan
used up 480,000 sheets
of paper a year.
124
spoke of a familys ancestors and the acts of greatness that enabled the
family to reach its current social position.
The Aztecs had many wind and percussion instruments but no
string instruments. Their music was played on instruments made
from wood, bones, skins, shells, and clay. Percussion instruments
included rattles, shakers, and a variety of drums. Drums played a big
part in the music of the Aztecs. The ayotl was a drum made from
a turtle shell. Prongs were placed on the underside of the shell and
struck to create sound. The teponaztli was a horizontal log drum that
was played with mallets. The huehuetl was an upright skin drum,
played with the hands like a bongo drum. A musician could make the
huehuetl produce two tones by playing on the inner or outer area of
the drums skin. The huehuetl and teponaztli were played together for
most Aztec songs.
Rattles were another form of percussion instrument. They were
made by filling gourds or sticks with stones, seeds, or beads. Rattle
sticks are still used in native Mesoamerican music. Maracas, used in
modern Mexican music, are like the rattles of Aztec times.
Melodies were played on flutes or horns such as the atecocoli, a
large conch shell that sounded much like a trumpet. The chichitli was a
high-pitched whistle, somewhat like a piccolo. The Aztecs even had an
instrument that made a buzzing sound, called the cocoloctli. The Aztec
flute, the huilacapitztli, is still very popular in Mexico.
Every Aztec person learned the songs, instruments, and dances of
their culture. Between the ages of 12 and 15, Aztec children went to the
cuicacalli, where they learned singing and dancing.
When people gathered for a religious rite, the music provided the
appropriate mood. Hundreds of people sang and danced together, from
young children to the elderly. Musicians were extremely careful not to
make any mistakes as they played. An error was a serious insult to the
gods and might displease them.
Most nobles had their own orchestras, as well as songwriters and
dancers. Spanish priest Gernimo de Mendieta (15251604) wrote,
Each lord had in his house a chapel with composer-singers of dances
and songs, and these were thought to be ingenious in knowing how to
compose the songs in their manner of meter and the couplets that they
had. Ordinarily they sang and danced in the principal festivities that
were every 20 days, and also on other less principal occasions. (quoted
in Aztec Music at Aztec-History.com).

Family celebrations and all religious rituals had music to mark the
occasion. Special songs were written and sung for Huitzilopochtli, Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc, and Ometeotl. Songs praised the gods and asked for
their assistance, particularly in bringing rain or ending a famine.
Architecture
Many ancient cultures, including the Aztecs, built step pyramids.
These pyramids did not have smooth sides, like the famous ones in
Egypt. Instead, the sides were like giant stone stairways. Often the
pyramids were built in layers. Each added layer was slightly smaller
than the one underneath, and the layers served as steps to the top of
the pyramid.
In Their Own Words
T he Flower Tree
Some of the poems said to be written by
Nezahualcoyotl, the great king of Texcoco,
were actually written by other people. In their
works, the poets pretended to be the king or
to be speaking for him. Here is an excerpt
from a flower song called The Flower Tree
that was once attributed to Nezahualcoyotl.
The poet seems to be telling his listeners
that since life is short, they must find beauty
and pleasure when they can.
Begin the song in pleasure, singer, enjoy,
give pleasure to all, even to Life Giver.
Yyeo ayahui ohuaya.
Delight, for Life Giver adorns us. All the
flower bracelets, your flowers, are dancing.
Our songs are strewn in this jewel house,
this golden house. The Flower Tree grows
and shakes, already it scatters. . . .
Live here on earth, blossom! As you move
and shake, flowers fall. My flowers are
eternal, my songs are forever: I raise

them: I, a singer. I scatter them, I spill
them, the flowers become gold. . . .
Flowers of raven, flowers you scatter,
you let them fall in the house of flowers.
Ohuaya ohuyaya.
Ah, yes: I am happy, I prince
Nezahualcoyotl, gathering jewels, wide
plumes of quetzal, I contemplate the
faces of jades: they are the princes! I gaze
into the faces of Eagles and Jaguars, and
behold the faces of jades and jewels!
Ohuaya ohuyaya. . . .
We will pass away. I, Nezahualcoyotl, say,
Enjoy! Do we really live on earth? . . .
Not forever on earth, only a brief time
here! . . .
(Source: Curl, John, translator. Ancient American
Poets. Tempe, Ariz.: Bilingual Review Press,
2005.)
125

This large Aztec drum
is made of wood and
decorated with carvings of
birds and other creatures.
126

Temples were not open to
CONNECTIONS
the public. Other than priests
and nobles, visitors tended to
be sacrifice victims.
Aztec pyramids always had
two staircases, and each set of
mexican composer carlos chavez (18991978) never heard
stairs led to a different shrine.
Aztec musicno one in modern times has. But he knew the
This way, each Aztec temple
music of indian people still living in mexico during the 20th
provided shrines for two difcentury. And he knew the kinds of instruments the Aztecs
ferent gods. The Great Temple
played.
in Tenochtitlan, for example,
With that knowledge, he composed Xochipilli (An
served both the god of the sun
imagined Aztec music). in this piece, the musicians play
(Huitzilopochtli) and the god
gourds, rattles, flutes, and drums similar to the ones the
of rain (Tlaloc). The shrine
Aztecs played. A trombone, however, replaces the shell
to Huitzilopochtli was painted
used as a horn.
red and white, which symbolchavezs work was first played in New York city in 1940
ized war and sacrifice. The
and it is still performed today. it offers one artists view of
shrine to Tlaloc was decorated
the kind of music that moved the Aztecs.
in white and blue, to symbolize
rain and water.
The pyramid of the Great
Temple rose 197 feet into the sky, or the equivalent of a 20-story building. Its height was a constant reminder to Aztecs that the gods commanded the heavens and were far above the ordinary people.
The temple was decorated with clay and stone figures that represented and honored Aztec gods. The Aztecs left offerings at the temple
to gain the gods favor, and archaeologists have recovered many of these
gifts. The temple itself was torn down by the Spanish, but part of its
ruins can be seen today in Mexico City.
Imagining the Music

of the Aztecs
science And TechnOlOgY

The Aztecs developed technology that suited a great empire. Among
the cultures accomplishments were advances in mathematics, astronomy, timekeeping, weapons, and medicine.
The Aztecs created a system of mathematics to suit their needs. They
used a system based on the number 20. Math was used in business, to
determine the amount of tribute owed to the empire, and to record property measurements.
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10/19/09 2:23:48 PM
Writing Numbers,
Aztec Style
the Aztecs had several different ways of writing numbers. they used dots to represent the numbers 1 through
19. Numbers larger than 19 featured dots and symbols.
Special symbols represented the numbers 20, 400,
and 8,000. the Aztecs used flags for 20, feathers for 400,
and incense bags for 8,000. Using that system, the number 867 would be written using seven vertical dots (7),
three flags (60), and two feathers (400 x 2 = 800).
A culture that went to war

needed weapons. Axe blades were
made from stone. Sharp knives
and spear blades were made from
obsidian. The Aztecs also developed a spear-thrower, an atlatl.
This was a sling used to help
propel the spear. It could also be
used for fishing and hunting. An
expert with the atlatl could bring
down a deer.
Warriors made a kind of
sword called a macuahuitl out
of wood with an obsidian blade.
It was used as a cutting weapon.
It was sharp enough to cut off a
persons head or kill a horse. The
Aztecs also had bows and arrows
for war and hunting.
AzTec Medicine
The Aztecs made great advances
in medicine. They used herbs
for healing, and had an excellent understanding of the human
body, health, and how the body
heals. Healers could be either
men or women.
The Aztecs used dozens of
herbs either alone or combined
with others. Some of the herbs
The dots and symbols beneath this drawing of a
minor god are good examples of the lines and dots
could be poisonous if used in the
used in the Aztec numbering system.
wrong way or the wrong amount.
An herbalist had to know exactly
what he or she was doing.
The Aztecs believed that many illnesses were a direct result of
unhappy or angry gods. They developed healing drinks, rubs, and ointments, and combined them with prayer, fasting, and sacrifices. The
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religion, art, and science
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Healing Herbs
the knowledge of aztec medicine was
recorded in 1552 in a document called the
Badianus Manuscript. it was written by martn de la cruz (dates unknown), an aztec
physician, and listed ointments and drinks
used to treat a wide variety of illnesses and
conditions.
the spanish found that many of the herbs
aztec healers used were more effective than
European medicines. they admired aztec
medicine and were interested in learning
from it. the Europeans, however, disliked
anything in aztec medicine that seemed to
suggest rituals connected to witchcraft or the
devil.
some herbs the aztecs used as medicine

are still used to help the sick. for example, the
aztecs used catnip to calm patients and catnip tea is sometimes drunk today for the same
purpose. Yerba buena, a type of mint, soothed
stomach aches. t
today it is used to treat aches
in the stomach and other parts of the body.
the aztecs used various parts of the
prickly pear cactus to get rid of intestinal
worms, strengthen the lungs, and increase
mothers breast milk. modern scientific studies have shown that parts of this cactus might
help control the disease diabetes. the prickly
pear may also contain chemicals that can
help the body fight other diseases.
Aztecs felt that it was their job to help relieve the suffering of their
people. They were not going against the gods in doing so, since the gods
had the power to stop the herbs from working. If the gods truly wanted a
person to suffer and die, no amount of medicine would provide a cure.
The Aztecs also paid attention to dental health. Diners washed
their mouths out with water after eating and picked out any bits of food
from between their teeth. The Aztecs had an early form of toothpaste,
made out of ashes and honey. The root of a plant served as a brush.
12
EpiloguE
AT ONE TIME, THE AzTECS RULED THE WORLD THAT THEY
knew. The Spanish conquest ended the power of the Aztecs and the
other indigenous, or native, people of Central and South America.
Still, in remote areas, the old ways of life endured. Mestizospeople
who were half Spanish and half indigenousalso kept parts of the old
culture alive.
modern mexico
Mexico was a colony of Spain until 1810, when the Mexican people
rebelled against their Spanish rulers. After a long war, they won their
independence in 1821. However, by then much of the land was owned
by wealthy people who were descendants of the original Spanish
conquerors. Their estates were called haciendas, and the people who
worked on them made extremely poor wages.
Poverty and the unfair social structure that kept people of Spanish
descent in control fueled many rebellions. In 1910, civil war broke out
in Mexico. The war pitted many groups in Mexico against one another,
and continued for more than a decade. In 1917, a new Mexican constitution was approved. It ensured that the native peoples of Mexico
would have the same rights as people of Spanish descent.
Today, Mexico is a land of opposites. There is great wealth and serious poverty. In 1950, less than half of Mexicos population lived in towns
or cities of 2,500 people or more. By 2005, that number had changed dramatically. Today, more than three-fourths of the population live in towns
opposite
The Plaza of the Three

Cultures in Mexico City
reflects the Aztec, Spanish,
and mixed heritage of the
Mexican people. Around
the plaza are the ruins of
the ancient Aztec city of
Tlatelolco, the Spanish
Cathedral of Santiago, and
the Department of Foreign
Affairs building of the
Mexican government.
131
CONNECTIONS
An Aztec Saint
the blending of aztec and spanish religious traditions began soon after the spanish conquest. in 1524, an aztec farmer was
converted to roman catholicism by missionaries. they gave him the spanish name Juan
Diego (14741548).
on December 9, 1531, Diego was walking
from his village to attend mass in tenochtitt
lan. as he passed tepeyac
t
hill, a womans
voice called him to the top of the hill. there
he saw a beautiful young woman dressed
like an aztec princess. she spoke to him in
Nahuatl and said she was the Virgin mary, the
mother of Jesus christ. she asked Diego to
tell the local bishop to build a church on that
site.
the bishop asked Diego to bring him
a sign that proved his vision was real. he
returned to tepeyac
t
hill. it was the winter,
but Diego found castilian roses (which do
not grow in mexico, but do grow in spain).
he picked a bunch and brought them to the

bishop.
When Diego presented the roses, his cloak
fell open and an image of the Virgin mary was
imprinted on it. soon after, a church was built
on the site where she had appeared. it happened to be the same place where there had
been an aztec temple dedicated to tonantzin,
t
the mother earth goddess. Earlier, the bishop
had ordered this temple to be destroyed.
the image is known as the Virgin of
Guadalupe, and a very large church called
our Lady of Guadalupe now stands in mexico city where Diego had his vision.
in 2002, pope John paul ii (19202005),
the leader of the roman catholic church,
made Juan Diego the first indigenous american saint. During part of the ceremony, the
pope spoke in Nahuatl. he also recognized
the importance of aztec culture in mexican
catholicism.
and cities. The largest city is Mexico City, built on the ruins of the Aztec
cities of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.
Within Mexico, poverty and the rights of indigenous people continue to be major issues. The country is a major oil producer and has a
ready market for its oil in the United States. Nearly a third of government money comes from the oil industry.
In addition, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
opened the Mexican market to major investments. U.S. companies
invested more than $148 billion in Mexico, building factories and tourist facilities. Oil and NAFTA have improved the Mexican economy, but
the money remains in the hands of the wealthy and poverty continues.
132
Epilogue
In the modern world, the Aztec Empire would have stretched from central Mexico to the
border of Guatemala.
133
E m p i re o f t h e a z t e c s
Mexico Fast Facts

Official name: United
Mexican States
Area: 760,000 square
miles
Population: 111.2 million
(2009 estimate)
Capital: Mexico City
Currency: Peso
Languages: Spanish,
Nahuatl, Zapotec,
Otomi
Religion: Roman
Catholic (76.5
percent)
Moving North
Many Mexican people
emigratelegally and
illegallyacross the
northern border and into
the United States. They
are seeking better jobs.
Some small border towns
in the north have become
almost ghost towns, as
the people head for higher
wages in the United
States. About 8.5 million
Mexicans currently live
and work in the United
States. Their relatives
back in Mexico depend
heavily on the money
they earn and send home
to pay for housing, food,
clothing, and healthcare.
Half of all Mexicans live in poverty. More than 20 million

Mexicans live on less than two dollars a day. One in five suffer
from extreme poverty. Often, those in extreme poverty do not have
access to fresh water, electricity, or sanitation. In cities, many poor people
eat only once or twice a day, and they find their food in garbage bins.
Most poor people live in rural areas. They have little transportation and communication. In some areas, they still do not have electricity or running water. The Mexican government is trying to modernize
rural areas, but it takes time. It is difficult to provide education, food,
and services to people in remote areas.
Many of the people in these poor rural areas are indigenous people.
Their poverty can be traced back to the arrival of the Spanish 500 years
ago. At that time, native people were forced onto poor land so that the
Spanish could have the best grazing lands for their cattle and sheep.
The indigenous Mexicans face more than just poverty. As young
people leave their rural towns for jobs in Mexican factories, the towns
have a harder time surviving. The traditional way of life, based on raising maize, is beginning to die. Parents see little reason to teach their
children to speak Nahuatl, since the children are moving to larger
towns or to the United States.
Native Rights
In 1994, a group of indigenous people began a rebellion against the
poverty of native people throughout Mexico. When the fighting was
over, more than 150 people had died. The rebel group is called the Zapatista National Liberation Army, named for their hero Emiliano Zapata
(18791919). During the early 20th century, Zapata fought against the
Mexican government. Todays Zapatistas live in the state of Chiapas
in the Lacandon rain forest. Chiapas is one of the poorest states in
Mexico. The goal of the Zapatistas is to gain land rights and equality for
Mexicos indigenous people.
Also during the 1990s, Nahuatl speakers in the Mexican state of
Guerrero rose up to defend their rights. People in several towns along
the Balsas River joined together to fight the building of a dam that
would have destroyed their homes. They won their battle, and the
group that led the effort is still fighting for the indigenous people of
the area. Unlike the Zapatistas, however, they have used legal means in
their struggle, not violence.
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10/19/09 2:23:50 PM
Epilogue
In 2001, newly elected
CONNECTIONS
Mexican president Vicente
Fox (b. 1942) tried to address
the concerns of the countrys
many residents of the Balsas river region make a living by
indigenous people. He recomcreating art that has become popular around the world.
mended immediate changes
the artists practice pintura en amatepainting in amate.
in the Mexican constitution to
Amate is a thick paper made from tree bark. the aztecs
protect the rights of Nahuatl
used the same kind of paper to make their colorful codices
speakers and others. Mexicos
hundreds of years ago.
Congress, however, passed a
todays amate painting features scenes of daily life
law that did not give the proamong the Nahuatl speakers of Guerrero. During the fight
testers all that they wanted.
against the Balsas river dam, the amate painters created
The new law, for example,
works that showed the history of the region. a show of
made it hard for indigenous
these paintings in mexico city helped bring attention to the
people to create their own
people of the region and their struggle to survive.
governments if they had
groups who live in more than
one state. Mexicos indigenous
people still struggle to gain political and economic power.
Art for a Living
digging For the past

In recent years, archaeologists have uncovered new evidence that has
changed the way they think about the Aztecs and their lives. Artifacts
found at sites throughout Mexico have influenced peoples understanding of Aztec mythology, mathematics, and language. (Artifacts are the
artworks and items of daily life left behind by earlier peoples.) Archaeological digs are going on in many places, but some of the most interesting are under Mexico City.
Among the items archaeologists have found is a large stone disk
known as the Coyolxauhqui Stone. There is an image of the Aztec
moon goddess, Coyolxauhqui, on the disk. The image has an intricately carved headdress with petals, stars, and feathers. According
to Aztec mythology, her brother Huitzilopochtli, the sun god, killed
Coyolxauhqui by cutting off her head, then pushed her body down
the mythical hill of Coatepec (snake mountain). The disk shows
Coyolxauhqui as her dismembered body rolls down the hill. It was
originally placed at the foot of the Huitzliopochtli side of the Great
Temple.
13
Temple in the Subway

There is a perfectly
preserved Aztec temple
in Mexico City at the
subway stop called Pino
Surez. When workers
were building the subway, they found a pyramid dedicated to Ehecatl,
the Aztec god of wind.
They simply built the station around it, leaving the
pyramid undisturbed.
136
The stone was found in the Zcalo district of Mexico City in

1978 by electric company workers who were installing underground
cables. Its discovery led to another discovery nearby of the ruins
of the Great Temple. The archaeological dig at that site continues.
A museum on the site contains the Coyolxauhqui Stone and other
items found there.
In 2006, a massive stone slab was put on public display. The slab
dates back to 1501. That was 20 years before the fall of the Aztec
Empire. It lay hidden beneath the center of modern-day Mexico City for
500 years and was discovered by accident when construction workers
readied the site for a new building. The slab is about the size of the average persons living room and is seven feet thick. Archaeologists believe
the slab may have been used as an altar for Aztec human sacrifices.
In 2007, two more new finds gave further insight into the Aztecs.
Archaeologists made a deep dive into the crater lake of the dormant
(not active), snow-covered Nevado de Toluca volcano, 50 miles west of
Mexico City. They found some surprising objects: wooden carvings
of lightning bolts, cones of incense, and knives made from obsidian.
The artifacts were used in rituals to honor the god Tlaloc. Archaeology professor Stanislaw Iwaniszewki of Mexicos National Institute
of Anthropology says the lightning bolts were definitely made by the
Aztecs and were left more than 500 years ago. They were left in the
lake to bring rain storms. Copal incense was burned to form clouds,
and sharp spines from the maguey cactus . . . indicated worshippers
brought them there to draw blood from themselves as part of the sacrifice (quoted in Aztec Offerings Found in Bottom of Mexico Lake
on Live Science).
An equally exciting find was made three months after the discovery of the lightning bolts. Beneath the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan
in Mexico City, archaeologists found a large stone slab carved with a
picture of Tlaltecuhtli, one of the Aztec earth goddesses. The goddess
is clutching a rabbit in her claw, and the rabbit bears markings for the
Aztec year 10 Rabbit, which is 1502. That was the year Aztec tlatoani
Ahuitzotl died.
So far, archaeologists do not know exactly what they have found.
But they believe they may have uncovered the tomb of Ahuitzotl. If
they are right, it will be the first burial site of an Aztec tlatoani that
has been found. In 2007, scientists made radar and sonar surveys
Epilogue
of the earth beneath the slab. The surveys reveal areas that may be
rooms within the tomb.
Efforts to uncover the tomb beneath the slab will take many years.
The area is prone to flooding because the natural water in the ground is
high at the site. Every item found must be examined and catalogued for
further study. However, scientists are hopeful. The contents of a royal
tomb may reveal information that could unravel many mysteries of the
Aztec culture.
Discoveries continue to
be made in the ruins of
the great Aztec cities.
This stone monolith
of the Aztec earth god
Tlaltecuhtli may mark the
tomb of Ahuitzotl.
Digging at Yautepec
Although most Aztec life centered around Tenochtitlan, that is not the
only archaeological site in Mexico. A major dig is under way at Yautepec, another Aztec city in the Mexican state of Morelos. At its height,
from about 1430 to 1520, Yautepec was a regional center with four or
five smaller cities around it.
137

Yautepec is more extensively
studied because the ruins are
easier to get to than they are at
Tenochtitlanwhich lies under
busy Mexico City. Yautepec has
three ongoing dig sites: the royal
palace, a group of houses, and
Yautepec Valley settlements.
in 1550, Spains King charles V agreed to pay descenThe royal palace was somedants of motecuhzoma ii a pension (a salary in retirething of a surprise. Archaeoloment) equal to 250 ounces of gold a year. the Spanish
gists had noticed an earth mound
government paid the money for more than 300 years.
on the outskirts of the city. The
When mexico declared independence, the mexican govmodern city of Yautepec was
ernment continued to pay, until 1934.
expanding when people realized
today, descendants of motecuhzoma ii are demandthat new building projects would
ing that the pension payments be resumed. this would
endanger the Aztec ruins. A team
give them a lot of money. Gold prices have risen, and the
of archaeologists began digging
value of 250 ounces in the 2008 market would be close to
in 1989.
$200,000. it is unlikely that the mexican government will
The researchers have uncovagree to pay this tlatoani pension.
ered many courtyards, rooms,
and hallways built of stone and
plaster. Some walls were decorated with murals (wall paintings). After more than 12 years, the
archaeologists had uncovered less than one-third of the palace.
The second project includes small homes, piles of garbage, and
other areas in the city. The researchers have also dug in present-day
schoolyards, church cemeteries, vacant lots, and the backyards of
current residents. The researchers found that Yaupetecs Aztecs had
many goods that were brought in from other areas. These included
obsidian, salt, and pottery. They also owned items made of bronze
and copper.
Archaeologists have determined that most of the people in Yautepec were well off. Many worked as artisans or farmers. The city had a
large farmers market at which people could sell the items they made or
their surplus fruits and vegetables.
In addition to uncovering new information about how the Aztecs
of Yautepec lived, the archaeologists became involved with many Mexican schools. They presented information about Yautepec to more than
1,000 students.
Motecuhzomas
Pension
138
10/19/09 2:23:52 PM
Epilogue
Aztec Youth Today

There are few people today who can claim to be pure Aztec descendants. Most have some Spanish ancestors or a mix of Aztec and other
indigenous cultures. People with links to the Aztecs take great pride in
their heritage.
Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, remained in use in the Valley of Mexico, even as people learned Spanish. Today, more than one
million people in Mexico speak Nahuatl, and several million more
speak other indigenous languages. (Most of these Mexicans speak
Spanish as well.)
Most Nahuatl speakers live in central Mexico, in an area surrounding and including Mexico City. The indigenous people of Mexico who speak Nahuatl call their language Mexicano. Many millions
of other Mexicans are the descendants of people who used to speak
Many people in Mexico

today continue to honor
their Aztec heritage. Here
they celebrate it with
traditional dances.
139
CONNECTIONS
Nahuatl and were part of the

Aztec Empire. Some MexicanAmericans living in the United
States also speak Nahuatl or
a number of cities in modern mexico have Nahuatl names.
other indigenous languages of
the largest is mexico city, named after the mexica people.
Mexico.
here are some of the others.
Many of those who identify
themselves as Aztecs gather to
acapulco
place of big reeds
celebrate the culture of their
chimalhuacan
place of those who have shields
ancestors. They learn how to
cuauhtitlan
place of eagles
make clothing in the old way.
Ecatepec
windy hill
They learn the songs and rituals
mazatlan
place of deer
of their ancestors. They make
Nauhcalpan
place of four houses
traditional clothes by hand.
Nezahualcoyotl
hungry coyote
They wear headdresses adorned
tlalnepantla
middle ground
with feathers. On specific holitlaxcala
place of tortillas
days, they gather together and
Xalapa
sandy river
dance Aztec dances.
Xochimilco
place of the flowery fields
The dances they perform are
private. No tourists or visitors are
invited, and none are welcome.
The dances recall the Aztecs
love of nature. They honor the basic elements of life: earth, wind, fire, and
water.
These Mexican youths look to the traditions and heritage of their
past to create a new and positive future. They find that learning the
ways of the past provides them with a more stable approach to daily life.
Many in the group were once involved with drugs or alcohol. Today,
they live a life that is closer to nature and free of many of the problems
they faced before. Much of their strength is gained from remembering
the ways of the Aztecs.
Mexican Cities
140
TimE linE
1100
The Aztecs leave their homeland in Aztlan, in northern Mexico.
1195
The Aztecs arrive in the Valley of Mexico, but find little land available to
them.
1250
The Aztecs settle on two islands in Lake Texcoco.
1325
The Aztecs found Tenochtitlan as their capital city and the first temple is built.
Its sister city, Tlatelolco, is founded soon before or soon after (historians are not
sure).
1350
Causeways and canals are built in Tenochtitlan. They connect the island to
the mainland and provide transportation in and around Tenochtitlan, which
relieves inner city traffic.
1375
Acamapichtli becomes the first Aztec tlatoani.
1396
Huitzilihuitl becomes tlatoani and forms an alliance with the Tepanecs.
1400
The Tepanecs are defeated and the Aztecs expand their rule over the whole
Valley of Mexico.
1427
Itzcoatl becomes tlatoani.
1428
The Aztecs join forces with Texcoco and Tlacopan to form the Triple Alliance.
They go to battle against the Tepanecas.
1440
Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina becomes tlatoani.
1449
Tenochtitlan is heavily damaged by a flood.
14521454
Famine leaves the Aztecs starving.
1454
The rebuilding of the Great Temple begins. The pyramid includes a temple
dedicated to Huitzilopochtli.
1469
Axayacatl becomes tlatoani.
1472
Nezahualcoyotl, the king of Texcoco, dies. Texcoco is left without a strong ruler
and Axayacatl increases his power.
1486
Ahuizotl becomes tlatoani.
1487
The Great Temple at Tenochtitlan is dedicated.
14911495
The Aztecs expand southward into the territories of Oaxaca and Acapulco.
1502
Motecuhzoma II becomes tlatoani of a vast Aztec Empire.
1519
Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts arrives in Mexico, claims the land for
Spain, and meets Motecuhzoma II in Tenochtitlan.
141
142
1520
The Spanish imprison Motecuhzoma II. Cuitlahuac is chosen as the new

tlatoani. Motecuhzoma II dies during a battle between the Aztecs and the
Spanish. A smallpox epidemic brought by the Spanish kills many of the Aztecs.
Cuauhtemoc becomes tlatoani after Cuitlahuac dies.
1521
Corts and his troops conquer Tenochtitlan and take Cuauhtemoc prisoner.
1522
Tenochtitlan is rebuilt, named Mexico City, and made the capital of the Spanish
colony of New Spain.
1525
Cuauhtemoc is executed.
1810
Mexico declares independence from Spain. The Mexican war for independence
begins.
1821
Mexico wins its independence from Spain.
glossAry
accountant a person who keeps financial
records
adobe a building material made by mixing
sand, straw, and water and letting it bake in
the sun
alliance a friendship or bond between
groups of people
altar an elevated structure, such as a mound
or platform, where religious ceremonies are
performed or sacrifices are made to the gods
or ancestors
archaeologist a scientist who studies
ancient people by studying the things they
left behind
architecture the way buildings are
designed and built; a person who designs
buildings is an architect
artisan a skilled worker who makes things
by hand
artifact an item made by humans, such
as pottery or tools, that is later studied by
archaeologists
astronomy the study of the stars, planets,
and other objects in space
baptism a ritual bathing of a person, often
a child
basin an area of land with regions that slope
upward
bloodletting spilling ones own blood as
part of a ritual
cacao the bean used to make chocolate
calmecac a school for nobles
calpulli a district or neighborhood with
shared collective responsibility
causeway a raised road
chinampas small islands the Aztecs built
in shallow waters so they could grow crops
city-state a city that functions as a separate

kingdom or nation
codex an early form of a book with pages;
the plural is codices
the Spanish word for
conquistador
conqueror
cremation burning a corpse to ashes
culture the religious, social, and artistic
beliefs and customs of a group of people
currency money
dike an earthen wall built to keep out
floodwaters
domesticate to raise or cultivate an animal or plant for use in agriculture
dynasty a sequence of rulers from the same
family
famine a dangerous shortage of food
fertile able to easily grow (for plants) or have
offspring (for animals and people)
fertilizer a chemical substance added to soil
to promote plant growth
glyph a character or symbol used in hieroglyphic writing
hunter-gathers people who hunt game
animals, fish, and gather wild fruit, roots,
nuts, and berries to feed themselves
hieroglyphics a system of writing using
individual symbols, called glyphs, to represent words
idol an image of a god that is believed to be
sacred
indigenous native to a region
irrigation a system for watering crops
macehualli the commoner class
mesoamerica meaning middle America,
the area extending from what is today central
143

Mexico south through modern-day Guatemala and Honduras
mestizo a person with one Spanish parent
and one Native American parent
midwife a woman whose profession is to
help women give birth
missionary a religious person sent to covert
new members to a particular faith
nahuatl the language of the Aztec people
noble a person belonging to a special (and
elite) social or political class
nomad a person with no permanent home
who wanders from place to place
obsidian volcanic glass
patron god a god who is honored for
protecting a particular people, place, or
thing
pipiltin the noble class
plume a long feather
144
quetzal a colorful bird found in Central

America
reign the length of time a particular ruler is
in power
ritual a ceremony carried out according to
religious laws and customs
sacred holy
sacrifice an offering made to a god
scribe an official writer, particularly in cultures where writing was not common
shaman a person who has access to and
influence over good and evil spirits
sorcerer a wizard
steward the manager of a farm or estate
tlatoani king or emperor, the word means
he who speaks well; the plural is tlatoque
tribute something of value paid by one state
to another as proof of loyalty or obedience,
or to secure peace or protection
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furT
ur hEr rEsourcEs
BookS
Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel, Handbook to life in the
Aztec World (New York, Facts On File, 2005)
This well-illustrated book gathers together the
results from recent archaeological discoveries and historical documents. It is organized
around central themes, such as the geography
of the Aztec world, society and government,
religion and mythology, art, architecture,
Nahuatl literature, the calendar, industry and
trade, daily life, and more.
Carrasco, David, and Scott Sessions, Daily life of the
Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth (Indianapolis:
Hackett Publishing, 2008, reprint)
Two experts on the Aztecs offer a detailed look
at Aztec life, including religion, food, arts, and
games. The book also examines the conflict
between Aztec and European cultures during and after the Spanish conquest and the
influence Aztec culture continues to have on
modern Mexican society. Many illustrations
complement the text.
Daz del Castillo, Bernal, The Discovery and
Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo
Press, 2004)
This book was written by one of the conquistadors. It gives an eyewitness view of what
the Spanish saw and thought when they first
encountered the Aztecs and other cultures of
Mexico.
Coulter, Laurie, Ballplayers and Bone Setters: 100
Ancient Aztec and Maya Jobs You Might Have
Adored or Abhorred (Toronto, Canada: Annick
Press, 2008)
The ancient Aztecs, Maya, and other Mesoamericans believed that the gods created a
world where everyone had a role to play. Some
people were born to rule, others to serve. Find

out in this book what it was like to be a tax collector, a porter, a pyramid builder, a beekeeper,
and a royal cook.
Hall, Eleanor J., life
iife Among the Aztecs (Chicago:
Lucent Books, 2004)
This is a very thorough review of how the
Aztecs lived, from the how they wore their
hair to how they viewed the world. There are
also boxes on specific topics, such as how to
pronounce Nahuatl, the construction of the
chinampa gardens that made it possible for
the cities to feed themselves, and the works
of particular scholars. Well illustrated with
drawings and photographs.
Pohl, John, Aztec, Mixtec and Zapotec Armies
(Oxford, U.K.: Osprey Publishing, 1991)
The Aztec Empire became the most powerful and feared civilization in the Americas.
The Mixtec and zapotec peoples both formed
alliances with and fought many wars against
the Aztecs. This work investigates the history,
uniforms, and weaponry of the Aztec, Mixtec
and zapotec armies. Original artwork makes it
easy to visualize these warriors.
Steele, Philip, Norma Rosso, and Penny Bateman,
The Aztec News (New York: Walker Books, 2009)
The lively, unusual format of this book is both
factual and entertaining. The Aztec News
imagines what a news magazine would be like
during the Aztec Empire. Feature articles discuss major historical events. Local news talks
about festivals and daily life, and there are
even advertisements. Special interest coverage
includes articles on hunting, marriage, and
medicine.
14

Tucker, Mary, Mayans and Aztecs: Exploring
Ancient Civilizations (Carthage, Ill.: Teaching &
Learning Company, 2002)
Ancient history will come to life as students
design a battle uniform based on Aztec thinking, and learn about the diet, work, entertainment, worship, and warfare of these ancient
cultures.
DVDs
The Aztec Empire (The History Channel, 2005)
Historians trace the rise of the Aztecs from
small group of nomads to the dominant
culture of Mesoamerica. The program tours
the Great Temple in Tenochtitlan, where
ongoing archaeological digs are unraveling
some of the mysteries of the Aztecs. It also
discusses the continued Aztec influence in
Mexico today.
Secrets of the Dead: Aztec Massacre (PBS, 2008)
There was a time when historians believed that
the Aztecs viewed the Spanish conquistadors
as gods and barely resisted their takeover.
But new research has proven that the Aztecs
fiercely resisted the Spanish invaders. Aztec
Massacre looks at this new information and
presents a new view of the Aztec response to
the Spanish.
Web Sites
Aztec Ancient Scripts

www.ancientscripts.com/aztec.html
This site looks at the writing system the Aztecs
used, including how they wrote numbers.
There are many examples of specific glyphs,
calendar signs, and place names.
Aztec Calendar
www.azteccalendar.com/azteccalendar.html
This site offers an introduction to the calendars the Aztecs used and how they were used
together. Links lead to more information on
the Aztec gods. Click on Calculator, which
150
converts a date in the modern calendar to a

date in the Aztec calendar.
Aztec Empire
www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/latinamerica/
meso/cultures/aztec_empire.html
This is an exhibit in the E-Museum at Minnesota State University. Tour an exhibit that
focuses on the archaeology in Mesoamerica,
with additional pages on specific archaeological sites, cultures, and technology used by the
Aztecs and other Mesoamerican people. Click
through links on the calendar, Tenochtitlan,
technology and society, and more.
Aztec Math Decoded
news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/04/
080403-aztec-math.html
This article from National Geographic News
describes the special arithmetic the Aztecs
developed to measure land and keep track of
how much tax was owed.
The Aztecs and the Making of Colonial Mexico
www.newberry.org/Aztecs/index.html
This is a virtual exhibition from the Newberry
Library in Chicago that shows original manuscripts, books, and other materials about the
Aztecs and their clash with the Spanish. View
beautiful pages from their books, maps, pages
of Spanish manuscripts, and more.
Aztecs at Mexicolore
www.mexicolore.co.uk/index.php?one=azt&two=aaa
Investigate this Aztec Web site that is designed
with kids in mind. The information is fun and
fascinating. There are sections on Aztec art
and design, artifacts, music, the calendar, the
gods, and much more.
The Aztec World
www.fieldmuseum.org/aztecs/
This is an introduction to an exhibition about the
Aztecs at the Field Museum in Chicago. The site
has a lot of photos of objects from the exhibition,
along with information on farmers, artisans,
merchants, warriors, rulers, and high priests.
Further Resources
Conquistadors: Mexico
www.pbs.org/opb/conquistadors/mexico/mexico.htm
Learn about the Aztecs and the Spanish conquerors who brought their empire to an end.
The site contains information about Aztec culture and how the Spanish reacted to it. Pop-up
windows and lots of links make this interesting
and easy to navigate.
in America. Enjoy an overview of the ancient

culture of the Aztec people, including their history, social customs and religion. Also offered
is specific information on other peoples of
Mesoamerica, such as the Olmecs and Toltecs.
A Gallery of American Civilizations includes
photographs from the archaeological digs at
Tenochtitlan.
John Pohls Mesoamerica

www.famsi.org/research/pohl/index.html
John Pohl is an archaeologist and curator
of the Art Museum at Princeton University.
His web site features many maps, drawings,
and photographs relating to the Aztecs and
other Mesoamerican cultures, a history of
the Aztecs, and information on many major
archaeological sites.
Museo Nacional de Antropologa

www.mna.inah.gob.mx/muna/mna_ing/intro_ing.
html
This is the site of the National Museum of
Anthropology (the study of human cultures)
in Mexico City. The site has a lot of information in English, including details on all periods of early Mexican history. There are also
3-D images of many items in the museums
collection.
Dr. Michael E. Smith

www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/
Dr. Smith is an archaeologist specializing in the
Aztecs and a professor at Arizona State University. The site has links to some of Dr. Smiths
papers written for a general audience and information on his ongoing research in Mexico.
The Mexica/Aztecs
www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/AZTECS.HTM
This site from Washington State University
is part of a larger project called Civilizations
Templo Mayor Museum

http://archaeology.asu.edu/tm/index2.htm
This online museum showcases information
on archaeological materials excavated at the
Great Temple in Mexico City. The site is
divided into eight sections devoted to topics
such as the gods, agriculture, trade, and rituals. Click on Supplementary Pages and see
an A-to-Z guide of the museums many images.
The site also has an excellent glossary.
151
PICTURE CREDITS
PAGE
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Gianni Dali Orti/CORBIS

Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY
Gilmanshin/Shutterstock
Gordon Galbraith/Shutterstock
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Art Resource, NY
Michel Zab/Art Resource, NY
The Bridgeman Art Library
Bildarchiv Steffens Heun Stierlin / The
Bridgeman Art Library
Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz / Art
Resource, NY
HIP/Art Resource, NY
Vanni/Art Resource, NY
Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art
Resource, NY
Michel Zab/Art Resource, NY
77: Museum fur Volkerkunde, Vienna, Austria /

The Bridgeman Art Library
79: Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY
88: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz / Art
Resource, NY
90: Dorling Kindersley
99: HIP/Art Resource, NY
108: DeA Picture Library/Art Resource, NY
110: Scala/Art Resource, NY
114: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
118: Tomasz Otap/Shutterstock
126: Scala/Art Resource, NY
130: Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library
137: Eduardo Verdugo/AP Images
139: Diana Bier Mexico Zocalo Native /
Alamy
152
10/19/09 2:23:55 PM
INDEX
Note: Boldface page numbers indicate
major discussions of topics; italic
page numbers indicate illustrations; page numbers followed by c
indicate chronology entries; page
numbers followed by g indicate
glossary entries; page numbers followed by m indicate maps.
Acamapichtli 2931, 7374, 141c

Acapulco 45, 141c
accounting 82, 124, 143g
Acolhua 8, 9, 67
adobe 28, 68, 92, 143g
afterlife 112114
agave plants (maguey) 49, 96, 97, 106,
121
agriculture 39, 86. See also farming/
farmers; food and diet; specific
crop
early 9, 17
fertilizer 27, 84, 143g
irrigation 21, 8384, 143g
modern 134
Aguilar, Gernimo de 5354, 55
Ahuitzotl 4346, 62, 136137, 141c
altar 28, 39, 112, 136, 143g
alcohol 49, 88, 96
allies/alliances 7, 1012, 143g
Spanish 5659, 6566, 67
Triple Alliance 33, 3437, 38, 49, 141c
expansion of 43, 45
weakening of 56
alphabets 21, 39, 106
altars 28, 112
altepetl 75. See also citystates
Alvarado, Pedro de 6364
amantecatl 120
amaranth 17, 83
amate 135
animals 17, 118, 126. See also hunter
gatherers; specific animal
Aztec calendar and 116117
catalog of 119
clothing and 97
domestication of 18, 94, 143g
feathers 120
furniture 93
luck and 94
trade and commerce 61
as tribute 89
warfare and 58
zoos 28, 37, 48
ants 94
Apanohuaya 113
aqueducts 35, 46
archaeology/archaeologists 17, 135
138, 143g
age of cloth 120
founding of Tlatelolco and
Tenochtitlan 28
Great Temple 127, 136
household garbage 93
Olmec stonework 19
whistles and death 112
architecture 23, 27, 105, 125127, 143g
army 10, 30, 33, 34, 4546, 78, 134 See
also warriors
artifacts 135, 143g. See also archaeology/archaeologists
artisans 21, 24, 28, 73, 81, 121, 143g
arts 23, 118121. See also specific art
astronomy 115, 127, 143g
atecocoli 124
Atemoztli 117
atlatl 79, 128
Atlcahualo 116
atolli 94
Atotoztli 86
Austria 120
Axayacatl 34, 4043, 46, 62, 86, 141c
ayotl 124
Azcapotzalco 29, 33, 35
Azteca horse 58
Aztec Empire 7, 83. See also specific
ruler
end of 6970
expansion of 35, 38, 46
legends and myths 8, 910, 135
maps 47m, 70m, 133m
Aztec peoples, origin of 8, 1314
Aztlan 8, 9, 1314, 141c
Badianus Manuscript 129

Balkansky, Andrew 27
Balsas River 135
banquets 95, 122
baptism 52, 143g
basins 143g
Bat Cave 97
bathing
baptism 143g
ceremonial 102, 104, 111, 116
personal hygiene 27, 4849, 51, 61
royalty 49
sacrificial 82
wealthy 27, 35
Bautista, Juan 101
beliefs. See religion and beliefs
Belize 52
bestiaries 119
birds 126
afterlife and 112
eagles 8, 1213, 103
feathers 30
art and 121
destroying of 62
headdresses 120
poaching of 24
value of 59, 60
quetzals 23, 24, 59, 60, 120, 125,
144g
bitumen 97
Blanco, Cuauhtemoc 69
bloodletting 1920, 109, 143g
Book of Days 104
boys 69
advice for 106
birth of 104
education 73, 74, 92, 100, 104105
priesthood and 76
responsibilities 102103, 104
slavery and 81
bribery 46, 87
brigantines 68
building materials 22, 28, 68, 92, 138,
143g
burial. See death and burial
Cacamac 75
cacao beans 45, 60, 8485, 96, 98, 143g
cactli 100
cactuses 1213, 129
calendars 40, 43, 115118, 136
Calendar Stone 118
calmecac 73, 74, 76, 105, 143g. See also
schools
calpixqui / calpixque 74, 86
calpulli 69, 78, 85, 120
definition 2829, 83, 143g
elderly 107108
marriage 102
pottery and 121
pronunciation 74
responsibility to 104
calmecac 73, 74, 76, 105
canals 21, 27, 66, 84, 141c
cannibalism 56, 117
canoes 33, 36, 6566, 68, 79
cantares 122
Cardenas, Cuauhtemoc 69
Cascajal block 21
Catholicism. See Roman Catholicism
catnip 129
153
10/19/09 3:31:06 PM

causeways 27, 37, 60, 6566, 68, 141c,
143g
caves 8, 23, 38, 41, 97
celebrations and festivals 24, 28, 82. See
also ceremonies
Aztec calendar 116117
Day of the Dead 105
holidays 104, 140
Huitzilopochtli 6465
music and dance 123124
Panquetzaliztli 82, 117
cemithualtin 91
Centeotl 116
Central America 57, 70, 78, 131
ceremonies 54. See also sacrifice, human
baptism 52, 143g
bathing and 102, 104, 111, 116
bloodletting 1920
childbirth 103, 104
coronation 7576
costumes 120
girls and 18
marriage 1112, 91, 102
participation in 30
chacmools 24
Chalca 8, 9, 30
Chalchiuhtlicue 111, 114115, 116, 122
Chalco 40, 86
Chapultepec 9, 10
Charles V (king) 6061
Codex Mendoza 48
Corts and 62
gifts to 120
gold and 70
pensions 138
wealth and 52
Chavez, Carlos 127
chewing gum 97
Chiapas 134
Chicago 105
Chichimec 8, 9
chichitli 124
chicle 97
Chicomecoatl 111, 114115, 116
Chicomoztoc 38
Chiconahuapan 113
childbirth 101, 103104, 108, 109,
112113, 144g
children 98102. See also education
advice for 101, 106
afterlife and 113
class and 73, 74
mestizo 70
modern 107, 134, 139140
names of 43, 69
priesthood and 76, 77, 105
punishment 92
responsibilities of 104
rituals 116, 117
as rulers 3334
as sacrifices 111, 113, 115, 116, 117
slavery and 80, 81, 82, 88
succession 86
chilies 9596
chimalli 25
Chimalpopoca 3334, 35, 43
154
chinampas 27, 74, 84, 143g. See also

farming/farmers
chocolate 45, 49, 85, 96, 98, 143g
Cholula 58, 59, 60, 121
Christianity 51, 52, 57, 67. See also
Roman Catholicism
cicadas 39
Cihuacoatl Quilaztli 103
city-states 9, 20, 143g
civil wars 131
class systems 19, 73, 75, 121, 131132.
See also specific class
climate. See geography and climate
clothing 9798, 100, 120121
bird feathers 24
ceremonial costumes 120
confession skirts 109
death and burial 109
headdresses 51, 77, 98, 120, 135, 140
marriage ceremony 102
military 77
nobility 74, 120
priests 77, 120
royalty 7576, 98
warfare 25, 73, 77
weaving 97, 9899
Coatepec 135
Coatlicue 41, 111, 114115, 116, 119
cocoloctli 124
Codex Mendoza 48, 88, 89
codices 26, 106, 143g
Codex Mendoza 48, 88, 89
Dresden Codex 26
Florentine Codex 67, 121
Paris Codex 26
coins and currency 60, 8485, 120121
colonial rule 68
Columbus, Christopher 20
commerce. See trade and commerce
commoners
clothing 97
education 9899, 104105
food and diet 95
games 106107
as judges 87
legal system and 47, 75, 7880, 88, 116
marriage 74, 100
military 78
priesthood 76
communication 36, 54, 5556. See also
language and writing
confession 108, 109
conquistadors 51, 66, 143g
constitutions 131, 135
copal incense 136
Copil 910, 12
copper 52, 119
corn 94, 115
harvesting 84
origin 17
popcorn 95, 97
rituals and 18, 116, 117
tools for 20, 97
Corts, Hernn 141c, 142c
expedition of 5254, 55, 56
Motecuhzoma II and 60, 6263, 65
cosmos 118
cotton 45, 83, 121
council of elders 31, 33, 34, 40, 65, 75
count of days 116117
courts 46, 85, 8687
cowboys 58
Coyoacan 36
Coyolxauhqui 135136
Cozumel 52, 54
craftsmanship 18, 91
creation story 114, 118, 121122, 123
cremation 27, 108, 109, 143g
crime and punishment 8688
bribery 46, 87
children 92
codes for 37
confession 108, 109
government officials and 85
looting 52, 62, 69
merchants and 81
poaching 24
slavery and 80, 82
thievery 88, 94
Cruz, Martin de la 129
Cuauhcuicatl 122123
Cuauhtemoc 69, 142c
Cuba 51, 52, 57, 63, 67
cueitl 98
cuicacalli 91, 100, 105, 124
cuicatl 122
Cuicuilco 20, 29
Cuitlahuac 65, 67, 142c
Culhua 9, 10, 1112, 29
culture 143g
blending of 10, 132
early 7, 8, 9, 2223
modern 105, 131132, 139140
Old World v. New World 51
rights to 120
currency. See coins and currency
daily life 9192

dams 134, 135
dance 64, 105, 123125, 139, 140
Day of the Dead 105
death and burial 107109. See also
afterlife
celebrations 105
childbirth 103, 109
cremation 27, 108, 109, 143g
elegies 37
whistles and 112
dental health 129
Department of Foreign Affairs 131
diabetes 129
Daz del Castillo, Bernal 48, 54, 61, 65,
76, 95
Diego, Juan 132
diet. See food and diet
dikes 39, 46, 143g
diplomacy 33, 36, 42, 132. See also
allies/alliances
marriage as 29, 33, 41
disease 55, 6667, 108, 129, 142c
district. See calpulli
Index
diviners 109
domesticate 17, 18, 94, 143g
dowries 121
Dresden Codex 26
droughts 8, 39, 86
drums 35, 123, 124, 126
Durn, Diego 12, 41, 89
dyes 81, 97, 98, 99, 101
dynasties 29, 143g. See also specific
dynasty or ruler
eagles 8, 1213, 103

economy 58. See also trade and commerce
emigration and 134
employment 8385, 134, 135, 138
gold and 5960
monetary system 5960, 8485,
120121
review of 86
education 28, 98101, 104106
boys 73, 74, 92, 100, 104105
class and 73, 74, 76, 9899, 104105
girls 74, 92, 104, 105
music 100, 105, 124
parents role in 92
elders
advice of 101, 106
council of 31, 33, 34, 40, 65, 75
honoring 107108
obeying 99
elegies 37
emigration 134
employment 8385, 134, 135, 138. See
also specific trade
endangered species 24, 78
engineering 27
environment, destruction of 22
Etzalcualiztli 116
Europe. See also specific country
codices and 26, 105
health and medicine 55, 66, 129
map of Aztec Empire 70m
Old World v. New World 51
exile 34
exploration 38, 5154, 55, 56, 67
family 91. See also households

famine 73, 81, 86, 125, 141c, 143g
farming/farmers 17, 19, 27, 37, 39,
7980, 8384. See also agriculture;
food and diet; hunter-gatherers
fasting 40, 109
feathers 21, 24, 30, 59, 60, 62, 120, 121,
125, 144g
fertile 7, 9, 20, 83, 143g
fertilizer 27, 84, 143g
festivals. See celebrations and festivals
fish/fishing 8, 17, 18, 27, 49, 74, 104,
128
flags 12, 13, 113
floods 39, 46, 115, 122, 141c
Florentine Codex 67, 121
Flower Tree, The 125
food and diet 9497, 98, 102. See also

agriculture; famine; farming/farmers; hunter-gatherers; specific food
commoners 95
cooking tools 20, 93, 93, 97
daily meals 100
fasting 40, 109
military 78
natural disasters and 39
nobility 74
rituals 116117
royalty 49, 95
storage 93
warfare and 66, 68, 69
wealthy 95
fortunetellers 104
Four Jaguar 122
Four Motion 118
Four Movement 122
Four Rain 122
Four Water 122
Four Wind 122
Fox, Vicente 135
frogs 94
furniture 9293
games 106107
garbage 27, 61, 93
geography and climate 7, 8, 9, 10, 26, 83
gifts 5152, 54, 59. See also tribute
girls 98102
advice for 101
birth of 104
ceremonies 18
education 74, 92, 104, 105
responsibilities 77, 94, 103, 104
as sacrifices 111, 113, 115, 116
glyphs 21, 105, 117, 122, 143g
gods and goddesses 9, 111112,
114117. See also priesthood/
priests; sacrifice, human; signs and
symbols; temples; specific god or
goddess
adoption of 10, 11
Aztec calendar 116117, 118
depictions of 11, 79, 135
favor of 29
health and medicine 128129
patron 8, 116117, 144g
gold 53
Mixtecs and 25, 26
Spanish interest in 5960, 62, 66, 70
as tribute 45
government and politics 8586. See
also allies/alliances; calpulli; diplomacy; records and record keeping
class and 29, 74, 83
colonial rule 68
constitutions 131, 135
council of elders 31, 33, 34, 40,
65, 75
imperial power 40
local rule 46, 6970
modern 135
pensions 108, 138
treason 88
women in 86
Great Britain 98
Great Temple 42, 141c
architecture of 127
Corts visit to 61
rebuilding of 40, 44
ruins of 135136
site of 13
Grijalva, Juan de 51, 53, 63
guacamole 95
Guatemala 7, 23, 52, 144g
Guerrero 134, 135
Guerrero, Gonzalo 55
haciendas 131
hair 56, 76, 77, 81, 98, 102, 123
headdresses 51, 77, 98, 120, 135, 140
health and medicine 127, 128129
disease 55, 6667, 108, 142c
women as healers 101
herbs 101, 128129
hieroglyphics 93, 105, 122. See also
glyphs
Hispaniola 52
history/historians. See also codices;
legends and myths; records and
record keeping
Aztlans location 9
cremation 27
Malintzins name 52
Nezahualcoyotls poetry 37
oral tradition 39
Tenoch as legend or myth 31
Teotihuacans destruction 22
Tezozomocs age 34
Tlacaelels power 36
holidays 105, 140
Honduras 7, 144g
horses 17, 56, 58, 66
households 43, 82, 91, 102. See also
children; marriage
housing 47, 91, 9294, 138. See also
caves; palaces
Huehuecuicatl 123
huehuetl 124
Huehuetlatolli 75, 101
Huemac 9
Huey tecuilhuitl 116
Hueytozoztli 116
huilacapitztli 124
huipilli 98
Huitzilihuitl 29, 30, 31, 33, 38, 141c
Huitzilopochtli 1113, 114. See
also Great Temple; Temple of
Huitzilopochtli
afterlife and 112
celebrations for 6465
depictions of 135
Itzcoatl and 34
legends and myths 8
mother of 38, 41
music for 30, 125
pronunciation 8
155
E m p i re o f t h e a z t e c s
Huixtocihuatl 116
Humboldt, Alexander von 9
hunter-gatherers 8, 17, 18, 22, 94, 143g
idols 57, 58, 61, 143g

Ilamatecuhtli 117
Ilhuicamina 43
imperial power 40
incense 136
indigenous peoples 131, 132, 134135,
139, 143g. See also Native
Americans
infrastructure 37, 38, 41. See also water
management
insects 39, 49, 86, 89, 94, 97
irrigation 21, 8384, 143g
Itzcoatl 37, 62, 141c
alliances of 3435
declares war 36
destroys documents 9
nickname 43
pronunciation 34
relations of 38, 82
Itztepetl 113
Iwaniszewski, Stanislaw 136
Ixtlilxochitl, Alva 69
Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de Alva 37, 65
Izcalli 117
jaguars 78, 100, 103

Jesus 51
jewelry 26, 46, 54, 60, 64, 74, 98
John Paul II (pope) 132
judges 46, 85, 8688
kings/kingdoms 9, 25, 29. See also

citystates; royalty; tlatoque; specific ruler
Lake Patzcuaro 42
Lake Texcoco 10, 12, 25, 39, 68, 141c
land and land ownership 9, 70
class and 75, 8586
growth of 20
haciendas 131
indigenous peoples 134
slavery and 82
stewards 86, 144g
language and writing 20, 21. See also
codices; literature; records and
record keeping; specific language
alphabets 21, 39, 106
glyphs 21, 105, 117, 122, 143g
Mixtecs 25
modern 135, 139140
numbers 117, 127, 128
scribes 82, 86, 105, 124, 144g
La Venta 19
legal system 46, 47, 85, 8688. See also
crime and punishment
communication and 36
confession 108
development of 30
indigenous rights 134, 135
lawsuit over headdress 120
Motecuhzoma II and 46
Triple Alliance and 37
legends and myths 13, 23, 31, 38, 115.
See also gods and goddesses
creation story 114, 118, 121122,
123
founding of the Aztec Empire 8,
910, 135
libraries 49
literature 37, 68, 101, 106, 121123,
125. See also codices
lizards 68, 113, 116
local rule 46, 6970
locusts 39
looting 52, 62, 69
Los Angeles 105
macehualli 7880, 85, 100. See also

commoners
definition 73, 143g
pronunciation 74
Macehualtin 91
macuahuital 128
magic 910, 114, 117. See also sorcery/
sorcerers
maguey 49, 106. See also agave plants
(maguey)
maize 18, 94. See also corn
Malintzin 52, 5354
maps and mapmaking 9, 47m, 70m,
133m
marriage 102104
ceremonies 1112, 91, 102
commoners 74, 100
diplomacy and 29, 33, 41
dowries 121
intermarriage 70
nobility 74
royalty 29
slavery 82
masks 54, 119120
mathematics 127, 128, 135
Maxtla 34, 35, 38
Maya 7, 20, 52, 5354, 55
medicine. See health and medicine
men, role of 9192, 9798
Mendieta, Gernimo de 124
Mendoza, Antonio de 48
merchants 7879, 80, 81, 100101
Mesoamerica 7, 143g144g
messengers 54, 5556
mestizo 58, 70, 144g
metlatl 20, 29
Metztitlan 43
Mexica 8, 9, 14, 36, 38
Mexican-Americans 18, 140
Mexicano language 139140
Mexican War of Independence 131,
142c
Mexico 14, 58
flags 12, 13
independence 131, 142c
maps 47m, 70m, 133m

modern 131134, 135
Mexico City 131, 142c
Calendar Stone 118
Coyolxauhqui Stone 135136
modern 84, 107
Our Lady of Guadalupe 132
statues 69, 119
temples 127, 136
mezcal 49
mice 94
Mictlan 113
middens 93
midwives 101, 103, 144g
migration 21, 83
military 20, 38, 40, 46, 73, 7678. See
also army; warriors
missionaries 67, 70, 132, 144g
Mixcoatl-Camaxtli 117
Mixteca 25
Mixtecs 7, 8, 18, 2526
monetary system 5960, 8485, 120121
Monte Albn 20
Montezuma 39. See also Motecuhzoma
moon 22, 23, 115, 135
Morelos 83, 137139
Motecuhzoma II 4649, 121, 141c, 142c
clothing 120
Corts and 60, 6263
death 65
depictions of 33
descriptions of 48
food and diet 95
nicknames 39, 46
pronunciation 34
Spanish conquest 5463, 64
views of 48
Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina 34, 3840,
86, 138, 141c
Motecuhzoma the Younger. See
Motecuhzoma II
murals 138
Museum of Ethnology 120
museums 118, 119, 120, 136
music 123125, 127
celebrations and 64
drums 35, 123, 124, 126
education 100, 105, 124
songs 10, 30
warfare and 35
whistles of death 112
myths. See legends and myths
Nahuatl language 8, 14, 132, 144g

modern 39, 107, 134, 139
Sahagn and 67
Spanish conquest 54
nakedness 109
names, origins of 13, 24, 39, 43, 52,
69, 106
Nanahuatzin 122
Narvez, Pnfilo de 6364, 67
National Institute of Anthropology 136
National Museum of Anthropology
118, 119
156
10/19/09 2:23:55 PM
Index
Native Americans 57, 58, 68
natural disasters
droughts 8, 39, 86
floods 39, 46, 115, 122, 141c
volcanoes 21
neighborhoods 2829, 83, 100. See also
calpulli
Nemontemi 117
Nevado de Toluca volcano 136
New Fire Ceremony 40
New Spain 70, 142c. See also Mexico
New World 51, 52
Nezahualcoyotl 75
death 43, 141c
poetry of 37, 125
pronunciation 34
Triple Alliance 3435, 67
Nezahualpilli 75
nobility 7375, 144g. See also
tribute
clothing 47, 74, 98, 100, 120
education 100, 105
food and diet 74
games 106107
housing 47, 49, 74, 75, 9293
land and land ownership 75
legal system and 47, 87
marriage 74
military and 78
Mixtecs and 25
music 124
priesthood and 76
Spanish and 70
women 7475, 100
nomads 89, 17, 144g
North America 51, 58
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) 132
numbers 117, 127, 128
Oaxaca 25, 29, 45, 141c

obsidian 21, 23, 118, 144g
ocelots 78
Ochpaniztli 117
octli 96
oil industry 132
Olmecs 7, 9, 10, 1820, 21
Olmos, Andrs de 106
Ometeotl 125
oral tradition 39
Otomi 43, 57
Otumba 66
Our Lady of Guadalupe 132
painting 9, 119, 127, 135, 138

Palace of the Jaguars 21
palaces 21, 43, 4849, 138
Panquetzaliztli 82, 117
papier-mch 64
Paris Codex 26
patolli 107
patron gods 8, 116117, 144g
pensions 108, 138
personal hygiene 93
bathing 27, 4849, 51, 61
dental health 129
petlatls 93
pictographs 119
pintura en amate 135
pipiltin 7375, 144g. See also nobility
Place of the Seven Caves 38, 41
plants 17, 101
agave 49, 96, 97, 106, 121
cactuses 1213, 129
dyes 97
herbs 101, 128129
plaster 22, 138
Plaza of the Three Cultures 131
plumes 24, 30, 125, 144g. See also feathers
poaching 24
pochteca 74, 7980, 82
poetry 37, 68, 122123, 125
politics. See government and politics
popcorn 95, 97
population 21, 28, 39, 83, 131134
pottery 93, 102, 119, 121
poverty 93, 95, 98, 131134
pozolli 94
priesthood/priests 910, 1112
children and 76, 77, 105
class and 73, 76
clothing 77, 98, 120
hair 76
legends and myths 31
music 124
Olmecs and 19
rituals 21
Toltecs and 24
tribute and 89
women and 76, 77, 98, 100
pulque 49
pyramids 9, 20, 141c. See also temples
architecture of 125, 127
Cuicuilco 21
Olmecs and 19
Sun and Moon 17, 22, 23
Quecholli 117
queens 41, 86
Quetzalcoatl
Childbirth and 103
creation story 114, 123
depictions of 11
Fourth Age of 122
pronunciation 8
temple to 9
Toltecs and 10, 23
quetzals 23, 24, 59, 60, 120, 125, 144g
rabbits 115, 136

rain forests 24, 78
ranching 58
rebellions 46, 48, 57, 69, 131, 134135,
142
records and record keeping 26, 124
Codex Mendoza 48
destruction of 9, 36
Mixtecs and 25
scribes 82, 86, 105, 124, 144g
storage of 49
regents 3334
reign 33, 35, 44, 144g
religion and beliefs 20, 61, 91, 140. See
also celebrations and festivals; ceremonies; death and burial; sacrifice,
human; signs and symbols; specific
god, goddess or religion
afterlife 112114
art as form of 119
blending of 132
confession 108, 109
creation story 114, 118, 121122,
123
idols 57, 58, 61, 143g
sorcery/sorcerers 910, 12, 3839,
41, 144g
rituals 144g. See also ceremonies; death
and burial; sacrifice, human
childbirth 104
masks 119120
music 124, 125
poetry 122
under Roman Catholicism 70
warfare 57
women 91, 92, 117
roads 37, 38, 41, 42, 65, 74, 86, 117. See
also causeways
Roman Catholicism 51, 57, 61, 67, 70,
132, 144g
royalty 19, 49. See also tribute
clothing 7576, 98
court 4748
food and diet 49, 95
marriage 29
regents 3334
succession 86
rural areas 19, 83, 134. See also calpulli
sacred 24, 91, 144g

sacrifice, human 21, 111112, 144g
afterlife and 112
archaeological evidence of 136
bloodletting 1920, 109, 143g
children and 111, 113, 115, 116, 117
Culhua kings daughter 12
Great Temple and 44
growth of 30
Maya and 55
music and dance 123124
natural disasters and 3940, 46
priests hair after 76
Roman Catholicism and 70
slavery and 82, 111
Spanish 56
Toltecs 24
warfare and 29, 44
women and 111
Sahagn, Bernardino de 67, 87, 95, 121
saints/sainthood 132
157

sandals 100
sanitation 27, 61, 93
San Lorenzo 19
schools 28, 73, 74, 76, 100, 104106, 124
science and technology 27, 36, 97,
127128
scribes 82, 86, 105, 124, 144g
sculpture 19. See also statues; stonework
shamans 19, 144g. See also priesthood/
priests
ships 68. See also canoes
shrines 12, 92, 109
Sierra Ajusco 25
Sierra Madre Occidental 25
Sierra Madre Oriental 25
signs and symbols
childbirth 104
confession skirts 109
eagles as 8, 1213, 103
flags 8, 12, 13
jaguars 78
marriage 102
nature as 39, 132
numbers 128
woven into clothing 98
silver mining 70
skirts 98, 109
slaves/slavery 39, 55, 8082, 117
children and 88
clothing 97
games and 107
as sacrifices 82, 111
smallpox 6667, 67, 142c
snakes 10, 12, 56
social class. See class systems
Soconusco 45
sorcery/sorcerers 910, 12, 3839, 41,
144g
South America 51, 58, 78, 131
Spain 132, 141c, 142c. See also Spanish
conquest
alliances 5659, 6566, 67
exploration 5154
food and diet 98
government and politics 108, 138
health and medicine 129
interest in Mexico 5960, 62, 66,
69, 70
language and writing 39
Mexican rebellion 131
records and record keeping 48
reinforcements from 67
view of Aztecs 51
Spanish Cathedral of Santiago 131
Spanish conquest 7, 5170, 131, 132
Spanish language 139
spears 18, 23, 54, 58, 64, 77, 79, 128
sports 24, 106107
squatters/squatting 9
statues 52, 64, 69, 73, 119
stewards 86, 144g
stones, as tools 118119
stonework
Cascajal block 21
giant heads 19
158
Great Temple 40
Olmecs and 19
statues 52, 64, 69, 73, 119
Tenochtitlan 46
succession 86
sun 17, 22, 23. See also Huitzilopochtli
symbols. See signs and symbols
tamales 20, 94, 95, 102, 117

Tarascans 42
taxation 36, 8889. See also tribute
burden of 4546
collection of 86
diplomacy and 33
records and record keeping 124
slavery and 81
Tezozomoc and 34
technology. See science and
technology
Tecuilhuitontli 116
telpochcalli 91, 104, 105
Temiminaloyan 113
Temple of Huitzilopochtli 28, 42. See
also Great Temple
temples 9, 28, 111112. See also pyramids; specific temple
building of 31, 127
children and 77
Cholula 59
design of 20
destruction of 58
Roman Catholicism and 70
Templo Mayor. See Great Temple
Tenoch 31
Tenochca 8, 13
Tenochtitlan 7, 2629. See also Mexico
City
building projects 31, 35
Calendar Stone 118
economy 83
flooding of 39
founding of 26, 28, 141c
geography and climate 26
government and politics 2931, 37,
46, 75, 83, 86
invasions of 57, 5863, 65, 66,
6970, 142c
Mexica and 14
Mixtecs and 25
people of 8, 13
pronunciation 29
rebuilding of 46
ruins of 132
trade and commerce 28, 85
tribute and 35, 38
Virgin of Guadalupe 132
tenochtli 26
teocalli 111
teocintle 17. See also corn
Teotihuacan 9, 2022
expeditions to 38
invasions of 21
pronunciation 8
pyramids 17, 22, 23
Teotleco 117
Tepanecs 75
alliance against 33, 3437, 38, 141c
38, 40
legends and myths 8
tribute and 12, 29, 35, 40
Tepeilhuitl 117
Tepetl Monamictia 113
teponaztli 124
tequila 49
terraces 84
tetecuhtin/tecuhilt 75
Texas 78
Texcoco 8, 34, 43, 46, 75, 85, 141c
Tezcatlipoca
creation story 121122, 123
depictions of 114
jaguars and 78
music for 125
pronunciation 29
Quetzalcoatl and 23, 123
Tezozomoc 3334, 86
thievery 88, 94
Tiacaxipehualiztli 116
Tialoc 116
Tikal 20
tilmatli 98
timekeeping 127. See also calendars
Tititl 117
Tizaapan 10
Tizoc 43, 62
Tlacaelel 34, 36, 40
tlachtli 106107, 108
Tlacopan 141c
government and politics 46
invasions of 38
pronunciation 34
Triple Alliance 3537, 38, 141c
tlacuilo 105
Tlalhuica 8
Tlaloc 111, 113
Aztec calendar and 116, 117
Chalchiuhtlicue and 115
Four Rain and 122
music for 125
rituals honoring 136
temple for 127
Tlalocan 113
Tlaloque 116
tlaltanime 82
Tlaltecuhtli 118, 136, 137
Tlapacoya 17
tlapechtlis 93
Tlatelolco 13. See also Mexico City
founding of 27, 28, 141c
86
invasions of 42, 69
literature 37
pronunciation 29
ruins of 131, 132
trade and commerce 27, 4041, 61,
81, 85
tribute and 4041, 42
Index
tlatoani / tlatoque 2931, 43, 7576,
136, 138, 144g. See also kings/kingdoms; royalty
Tlaxacala 8, 6566, 69
Tlaxcalans 5758
Tlaxochimaco 117
Tlazolteotl 109, 117
toads 94, 119
toltecatl 24. See also artisans; craftsmanship
Toltecs 7, 9, 10, 11, 18, 2224, 29
tomatoes 95
tombs 136137
tonalamatl 104
tonalpohualli 116117
Tonantzin 132
tools 20, 93, 97, 118119
toothpaste 129
tortillas 20, 78, 84, 91, 94, 95, 99
Totec 116
Totonac 54, 56
Toxcatl 116
Tozoztontli 116
trade and commerce
agreements 132
animals 61
artisans 28, 81
cloth 120121
cotton 83, 121
early 20, 21
farmers/farming 7980, 8385
feathers 21
government officials and 86
modern 132
slavery 82
Tenochtitlan 28, 85
Tlatelolco 27, 4041, 61, 81, 85
Toltecs and 22, 23
transportation and 27
traders 7880
transportation 27, 36, 79, 141c. See also
roads
treason 88
treaties 132
tribes 8, 38. See also specific tribe
tribute 8889
animals and insects as 89
class and 75, 83, 88
cloth as 99
Codex Mendoza 48
cotton as 45, 83
cycle of 46
definition 7, 144g
famine and 86
farmers and 79
gold as 45
slavery and 80
Tenochtitlan and 35, 38
Tepaneca and 12, 29, 35, 40
Tlatelolco and 4041, 42
Totonac and 56
value of 29
Triple Alliance 33, 3437, 38, 49,

141c
expansion of 43, 45
weakening of 56
Tula 9, 10, 13, 2224, 38
Tzintzuntzan 42
UNESCO 23
United States
horses and 58
Mexican-Americans 18, 105, 140
Mexican emigration 134
oil industry 132
urban areas 17, 19, 83, 9192, 131, 134.
See also calpulli
urban design 21, 2829, 61
Utah 9
Valley of Mexico 8, 912, 20, 26, 83, 86,

139, 141c
vanilla flavoring 96
vaqueros 58
Velsquez, Diego 5152, 57, 61, 63
Velazquez, Roberto 112
Virgin of Guadalupe 132
visions. See signs and symbols
volcanoes 21. See also obsidian
warfare 30, 31. See also military;

weaponry; specific battle or war
animals and 58
canals and 66
canoes and 33, 68
causeways and 6566, 68
clothing 25, 73, 77
communication and 36, 122
food and diet 66, 68, 69
goal of 7778
music 35, 123
rituals 57
Spain and 57
strategies and tactics 35, 40, 69
wealth and 44
warriors 12, 30, 33, 35 See also army
afterlife and 112
class and 73, 7678
depictions of 73
elderly 108
gods and 23
as judges 87
masks 119120
Olmecs and 19
waterfowl 27
water management 19, 69, 79
aqueducts 35, 46
canals 21, 27, 66, 84
causeways 27, 37, 60, 6566, 68,
135, 143g
dams 134, 135

dikes 39, 46, 143g
wealthy class 7, 20, 131132
bathing 27, 35
clothing 98
food and diet 95
housing 9293
warfare and 44
weaponry 127, 128
Ahuitzotls shield 45
decorative 79
as reward 78
Spanish 54, 56, 58, 61
weaving 73, 97, 9899, 100, 101, 120
West Indies 52
whistles 112
wizards. See sorcery/sorcerers
women 98102
afterlife and 112113
childbirth 103, 108, 109, 112113
class and 7475
clothing 98
in government and politics 86
health and medicine 101, 128
priesthood and 76, 77, 98, 100
responsibilities 20, 70, 7475, 91,
97, 98
rituals and 91, 92, 117
as sacrifices 111, 113, 115
slavery and 82
as weavers 120
World Heritage Sites 22, 23
writing. See language and writing
Xilonen 18, 116

Xipe 116
Xiuhtecutli 117
Xiuhtoztzin 86
Xochicuicatl 123
Xochimilca 8
Xochimilco 84
Xochipilli 116
Xochipilli (by Carlos Chavez) 127
Xochitonatl 113
Xocotl huetzi 117
Xocoyotzin. See Motecuhzoma II
Yacatecuhtli 80
Yaocuicatl 122123
Yautepec 137139
yerba buena 129
Yucatan Peninsula 52
Zapata, Emiliano 134

Zapatista National Liberation Army 134
Zapotec 45
Zcalo district 136
zoos 28, 37, 48
159
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

B A. S is a professional
childrens nonfiction writer with more than 150
published books. She is the author of Electrical Circuits, Plant Reproduction, and several
works on recovering animal species, and, under
the pseudonym Sophie Lockwood, a series on
insects and another on mammals. Somervill
is a member of the Society of Childrens Book
Writers and Illustrators and the North Carolina
Writers Network.
Historical consultant L M. B,
Ph.D., is professor of anthropology at the University at Albany, State University of New York.
She is an expert in the Nahuatl language and the
16th-century documentation of Aztec civilization. She is the author of three books and many
articles on colonial religion and co-author of
four books on Nahuatl theater.
160
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What empires are discussed in the text?

G R E A T E M P I R E S O F T H E PA S T

Great Empires of the Past: Empire of the Aztecs

Building an Aztec Homeland

The Triple Alliance

The Spanish Conquest

Daily Life Among the Aztecs

Religion, Art, and Science

About the Author

This illustration shows

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

What Are Connections?

No one knows the true origins

Squatters in the Valley of Mexico

Searching for Aztlan

Empire of the aztecs

In Their Own Words

T he Travels of the A ztecs

From where do you come?

The song goes on to list some of the

Following orders from the god Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec priests

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

The Eagle Image

the cactUs, the eagle, and a homeland

The national flag of

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

was first commonly used in the

Mexica and Mexico

The Pyramid of the

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

the aztecs valued corn so much that

Building an Aztec Homeland

Giant stone heads like

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

nels into the metlatl and used a rock shaped

means making a person bleed as part of a religious ceremony. Both

the BUsy city oF teotihUacan

Building an Aztec homeland

New Old Writing

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

Building an Aztec homeland

The Pyramids of Teotihuacan

painted the temples bright red, making them

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

What Is Your Name?

The Endangered Quetzal

emerald-green plumes. When the bird flies,

Building an aztec homeland

EmpiRE of thE AztEcS

Records of the Past

The Mixtecs were one of

One mountain range, the Sierra

Building an Aztec Homeland

Mixtecs in the News

EmpirE of thE aztEcs

Which Is the Older