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Transportation
Engineering - II
nissan
Planning, design, construction and operation of
highways, roads and other vehicular facilities as well as
their related bicycle and pedestrian realms.

Nissan Foundations
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+977-9876543210
+977-01-5544332
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Page Numbers mentioned in this Copy are from the Text Book

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
by KHANNA and JUSTO
eighth edition
2001

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1. HIGHWAY PAVEMENT
Road Pavement
A relatively stable layer constructed over the natural soil or soil sub-grade
is known as road pavement.
- The main function of pavement is to support and transfer the wheel loads of
vehicles over a wider area on the underlying sub-grade soil.
- A pavement consists of one or more layers, normally sub-grade, sub-base,
base course and surface wearing course.
(i) Sub-grade: It is an integral part of the road pavement
wearing course
as it provides the support to the pavement from
base course
beneath.
sub-base
(ii) Sub-base: The aggregate/gravel located between
soil sub-grade
pavement sub-grade and base course to provide
fig: layers of pavement
additional support in the distributing the stress is
called sub-base.
(iii) Base course: It is the layer of graded materials located below the wearing
course to transfer the stress to the sub-grade through pavement sub-base.
(iv) Wearing course: It is the top most layer of pavement, the purpose of which is
to provide smooth, abrasion resistant, pressure resistant, water tight and a
strong layer.
Types of Road Pavement
Based on the structural behaviour, road pavements are generally
classified into two categories:
1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements
3. Semi-rigid pavements
1) Flexible Pavement :
The pavements which have negligible flexure strength but flexible in their
structural action under the loads are known as flexible pavements.
- The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical compressive stresses to the
lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact.
- The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly
under the wheel load and is equal to the contact pressure under the wheel.
- A typical flexible pavement consists of four components:
(i) Soil subgrade
(ii) Sub-base course
(iii) Base course
(iv) Surface course

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Layers of flexible pavement:

A typical flexible pavement consists of following four layers:
Soil subgrade :
The soil subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of
pavement materials placed over it.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the soil subgrade for
dispersion to the earth mass.
It is essential that at no time, the soil subgrade is overstressed.
The soil subgrade has the lowest stability among the four typical layers of
flexible pavement.

(ii) Sub-base course :

These layers are made of smaller size graded aggregate / gravel or soilaggregate mixes. In some places boulder stones or bricks are also used as
sub-base or soling course.
- Sub-base course have no proper interlocking and therefore have lesser
resistance to sinking into the weak subgrade soil when wet.
- Sub-base courses are used to improve the load supporting capacity by
distributing the load through a finite thickness.
(iii) Base course :
Base course is the layer of broken stone with bound aggregate.
- The main function of base course is as same as sub-base course i.e.:
a) To improve the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through
a finite thickness.
b) To provide a stress transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel
loads in such manner as to prevent shear and consolidation deformation.
(iv) Surface wearing course :
The top most layer of pavement is called wearing course, the purpose of
which is to give a smooth riding surface that is dense.
- It resists pressure exerted by tyres and takes up wear and tear due to the
traffic.
- Wearing course also offers a water tight layer against the surface water
infiltration.
- In flexible pavement, normally a bituminous surfacing used as a wearing
course.

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2) Rigid Pavements :
The pavements which have worthy flexural strength are known as rigid
pavements.
- These are made of plain, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
- The rigid pavements have the slab action and are capable of transmitting the
wheel load stresses through a wider area below.
- These are normally analysed and designed based on elastic theory assuming
the pavement as an elastic plate resting over an elastic plate or a viscous
foundation.
- The plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take-up about 40 kg/cm2
flexural stresses.
3) Semi-rigid Pavements :
The pavements which have flexural strength in between rigid and flexible
pavement are known as semi-rigid pavements.
- It is made up of lean cement concrete, soil cement or pozzolanic concrete.
- The semi-rigid pavements have low resistance to impact and abrasion and
therefore are usually provided with flexible pavement surface course.
Factors Controlling the Pavement Design
The various factors to be considered for the design of pavements are:
(a) Design Wheel Load:
Design of pavement thickness primarily depends upon design wheel load.
- Higher wheel loads obviously need thicker pavement, provided other design
factors are same.
- The various wheel load factors to be considered in pavement design are:
i.) Maximum wheel load
iii.) Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)
ii.) Contact pressure
iv.) Repetition of loads
Maximum wheel loads:
The wheel load configurations are important to know the way in which the
loads of a given vehicles are applied on the pavement surface.
- According to IRC maximum axle load is specified by 8170 kg with a max
equivalent single wheel load of 4085 kg.

Tandem
Axle

single axle

TRACTOR

TRAILER

Fig: Wheel Configuration of Tractor Trailer Unit

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Contact pressure:
As the depth of pavement increases, the tyre pressure decrease and
finally diminishes at a specified depth. Hence the material used in different
layers are of varying quality i.e. the quality of materials in upper layers should
be better as compared to lower layers.
- The intensity of tyre pressure under the wheel is maximum as compared in
between wheels.
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL):
To maintain the maximum wheel load within the specified limit and to carry
greater load, it is necessary to provide dual wheel assembly to the rear axles
of the road vehicles.
- In doing so the effect on the pavement through a dual wheel assembly is
obviously not equal to two times the load on any one wheel.

- The load dispersion is assumed to be at an angle of 450, as shown in figure.

- In dual wheel load assembly, let;
d = clear gap between the two wheels
S = spacing between the centre of the wheels
a = radius of the circular contact area of each wheel, then;
S = d + 2a
- Up to the depth of d/2 each wheel load P acts independently and after this
point the stresses induced to each load begins to overlap.
- At depth 2S and above, the stresses induced are due to the effect of both
wheels and the area of overlap is considerable.
- So the total stresses due to the dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S is
considered to be equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) of magnitude 2P.

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(b) Subgrade Soil:

The properties of soil subgrade are important in deciding the required
thickness of pavement.
- A subgrade with lower stability requires thicker pavement to protect it from
traffic loads.
(c) Climatic Factors:
Among the climatic factors; rain fall affects the moisture condition in the
subgrade and the pavement layers.
- The daily and seasonal variation in temperature has significance in the design
and performance of rigid pavements and bituminous pavements.
- Variation in moisture content of subgrade affect the ground water table,
drainage conditions, type of pavement and shoulders.
- Where freezing temperatures are prevalent during winter, the possibility of
frost action in the subgrade and the damaging effects should be considered at
the design stage.
(d) Pavement Component Materials:
The stress distribution characteristics of the pavement component layers
depend on characteristics of the material used.
- The fatigue behaviour of these materials and their durability under adverse
conditions of weather should also be give due consideration.
(e) Environmental Factors:
The environmental factors such as height of embankment and its
foundation details, depth of cutting, depth of subsurface water table etc. affect
the performance of the pavement.

Comparison between Rigid pavement and Flexible pavement

Rigid pavement
Flexible pavement
1. Its life time is up to 40 yrs.
1. Its life is up to 20 yrs.
2. Initial cost is more.
2. Initial cost is less.
3. Maintenance cost is less.
3. Maintenance cost is more.
4. It is done at a time.
4. Can
be
done
in
stage
construction.
5. The
characteristics of pavement 5. The characteristic of pavement
surface are good.
surface is worse as compared to
rigid pavement.
6. Minimum 28 days requires for traffic 6. Traffic opening after rolling.
opening.
7. Less hazardous to environment.
7. More
hazardous
to
the
environment.
8. Design of pavement is done with 8. Design of pavement is done with
accuracy.
less accuracy.

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Method of Flexible Pavement Design

The flexible pavements are built with number of layers. In the design
process, it is to be ensured that, under the application of load none of the
layers is overstressed.
- This means that at any instance no section of the pavement structure is
subjected to excessive deformation to form a localised depression or
settlement.
- The maximum intensity of stresses occurs in the top layer of the pavement
and magnitude of loads stresses reduces at lower layer.
- Hence the superior pavement materials are used in top layers of flexible
pavement.
Out of various flexible pavement design methods available, the following
are some common methods:
i. Group index method
v. McLeod method
ii. CBR (California Bearing Ratio) method vi. Burmister method
iii. Stabilometer method
vii. Asphalt institute method
iv. Triaxial test method

i.

Group index method:

D.J. Steel in 1945 provided a discussion on the paper dealing with the
Highway Research Board method of soil classification which included the
suggested thickness requirements based on Group Index (GI) values.
- The GI values of soils vary in the range of 0 to 20.
- The higher the GI values, weaker the soil subgrade and for a constant value
of traffic volume, the greater would be the thickness requirement of the
pavement.

ii. CBR (California Bearing Ratio) method:

The CBR tests were carried out by the California State Highway
Department on existing pavement layers including subgrade, sub-base and
base course. This method is done in two steps:
(a) Calculation of CBR value:
It consists of following apparatuses:
(i) 150 mm diameter mould with base plate
(ii) Loading frame having cylindrical plunger of 50 mm. diameter
(iii) Dial gauges
Procedure:
Soil subgrade specimen is
placed in mould in four layers.
- The water absorption values are noted,
after soaking and swelling.
- A surcharge load equal to the water
absorbed values are applied along with
the plunger on the top of specimen.

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- The load is applied at 1.25 mm/minute and the load values are noted
corresponding penetration values of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0,
7.5 and 12.5 mm.
- The CBR value is calculated by using the relation:
( )

- The standard load values obtained from the average of a large number
of tests on crushed aggregates are 1370 and 2055 kg (70 & 105
kg/cm2) respectively at 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration.
(b) Calculation of thickness of pavement:
The thickness of pavement is obtained by using the formula:

This expression is applicable only when the CBR value of the

subgrade soil is less than 12%.
Where, t
=
pavement thickness, cm
P
=
wheel load, kg
CBR =
California Bearing Ratio, %
P
=
tyre pressure, kg/cm2
A

area of contact, cm2

iv. Triaxial test method:

The triaxial compression test is used in determining the values of elastic
moduli for various materials.
The pavement thickness (Tp) is calculated from the relation:

,(
Where,

X
Y

Tp
P
Es
Ep

a
=
=

-( )

=
thickness of pavement
=
wheel load (kg.)
=
modulus of elasticity of subgrade in kg/cm2
=
modulus of elasticity of pavement materials
=
deflection
=
radius of contact area (cm)
traffic coefficient
rainfall coefficient

v. McLeod method:
Norman W. McLeod through Canadian Department of Transport
conducted extensive plate bearing tests on airfield and highway pavements
and developed a design method.
- The repetitive bearing test procedure was employed using various sizes of
plates.

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From the plate load tests an empirical design equation was recommended:

Where,

T
P
S

=
=
=

required thickness of gravel base, cm

gross wheel load, kg
total subgrade support in kg, calculated for 30 cm dia.
plate at 0.5 cm

vi. Burmisters (Layered System) method:

The total mass of pavement and subgrade does not possess a constant E
value as assumed by Boussinesqs analysis. Since, the flexible pavement
sections are composed of layers and the elastic modulus of the top layer is
the highest.
- If the layers of soil subgrade, sub-base course and base course are assigned
elastic moduli of Es, Esb, Eb then as per Boussineqs analysis, it is considered
Es = Esb = Eb; where as in layered analysis, it is taken that Eb > Esb > Es.

vii. Asphalt institute method:

Design Procedure:
i) Calculate the equivalent single axle load (EASL) over the design life
= estimated traffic at the base period growth factor no. of working
days no. of axles lateral displacement factor
ii) Lateral displacement factor (LDF) for various lane:
Lane
Width
LDF
Single lane
3.75 m
2
Intermediate lane
5.5 m
1.5
Two lane
7m
0.75
Four lane
15 m
.4
iii) Growth factor =

iv) Calculate the thickness from chart.

v) Equivalent thickness; form formula, *
Where, Mr

= equivalent elastic modulus

= 10 CBR

Stresses due to Load, Temperature differential & Subgrade friction on Rigid pavement:
(i) Stresses due to Load:
The position of wheels of the vehicles are not constant, these may be
located at corner, edge or in between both. Some of the researchers have
given single empirical formula while some of them have given according to
position.

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i.) According to A-T Goldback:

Stress load due to corner load (Sc) is given by:
Where,

Sc
P
h

=
=
=

stress due to corner load (kg/cm2)

corner load assumed as a concentrated
thickness of slab (cm)

ii.) According to Westergaards:

The critical stresses at different locations are given by:

(a) Interior loading,

(b) Edge loading,

(c) Corner loading,

( )

( )

]
]

Where, Si, Se, Sc = max. stress at interior, edge & corner loading (kg/cm2)
h
=
slab thickness (cm)
P
=
wheel load (kg)
a
=
radius of wheel load distribution (cm)

=
radius of relative stiffness (cm)
b
=
radius of resisting section (cm)
(ii) Stresses due to Temperature differential:
Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to
variation in slab temperature.
- The variation in temperature across the depth of slab is caused by daily
variation whereas an overall increase or decrease in slab temperature is
caused by seasonal variation in temperature.
- During summer season, as the mean temperature of the slab increases, the
concrete pavement expands towards the expansion joints. Due to frictional
resistance at the interface, compressive stress is developed at the bottom of
slab as it tends to expand.
- Similarly during winter season, the slab contracts causing tensile stress at
the bottom due to frictional resistance.
(iii)Stresses due to Friction:
Due to uniform temperature rise and fall in the cement concrete slab, there
is an overall expansion and contraction of the slab.
- Since the slab is in contact with soil subgrade or the sub-base, the slab
movements are restrained due to the friction between the bottom layer of the
pavement and the soil layer.
- This frictional resistance therefore tends to prevent the movements thereby
inducing the frictional stress in the bottom fibre of cement concrete
pavement.

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- Unit stress developed in cement concrete pavement is given by:

(
Where, W = unit wt. of concrete, (kg/cm3)

)
{about 2400 kg/m3}

Combination of Stresses:
The stresses developed due to different reasons should occur at a time or
separately. The following critical combinations are considered;
i.) During Summer:
The critical combination at interior and edge regions during midday occurs
when the slab tends to warp downward.
- During this period maximum tensile stress is developed at bottom fibre due to
warping and this is cumulative with the tensile stress due to the loading.
- However, frictional stress is compressive during monsoon.
Critical stress = load stress + warping stress frictional stress
ii.) During Winter:
The critical combination of stresses at the above regions occurs at the
bottom fibre during the midday when the slab tends to warp downward.
- Critical stress combination = Load stress + Warping stress + Frictional stress
- Since the differential temperature is of lower magnitude during winter than in
summer, the combination (i) is worst for most of region of the country.
iii.)

At the corner region the critical combination occurs at the top fibre of slab
during the midnight, when the slab tends to warp upward.
- Critical stress combination = Load stress + Warping stress

Design of Rigid Pavements

Since, the Rigid Pavements are made of cement concrete, the load
carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity and high modulus of elasticity of
slab.
- Rigid pavements should be analysed by Plate theory instead of Layered
theory.
Westergaards Analysis
Westergaard considered the rigid pavement as thin elastic resting
on liquid foundation.
- The upward reaction at any point is assumed to be proportional to the
deflection at that point. i.e.
P=k
Or,
k=
Where,

k = modulus of subgrade reaction

P = pressure sustained (kg/cm2)
= displacement level (taken as 0.125 cm)
k=

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Relative stiffness of slab to subgrade:

A certain degree of resistance to slab defection is offered by the
subgrade. This is dependent upon the stiffness or pressure-deformation
properties of the subgrade material.
- The tendency of the slab to deflect depends upon its properties of flexural
strength.
- The resultant deflection of the slab which is also the deformation of subgrade
is a direct measure of the magnitude of subgrade pressure.
- The pressure deformation characteristic of rigid pavement is thus a function of
relative stiffness of slab to that of subgrade.
Westergaard defined this term as the Radius of relative stiffness:

+
(
)
where, = radius of relative stiffness (cm)
E = modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (kg/cm2)
= Poissons ratio for concrete [ = 0.15 ]
h = slab thickness (cm)
k = subgrade modulus or modulus of subgrade reaction (kg/cm 3)

Temperature stresses in Rigid Pavement

Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to
variation in slab temperature.
- The variation in temp. across the depth of the slab is caused by daily variation
whereas an overall increase or decrease in slab temperature is caused by
seasonal variation in temp.
- Following are the types of temp. stresses in Rigid pavement:
1. Warping stresses
2. Frictional stresses
1. Warping Stresses:
Whenever the top and bottom surfaces of a concrete pavement
simultaneously possess different temperature, the slab tends to warp
downward or upward inducing warping stresses.
- The difference in temp between the top and bottom of the slab
depends mainly on the slab thickness and the climatic conditions of the
region.
- The warping stress at the edge region is given by:
(whichever is higher)

( )

- For the corner region, warping stress is given by:

( )

Where,

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= modulus of elasticity of concrete (kg/cm2)

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e
t
Cx
Cy

2014

= thermal coeff. of concrete per degree Celsius

= temp. difference between top & bottom of slab in 0c
= coefficient based on in desired direction
= coeff. based on in right angle to above direction
= Poissons ratio ( 0.15 )
= radius of contact
= radius of stiffness

2. Frictional Stresses:
Due to uniform temperature rise and fall in the cement concrete
slab, there is overall expansion and contraction of the slab.
- Since the slab is in contact with soil subgrade or the sub-base, slab
movements are restrained due to the friction between the bottom layer
of pavement and soil layer.
- Hence, the frictional resistance is induced in bottom fibre of the
pavement.
- In short slab; stress induced due to this, is negligibly small whereas in
long slab; frictional stress developed is higher due to the greater
movement i.e. 0.15 cm.
- Unit stress developed in cement concrete pavement is given by:

Where,

1.
-

W = unit wt. of concrete, (kg/cm3) {about 2400 kg/cm3}

f
= coefficient of subgrade restraint
L
= slab length in m.
B
= slab width in m.

IRC recommendations for design of rigid pavements:

Design Parameters:
The design wheel load is taken as 5100 kg with equivalent circular area of
15 cm and tyre inflation pressure ranging from 6.3 to 7.3 kg/cm2.
Traffic volume,
A = P ( 1 + r ) n + 20 ( in CV / day )
The mean daily and annual temperature cycles are collected.
The flexural strength of cement concrete used in the concrete should not
be less than 40 kg/cm2.

2. Calculation of Stresses:
- The wheel load stresses at the edge and corner region is calculated for the
designed slab thickness as per Westergaards Analysis.
- The temperature stress at edge is calculated as per Westergaards
Analysis.

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3. Design steps of Slab thickness:

- The width of slab is decided based on joint spacing and lane width.
- The length of cement concrete slab is equal to the spacing of contraction
joints.
- A trial thickness of slab is assumed for calculation the stresses. The
warping stress at edge region is calculated and this value is subtracted
from allowable flexural stress in concrete to find the residual strength in
the pavement to support edge loads.
- The load stress in edge region is found. The available factor of safety in
edge load stress w.r.t. the residual strength is found.
- The total stresses at the corner due to wheel load and warping is checked
for slab thickness (h cm).
- The design thickness (h) is adjusted for the traffic intensity or classification
at the end of design life and using the adjustment value from table
recommended by IRC to obtain the final adjusted slab thickness.
4. Spacing of joints:
- The maximum spacing recommended for 25 mm wide expansion joints is
140 m when the foundation is rough, for all slab thickness.
- When the foundation surface is smooth,
Spacing may be 90m for slab thickness up to 20cm
& 120m for slab thickness up to 25cm.
- The maximum contraction joint spacing may be kept at 4.5m in
unreinforced slab of all thickness and for reinforced slab; it may be 13m for
slab thickness 15cm.
5. Design of Dowel bars:
Dowel bars of expansion joints are mild steel round bars of short
length. Half-length of this bar is bonded in one cement concrete slab and
the remaining portion is embedded in adjacent slab, but is kept free for the
movement during expansion and contraction of the slab.
- The main function of dowel bar is:a) Allow opening and closing of the joint.
b) Maintaining the slab edge at the same level.
c) Load transference is affected from one slab to the other.
6. Design of Tie bars:
Tie bars are made of mild steel deformed bars of limited length. It is
used across the longitudinal joint of cement concrete pavements. Tie bars
ensure two adjacent slabs to remain firmly together.

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Numericals
Design a flexible pavement, if 129 CV/day (commercial vehicles per
day) exists and growth rate is 7% construction period of the pavement
is 2 yrs. and the maximum life of the pavement is 10 yrs. CBR of
subgrade is 5%. The compacted sub-base poorly graded gravel layer
has a CBR value of 30%. Base material has CBR value of 80%.
Pavement will have bituminous surfacing.
Solution:
No. of CV/day, P = 129 cv/day
Annual growth, r = 0.07
Construction period, y = 2 yrs.
Design life of pavement, n = 10 yrs.
Now, number of commercial vehicles per day for design is given by,
A
= P (1 + r) n + y
= 129 (1 + 0.07)10+2
= 290.53
291 cv/day
From Chart 7.11 (CBR Design Chart; page no. 351)
For A = 291; curve D is chosen
From Curve D, for CBR = 5% (subgrade)
Total thickness of pavement over the subgrade = 38 cm = 380 mm
For CBR = 30%,
Total thickness over sub-base = 130mm (base + surface course)
Actual thickness of sub-base = 380 130 = 250 mm
Adopting, thickness of wearing course = 50 mm
Thickness of base course = 130 50
= 80 mm
#
Design a flexible pavement by using Asphalt Institute method from the
following data of a stretch of existing two lane road.
Correct traffic of 80kN equivalent single axle load=0.95103
ESAL/day
Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
Design period = 15 yrs.
Construction period = 16 months
CBR value of subgrade = 5 %
Elastic modulus of Asphalt Concrete surface course = 2500 MPa
Elastic modulus of bituminous treated base course = 1200 MPa
Elastic modulus of granular sub-base course = 125 MPa
Solution:
Estimated traffic at the end of design life = estimated traffic at base period
growth factor no. of working days no. of axles lateral displacement factor
Where,

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Estimated traffic at the end of design life = 0.95 * 103 30.10 365 2 0.75
= 1.57 * 107 ESAL/day
We have, Resistant modulus (Mr)
= 10 CBR
= 10 5
= 50 MPa
From graph,
Mr = 50 MPa and 1.57 * 107 ESAL/day
Full depth of asphalt concrete
= 390 mm
Use of AC surface course
= 75 mm
Remaining depth of asphalt concrete = 390 75 = 315 mm
Use 200mm base course and 115mm sub-base course.
For base course,
Equivalent thickness of bituminous treated base course,

For sub-base course,

Equivalent thickness of granular sub-base,

A 2-lane, 2-way road is at present carrying traffic of 1000 CV/day at

plain terrain. The rate of growth of traffic is 10% per annum, period of
construction is 5 yrs. the pavement is to be designed for 15 years after
construction. Calculate the standard axle to be used in design.
Solution:
[(
)
]
[
]
Here, VDF
LDF
r
y

=
=
=
=

2.5
0.75,
0.1,
5

P = 1000 CV/day
n =15
[(

Design a highway pavement for a wheel load of 4100 kg with a tyre

pressure of 5 kg/cm2 by McLeod method. The plate bearing carried
out on sub-grade soil using 30 cm dia. plate yielding a pressure of 2.5
kg/cm2 after 10 repetition of load at 0.5 cm deflection.
Solution:
Radius of contact (a):

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Perimeter over area ratio,

Using Chart 7.20 (page 367),

The ratio of unit subgrade support on 32.2cm dia. plate at 0.5cm deflection is 0.95
Unit support at 0.5cm deflection = 0.95 2.5 = 2.44 kg/cm2
Design sub-grade support on 32.2 cm dia. plate,

Base course constant (k) for 32.2cm dia. plate is obtained as 90, from graph 7.19
Required thickness of gravel base,

Provide 5cm of bituminous surfacing out of this thickness. #

Plate bearing test conducted on subgrade soil using 30cm diameter

plate yielded 2.5 kg/cm2 after 10 repetitions at 5mm deflection.
Design a highway pavement for a wheel load of 5100 kg and tyre
pressure of 7 kg/cm2 for allowable deflection of 7.5mm by McLeod
method. (Refer charts).
Solution:
Radius of contact (a):

Perimeter area ratio,

Using Chart 7.20 (page 367),

The ratio of unit subgrade support on 30.4cm dia. plate at 0.5cm deflection is 0.99
Unit support at 0.5cm deflection = 0.99 2.5 = 2.48 kg/cm2
Design sub-grade support on 30.4 cm dia. plate,

Base course constant for 30.4cm dia. plate is obtained from chart 7.19, as 89
I.e.
k = 89
Required thickness of gravel base,

Provide 5cm of bituminous surfacing out of this thickness. #

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Soil sub grade sample was obtained from the project site and CBR test
was conducted at field density. The following were the result;
Penetration (mm) Load (kg) Penetration, mm Load, kg

0.0
0.0
3.0
56.5
0.5
5.0
4.0
67.5
1.0
16.2
5.0
75.2
1.5
28.1
7.5
89.0
2.0
40.0
10.0
99.5
2.5
48.5
12.5
106.5
It is desired to use following materials for different pavement layers,
Compacted sandy soil with 7% CBR
Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR
Well graded gravel with 95% CBR
Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surfacing may be
taken as 5cm.
Traffic survey revealed present ADT of commercial vehicles as
1200. Annual rate of growth of traffic is found to be 8%. The pavement
construction is to be completed in three years after last traffic count.
a) Design pavement section by CBR method as recommended by IRC.
b) Suggest design without use of poorly graded gravels.
Solution:
The plot is made between loads (kg) vs. penetration (mm).
110
100
90
80

Load (kg)

70
60
50
40

5.0

30
20

2.5

10
0
0

10

11

12

Penetration (mm)

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From graph,
Load at 2.5 & 5 mm penetration (after correction) are 55 & 78 kg resp.
Area of plunger of dia. (d) 5cm is, A =
Pressure at 2.5 mm penetration =

= 19.6 cm2
kg/cm2

Similarly, Pressure at 5mm penetration =

kg/cm2

CBR values of soil at,

2.5mm penetration =

Adopt CBR value = 4 %

Calculation for design thickness of different layers:
No. of vehicles for design, A= P (1 + r) n + 10
= 1200 [ 1 +

] 3 + 10 = 3260 vehicles/day

55 cm

21 cm

8 cm Bituminous surfacing 8cm

13 cm Well graded gravel,
CBR = 95 %
19 cm Poorly graded gravel,
CBR = 20 %
15 cm Compacted soil,
CBR = 7 %
Soil subgrade,
CBR = 4 %

40 cm

For A = 3260 vehicles/day, design curve F is used (from fig. 7.11, page 351)
From curve, for CBR = 4 %,
Total pavement thickness over subgrade = 55 cm
Compacted sandy soil with CBR = 7 %
Pavement thickness above compacted subgrade = 40 cm
Poorly graded gravel with 20 % CBR,
Pavement thickness required = 21 cm
Well graded gravel with 95 % CBR
Pavement thickness required = 8 cm

Design the pavement section by triaxial test method using the

following data:
Wheel load = 4100 kg
Radius of contact area
= 15 cm
Traffic coefficient, X
= 1.5
Rain fall coefficient, Y
= 0.9

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Design deflection, = 0.25 cm

E-value of subgrade soil, Es = 100 kg/cm2
E-value of base course material, Eb = 400 kg/cm2
E-value of 7.5 cm thick bituminous concrete surface course = 1000 kg/cm2
Solution:
Assuming the pavement to consist of single layer of base course
material only; the pavement thickness is given by:

{(

}(

{(

}(

= 65.9 cm
Here, E-value for 7.5 cm bituminous concrete surface course, Ec = 1000 kg/cm2
Let, Ec be equivalent to the thickness tb of base course. i.e.:

Required thickness of base course

)
= 55.7 cm. #

= 65.9 10.2

7.5 cm Bituminous surfacing 7.5cm

55.7 cm Base course,
Eb = 400 kg/cm2

63.2 cm

Soil subgrade,
Es = 100 kg/cm2

Calculate the stresses at interior, edge and corner regions of a cement

concrete pavement using Westergaards stress equation. Use the
following data:
Wheel load, P
= 5100 kg
Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete, E= 3 105 kg/cm2
Pavement thickness, h = 18 cm
Poissons ratio of concrete, = 0.15
Modulus of subgrade reaction, k
= 6 kg/cm3
Radius of contact area, a
= 15 cm
Solution:
Radius of relative stiffness ( ) is given by:

The equivalent of resisting section is given by:

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= 0.833 (< 1.74)

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Stress at interior region,

*
[

( )

+
]

Stress at the edge,

*
[

( )

+
]

Stress at the corner,

[

Design a cement concrete for the following condition:

i)
Design wheel load
= 4100 kg
ii) Present traffic
= 300 CV/day
iii) Design life
= 20 yrs.
iv) Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
v) Temperature variation, t
= 13.10C
vi) Modulus of sub-grade reaction, k = 6 kg/cm3
vii) Concrete flexure strength = 40 kg/cm2
viii) Modulus of elasticity of concrete, E
= 3 105 kg/cm2
ix) Poissons ratio,
= 0.15
x) Coefficient of thermal expansion ()
= 10 5 /0C
Solution:
Trial 1:
Select the thickness of slab (h) = 20 cm (20~25)
Contraction joint spacing (L) = 4.5 m
Lane width (w) = 3.5 m
Now, Radius of relative stiffness,

Here,

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From chart 7.25 (page 380),

For

= 5.9,

Cx = 0.9

For

= 4.6,

Cy = 0.65

Use, Cx ;

Cx > C y

Edge temperature stress,

(

( )

Residual strength of concrete,

= Flexure strength Edge temp stress = 40 17.69 = 22.31 kg/cm2
For, h = 20 cm and k = 6 kg/cm2;
edge load stress (Se) is obtained from Chart 7.23 (page 376)
Se = 29 kg/cm2
Available factor of safety

= 0.769 < 1, not safe.

Trial 2:
Try, h = 23 cm

For = 5.29, Cx = 0.77 (From chart 7.25, page 380),

Edge temperature stress,
( )

Residual strength of concrete,

= Flexure strength Edge temp stress = 40 15.13 = 24.87 kg/cm2
For, h = 23 cm and k = 6 kg/cm2;
edge load stress (Se) = 24 kg/cm2
Available factor of safety

(from Chart 7.23, page 376)

= 1.04

> 1, ok.

Now, Corner load stress (Sc), for h = 23 cm and k = 6 kg/cm2

Sc = 24 kg/cm2
(from chart 7.24, page 377)
2
< 40 kg/cm , ok.
Design traffic volume
= P (1 + r) n
= 300 (1 +
From chart, ht = 0
h
= hs + ht

= 23 + 0

) 20

= 1275

= 23 cm

So, Adopt slab thickness = 23cm. #

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2. ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Tools, Equipment and Plants used in Road construction
A. Tools:
i) Hand shovel for excavation in soft soil
ii) Peak
for excavation in hard soil
iii) Chisel
for excavation in hard soil
iv) Hand rammer
for compaction
v) Brushes
for cleaning
vi) Wheel barrow
for carrying materials
vii) Trowel
for mixing of mortar and masonry
B. Equipment:
1.) Earth moving equipment:
i) Bull dozer, Scrapper shallow excavation
ii) Power shovel
excavation in soft and medium soil
iii) Dragline
to excavate soft soil
iv) Clamshell
excavation in soft and medium soil
v) Excavator
for excavation work
vi) Trench digger
for deep excavation
2.) Levelling equipment:
i) Grader
to make surface of certain gradient
3.) Compaction equipment:
i) Vibrating roller
in cohesion less soil
ii) Pneumatic roller
in cohesive and cohesion less soil
iii) sheeps foot roller in cohesive soil
iv) Smooth wheel roller for granular soil like gravel, crust, soil etc.
v) Impact rammer
used in small area, where difficult to
operate other equipment.
4.) Paving equipment:
i) Binder spreader
to spread the binder
ii) Aggregate spreader to spread aggregate
iii) Heating kettle for binder
iv) Cement concrete mixer
to mix cement, sand & aggregate
v) Bituminous pavers
vi) Cement concreter pavers
5.) Lifting equipment:
i) Backhoe
to lift construction materials to certain heights
ii) Crane
to lift construction materials as per crane type

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6.) Transporting equipment:

i) Dumping trucks (Tipper)

to shift materials. Not needing

manpower for unloading.
ii) Trucks

to shift the construction materials in large

quantity and longer distances.
iii) Mini dumpers to shift the construction materials in small
quantity and shorter distances.

C. Plants:
i) Cement concrete plant mixing cement concrete
ii) Asphalt concrete cement mixing of course aggregate,
fine aggregates and binders
iii) Cold premix mixing plant mixing of CA, FA and binders
iv) Aggregate crusher plant breaking stones as per size of aggregate
v) Washing plant

to wash aggregate
vi) Screening plant
to screen aggregate

Earth excavation equipment and their suitability

i.) Bulldozer & Scraper:
These are used for shallow excavation work and for hauling the
earth for relatively short distances.
- Bulldozer is suitable for clearing site, opening up pilot roads and hauling
earth for short distance about 100m.
- Scrapper is suitable for digging, hauling and discharging the material in
uniformly thick layer.

ii.) Power shovel:

It is primarily used to excavate earth of all classes except rock and
to load it into wagons.
- The power shovel can effectively operate to excavate earth from lower
level when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.

iii.) Drag line:

Dragline is suitable to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearby
or to load into wagons.

iv.) Clamshell:
This equipment is useful for excavation of soft to medium materials
and loose materials at or below existing ground surface.

v.) Hoe:
Hoe is meant to excavate below the natural surface where the
machine is stationed.
- It can exert high tooth pressure and hence can excavate stiff materials
which normally cant be excavated by dragline.

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Activities and Techniques used in Road Construction

Following activities and techniques are used as per nature,
type of work and elements of road to be constructed;
1) Bulldozer & Scraper:
(i) Site clearance
(iv) Excavation for borrow pit
(ii) E/W in filling for embankment
(v) Excavation
for
structural
(iii) Excavation for cutting
foundations
(vi) Disposal of surplus earth
2) Drainage works:
(i) Minor bridges
(iii) Side drains
(ii) Causeways
(iv) Culverts
3) Protection works:
(i) Earth retaining structures
(iv) Landslide stabilisation
(ii) Slope protection works
(v) Bridge protection works
(iii) Gully control works
4) Pavement works:
(i) Subgrade preparation works
(iii) Base works
(ii) Sub-base works
(iv) Surface works
5) Miscellaneous works:
(i) Road ancillaries
(iii) Bio-engineering works
(ii) Traffic works
(iv) Information works for traffic & pedestrians

Various works for Road construction

Preparation of subgrade
Subgrade is the lower most portion of the highway construction. It
may be situated on embankment or excavation or at existing ground surface.
The preparation of subgrade includes site clearance, grading (embankments
or cut) and compaction.
In all the cases, site should be cleared off and top soil consisting grass, roots,
rubbish and other organic matter should be removed.
Next, the grading operation is started so as to bring the vertical profile of the
subgrade to designed grade and camber.
It is most essential to compact the top of the subgrade adequately before
placing the pavement layers.

Excavation
It is the process of cutting or loosening & removing earth including
rock from its original position, transporting & dumping it as a fill or spoil bank.
- The excavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard
rock; before preparing subgrade.
- Earth excavation work may be divided as excavation or cutting, grading and
compaction.

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Fill / Embankment
When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the
existing ground level, it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The
grade line may be raised due to following reasons:
i) To keep the subgrade above the high GWT.
ii) To prevent damage to pavement due to surface water & capillary water.
iii) To maintain the design standard of highway w.r.t. the vertical alignment.
Following are the design elements of highway embankments:
a) Height
d) Stability of foundation
b) Fill material
e) Stability of slopes
c) Settlement
Problems in the construction of high embankment
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction
either due to consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to the
settlement of fill or due to both.
- If the embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high moisture
content, the consolidation can occur due to the increase of load and the
embankment may be failure.
- The settlement of fill is generally due to inadequate compaction during
construction, consequently cracks may appear after application of load
through vehicles and hence it may failure.
Remedial measures:
Such problems can be eliminated by following ways:
(i) Stability of foundation
(ii) Stability of slopes
i) Stability of foundation
When the embankment foundation consists of weak soil just
beneath or at a certain depth below in the form of weak stratum, it is
essential to consider the stability of the foundation against a failure.
- For this, the foundation stability is evaluated & factor of safety is estimated
by various approaches. E.g. by Swedish Circular Arc Analysis etc.
- The factor of safety, in case of compressible soil foundation should be
minimum just after the completion of the embankment.
- Also, vertical sand drain should be constructed to increase the rate of gain
in strength for compressible soil foundations.
ii) Stability of slopes
The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the
possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions.
- Hence the stability of the slope should be checked or the slope should be
designed providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5.
- Flatter slopes are preferred due to aesthetic or other reasons.

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Compaction
It is a mechanical process by which air is expelled out from soil
mass to reduce the void and to make the soil dense.
- Compaction increases the density and stability, reduces settlement and
lowers the adverse effects of moisture.
- It is well known fact that there is an optimum moisture content (OMC) for a
soil, which would give maximum dry density for a particular type and amount
of compaction.
Factors affecting compaction
i) Moisture content
ii) Amount of compaction
iii) Type of compaction

iv) Soil type

v) Addition of admixture

Compacting Equipment
Following are the various types of compacting equipment:
(i) Roller
The principle of rollers is the application of pressure, which is slowly
increased and then decreased.
(a) Smooth wheeled roller
The smooth wheeled rollers are suitable to roll wide ranges of soils,
preferably granular soils and pavement materials for the various layers.
- The gross weight of such roller ranges between 4 to 18 tons.
(b) Pneumatic tyred roller
In this type of roller, a number of pneumatic wheels are mounted on
two or more axles, under a loading platform.
- It is suitable to compact non-plastic silts and fine sands.
(c) Sheepsfoot roller
Roller consists of hollow steel cylinder with projecting feet.
- It is more suited to compact clayey soil.
- About 24 or more number of passes of the roller may be necessary to
obtain adequate compaction.
(ii) Rammers
These are useful to compact small areas and where the rollers cant
operate such as compaction of trenches, foundations and slopes.
(iii) Vibrators
These are most suited for compacting dry cohesion less granular
material.
- There are also vibrator mounted roller to give combined effects of rolling
and vibration.
(iv) Watering (jetting & ponding)
It is considered to be an efficient method of compacting cohesion
less sand.

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Field Control for Compaction

For adequate quality control in construction, it is essential to have
proper field control in compaction. Following are two field control tests:
(i) Measurement of moisture content
(ii) Measurement of dry density
The moisture content of the soil may be found before compaction
by any one of the rapid method suitable at the site.
- If the moisture is controlled at the OMC, then the next control is the dry
density, the desired value of which may be achieved by increasing the
number of passes for the selected equipment and thickness of each layer.
- Dry density may be found by any suitable method i.e. sand replacement
method is considered quite satisfactory.
- A certain percentage ( 95 or 100 %) of the standard density is generally
aimed at in the field compaction.

Dry density

Moisture density relationship

Density of soil increases with increase in water content up to certain
limit. This limit is known as optimum moisture content (OMC).
- As the water content increases further beyond this limit, the density of soil
starts decreases.

compaction curve
OMC
Moisture content

The theoretical relationship between moisture content and dry density is:

Where,

= unit wt. of soil solids,

= moisture content

= unit wt. of soil

Soil Stabilisation
Soil stabilisation is a method of improving the qualities of inferior
soil w.r.t. strength, stability, density, bearing capacity etc.
- If the stability of local soil is not adequate for supporting wheel loads, the
properties are improved by soil stabilisation techniques.
Following are the techniques of soil stabilisation:
(a) Proportioning technique
(e) Water repelling agent
(b) Cementing agent
(f) Heat treatment
(c) Modifying agent
(g) Chemical stabilisation
(d) Water proofing agent

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Method of Soil Stabilisation

(i) Mechanical soil-stabilisation
Correctly proportioned construction materials (aggregate and soil)
when adequately compacted to get a mechanically stable layer, the method is
called mechanical stabilisation.
- The two basic principles in this method are: (a) proportioning
(b) compaction
- Mechanical stabilisation has been successfully applied for sub-base and base
course and also used as surface course for low cost roads.
(ii) Soil-cement stabilisation
In this method, soil, cement and water are mixed and well
compacted to form a strong base course.
- By the increasing percentage of cement added, there is an increase in the
strength and durability of soil-cement and a decrease in volume change,
moisture movement and plasticity.
- Soil-cement stabilisation can be used as a sub-base or base course of all type
of pavements.
- However, as the material has poor resistance to abrasion and impact, this
cant be used as a surface course.
(iii) Soil-lime stabilisation
Soil-lime has been widely used either as a modifier for clayey soil or
as a binder.
- When clayey soils with high plasticity are treated with lime, the plasticity index
is decreased and the soil becomes friable and easy to be pulverised, having
less affinity with water.
- Soil-lime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high types of pavements and
base course for pavements with low traffic.
- It is also quite suitable in warm regions; but it is not very suitable under
freezing temperature.
(iv) Soil-bitumen stabilisation
The basic principles in bituminous stabilisation are water proofing
and binding.
- By water proofing the inherent strength and other properties of soil could be
retained.
- Most commonly used materials are cutback and emulsion.
- Bituminous stabilised layer may be used as a sub-base or base course of
ordinary roads and even as surface course for roads with low traffic in low
rainfall regions.

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Construction of Water Bound Macadam (WBM) Roads

1) General
The term Macadam is the present day means, the pavement course made
of crushed or broken aggregate mechanically interlocked by rolling and the
voids filled with screening and binding material with the assistance of water.
- The WBM may be used as a sub-base, base course or surfacing course.
2) Materials
a) Coarse aggregates: The coarse aggregates used in WBM generally
consists of hard varieties of crushed aggregates or broken stones. The
crushed stone aggregate should be generally hard, durable and of
acceptable shape, free from flaky & elongated particles.
b) Screenings: The screenings are used to fill up the voids in the compacted
layer of coarse aggregates. The screening consists of aggregates of
smaller size, generally of the same material as the coarse aggregates.
c) Binding materials: Binding material consisting of fine grained materials is
used in WBM construction to prevent ravelling of stones.
3) Construction procedure
(i) Preparation of foundation for receiving the WBM course: The
foundation for receiving new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade or
sub-base or base course. The foundation layer is prepared to the required
grade & camber and dust, loose materials etc. are cleaned.
(ii) Provision of lateral confinement:
This may be done by constructing
the shoulder to advance, to a thickness equal to that of the compacted
WBM layer.
(iii) Spreading of coarse aggregates:
The coarse aggregates are
spread uniformly to proper profile to even thickness upon the prepared
foundation. Its thickness for WBM sub-base course in normally 10cm
compacted thickness.
(iv) Rolling:
After spreading the coarse aggregates, compaction is done
by three wheeled power roller of capacity 6 10 tonnes or alternatively by
an equivalent vibratory roller.
- Rolling is started from the edges, the roller being run forward and
backward until the edges are compacted.
(v) Application of screening: After the rolling, the dry screenings are applied
gradually over the surface to fill interstices in 3 or more application. Dry
rolling is continued to spread screening and brooming is carried out.

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(vi) Sprinkling and grouting: After the application of screening, the surface is
sprinkled with water, swept and rolled. Additional screening are applied
and rolled till coarse aggregates are well bonded and firmly set.
(vii) Application of binding materials:
After then binding material is
applied at a uniform and slow rate at two or more successive thin layer.
- After each application, the surface is sprinkled with water and wet slurry
swept with brooms to fill voids.
- This is followed by rolling with 6 10 tonnes roller.
(viii) Setting and drying:
After final compaction, the WBM course is
allowed to set over-night. On the next day the hungry spots are located
and are filled with screening or binding material, lightly sprinkled with
water if necessary and rolled.
- No traffic is allowed till the WBM layer sets and dries out.

Construction of Bituminous Pavement

Bituminous pavements are in common use in Nepal and abroad. It is
possible to construct relatively thin bituminous pavement layers over an
existing pavement. Therefore, these are commonly adopted as wearing
course.
- Flexible pavement could be strengthened in stages by constructing
bituminous pavement layers one after another in a certain period of time
unlike the cement concrete pavement construction.
Types:
Based on the method of construction, following are the different types of
bituminous pavement construction:
(i) Interface treatment
(a) Prime coat
(b) Tack coat
(ii) Bituminous surface dressing
(iii) Seal coat
(iv) Grouted or penetration type construction
(a) Penetration Macadam
(b) Built-up spray grout
(v) Premix
(a) Bituminous bound macadam
(b) Carpet
(c) Bituminous concrete
(d) Sheet asphalt
(e) Mastic asphalt
(i) Interface treatment
The treatment with bituminous material over the existing pavement layer is
called interface treatment, which is necessary to provide the bond between
the old and the new layers.

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a) Prime coat:
Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity liquid
bituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement
surface like WBM base course.
- The main object of priming is to plug in the capillary voids of the porous
surface and to bond the loose mineral particles on the existing surface.
- The rate of bituminous primer is @ 7.3 14.6 kg per 10m2 area.
b) Tack coat:
Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over
an existing pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an
existing bituminous surface or a pervious surface like WBM which has
already been treated by a prime coat.
- Its rate of application is 4.99.8 kg/10m2 area depending in the type of
surface.
(ii) Bituminous surface dressing (BSD)
Bituminous surface dressing (BSD) is provided over an existing pavement
to serve as thin wearing coat.
- The single coat surfacing dressing consists of a single application of
bituminous binder material followed by spreading of aggregate cover &
rolling.
- When the surface dressing is similarly done in two layers, it is called two
coat bituminous surface dressing.
(iii) Seal coat
Seal coat is usually recommended as a top coat over certain bituminous
pavements which are no impervious, such as open graded bituminous
construction like premixed carpet and grouted macadam.
- The seal coat is a very thin layer of surface treatment or a single coat
surface dressing, which is usually applied over an existing black top surface.
Function of seal coat
to seal the surfacing against the ingress of water.
to develop the skid resistant texture.
to enliven an existing dry or weathered bituminous surface.
(iv) Bituminous premixed carpet
Premixed Carpet (PC) consists of coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 10 mm
sizes, premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a thickness of
20 mm to serve as a surface course of the pavement.
- PC consists of all aggregates passing 20mm & retained on 6.3mm sieve.
- It is an open graded construction and is covered by a suitable seal coat such
as premixed sand-bitumen seal coat before opening to traffic.

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(v) Bituminous concrete or Asphalt concrete (AC)

Bituminous concrete or Asphalt concrete is a dense graded premixed
bituminous mix which is well compacted to form a high quality pavement
surface course.
- The thickness of bituminous concrete surface course layer usually ranges
from 40 to 75 mm.
- The AC consists of a carefully proportioned mixture of coarse aggregates,
fine aggregates, mineral filler & bitumen and the mix is designed by an
appropriate method.
- Generally, Marshall Method is used to fulfil the requirements of stability,
density, flexibility and voids.
Construction procedure for surface dressing
The bituminous surface dressing (BSD) is done either in a single
coat or in two coats over the existing bituminous pavement and for renewal or
as a wearing course over a WBM road.
- The appropriate temperature for surface dressing is over 160C.
a) Specification of materials:
(i) Bitumen: grade ranges between

and

(ii) Aggregate:
Los Angles abrasion value
35 % max.
Impact value
30 % max.
Flakiness index
25 % max.
Water absorption
1 % max.
b) Plants and equipment:
(i) Bitumen heater
(iii) Mechanical blower and hand brushes
(ii) Mechanical sprayer
(iv) Roller
c) Construction Procedure: (1st coat & 2nd coat)
i) Preparation of existing surface:
The existing surface is prepared
to the proper profile and ruts, depressions etc. are rectified before the
treatment is done.
- A prime coat is applied if the existing base course has a pervious surface
like WBM.
ii) Application of binder: On a prepared surface using a mechanical
sprayer, uniform spraying of the bituminous binder is done at specified
rate.
- Care should be taken that excessive binder is not applied which may
causes bleeding.
iii) Application of stone chippings:
The cover material i.e. stone
chippings as per the requirement are spread to cover the surface
uniformly.

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iv) Rolling of 1st or final coat:

The rolling is done with a roller of 68
tonnes wt. after the cover material is spread.
- Rolling is started from the edges proceeding towards the centre
longitudinally with overlapping not less than one third of the roller tread.
This is the final rolling if the surface treatment is in single coat.
- If the 2nd coat is applied then the rolling is done again after the treatment
of 2nd coat.
v) Application of binder, stone chipping and rolling for 2nd coat: The
process ii), iii) & iv) is repeated again properly for treatment of 2nd coat.
vi) Finishing and opening to traffic:
The surface is checked for
longitudinal and cross profile using a straight edge of length 3 m and
variation in surface greater than 6 mm are corrected.
- The road section is opened to traffic after 24 hrs.

Construction procedure for Bituminous Concrete

The bituminous concrete is the highest quality of construction in the
group of black to surfaces.
- The mixture contains dense grading of CA, FA and mineral filler coated with
bitumen binder and the mix is prepared in a hot-mix plant.
a) Specification of materials:
(i) Binder: Bitumen of grade

or

may be chosen

depending on climatic condition of locality.

(ii) Aggregates and filler:
Los Angles abrasion value
40 % max.
Impact value
30 % max.
Flakiness index
25 % max.
(iii) Bituminous concrete mix:
Marshall Stability value, minimum
340 kg
Marshall Flow value; 0.25 mm units
8 to 16
Void in mix
35 %
Voids filled with bitumen
7585 %
b) Plants and equipment:
(i) Hot mix plant
(iii) Bitumen distributor
(v) Pneumatic roller
(ii) Bitumen sprayer
(iv) Mechanical finisher
c) Construction Procedure:
i) Preparation of existing base course:
The existing surface is
prepared by removing the pot holes or ruts if any.
- The irregularities are filled in with premix chippings at least a week
before laying surface course.

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ii) Application of tack coat:

7.5 kg / 10 m2 area.

A tack coat of bitumen is applied @ 6

iii) Preparation and placing of premix: The premix is prepared in hot mix
plant of a required capacity with the desired quality control.
- The bitumen may be heated up to 150 177 0C and the aggregate
temperature should not differ by over 14 0C form the binder temperature.
- The hot mix is carried form mixer to the location and spread by
mechanical paver at a temp. of 121 0C 163 0C.
iv) Rolling:
The mix after placing on the base course, is thoroughly
compacted by rolling at a spread not more than 5 km/hr. Rolling can be
done by following type of roller:
Initial rolling

8 12 tonnes roller
Intermediate rolling
15 30 tonnes pneumatic roller
Final rolling

8 12 tonnes tandem roller

- The wheels of roller are kept damp with water.
v) Quality control of bituminous concrete construction: Routine checks
are carried out at site to ensure quality of mixture & pavement surface.
- Periodical checks are made for
i. Aggregate grading
iii. Temp. of aggregate
ii. Grade of bitumen
iv. Temp. of mix during mixing & compaction
- At least one sample for every 100 tonnes of mix is tested by Marshall
Test for above requirements.
- For every 100 m2 of compacted surface, field density test is conducted to
check whether it is at least 95% of density is obtained in laboratory.
- Variation in thickness greater than 6mm per 4.5m length is not allowed.
vi) Finished surface:
Longitudinal undulation should not exceed
8mm per 300m length & cross profile should not have undulation greater
than 4mm.

Construction Procedure of Plain Concrete Pavement

The construction of cement concrete pavement is divided
into two groups: (1) Construction of pavement slab
(2) Construction of joints
1) Construction Procedure of Cement Concrete Pavement Slab:
There are two modes of construction of concrete slab:
(i) Alternate bay method:
In this method, a bay or one slab in alternate succession is
constructed leaving the next or intermediate bay to follow up after a gap
of one week or so.

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- This
technique
provides
additional
working convenience
for laying of slab but it
has the drawback that
large no. of transverse
joints
are
to
be
provided.
(ii) Continuous bay method:
In this method, all the slabs or bays are laid in sequence, which has
the advantage that construction work is running on one half while
essential traffic could be diverted on other half end.
- Construction joints are provided at the end of the days job.
a) Materials:
Cement (OPC),
Aggregate (coarse and fine)
Proportioning of concrete: - Compressive strength 280kg/cm2 at 28 days.
b) Plants and equipment:
(i) Concrete mixture
(vi) Float
(ii) Batching device
(vii) Straight edge
(iii) Wheel barrow
(viii) Belt
(iv) Vibrating screed
(ix) Fibre brush
(v) Internal vibrators
(x) Edging tool
c) Construction Procedure:

i) Preparation of subgrade & sub-base:

The subgrade or sub-base
should have following requirements:
No soft spots are present in the subgrade or sub-base.
Uniformly compacted subgrade or sub-base extends at least 30cm on either
side of concrete width.
The subgrade is properly drained.
The subgrade is prepared & checked at least 2 days in advance of concreting.
ii) Placing of form works: The form works used may be of steel or
wooden. The forms are jointed neatly and are set with exactness to the
required grade and alignment.
iii) Batching of material and mixing:
Coarse and fine aggregates are
measured by weight as per required proportion and cement is measured
by number of bags.
- The mixing of concrete is done in batch mixer which will ensure a
uniform distribution of materials throughout the mass.
- The mix should be uniform in colour and homogenous.

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iv) Transporting & placing of concrete: The cement concrete is mixed in

quantities such that it can be used within 30 minutes. Care should be
taken to see that no segregation is occurred during transportation.
- The spreading of concrete is done uniformly.
v) Compaction and finishing:
The surface of pavement is compacted
either by power driven finishing machine or by a vibrating hand screed.
The concrete is further compacted by longitudinal float to take out the
excessive water.
vi) Curing:
After 24 hrs. of completion of concrete work, the whole
concreting surface is covered with jute mats and the mats are thoroughly
saturated with water.
- The concreting surface is cured regularly and uniformly for 14 days.
vii) Open to traffic: When the concrete attains the required strength or
after 28 days of curing the concrete road is opened to the traffic.
2) Construction of Joints
There are mainly two types of joints in construction of concrete roads.
(i) Longitudinal joints
(ii) Transverse joints (a) Expansion joints
(b) Contraction joints
(c) Warping joints
(d) Construction joints
i. Longitudinal joints:
Longitudinal joints are provided in cement concrete roads having width
over 4.5 m.
- Such joints are provided,
To allow differential shrinkage & swelling due to rapid changes in
subgrade moisture.
To prevent longitudinal cracking in concrete pavement.
ii. (a) Expansion joints:
These joints are provided to allow for expansion of the slab due to
rise in slab temperature above the construction temp. of cement concrete.
- It is provided at interval of 50 60 m.
ii. (b) Contraction joints:
These joints are provided to permit the contraction of slab. These
joints are spaced closer than expansion joints.
- The maximum spacing of contraction joint is;
Unreinforced slab 4.5 m
Reinforced slab (20 cm thickness) 14 m.

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ii. (c) Warping joints:

Warping joints are provided to relieve stresses included due to warping.
ii. (d) Construction joints:
It is impossible to construct the whole length of the road in a day, so
there is discontinuity in construction at certain section. The joints provided
at the end of a day work, is called construction joint.

Causes of providing joints in cement concrete pavements:

Joints are provided in cement concrete roads for expansion, contraction
and warping of the slab due to the variation in the temperature of slab.
- Changes of temp. causes expansion of slab horizontally, if there is an
increase in slab temperature above the temperature during which the slab
was laid.
- Similarly, there is contraction of slab also when the temperature falls below
the temperature that the slab was laid.
- By about mid night the temp. of the bottom slab is higher than the temperature
of the slab top, so the slab warps up during this time.
Hence, due to above reasons joints are provided in c.c. pavement.

Mass Haul Diagram

It is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork involved in road
construction and the manner in which may be most economically handled.
- Each ordinate in the diagram given below is the balance of materials obtained
from cut and used in fill.
Haul:
In earthwork calculations, the term haul has dual meaning. It is
used to describe the distance over which material is moved and also the
volumes distance of material used.

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Free haul:
It is the distance to which the contractor is supposed to move
the earth without any additional charge. The charge of free haul is covered by
the unit rate of e/w.
Overhaul:
It is the distance in excess of free haul for which the
contractor will be paid extra for each unit of haulages.
Economic overhaul: It is a distance to which material from excavation to
embankment can be moved more economically than to get material form
borrow opening.
It can be determined by: a + b.L = (c + a)

Also, If haul distance be F then, F + L = F +

Where,
a = cost of roadway excavation
b = overhaul and tipping in embankment
c = cost of borrow pit material
L = economical overhaul distance

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Construction procedure of Bituminous Bound Macadam road

Bituminous bound macadam is a premix laid immediately after
mixing and then compacted. It is suitable only as a base or binder course.
a) Specification of materials:
(i) Grade of bitumen:

(ii) Aggregates:
Los Angles abrasion value
Impact value
Flakiness index
b) Plants and equipment:
(i) Sprayer
(ii) Mechanical mixer

&

50 % max.
35 % max.
15 % max.

(iii) Spreader
(iv) Roller

c) Construction Procedure:
i) Preparation of existing layer:
The existing layer is prepared to a
proper profile. Pot holes are patched and irregularities are made even.
ii) Tack coat or prime coat application:
A tack coat is applied of thin layer
of bitumen binder on the existing black top or WBM layer either using the
sprayer or pouring can in proper quantity.
iii) Premix preparation: The bitumen binder and aggregates are separately
heated to the specified temperature of tolerance 100C and are then placed
in the mixer.
- The mixing is done till a homogeneous mixture is obtained.
iv) Placement:
The bituminous paving mixture is then immediately placed on
the desired location and is spread with rakes to a pre-determined thickness.
- The camber profile is checked with a template.
v) Rolling and finishing the paving mix:
The rolling is done with 8 10
tonnes tandem roller.
- The rolling is commenced from the edges of the pavement construction
towards the centre and uniform overlapping is provided.
- The roller wheels are kept damp such that the paving mix may not stick to
the wheels.
- A variation greater than 6mm per 3m length is not allowed in the cross
profile.
- Also, number of undulation (>10mm) should be less than 30 nos. in 300m
length.

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3. HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE, REPAIR & REHABILITATION

Highway Maintenance
Highway maintenance is defined as preserving and keeping the
serviceable conditions of highway as normal as possible and practicable.
- The maintenance operations involve the assessment of road condition,
diagnosis of problems and adopting the most appropriate maintenance steps.
Causes of pavement failure:
(i) Defects in the quality of materials used.
(ii) Defects in construction method and quality control during construction.
(iii) Inadequate surface or sub-surface drainage in the locality.
(iv) Increase in magnitude of wheel loads and the number of load repetitions
due to increase in traffic volume.
(v) Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material itself.
(vi) Environmental factors including heavy rainfall, soil erosion, high water table,
snow fall, frost action etc.
Classification of Maintenance work
Highway maintenance work may be broadly classified as:
1) Routine maintenance
3) Special repairs
2) Periodic maintenance
4) Emergency maintenance
1) Routine maintenance:
Routine maintenances are needed for any type of road, whether it is
designed and constructed with scientific bias or not. Since the highways are
exposed to the moving traffic and adverse climatic conditions, they would
positively wear out. It includes following activities:
a) Filling up pot holes and patch repair
b) Maintenance of shoulders and cross slope
c) Up-keep of road side drains
d) Clearing chocked culverts
e) Maintenance of miscellaneous items like road signs, arboriculture etc.
The maintenance schedule listed above of routine type and the repairs are
carried out at regular interval like day to day and seasonal.
2) Periodic maintenance:
It includes renewal of wearing course of pavement surface and preventive
maintenance of various items.

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3) Special repairs:
Special repairs and strengthening of pavements are needed to prevent
pavement failure. It includes:
a) Strengthening of pavement structure or overlay construction
b) Reconstruction of pavement
c) Widening of roads
d) Repairs of damages caused by floods
e) Providing additional safety measures like islands etc.
f) Improvement of highway geometrics
4) Emergency maintenance:
This maintenance is necessary when any unfavourable conditions occur
due to landslides, road wash out due to floods such that the road is closed
to pass the traffic.
- It includes the diversion work temporarily to allow the traffic to pass around
the obstructions.

Inspection, Prioritisation and Planning of Maintenance Operation

After the construction of road, the main aim is to get reliable service at
minimum possible cost for the whole life. This is achieved by inspection,
prioritization and planning.
- During inspection, a lot of defects are found which must be maintained.
- The maintenance of these defects may or may not be possible at a time due
to limited fund. So the maintenance of roads should be done according to
priorities list without the interference of political parties.
Factors to be considered in the maintenance management system:
Following factors should be included:
i) Minimum acceptable serviceability standards for the maintenance of
different categories of roads.
ii) Field surveys for the evaluation of maintenance requirements.
iii) Various factors influencing the maintenance needs such as subgrade
soil, drainage, climate, traffic, environmental condition etc.
iv) Estimation of rate of deterioration of the pavement under the
prevailing set of condition.
v) Type & extent of maintenance requirement and their economic
valuation.
vi) Availability of funds.
vii) Maintenance cost, availability of materials, man power and
equipment.

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Pavement Failures
The pavement failure is defined by the formation of pot holes, ruts, cracks,
localised depressions and settlements.
- The failure of any one or more components of the pavement structure
develops the waves and corrugations on the pavement surface.
A. Failures in Flexible Pavement
The flexible pavement is failed due to the failure of:
a. Subgrade
b. Sub-base or base
c. Wearing course
So the stability of pavement structure should be maintained as a whole such
that each layer should be stable within itself and thereby make the total
pavement maintain its stability.
1) Failure in Subgrade:
It may be fail due to following two reasons:
i) Inadequate stability:
It may be due to inherent weakness of the soil itself or excessive
moisture or improper compaction.
- Stability is the resistance to deformation under stress.
ii) Excessive stress application:
It may be due to inadequate pavement thickness or loads in excess
of design value.
- The deformation of soil subgrade is found to increase with the increase in
number of load repetitions.
2) Failure in Sub-base or Base course:
Following are the main causes of sub-base or base courses failure:
) Inadequate stability or strength
) Loss of binding action
) Loss of base course materials
) Inadequate wearing course
) Use of inferior materials and crushing of base materials
) Lack of lateral confinement for the granular base course
3) Failure in Wearing course:
This failure is observed due to following reasons:
) Lack of proper mix design
) Improper gradation of aggregates
) Inadequate binder content
) Inferior type of binder
) Inadequate compaction
) Influence of climate
) Temperature maintain for mixing and placing

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Typical flexible pavement failures:

i) Alligator (map) cracking
v) Frost heaving
ii) Consolidation or pavement
vi) Lack of binding (keying) to the lower
layer
course
iii) Shear failure
vii) Reflection cracking
iv) Longitudinal cracking
viii) Formation of waves and corrugation
Alligator (map) cracking:
This is the most common type of failure and occurs due to relative
movement of pavement layer materials.
- This may be caused by the repeated application of heavy wheel loads
resulting in fatigue failure.
- This may also be due to moisture variations resulting swelling and shrinkage
of subgrade.

i)

ii) Consolidation or pavement layer:

Formation of ruts is mainly due to the consolidation of one or more layers
of pavement.
- The repeated application of loads along same wheel path cause cumulative
deformation resulting in consolidation deformation or longitudinal ruts.
iii) Shear failure and cracking:
Shear failures are associated with the inherent weakness of the pavement
mixture, the shearing resistance being low due to inadequate stability or
excessive heavy loading.

iv) Longitudinal cracking

Longitudinal cracking is caused in pavement traversing through the full
pavement thickness due to frost action and differential volume changes in
subgrade.
- Settlement of fill & sliding of side slopes also would cause this type of failure.

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v) Frost heaving:
In the case of frost heaving, there is mostly a localised heaving-up
pavement portion depending upon the ground water and climatic condition.
vi) Lack of binding (keying) to the lower course:
Slipping occurs when the surface course is not keyed / bound with the
underlying base.
- Such conditions are occurred in case when bituminous surfacing is provided
over the existing cement concrete base course of soil cement base course.
- It may result in formation of patches or pot holes.

vii) Reflection cracking:

This type of cracking is observed in bituminous overlays provided over
existing cement concrete pavements.
- The cracks reflected on bituminous surfacing and allow surface water to seep
through cracks and cause damage to the soil subgrade.
viii) Formation of waves and corrugation:
Such type of failure is also common failure and occurs due to poor
subgrade condition, defective rolling, improper gradation or mix etc.
B. Failures in Rigid Pavement
The failures of rigid pavement are mainly due to following two factors:
i) Deficiency of pavement materials:
a) Soft aggregates
b) Poor workmanship in joint construction
c) Poor joint filler and sealer material
d) Poor surface finish
e) Improper and insufficient curing
ii) Structural inadequacy of pavement system:
a) Inadequate pavement thickness
b) Inadequate subgrade support and poor subgrade soil
c) Incorrect spacing of joints
Typical rigid pavement failures:
i) Scaling of cement concrete
ii) Shrinkage cracks
iii) Spalling of joints

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iv) Warping cracks

v) Mud pumping
vi) Structural cracks

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Scaling of cement concrete:

The scaling is mainly attributed due to the deficiency in the mix or
presence of some chemical impurities which damage the mix.

ii) Shrinkage cracks:

During the curing operation of cement concrete pavements immediately
after the construction, the shrinkage cracks normally develop.
- The placements of cracks are in longitudinal as well as in transverse direction.
iii) Spalling of joints:
Sometimes when pre-formed filler materials are placed during casting of
pavement slabs, the placement is somehow dislocated and filler is thus
placed at an angle.
- This forms an overhang of a concrete layer on the top side.
- Due to this defect, joints show excessive cracking and subsidence on later.
iv) Warping cracks:
If the joints are not well designed to accommodate the warping of slabs at
edges, this result in development of excessive stresses due to warping and
the slab develops cracking at the edges in an irregular pattern.
v) Mud pumping:
Mud pumping is recognised when the soil slurry ejects out through the
joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement caused during the downward
movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads.
- Following are the factors which cause mud pumping:
i) Extent of slab deflection
ii) Type of subgrade soil
iii) Amount of free water
vi) Structural cracks:
Inadequate pavement thickness for the amount and type of vehicles is the
prime reason for the structural cracking.
- Largely the pavements are found to crack at the corners and edges.

Maintenance of Roads
Following maintenance techniques are used for different types of roads:
1. Maintenance of Earthen road
The damages in earthen roads which may need frequent maintenance are:
i) Formation of dust in dry weather.
ii) Formation of longitudinal ruts along wheel path of vehicles.
iii) Formation of cross ruts along the surface after monsoon due to
surface water.

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- The dust nuisance may be remedied by frequent sprinkling of water, treatment

with calcium chloride etc.
- Formation of cross ruts may be due to excessive cross slope, which may not
be avoid in untreated earth road in heavy rainfall areas. Such ruts should be
repaired time to time during and after the monsoon or any type of surface
treatment should be provided on the top.
2. Maintenance of WBM roads
WBM roads are damaged rapidly due to the heavy mixed traffic & adverse
climatic conditions. In dry weather dust is formed & during rains mud is
formed.
- Due to the combined effects of traffic and the rain water, stone aggregates are
loosened and pot holes and ruts are also formed.
Following types of maintenance are carried out:
) To prevent the aggregate from getting loosened from surface course, it is
necessary to replace the soil binder periodically.
) Dust nuisance can be effectively prevented by providing bituminous
surface dressing course over WBM course.
) Pot holes and ruts formed should be patched up. The patch repair work is
carried out by first cutting out rectangular shape of defective area to
remove the defective materials to the affected depth. Then the same size
of fresh aggregates is filled up and compacted well by ramming such that
patch area is about 1cm above the general pavement surface.
3. Maintenance of Bituminous surface
The maintenance works of bituminous surfacing mainly consists of:
a. Patch repair
b. Surface treatment
c. Resurfacing
i) Patch repair:
Patch repairs are carried out on the damage or improper road surface by
cutting the pot holes to rectangular shape and the affected material in the
section is removed until the sound materials are encountered.
- A premixed material (similar new materials to replacing materials) is then
placed in the section. Generally, cut back or emulsion is used as binder.
- The material so placed in the pot hole, is well compacted by ramming having
thickness slightly above the general road surface level for future compaction
under traffic load.
ii) Surface treatment:
Excess of bitumen in the surface materials bleeds and the pavement
becomes patchy and slippery. Corrugations or rutting or shoving develop in
such pavement surfaces.
- It is customary to spread blotting materials such as aggregates chips of
maximum size about 10mm or coarse sand during summer.
- Necessary rolling is done to develop permanent bond between the existing
surface and the new materials.

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iii) Resurfacing:
In case the pavement is of inadequate thickness due to increase in traffic
load and strengthening is necessary, then an overlay of adequate thickness
should be designed and constructed, which is called resurfacing.
4. Maintenance of Cement concrete road
It may be noted that very little maintenance such as maintenance of joints
only is needed for cement concrete roads, if they are well designed and
constructed. Main defect in this type of road is formation of cracks.
) Treatment of Cracks:
The cracks developed in cement concrete (cc) may be classified
into two groups:
a) Temperature Cracks:
These are initially fine cracks or hair cracks formed across the slab, in
between a pair of transverse or longitudinal joints, dividing the slab length into
two or more proximately equal parts due to temperature stress like shrinkage
stress, warping stress etc.
- Before these cracks get wide enough to permit infiltration of water, they
should be sealed off to prevent rapid deteriorations.
- The dirt, sand and other loose particles at the cracks are thoroughly cleaned
using a sharp tool, stiff brush and pressure blower.
- Kerosene oil is applied on cleaned cracks and the cracks are then filled by
suitable grade bituminous sealing compound, heated to liquid consistency.
b) Structural Cracks:
These cracks are formed near the edge and corner regions of the slab,
due to combined wheel load and warping stresses in the slab.
- The maintenance work in such cracks involves first remedy of the basic cause
of the failure and then re-casting the failed slab.
)

Maintenance of joints:
During summer the joint sealer material is squeezed out of the
expansion joints due to the expansion of slab; subsequently as the slabs
contract during winter, the joint gap opens and cracks are formed in the old
sealer material.
- Hence, periodic maintenance of the joint sealer is essential both at expansion
& contraction joints as a part of routine maintenance work of the cc pavement.
- The opened-up joints are cleaned with brush and refilled with suitable joint
sealer material before the start of rainy seasons.
Formation of Wave & Corrugation and Its Remedies:
Following are the main causes of formation of wave and corrugation:
i) Defective rolling
iii) Poor gradation or mix v) Unstable underlying
ii) Poor subgrade condition iv) Compaction temp.
layer

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Defective rolling:
If the rolling during construction stage is improper thus
leaving the formation of waves then the process being progressive, the
wave formation would continue indefinitely.

Poor subgrade condition: Subgrade consisting of poor soils including

highly plastic or organic soils and high water table close to subgrade surface
may cause non-uniform and inadequate subgrade stability. All these would
contribute to formation of corrugated pavement surface.

Poor gradation or mix:

Defective gradation or mix for the surface layer
is another factor which gives rise to the wave formation.

Compaction temperature: Very high temperature during mixing and

compaction (rolling) of bituminous mix would make the resulting pavement
surface layers with low stability and wavy surface is formed during rolling.

Unstable underlying layers:

Weak underlying layers also cause the
formation of waves due to repeated plying of vehicles on such roads.
Remedial Measures:
There are no ways to improve the road surface once the waves and
corrugations are already formed. Usually another layer is laid after laying a
levelling course.
Following are some remedial measures taken for this problem:

If the instability of underlying layer is due to excessive moisture conditions,

suitable subsurface drainage system is constructed to remedy the defect
permanently.
If the failure is due to improper compaction of lower layers, this would need
complete reconstruction.
If the failure is due to subgrade soil which may be highly plastic expansive
clay, the solution may be by subgrade treatment using a modifying agent for
stabilization.

Pavement Evaluation
Pavement evaluation involves a thorough study of various factors such as
subgrade support, pavement composition and its thickness, traffic loading and
environmental conditions.
Objectives:
(i) To assess the requirements of pavement so that the maintenance and
strengthening job could be planned in time.
(ii) To investigate structural adequacy of pavement.
(iii) To provide safe and comfortable traffic operations.

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Approaches and Methods:

Following are the various approaches & methods of pavement
evaluation:
) Structural evaluation of pavement:
The structural evaluation of both flexible and rigid pavement may be
carried out by plate bearing test.
- The structural capacity of the pavement may be assessed by the load
carried at a specified deflection of the plate or by the amount of defection at
a specified load on the plate.
- Field investigations and tests carried out in various countries have shown
that the performance of a flexible pavement is closely related to be elastic
deflection under loads or its rebound deflection.
- Among various equipment used for this purpose, Benkelman Beam is most
commonly used, as the measurements are easy and simple.
)

Evaluation of pavement surface condition:

The surface condition of flexible pavement may be evaluated by the
unevenness, ruts, patches and cracks.
The surface condition of rigid pavements may be assessed by the cracks
developed and by faulty joints affecting the riding quality of the pavement.
The pavement unevenness may be measured using unevenness indicator,
profilograph, profilometer or roughometer and is expressed as unevenness
index (cm / km).
In AASHO road test, profilometer was used to record the variable slope
angle of the surface formed by two probe wheels spaced 13.5 cm apart.
The present serviceability rating (PSR) is correlated with the physical
measurements such as, longitudinal and transverse profile of the pavement,
degree of cracking and patching etc.

Strengthening of Existing pavements

For the successful maintenance of pavements it is essential that they have
adequate stability to withstand the design traffic under prevailing climatic and
subgrade conditions.
- If the pavements have to support increased wheel loads and load repetitions,
the pavements rapidly undergo the distress and no amount of routine and
periodic maintenance can help them.
- So in such conditions, the strengthening of existing pavement may be done by
providing additional thickness of the pavement of adequate thickness in one
or more layers over the existing pavement, which is called overlay.
- If the existing pavements have completely deteriorated, an overlay would not
serve the purpose, the solution would be to remove existing pavement and
then rebuild the same.

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Overlay and its types:

The strengthening of existing pavement by providing additional
adequate thickness in one or more layers over the existing pavement; is
called overlay.
It may be of following types:
i) Flexible overlay over flexible pavements
ii) Flexible overlay over cement concrete or rigid pavements
iii) Cement concrete or rigid overlay over rigid pavements
i) Flexible overlay over flexible pavements:
The overlay thickness required over a flexible pavement may be
determined by one of the following method:
a) Conventional pavement design method
b) Non-destructive testing method (like Benkelman deflection method)
The overlay thickness required as per conventional method is given by:

ho = hd + he
Where,

ho = overlay thickness required (cm)

hd = total design thickness required (cm)
he = total thickness of existing pavement (cm)

ii) Flexible overlay over cement concrete or rigid pavements:

A flexible or bituminous overlay when provided over a rigid pavement, the
wheel load is distributed through a larger area by the overlay, thus slightly
reducing the wheel load stress on the old rigid pavement.
- Further the maximum temperature differential in the rigid pavement is also
decreased due to the bituminous overlay, thus causing a substantial
reduction in the warping stress and also in the maximum combined stress.
Its thickness may be calculated as:
hf = 2.5 (F hd he)
Where, hf = flexible overlay thickness
F = factor depending upon modulus of existing pavement
he = existing rigid pavement thickness
hd = design thickness of rigid pavement
iii) Cement concrete or rigid overlay over rigid pavements:
When a rigid or CC overlay is constructed over an existing rigid or cc
pavement, the interface between the old and new concrete cant have
perfect bond such that the two slabs could act as a monolithic one.

(
)
Its thickness may be calculated as:
W here, ho = rigid overlay thickness
hd = design thickness
he = existing pavement thickness
Values of a, b, x and n depends upon the pavement and method of overlay
construction.

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Design of Overlay
It may be designed by one of the following methods:
i) Conventional design method
ii) Non-destructive testing method (like Benkelman beam deflection method)
(i) Conventional Design method:
The total pavement thickness requirement is designed for the design traffic
and the existing conditions of subgrade.
- The CBR method of pavement design as recommended by the IRC is
adopted for finding the total design thickness of the flexible pavement for the
design traffic volume.
- The existing thickness of the pavement is found from test pits dug along the
wheel path on the pavement.
The overlay thickness required is given by:
ho = hd he
overlay = ho
existing = he

hd

Fig: Overlay Design

(ii) Overlay design by Benkelman Beam deflection method:
Benkelman Beam is a device which can be conveniently used to measure
the rebound deflection of a pavement due to dual wheel load assembly or
the design wheel load.
Principle:
A well compacted pavement section or one which has been well
conditioned by traffic deforms elastically under each wheel load application
such that when the load moves away, there is an elastic recovery or
rebound defection of the deformed pavement surface. This is the basic
principle of deflection method.
- The amount of pavement deflection is a measure of the structural stability of
the pavement system.
- Larger rebound deflection indicates weaker pavement structure which may
require earlier strengthening or higher overlay thickness.
Procedure:
The stretch of road length to be evaluated is first surveyed to assess the
general condition of the pavement w.r.t. the ruts, cracks and undulations.
- The stretches are classified and grouped into different classes such as
good, fair & poor and length of each stretch should not be less than 500m.
- The loading points on the pavement are located along wheel path on a line
0.6 0.9 m from the pavement edge, according to width of pavement.
- A minimum of 10 deflection observations (preferably 20 nos.) may be taken
on each of the selected stretch.

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- After marking the deflection observation points, following procedure is done:

i) The truck is driven slowly parallel to the edge and stopped such that
the left side rear wheel is centrally placed over the first point for
deflection measurement.
ii) The probe end of the Benkelman beam is inserted between the gaps of
the dual wheel and is placed exactly over the observation point.
iii) The initial dial gauge reading Do is noted, when the rate of change of
pavement deflection is < 0.025 mm / minute.
iv) Similarly, intermediate gauge reading Di and final gauge reading Df is
taken at a distance of 2.7m from the point and a further distance of
9.0m respectively.
v) The three deflection dial reading Do, Di and Df form a set of readings at
one deflection point. Similarly for next deflection point, above process
is repeated.
vi) The temperatures of pavement surface are recorded at interval of 1 hr.
and also the tyre pressure is checked.
The rebound deflection value D at any point is given by,
D = 2 (Do Df) ;
if Di Df 2.5
And,

D = 2 (Do - Df) + 2k (Di Df)

if Di Df > 2.5

Where,
d = dist. between bearing of the beam & rear adjusting leg
e = dist. between dial gauge & rear adjusting leg
f = dist. between front and rear leg.

Overlay thickness design:

Overlay thickness design (ho) can be determined as,
1) For bituminous overlay:
(cm)
Where,
R
Da
Dc

= deflection reduction factor

(= 10 ~ 15)
= allowable deflection
(= 0.75 ~ 1.25 mm)

= +
= characteristic deflection
=
=

mm
(

(= mean deflection value)

)

(= standard deviation)

2) For granular or WBM overlay:

(mm)

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Da is given by;
Value of Da
1.0 mm
1.25 mm
1.5 mm
Where,
Design traffic,

2014

Projected design traffic (A)

1500 4500
450 1500
150 450
A = P [ 1 + r ] (n + 10)

Numerical
Benkelman Beam deflection studies were carried out on 15 selected
points on a stretch of flexible pavement during summer season using
a dual wheel load of 4085 kg, 5.6 kg/cm2 pressure. The deflection
values obtained in mm after making the necessary lag corrections are
given below. If the present traffic consists of 750 commercial vehicles
/day, determine the thickness of bituminous overlay required, if the
pavement temperature during the test was 390C and the correction
factor for subsequent increase in subgrade moisture content is 1.3.
Assume annual rate of growth of traffic as 7.5%. Adopt IRC guidance.
1.4, 1.32, 1.25, 1.35, 1.48, 1.60, 1.65, 1.55, 1.45, 1.40, 1.36, 1.46,
1.50, 1.52, 1.45
Solution:

Deflection after temperature correction

= 1.557 (39 35) 0.0065

= 1.531 mm
Corrected deflection for subgrade moisture
= 1.531 * 1.3 = 1.99 mm
Assume, no. of yrs. (n) = 2
A = P [1 + r] (n+10) = 750 [1 + 0.075] (2 + 10)
So, allowable deflection (Da) = 1.0 mm

= 1786 com. vehicles / day

( A is between 1500 4500)

Overlay thickness of granular material,

Assume an equivalency factor of 2.0 for bituminous overlay,

Thickness of bituminous overlay = 16.5
= 8.25 cm
#

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4. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Intro
Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the
improvement of traffic performance of road networks and terminals.
- Traffic engineering deals with the application of scientific principles, tools,
techniques and findings for safe, rapid, convenient and economic movement
of people and goods.
Scope of Traffic Engineering
The basic object of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free and rapid
flow of traffic, with least number of traffic accidents.
Following are the main scope of traffic engineering:
a) Traffic characteristics
d) Planning and analysis
b) Traffic studies and analysis
e) Geometric design
c) Traffic operation, control & regulation f) Administration and management
- Study of traffic characteristics is the most essential prerequisite for any
improvement of traffic facilities.
- The various studies to be carried out on the actual traffic include speed,
volume, capacity, travel pattern, origin, destination, parking, accident studies.
- Installation of traffic control devices like signs, signals and islands are most
common means to regulate and control the traffic.
- The planning is separate phase for major highways like express-ways, arterial
roads and parking facilities.
- Improvement of road geometries like horizontal and vertical alignment, sight
distance, cross section, etc. all fall under the scope of traffic engineering.
Impact of Human and Vehicular characteristics on traffic engineering:
1) Human Characteristics:
The human element is involved in all actions of the road users either as
pedestrian, cyclist, car driver or motorist.
Following are the various factors which affect human (road user)
characteristics:
i) Physical Characteristics:
The physical characteristics of road users may be either permanent
or temporary.
- Permanent characteristics are the vision, hearing, strength and the
general reaction to traffic situations.
- Temporary characteristics are fatigue, alcohol or drugs and illness.
- All these reduce alertness and increase the reaction time and also affect
the quality of judgement.

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ii) Mental Characteristics:

Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the
road user characteristics.
- Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice,
rules of roads and traffic regulation, psychology of road users will be
quite useful for safe traffic operation.
iii) Psychological Factors:
The emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, anger,
superstition impatience, general attitude towards traffic regulation and
maturity also come under this.
iv) Environmental Characteristics:
The various environmental factors such as fog, rain, heavy sunlight,
heat, etc. affect the behaviour of road user.
- The environmental conditions affecting the behaviour of road user are
traffic stream characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric
conditions and the locality.
- The traffic stream may consist of mixed traffic or heavy traffic whereas
the facilities to overtake faster vehicles may be limited.
- The facilities to the traffic may be location of fuel station, parking,
maintenance workshop etc.
2) Vehicular Characteristics:
It is quite important to study the various vehicular characteristics which
affect the design & traffic performance, because it is possible to design a
road for a particular vehicle having standard dimension & weight but not for
an indefinite vehicle.
The following vehicular characteristics affecting road design may be classified as:
i) Static Characteristics:
Static characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are the
dimensions, weight an maximum turning angle.
- The height of vehicle affects the clearance of the overhead structures.
- The height of driver seat affects the visibility distance.
- The height of head light affects the head light sight dist. at valley curves.
- The length of vehicle affects the capacity, over taking distance, turning
on sharp curves etc.
ii) Dynamic Characteristics:
Dynamic characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are
speed, acceleration and braking characteristics.
- The speed and acceleration depends upon the power of the engine and
the resistance to be overcome and are important in all the geometric
design elements.
- The deceleration & braking characteristics guide safe vehicle operation.

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Traffic operation and regulations:

In order to have safe traffic operations on roads, it is essential to impose
adequate traffic regulation and traffic control devices.
Traffic regulations:
The traffic regulations should cover all aspects of control of vehicles, driver
and all other road users. The regulations should be rational.
Traffic regulations and laws cover the following four phases:
i) Driver controls:
These include driving licences for light and heavy motor vehicles,
driver tests & minimum requirements, financial responsibility & civil liability.
ii) Vehicle controls:
These include vehicle registration, requirements of vehicles,
equipment and accessories, maximum dimensions, weight, fitness and
inspection of vehicles.
iii) Flow regulations:
Regulations of traffic flow have been laid down such as directions,
turning and overtaking etc. It also includes regulatory signs like one way,
speed limit, prohibition signs, pedestrian controls etc.
iv) General controls:
Some other general regulations and provisions are made to report
accidents, recording and disposing traffic violation cases.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

The various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic
may be called traffic control devices.
- The general requirement of traffic control devices are: attention, meaning,
time for response and respect of road users.
Following are the most common traffic control devices:
(1) Traffic signs
(3) Markings
(2) Traffic signals
(4) Islands
(1) Traffic signs
The traffic sings are mounted on sign posts. The signs should be placed
such that they could be seen and recognised by the road users in time.
- The edge of the sign adjacent to the road is not less than 0.6m away from the
edge of the kerb.
Types of traffic signs are: (a) Regulatory or mandatory signs
(b) Warning or cautionary signs
(c) Informatory signs

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(a) Regulatory signs:

These signs are used to inform the road users of certain laws,
regulations and prohibitions.
These are further classified as:
i) Stop and give- way signs
iv) Restriction end signs
ii) Prohibitory signs
v) Direction control signs
iii) No parking / stopping signs
vi) Speed limit signs
- The stop sign is intended to stop the vehicles on a roadway and the giveway sign is used to control the vehicles on a road so as to assign right of
way to traffic.
- Prohibitory signs are meant to prohibit certain traffic movements, use of
horns or entry of certain vehicle class.
- No parking sign is meant to prohibit parking of vehicles at that place.
- Direction control signs indicate by arrows, the appropriate directions in
which the vehicles are obliged to proceed.
- Speed limit signs are meant to restrict the speed of all or certain classes of
vehicles on a particular stretch of a road.

(b) Warning:
Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn the road users of
certain hazardous conditions that exist on or adjacent to the roadway.
- The warning signs are in the shape of equilateral triangle with its apex
pointing upwards.
- They have a white back ground, red border and black symbols.

(c) Informatory Signs:

These signs are used to guide the road users along routes, inform
them of destination and distance, provide information to make travel
easier, safe and pleasant.
These are divided into:
Direction and place identification signs
Parking signs
Facility information signs

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(2) Traffic signals

Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic
to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light signals
automatically.
- The main requirements of traffic signal are to draw attention, provide meaning
and time to respond with the minimum waste of time.

Advantages of traffic signals:

They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling
capacity at intersections.
They reduce the accidents.
Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalised intersections.
Automatic traffic signal may work out to be economical compound to
manual control.
They provide all the vehicles to move approximately at same reasonable
speed along the major road traffic.

Disadvantages:
The rear-end collisions may increase.
Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control
system.
Failure of the signal due to electric power or any other defect may cause
confusion to the road users.
Types of Traffic signals:
The signals are classified as follows:

i) Traffic Control Signals:

The traffic control signals have three coloured
light glows facing each direction of traffic flow.
- The red light is meant for stop, the green light
indicates go and the amber or yellow light allows
the clearance time.

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a) Fixed-time signals:
are those in which the timings of the phase &
cycle are set to repeat regularly; a cycle of red, amber & green lights.
b) Manually operated signals:

are those which are operated manually.

c) Traffic actuated (automatic) signals: are those in which the timing of

the phase & cycle are changed automatically according to traffic
demand.
ii) Pedestrian Operated Signals:
These signals are meant to give right of way to pedestrians to cross
a road during walk period when vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red.
iii) Specific Traffic Signals:
(3) Road Markings
Road or traffic marking may be called special signs intended to control,
warn, guide or regulate the traffic.
- These are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols by using paints in contrast
with colour and brightness of the pavement, kerb, sides of island etc.
These may be classified as:
i) Pavement markings
v) Road delineators
ii) Kerb markings
a) Roadway indicators
iii) Object markings
b) Hazard marker
iv) Reflector unit markings
c) Object marker
i) Pavement Markings:
Pavement markings may generally be white paint.
- Yellow colour markings are used to indicate parking restrictions.
- Longitudinal solid lines are used as guiding or regulating lines and are not
meant to be crossed by the driver.
- Transverse solid lines indicate the position of stop lines for vehicles.
ii) Kerb Markings:
These may indicate certain regulations like parking regulations.
- Also the markings on kerb with alternate black and white line increase the
visibility from long distance.
iii) Object Markings:
Physical obstruction on or near the roadway are hazardous and hence
should be properly marked.
- These obstructions may be supports for bridge, level crossing gates,
narrow bridges, culvert head walls etc.
iv) Reflector Unit Markings:
Reflector markers are used as hazard markers (yellow light) and guide
markers for safe driving during night.

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(4) Traffic Islands

Traffic islands are raised area constructed within the roadway to establish
physical channels through which the vehicular traffic may be guided.
Following are the types of traffic islands based on the function:
(i) Divisional islands
(iii) Pedestrian loading islands
(ii) Channelizing islands
(iv) Rotary islands
(i) Divisional islands:
Divisional islands are intended to separate opposing flow of traffic
on a highway with four or more lanes.
- It eliminates the head on collisions and also reduces the accidents.
(ii) Channelizing islands:
These are used to guide the traffic into
proper channel through the intersection area.
- These are very useful as traffic control
devices for intersection at grade, particularly
when the area is large.
- These are useful when the direction of flow is
to be changed.
- These can reduce the possible conflicts
between traffic streams.
(iii)Pedestrian loading islands:
These are provided at regular bus stops and similar places for the
protection of passengers.
(iv) Rotary islands:
Rotary island is the large central island of a rotary intersection and
is much larger than the central island of channelized intersection.

Numericals
A vehicle was stopped in 1.4 sec by fully jamming the brakes and the
skid marks measured 7 m. Determine the average skid resistance.
Solution:
We have,
(i)
v = u + at,
(ii)
v2 u2 = 2as
or, 0 a2t2 = 2as

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Given,
Braking distance, L = (s) = 7 m
Braking time, (t) = 1.4 sec.

An isolated signal with pedestrians indication is to be installed on a

right angled intersection with road A, 18m wide road B, 12m wide.
The heaviest volume per hour for each lane of road A & B are 275 and
225 respectively. The approach speeds are 55 and 40 kmph, for A & B
respectively. Design the timings of traffic and pedestrian signals.
Solution:
Assume, Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2 m/s
Amber time for road A,
AA = 4 sec
Amber time for road B,
AB = 3 sec
Initial interval to start crossing = 7 sec (= It )
Now,

Green time,
Road A, GA = (tB + It) AA
Road B, GB = (tA + It) AB

= (10 + 7) 4
= (15 + 7) 3

= 13 sec
= 19 sec

Now, Based on approach volume, Green time is calculated as;

Total cycle length = GA+ AA + GB + AB

= 23.2 + 4 + 19 + 3 = 49.2 sec

Hence, adopt cycle length (c) = 50 sec

Adjusting the additional period of (50 49.2)

= 0.8 sec

GA (adjust)

= 0.8

GB (adjust)

= 0.8 0.44 = 0.36 sec

GA (new)
GB (new)

= 23.2 + 0.44
= 23.64 sec
= 19 + 0.36 = 19.36 sec #

Red time, RA
RB

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= GB + A B
= GA + AA

URL

= 19.36 + 3
= 23.64 + 4

= 0.44 sec.

= 22.36 sec
= 27.64 sec

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#

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Design of pedestrian signal:

Do not walk (DW) period,
DWA = RB = 27.64 sec
DWB = RA = 22.36 sec

#
#

For walk (w) period,

WA = C (RB + tA) = 50 (27.64 + 15) = 7.36 sec
WB = C (RA +tB) = 50 (22.36 + 10) = 17.64 sec

#
#

The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during

design period are 400 and 250 PCU/hr.; the saturation flow values on
these roads are estimated as 1250 and 100 PCU/hr. respectively. The
all-red time required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design two
phase traffic signal by Webster method.
Solution:
Normal flow,

qa
qb

= 400 PCU/hr.
= 250 PCU/hr.

Saturation flow,

Sa
Sb

= 1250 PCU/hr.
= 1000 PCU/hr.

Ratio, ya

= 0.32

yb

= 0.25

Now, Y = ya + yb

= 0.32 + 0.25

= 0.57

Total lost time per cycle, L = 2n + R

= 2 2 + 12 = 16 sec
where, n = 2 = no. of phase
R = 12 sec = red time required
Now, Optimum signal cycle, (co)

= 67.4 sec

67.5 sec
29 sec

Ga

(67.5 16)

= 28.9

Gb

(67.5 16)

= 22.5 sec

Here, All-red time (R)

Assume, Amber time (A)
Total cycle time

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= 12 sec
= 2 sec, for each road

= GA + GB + R + AA + AB
= 29 + 22.5 + 12 + 2 + 2
= 67.5 sec

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5. TRAFFIC STUDIES
Intro
Traffic studies or surveys are carried out to analyse the traffic
characteristics. These studies help in deciding the geometric design feature
and traffic control for safe and efficient traffic movements.
The various traffic studies carried out are:
1) Traffic volume study
4) Traffic flow characteristics
2) Speed studies
5) Parking study
i) Spot speed study
6) Accident study
ii) Speed and delay study
7) Traffic capacity study
3) Origin and Destination (O & P) study
1) Traffic volume study:
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit
time at any selected period.
- Traffic volume is used as a quantity measure of flow.
- The commonly used units are vehicles/day and vehicles/hour.
Following are the objects and uses of traffic volume studies:
a) To measure the relative importance of roads and in deciding the priority for
improvement and expansion.
b) This study is used in planning, traffic operation and control or existing and
new facilities.
c) This study is used in the analysis of traffic pattern and trends.
d) Useful in structural design of pavement, geometric design and computing
roadway capacity.
e) Used for planning sidewalks, cross walks, signal timing, channelization etc
Counting of traffic volume:
Traffic volume counts may be done by following ways:

a) Mechanical Counters:
The mechanical counters can automatically record the total number
of vehicles crossing a section of the road in a desired period.
- Traffic count is recorded by electrically operated counters and
recorders capable of recording the impulses.
- Other methods of working the mechanical detectors are by photoelectric cells, magnetic detectors and radar detectors.
b) Manual Counts:
This method employs a field team to record traffic volume on the
prescribed record sheets.

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- By this method, it is possible to obtain data which cant be collected by

mechanical counters, such as vehicle classification, turning movements
and counts.
- This method is very commonly adopted due to the specific advantages
over other methods.
2) Speed studies:
The actual speed of vehicles over a particular route may fluctuate widely
depending on several factors such as geometric features, traffic conditions,
time, place, environment and driver.
Travel time is the reciprocal of speed.
Spot speed is instantaneous speed of veh. at a specified section or location.
Average speed is the average of the spot speeds of all vehicles passing a
given point on the highway.
Running speed is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular
stretch of road, while the vehicle is in motion.
Overall speed or travel speed is the effective speed with which a vehicle
traverses a particular route between two terminals.
There are two types of speed studies carried out:
i) Spot speed study:
Following are the uses of spot speed study:
a) To use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulations.
b) To use in geometric design for redesigning existing highway.
c) To use in accident studies.
d) To study the traffic capacity and decide the speed trends.
Measurement of spot speed:
(i) By finding running speed of vehicles over a short distance of < 50 m.
(ii) By finding instantaneous speed while crossing a section.
Presentation of Spot speed data
(a) Average speed of vehicles:
From the spot speed data of the selected samples, frequency
distribution tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups
covering various speed ranges & the number of vehicles in such range.
- The arithmetic mean is taken as the average speed.
(b) Cumulative speed of vehicles:
A graph is plotted with the average values of each speed group on
the x-axis and the cumulative percentage of vehicles travelled at or
below the different speeds on the y-axis.
- The drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are usually considered to
drive faster than the safe speed under existing conditions and hence
this speed is adopted for the safe speed limit at this zone.

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98th percentile speed is

taken for the purpose of
highway
geometric
design.
- The 15th percentile speed
represents the lower
speed limit.

(c) Modal Average:

A frequency distribution curve of
spot speeds is plotted with speed of
vehicles or average values of each
speed group of vehicles on the x-axis
and the % of vehicles on the y-axis.
- This graph is called the speed
distribution curve.
- This curve will have a definite peak value of travel speed across the
section and this speed is denoted as modal speed.
ii) Speed and delay study:
The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, overall
speeds, fluctuations in speeds and the delay between two stations of a
road spaced far apart.
- They also give the information such as the amount, location, duration
frequency and causes of the delay in the traffic stream.
- The studies are utilised in finding the travel time and in benefit-cost
analysis. The efficiency of the roadway is judged form the travel time.
- The delay or the time lost by traffic during the travel period may be either
due to fixed delays or operational delays.
There are various methods of carrying out speed and delay study:
(a) Floating car or riding check method
(d) Elevated observations
(b) License plate or vehicle number method (e) Photographic technique
(c) Interview technique
3) Origin and destination (o & d) studies:
The origin and destination (o & d) study is carried out mainly to
a) plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic.
b) plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demand of
commuters.

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- The O & D studies of vehicular traffic determine their number, their origin and
destination in each zone under study.
- O & D study gives information like the actual direction of travel, selection of
routes and length of the trip.
- These studies are most essential in planning new highway facilities and in
improving some of the existing systems.

Applications of O & D studies:

To judge the adequacy of existing routes and to use in planning new
network of roads.
To plan transportation system and mass transit facilities.
To locate expressway or major routes along the desire lines.
To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities.
To locate new bridges as per traffic demands.
To locate intermediate stops of public transport.
Methods of collecting O & D data:
Following are the methods for collecting the O & D data:
i) Road side interview method
iv) Tag-on-car method
ii) Licence plate method
v) Home interview method
iii) Return post cart method
i) Road side interview method:
The vehicles are stopped at previously decided interview stations,
by a group of persons and the answers to prescribed questionnaire are
collected on the spot.
- The information collected is time of origin & destination, route, purpose
of trip, type of vehicle and number of passenger in each vehicle.
- This method is simple and quick, as the data is collected quickly in
short duration.
- The main drawback of the method is that the vehicles are stopped for
interview, and there is delay to vehicular movement.
ii) Licence plate method:
The entire area under study is cordoned out and the observers are
simultaneously stationed at all points of entry and exit on all the routes
leading to and out of the area.
- The observers at all points note the license plate number (registration
number) of the vehicles entering and leaving the cordoned area and
the time.
- This method is quite easy and quick as far as field work is concerned.
- The method however involves a lot of office computation in tracing the
trips through a network of stations.

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4) Traffic flow characteristics:

Traffic stream has
flow and counter flow
along a common route,
unless the stream is
separated into pair of
one-way flows by proper
design or regulation.
- The
basic
traffic
manoeuvres
are
diverging, merging and
crossing; as shown in fig:
Diverging:
Diverging is the process of leaving the lane by the vehicle and gaining
either left or right of the existing lane.
- Diverging on left is easiest movement causing least problem of traffic conflicts.
Merging:
Merging is the process of mixing the vehicle form left or right of main lane.
Crossing:
Crossing is the process of passing a lane perpendicular to other lane.
Weaving:
Waving is the combination of diverging and merging.
- When a vehicle moves obliquely across the path of another vehicle moving in
the same direction, at relatively and small angle of crossing, the action is
termed as weaving.
5) Parking study:
Parking is one of the most important places in transportation system,
demanded by automobile users especially in big cities.
- In industrial, commercial and residential places with multi-storeyed building;
parking demand is particularly high.
Following are the main aspects which are studied during parking studies:
(i) Parking demand (ii) Parking characteristics (iii) Parking space inventory
(i) Parking demand:

The parking demand may be evaluated by different methods. One of the

methods is by making cordon counts of the selected area and recording
accumulation of vehicles during the peak hours by subtracting the outgoing
traffic from the traffic volume entering the cordoned area.
- Also it can be done by noting the registration number of each parked vehicle
at any desired time interval (such as 30 minutes, 1 hour etc.).

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(ii) Parking characteristics:

The study is directed to note the present parking practices prevalent in the
area and general problems in parking.
- It is also necessary to study parking pattern, interference to smooth flow or
traffic and accidents involved during parking and unparking.
(iii) Paring space inventory:

The area under study is fully surveyed and a map is prepared showing all
places of parking facilities to meet the parking demand.
- The traffic engineer has to strike a balance between capacity and parking
demand and to design proper facilities for parking.
Types of parking facilities:
(a) On-street parking:

When the parking facility is provided on kerb, it is on-street parking.

On-street parking is further divided into:
a. Angle parking :
300, 450, 600 or 900
b. Parallel parking
Angle parking accommodates more vehicles per unit length of kerb.
The maximum vehicles that can be parked, is with an angle of 90 o. 450
parking is considered the best one.
The chance of accidents in angle parking is more.
Parallel parking is generally preferred when the widths of kerb for
parking space as well as width of the street are limited.

(b) Off-street parking:

When the parking facility is provided at a separate place away from

the kerb, it is known as off-street parking.
The main advantage of this method is that there is no undue
congestion and delay on the road as in kerb parking.
But the main drawback is some of the owners will have to walk a
greater distance after parking the vehicles.

6) Accident study:
Accident in traffic engineering is defined as a phenomenon which may
occur with the combination of vehicular traffic, pedestrians etc.
- It is occurring due to complex flow patterns of vehicular traffic, presence of
mixed traffic and pedestrians.
- Traffic accidents may involve property damages, personal injuries or even
casualties.
Objectives:
The following are the main objectives of the accident studies:

i) To study the causes of accidents

ii) To suggest corrective treatment at potential location.

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iii) To evaluate the existing design.

iv) To support proposed design.
v) To make computation of financial losses.
Causes of accidents:
Following are the causes of accidents:

(i) Road users

(a) Drivers
(b) Pedestrians
(c) Passengers

(ii) Vehicle defects

(iii) Road
(a) Road condition
(b) Road design

(iv) Environmental factors

(v) Other factors

Drivers: Excessive speed and rash driving, carelessness, violation of rules

and regulation, sign or signal, temporary effects due to fatigue, sleep,
alcohol etc. fall under the causes of accidents due to drivers.
Pedestrians: Violating regulations, carelessness in using the carriageway,
no knowledge about traffic rules and regulation etc.
Passengers:

Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles.

Vehicle defects:
Failure of brakes, steering system, lighting system,
tyre burst or any other defect in vehicles.
Road condition:
Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts and
other damaged conditions of the road surface.
Road design: Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance,
inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper lighting and
improper traffic control devices.
Environmental factors:
Unfavourable weather condition like mist, fog,
snow, dust, smoke or heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and
render driving unsafe.
Other factors: Stay animals on the road, incorrect sign and signals, badly
located advertisement boards or service stations, semi-naked girl etc.
7) Traffic capacity study:
Following related terms are often used in traffic capacity study:
(i) Traffic volume (iii) Traffic capacity
(v) Possible capacity
(ii) Traffic density (iv) Basic capacity
(vi) Practical capacity
(i) Traffic volume:

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on

a given lane or roadway that pass a given point or cross section during
specified unit of time.
- It is expressed as vehicles/hour or vehicles/day.

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(ii) Traffic density:

Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane of

roadway at a given instant.
- It is expressed as vehicles/km.
- Traffic volume is the product of traffic density and traffic speed.
(iii) Traffic capacity:

Traffic capacity is the ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume.

- It is expressed as the maximum number of vehicles in a lane or a roadway
that can pass a given point in unit time; i.e. vehicles/hr./lane.
(iv) Basic capacity:

Basic capacity is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a
given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly
ideal roadway and traffic conditions.
- It is the theoretical capacity.
(v) Possible capacity:

Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a

given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway
and traffic condition.
(vi) Practical capacity:

Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being so
great as to unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to the drivers freedom
to manoeuvre under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

Determination of theoretical maximum capacity:

An estimate of theoretical maximum or basic capacity of a single lane may
be made from the relation:
(i)

Here, C = capacity of a single lane, vehicles/hour

V = speed, kmph
S = avg. c/c spacing of vehicles OR space headway, m
- The basic capacity depends upon the speed (v) and spacing (s).
- The average spacing (s) between c/c of vehicles is equal to the average
length of vehicles plus the clear spacing between the vehicles in the stream.
i.e. S
= Sg + L
Where,
=vt+L
Sg = minimum space gap in m
or, S = 0.278 V t + L
L = avg. length of vehicle
or, S = 0.278 V * 0.7 + L
v, V = avg. speed in m/s & kmph resp.
S = 0.2 V + L
(ii)
t
= reaction time (taken as 0.7 sec)

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By putting the value of S from eqn (ii) to the eqn (i), we get the theoretical
capacity of traffic lane with homogeneous traffic flow.
It has been observed that the increase in speed of traffic stream, time
headway decreases and after reaching a minimum value at an optimum
speed, starts increasing.
- Hence, the maximum theoretical capacity of a traffic lane may be obtained, if
the minimum time headway (Ht) is taken.
i.e.
Where, C = capacity, vehicles/hour (3600 sec)
Ht = minimum time headway in second

Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

It is quite difficult to estimate the traffic volume and capacity of roadway
facilities under mixed traffic flow, unless the different vehicles classes (such
as cars, vans, buses, trucks, motorcycles, pedal cycles, bullock carts etc.) are
converted to one common standard vehicle unit.
- Hence, it is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard
vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called
passenger car unit (PCU).
- Thus in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume and capacity are expressed as
PCU/hr. or PCU/lane/hr. and traffic density as PCU/km length of lane.

Factors affecting PCU values:

Vehicles characteristics such as dimensions, power, speed, acceleration and
braking characteristics.
Transverse and longitudinal gaps or clearances between moving vehicles.
Roadway characteristics such as road geometrics including gradient, curve
etc., rural or urban roads, presence of intersections etc.
Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one way traffic, traffic
control devices etc.
Environmental and climatic conditions.
Factors affecting practical capacity:
Following are some important factors that affect the practical capacity:

i)

Lane width:
As the lane width decreases, the practical capacity of a traffic
lane also decreases.

ii) Lateral clearance:

Vertical obstructions such as retaining wall or parked
vehicles near the traffic lane reduce the effective width of lane and thus
reduction in the capacity of lane.
- A minimum clearance of 1.85m from the pavement edge to the obstruction
is considered desirable so that capacity is not affected adversely.

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iii) Width of shoulder:

Narrow shoulders reduce the effective width of traffic
lanes as the vehicles travel towards the centre of the pavement, resulting in
a great reduction in the capacity of lane.
iv) Commercial vehicles: Large commercial vehicles like truck and buses
occupy greater space and also heavy commercial vehicles may travel at
lower speeds especially on grades which may affect the other traffic in the
same lane, thus reducing capacity.
v)

Alignment:
If the alignment and geometrics are no up to the design
standards, the capacity will decrease.

vi) Presence of intersection at grade:

Intersections restrict free flow of traffic
and thus adversely affect the capacity of lane.
vii) Other factors: The other factors that affect the capacity of lane are number
of traffic lane, one or two way traffic movement, vehicular and driver
characteristics.

Presentation of Traffic volume data:

i) Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT):
AADT is the total volume of vehicle traffic of a particular highway or road
for a year divided by 365 days.
- AADT is useful for the measurement of busyness of the road.
- One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the
maintenance and improvement of highway.
ii) Average Daily Traffic (ADT):
It is the volume of traffic counted on the roadway over a given time period
(greater than 1 day but less than 1 year) divided by the number of days in
that period.
- Average daily traffic also estimates to monitor the growth in traffic on a
roadway and for funding of major improvement.
- It is also useful for analysing the rate of traffic accidents on a roadway.
- Its measurement may be seasonal, weekly or hourly as per requirement.
iii) Thirtieth (30th) Highest Hourly Volume:
It is also known as Design Hourly Volume (DHV). It is usually the 30th
highest hourly volume for the design year, generally taken 20 yrs. from the
time of construction completion.
- The 30th highest volume is hourly volume which is generally taken for design
purposes in both view point i.e. design facilities and economic
considerations.

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Numerical s
Spot studies were carried out at a certain stretch of a highway and the
consolidated data collected are given below:
Speed range,
kmph
0 to 10
10 to 20
20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50

No. of vehicles
observed
12
18
68
89
204

Speed range,
kmph
50 to 60
60 to 70
70 to 80
80 to 90
90 to 100

No. of vehicles
observed
255
119
43
33
9

Determine:
(i) Upper & lower values of speed limits for regulation of mixed traffic.
(ii) The design speed for checking geometric design elements of highway.
Solution:

Frequency distribution of spot speed data:

speed range, kmph

mid speed, kmph frequency

0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100

5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95

frequency %
= 1.41

12
18
68
89
204
255
119
43
33
9
850

total

cumulative freq. %
1.41
3.53
11.53
22.00
46.00
76.00
90.00
95.06
98.94
100.00

2.12
8.00
10.47
24.00
30.00
14.00
5.06
3.88
1.06
100

Using the values of mid speed and cumulative frequency % column,

cumulative speed distribution curve is plotted.

cumulative frequency %

100

98 %

90

85 %

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

15 %

10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

mid speed, kmph

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i) Upper speed limit for regulation

= 85th percentile speed

= 60 kmph #

ii) Lower speed limit for regulation

= 15th percentile speed

= 30 kmph #

iii) Speed to check design elements

= 98th percentile speed

= 82 kmph #

2014

Two vehicles A & B approaching at right angles, A from west and B

from south, collide with each other. After the collision, vehicle A skids
in a direction 500 north of west and vehicle B 600 east of north. The
initial skid distances of the vehicles A & B are 38 and 20 m
respectively before collision. The skid distances after collision are 15
and 36 m respectively. If the weight of vehicles A & B are 4.4 & 6
tonnes; calculate the original speeds of the vehicles. The average skid
resistance of the pavement is found to be 0.55.
Solution:
Speeds of vehicles just after collision,

Speeds of vehicles just before collision,

Original speed of vehicles before application of brakes are obtained,

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6. ROAD INTERSECTIONS
Intro
General area of road or street about which two or more roads join or cross
including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movement within it, is
called road intersections.
Basic requirements of intersections
i) At the intersection, the area of conflict should be as small as possible.
ii) The relative speed and particularly the angle of approach of vehicle should
be small.
iii) Adequate visibility should be available for vehicles approaching intersection.
iv) Sudden change of path should be avoided.
v) Geometric features like turning radius and width of pavement should be
adequately provided.
vi) Proper signs should be provided on the road.
vii) Good lighting at night time is desirable.
viii) If the number of pedestrians and cyclist are large, separate provision should
be made for the safe passage in intersections.

Types of Intersections:
i) Intersections at grades
a) Un-channelized intersections
b) Channelized intersections
c) Rotary intersections

ii) Grade separated intersections

a) Over-pass intersections
b) Under-pass intersections

1) Intersections at grades:
All road intersections which meet at about the same level allowing traffic
manoeuvres like merging, diverging, crossing and weaving are called
intersections at grade.
a) Un-channelized intersections:
The un-channelized (all paved) intersections are the lowest class of
intersection, easiest in design; but most complex in traffic operations
resulting in maximum conflict area and more number of accidents, unless
controlled by traffic signals or police.
- When no additional pavement width for turning movement is provided, it is
called plain intersection.
- When the pavement is widened at the intersection area, by a traffic lane or
more, it is known as flared intersection.

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b) Channelized intersections:
Channelized intersection is achieved by introducing islands into the
intersectional area, thus reducing the total conflict area available in the unchannelized intersection.
- The islands of proper shape and size are designed, which help to
channelized turning traffic, to control their speed and angle of approach
and to decrease the conflict area at the intersection.

Advantages of channelized intersections:

Vehicles can be confined to definite paths.
Speed control can be established over vehicles entering the intersection.
Points of conflicts can be separated.
Both the major and minor conflict area within the intersection can
considerably be decreased.
Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be kept as desired in a
favourable way.
The channelizing islands provide proper place for installation of design and
other traffic control devices.

c) Rotary intersections:
A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged road intersection
where all converging vehicles are forced to move round a large central
island in one direction (clockwise) before they can weave out of traffic flow
into their respective directions radiating from the central island.
- The main objects of providing rotary intersection are to eliminate the
necessity of stopping even for crossing streams of vehicles and to reduce
the area of conflict.

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Elements of Rotary Intersections:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Traffic Rotary:

Advantages
Crossing manoeuvre is converted into weaving or merging and diverging
operations. Hence the journey is more consistent and confortable when
compared with any other intersection at grade.
All traffic including those turning right or going straight across the rotary
have equal opportunity as those turning left.
The variable cost of operation of automobile is less at a traffic rotary than
at a signalized intersection.
There is no necessity of traffic police or signal to control the traffic.
It is the simplest traffic controlled intersection and its maintenance cost is
almost nil.
The possible number of accidents & severity of accidents are quite low.
These are advantageous when the number of intersecting roads is
between 4 and 7.
The capacity of rotary intersection is the highest (i.e. 3000 vehicles/hour)
than other intersections.
Limitations
These require comparatively large area of land.
Total cost may be very high where space is limited & costly built up areas.
In places where there is mixed traffic and large number of cyclists and
pedestrians, the operation and control of traffic become complex.
These are unsuitable in the intersecting roads having more than 7.

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These are also unsuitable where the angle of intersection of two roads is
too acute.
When distance between intersections is less, rotary become troublesome.
When the traffic volume is low, its construction cant be justified.

Design of Intersections
At the intersection there are through, turning and crossing traffic and these
traffic movements may be handled in different ways depending upon the type
of intersection and its design.
Following factors are to be considered in intersection design:
(i) Relative speed (ii) Manoeuvre areas
a) Elemental manoeuvre areas
b) Multiple manoeuvre areas
(i) Relative speed:
Relative speed is the vector difference in the velocities of two
vehicles in the same flow and is the sum of the speeds of approaching
vehicles from opposite direction.
- It depends on the absolute speed of intersecting vehicles and the angle
between them.
- When the angle of merging is small, the relative speed will also be low.
- As the relative speed increases, the judgement of drivers regarding
time and distance is likely to be more inaccurate and the possibility and
severity of accident will increase.
(ii) Manoeuvre areas:
Manoeuvre areas are those areas where there is a potential
collision, channels of approach and departure is influenced.
- Elemental manoeuvre areas are those formed by only two single oneway lanes of flows when they diverge, merge or cross. These are the
simplest manoeuvres.
- Multiple manoeuvre areas are those formed by two one-lane one-way
flows are present. Traffic operations are much more complex and
hence are to be avoided in the intersection design.
- The point where the possible path of two vehicles intersect is called
conflict points and the area containing conflict points is called conflict
area, which should be minimum.

2) Grade separated intersections

Grade separated intersection design is the highest form of intersection
treatment.
- This type of intersection causes least delay and hazard to the intersections
at grade from the point of view of traffic safety and efficient operation.

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- A highway grade separation is achieved by means of vertical level.

- Separation of intersection roads by means of a bridge thus eliminating all
crossing conflicts at the intersections.
- The grade separation may be either by an over-bridge or under-bridge.
a) Over-pass
When the major highway is taken by raising its profile above the
general ground level by embankment and an over-bridge across another
highway, it is called over-pass.
b) Under-pass
When the highway is taken by depressing its profile below the
general GL to cross another road by means of an under-bridge, it is
known as under-pass.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Grade Separation
Advantages:
It provides maximum facility to cross the traffic and avoids accidents while
crossing.
There is overall increase in comfort and convenience to the motorists and
saving in travel time.
There is increased safety for turning traffic, even right turn movement is made
quite easy.
Grade separation is an essential part of controlled access highway.
It is possible to adopt grade separation for all likely angles.
Disadvantages
It is very costly to provide complete grade separation & interchange facilities.
Construction of grade separation is costly, difficult and undesirable, where
there is limited right of way like built up or urban area.
In flat or plain terrain, grade separation may introduce undesirable crests and
sags in vertical alignment.
Factors to be considered in traffic rotary
Following are various design factors to be considered in traffic rotary:
i) Design speed
viii) Channelizing islands
ii) Shape of central islands
ix) Camber and super elevation
iii) Radius of rotary roadway
x) Sight distance and grade
iv) Weaving angle & weaving distance xi) Lighting
v) Width of carriageway
xii) Traffic signs
vi) Entrance and exit curves
xiii) Provision for cyclists & pedestrians
vii) Capacity of the rotary

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7. TRAFFIC LIGHTS

Importance of Road Lighting

One of the various causes of increased accident rate during night
may be attributed to poor night visibility.
Highway lighting is particularly more important at intersections, bridge site,
level crossings and in places where there is restriction of traffic to movements.
On urban roads where the density of population is also high, road lighting has
other advantages, like feeling of security and protection.
Head lights of vehicles may be sufficient for safe night driving, but road
lighting may be considered as an added facility to the road users.
When the brightness of object is less than that of background, i.e. when object
appears darker than road surface, discernment is principally by silhouette. If

brightness of pavement is uniformly increased, discernment by silhouette is

enhanced.
- When the brightness of the object is more than that of the immediate
background, discernment is by reverse silhouette. The objects adjacent to the
roadway, projections above the pavement surface such as island or vehicles
may be seen by this process of reverse silhouette.
Factors influencing night visibility
Following factors affect the night visibility of the object:
i) Amount and distribution of light flux from the lamps
ii) Size of the object
iii) Brightness of the object
iv) Brightness of the background
v) Reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface
vi) Glare on the eyes of the driver
vii) Time available to seen an object
Design factors of Highway Lighting
Various factors to be considered in the design of road lighting are:
i.) Lamps
iv.) Height & overhang of mounting
ii.) Luminaire distribution of light
v.) Lateral placement
iii.) Spacing of lighting units
vi.) Lighting layouts
Lamps
The colour of the lamp, its type, size and colour depends on several
considerations in addition to distribution of light flux.
It is economical to use the largest lamp size in a luminaire which will
provide sufficient uniformity of pavement brightness.
The various lamps used are filament, fluorescent etc.
i)

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ii) Luminaire distribution of light

To have the best utility of the luminaire or source of light, it is
necessary to have proper distribution of light.
The distribution should be downward so that high percentage of lamp
light is utilised for illuminating the pavement and adjacent area.
The illumination is necessary for traffic sigh and objects.
iii) Spacing of light units
The spacing of lighting units is often influenced by the electrical
distribution poles, property lines, road layout and type of side features &
their illumination.
Large lamps with high mountings and wide spacing should be preferred
from economy point of view.
iv) Height and overhang of mounting
The distribution of light, shadow and the glare effect from street
lamps depend also on the mounting height.
Usual mounting heights range from 6m to 10m, higher values being
preferred where possible.
The minimum vertical clearance required for electric power lines up to
650 volts has been specified as 6m above pavement surface (as per IRC).
v) Lateral placement
Street lighting poles should not be installed close to the pavement edge.
If they are too close to the carriageway, free movement of traffic is
obstructed, decreasing the capacity of roadway.
vi) Lighting layouts
The lighting layout may be of single side, staggered (both sides) or
central.
Special care should be taken while locating the lights on curves.
Lights are installed at closer spacing on curves than on straights.
The lights are located on outside of the curves to provide better visibility.
For single lane or narrow roads, single side lighting is sufficient but for
two way lane or wider roads, staggered lighting should be installed.

Design of Highway Lighting System

For various types of luminaire distribution, the utilisation coefficient
charts are available for determination of average lux of intensity over the
roadway surface where lamp lumen, mounting height, width of pared area and
spacing of lighting poles are known.

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0.7
Coefficient of utilization

0.6

street side

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

house side

0.1
0
0

Ratio,

Fig: Coefficient of utilisation

The following relationship is used for computation of spacing:

The maintenance factor is taken as 80 %.

Numerical
Design a street lighting system for the following conditions:
Street width
: 15 m
Mounting height : 7.5 m
Lamp size
: 6000 lumen
Luminaire type
: II
Calculate the spacing between lighting units to produce avg. lux = 6.
Solution:
The ratio,

From the chart 5.46 (page 256),

Coefficient of utilization
= 0.44
Assume maintenance factor = 80 %

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8. BRIDGE AND TUNNELING

BRIDGE
A structure constructed over an obstacle to provide the passage is known
as Bridge.
- According to NRS 2027 the cross drainage structure whose span length is
more than 6m is called bridge and less than 6m is called culvert.
Characteristics of an Ideal Bridge:
i) The line of bridge should not have serious deviation from the line of approach
road.
ii) It should be in level.
iii) The width of bridge should be sufficient to cater future traffic.
iv) Bridge should carry standard loading with reasonable factor of safety.
v) Foundation should be kept on firm ground and they should be kept at
sufficient depth to avoid damage by floods.
vi) Bridge should fit into surrounding landscape.
vii) Bridge should provide passage for services like water pipe, telephones etc.
viii) Bridge surface should be similar to road surface.
ix) Bridge should be economical in terms of construction and maintenance.
Choice of Location of Bridge Site
The characteristics of location of bridge site are as follows:
i) A straight reach of the river.
ii) Steady river flow without serious whirl and cross currents.
iii) A narrow channel with firm banks.
iv) Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side.
v) Rock or other hard erodible strata close to the river bed level.
vi) Absence of sharp curves in approaches.
vii) Absence of expensive river training works.
viii) Avoidance of expensive ground water construction.
ix) Proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be connected.
x) Economical approaches which should not be very high or long or liable to
flank attacks of the river during flood.
Classification of Bridges
A. According to the span (NRS 2027):
(i) Minor Bridge (span < 20 m but total length is < 20 m)
(ii) Medium Bridge (span < 20 m but total length is > 20 m)
(iii) Major Bridge (span > 20 m)

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B. According to loading (NRS 2027):

(i) Major Bridge (HS 20 44 or IRC class AA or any other equivalent loading
or class 70R additional loading)
(ii) Medium or Minor Bridge (HS 15 44 or IRC class A or any other
equivalent loading)
(iii) Temporary bridge (HS 15 44 or IRC class B or any other equivalent
loading or class 70R additional loading)
C. According to the Structure:
(i) RCC T-bridge or RCC simply supported bridge
(ii) Cantilever bridge (single or double)
(iii) Arch bridge
(iv) Suspended or suspension bridge

(v) Stayed cable bridge

(vi) Steel bridge
(vii) Movable bridge

D. According to the Materials:

(i) Timber Bridge
(iv) Steel Bridge
(ii) RCC Bridge
(v) Floating Bridge (pantron bridge or boat bridge)
(iii) Masonry Bridge
Components of a Bridge
The components of bridge are classified into two groups:
a) Substructure: portion below the bearings
b) Superstructure: portion above the bearings
Following are the different component parts of the bridge:
i. Foundation for the abutments and piers or towers.
ii. Abutment and piers or towers.
iii. Bearing for the girder, trusses, deck slab etc.
iv. Decking consisting of girders or trusses or cables and slab.
v. Handrails, parapet walls, guard stones etc.
vi. Approaches to bridge to connect the road or railway to the bridge proper.
vii. River training works like revetment for slopes for embankment at
abutment and aprons for bed necessary at upstream & downstream side.
Hydraulic Analysis of Bridge
1. Length of Clear Span:
i. For masonry arch bridge:
ii. For RCC bridge:
S = 1.5 H
Where,

S=2H

S = clear span
H = height of abutment on pier including foundation

2. Linear Waterway:
i. Linear waterway is width of stream for one edge to another.
ii. From Laceys formula;
Linear Waterway, W = C ,

for large alluvial deposit

Where, C = 4.5 ~ 6.5

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3. Number of Spans:
i. If w < span length (s); single span bridge.
ii. If w > span length (s); w = N S
Where, N = number of span

4. Afflux:
*
Where,

+
x = afflux in meter
L = width of stream

v = velocity of normal flow

c = 4.5 ~ 6.5

Note:

When a bridge is constructed across a contracted stream, water on

the upstream will rise up. This rise in water level near the bridge site is
called afflux.
5. Design Discharge:

i. From empirical relationship, Q = C A

ii. From area velocity method, Q = A V

TUNNEL
A tunnel is an underground structure beneath the ground, under the water
bodies or through mountains.
Purposes
) To provide passage ways for rail, roads and vehicles through mountain
and underground water bodies.
) To avoid the long routes around the mountain.
) To relief the congestion on surface road.
) To carry water for power generation.
) To provide access for water supply, waste water collector etc.
Types of Tunnels:
The tunnels can be classified on following basis:
A. According to Purpose
D. According to Shape
(i) Traffic tunnels
(i) Circular
(ii) Conveyance tunnels
(ii) D-shaped
(iii) Mining tunnels
(iii) Semi-elliptical
(iv) Horse-shoe
B. According to Pressure
(i) Pressure tunnels
E. According to Supporting Arrangement
(ii) Free flowing tunnels
(i) Tunnel supported by shot Crete
(ii) Tunnel supported by RSJ section
C. According to Lining
(iii) Tunnel supported by shotcret & RSJ section
(i) Lined tunnels
(iv) Tunnel supported by RCC
(ii) Unlined tunnels

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Component parts of tunnel

Following are the components of tunnel:
(1) Rib beam (2) Rock bolting (3) Shotcrete

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(4) Lining

Tunnel cross-sections
Following cross sections are generally used:
i) Circular section
iv) Horse shoe section
ii) D-shaped section
v) Rectangular or square section
iii) Semi-elliptical section
i) Circular section:
The circular section is most suitable for structural considerations.
However, it is difficult for excavation, particularly where the cross section
area is small.
- In a case where the tunnel is subjected to high internal pressure but does
not have good quality or rock, circular section is considered the best.
ii) D-shaped section:
This section is suitable for tunnels located in good quality in fact
sedimentary rocks & massive external igneous, hard, compacted
metamorphic rocks where external pressure due to rock & water are not
very large.
iii) Semi-elliptical section:
This section is more stable. As the shape of the arch nearly coincides with
the line of pressure, the arch section can be made relatively thinner keeping
stress within allowable limits.
iv) Horse shoe section:
These sections are compromise between circular and D-shaped section.
These sections are structurally strong to withstand external rock and water
pressures.

Survey of Tunnel Alignment

While selecting the alignment following points should be considered:
i) Shortest
iii) Easily available
ii) Straight
iv) Careful selection of Entry & Exit location

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However, it is not always possible to follow a straight alignment because of

the following parameters affecting the design of tunnels:
(i) Topography
(ii) Geological section along the alignment
(iii) Ground and/or rock water loads along the alignment
(iv) Rock mechanics properties
(v) Creep or tectonic movement along the tunnel
(vi) Other parameters:
a) Rock temperature
b) Presence of methane gas
c) Geometric design

Tunnel Drainage
Since the tunnel is constructed below the original ground level, therefore
tunnel have drainage problem. The problem may be due to surface as well as
subsoil water.
- Attempts made in seal off the rock by grouting with cement, chemical or
concrete linings.
The drainage arrangements for keeping off and removing off water may be
classified into three systems:
i) Pre-drainage
ii) Dewatering of tunnel or drainage during construction
iii) Permanent drainage
iv) Incandescent lamps should be fixed in the centre of the roof of the tunnel.
v) The electric circuit of the lighting should be divided into a number of
independent circuits with their isolators and fuse boxes separate.
vi) Provision of flood lights should be made at suitable interval for detailed
inspection for the particular length of spot.

Ventilation of Tunnels
The process of removing used or vitiated air by fresh air from tunnel is
called ventilation.
Object of Ventilation
Following are the main objective of ventilation:
i) To replace the used air by fresh air in tunnel.
ii) To remove harmful obnoxious gases and dust for safe working space.
iii) To supply oxygen for workers in the tunnels.
iv) To remove the excessive moisture.
v) To bring down the temperature raised by diesel engines.

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Methods of Ventilation
Ventilation can be done by following two methods:
) Natural Method:
This method is normally applicable in short tunnels. The natural draft can
be depended to renew the air inside the tunnel.
- In straight reaches where uniform grade exists, tunnel up to 100m length
would need not any artificial ventilation.
)

Artificial Method:
In this method, artificial measures are done to control moisture, dust and
temperature in the tunnel. It is also known as mechanical ventilations.
Following are the three artificial method of ventilation:
a. Blowing in fresh air
b. Exhausting foul air by ducts
c. Combination of blowing in and exhaust system
Lining of Tunnels
Tunnel lining is a part of support design. It can take form of shotcrete
lining, concrete lining or steel lining.
Following are some of the methods used for tunnel lining:
i) Unsupported rock
v) Segmental system
ii) Rock reinforcement lining
vi) Monolithic concrete
iii) Shotcrete lining
vii) Precast pipe segments
iv) Steel ribs
Objectives:
i) To reduce the losses in system.
ii) To protect steel ribs from deterioration.
iii) To protect the turbine form loose rock particle falling into the water.
iv) To take part of internal pressure induced by water.

Method of Tunnelling:
The choice of a particular method depends upon the nature of the strata
and the geometry of the tunnel section. It may broadly be divided in following categories:
1. Tunnelling in firm ground
i) Traditional methods
a) Full face method
b) Top beading and benching method
c) Drift method
ii) Excavation by tunnelling method
2. Tunnelling in soft ground
3. Tunnelling in rock

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1. Tunnelling in firm ground:

The methods to be adopted depend upon the shape, size of available
equipment. The methods adopted fall under the following categories:
i) Traditional methods:
(Drilling and Blasting)
Depending upon the type of strata, size of tunnel and method
adopted; excavation is supported by temporary wooden supports or
permanent steel supports. Different methods under this category are:
a) Full face method:
This method is suitable for comparatively firm soils
where the excavated portion can hold itself for sufficient time
to permit mucking and supporting operations to be completed.
- The method is recommended for tunnel or small size.
- Excavation is done in three section i.e. top, middle & bottom.
b) Top beading and benching method:
The beading is excavated and
supported to the full length or part
length of the tunnel before benching
is started.
- The heading is always ahead of the
benching by a convenient length and
may be formed by excavation the full
width of the tunnel above the springing line.
c) Drift method:
In the case of large tunnels a pilot tunnel or
drift is made in the side or at the centre of the
tunnel.
- The drift is then widened by drilling holes on its
face as shown in figure.
ii) Excavation by tunnelling method:
This method is suitable for large tunnel in soft soil.
- In this method excavation is done and support is also arranged
simultaneously.
2. Tunnelling in soft ground:
In case of soft soil requiring instantaneous support; drilling and blasting is
not done.
- In this method the board driven ahead to support the ground ahead of the
last rib are known as spiles.
- The fore poles act as cantilevers beyond breasting and carry the weight of
the ground till the steel rib supports their forward ends.

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- The soil should be excavated out after removing the breast boards and the
new rib is created in position.
3. Tunnelling in rock:
Tunnels are driven in rock by repeating in sequence the operation of
drilling hole in the rock face, loading the holes, with explosive, blasting,
removing and disposing off the broken rock.
The following are commonly adopted method of tunnelling in rock:
i) Full face method
ii) Top heading and benching method
iii) Drift method

Hydraulic Analysis of River:

The hydraulic analysis is required for new locations, proposed facility
replacements and widening of existing facilities. So, flood frequency for
design and checks must be considered for new location, replacement or
modification of facility.
The intent of design flood is to establish conditions under which the highway
facility will provide uninterrupted service with minimal damage to the highway.
The design flood must not overtop the highway.
A check flood must be applied on proposed highway or stream crossing
facilities to determine whether a proposed crossing will cause significant
damage to the highway or to any other property.
Analysis should include a comparison of existing conditions for interim and
estimated future watershed characteristics.
Occasionally, flood control system may have been constructed that
significantly reduce runoff rates at the highway site.
Hydraulic analysis is required not only for the selection of proper stable and
durable site conditions to implement the proposed facilities (i.e. highway,
bridge etc.) replacement and widening of existing facilities but also for the
replacement or relocation of any kind, bridge superstructure replacement if
the hydraulic opening of the bridge is changed in anyway, channel
modifications including the placement of bank stabilization material, scouring
action of bridge foundation by high current of flood, fill placed in flood plain,
excavation in flood plain, overtopping of bridge due to HFL etc.
Occasionally abridge or culvert will be inundated by backwater from a
downstream river. Hence, in this case hydraulic analysis is conducted to
control tail water.
Hydraulic analysis is required to provide channel restoration plan which help
the avoidance of barriers for fish/aquatic movement, maintain or improve
water quality, recreation, aesthetics and flow capacity.

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The End

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