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Acids, Bases and Salts

THE THEORY of ACIDS and ALKALIS and a few technical terms:

o Acids are substances that form hydrogen ions (H+(aq)) when dissolved in
water eg hydrochloric acid HCl gives H+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions, sulphuric acid H2SO4
gives 2H+(aq) and SO42- ions and nitric acid HNO3 gives H+(aq) and NO3-(aq) ions.
o Alkalis are substances that form hydroxide ions (OH-(aq)) in water eg sodium
hydroxide NaOH gives Na+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions, calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 gives
Ca2+(aq) and 2OH-(aq) ions. Note: an alkali is a base soluble in water.
o In water, there are trace quantities of H+ and OH- ions BUT they are of equal
concentration and so water is neutral.
o In acid solutions there are more H+ ions than OH- ions.
o In alkaline solution there are more OH- ions than H+ ions.
o Acids dissociate to different extents in aqueous solution. Acids that

dissociate to a large extent are strong electrolytes and strong acids. In

contrast, acids that dissociate only to a small extent are weak acids and
weak electrolytes
In a similar manner, bases can be strong or weak depending on the extent
to which they dissociate and produce OH ions in solution. Most metal
hydroxides are strong electrolytes and strong bases. Ammonia, NH3, is a
weak electrolyte and weak base.

BASES eg oxides and hydroxides are substances that react and neutralise
acids to form salts and water. Bases which are soluble in water are
called alkalis.

Acids
Some common acids are listed below:
Name
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Ethanoic (acetic) acid
Methanoic (formic) acid
Citric Acid

Formula
HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
CH3COOH
HCOOH
C6H8O7

Strong/Weak
Strong
Strong
Strong
Weak
Weak
Weak

Where is it found?
The stomach, in the lab.
Acid rain, car batteries, the lab.
Acid rain, in the lab.
Vinegar
Ant & nettle stings, descalers
Citrus fruits

Acids taste sour (e.g. vinegar, lemon juice).

Acids are harmful to living cells.
Aqueous solutions of all acids contain hydrogen ions, H+.

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Bases
Most bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals. Not all bases fit into these categories,
however (e.g. ammonia). Some examples of bases are shown below:
Name
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
Calcium hydroxide
Magnesium oxide (magnesia)
Calcium carbonate
Sodium hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate)
Ammonia

Formula
NaOH
Ca(OH)2
MgO
CaCO3
NaHCO3
NH3

Where is it found?
Oven cleaners, in the lab.
Soil lime, limewater
Indigestion tablets
Limestone, soil lime
Baking powder
Cleaning fluids, in the lab.

Soluble bases are known as alkalis.

Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain hydroxide ions, OH-.

Reactions of Acids
With metals
Metals above copper in the reactivity series will react with acids, giving off hydrogen
gas. The metal dissolves, forming a salt.

e.g.

METAL + ACID SALT + HYDROGEN

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

This is why acids corrode metals, and must be stored in glass containers.

With bases (metal oxides and hydroxides)

The base dissolves in the acid and neutralises it. A salt is formed.

e.g.

ACID + BASE SALT + WATER

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

With metal carbonates

With metal carbonates, much effervescence occurs when they react with acids, as carbon
dioxide gas is released too.

e.g.

ACID + CARBONATE SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

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Neutralisation
Acids are neutralised by bases. If you have indigestion (too much acid in the stomach),
you may take a tablet containing a base (e.g. magnesia, MgO). A farmer may spread lime
(calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) on fields to make the soil less acidic.
What happens during a neutralisation reaction?
ACID + ALKALI SALT + WATER
e.g.

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

To understand why water is formed, we must consider what happens to the ions that are
present in the reacting solutions:
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
(from HCl)
(from NaOH)
The H+ ions from the acid combine with the OH- ions from the alkali we can show this
by writing a simple ionic equation:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Water is formed. So if equal amounts of acid and alkali are mixed, the resulting solution
will be neutral.
The Na+ and Cl- ions do not take part in the neutralisation reaction, they just remain in
solution - they are spectator ions. It is unnecessary to include them in the ionic equation.
When an acid and a base are mixed in stoichiometric proportions, their acidic and
basic properties disappear as the result of a neutralization reaction.

Because the salts that form in neutralization reaction are generally strong electrolytes,
we can write the neutralization reaction as an ionic equation.

When the spectator ions are removed, the net ionic equation is revealed.

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This net ionic equation is the same for the neutralization reaction of any strong acid
and strong base.
For the reaction of a weak acid with a strong base, a similar neutralization occurs.
Consider the neutralization of HF with KOH.
HF(aq) + KOH(aq)

KF(aq) + H2O(l)

HF(aq) + K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

H2O(l)
HF(aq) + OH-(aq)

K+(aq) + F-(aq) +

F-(aq) + H2O(l)

molecular equation
ionic equation

net ionic equation

The weak acid HF is written as a molecular formula because its dissociation is

incomplete.

Formation of H30+ion
The hydrogen ion H+(aq) does not exist as such in aqueous solutions. Hydrogen ions
combine with water molecules to give a more stable species, the hydronium ion H3O+,
as demonstrated in the following equation:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Acids can contain different numbers of acidic hydrogens, and can yield different numbers
of H3O+ ions in solution.

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Some important reactions of Bases (alkali = soluble base)

Neutralisation with acids is dealt with above.

Ammonium salts are decomposed when mixed with a base eg the alkali sodium
hydroxide.
o eg sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride ==> sodium chloride + water +
ammonia
o NaOH + NH4Cl ==> NaCl + H2O + NH3
o The ammonia is readily detected by its pungent odour (strong smell) and by turning
damp red litmus blue.
o The ionic equation is: NH4+ + OH- ==> H2O + NH3
o This reaction can be used to prepare ammonia gas and as a simple chemical test for
an ammonium salt.
Alkali's (soluble bases) are used to produce the insoluble hydroxide precipitates of
many metal ions from their soluble salt solutions.
o eg sodium hydroxide + copper(II) sulphate ==> sodium sulphate + copper(II)
hydroxide
o 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) a blue precipitate
o ionically: Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s)
o This reaction can be used as a simple test to help identify certain metal ions.

ACIDIC, BASIC & AMPHOTERIC OXIDES

Oxygen combines with most other elements to form oxides of varying physical
chemical character.
o On the left and middle of the Periodic Table are the basic metal oxides which
react with acids to form salts eg Na2O, MgO, CuO etc. These metal oxides tend
to be ionic in bonding character with high melting points. The Group 1 Alkali
Metals, and to a less extent, Group 2 oxides, dissolve in water to form alkali
solutions. All of them react with , and neutralise acids to form salts.
o As you move left to right the oxides become less basic and more acidic.
o So on the right you have the acidic oxides of the non-metals CO2, P2O5,
SO2, SO3 etc. These tend to be covalent in bonding character with low
melting/boiling points. Those of sulphur and phosphorus are very soluble in
water to give acidic solutions which can be neutralised by alkalis to form salts.
o These oxides are another example of the change from metallic element
to non-metallic element chemical behaviour from left to right across
the Periodic Table.
o BUT life is never that simple in chemistry!:
Some oxides react with both acids and alkalis and are called
amphoteric oxides. They are usually relatively insoluble and have little
effect on indicators. An example is aluminium oxide dissolves in acids
to form 'normal' aluminium salts like the chloride, sulphate and nitrate.
However, it also dissolves in strong alkali's like sodium hydroxide solution
to form 'aluminate' salts. This could be considered as 'intermediate'
basic-acidic character in the Periodic Table.
Some oxides are neutral, tend to be of low solubility in water and
have no effect on litmus, and do not react with acids or alkalis. eg CO

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carbon monoxide (note that CO2 carbon dioxide is weakly acidic) and NO
nitrogen monoxide (note that NO2 nitrogen dioxide is strongly acidic in
water). There is no way of simply predicting this kind of behaviour from
periodic table patterns!

Salts
We have seen that when an acid reacts with a base, a salt is formed:
e.g.

sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium sulphate + water

Here sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) is the salt formed. Salts are ionic compounds.
The metal ion is provided by the base (in this case sodium ions, Na+).
The non-metal ion is provided by the acid (in this case sulphate ions, SO42-).
Note: Ammonia (NH3) is an unusual base - it does not contain a metal. It forms
ammonium salts, containing the ammonium ion, NH4+.
e.g.

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) (ammonium nitrate)

Soluble and Insoluble Salts

Many ionic salts are soluble in (cold) water. It is useful to know whether or not a salt is
soluble in water, as this will influence your choice of method for making it. The table
below gives a guide to the solubility of salts:
Soluble Salts
All common potassium, sodium and ammonium salts
All nitrates
All common ethanoates

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All common chlorides, except lead and silver chlorides
All common sulphates, except lead, barium and calcium sulphates

Methods of making Salts which are water soluble

Soluble salts can be made in four different ways:
1)
2)
3)
4)

ACID + METAL SALT + HYDROGEN

ACID + BASE SALT + WATER
ACID + CARBONATE SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
ACID + ALKALI SALT + WATER

Method 1 (Acid + Metal)

Not suitable for making salts of metals above magnesium, or below iron/tin in reactivity.
e.g.

zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen

Apparatus used: (1) balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and glass stirring rod; (2)
beaker/rod, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (3) filter funnel and filter paper, evaporating
(crystallising) dish; (4) evaporating (crystallising) dish. (ii) A measuring cylinder is adequate for
measuring the acid volume, you do not need the accuracy of a pipette or burette required in
method (a).

Add excess metal to (warm) acid. Wait until no more H2 is evolved.

Filter to remove excess metal.
Heat the filtrate to evaporate off water until crystallisation starts.
Set aside to cool slowly and crystallise fully.

Method 2 (Acid + Base)

Useful for making salts of less reactive metals, e.g. lead, copper.
e.g.

copper(II) oxide + sulphuric acid copper(II) sulphate + water

Add excess base to acid. Warm gently.

Filter to remove excess base, then continue as in method 1

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Method 3 (Acid + Carbonate)
Useful particularly for making salts of more reactive metals, e.g. calcium, sodium.
e.g.

calcium carbonate + nitric acid calcium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide

Add excess metal carbonate to acid. Wait until no more CO2 is evolved.
Filter to remove excess carbonate, then continue as in method 1
Method 4 (Acid + Alkali)
This is useful for making salts of reactive
metals, and ammonium salts. It is different
from methods 1-3, as both reactants are in
solution. This means neutralisation must be
achieved, by adding exactly the right amount
of acid to neutralise the alkali. This can be
worked out by titration

e.g.
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
sodium chloride + water
ammonia + sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate
(1) A known volume of acid is pipetted into a conical flask and universal indicator added. The
acid is titrated with the alkali in the burette
(2) until the indicator turns green.
(3). The volume of alkali needed for neutralisation is then noted, this is called the
endpoint. (1-3) are repeated with both known volumes mixed together BUT without the
contaminating indicator.
(4) The solution is transferred to an evaporating dish and heated to partially evaporate the
water.
(5) The solution is left to cool to complete the crystallisation.
(6) The residual liquid can be decanted away and the crystals can be carefully collected and
dried by 'dabbing' with a filter paper OR the crystals can be collected by filtration (below) and
dried (as above).

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Cl- Mg2+ Cl-

Making Insoluble Salts

Insoluble salts cannot be prepared by acid-base reactions in the same way as soluble salts.
Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation. This involves mixing solutions of two
soluble salts that between them contain the ions that make up the insoluble salt. Here is
an example:
barium chloride + magnesium sulphate barium sulphate + magnesium chloride
(soluble salt)
(soluble salt)
(insoluble salt)
(soluble salt)
BaCl2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + MgCl2(aq)
When the two solutions are mixed, a white solid precipitate of barium sulphate is
formed.
Let us consider what happens to the ions involved in the reaction:

Ba2+
ClCl-

Ba2+ ClClMg2+
SO42-

Mg2+
SO42-

1. At the start, the ions of each soluble salt move

about freely in solution, in their separate containers.

2. After mixing, the ions of the two solutions are free to

collide with each other, so new combinations of ions are
possible.

3. If one of the new combinations of ions is an insoluble

salt, it will be precipitated from the solution. The other
ions simply remain in solution - they are spectator ions,
and play no part in the reaction.

precipitate of
solid BaSO4

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The ionic equation for the reaction is:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
Notice this equation does not include the spectator ions, only the ions that combine to
form the precipitate.
Once the reaction is complete, the precipitate can be filtered off, washed with distilled
water and dried.
This method can also be used to prepare many insoluble metal hydroxides and
carbonates.
All common hydroxides/carbonates are insoluble except sodium, potassium and
ammonium hydroxides/carbonates.
e.g.

iron(III) chloride + sodium hydroxide iron(III) hydroxide + sodium chloride

(rust brown ppt.)
FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

The ionic equation for this reaction, which shows the formation of the precipitate whilst
missing out the spectator ions is as follows:
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)

Types of Salts
Normal Salts:
Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in the acid have been
completely replaced by metallic ions.
HCl(aq)
H2SO4(aq)

+ NaOH(aq)
+ ZnO(aq)

NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Normal salts are neutral to litmus paper.

Acid salts:
Acid salts are formed when replaceable hydrogen ions in acids are only partially replaced
by a metal. Acid salts are produced only by acids containing more then one replaceable
hydrogen ion. Therefore an acid with two replaceable ions e.g. H2SO4 will form only one

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acid salt, while acid with three replaceable hydrogen ions e.g. H3PO4 will form two
different acid salts.

H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq)

H3PO4(aq) + NaOH

H3PO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)

KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Na2HPO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

An acid salt will turn blue litmus red. In the presence of excess metallic ions an acid salt
will be converted into a normal salt as its replaceable hydrogen ions become replaced.
Basic Salts:
Basic salts contain the hydroxide ion, OH-. They are formed when there is insufficient
supply of acid for the complete neutralization of the base. A basic salt will turn red litmus
blue and will react with excess acid to form normal salt.
Zn(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq)

Zn(OH)Cl(aq)

Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq)
Mg(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq)
Mg(OH)NO3(aq)

+ HNO3(aq)

+ H2O(l)

ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)NO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

The pH Scale - Acids and Alkalis

The colours of
solutions with
universal
indicator

The pH scale is a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

To find the pH of a solution an indicator is used like Universal Indicator. An indicator is a
substance or mixture of substances that when added to the solution gives different colours
depending on the pH of the solution. Universal indicator is a very handy indicator for
showing whether the solution is acid, neutral or alkaline and gives the pH to the
nearest pH unit.
Water is a neutral liquid with a pH of 7 (green). When a substance dissolves in water it
forms an aqueous (aq) solution that may be acidic, neutral or alkaline.
Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7, and the lower the number, the stronger the
acid is. The colour can range from orange-yellow (pH 3-6) for partially ionised weak acids
like ethanoic acid (vinegar) to carbonated water. Strong acids like hydrochloric, sulphuric
and nitric are fully ionised and give a pH 1 or less! and a red colour with universal

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indicator and litmus paper.

Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. These are quite often solutions of salts, which are
themselves formed from neutralising acids and bases.
The 'opposite' of an acid is called a base. Some bases are soluble in water to give
alkaline solutions - these are known as alkalis.
Alkaline solutions have a pH of over 7 and the higher the pH the stronger is the alkali.
Weak alkalis (soluble bases) like ammonia give a pH of 10-11 but strong alkalis
(soluble bases) like sodium hydroxide give a pH of 13-14. They give blue/purple colour
with universal indicator or litmus paper.
NEUTRALISATION usually involves mixing an acid (pH <7) with a base or alkali (pH >
7) which react to form a neutral salt solution of pH 7.

INDICATORS.
Indicators are the substances that have different colors in acidic and in
alkaline solution. Some important indicators are given below

S.No. Indicator

Color in strongly
acidic solution

pH at which
color changes

Color in strongly
alkaline solution

1.

methyl orange

red

yellow

2.

bromothymol
blue

yellow

blue

3.

phenolphthalein

colorless

red

4.

screened methyl
orange

red

green

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What pH changes go on in a neutralisation reaction?

The graphs show how the pH changes when an alkali (soluble
base) and an acid neutralise each other. If you add acid to an
alkali (ind. = blue), the pH starts at 13 and falls little at first.
As you get near to the neutralisation point at pH 7 (ind. =
green), the change becomes more dramatic. With excess acid
the pH falls and then levels out to about pH1 (ind. = red).
If you add alkali to an acid (ind. = red), the pH starts at about
1 and rises little at first. As you get near to the neutralisation
point at pH 7 (ind. = green), the change becomes more
dramatic. With excess alkali the pH rises and then levels out to
about 13 (ind. = blue/violet).

Formulae of bases: oxides,

hydroxides and carbonates
M2O (oxide O2-, soluble, alkali)
MOH (hydroxide OH-, soluble, alkali)
M2CO3 (carbonate CO32-, soluble mild alkali)

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Formulae of salts formed: The metal

soluble chlorides,
(or other
sulphates and nitrates ion) involved
MCl (chloride, Cl-)
M2SO4 (sulphate, SO42-)

M = Li, Na, K
[usually Group 1],
the ion is M+

MNO3 (nitrate, NO3-)

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MHCO3 (hydrogencarbonate HCO3-, soluble,
mild alkali)
MO (oxide, often insoluble base)
M(OH)2 (hydroxide, often insoluble, alkali if
soluble)
MCO3 (carbonate, often insoluble)

MCl2 (chloride)
MSO4 (sulphate)
M(NO3)2 (nitrate)

Al2O3, Al(OH)3 (insoluble bases, amphoteric)

AlCl3, Al2(SO4)3, Al(NO3)3

the alkaline soluble base ammonia, NH3, no

stable oxide or hydroxide

NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3

M = Mg, Ca, Cu,

Zn, Fe [often
Group 2 or
Transition], the
ion is M2+
Al, aluminium
from Group 3

the ammonium
ion in the salts
from ammonia,
NH4+

FURTHER EXAMPLES of WORD & SYMBOL EQUATIONS for Salt

Preparations
1a. copper(II) carbonate + sulphuric acid ==> copper(II) sulphate + water +CO2.
1b. CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2a. magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> magnesium chloride + water 2b.
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
3a. zinc + sulphuric acid ==> zinc sulphate + hydrogen
3b. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
4a. ammonia + nitric acid ==> ammonium nitrate
4b. NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) ==> NH4NO3(aq)
5a. zinc oxide + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + water
5b. ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
6a. calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide
6b. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
7a. sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide

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7b. Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
8a. sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water
8b. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
9a. sodium hydrogencarbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water +
carbon dioxide
9b. NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

IONIC EQUATIONS
Aqueous Reactions and Net Ionic Equations
The equations written up to this point have been molecular equations. All substances have been
written using their full chemical formulas as if they were molecules. Because we now know that
strong electrolytes dissociate in water to their component ions, it is more accurate to write an ionic
equation in which all of the ionic species are shown.

In many reactions only certain ions change their 'chemical state' but other ions remain in
exactly the same original physical and chemical state.
The ions that do not change are called 'spectator ions'.

The ionic equation represents the 'actual' chemical change and omits the spectator ions.

To write a net ionic equation:

1.Write a balanced molecular equation.
2.Rewrite the equation showing the ions that form in solution when each soluble electrolyte
dissociates into its component ions. Only dissolved strong electrolytes are written in ionic
form.
3.Identify and cancel the spectator ions that occur unchanged on both sides of the equation.

Five types of examples are presented below.

When reactions between ions occur, at least one kind of ion is removed from the "field of action".
Simply put, its concentration decreases as the reaction proceeds.
There are three ways to remove ions:
1. Formation of an insoluble precipitate
2. Formation of a weakly ionized substance, and
3. Oxidation or reduction of an ion

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Let's examine each way individually:
1) Formation of An Insoluble Precipitate

Excess chloride ion "drives" this reaction to the right.

2) Formation of A Weakly Ionized Substance

3) Oxidation or Reduction of An Ion

Rules for Writing Ionic Equations

1) Ionic formulas are written for a strong electrolyte in solution e.g

2) Molecular formulas are written for:

a) Elements, gases, solids and non-electrolytes, e.g.:

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b) Weak electrolytes in solution, e.g.:

c) Solid strong electrolytes or precipitates, e.g.:

Writing Ionic Equations

When writing these equations, do so to answer the following three (3) questions:
1. What kind of reaction is it? Double decomposition? Redox?
2. What are the possible products of the reaction?
3. Are any of the possible products or reactants insoluble or weakly ionized?
Double Decomposition Reactions (Precipitate and Weak Electrolyte Reactions)
Examples
a) KCl + NaNO3 NR
Even the products would be soluble and, hence, no reaction occurs.
Since the hydrogen ion and the nitrate ion are spectators, the net ionic reaction is the result.

(1) Acid-base reactions: Acids can be defined as proton donors. A base can be defined as
a proton acceptor.
o eg any acid-alkali neutralisation involves the hydroxide ion is (base) and this accepts a
proton from an acid.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) which can be re-written as
H+Cl-(aq) + Na+OH-(aq) ==> Na+Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ==> H2O(l)
the spectator ions are Cl- and Na+
(2) Insoluble salt formation: An insoluble salt is made by mixing two solutions of soluble
compounds to form the insoluble compound in a process called 'precipitation'.
o (a) Silver chloride is made by mixing solutions of solutions of silver nitrate and sodium
chloride.
silver nitrate + sodium chloride ==> silver chloride + sodium nitrate
Ag+NO3-(aq) + Na+Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+NO3-(aq)
the ionic equation is: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s)
the spectator ions are NO3- and Na+

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(b) Silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid -- precipitate formation

Lead(II) iodide can be made by mixing lead(II) nitrate solution with potassium iodide
solution.
lead(II) nitrate + potassium iodide ==> lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
the ionic equation is: Pbg2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ==> PbI2(s)
the spectator ions are NO3- and K+
o (c) Calcium carbonate forms on eg mixing calcium chloride and sodium carbonate
solutions
calcium chloride + sodium carbonate ==> calcium carbonate + sodium chloride
CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
ionically: Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ==> CaCO3(s)
the spectator ions are Cl- and Na+
o (d) Barium sulphate forms on mixing eg barium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid
barium chloride + sulphuric acid ==> barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid
BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)
ionically: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)
the spectator ions are CO32- and H+
(3) Redox reaction analysis:
o (a) magnesium + iron(II) sulphate ==> magnesium sulphate + iron
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) => MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
this is the 'ordinary molecular' equation for a typical metal displacement
reaction, but this does not really show what happens in terms of atoms, ions and
electrons, so we use ionic equations like the one shown below.
The sulphate ion SO42-(aq) is called a spectator ion, because it doesn't change in
the reaction and can be omitted from the ionic equation. No electrons show up in the
full equations because electrons lost by x = electrons gained by y!!
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) ==> Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)
Mg oxidised by electron loss, Fe2+ reduced by electron gain
o (b) zinc + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) => ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
the chloride ion Cl- is the spectator ion
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) ==> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Zn oxidised by electron loss, H+ reduced by electron gain
o (c) copper + silver nitrate ==> silver + copper(II) nitrate
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ==> 2Ag + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
the nitrate ion NO3- is the spectator ion
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ==> 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Cu oxidised by electron loss, Ag+ reduced by electron gain
o (d) halogen (more reactive) + halide salt (of less reactive halogen) ==> halide salt (of
more reactive halogen) + halogen (less reactive)
X2(aq) + 2K+Y(aq) ==> 2K+X(aq) + Y2(aq)
X2(aq) + 2Y-(aq) ==> 2X-(aq) + Y2(aq)
the potassium ion K+ is the spectator ion
halogen X is more reactive than halogen Y, F > Cl > Br > I)
o

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X is the oxidising agent (electron acceptor, so is reduced)

KY or Y- is the reducing agent (electron donor, so is oxidised)
(4) Ion Exchange Resins: Ion exchange polymer resin columns hold hydrogen ions or sodium
ions. These can be replaced by calcium and magnesium ions when hard water passes down the
column. The calcium or magnesium ions are held on the negatively charged resin. The freed
hydrogen or sodium ions do not form a scum with soap.
o eg 2[resin]-H+(s) + Ca2+(aq) ==> [resin]-Ca2+[resin]-(s) + 2H+(aq)
o
or 2[resin]-Na+(s) + Mg2+(aq) ==> [resin]-Mg2+[resin]-(s) + 2Na+(aq) etc.
(5) Scum formation with hard water: On mixing hard water with soaps made from the sodium
salts of fatty acids, insoluble calcium or magnesium salts of the soap are formed ...
o CaSO4(aq) + 2C17H35COONa(aq) ==> (C17H35COO)2Ca(s for scum!) + Na2SO4(aq)
o or more simply ionically: Ca2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO-(aq) ==> (C17H35COO-)2Ca2+(s)
o the spectator ions are SO42- and Na+

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