Shmeiseic tou Majmatoc

M1124 Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Basismnec sto biblo twn I.Stewart kai D.Tall

Qrstoc Kourounithc
TMHMA MAJHMATIKWN
PANEPISTHMIO KRHTHS
2010

Eisagwg
Arqzontac th melth twn majhmatikn sto Panepistmio, ac prospajsoume na analogistome pc dhmiourgontai ta majhmatik. Ta majhmatik enai drasthrithta tou anjrpinou mualo. Enac upologistc ston opoo ja eqame katagryei louc touc kannec
thc logikc, ja mporose na dhmiourgsei, me tuqao trpo, protseic kai na elgxei en
autc enai alhjec qi. To anjrpino mual mwc, an kai mpore na elgxei na-na ta
logik bmata, douleei kurwc me llo trpo. Epidikei mia sunolik eikna, ap thn
opoa mpore na katanosei lo to epiqerhma, sunjtontac tic idec se mia genikterh
dom kai sundontac autc me llec idec. O sunduasmc thc logikc anlushc kai thc
sunolikc prosggishc ddei ta kaltera apotelsmata.
Kajc nac njrwpoc apokt majhmatikc plhroforec, tic sunjtei se mia majhmatik nnoia. Argtera mpore na emfaniston nec plhroforec, pou na mhn tairizoun
me th majhmatik nnoia pou qei dhmiourghje sto mual tou. Otan sumbe aut, kai afo
elegqje h orjthta twn nwn stoiqewn, mpore na qreiaste na tropopoihje h arqik
sunolik eikna, anamorfnontac dhmiourgntac mia na, pio ekleptusmnh majhmatik nnoia. Oso sumbanei aut, prokaletai sgqush. Gia na proqwrsei h diadikasa o
majhmatikc prpei na mhn qsei thn empistosnh ste na xepersei th sgqush.
H diadikasa me thn opoa dhmiourgontai majhmatikc nnoiec den enai logik kai eujgrammh. O majhmatikc yqnei stic gnseic kai tic empeirec tou, gia na piaste kpou.
Se kpoia fsh, oi diforec idec mpore na arqsoun na tairizoun. Sto tloc, mpore
lec oi basikc idec na sunduaston se mia sntomh, strwt kai logik apdeixh.
San apfoitoi Lukeou, gnwrzete dh pollc majhmatikc nnoiec. Stqoc twn spoudn
sac sto Panepistmio enai na ktsete se autc tic nnoiec kai na tic ekleptnete se
na antero eppedo majhmatikc wrimthtac. Gia na to petqoume aut prpei na xekinsoume ap paradegmata pou baszontai se gnwstc nnoiec, kai sth bsh autn na
kataskeusoume nec nnoiec.
Aut h diadikasa den qei kama sqsh me mia axiwmatik kataskeu lwn twn majhmatikn ap to ken, h opoa enai efikt kai mpore na qei filosofik endiafron, all den
qei idiaterh didaktik qrhsimthta.
Meglo mroc thc majhsiakc diadikasac sunstatai sthn anakataskeu prterwn majhmatikn ennoin, gia na prosarmoston se nec idec. Aut h diadikasa enai pou
prokale sgqush. Prpei na perimnete oti ja sunantsete peridouc sgqushc stic
spoudc sac. Otan autc den ofelontai se elleip exghsh ek mrouc twn didaskntwn
aplc parermhnea, prpei na tic jewrete qrsimec kai euprsdektec. Enai ndeixh oti
sunteletai prodoc stic gnseic sac.
Ena kal pardeigma enai h sgqush pou proklese stouc majhmatikoc, gia arketoc
ainec, h nnoia twn migadikn arijmn. Htan gnwst oti to tetrgwno enc arijmo
diaforetiko ap to mhdn, ete jetiko ete arnhtiko, enai pntote jetik. Ara h tetraa

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

gwnik rza tou 1 den mporose na enai ote jetikc ote arnhtikc arijmc, kai den
uprqe jsh pnw sthn eujea twn arijmn gia mia ttoia posthta. Gia na xeperaste h
sgqush tan aparathto na tropopoihje h nnoia twn arijmn, pou sundetan me shmea
mac eujeac. H tetragwnik rza tou 1 qei th jsh thc qi sthn eujea all sto eppedo.
Se aut to mjhma ja prospajsoume, xekinntac ap tic gnwstc majhmatikc nnoiec, na gnwrsoume stadiak nec idec, na anamorfsoume tic shmantikc gnseic pou
dh qete sta majhmatik, me trpo ste na proetoimastete gia thn proqwrhmnh melth
twn majhmatikn. Prin dsoume orismoc nwn ennoin ja exetzoume, stic dialxeic kai
sta ergastria problhmtwn, arket paradegmata sta opoa na bassoume tic nec nnoiec.
Oi shmeiseic autc enai basismnec, sto megaltero mroc touc, sto biblo Foundations of Mathematics twn I.Stewart kai D.Tall, Oxford University Press.

Perieqmena
1 Snola

2 Sqseic

17

3 Sunartseic

37

4 Majhmatik Logik

62

5 Majhmatik Apdeixh

82

6 Oi Fusiko Arijmo

87

7 Sunduastik

108

8 To peiro

120

Keflaio 1
Snola
H nnoia tou sunlou jewretai jemelidhc sta sgqrona majhmatik  perisstero
akmh kai ap thn nnoia tou arijmo. 'Enac ap touc lgouc enai oti h glssa twn
sunlwn mac epitrpei na diatupnoume majhmatikc idithtec me meglh genikthta: to
Pujagreio Jerhma enai shmantik giat isqei se kje orjognio trgwno, dhlad
ekfrzei mia idithta tou sunlou twn orjogwnwn trignwn.
H nnoia tou sunlou enai arqik thc Jewrac Sunlwn, sunepc den orzetai sth bsh
kpoiwn aplosterwn ennoin, akribc pwc h nnoia tou arijmo sthn Arijmhtik tou
shmeou sth Gewmetra. Aut den ja mac empodsei na apoktsoume mia arket saf eikna
gia to ti enai na snolo. Snolo enai mia opoiadpote sullog ap antikemena. Mpore
na periqei peperasmno peiro pljoc antikeimnwn, akma kanna antikemeno. Ta
antikemena den enai aparathto na enai omoeid. Mporome na jewrsoume na snolo
ap trec arijmoc, do trgwna kai mia sunrthsh.
Gia na meletsoume la ta snola pou emfanzontai sta Majhmatik, enai qrsimo na
xekinsoume me tic genikc idithtec pou enai koinc se la ta snola. Sto prto mroc
tou majmatoc ja exetsoume diforouc trpouc na sunjtoume na tropopoiome kpoia
snola gia na dhmiourgsoume na snola.

Stoiqea. Isthta sunlwn

Ta antikemena ap ta opoa apoteletai na snolo onomzontai stoiqea tou sunlou.
Lme oti ta stoiqea enc sunlou ankoun s aut. Gia na sumbolsoume oti to stoiqeo
x ankei sto snolo S grfoume
x S.
En to x den ankei sto S grfoume

x 6 S.
Gia na gnwrzoume poi snolo exetzoume, prpei na gnwrzoume akribc poi enai ta
stoiqea tou. Kai antstrofa, en gnwrzoume akribc ta stoiqea enc sunlou, gnwrzoume to snolo. To zthma enai oti mporome na perigryoume to dio snolo me
diaforetikoc trpouc. Gia pardeigma, en A enai to snolo twn rizn thc exswshc

x2 6x + 8 = 0
kai B to snolo twn rtiwn arijmn metax tou 1 kai tou 5, tte to A kai to B qoun
akribc do stoiqea, touc arijmoc 2 kai 4. Sunepc to A kai to B enai to dio snolo.
1

2
Do snola enai
S kai T me

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

sa en qoun ta dia stoiqea. Sumbolzoume thn isthta twn sunlwn

S = T,

en tan den enai sa grfoume

S 6= T.
O aplosteroc trpoc na prosdiorsoume na snolo enai na katagryoume la ta
stoiqea tou (en aut enai dunat). O sunjhc sumbolismc enai na ta klenoume se
agklec { }. Otan grfoume
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
ennoome to snolo tou opoou ta stoiqea enai oi arijmo 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, kai mnon auto.
Prpei na tonsoume do shmea sqetik me autn to sumbolism, sunpeiec kai ta do
thc nnoiac thc isthtac gia snola. Prton, h seir me thn opoa grfoume ta stoiqea
enai adiforh:
{5, 4, 3, 2, 6, 1} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Deteron, epanalyeic twn stoiqewn sthn katagraf den allzoun to snolo:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 1, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Gia na prosdiorsoume kpoio snolo, mpore na mhn enai praktik, ote kan dunat,
na katagryoume la ta stoiqea tou. To snolo twn prtwn arijmn perigrfetai pol
kaltera ap autn th frsh par me thn aparjmhsh merikn prtwn

{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . .}.

Ja mporosame na gryoume

P = {loi oi prtoi arijmo}.

Ma qrsimh parallag enai

P = {p | p enai prtoc arijmc}.

Geniktera, o sumbolismc

Q = {x | kti sqetik me to x}

diabzetai Q enai to snolo lwn twn x gia ta opoa isqei to kti sqetik me to x .
Gia na prosdiorsoume, gia pardeigma, to snolo twn lsewn thc exswshc x2 5x+6 = 0
ja mporosame na lsoume thn exswsh kai na gryoume S = {2, 3}, ja mporosame na
gryoume
S = {x | x2 5x + 6 = 0}.
O deteroc trpoc prosdiorzei to snolo qwrc na mac ddei rht ta stoiqea tou, all
kai qwrc na qreizetai na lsoume thn exswsh.
Me aut to sumbolism uprqei kpoia asfeia. En anafermaste stouc fusikoc
arijmoc, to snolo
{x | 1 x 5}

Keflaio 1

Snola

apoteletai ap touc arijmoc 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, all en anafermaste stouc pragmatikoc

arijmoc, tte perilambnei kai louc touc uploipouc arijmoc metax tou 1 kai tou 5. O
kalteroc trpoc na knoume autn th dikrish enai na prosdiorsoume to snolo Y ap
to opoo epilgoume ta x pou ikanopoion to kti sqetik me to x. O sumbolismc

X = {x Y | kti sqetik me to x}

shmanei oti X enai to snolo twn stoiqewn x tou sunlou Y gia ta opoa isqei to kti
sqetik me to x.
'Enac pio sobarc lgoc gia na dieukrinzoume to snolo Y ap to opoo epilgoume
ta stoiqea tou X enai gia na exasfalsoume oti to kti sqetik me to x qei nhma gia
la ta x Y , enai dhlad mia idithta pou enai safc en isqei den isqei gia kje
stoiqeo tou Y , kai tte X enai to snolo twn stoiqewn tou Y gia ta opoa isqei aut
h idithta.

'Askhsh 1.1 Poic ap tic paraktw protseic enai alhjec kai poic yeudec? Exhgste sntoma thn apnths sac.
a.
g.
e.
z.
j.

1 {1, 2}
b.
3 {1, 5, 2}
d.
{5} {1, 3, 5, 2}
.
{1, 4, 2, 3} = {2, 3, 1, 4, 3, 2} h.
{a, b, d, d} = {a, b, a, d}
i.

3 {1, 5, 2, 3}
{1, 3} {1, 3, 5, 2}
2 {x R | x2 3x + 2 = 0}
{a, d, b, d} = {a, b, d}
{x Q | x2 2x = 0} = {x R | x2 2x = 0}

Uposnola
Ena snolo B enai uposnolo tou A en kje stoiqeo tou B enai kai stoiqeo tou A.
Lme epshc oti to B periqetai sto A kai grfoume

B A.

Prtash 1.1 En A kai B enai snola, tte A = B en kai mnon en A B kai

B A.

Apdeixh. En A = B tte, efson A A, petai oti A B kai B A. Antistrfwc,

upojtoume oti A B kai B A. Tte kje stoiqeo tou A enai stoiqeo to B kai kje
stoiqeo tou B enai stoiqeo tou A. 'Ara ta A kai B qoun ta dia stoiqea, kai sunepc
A = B.

Prtash 1.2 En A, B, C enai snola, kai A B kai B C , tte A C .

Apdeixh. Kje stoiqeo tou A enai stoiqeo tou B kai kje stoiqeo tou B enai
stoiqeo tou C . 'Ara kje stoiqeo tou A enai stoiqeo tou C , kai sunepc A C .

Enai pol shmantik na diakrnoume uposnola kai stoiqea. Ta stoiqea tou {1, 2}
enai ta 1 kai 2. Ta uposnola tou {1, 2} enai ta {1, 2}, {1}, {2}, kai akmh na uposnolo,
pou proc to parn ja to sumbolsoume { }.

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

H prtash 1.2 den isqei en antikatastsoume me . Ta stoiqea enc stoiqeou tou

sunlou X den enai aparathta stoiqea tou X . Gia pardeigma, en A = 1, B = {1, 2}
kai C = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}}, tte A B kai B C , all ta stoiqea tou C enai ta snola
{1, 2} kai {3, 4}, ra A = 1 den enai stoiqeo tou C .
To snolo pou sumbolsame { } enai na snolo sto opoo den ankei kanna stoiqeo.
Ena ttoio snolo to lme ken. Gia pardeigma, to snolo

{x Z | x = x + 1}
enai ken, afo h exswsh x = x + 1 den qei lseic sto Z. Ena ken snolo qei kpoiec
axioprsektec idithtec. En E enai na ken snolo kai X enai opoiodpote snolo,
tte E X . Giat? Prpei na dexoume oti kje stoiqeo tou E enai stoiqeo tou X . Gia
na mhn isqei aut, ja prpei na uprqei kpoio stoiqeo tou E pou na mhn ankei sto X .
Afo to E enai ken, den uprqei kanna ttoio stoiqeo.
En E kai F enai do ken snola, ap to prohgomeno apotlesma qoume oti E F
kai F E . Ara E = F . Ola ta ken snola enai sa. Ara uprqei na monadik ken
snolo. Dnoume se aut to snolo na eidik smbolo:

sumbolzei to monadik ken snolo.

'Askhsh 1.2 Poic ap tic paraktw protseic enai alhjec kai poic yeudec? Exhgste sntoma thn apnths sac.

a. 1 {1, 2}
g. {3} {1, 5, 2}
e. {5} {1, 3, 5, 2}
z. {1, 4, 2, 3} {2, 3, 1, 4, 3, 2}
j. {b N | b > 2} = {a N | a > 2}
ia. {2} {1, {2}}
ig. {b N | b 2} {a N | a > 2}

b. {3, 1} {1, 5, 2, 3}
d. {1, 3} {1, 3, 5, 2}
. 2 {x R | x2 3x + 2 = 0}
h. {a, b, d, d} {a, b, a, d}
i. {b N | b > 2} {a N | a > 2}
ib. {2} {1, {2}}
id. {x Q | x2 2 = 0} =

Snolo twn pntwn?

Opwc uprqei to ken snolo, pou den periqei kanna stoiqeo, mporome na anarwthjome en uprqei na snolo pou periqei ta pnta. Ja dome oti aut h ida enai
paratrabhgmnh.
Ac jewrsoume th sullog lwn twn sunlwn. En enai na snolo, tte to dio to
enai stoiqeo tou eauto tou, . Ta sunhjismna snola pou qoume sunantsei,
pwc to snolo N twn fusikn arijmn, den enai stoiqea tou eauto touc. Mporete
na afiersete lgh ra prospajntac na fantastete na snolo pou enai stoiqeo tou
eauto tou.
Tra mporome na jewrsoume to uposnolo S tou pou apoteletai ap ta snola
pou den enai stoiqea tou eauto touc,

S = {A | A 6 A} .
Afo S , to S enai epshc snolo, kai mporome na anarwthjome en to S enai
stoiqeo tou eauto tou. Tra mwc qoume to exc pardoxo.

Keflaio 1

Snola

En S S , tte S all to S den ikanopoie thn idithta pou qarakthrzei ta

stoiqea tou S , kai sunepc S 6 S .
En S 6 S , tte S kai to S ikanopoie thn idithta pou qarakthrzei ta stoiqea
tou S , sunepc S S .
Opoiadpote ap tic do upojseic gia to S , odhge se antfash.
Aut to pardoxo, gnwst me to noma pardoxo tou Russell, prokuye epeid jewrsame oti sullogc pwc h S h enai snola. H arqik mac perigraf enc sunlou
wc ma opoiadpote sullog den enai eparkc. Se pio proqwrhmna majmata Jewrac
Sunlwn, ja dome pc xeperniontai ta pardoxa, me katllhlo periorism thc nnoiac
tou sunlou. Proc to parn, ja prosqoume ta snola pou exetzoume na enai safc
prosdiorismna, kai na gnwrzoume akribc poi stoiqea ankoun sto snolo kai poi qi.
H mh parxh enc sunlou twn pntwn enai akmh nac lgoc gia ton opoo o sumbolismc
{x Y | P (x)} ,
pou Y enai na gnwst snolo, kai P (x) enai kti sqetik me to x, enai protimteroc
ap to sumbolism
{x | P (x)} .
Eqontac prosdiorsei to Y , mporome na exetsoume thn idithta P (x) kai na bebaiwjome oti qei nhma gia la ta stoiqea tou Y , prin epilxoume aut gia ta opoa enai
alhjc.
Alloic enai san na jewrome to {x | P (x)}, to opoo edame oti mpore na odhgsei
se pardoxa. Parathreste oti en jewrsoume kpoio sugkekrimno snolo pou apoteletai ap snola, h idithta X 6 X den parousizei kanna prblhma. Gia pardeigma,
en T = {N, Z, Q, R, C}, tte

{X T | X 6 X} = {N, Z, Q, R, C} ,
kai profanc T 6 T .

Enwsh kai tom

Do shmantikc mjodoi gia na dhmiourgsoume na snola enai h nwsh kai h tom. H
nwsh do sunlwn A kai B enai to snolo tou opoou ta stoiqea enai ta stoiqea tou
A kai ta stoiqea tou B kai mnon aut. En

A = {1, 2, 3}

B = {3, 4, 5}

tte h nwsh enai {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Sumbolzoume thn nwsh twn sunlwn A kai B me A B ,

A B = {x | x A x B ( kai ta do)}.
H tom do sunlwn A kai B enai to snolo tou opoou ta stoiqea enai la ta koin
stoiqea twn A kai B . Gia ta snola A kai B tou prohgomenou paradegmatoc h tom
enai to snolo {3}, giat mnon to 3 ankei kai sta do snola. Sumbolzoume thn tom
twn sunlwn A kai B me A B ,

A B = {x | x A kai x B}.

'Askhsh 1.3 Prosdiorste ta paraktw snola.

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

a. {1, 2, 4} {2, 3, 6}
b. {1, 2, 4} {2, 3, 6}
g. A B , pou A = {x Z | x 3} kai B = {y Z | y 3}.
d. C D, pou C = {x Z | x 3} kai D = {y Z | y 3}.

Prtash 1.3 En A, B, C enai snola, tte

1. A = A
2. A A = A
3. A B = B A
4. (A B) C = A (B C).

Apdeixh. Mnon to (4) parousizei kpoia duskola. Upojtoume oti x (A B) C .

Tte x A B ete x C . En x C , tte x B C , ra x A (B C). En x 6 C ,
tte x A ete x B . Se kje perptwsh qoume x A (B C). Eqoume dexei oti en
x (A B) C tte x A (B C), dhlad

(A B) C A (B C).
Me na parmoio epiqerhma deqnoume oti

A (B C) (A B) C.
Qrhsimopoiome thn prtash 1.1 gia na dexoume to zhtomeno.

Parmoia apotelsmata isqoun gia tic tomc.

Prtash 1.4 En A, B, C enai snola, tte

1. A =
2. A A = A
3. A B = B A
4. (A B) C = A (B C).

Oi apodexeic enai anlogec me autc thc Prtashc 1.3.

'Askhsh 1.4 Sumplhrste tic apodexeic twn Protsewn 1.3 kai 1.4.
Tloc uprqoun do tautthtec pou sundoun enseic kai tomc.

Prtash 1.5 En A, B, C enai snola, tte

Keflaio 1

Snola

1. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
2. A (B C) = (A B) (A C).

Apdeixh. En x A (B C), tte x A ete x B C . En x A tte x A B

kai x A C , ra x (A B) (A C). Diaforetik, x B C , kti pou sunepgetai

x B kai x C . Ara x A B kai x A C , sunepc x (A B) (A C). Aut
deqnei oti
A (B C) (A B) (A C).

Antstrofa, upojtoume oti y (A B) (A C). Tte y A B kai y A C .

Ja exetsoume do periptseic: tan y A kai tan y 6 A. Sthn prth perptwsh,
y A (B C). Sth deterh perptwsh, efson y A B , prpei na isqei y B ,
kai parmoia y C . 'Epetai oti y B C , kai sunepc, kai se autn thn perptwsh
y A (B C). Ara
(A B) (A C) A (B C).
Ta do apotelsmata ddoun th zhtomenh tautthta. H apdeixh tou 2 enai anlogh.

'Askhsh 1.5 Sumplhrste thn apdexh thc Prtashc 1.5.

H Prtash 1.5 ddei do epimeristikoc kannec, anlogouc me ton epimeristik
kanna gia ton pollaplasiasm wc proc thn prsjesh:

a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c) .
Prosxte oti sthn perptwsh twn arijmhtikn prxewn den isqei h epimeristik idithta
en antistryoume tic prxeic: h prsjesh den enai epimeristik wc proc ton pollaplasiasm.
Ta legmena diagrmmata Venn prosfroun na trpo na parastsoume autc tic
sunolojewrhtikc tautthtec.

Sqma 1.1: Digramma Venn

Ttoia sqdia suqn bohjon sthn katanhsh twn sqsewn metax twn diafrwn sunlwn, all prpei na sqediaston prosektik gia na paristnoun th genikterh kje for

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

perptwsh. En qoume na snolo, sto digramma Venn emfanzontai do perioqc: ta

shmea pou ankoun sto snolo kai aut pou den ankoun se aut (Sqma 1.2).

Sqma 1.2: Digramma Venn enc sunlou

Me do snola qoume tssereic perioqc, en me tra snola okt perioqc. Enai ekolo na sqedisoume treic kklouc ste na diakrnontai oi okt perioqc pou paristnoun
th genik perptwsh gia tra snola (Sqma 1.3).

Sqma 1.3: Digramma Venn trin sunlwn

Gia tssera snola, to anlogo sqma den mpore na gnei me kklouc. Mporete na to
katafrete me treic kklouc kai na elejero sqma?
Ta diagrmmata apotelon shmantik bojhma sthn katanhsh thc katstashc. 'Omwc
se aut to stdio twn spoudn sac, tan sac zhtetai na apodexete ma sqsh metax
sunlwn, mporete na qrhsimopoisete epikourik to digramma, all enai aparathto na
gryete thn apdeixh qrhsimopointac me prosoq to swst majhmatik sumbolism kai
akribec majhmatikc diatupseic.

'Askhsh 1.6 Sqediste ta diagrmmata Venn stic akloujec periptseic:

Keflaio 1

Snola

a. 'Eqoume do snola A kai B ttoia ste (A B) B kai B 6 A.

b. 'Eqoume tra snola A, B kai C ttoia ste A B C = , A B 6= , A C 6=
kai B C 6= .

Prtash 1.6 En A kai B enai snola, oi epmenec idithtec enai isodnamec

1. A B
2. A B = A
3. A B = B .
H prtash shmanei oti kje mia ap tic trec idithtec isqei en kai mnon en isqoun
kai oi llec do. Sumbolik

(A B) (A B = A) (A B = B)

Apdeixh. Upojtoume oti A B kai jloume na dexoume oti A B = A. Gnwrzoume

oti A B A. En x A, tte, afo A B , x B , ra x A B , kai A A B .

'Ara A B = A.
Antstrofa, upojtoume oti A B = A kai jloume na dexoume oti A B . En x A,
tte x A B , ra x B kai A B .
Dexame oti ta 1 kai 2 enai isodnama.
Gia thn isodunama twn 1 kai 3, parathrome oti to 3 lei oti en bloume ta stoiqea
tou A maz me ta stoiqea tou B , parnoume to snolo B . Sumplhrste pio analutik thn
apdeixh, pwc sto prohgomeno.

Sumplhrmata
En A kai B enai snola, h sunolojewrhtik diafor A \ B orzetai wc to snolo lwn
twn stoiqewn tou A pou den ankoun sto B ,

A \ B = {x A | x 6 B}.

'Askhsh 1.7 En A = {1, 2, 3} kai B = {1, 5, 6, 7}, brete ta snola A B , A B ,

A \ B , B \ A kai (A B) \ (A B).
En B enai uposnolo tou A onomzoume to A \ B sumplrwma tou B wc proc
to A.
Den mporome na xeqsoume to A kai na orsoume to sumplrwma tou B wc to snolo
lwn sa den ankoun sto B , giat tte h nwsh tou B kai tou upotijmenou sumplhrmatoc ja tan to snolo twn pntwn, pou pwc edame den mpore na uprqei.
Se sugkekrimnec periptseic mpore na uprqei na snolo pou periqei la ta antikemena pou exetzoume. Tte onomzoume aut to snolo qro. Otan anafermaste se
akeraouc arijmoc, o qroc mpore na enai to snolo Z twn akerawn. Otan qoume sto

10

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 1.4: H sunolojewrhtik diafor A \ B .

Sqma 1.5: To sumplrwma tou B wc proc to A.

nou mac kpoio sugkekrimno qro U , orzoume to

B tou U na enai
B c = U \ B,

sumplrwma B c kje uposunlou

dhlad na enai to sumplrwma tou B wc proc to qro U . Orismnec idithtec tou sumplhrmatoc ddoume sthn epmenh Prtash.

Prtash 1.7 En A kai B enai uposnola tou qrou U , isqoun ta aklouja:

1. c = U
2. U c =
3. (Ac )c = A
4. En A B tte B c Ac .

Keflaio 1

11

Snola

Idiatero endiafron qoun oi kannec De Morgan gia th sqsh tou sumplhrmatoc

me enseic kai tomc:

Prtash 1.8 En A kai B enai uposnola tou qrou U , isqoun ta aklouja:

1. (A B)c = Ac B c
2. (A B)c = Ac B c .

Apdeixh. En x (A B)c , tte x 6 A B . Aut shmanei oti x 6 A kai x 6 B , ra

x Ac kai x B c , kai sunepc x Ac B c . Epomnwc
(A B)c Ac B c .
Gia na apodexoume ton antjeto egkleism, antistrfoume ta bmata thc prohgomenhc
apdeixhc. Etsi apodeiknetai h 1.
Gia na apodexoume thn 2 mporome na akoloujsoume anloga bmata. Enac lloc
trpoc enai na antikatastsoume to A me t Ac kai to B me to B c sthn 1, pou ddei

(Ac B c )c = Acc B cc = A B.
Katpin parnoume sumplhrmata, kai qoume

(A B)c = (Ac B c )cc = Ac B c

pou enai h 2.

'Askhsh 1.8 Aplopoiste tic akloujec ekfrseic

a. (Dc F )c (D F )
b. ((X c Y ) (X c Y c ))c

'Askhsh 1.9 Dexte oti gia opoiadpote uposnola A kai B tou qrou U , isqei h
isthta A \ B = A B c , kai qrhsimopoiste thn gia na dexete oti
a. (A \ B) \ C = A \ (B C)
b. (A \ B) \ C = (A \ C) \ (B \ C).
Orzoume th summetrik diafor A M B do sunlwn A kai B na enai to snolo
pou periqei ta stoiqea pou ankoun sto A sto B , all qi kai sta do:

A M B = (A \ B) (B \ A) .

'Askhsh 1.10 Dexte oti

A M B = (A B) \ (A B) .

12

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 1.6: H summetrik diafor.

'Askhsh 1.11 Upologste ta snola A M A kai A M . Dexte oti A M B = B M A.

Mpore na prosxate oti oi kannec thc Jewrac Sunlwn parousizontai se zegh: gia
kje kanna, en allxoume lec tic enseic se tomc kai tic tomc se enseic, parnoume
nan llo kanna. Ja onomsoume autn thn paratrhsh Arq Dukthtac tou De
Morgan.
En se mia alhj sunolojewrhtik tautthta sthn opoa emfanzontai mnon oi prxeic
kai , antikatastsoume kje me kai kje me , prokptei mia na alhjc
tautthta.
H genik apdeixh auto tou apotelsmatoc baszetai se mia kpwc perplokh epagwg,
pou krbei thn aplthta tou basiko epiqeirmatoc. Ac jewrsoume mia qarakthristik
perptwsh.
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(1.1)
Prete ta sumplhrmata kai efarmste do forc touc kannec De Morgan gia na katalxete sthn
Ac (B c C c ) = (Ac B c ) (Ac C c ).
Aut h tautthta isqei gia opoiadpote snola A, B, C , ra isqei kai gia ta Ac , B c , C c ,
kai ddei thn tautthta pou prokptei ap thn 1.1 me efarmog thc dukthtac De Morgan.

Snola ap snola
Merikc forc exetzoume snola ta stoiqea twn opown enai epshc snola. Gia pardeigma, S = {A, B}, pou A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 3, 4}. Ena geniktero pardeigma enai to
snolo lwn twn uposunlwn enc sunlou X , pou onomzetai dunamosnolo tou X
kai sumbolzetai P(X):

Y P(X) en kai mnon en Y X

En X = {0, 1}, tte P(X) = {, {0}, {1}, {0, 1}}.

Keflaio 1

13

Snola

Se ttoiec periptseic pou kje stoiqeo tou S enai na snolo, mporome na proqwrsoume na bma parapra kai na jewrsoume ta stoiqea twn stoiqewn tou S . Etsi
mporome na genikesoume tic nnoiec thc nwshc kai thc tomc:
[
S = {x| x A gia kpoio A S},
kai en S 6= ,

S = {x| x A gia kje A S}.

S
T
S enai h nwsh tou S , kai S enai h tom tou S . H nwsh tou S apoteletai ap
la ta stoiqea lwn twn stoiqewn tou S , en h tom tou S apoteletai ap ta koin
stoiqea lwn twn stoiqewn tou S . Gia pardeigma
[
{{1, 2}, {2, 3, 4}} = {1, 2, 3, 4}
\

{{1, 2}, {2, 3, 4}} = {2}.

Gia kje snolo X isqei

[
\

P(X) = X
P(X) = .

Autc o sumbolismc apotele prgmati genkeush thc nwshc kai thc tomc do sunlwn.
En S = {A1 , A2 , . . . , An }, nac enallaktikc sumbolismc enai

n
[

S=

Ar

r=1

S=

n
\

Ar .

r=1

'Askhsh 1.12 Brete to dunamosnolo tou sunlou X , pou X = {, , }, kai to

dunamosnolo tou sunlou A, pou A = {a, {a, b}}.

'Askhsh 1.13 En S enai to snolo lwn twn uposunlwn tou Z sta opoa ankei to
0, brete ta

kai

S.

T
S = , h tom S den orzetai. En to S enai ken, tte otidpote ankei se kje stoiqeo tou
S , kai ja eqame to snolo twn pntwn.
1 En

14

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
Upenjumzoume to sumbolism

N : oi fusiko arijmo
Q : oi rhto arijmo

Z : oi akraioi arijmo
R : oi pragmatiko arijmo

Se autc tic askseic jloume na prosxoume th dikrish metax

: ankei, enai stoiqeo tou . . .

: periqetai, enai uposnolo tou . . .

'Askhsh 1.14 Poic ap tic paraktw protseic enai alhjec kai poic yeudec? Exhgeste sntoma thn apnths sac.

a. 1 {1, 3, 5, 2}
g.
{x R | x2 3x + 2 = 0} {1, 3, 5}
e. 2 {x Q | x2 2 = 0}
z. {1} {1, 2, 3}
j. 1 {1, 2, 3}
ia. {{2}} {1, {2}}
ig.
ie. {}

b. {1, 2} {1, 3, 5, 2}
d. {x R | x2 3x + 2 = 0} N
. 3 {a N | a > 2}
h. {1} {1, 2, 3}
i. {1, 2} {1, {2}}
ib. {{2}} {1, {2}}
id.
i. {}

'Askhsh 1.15 Prosdiorste ta paraktw snola.

a. {1, 2, {4}} {2, 3, 6}
b. {1, {2}, 4} {2, 3, 6}
g. A B , pou A = {x Z | |x| 3} kai B = {y Z | y 3}.
d. C D, pou C = {x Z | |x| 3} kai D{y Z | y 3}.
e. A {A}, pou A = {1, 2, 3}.
. {}
z. {}

'Askhsh 1.16 4. Poi ap ta paraktw snola enai sa?

a. {1, 1, 2}
b. {1, 2, 1, 2}
g. {n Z | |n| 2 kai n 6= 0}
d. {2, 2} {1, 1}

Keflaio 1

15

Snola

'Askhsh 1.17 En V = {, f, X} kai W = {1, f, , {}}, brete ta V \ W kai W \ V .

'Askhsh 1.18 En A = {a, b, {a, c}, }, brete ta snola
a. A \ {a}
b. A \
g. A \ {a, c}
d. A \ {{a, c}}
e. A M {a, c}
. {a} \ A

'Askhsh 1.19 Dexte oti h summetrik diafor qei thn prosetairistik idithta:
(A M B) M C = A M (B M C) .

'Askhsh 1.20 Apodexte oti:

a. (A M B) M A = B
b. (A M B) C = (A C) M (B C)

'Askhsh 1.21 Qrhsimopoiste to prohgomeno apotlesma gia na dexete oti en A, B

kai C enai (opoiadpote) snola kai A M B = A M C tte B = C . Apodexte oti h

exswsh A M X = B qei monadik lsh.

'Askhsh 1.22 En X = X1 X2 , dexte oti

[

X=

[
X1
X2 .

'Askhsh 1.23 En A = {, {}} kai B = {a, {a}, b}, prosdiorste gia kje mia ap
tic paraktw protseic en enai alhjc yeudc:
a. P(A)
b. P(A)
g. {} P(A)
d. {{a}} P(B)
e. {{a}} P(B)

16

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

. {{a}, b} P(B)
z. {{a}, {{a}}} P(B)

'Askhsh 1.24 Ddetai na snolo X , na uposnolo A X kai Z = X P(X). Dexte

oti A Z kai A Z .
'Askhsh 1.25 En to snolo A qei n stoiqea, psa stoiqea qei to dunamosnolo
P(A)? (Mporete na exetsete mikr n gia na mantyete thn apnthsh, kai sth sunqeia
na qrhsimopoisete th mjodo thc epagwgc gia thn apdeixh.)
'Askhsh 1.26 Prblhma gia geroc ltec.

Dexte oti den uprqei snolo X ttoio ste P(X) X . (Exetste ta uposnola Y tou
X pou qoun thn idithta Y 6 Y , gia na odhghjete se antfash anlogh me to pardoxo
tou Russell.)

Keflaio 2
Sqseic
H nnoia thc sqshc enai mia ap tic basikterec sth jewra sunlwn, kai qrhsimopoietai
se louc touc kldouc twn majhmatikn, kai se pollc llec periptseic. Paradegmata
sqsewn metax arijmn enai megalteroc ap, mikrteroc ap, enai diairthc tou,
enai soc proc, den enai soc proc, . . . . Paradegmata ap th jewra sunlwn enai enai
uposnolo, ankei, . . . . Paradegmata ap llec perioqc enai enai adelfc thc, enai
mhtra tou, . . . . Olec autc oi ekfrseic anafrontai se do prgmata, kai to prto
ete qei th sqsh pou anafretai proc to detero, ete den thn qei. Gia pardeigma, h
kfrash a > b, pou a kai b enai akraioi arijmo, ete enai alhjc ete den enai ( 2 > 1
enai alhjc, 1 > 2 den enai alhjc).
Prpei na diakrnoume to prto ap to detero ap ta do prgmata pou sqetzontai:
a > b enai diaforetik ap b > a. Etsi to prto prgma pou ja knoume enai na
perigryoume diatetagmna zegh. Se pollc periptseic ta antikemena sta opoa
anafretai h sqsh ankoun se diaforetik snola.
Ja perigryoume thn nnoia thc sqshc qrhsimopointac tic nnoiec thc jewrac sunlwn, kai katpin ja exetsoume pio analutik do pol shmantik edh sqsewn: tic
sqseic isodunamac kai tic sqseic ditaxhc.

Diatetagmna zegh
Se na snolo, h ditaxh (h seir) me thn opoa grfoume ta stoiqea den knei diafor,
tsi ste {a, b} = {b, a}. Se orismnec periptseic mwc aut h ditaxh qei shmasa.
Gia pardeigma, sthn analutik gewmetra, oi suntetagmnec enc shmeou tou epipdou
paristnontai ap zegh pragmatikn arijmn (x, y). H ditaxh qei shmasa, afo to
shmeo me suntetagmnec (1, 2) enai diaforetik ap to shmeo me suntetagmnec (2, 1),
Sqma 2.1.
Sumbolzoume to diatetagmno zegoc (x, y), me parenjseic ant gia agklec, gia na to
diakrnoume ap to snolo {x, y}. H basik idithta pou apaitome ap to no antikemeno
enai
(x, y) = (u, v) en kai mnon en x = u kai y = v .
En A kai B enai snola, to kartesian ginmeno A B enai to snolo lwn twn
diatetagmnwn zeugn me prto stoiqeo ap to A kai detero stoiqeo ap to B :

A B = {(x, y)| x A, kai y B} .

17

18

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 2.1: Suntetagmnec shmewn sto eppedo.

Sthn prohgomenh pargrafo prosdiorsame pte ja lme oti do diatetagmna zegh

enai sa, all den qoume dsei akma nan orism gia na diatetagmno zegoc, qrhsimopointac tic nnoiec thc jewrac sunlwn. Gia na odhghjome se nan orism, ac
skefjome pc parnoume na diatetagmno zegoc: dialgoume prta na stoiqeo x ap
to snolo A, kai met na stoiqeo y ap to snolo B . Eqontac dialxei to stoiqeo x
qoume to monosnolo {x}. Katpin dialgoume to stoiqeo y kai qoume to snolo me do
stoiqea {x, y}. Sunolojewrhtik, aut h diadikasa perigrfetai ap ta snola {x} kai
{x, y}, dhlad ap to snolo {{x}, {x, y}}. O Polwnc majhmatikc Kuratowski dwse
ton akloujo orism.

Orismc. To diatetagmno zegoc (x, y) do stoiqewn x kai y orzetai na enai to

snolo

(x, y) = {{x}, {x, y}} .

Prpei na elgxoume oti autc o orismc sumfwne me ton trpo pou jloume na prosdiorsoume thn isthta do diatetagmnwn zeugn.

Prtash 2.1 Me ton orism tou Kuratowski isqei oti

(x, y) = (u, v) en kai mnon en x = u kai y = v .

Apdeixh. Enai profanc oti en x = u kai y = v, tte (x, y) = (u, v).

Sthn antjeth katejunsh, upojtoume oti (x, y) = (u, v). En x 6= y , tte {{x}, {x, y}}
qei do diaforetik stoiqea, to {x} kai to {x, y}, ra kai to (u, v) = {{u}, {u, v}} prpei na qei do diaforetik stoiqea. Aut shmanei oti u 6= v , giat en u = v tte
{u, v} = {u}. Sumperanoume oti {x} = {u} {x} = {u, v}. En {x} = {u, v} ja eqame
u {x} kai v {x}, ra u = x = v , pou antifskei proc to prohgomeno sumprasma.
Sunepc qoume {x} = {u} kai x = u.
Me anlogo epiqerhma qoume oti {x, y} = {u, v}, kai afo x = u, x 6= y kai y {u, v},
sumperanoume oti y = v .
En x = y , tte o sunolojewrhtikc orismc tou zegouc gnetai

(x, y) = (x, x) = {{x}, {x, x}} = {{x}, {x}} = {{x}} ,

Keflaio 2

19

Sqseic

ra to (x, y) qei mnon na stoiqeo, to {x}. En (x, y) = (u, v), tte to (u, v) qei epshc
mnon na stoiqeo, ra {u} = {u, v}, kai sunepc u = v , (u, v) = {{u}}. Ara h isthta
(x, y) = (u, v) gnetai {{x}} = {{u}} kai en suneqea {x} = {u} kai x = u. Se autn thn
perptwsh qoume x = y = u = v , kai h apdeixh oloklhrjhke.

Edame oti qoume na sunolojewrhtik orism tou diatetagmnou zegouc, pou knei
akribc to ti ennoome me prto kai detero stoiqeo tou zegouc. Sthn prxh, tan skeftmaste na diatetagmno zegoc qoume th diaisjhtik eikna tou prtou kai deterou
stoiqeou, mia parallag thc eiknac twn suntetagmnwn enc shmeou sto eppedo. Enai qrsimo mwc na gnwrzoume oti en kpote th qreiastome, uprqei h austhr nnoia,
basismnh mno stic nnoiec thc jewrac sunlwn.
H eikna twn suntetagmnwn sto eppedo mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia na parastsoume lla snola. Gia pardeigma, en A = {a, b, c} kai B = {u, v}, paristnoume to
kartesian ginmeno A B me to Sqma 2.2

Sqma 2.2: To kartesian ginmeno A B .

Prosxte oti A B 6= B A. Gia pardeigma, en A = {a, b, c} kai B = {u, v}, tte

A B = {(a, u), (a, v), (b, u), (b, v), (c, u), (c, v)}
en

B A = {(u, a), (u, b), (u, c), (v, a), (v, b), (v, c)} .

'Askhsh 2.1 Ddontai ta snola X = {1, 2, 3} kai Y = {1, 4, }. Brete ta kartesian

ginmena X Y kai Y X .

Prtash 2.2 Gia opoiadpote snola A, B, C isqoun oi tautthtec:

1. (A B) C = (A C) (B C)
2. (A B) C = (A C) (B C)
3. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

20

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

4. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

Apdeixh. Ja apodexoume mno to (1), kai ja afsoume ta uploipa wc askseic.

Jewrome (u, v) (A B) C . Tte u A B kai v C . Ara u A u B .

En u A tte (u, v) A C . En u B tte (u, v) B C . Se kje perptwsh
(u, v) (A C) (B C). Ara

(A B) C (A C) (B C) .
Tra jewrome x = (y, z) (A C) (B C). Ete x A C x B C . Sthn
prth perptwsh, y A kai z C . Sth deterh perptwsh y B kai z C . Ara se kje
perptwsh y A B kai z C , sunepc x = (y, z) (A B) C . Ara

(A C) (B C) (A B) C .

To apotlesma mpore na parastaje sto akloujo digramma tou Sqmatoc 2.3.

Sqma 2.3: Kartesian ginmeno nwshc do sunlwn.

'Opwc kai me ta diagrmmata Venn, ttoia diagrmmata kartesiann ginomnwn apotelon
bohjmata gia thn apdeixh, all se aut to stdio twn spoudn sac apaitetai na grfete
thn apdeixh analutik, qrhsimopointac to swst majhmatik sumbolism kai akribec
majhmatikc diatupseic.

'Askhsh 2.2 Apodexte ta 2, 3, kai 4 thc Prtashc 2.2

Prtash 2.3 Gia opoiadpote snola A, B, C, D isqei
(A B) (C D) = (A C) (B D) .

Keflaio 2

21

Sqseic

Sqma 2.4: Kartesian ginmeno tomn.

'Askhsh 2.3 Akoloujntac th mjodo thc prohgomenhc apdeixhc, kai me th bojeia

tou Sqmatoc 2.4, sumplhrste thn apdeixh thc Prtashc 2.3.

To antstoiqo apotlesma den isqei gia enseic sth jsh twn tomn!

'Askhsh 2.4 Sqediste to antstoiqo sqma gia to kartesian ginmeno twn ensewn
sunlwn, kai apodexte oti

(A B) (C D) (A C) (B D) .
Brete na pardeigma gia na dexete oti den isqei pnta o antjetoc egkleismc.
Enai ekolo tra na orsoume diatetagmnec tridec, tetrdec k.o.k.

(a, b, c) = ((a, b), c)

(a, b, c, d) = (((a, b), c), d)
Aut ta snola enai stoiqea epanalambanomnwn kartesiann ginomnwn

A B C = (A B) C
A B C D = ((A B) C) D .
Sto Keflaio 3 ja dome nan llo trpo na orsoume th genik nnoia thc diatetagmnhc
n-dac
(a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an )
gia kje fusik arijm n.

22

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqseic
Diaisjhtik, mia sqsh metax do majhmatikn antikeimnwn a kai b enai kpoia sunjkh
pou anafretai sta a kai b kai h opoa ete enai alhjc gia sugkekrimnec timc twn a kai
b ete enai yeudc. Gia pardeigma, a > b enai mia sqsh metax fusikn arijmn:

2 > 1 enai alhjc

1 > 2 enai yeudc
15 > 23 enai yeudc
k.o.k. H sqsh enai kpoia idithta twn zeugn twn stoiqewn a kai b. Prosxte oti
prpei na qrhsimopoisoume diatetagmna zegh (a, b), afo, gia pardeigma 2 > 1 enai
alhjc en 1 > 2 enai yeudc.
En gnwrzoume gia poi diatetagmna zegh (a, b) alhjeei oti a > b, tte ousiastik
gnwrzoume th sqsh megaltero ap. Aut h paratrhsh odhge ston orism thc sqshc
msw enc sunlou diatetagmnwn zeugn.

Orismc. En A kai B enai snola, ma dimelc sqsh metax twn stoiqewn

twn sunlwn A kai B enai na uposnolo tou kartesiano ginomnou A B .
En A = B , lme oti qoume mia sqsh sto A, dhlad na uposnolo tou A A.
Gia pardeigma, h sqsh megaltero ap sto snolo N twn fusikn arijmn enai to
snolo lwn twn diatetagmnwn zeugn (a, b), pou a, b N kai a > b, me th sunjh
shmasa.
En enai mia sqsh metax twn sunlwn A kai B , lme oti to a A kai to b B
sqetzontai msw thc en (a, b) AB . Qrhsimopoiome epshc to sumbolism a b
ennontac oti (a, b) . Autc o sumbolismc enai pio kont sto sunjh sumbolism gia
pollc ap tic pio koinc sqseic: a = b, a > b, a b, a|b (a enai diairthc tou b).
Mporome na parastsoume mia sqsh grafik, san uposnolo tou kartesiano ginomnou:
H sqsh sto N paristnetai sto Sqma 2.5.
H sqsh = sto N enai to uposnolo {(x, x)| x N}, kai paristnetai ap ta shmea
sth diagnio, pwc sto Sqma 2.6.
En X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} kai | sumbolzei th sqsh enai diairthc tou sto X , wc snolo
diatetagmnwn zeugn qoume

| = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6),
(3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}.
Do sqseic kai metax twn stoiqewn do sunlwn A kai B , enai do uposnola
tou kartesiano ginomnou A B . Sunepc mporome na efarmsoume sunolojewrhtikc
prxeic se autc, kai na proume snola pwc , , \ , \ . Kje na ap
aut ta snola orzei epshc ma sqsh metax twn stoiqewn twn A kai B .

'Askhsh 2.5 Ddontai oi sqseic kai sto snolo twn fusikn arijmn, N =
{1, 2, 3, . . . }, pou orzontai ap:

(a, b) en a | b

Keflaio 2

23

Sqseic

Sqma 2.5: H sqsh sto snolo twn fusikn arijmn.

Sqma 2.6: H sqsh isthtac sto snolo twn fusikn arijmn.

kai

(a, b) en a2 | b .

Perigryte me idithtec diairetthtac tic sqseic

\ ,

\ .

En antistryoume th ditaxh twn stoiqewn se kje diatetagmno zegoc se mia sqsh,

parnoume thn antstrofh sqsh. En enai mia sqsh metax twn stoiqewn tou A

24

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

kai tou B , h antstrofh sqsh 1 enai h sqsh metax twn stoiqewn tou B kai tou A,
h opoa orzetai wc
1 = {(b, a) B A | (a, b) } .
En qoume mia sqsh metax twn stoiqewn twn sunlwn A kai B , kai uposnola
U A kai V B , orzoume ton periorism thc sqshc sto U kai sto V

= {(a, b) | a U, b V } = (U V ) .
Oson afor stoiqea tou U kai tou V , h kai h lne ta dia prgmata. H mnh diafor
enai oti h den lei tpota gia ta stoiqea pou den ankoun sto U kai sto V .

Sqseic isodunamac
Sta majhmatik, tso sta stoiqeidh so kai sta proqwrhmna, h dikrish metax rtiwn
kai perittn akerawn enai suqn shmantik. (Oi peritto akraioi enai auto pou grfontai
sth morf 2n + 1 gia n akraio, dhlad oi . . . , 5, 3, 1, 1, 3, 5, . . ., en oi rtioi enai
auto pou grfontai sth morf 2n gia n akraio, dhlad oi . . . , 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, . . .. To
snolo Z lwn twn akerawn qwrzetai se do, xna metax touc uposnola

Z1 = to snolo twn perittn akerawn

Z0 = to snolo twn artwn akerawn ,
tsi ste

Z1 Z0 = , Z1 Z0 = Z .
Mporome na qwrsoume to Z se aut ta uposnola qrhsimopointac mia sqsh, pou ja
sumbolsoume proc to parn me . Gia m, n Z orzoume

m n en kai mnon en m n enai pollaplsio tou 2.

Tte

loi oi peritto akraioi sqetzontai msw thc ,

loi oi rtioi akraioi sqetzontai msw thc ,
kannac rtioc akraioc den sqetzetai me kpoio peritt akraio,
kannac perittc akraioc den sqetzetai me kpoio rtio akraio.
Aut h dunatthta ofeletai se kpoiec genikc idithtec thc sqshc tic opoec ja
exetsoume.
Geniktera, upojste oti na snolo enai qwrismno se kpoia kommtia pou enai xna
an do.
Mporome na orsoume mia sqsh

xy

en kai mnon en

pwc fanetai sto Sqma 2.8.

x kai y brskontai sto dio kommti

Keflaio 2

25

Sqseic

Sqma 2.7: Snolo qwrismno se kommtia, xna an do.

Sqma 2.8: H sqsh ankoun sto dio kommti.

Antstrofa, mporome na proume ta kommtia ap th sqsh : to kommti sto opoo

ankei to stoiqeo x enai to
Ex = {y X| x y} .
En kataskeusoume uposnola me anlogo trpo ap mia llh sqsh, ta prgmata mpore
na enai diaforetik. Gia pardeigma, mpore ta kommtia na mhn enai xna metax touc. En
qrhsimopoisoume th sqsh enai diairthc tou, |, sto snolo {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, qoume

E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6

=
=
=
=
=
=

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
{2, 4, 6}
{3, 6}
{4}
{5}
{6} .

26

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

En qrhsimopoisoume th sqsh > stouc fusikoc arijmoc, to x den ankei kan sto Ex ,
to opoo profanc den enai to kommti sto opoo ankei to x.
Se t diafrei h sqsh ap tic llec, ste se ekenh thn perptwsh na parnoume to
qrisma sta Ex ? Parathrome treic entelc stoiqeideic idithtec:
to x ankei sto dio kommti me ton eaut tou, dhlad to zegoc (x, x) ankei sth
sqsh,
en to x ankei sto dio kommti me to y , tte to y ankei sto dio kommti me to x,
en to x ankei sto dio kommti me to y , kai to y ankei sto dio kommti me to z ,
tte to x ankei sto dio kommti me to z .
Profanc, mia sqsh me thn idithta oti x y en kai mnon en to x kai to y ankoun
sto dio kommti, prpei na qei tic treic anlogec idithtec, tic opoec diatupnoume tupik
ston akloujo orism.

Orismc. Mia sqsh sto snolo X onomzetai sqsh isodunamac sto X en

qei tic akloujec idithtec gia la ta x, y, z X .
(SI1) x x (h sqsh enai

anaklastik).

(SI2) En x y , tte y x (h sqsh enai

summetrik).

(SI3) En x y kai y z , tte x z (h sqsh enai

metabatik).

Ja dome oti kje sqsh isodunamac se na snolo X prokptei ap to qrisma tou

sunlou X se kommtia. Prta mwc ja orsoume akribc ti ennoome me qrisma se xna
metax touc kommtia.

Orismc. Mia diamrish tou sunlou X enai na snolo D tou opoou ta stoiqea
enai mh ken uposnola tou X , tsi ste

(D1) Kje x X ankei se kpoio A D,

(D2) En A, B D kai A 6= B , tte A B = .
Ta kommtia enai ta stoiqea tou D. H idithta (D1) lei oti to X enai h nwsh lwn
twn kommatin. H (D2) lei oti ta kommtia den tmnontai metax touc.
En enai mia sqsh isodunamac, orzoume thn klsh isodunamac (wc proc th
sqsh ) tou stoiqeou x X na enai to snolo

Ex = {y X| x y} .

Jerhma 2.4 Estw mia sqsh isodunamac se na snolo X . Tte D = {Ex | x X}

enai diamrish tou X . H sqsh ankei sto dio stoiqeo thc D enai h dia me th .
Antstrofa, en D enai diamrish tou X , jewrome th sqsh pou orzetai wc x y
en kai mnon en x kai y brskontai sto dio stoiqeo thc D. Tte enai sqsh isodunamac,
kai h antstoiqh diamrish se klseic isodunamac enai h D.

Keflaio 2

27

Sqseic

Apdeixh. Efson x Ex h idithta (D1) gia th diamrish ikanopoietai. Ja elgxoume

th (D2). Upojtoume oti Ex Ey 6= . Tte uprqei z Ex Ey , gia to opoo isqei
x z kai y z . Ap th summetrik idithta, z y kai ap metabatikthta x y .
Ja dexoume oti aut sunepgetai Ex = Ey . En u Ex , tte x u kai y x, ra
y u. Sunepc u Ey kai Ex Ey . Parmoia Ey Ex . Aut deqnei oti Ex = Ey .
Eqoume dexei oti Ex Ey = Ex = Ey . Aut enai logik isodnamo me to (D2).
Tra orzoume x y na shmanei x kai y ankoun sthn dia klsh isodunamas. Tte
xy

en kai mnon en x, y Ez gia kpoio z

en kai mnon en z x kai z y gia kpoio z
en kai mnon en x y .

Ara kai enai h dia sqsh.

To antstrofo apotlesma apodeiknetai me parmoio trpo, all enai eukoltero. To
afnoume gia skhsh.

Oi idithtec oi opoec qarakthrzoun ma sqsh isodunamac enai arket shmantikc ste

na tic exetsoume kai memonomna.

Orismc. Mia sqsh sto snolo A lgetai

1.

Anaklastik, en gia kje x A, (x, x) .

2.

Summetrik, en gia kje x, y A, en (x, y) tte (y, x) .

3.

Metabatik, en gia kje x, y, z A, en (x, y) kai (y, z) , tte

(x, z) .

'Askhsh 2.6 Jewrome tic sqseic kai sto X , dhlad , X X . En oi

kai enai anaklastikc, dexte oti h kai h enai epshc anaklastikc. Enai h
sqsh \ anaklastik?

'Askhsh 2.7 Ddoume diforec sqseic sto R. Poic ap autc enai anaklastikc,
summetrikc, metabatikc?
a. x < y
b. x y
g. |x y| < 1
d. |x y| 0
e. x y enai rhtc
. x y enai rrhtoc

28

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Pardeigma sqshc isodunamac:

Arijmhtik modulo 3.
Ja qrhsimopoisoume thn nnoia thc sqshc isodunamac gia na genikesoume th dikrish
metax rtiwn kai perittn akerawn, kai na eisaggoume touc akeraouc modulo n,
gia n 3.
Prta exetzoume thn perptwsh n = 3. Orzoume th sqsh isotimac modulo 3,
3 , sto Z

m 3 n

en kai mnon en

m n enai pollaplsio tou 3 .

Prtash 2.5 3 enai sqsh isodunamac.

Apdeixh.
(SI1) m m = 0 = 3 0.
(SI2) En m n = 3k tte n m = 3(k).
(SI3) En m n = 3k kai n p = 3l, tte m p = 3(k + l).

Gnwrzoume oti oi klseic isodunamac, pou se autn thn perptwsh onomzontai klseic upolopwn mod3, apotelon diamrish tou sunlou twn akerawn. Ac dome
merik paradegmata.
E0 = {y| 0 3 y}
= {y| y 0 enai pollaplsio tou 3}
= {y| y = 3k gia kpoio k Z} .
E1 = {y| 1 3 y}
= {y| y 1 enai pollaplsio tou 3}
= {y| y = 3k + 1 gia kpoio k Z} .
E2 = {y| 2 3 y}
= {y| y = 3k + 2 gia kpoio k Z} .
E3 = {y| y = 3k + 3 gia kpoio k Z} .
Omwc, 3k + 3 = 3(k + 1), ra E3 = E0 . Parmoia, E4 = E1 , E5 = E2 , E1 = E2 ,
E2 = E1 , k.o.k. Kje akraioc enai thc morfc 3k , 3k + 1 3k + 2, ra qoume akribc
trec klseic upolopwn:

E0 = {. . . , 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}
E1 = {. . . , 8, 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, 10, . . .}
E2 = {. . . , 7, 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, 12, . . .}

Keflaio 2

29

Sqseic

Ac exetsoume tra en mporome na knoume arijmhtikc prxeic me autc tic klseic

isodunamac.
Gia na aposafhnsoume to sumbolism, ja sumbolsoume thn klsh upolopwn tou n me
n3 ant gia En . 'Etsi oi treic klseic sumbolzontai 03 , 13 , 23 , kai jtoume Z3 = {03 , 13 , 23 }.
Orzoume prxeic prsjeshc kai pollaplasiasmo sto snolo Z3 wc exc:

m3 + n3 = (m + n)3
m3 n3 = (mn)3

(2.1)
(2.2)

Gia pardeigma, 13 + 23 = 33 = 03 , 23 23 = 43 = 13 .
Afnontac proc to parn to erthma thc qrhsimthtac enc ttoiou orismo, ac exetsoume en ta prgmata enai tso apl so fanontai. Ja dome oti mia pio prosektik
melth mpore na mac knei na anhsuqsoume, all lgo perissterh prosoq ja mac pesei
oti den uprqei prblhma, toulqiston se autn thn perptwsh.
Ido kti pou prpei na mac problhmatsei: h dia klsh qei poll diaforetik onmata.
13 = 43 = 73 = . . . , 23 = 53 = 83 = . . . . O orismc mpore na ddei diaforetik
apotelsmata, anloga me to pio noma qrhsimopoiome! Edame oti 13 + 23 = 03 . All
13 = 73 kai 23 = 83 , ra jloume 13 + 23 = 73 + 83 = 153 . Prgmati, 153 = 03 , ra mqri
tra pme kal. Ti sumbanei sth genik perptwsh?
En i3 = j3 tte i j = 3k gia kpoio k , kai en m3 = n3 tte m n = 3l gia kpoio
l. Ap ton kanna (2.1) qoume do dunatc apantseic:

i3 + m3 = (i + m)3 ,

j3 + n3 = (j + n)3 .

'Omwc

i + m = j + 3k + n + 3l = (j + n) + 3(k + l),
kai sunepc

(i + m)3 = (j + n)3 .
'Ara qoume to dio apotlesma stic do periptseic, kai o kannac (2.1) orzei pragmatik
thn prsjesh klsewn upolopwn.
Parmoia prpei na exetsoume en qoume pragmatik orsei ton pollaplasiasm klsewn me ton kanna (2.2). Gia ta i, j, m, n pwc parapnw, qoume

i3 m3 = (im)3 ,

j3 n3 = (jn)3 .

All

im = (j + 3k)(n + 3l) = jn + 3(jl + nk + 3kl),

ra

(im)3 = (jn)3 ,
pou shmanei oti o (2.2) orzei ton pollaplasiasm.
Aut to prblhma dhmiourge arket sgqush. Emfanzetai kje for pou prospajome na orsoume prxeic anmesa se snola me na kanna thc morfc dilexe stoiqea ap
ta snola, kne kpoia prxh metax touc, kai pre to snolo sto opoo ankei to apotlesma. Se periptseic pwc h parapnw, pou o sumbolismc krbei mia ttoia diadikasa,
prpei na emaste pol prosektiko, na exetsoume ti shmanei o sumbolismc kai na mhn
parasurjome se tufl qeirism twn sumblwn. Prpei na elgxoume oti oi diaforetikc
epilogc ddoun to dio apotlesma.

30

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Ote enai asfalc na pisteoume oti kpoioc elogoc orismc ja douleei swst. Gia
pardeigma, ac prospajsoume na orsoume dunmeic sto Z3 . Enac fusiologikc trpoc
na to knoume enai na mimhjome tic (2.1) kai (2.2), kai na orsoume

m3 n3 = (mn )3 .
Gia pardeigma, 23 23 = (22 )3 = 43 = 13 . Ja mporosame akma na apodexoume oti ikanopoiontai oi kannec twn dunmewn

m3 n3 +p3 = (mn+p )3 = (mn mp )3 = (mn )3 (mp )3 = m3 n3 m3 p3 .

()

An mwc efarmsoume autn ton orism, efson 23 = 53 , qoume

13 = 23 23 = 23 53 = (25 )3 = (32)3 = 23 .
All 13 6= 23 , kai prpei na paradeqjome oti o orismc kai o kannac (*) pou sumpername
enai mia eulogofanc, kai giaut epikndunh, anohsa. Oi majhmatiko lne oti prpei na
exetsoume pwc h prxh enai kal orismnh.
Ac epistryoume sthn arijmhtik tou Z3 . Mporome na kataskeusoume pnakec prsjeshc kai pollaplasiasmo

+
03
13
23

03
03
13
23

13
13
23
03

23
23
03
13

03
13
23

03
03
03
03

13
03
13
23

23
03
23
13

Mporome na epalhjesoume polloc kannec thc arijmhtikc anlogouc me autoc twn

akerawn, pwc:
x+y =y+x
x(y + z) = xy + xz.
En ant gia 3 qrhsimopoisoume kpoion llo akraio n 4, mporome me anlogo
trpo na kataskeusoume touc akeraouc modulo n. Orzoume th sqsh isotimac modulo
n, n :
x n y en kai mnon en x y enai pollaplsio tou n.
'Eqoume n diaforetikc klseic upolopwn modn, 0n , 1n , 2n , . . . , (n 1)n , en nn =
0n , (n + 1)n = 1n k.o.k. H klsh xn apoteletai ap touc akeraouc pou afnoun uploipo
x tan diairejon me to n. Sto snolo Zn twn klsewn upolopwn mod n mporome na
orsoume arijmhtikc prxeic pwc sto Z3 .

'Askhsh 2.8 Brete la ta diatetagmna zegh stoiqewn tou Z12 , (a, b) gia ta opoa
isqei: a b = 012 .

Sqseic ditaxhc
Oi sqseic ditaxhc pou sunantome tan asqolomaste me arijmoc, pwc 4 < 5, 7 > 2 ,
x2 0, 1 x2 1 gia kje pragmatik arijm x, sundontai lec metax touc:

x < y shmanei to dio me y > x,

Keflaio 2

31

Sqseic

x y shmanei to dio me y x,
x y shmanei to dio me x < y x = y,
x < y shmanei to dio me x y kai x 6= y .
Otan qrhsimopoiome sugkekrimnouc arijmoc, mpore na enai protimtero na qrhsimopoisoume tic gnsiec anisthtec < >. Den ja grfame 2 + 2 4, (parolo pou enai
swst) afo gnwrzoume kti pio sugkekrimno, oti 2 + 2 = 4. Parmoia, ja grfame
2 + 2 > 3, giat aut ddei pio sugkekrimnh plhrofora ap to 2 + 2 3. Se genikterec
katastseic enai suqn protimtero to antjeto. Gia pardeigma, tan (an ) kai (bn ) enai
akoloujec pou sugklnoun sta ria a kai b antstoiqa, en an bn gia kje n, tte mporome na sumpernoume oti a b. Omwc h upjesh oti isqei h gnsia anisthta an > bn
den sunepgetai oti a > b. Ja xekinsoume me th melth twn asjenn sqsewn ditaxhc.

Orismc. Mia sqsh sto snolo A onomzetai asjenc sqsh ditaxhc en

qei tic akloujec idithtec gia la ta x, y, z A.
(AD1) En x y kai y z tte x z ,
(AD2) Gia kje do stoiqea x kai y tou A, isqei na ap ta x y y x, kai ta do,
(AD3) En x 6= y kai isqei x y , tte den isqei y x (h enai

antisummetrik).

Oi idithtec (AD2) kai (AD3) shmanoun oti en x 6= y , isqei akribc na ap ta x y

y x. Sunepc en isqoun kai ta do x y kai y x, tte x = y .
Autc oi idithtec profanc isqoun gia tic sqseic kai . Aut den prpei na mac
ekplttei. Gnwrzoume oti gia kje sqsh mporome na orsoume thn antstrofh sqsh
= 1 msw thc
x y en kai mnon en y x .

'Askhsh 2.9 En enai sqsh asjenoc ditaxhc, tte h antstrofh sqsh enai epshc

asjenc ditaxh.

Pardeigma 2.1 En A = {a, b, c}, pou ta a, b, c enai la diaforetik, mia asjenc

ditaxh orzetai ap a b, a c, b c, a a, b b, c c. Mporome na anaparastsoume

aut th ditaxh en jewrsoume ta a, b, c wc tra shmea se mia gramm, me x y en to
x brsketai sta arister tou y en x = y . H antstrofh sqsh bzei ta stoiqea sth
seir c, b, a.

Pardeigma 2.2 Orzoume sto eppedo th sqsh me:

(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )

en

ete y1 < y2
ete y1 = y2 kai x1 x2

Sto Sqma 2.9 blpoume oti (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) shmanei oti ete to (x1 , y1 ) brsketai se
mia orizntia gramm gnsia ktw ap to (x2 , y2 ), ta do shmea brskontai sthn dia
orizntia gramm kai to (x1 , y1 ) enai so brsketai sta arister tou (x2 , y2 ).

Pardeigma 2.3 Sto snolo A = {{0}, {0, 1}, {0, 1, 2}, {0, 1, 2, 3}}, orzoume x y
na shmanei x y gia x, y A.

32

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 2.9: Sqsh ditaxhc sto eppedo.

'Askhsh 2.10 Elgxte oti ikanopoiontai oi idithtec (AD1), (AD2) kai (AD3) gia ta
parapnw paradegmata.

'Askhsh 2.11 Dexte oti kje sqsh asjenoc ditaxhc enai anaklastik.
H sqsh enai uposnolo tou (sto snolo twn uposunlwn enc qrou U ) ikanopoie

(X Y kai Y Z) sunepgetai X Z
(X Y kai Y X) sunepgetai X = Y
all en gnei mpore na qoume snola X, Y me X 6 Y kai Y 6 X . Aut shmanei
oti o egkleismc sunlwn ikanopoie genik tic (AD1) kai (AD3), all qi thn (AD2).
Mia sqsh se na snolo A pou ikanopoie tic idithtec (AD1) kai AD(3) onomzetai
merik ditaxh. En A enai opoiodpote snolo tou opoou ta stoiqea enai snola,
o egkleismc orzei mia merik ditaxh sto A.
En enai mia asjenc ditaxh sto snolo A, tte h antstoiqh gnsia ditaxh
orzetai me
x y en kai mnon en x y kai x 6= y .
Gia pardeigma, en enai h , tte enai h <.

Prtash 2.6 Mia gnsia ditaxh sto snolo A ikanopoie:

(GD1) a b kai b c sunepgontai a c
(GD2) en a, b A, tte akribc mia ap tic akloujec sqseic isqei (kai oi llec do qi)

a b, b a, a = b .

Apdeixh. Jewrome th gnsia ditaxh pou antistoiqe sthn asjen ditaxh . U-

pojtoume oti isqoun oi a b kai b c. Tte isqoun a b kai b c, kai ap thn (AD1)
sumperanoume oti a c. Den mpore na isqei a = c, giat en sque, me antikatstash

Keflaio 2

Sqseic

33

sthn b c parnoume b a kai maz me th a b kai thn (AD3), qoume a = b, pou enai
adnaton afo a b. Eqoume epalhjesei th (GD1).
Ap thn (AD2) qoume, gia kje a, b A, ma ap tic a b b a. Ara isqei mia ap
tic a b a = b b a. H a = b antifskei me tic llec do, ra den mporon na isqoun
tautqrona. H a b kai h b a den mporon na isqoun tautqrona, giat tte ja eqame
a b kai b a, kai ap thn (AD3), a = b, pou pli ddei antfash. Eqoume epalhjesei th
(GD2).

H idithta (GD2) onomzetai kannac triqotomac.

34

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 2.12 Elgxate en isqoun oi isthtec
a. (A \ B) C = (A C) \ (B C)
b. (A M B) C = (A C) M (B C).

'Askhsh 2.13 Sto A = N N orzoume th sqsh , dhlad (N N) (N N),

wc exc:

(m, n) (r, s)

en

m + s = r + n.

Dexte oti h enai sqsh isodunamac. Oi klseic isodunamac autc thc sqshc antistoiqon me fusiologik trpo sta stoiqea enc gnwsto sunlou. Poi enai aut?

'Askhsh 2.14 Jewrome tic sqseic kai sto X , dhlad , X X . En oi

kai enai summetrikc, exetste en h h kai h \ enai epshc summetrikc.

'Askhsh 2.15 Uprqei kpoio ljoc sthn paraktw apdeixh oti en ma sqsh enai
summetrik kai metabatik, tte enai anaklastik? Exhgste thn apnths sac.
Apdeixh: Estw a b. Afo h enai summetrik, b a. Afo h enai metabatik,
ap ta a b kai b a sumperanoume a a. Ara h enai anaklastik.
'Askhsh 2.16 Jewrome to snolo A = {1, 2, 3} kai tic sqseic pou orzontai sto
Sqma 2.10.

a. Poio uposnolo tou A A apotele th sqsh x > y sto A?

b. Pc sumbolzoume sunjwc th sqsh pou orzetai ap to uposnolo tou A A?

Sqma 2.10: Sqseic sto snolo A = {1, 2, 3}.

g. Gia kje mia ap tic sqseic kai sto A, exetste en enai anaklastik, summetrik, metabatik.

Keflaio 2

35

Sqseic

d. En kpoia ap tic sqseic , enai sqsh isodunamac, poi enai h antstoiqh

diamrish tou A?

'Askhsh 2.17 Poia sqsh sto R orzei o kkloc C R R? (Sqma 2.11)

Sqma 2.11: O kkloc wc sqsh.

'Askhsh 2.18 Se kje ma ap tic akloujec periptseic brete ta elqista ston

arijm stoiqea me ta opoa prpei na sumplhrwje to snolo ste na orzei ma sqsh

(Sqma 2.12)
a. anaklastik,
b. summetrik,
g. metabatik.

Sqma 2.12: Sqsh sto snolo A = {1, 2, 3}.

36

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

'Askhsh 2.19 Sto Z jewrome tic sqseic 6 kai 4 . Poi enai h sqsh 6 4 ?
'Askhsh 2.20 Jewrome ta snola A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} kai C = A B .
a. Gryte la ta stoiqea tou C .
b. Sqediste to kartesian ginmeno A C .
g. Orzoume th sqsh metax twn sunlwn A kai C , me

x (u, v)

enn

x > u.

Shmeiste sto sqdio tou A C to uposnolo pou orzei th sqsh .

'Askhsh 2.21 Sto snolo {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} orzoume th sqsh

xy

enn

y enai pollaplsio tou x .

Exetste en h sqsh ikanopoie th metabatik kai thn antisummetrik idithta, kai en

tic ikanopoie, exetste ti edouc ditaxh enai.

Keflaio 3
Sunartseic
H nnoia thc sunrthshc qei terstia shmasa sta sgqrona Majhmatik. Arqik h
nnoia thc sunrthshc katlabe kentrik jsh ston Apeirostik Logism. H shmerin nnoia exelqjhke stadiak ap tic prtec prospjeiec na orisje h nnoia thc sunrthshc,
pou tan kpwc sugkequmnec. Smera h Jewra Sunlwn, ddei nan pol genik kai apl
orism. H meglh genikthta tou orismo knei aparathth thn epibol epiplon periorismn se diforouc kldouc: ston Apeirostik Logism, gia pardeigma, endiafermaste
se sunartseic pou enai diaforsimec oloklhrsimec.
Se aut to Keflaio ja anaptxoume, msa ap paradegmata, thn nnoia thc sunrthshc
kai ja dome kpoiec ap tic genikc idithtec sunartsewn. To grfhma miac sunrthshc
sundetai tso me ton tupik orism so kai thn paradosiak eikna.

H paradosiak eikna
Paradosiak, eisgoume mia metablht x, pou sunjwc enai pragmatikc arijmc, kai
milme gia th sunrthsh f (x) tou x. To basik enai oti mporome na upologsoume thn
tim f (x) gia kje dedomnh tim thc x (pijann me kpoiouc periorismoc, pwc x 6= 0
x > 0, pou exartntai ap th sunrthsh). Etsi h tetragwnik sunrthsh parnei tim
x2 gia kje x, h ekjetik sunrthsh parnei thn tim ex gia kje pragmatik arijm x,
h sunrthsh tan parnei thn tim tan(x) gia kje x ektc ap ta peritt pollaplsia
tou /2, h logarijmik sunrthsh parnei thn tim log(x) gia kje pragmatik x > 0, to
paragontik x! orzetai mno gia jetikoc akeraouc.
Se kje perptwsh mporome, jewrhtik, na upologsoume thn tim thc sunrthshc
pou antistoiqe stic sqetikc timc tou x. H sunrthsh susqetzei se kje katllhlo
pragmatik arijm x mia tim f (x) pou enai epshc kpoioc pragmatikc arijmc.
Den prpei na sugqome tic timc thc sunrthshc me thn dia th sunrthsh. H logarijmik sunrthsh den enai h tim log(x), all o kannac pre to logrijmo pou mac lei
pc na brome thn tim. Mporome na pome oti enai to smbolo log. Skeftmaste mia
sunrthsh san na kanna, pou gia kje pragmatik arijm x, pijann me kpoiouc periorismoc, orzei nan llo pragmatik arijm f (x). Ja epimenoume na enai h f (x) monadik
prosdiorismnh: nac kannac pou ddei do diaforetikc apantseic se na erthma den
enai idiatera qrsimoc. Aut shmanei oti prpei na emaste prosektiko me sunartseic
pwc tetragwnik rza, kai na prosdiorzoume en ennoome th jetik thn arnhtik rza.

'Askhsh 3.1 H permetroc, se mtra, enc tetragnou me pleur s mtra enai P = 4s.
37

38

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

a. Gryte autn th sqsh se morf sunrthshc, pou g enai to noma thc sunrthshc.
b. Upologste g(s + 4) kai gryte ti shmanei.
g. Upologste g(s) + 4 kai gryte ti shmanei.
d. Upologste g(4s) kai gryte ti shmanei.

H genik nnoia thc sunrthshc

H pio genik nnoia thc sunrthshc rqetai ap thn paradosiak, en afairsoume ton
periorism na enai ta x kai f (x) pragmatiko arijmo. To aplostero enai na mh jsoume
kannan periorism sto ti enai ta x kai f (x). Tte prpei na knoume pio safc ti ennoome
me kanna.
Jewrome do snola, A kai B . Arqik, onomzoume sunrthsh ap to A sto B nan
kanna pou antistoiqe se kje stoiqeo tou A na monadik stoiqeo tou B .
Autc o orismc ddei ma pol eurea nnoia. Perilambnei la ta prohgomena paradegmata: jewrome wc A na katllhlo uposnolo tou R, kai wc B to R. Gia thn
ekjetik sunrthsh A = R, B = R kai o kannac enai f (x) = ex . Gia to logrijmo
A = {x R| x > 0}, B = R kai o kannac f (x) = log(x). Gia to paragontik A = N,
B = N kai f (x) = x!
Paradegmata llou edouc sunartsewn:

A = {loi oi kkloi sto eppedo}, B = R, f (x) = h aktna tou x.

A = {la ta mh ken uposnola tou {0, 2, 4}}, B = N, f (x) = o mikrteroc arijmc sto x.
A = Z, B = {0, 1, 2}, f (x) = to uploipo tou x tan to diairsoume me to 3.
H sunjhc orologa enai na onomzoume to A

timn thc f , kai na grfoume

pedo orismo thc f kai to B pedo

f : AB

gia na sumbolsoume th sunrthsh f me pedo orismo A kai pedo timn B .

Aut pou apomnei na aposafhnsoume gia na qoume ton tupik orism thc sunrthshc
enai o kannac. Ja katafgoume sthn dia ida pou qrhsimopoisame gia tic sqseic: ja
ekfrsoume th susqtish metax tou stoiqeou x A kai tou stoiqeou f (x) B bzontc
ta se na diatetagmno zegoc (x, f (x)). O kannac tra gnetai nac katlogoc, to
snolo lwn twn diatetagmnwn zeugn (x, f (x)) gia la ta x sto A, kai aut den enai
tpote llo ap na uposnolo tou kartesiano ginomnou A B . H apathsh na orzetai
to f (x) gia kje x A shmanei oti gia kje x A prpei na uprqei kpoio stoiqeo (x, y)
sto snolo. H monadikthta tou f (x) shmanei oti to y prpei na enai monadik. Tra
blpoume pc to snolo twn diatetagmnwn zeugn ekfrzei ton kanna. Gia na brome
to f (x) anazhtome sto snolo na zegoc me prto stoiqeo x. Ena ttoio zegoc (x, y)
uprqei kai enai monadik. Jtoume f (x) = y .

Orismc. En A kai B enai snola, mia sunrthsh f : A B enai na uposnolo

f tou A B , ttoio ste:

Keflaio 3

39

Sunartseic

S1 En x A, tte uprqei y B ttoio ste (x, y) f .

S2 Aut to y enai monadik. Dhlad en x A kai uprqoun y, z B ttoia ste
(x, y) f kai (x, z) f , tte y = z .
Mia sunrthsh onomzetai epshc

apeiknish, metasqhmatismc.

Blpoume oti ma sunrthsh enai mia sqsh, pou ikanopoie tic idithtec S1 kai S2.
Smfwna me autn ton orism, h tetragwnik sunrthsh y = x2 sto R enai to uposnolo
tou R R
{(x, x2 )| x R} .
Gia na epanljoume sto sunjh orism jtoume f (x) to monadik stoiqeo y B gia to
opoo (x, y) f . 'Eqoume y = f (x) en kai mnon en (x, y) f .
H paradosiak nnoia thc sunrthshc ddei perissterh mfash ston trpo me ton opoo
parnoume to f (x) ap to x. Sta sgqrona Majhmatik protimome, gia ton tupik orism
thc genikc nnoiac thc sunrthshc, na mhn anaferjome se aut, all na jewrsoume oti
h dia h sunrthsh ddei thn antistoqhsh, msw twn zeugn (x, f (x)). Sthn kajhmerin
qrsh qrhsimopoiome ekfrseic pio kont sthn paradosiak nnoia, pwc:
Orzoume mia sunrthsh f : A B msw thc f (x) = . . . gia kje x A.
Se kje perptwsh oi teleec . . .  antikajstantai ap th diadikasa msw thc opoac
brskoume to f (x) ap to x.
Aut pou prpei na prosqoume se kje perptwsh enai na elgxoume oti h diadikasa
. . .  orzei to f (x) me monadik trpo, kai oti h tim f (x) ankei sto B gia kje x A.
Ac dome merik paradegmata pou autc oi sunjkec den ikanopoiontai.
Orzoume f : R R me f (x) =

x2 + 17x + 93
.
x+1

Aut den orzei sunrthsh giat tan x = 1, to klsma den orzetai, ra h tim f (1) den
qei prosdioriste wc pragmatikc arijmc. En allxoume ton orism se f : R\{1} R
tte enai entxei.

Orzoume f : {x Q| x > 0} Q me f (x) = x,

pou x enai h jetik tetragwnik

rza. Se autn thn perptwsh gia kpoiec timc tou x

sto {x Q| x > 0} h tim thc x den enai rhtc arijmc.

 Orzoume f : R Z me f (x) = o plhsisteroc akraioc proc to x .
Se autn thn perptwsh h tim f ( 12 ) den orzetai me monadik trpo.

'Askhsh 3.2 Oi paraktw sunartseic qoun pedo timn to R, kai pedo orismo kpoio
uposnolo tou R. Brete se kje perptwsh pio enai to megaltero dunat pedo orismo.
a. h(x) = log x
b. (v) = v
g. j() =

1
2 1

d. g(u) = log log cos u

40

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Genikc idithtec sunartsewn

En f : A B enai sunrthsh, h

eikna thc f enai to uposnolo tou B :

f (A) = {f (x)| x A} .
H eikna thc f sumbolzetai epshc im (f )
H eikna thc f enai to snolo twn timn f (x) pou parnoume gia la ta x ap to pedo
orismo. Den enai aparathto na enai lo to pedo timn. Gia pardeigma, en f : R R
enai h sunrthsh me timc f (x) = x2 tte h eikna enai to snolo twn jetikn pragmatikn
arijmn maz me to mhdn (to snolo twn mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn), kai qi lo
to pedo timn R.
H lleiyh summetrac ston orism thc sunrthshc mpore na fane parxenh. Apaitome
na orzetai to f (x) gia kje x A, all den apaitome kje b B na enai thc morfc f (x)
gia kpoio x. O lgoc gi aut enai praktikc: tan qrhsimopoiome mia sunrthsh prpei
na xroume en orzetai. H akribc gnsh tou pedou orismo enai loipn anagkaa. Enai
ligtero shmantik na gnwrzoume akribc pou brskontai oi timc f (x), kai mporome na
dialxoume to pedo timn anloga me thn perptwsh (up ton ro oti h eikna periqetai

3
sto pedo timn). Gia pardeigma, en f : N R enai h sunrthsh me timc f (n) = n!,
h eikna thc f enai to snolo twn kubikn rizn twn paragontikn

{1,

2,

6,

24,

120, . . .} .

Enai aplostero na orsoume ma sunrthsh qrhsimopointac kpoio eur pedo timn, kai
na afsoume to erthma poi akribc kommti tou pedou timn apotele h eikna gia thn
perptwsh pou to qreiastome.
Prpei na parathrsoume oti, milntac austhr, den mporome na anafermaste sto
pedo timn miac sunrthshc. Jewrste gia pardeigma tic sunartseic

f : R R f (x) = x2 ,
g : R R+ g(x) = x2 ,

(3.1)

pou R+ = {x R| x 0}. H prth qei pedo timn R, h deterh R+ . Omwc o tupikc

orismc miac sunrthshc wc snolo diatetagmnwn zeugn ddei kai gia tic do periptseic
to dio snolo zeugn {(x, x2 )| x R}. Oi sunartseic f kai g enai sec.
To pedo timn miac sunrthshc den enai safc prosdiorismno. Opoiodpote snolo
periqei thn eikna thc sunrthshc mpore na jewrhje wc pedo timn. To pedo orismo,
antijtwc, enai monadik prosdiorismno.
Mporome na xepersoume autn thn asfeia orzontac mia sunrthsh na enai mia diatetagmnh trida (f, A, B) kai qi aplc to snolo twn zeugn f . Se orismnouc kldouc
twn majhmatikn aut enai aparathto, all ed ja protimsoume na deqjome thn asfeia tou aplosterou orismo. O sumbolismc f : A B prosdiorzei se poi pedo
timn anafermaste se kje perptwsh.
Gia na parastsoume sunartseic f : R R suqn qrhsimopoiome to grfhma. Gia
sunartseic metax llwn sunlwn enai sunjwc protimterh mia parstash thc morfc
tou Sqmatoc 3.1.
Gia kje x A h tim f (x) brsketai sto kro tou antstoiqou blouc. Oi sunjkec
tou orismo thc sunrthshc se autn th grafik parstash enai:

Keflaio 3

Sunartseic

41

Sqma 3.1: Parstash sunrthshc me blh.

S1' Akribc na bloc xekinei ap kje stoiqeo tou A,

S2' Ola ta blh katalgoun se stoiqea tou B .
Aut h grafik parstash, pwc kai ta diagrmmata Venn, enai qrsimh se apl paradegmata.
Se autn thn parstash h eikna thc f apoteletai ap ta stoiqea tou B sta opoa
katalgoun blh, Sqma 3.2.

Sqma 3.2: H eikna thc sunrthshc f .

H eikna ja enai lo to snolo B en kje stoiqeo tou B brsketai sto tloc kpoiou
blouc.

'Askhsh 3.3 Prosdiorste thn eikna gia tic akloujec sunartseic f : R R.

a. f (x) = x3

42

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

b. f (x) = x 4
g. f (x) = ex + 3
n
d. f (x) = 1/x en x 6= 0
0
en x = 0

Orismc. Lme oti mia sunrthsh f : A B enai epeikonik ( ep tou B , oti

enai ma epeiknish) en kje stoiqeo tou B enai thc morfc f (x) gia kpoio x A.
Aut sumbanei akribc tan isqei f (A) = B . En mia sunrthsh enai qi epeikonik
exarttai ap thn epilog tou pedou timn, h opoa prpei na enai safc ap ta sumfrazmena, pwc sth frsh f : A B enai epeikonik ( f enai ep tou B ), pou to
pedo timn enai to snolo B . Etsi, ap tic sunartseic f kai g sthn (3.1) h f den enai
epeikonik, en h g enai.
En kanna stoiqeo tou B den brsketai sto tloc do diaforetikn beln, qoume na
llo shmantik edoc sunrthshc:

Orismc. Lme oti mia sunrthsh f : A B enai eneikonik ( na proc na

oti enai mia eneiknish) en, gia kje x, y A, tan f (x) = f (y), tte x = y .
Se autn thn perptwsh h epilog tou pedou timn den dhmiourge kanna prblhma:
en mia sunrthsh enai eneikonik me mia epilog pedou timn qei thn dia idithta kai me
kje llh epilog. Ac dome kpoia paradegmata:
1. f : R R, pou f (x) = x2 . Aut den enai eneikonik, afo f (1) = 1 = f (1) all
1 6= 1.
2. h : R+ R, pou h(x) = x2 . Aut enai eneikonik: en x kai y enai mh arnhtiko
pragmatiko arijmo kai x2 = y 2 tte 0 = x2 y 2 = (x y)(x + y), ra ete x y = 0
opte x = y , ete x + y = 0 pou gia x kai y mh arnhtikoc sunepgetai x = 0 = y .
Se kje perptwsh x = y .
3. f : R \ {0} R, pou f (x) = 1/x. Aut enai eneikonik: en 1/x = 1/y tte
x = y.
Oi kalteres sunartseic enai autc pou qoun kai tic do idithtec:

Orismc. Lme oti mia sunrthsh f : A B enai amfimonosmanth ( amfeikonik) en enai eneikonik kai epeikonik.
Aut h idithta exarttai ap thn epilog tou pedou timn. Profanc h f : A B
enai amfimonosmanth en kai mnon en kje b B enai thc morfc b = f (x) gia na
monadik x A.
'Oloi oi dunato sunduasmo twn idiottwn eneiknishc kai epeiknishc mporon na emfaniston, pwc deqnei to Sqma 3.3.
Mia pol apl kai pol shmantik sunrthsh, pou orzetai se kje snolo, enai h
tautotik sunrthsh iA : A A h opoa orzetai wc iA (a) = a gia kje a A. H iA
enai profanc amfimonosmanth.

'Askhsh 3.4 Gia kje ma ap tic sunartseic thc 'Askhshc 3.3, brete en enai
a. eneikonik

Keflaio 3

Sunartseic

43

Sqma 3.3: Paradegmata sunartsewn.

b. epeikonik ep tou R
g. amfimonosmanth.

'Askhsh 3.5 Dste paradegmata sunartsewn f : Z Z pou na enai:

a. ote eneikonik, ote epeikonik,
b. eneikonik, all qi epeikonik,
g. epeikonik, all qi eneikonik,
d. eneikonik kai epeikonik.
Prosxte oti h eikna thc f prpei na periqetai sto Z.

To grfhma miac sunrthshc

Eqoume do diaforetikoc trpouc na parastsoume grafik sunartseic ap to R sto R.
To grfhma thc sunrthshc kai thn parstash me blh. Enai endiafron na sugkrnoume
tic do parastseic. Gia th sunrthsh f (x) = x2 , (x R), h parstash me blh qei th
morf tou Sqmatoc 3.4.
Mporome na sqedisoume thn parstash kaltera en topojetsoume to A orizntia
ste na sumpptei me to B sto 0, pwc sto Sqma 3.5.
An periorsoume ta blh na enai mnon orizntia katakrufa qoume thn parstash
tou Sqmatoc 3.6.
Se aut to sqma enai faner oti to shmantik enai to shmeo sto opoo uprqei h
gwna se kje bloc. Kajc metabloume to x lec oi gwnec brskontai se ma kamplh,
pwc sto Sqma 3.7, kai en afairsoume ta blh, h kamplh pou emfanzetai sto Sqma
3.8 enai akribc to grfhma thc sunrthshc f .

44

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 3.4: Parstash thc sunrthshc f (x) = x2 me blh, I.

Sqma 3.5: Parstash thc sunrthshc f (x) = x2 me blh, II.

Antstrofa, sto grfhma mporome na prosjsoume ta blh: arqzoume sto x A

kai kinomaste katakrufa mqri na sunantsoume to grfhma, katpin orizntia mqri na
sunantsoume to B . Aut to shmeo ja enai to f (x).
Ti paristnei to grfhma thc sunrthshc smfwna me th jewra sunlwn? To eppedo
enai to R R, kai h gwna sto bloc ap to x sto f (x) brsketai sto shmeo (x, f (x)).
Ara to grfhma thc f paristnei to snolo

{(x, f (x))| x R} .
All aut enai akribc o tupikc orismc thc diac thc sunrthshc f . Sqedizontac to

Keflaio 3

Sunartseic

45

Sqma 3.6: Parstash thc sunrthshc f (x) = x2 me blh, III.

Sqma 3.7: Parstash thc sunrthshc f (x) = x2 me blh, IV.

R R san to eppedo, to grfhma prokptei wc h fusik parstash thc sunrthshc f .

Gia mia genik sunrthsh f : A B qoume mia anlogh eikna. Prpei na sqedisoume
to A B , kai na qrhsimopoisoume aut ant tou epipdou. En A = {a, b, c} kai B =
{p, q}, kai f (a) = q, f (b) = p, f (c) = q , h f qei to grfhma pou emfanzetai sto Sqma
3.9.
Kat analoga, to grfhma miac sunrthshc ap to R sto R ja prepe na qei th morf
tou Sqmatoc 3.10, all h paradosiak parstash, me touc xonec sqediasmnouc msa
sto eppedo, enai pio sunhjismnh kai praktik. Prpei mwc na jummaste oti oi xonec
den apotelon mroc tou grafmatoc, all qrhsimeoun wc dektec gia ta shmea (x, y)
tou epipdou.

46

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 3.8: To grfhma thc sunrthshc f (x) = x2 .

Sqma 3.9: Grfhma sunrthshc.

Sqma 3.10: Grfhma sunrthshc.

Keflaio 3

47

Sunartseic

Snjesh sunartsewn
En f : A B kai g : C D enai do sunartseic, kai h eikna thc f enai uposnolo
tou C , tte mporome na sunjsoume thn f kai th g , efarmzontac prta thn f kai
met th g .

Sqma 3.11: Snjesh sunartsewn.

Tupik, en ikanopoiontai oi parapnw upojseic, orzoume th sunrthsh

gf : AD
me

(g f ) (x) = g(f (x)) .

H upjesh oti f (A) C enai aparathth gia na elgxoume oti qoume orsei mia sunrthsh
ap to A sto D, prgma pou den parousizei duskola.
Mia shmantik idithta thc snjeshc sunartsewn enai h prosetairistikthta:

Prtash 3.1 En f : A B , g : C D kai h : E F enai sunartseic, ttoiec

ste h eikna thc f enai uposnolo tou C kai h eikna thc g enai uposnolo tou E , tte
orzontai oi do sunartseic
h (g f ) : A F

(h g) f : A F
kai enai sec.

Apdeixh. Ekola elgqoume oti ikanopoiontai oi sunjkec ste na orzontai oi do

sunartseic. Lgontac oti oi sunartseic enai sec ennoome oti ta do uposnola tou

48

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

A F pou orzoun tic sunartseic enai sa. Aut shmanei oti gia kje x A oi do
sunartseic parnoun thn dia tim. Prgmati
(h (g f )) (x) = h ((g f )(x)) = h(g(f (x))) ,
((h g) f ) (x) = (h g) (f (x)) = h(g(f (x))) .

'Askhsh 3.6 Ddontai oi sunartseic f, g kai h ap touc fusikoc arijmoc stouc

fusikoc arijmoc, pou orzontai ap:
a. f (n) = n + 1
b. g(n) = 2n

0
g. h(n) =
1

en n enai rtioc
en n enai perittc

Kajorste tic sunartseic f f , f g , g f , g h, h g kai (f g) h.

'Askhsh 3.7 Ddontai sunartseic f kai g ttoiec ste na orzetai h snjesh g f .

Dexte oti

a. En h g f enai epeikonik, tte h g enai epeikonik.

b. En h g f enai eneikonik, tte h f enai eneikonik.
g. Brete paradegmata sunartsewn f kai g gia na dexete oti den isqoun oi antstrofec sunepagwgc, dhlad oti en h g enai epeikonik en h f enai eneikonik, den
isqei upoqrewtik to dio gia th snjesh g f .

'Askhsh 3.8 En f : A B kai g : B C enai amfimonosmantec, dexte oti

g f : A C enai amfimonosmanth.

Antstrofec Sunartseic
Suqn skeftmaste oti h sunrthsh f : A B parnei na stoiqeo x A kai tou knei
kti gia na katalxei me to f (x) B . Merikc forc mporome na brome mia sunrthsh
pou knei to antstrofo kai anaire aut pou kane h f .

Orismc. Jewrome mia sunrthsh f : A B . Tte h sunrthsh g : B A

antstrofh sunrthsh thc f en

onomzetai

1. g(f (x)) = x gia kje x A kai

2. f (g(y)) = y gia kje y B .
Prosxte oti oi do sunjkec grfontai, isodnama, wc g f = iA kai f g = iB .
Sto akloujo sqma h f paristnetai me apl blh kai h g me dipl.

Keflaio 3

49

Sunartseic

Sqma 3.12: Antstrofh sunrthsh.

Jerhma 3.2 Mia sunrthsh f : A B qei antstrofh sunrthsh en kai mno en

h f enai amfimonosmanth.
Apdeixh. Upojtoume oti h f qei antstrofh sunrthsh g. Gia na apodexoume oti

h f enai eneikonik, upojtoume oti f (x) = f (y). Tte x = g(f (x)) = g(f (y)) = y ,
ra h f enai prgmati eneiknish. Gia na apodexoume oti h f enai epeikonik, jewrome
y B . Tte y = f (g(y)), ra to y enai thc morfc f (x), gia x = g(y). Sunepc h f enai
epeiknish.
Antstrofa, upojtoume oti h f enai amfimonosmanth. Tte, afo h f enai epeikonik,
gia kje y B uprqei x A ttoio ste y = f (x). Efson h f enai eneikonik, aut to
x enai monadik. Orzoume th sunrthsh g : B A me g(y) = x. H g enai h antstrofh
sunrthsh thc f .

H antstrofh sunrthsh, en uprqei, enai monadik: upojtoume oti g kai h enai

antstrofec sunartseic thc f : A B . Tte, gia kje y B , uprqei monadik x A
ttoio ste y = f (x), kai

g(y) = g(f (x)) = x = h(f (x)) = h(y) .

Sunepc g = h.
Thn antstrofh sunrthsh thc f : A B th sumbolzoume f 1 : B A. Parathreste oti en jewrsoume thn f wc ma sqsh metax twn stoiqewn tou A kai tou B , tte
h antstrofh sunrthsh f 1 enai akribc h antstrofh sqsh metax twn stoiqewn tou
B kai tou A.

Pardeigma 3.1 f : R R, f (x)

= x3 . Aut enai amfimonosmanth, kai qei
antstrofh sunrthsh g : R R, g(x) =

x.

Pardeigma 3.2 f : R R, f (x) = x2 . Den enai ote eneikonik ote epeikonik,

ra den qei antstrofh sunrthsh. T sumbanei me tic tetragwnikc rzec? Mporome

na jewrsoume thn amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f me pedo
orismo kai pedo timn to

+
R = {x R | x 0}. Tte h f qei antstrofo g(x) = x (th jetik tetragwnik rza).

Pardeigma 3.3 Upojtoume gnwstc kpoiec idithtec thc ekjetikc kai thc logarij-

mikc sunrthshc. Jewrome th sunrthsh f : R R, f (x) = ex . Aut enai eneikonik,

50

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

giat en ex = ey tte exy = 1 ra x y = 0 kai sunepc x = y . 'Omwc den enai

epeikonik, kai sunepc den qei antstrofh sunrthsh. Mporome mwc na jewrsoume
th sunrthsh f : R R# pou R# = {x R| x > 0} kai f (x) = ex . Tra h f enai
amfimonosmanth, kai h g : R# R, g(y) = log y enai h antstrofh sunrthsh.

Pardeigma 3.4 Upojtoume gnwstc kpoiec idithtec twn trigwnometrikn sunar-

tsewn. Jewrome thn f : R R, f (x) = sin x. Aut den enai ote epeikonik ote eneikonik, ra den qei antstrofh sunrthsh. Pc ja orsoume to txo hmitnou,
arcsin? En orsoume arcsin y wc to monadik arijm x me /2 x /2 ttoion ste
sin x = y , tte qoume sin(arcsin y) = y , all den isqei arcsin(sin x) = x. Gia pardeigma,
arcsin(sin 6) = arcsin 0 = 0 6= 6 .
Merikc forc lgetai oti h arcsin enai pleitimh, dhlad oti oi timc thc den enai
monadik orismnec. Smfwna me ton orism thc sunrthshc pou dsame, tte den mpore
na enai sunrthsh.
H kalterh lsh enai na jewrsoume thn

f : {x R| /2 x /2} {x R| 1 x 1}, f (x) = sin x .

Tte h f enai amfimonosmanth, kai arcsin enai antstrofh sunrthsh autc thc sunrthshc.

'Askhsh 3.9 Gia th sunrthsh thc 'Askhshc 3.1, se t mondec ekfrzetai h posthta
g 1 (8)?

Prtash 3.3 En f : A B kai g : B C enai amfimonosmantec, tte gf : A C

enai amfimonosmanth kai

(g f )1 = f 1 g 1 .

Apdeixh. Gnwrzoume oti g f enai amfimonosmanth, ('Askhsh 3.8). Epalhjeoume

oti f 1 g 1 enai h antstrofh sunrthsh, (dec Sqma 3.13). 'Eqoume

(f 1 g 1 ) (g f ) =
=
=
=
=

f 1 (g 1 (g f ))
f 1 ((g 1 g) f )
f 1 (iB f )
f 1 f
iA .

Parmoia deqnoume oti (g f ) (f 1 g 1 ) = iC .

Dexi kai arister antstrofa

Edame oti mia sunrthsh f : A B qei antstrofh sunrthsh mnon tan enai amfimonosmanth. Merikc forc mporome na brome ma sunrthsh pou na antistrfei thn f
mnon ap th mia pleur.

Orismc. Jewrome mia sunrthsh f : A B . Tte h sunrthsh g : B A

onomzetai

Keflaio 3

Sunartseic

51

Sqma 3.13: Antstrofh sunrthsh snjeshc sunartsewn.

1.

arister antstrofo thc f en g(f (x)) = x gia kje x A,

2.

dexi antstrofo thc f en f (g(y)) = y gia kje y B .

Prosxte oti autc oi sunjkec grfontai, isodnama, wc

1. H g enai arister antstrofo thc f en g f = iA ,
2. H g enai dexi antstrofo thc f en f g = iB ,

Jerhma 3.4 Mia sunrthsh f : A B qei

1. arister antstrofo en kai mnon en enai eneikonik,
2. dexi antstrofo en kai mnon en enai epeikonik,

Apdeixh. 1. Upojtoume oti h f qei arister antstrofo g. Gia na apodexoume oti h

f enai eneikonik, upojtoume oti f (x) = f (y). Tte x = g(f (x)) = g(f (y)) = y , ra h f
enai prgmati eneiknish.
Antstrofa, upojtoume oti h f enai eneikonik. En y B kai y = f (x), orzoume
g(y) = x. Efson h f enai eneikonik, aut to x enai monadik. En to y den ankei
sthn eikna thc f , tte den uprqei ttoio x; Dialgoume opoiodpote a A kai orzoume
g(y) = a. Me autn ton trpo to g(y) orzetai gia kje y B kai g : B A enai
sunrthsh. All, ap ton orism, g(f (x)) = x, ra h g enai arister antstrofo.
2. Upojtoume oti h f qei dexi antstrofo g . En y B tte y = f (g(y)), ra to y
enai thc morfc f (x), gia x = g(y). Sunepc h f enai epeiknish.
Antstrofa, upojtoume oti h f enai epeikonik, kai jewrome y B . Tte y = f (x)
gia kpoio q A, swc qi monadik. Gia kje y B orzoume g(y) na enai kpoio stoiqeo
tou A ttoio ste f (g(y)) = y . Tte g enai sunrthsh kai enai dexi antstrofo thc f .

Pardeigma 3.5 f : R R, f (x) = x2 . Den enai ote eneikonik ote epeikonik,

ra den qei antstrofo kanenc edouc. Mporome na knoume thn f epeikonik en

52

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

+
jewrsoume
wc pedo timn to R = {x R | x 0}. Tra h f qei dexi antstrofo
g(x) = x (th jetik tetragwnik rza). H g den enai mwc arister antstrofo afo

x2 = x en x 0 kai

x2 = x > 0 en x < 0 .

Pardeigma 3.6 Jewrome thn apeiknish f : C R pou orzetai me f (z) = 21 (z + z).

Aut den enai amfimonosmanth, all enai epeikonik. H sunrthsh g : R C pou
orzetai me g(x) = x + i0 C enai arister antstrofo: f g(x) = 21 (x + x) = x.

Prtash 3.5 En mia sunrthsh qei arister kai dexi antstrofo, tte qei antstrofh sunrthsh, kai kje dexi arister antstrofo enai so me autn.

Apdeixh. En h f : A B qei arister kai dexi antstrofo, tte h f enai

amfimonosmanth, kai qei antstrofh sunrthsh f 1 . En g enai na arister antstrofo,
tte
g = g iB = g (f f 1 ) = (g f ) f 1 = iA f 1 = f 1 .

Parmoia, en h enai na dexi antstrofo tte h = f 1 .

Eikna kai antstrofh eikna uposunlwn

En f : A B enai sunrthsh,
1. Gia kje uposnolo U A, orzoume thn eikna tou U msw thc f wc to uposnolo
tou B pou apoteletai akribc ap ta stoiqea sta opoa apeikonzontai ta stoiqea
tou U . Thn eikna tou U msw thc f ja sumbolzome, proswrin, me f + (U ) :

U A,

f + (U ) = {f (x) | x U } B.

2. Gia kje uposnolo Y B , orzoume thn antstrofh eikna tou Y msw thc
f wc to uposnolo tou A pou apoteletai ap la ta stoiqea tou A ta opoa
apeikonzontai se stoiqea tou Y . Thn antstrofh eikna tou Y msw thc f ja
sumbolzome, proswrin, me f (Y ) :

Y B,

f (Y ) = {x A | f (x) Y } .

H eikna kai h antstrofh eikna orzontai gia kje sunrthsh kai gia kje uposnolo
tou pedou orismo tou pedou timn, antstoiqa. Eidiktera, prosxte oti h antstrofh
eikna orzetai anexrthta ap to en h f qei antstrofh sunrthsh.

Pardeigma 3.7 Jewrome ta snola A = {a, b, c, d} kai B = {p, q, r} kai th sunr-

thsh f : A B pou ddetai sto Sqma 3.14, kajc kai ta uposnola U = {a, b, c} A
kai V = {p, q} B .

Keflaio 3

53

Sunartseic

Sqma 3.14: Eiknec kai antstrofec eiknec.

Parathrste oti isqoun oi akloujec isthtec.

f + ({a})
f + ({b})
f + ({a, b})
f ({p})
f ({q})
f ({r})
f + (U )
f (V )

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

{p} = f + ({c})
{q}
{p, q} = f + ({b, c})
{a, c}
{b, d}

{p, q} = V
A 6= U.

Eidiktera prosxte oti f + (U {d}) 6= f + (U ) f + ({d}).

Mporome na jewrsoume thn f + kai thn f wc sunartseic sta snola twn uposunlwn tou A kai tou B antstoiqa:

f + : P(A) P(B)
f : P(B) P(A)
Prosxte oti, par thn onomasa thc, h f den enai en gnei h antstrofh sunrthsh thc
f + : P(A) P(B), pwc fanetai ap to pardeigma 3.7:

f + ({a}) = {p} all f ({p}) = {a, c}.

Prtash 3.6 En f : A B enai sunrthsh, oi sunartseic f + : P(A) P(B) kai

f : P(B) P(A) qoun tic akloujec idithtec: En U, V A kai X, Y B,

1. f + () = ,

f () = ,

f (B) = A

54

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

2. f + (U V ) = f + (U ) f + (V )
3. f + (U V ) f + (U ) f + (V )
4. f (X Y ) = f (X) f (Y )
5. f (X Y ) = f (X) f (Y )
6. f (B \ Y ) = A \ f (Y ).

Apdeixh. Ja apodexoume thn 2. En y f + (U V ), tte uprqei x U V ttoio

ste y = f (x). En x U , tte y f + (U ), en en x V , tte y f + (V ). Se kje
perptwsh y f + (U ) f + (V ). Antstrofa, en y f + (U ) f + (V ), tte uprqei x U
ttoio ste y = f (x), ete uprqei x V ttoio ste y = f (x). Se kje perptwsh,
y f + (U V ).
Ap to pardeigma 3.7 blpoume oti sto 3 den isqei en gnei h isthta. Afnoume thn
apdeixh twn llwn idiottwn wc skhsh.

Ed qrhsimopoisame to sumbolism f (U ) kai f (Y ) gia eukrneia, all o sumbolismc

pou qrhsimopoion oi majhmatiko enai

f (U ) gia thn eikna tou U A msw thc f,

kai

f 1 (V ) gia thn antstrofh eikna tou V B msw thc f

Sunjwc to nhma tou sumbolismo f f 1 enai safc ap ta sumfrazmena, kai den
uprqei kndunoc sgqushc metax thc sunrthshc f kai twn sunartsewn eikna msw
thc f , antstrofh eikna msw thc f . Idiaterh prosoq qreizetai tan to V enai
monosnolo. Pol suqn oi majhmatiko ant gia f 1 ({p}) grfoun f 1 (p) ennontac thn
antstrofh eikna tou monosunlou {p}. 'Otan sunantte aut to sumbolism den prpei
na jewrsete oti h f enai antistryimh sunrthsh ektc en aut gnetai safc ap ta
sumfrazmena.

'Askhsh 3.10 En f : A B enai sunrthsh, kai U, V A, X, Y B , dexte oti

a. f () = ,

f 1 () = ,

f 1 (B) = A

b. f (U V ) f (U ) f (V )
g. En f enai eneiknish, tte f (U V ) = f (U ) f (V )
d. f 1 (X Y ) = f 1 (X) f 1 (Y )
e. f 1 (X Y ) = f 1 (X) f 1 (Y )
. f 1 (B \ X) = A \ f 1 (X)

Keflaio 3

55

Sunartseic

Periorismc
En f : A B enai sunrthsh kai X enai uposnolo tou A, orzoume th sunrthsh

f |X : X B
pou onomzetai

periorismc thc f sto X , me

f |X (x) = f (x)

(x X) .

Aut diafrei ap thn f mnon eic to oti agnoome ta x pou den ankoun sto X . Parathrome oti h eikna f (X) tou sunlou X enai h eikna thc periorismnhc sunrthshc,
im ( f |X ).
O periorismc enai mia mllon tetrimmnh prxh stic sunartseic. Enai qrsimh kurwc
gia na estisoume thn prosoq mac sth sumperifor thc f sto uposnolo X . Merikc
forc aut enai qrsimo: sto pardeigma 3.4 parathrsame oti h sin : R I , pou I =
{x R| 1 x 1}, den enai amfimonosmanth. En X = {x R| /2 x /2},
o periorismc sin|X : X I enai amfimonosmanth sunrthsh.
O periorismc thc tautotikc apeiknishc iA : A A se na uposnolo X A ddei
thn emfteush
iA |X : X A
gia thn opoa iA |X (x) = x gia kje x X . Aut enai h dia sunrthsh me thn iX all
me eurtero pedo timn.

Akoloujec kai n-dec

Mporome na qrhsimopoisoume tic sunartseic gia na dieukrinsoume orismnec nnoiec.
Eqoume orsei diatetagmna zegh, diatetagmnec tridec, klp. all den qoume na genik
orism.
Jewrome to snolo Xn = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} = {x N| 1 x n}. En S enai na
snolo, mia diatetagmnh n-da stoiqewn tou S , peperasmnh akolouja sto
S , mpore na oriste wc ma sunrthsh

f : Xn S .
Me autn ton trpo prosdiorzoume ta stoiqea f (1), f (2), f (3), . . . , f (n) tou S . An allxoume to sumbolism se (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ) blpoume oti do diatetagmnec n-dec (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn )
kai (g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) enai sec en kai mnon en f1 = g1 , f2 = g2 , . . . , fn = gn . Aut enai
pou jloume na isqei gia diatetagmnec n-dec.
Parmoia, mia akolouja a1 , a2 , . . . sto S mpore na oriste wc mia sunrthsh

f : NS
pou jtoume f (n) = an .
Sthn perptwsh twn diatetagmnwn zeugn, autc o orismc tupik ddei diaforetik
antikemena ap ton orism tou Kuratowski, all qei pli thn idithta oti (f1 , f2 ) =
(g1 , g2 ) en kai mnon en f1 = g1 kai f2 = g2 , pou enai aut pou zhtme.

56

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sunartseic polln metablhtn

Ston Apeirostik Logism sunantme sunartseic do metablhtn pwc

f (x, y) = x2 3y 3 + cos xy

(x, y R) .

Enai pol ekolo tra na orsoume austhr autc tic nnoiec. H parapnw f enai mia
sunrthsh pou orzetai sto snolo twn diatetagmnwn zeugn (x, y), dhlad

f : R R R.
Geniktera, en A kai B enai snola, mia sunrthsh do metablhtn a A kai b B enai
mia sunrthsh pou orzetai sto A B se na uposnol tou. Parmoia, sunartseic n
metablhtn enai aplc sunartseic pou orzontai se na snolo diatetagmnwn n-dwn.

Dimelec prxeic
Mia dimelc prxh se na snolo A enai apl mia sunrthsh f : A A A. Eqoume
poll paradegmata ttoiwn antikeimnwn.

Pardeigma 3.8
1. Prsjesh sto N, : N N N, (x, y) = x + y .
2. Pollaplasiasmc sto N, : N N N, (x, y) = xy .
3. Afaresh sto Z, : Z Z Z, (x, y) = x y .
4. Sto dunamosnolo P(X) enc sunlou X orzoume th dimel prxh nwsh, u :
P(X) P(X) P(X), u(Y1 , Y2 ) = Y1 Y2 .
5. En X enai na snolo, jewrome to snolo M lwn twn sunartsewn ap to X
sto X , tsi ste f M shmanei f : X X . Orzoume th dimel prxh thc
snjeshc sunartsewn, c : M M M, c(g, f ) = g f .
Gia tic perissterec dimelec prxeic pou qrhsimopoiontai sta majhmatik qei kajierwje nac sumbolismc thc morfc x y gia to f (x, y). Gi aut sunjwc sumbolzoume
mia dimel prxh : A A A kai thn eikna (x, y) me x y . Suqn onomzoume to x y
ginmeno snjesh twn x kai y . Se merikc periptseic to endimeso smbolo katargetai,
pwc ston pollaplasiasm xy , sth snjesh sunartsewn, pou suqn grfoume gf ant
gia g f .
Se mia genik dimel prxh den perimnoume na isqei x y = y x. Gia pardeigma, h
afaresh: 2 1 6= 1 2.
En x y = y x gia kje x, y A, lme oti h dimelc prxh enai metajetik. Sta
paradegmata 1, 2 kai 4 oi dimelec prxeic enai metajetikc. Sto pardeigma 5 den enai
metajetik en to X qei perisstera ap na stoiqea.
En den gnwrzoume oti h prxh enai metajetik, enai shmantik na diathrome th
ditaxh twn rwn sto ginmeno. Mporome na epektenoume ttoia ginmena se trec
perissterouc rouc. En x, y, z A to ginmeno x y A kai mporome na proume to
ginmeno auto me to z . Se aut to shmeo prpei na eisaggoume parenjseic, ste na

Keflaio 3

57

Sunartseic

diakrnoume to (xy)z ap to x(y z). An kai sto detero ginmeno oi roi emfanzontai
me thn dia ditaxh, aut enai to ginmeno tou x me to y z kai mpore endeqomnwc na enai
diaforetik. Gia pardeigma (3 2) 1 6= 3 (2 1).
En (xy)z = x(y z) gia la ta x, y, z A, onomzoume thn prxh prosetairistik. Sta paradegmata 1, 2, 4, 5 oi prxeic enai prosetairistikc, en sto 3 den enai.
Sthn perptwsh prosetairistikc prxhc suqn grfoume x y z , qwrc parenjseic.
Sthn anptuxh thc nnoiac twn arijmn, oi metajetikc kai prosetairistikc prxeic
(h prsjesh kai o pollaplasiasmc) apotelon shmantik ergalea. Se kldouc twn
sgqronwn Majhmatikn emfanzontai shmantik paradegmata mh metajetikn mh prosetairistikn prxewn.

Oikogneiec sunlwn
Sto tloc tou Kefalaou 1 anaferjkame se snola twn opown ta stoiqea enai snola,
pwc
S = {S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn }
pou kje Sr enai na snolo. Qrhsimopointac thn nnoia thc sunrthshc mporome
na epektenoume autn to sumbolism. En Xn = {1, 2, . . . , n}, qoume amfimonosmanth
sunrthsh f : Xn S pou f (r) = Sr . Den uprqei lgoc na perioristome se peperasmna snola, ote na upojsoume oti la ta Sr enai diaforetik. En A enai opoiodpote
snolo kai f : A S enai sunrthsh, f (a) = Sa , pou kje stoiqeo tou S enai na
snolo, lme oti qoume mia oikogneia sunlwn,

S = {S | A} .
Se autn thn perptwsh to A onomzetai snolo deiktn.
H nwsh miac ttoiac oikogneiac,
[
S = {x| x S gia kpoio A}
sumbolzetai epshc

en, en A 6= , h tom

\
sumbolzetai anloga

S = {x| x S gia kpoio A}

\
A

S .

Tn
Sn
S
kai
Otan A = Xn , qrhsimopoiome S
kai to sumbolism
r
r=1 Sr , en tan A = N
r=1
T
S
.
Den
uprqei
lgoc na sac anhsuS
kai
qrhsimopoietai o sumbolismc
r=1 r
r=1 r
qsei to  se autoc touc sumbolismoc, pou enai katloipo thc istorikc
S exlixhc
twn
T Majhmatikn. O sgqronoc sumbolismc to apofegei kai qrhsimopoie rN Sr kai
rN Sr .

58

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 3.11 Prosdiorste thn eikna gia tic akloujec sunartseic f : R R.
a. f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2
b. f (x) = |x|
g. f (x) = x2 + x |x|2

'Askhsh 3.12 Gia kje ma ap tic sunartseic thc 'Askhshc 3.11, brete en enai
a. eneikonik
b. epeikonik ep tou R
g. amfimonosmanth.

'Askhsh 3.13 Oi paraktw sunartseic qoun pedo timn to R, kai pedo orismo

kpoio uposnolo tou R. Brete se kje perptwsh pio enai to megaltero dunat pedo
orismo.
a. V (t) = log(1 t2 )
b. y = log(sin2 x)
p
g. = (u 1)(u 2)(u 3)(u 4).

'Askhsh 3.14 En A = {1, 2} kai B = {a, b, c, }, psec diaforetikc sunartseic

uprqoun ap to A sto B ? Psec ap to B sto A? Psec se kje perptwsh enai
eneikonikc? psec enai epeikonikc? psec enai amfimonosmantec?

'Askhsh 3.15 Prblhma gia geroc ltec.

En A = kai B 6= , dexte oti uprqei akribc mia sunrthsh ap to A sto B , kai

kama sunrthsh ap to B sto A. Uprqei sunrthsh ap to sto ?

'Askhsh 3.16 Gia tic akloujec sunartseic elgxte en uprqei dexi antstrofo /kai
arister antstrofo, kai en uprqei brete to.
a. f : R R,

f (x) = 4x + 2

b. g : R R+ ,

g(x) = x2 .

'Askhsh 3.17 Gia tic sunartseic f kai g thc skhshc 3.16, brete ta snola f ([1, 1]),
f 1 ([0, 2]), g([3, 2]) kai g 1 ([2, 4]).

'Askhsh 3.18 Ddetai h sunrthsh f : {a, b, c} {1, 2, 3, 4} pwc sto Sqma 3.15.
(Upenjumzetai oti f 1 (U ) mpore na sumbolzei thn antstrofh eikna pou sumbolsame
f (U ), en, en h f den enai amfimonosmanth, f 1 (x) mpore na sumbolzei thn antstrofh
eikna tou {x}.)
Brete ta snola

Keflaio 3

59

Sunartseic

Sqma 3.15: 'Askhsh 3.18

a. f ({a, b})
b. f ({b, c})
g. f 1 ({1})
d. f 1 ({2})
e. f 1 (3)
. f 1 ({1, 2})

'Askhsh 3.19 Brete to megaltero uposnolo tou R R sto opoo orzetai h sunrthsh do metablhtn

f (x, y) =

x2 + 3xy
.
(x 1)y

'Askhsh 3.20 Brete thn nwsh kai thn tom twn paraktw oikogenein sunlwn me
snolo deiktn A.

a. A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}
b. A = N

S = [0, + 1].

Sn = (0, n1 ) = {x R | 0 < x < n1 }.

'Askhsh 3.21 Ddontai ta snola A = {a, b, c} kai B = {p, q, r}, kai h sunrthsh
f : A B pou orzetai sto Sqma 3.16.

a. Allxte to pedo timn thc f , tsi ste na mporete na brete dexi antstrofo thc
f . Brete do diaforetik dexi antstrofa thc f .

60

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 3.16: 'Askhsh 3.21

b. Brete do diaforetik snola A1 kai A2 ttoia ste A1 A2 = A kai f |Ai na enai

na proc na. Brete se kje perptwsh to arister antstrofo thc f |Ai .
g. Enai to arister antstrofo pou brkate antstrofh sunrthsh thc f |Ai : Ai B ?

'Askhsh 3.22 Ddetai h sunrthsh f : R R pou orzetai f (x) = (x + 1)2 .

a. Sqediste to grfhma thc f .
b. Prosdiorste ta snola B = f (R), f 1 ([1, 4]), f 1 (2), f 1 ([2, 0)).
g. Brete do diaforetik dexi antstrofa thc f : R B .
d. Brete do uposnola tou R, A1 kai A2 , ttoia ste A1 A2 = R kai f |Ai gia
i = 1, 2, na enai na proc na. Brete se kje perptwsh na arister antstrofo
thc f |Ai : Ai R.

'Askhsh 3.23 Orzoume tic dimelec prxeic sto Z:

a. x y = x y
b. x y = |x y|
g. x y = x + y + xy
d. x y = 12 (x + y + 12 ((1)x+y + 1) + 1).
Epalhjeste oti enai dimelec prxeic sto Z, dhlad sunartseic Z Z Z. Se kje
perptwsh elgxte en h prxh enai metajetik kai prosetairistik.

'Askhsh 3.24 Ma akolouja sunlwn (An )nN0 lgetai fjnousa an gia kje n N0
isqei

An+1 An .

Keflaio 3

61

Sunartseic

a. Apodexte oti an (An )nN0 enai fjnousa, tte gia kje k N0 :

An =

n=0

An

n=k

b. Apodexte oti an (An )nN0 , (Bn )nN0 enai fjnousec, tte

(An Bn ) = (

n=0

An ) (

n=0

Bn )

n=0

'Askhsh 3.25 'Estw f : X Y . 'Estw (At )tT oikogneia uposunlwn tou X .

Apodexte oti:
a.

!
At

tT

b.

f (At ),

tT

!
At

tT

f (At ),

tT

g. An h f enai eneikonik, tte

tT

!
At

\
tT

f (At )

Keflaio 4
Majhmatik Logik
H basik idithta twn Majhmatikn, pou ta diakrnei ap llec morfc gnshc kai enopoie
la ta majhmatik apotelsmata, enai h qrsh majhmatikn apodexewn gia na sumpernoume na apotelsmata ap lla dh gnwst. Orismnec teqnikc majhmatikc apdeixhc
fanontai kpwc parxenec. Iswc h pi endiafrousa ap autc enai h eic topon apagwg: gia na dexoume oti kti enai alhjc, upojtoume oti enai yeudc kai apodeiknoume
oti aut h upjesh odhge se antfash. Ido na apl pardeigma:

Prtash 4.1 To mikrtero nw frgma tou sunlou S = {x R| x < 1} enai o arijmc

1.

Apdeixh. O 1 enai sgoura nw frgma tou S . Upojtoume oti uprqei na llo nw

frgma K gia to opoo isqei K < 1. Ap aploc kannec thc arijmhtikc sumperanoume
oti K < 12 (K + 1) < 1. All tte 12 (K + 1) S kai K < 21 (K + 1) pou antifskei me thn
upjesh oti to K enai nw frgma tou S . Ara h upjesh oti uprqei nw frgma K me
K < 1 enai yeudc. Sunepc kje nw frgma tou S enai megaltero ap so proc to
1.

Aut enai mia qarakthristik perptwsh ttoiou edouc epiqeirmatoc. An P enai h

prtash En K enai nw frgma tou S tte K 1, mac endiafrei na apodexoume oti
h P alhjeei. Upojtoume oti h P enai yeudc, dhlad oti uprqei nw frgma K tou S
me K < 1, kai, met ap na apl epiqerhma, katalgoume se antfash. An to epiqerhma
enai swst, tte h P den mpore na enai yeudc, ra enai alhjc.
Gia na mporome na qrhsimopoisoume autn th mjodo, kai na qoume empistosnh sta
apotelsmat thc, prpei na exasfalzoume do propojseic.
Prta, h prtash P kai lec oi uploipec protseic sto epiqerhma, prpei na enai
safc alhjec safc yeudec, akmh kai an kat th dirkeia tou epiqeirmatoc den
gnwrzoume poi ap ta do isqei. Aut den sumbanei me pollc protseic thc kajhmerinc
glssac, pou periqoun genikthtec oi opoec enai alhjec stic perissterec periptseic,
all swc qi se lec. Stic majhmatikc apodexeic den epitrpontai ttoiec genikthtec:
kje prtash prpei na enai safc alhjc yeudc.
H deterh propjesh se mia apdeixh me apagwg se topo enai na mhn periqontai
ken sta epiqeirmata pou qrhsimopoiontai gia na katalxoume sthn antfash. Mno se
autn thn perptwsh mporome na emaste bbaioi oti h aita thc antfashc enai h arqik
upjesh, oti h P enai yeudc.
62

Keflaio 4

63

Majhmatik Logik

Protseic
Opwc edame, enai aparathto kje prtash pou diatupnoume sta Majhmatik na enai
safc alhjc yeudc. Gia na diakrnoume metax alhjn kai yeudn protsewn, lme oti
kje prtash qei mia logik tim tim alhjeac, pou th sumbolzoume me ta grmmata
A = alhjc kai Y = yeudc. Suqn qrhsimopoiontai ta smbola T 1 gia alhjc kai
F 0 gia yeudc.
En P enai mia prtash, h frsh oqi P , (h rnhsh thc P ), enai epshc mia prtash,
me thn antjeth tim alhjeac ap thn P . Gia pardeigma, en P enai h yeudc prtash
2 + 2 = 5, tte qi 2 + 2 = 5 enai mia alhjc prtash. Sumbolzoume th frsh qi P 

P .
Otan antikajistome sth jsh tou P mia sugkekrimnh prtash, prosarmzoume ton trpo
pou diabzoume thn prtash stouc kannec tou suntaktiko kai thc grammatikc, arke
aut na mhn alloinei to majhmatik nhma. Sto prohgomeno pardeigma, ant qi 2+2 =
5 ja lgame den isqei oti 2 + 2 = 5 2 + 2 =
6 5 2 + 2 = 5 enai yeudc.

Kathgormata
Sto suntaktik, kathgrhma enai to mroc thc prtashc pou fanernei ekeno pou lgetai msa sthn prtash gia to upokemeno. Sta majhmatik, kathgrhma protasiakc tpoc enai mia kfrash pou periqei na smbolo, gia pardeigma to x, kai h opoa
enai safc alhjc safc yeudc prtash tan antikatastsoume to x me stoiqeo enc
sunlou S .

Pardeigma 4.1 En P (x) enai to kathgrhma

O pragmatikc arijmc x enai megalteroc ap 2,
tte P (3) enai alhjc prtash, en P (1) enai yeudc. En brome thn tim alhjeac tou
P (a) gia kje a R, qoume mia sunrthsh alhjeac TP : R {A, Y} gia thn opoa
TP (a) = A en P (a) enai alhjc, kai TP (a) = Y en P (a) enai yeudc.
Aut h nnoia tairizei me tic idec thc jewrac sunlwn. To kathgrhma P (x) qwrzei
to snolo R se do xna uposnola, na pou ankoun ta stoiqea gia ta opoa P (x) enai
alhjc, kai to llo pou ankoun ta stoiqea gia ta opoa P (x) enai yeudc. To prto
to sumbolzoume {x R| P (x)}. Sto pardeigma 4.1 aut gnetai {x R| x > 2}. To llo
snolo to sumbolzoume {x R| P (x)}, pou sto pardeigm mac enai {x R| x 2}.
Genik, gia kje kathgrhma P (x) sto snolo S , qoume sunrthsh alhjeac TP : S
{A, Y} kai

a {x S| P (x)}
a {x S| P (x)}

en kai mnon en P (a) enai alhjc,

en kai mnon en P (a) enai yeudc.

Ant na qrhsimopoiome asafec ekfrseic pwc kathgrhma enai na edoc kfrashc

pou . . . , ja mporosame na qrhsimopoisoume thn ida thc sunrthshc alhjeac gia na
dsoume na sunolojewrhtik orism tou kathgormatoc.
En perissterec ap ma metablhtc emfanzontai se mia kfrash, lme oti qoume
kathgrhma do metablhtn trin metablhtn k.o.k. Gia pardeigma, h kfrash x >

64

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

y  enai kathgrhma do
metablhtn. En to sumbolsoume Q(x, y), tte Q(3, 2) enai
alhjc, en Q(15/2, 10 + 2) enai yeudc. Ed h sunrthsh alhjeac enai TQ : R R
{A, Y}, pou TQ (x, y) = A en Q(x, y) enai alhjc kai TQ (x, y) = Y en Q(x, y) enai
yeudc.
Sthn prxh, oi majhmatiko pol suqn den anafroun rht poi enai to snolo sto
opoo orzetai na kathgrhma. Gia pardeigma, jewretai profanc oti x > 3 anafretai
se pragmatikoc arijmoc. Epshc, kat sunjkh, orismna grmmata qrhsimopoiontai gia
stoiqea enc sugkekrimnou sunlou. Gia pardeigma to n qrhsimopoietai sunjwc gia
na sumbolsei na fusik arijm. Etsi to kathgrhma n > 3 ja jewreto oti anafretai
mno se fusikoc arijmoc.
Aut h praktik mpore na fanetai tsapatsolikh, mwc qei mia kal dikaiologa.
Oso pio analutik grfoume kpoia prgmata sta majhmatik, tso pio poll smbola
qreiazmaste. Sto tloc h selda gemzei smbola, kai enai dskolo na antilhfjome
to sunolik nhma, lgw twn uperbolikn leptomerein. Tte prpei na epilxoume to
sumbolism pou ja ekfrsei tic idec me th megalterh dunat safneia all kai suntoma.

Ola kai kpoio

En qoume na kathgrhma P (x) pou orzetai se kpoio snolo S , mporome na anarwthjome en alhjeei gia la ta stoiqea tou S , en alhjeei toulqiston gia kpoio
stoiqeo tou S . Mporome na diatupsoume thn prtash gia kje x S , isqei P (x)
thn prtash uprqei kpoio x S , gia to opoo isqei P (x). Autc oi protseic mpore
na enai alhjec yeudec. Tic grfoume me majhmatik smbola, qrhsimopointac ton
kajolik posodekth kai ton uparxiak posodekth .

x S : P (x)
x S : P (x)

diabzetai

diabzetai

gia kje x S, P (x).

uprqei (toulqiston na) x S ttoio ste P (x).

En to kathgrhma P (x) enai alhjc gia la ta x S , tte h prtash x S : P (x)

enai alhjc, allic enai yeudc. En to kathgrhma P (x) enai alhjc gia toulqiston
na x S , tte h prtash x S : P (x) enai alhjc, allic enai yeudc. Otan
diabzoume aut ta smbola mporome na qrhsimopoisoume diaforetikc ekfrseic sta
ellhnik, pou apoddoun to dio nhma: gia kje x S, P (x) gia la ta x S, P (x)
kai antstoiqa, uprqei x S ttoio ste P (x) gia kpoio x S, P (x), k.o.k.
Axzei na parathrsoume oti h prtash gia kpoio x S, P (x) sta majhmatik den
uponoe oti uprqei kpoio llo x S gia to opoo P (x) enai yeudc. Sthn kajhmerin
glssa, h frsh kpoioi politiko enai ntimoi mpore na uponoe oti uprqoun kai kpoioi
pou den enai. Sta majhmatik den uprqoun ttoiec proektseic. Gia pardeigma, h prtash
kpoioc ap touc arijmoc 3677, 601, 19, 257, 11119, 12563 enai prtoc 
enai alhjc, afo ekola blpoume oti to 19 enai prtoc arijmc. To gegonc oti kai
loi oi lloi enai prtoi den allzei aut to sumprasma. Etsi, gia na elgxoume thn
aljeia thc prtashc x S : P (x) arke na brome mia tim tou x gia thn opoa h P (x)
enai alhjc.

Pardeigma 4.2 x R : x2 0 shmanei gia kje x R, x2 0 to tetrgwno kje

pragmatiko arijmo enai mh arnhtik kpoia llh isodnamh diatpwsh. H prtash
enai alhjc.

Keflaio 4

65

Majhmatik Logik

Pardeigma 4.3 x R : x2 0 shmanei gia kpoio x R, x2 0 uprqei kpoioc

pragmatikc arijmc tou opoou to tetrgwno enai mh arnhtik. Kai aut enai alhjc.

Pardeigma 4.4 x R : x2 > 0 enai yeudc, afo 02 6> 0.

Pardeigma 4.5 x R : x2 > 0 enai alhjc, afo 12 > 0. Se autn thn perptwsh
uprqoun poll lla stoiqea tou R ektc ap to 1 pou epalhjeoun to kathgrhma.

Pardeigma 4.6 x R : x2 < 0 enai yeudc. Antijtwc, h prtash x R : x2 0

enai alhjc.

En se ma prtash me posodektec antikatastsoume to smbolo thc metablhtc x

kje for pou emfanzetai, me kpoio llo smbolo, jewrome oti den allzei h prtash.
x S : P (x) shmanei to dio me y S : P (y).
x S : P (x) shmanei to dio me y S : P (y).

Pardeigma 4.7 x R : x2 > 0 enai isodnamo me to y R : y2 > 0. Kai oi

do ekfrseic lne oti  uprqei nac pragmatikc arijmc tou opoou to tetrgwno enai
jetik.

Perissteroi posodektec
En qoume na kathgrhma me do perissterec metablhtc, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume nan posodekth gia kje metablht. Gia pardeigma, en P (x, y) enai to kathgrhma
x + y = 0, tte h prtash
x R y R : P (x, y)
diabzetai gia kje x R uprqei y R ttoio ste x + y = 0.
Sunhjzetai na grfontai oi posodektec sthn arq thc prtashc sthn opoa anafrontai, kai na diabzontai sth seir. Gia pardeigma, h prtash

y R x R : P (x, y)
ja diabaztan uprqei y R ttoio ste gia kje x R, x + y = 0.
H ditaxh twn posodeiktn knei diafor. Ap tic do protseic pou dsame,
h
x R y R : P (x, y)
enai alhjc (gia kje x R mporome na proume y = x gia na qoume x + y = 0), all
h
y R x R : P (x, y)
enai yeudc, giat uposthrzei oti uprqei kpoio y R pou ikanopoie x + y = 0 gia kje
x R, prgma pou den mpore na epiteuqje ap mia tim tou y .
H topojthsh twn posodeiktn sth swst ditaxh se mia prtash enai ousidhc gia
th saf majhmatik skyh. Enai na arket koin ljoc, pou knoun akmh kai mpeiroi
majhmatiko. Mia aita tou problmatoc emfanzetai tan prospajome na gryoume mia,
pijann safc diatupwmnh, logik prtash se omilomenh majhmatik glssa. H ditaxh

66

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

twn lxewn mpore na allxei, gia na gnei pi strwt h frsh, kai aut na blyei th safneia. Eidiktera, oi posodektec mpore na topojethjon sto eswterik thc prtashc ant
na brskontai loi sthn arq. (To kname aut pio pnw, tan gryame oti ...uposthrzei
oti uprqei kpoio y R pou ikanopoie x + y = 0 gia kje x R.)
H prtash
kje mh mhdenikc rhtc arijmc qei rht antstrofo
shmanei oti dojntoc x Q, me x 6= 0, uprqei stoiqeo y Q ttoio ste x y = 1. Se
logik sumbolism h prtash enai

(x Q, x 6= 0) y Q : xy = 1 .
'Enac majhmatikc ja mporose na allzei th seir thc prtashc kai na pei uprqei
rht antstrofo gia kje mh mhdenik rht arijm, all aut h diatpwsh mpore na
parermhneute. Enai skpimo na prospajome na enai so dunatn pio safc h nnoia twn
majhmatikn ekfrsewn pou grfoume.
To prblhma aut uprqei mnon tan emfanzontai diaforetiko posodektec se mia
prtash. 'Otan loi oi posodektec enai diou tpou, den knei diafor h ditaxh me
thn opoa emfanzontai. Gia pardeigma, en P (x, y) enai to kathgrhma (x + y)2 =
x2 + 2xy + y 2 , tte oi protseic

x R y R : P (x, y)
kai

y R x R : P (x, y)
shmanoun kai oi do to dio prgma
gia kje x, y R, (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ,
to opoo enai bebawc ma alhjc prtash. En oi metablhtc pou emfanzontai prorqontai
ap to dio snolo, sunjwc aplopoiome ton sumbolism, grfontac

x, y R : P (x, y) .
To dio gnetai me ton uparxiak posodekth. Gia pardeigma, en Q(x, y) enai x, y enai
rrhtoi kai x + y enai rhtc, tte oi protseic

x (R \ Q) y (R \ Q) : Q(x, y)
kai

y (R \ Q) x (R \ Q) : Q(x, y)
shmanoun to dio:
uprqoun do rrhtoi arijmo x kai y twn opown to jroisma enai rhtc.

(Aut
h
prtash
enai
alhjc,
afo
oi
arijmo
2
kai

2
enai
rrhtoi,
all
2+

( 2) = 0 enai rhtc). Aut mporome epshc na to gryoume, gia suntoma,

x, y (R \ Q) : Q(x, y) .

Keflaio 4

67

Majhmatik Logik

Uprqei akmh ma mikr pagda sta grapt majhmatik. O kajolikc posodikthc den
anafretai pntote rht, suqn ennoetai ap ta sumfrazmena. Ac dome ton orism thc
sgklishc mac akoloujac: Ma akolouja pragmatikn arijmn sugklnei sto rio ` en,
gia kje > 0, uprqei fusikc arijmc N ttoioc ste |an `| < gia kje n > N .
Sthn prospjeia na suntomesoun ton orism, pollo majhmatiko ja grafan,
dojntoc > 0, N ttoio ste n > N sunepgetai |an `| < .
Ja sunantsete pollc parallagc auto tou orismo, all sthn ousa loi shmanoun
to dio prgma. En to katanosete aut qete knei meglh prodo sthn prospjeia na
katalbete to edoc twn problhmtwn pou emfanzontai tan jloume na epikoinwnsoume
majhmatik me ton katllhlo bajm akribeac.

H rnhsh miac prtashc

Sth selda 63 edame thn rnhsh P miac prtashc P . H tim alhjeac thc P mpore na
parastaje ston akloujo pnaka, o opooc onomzetai pnakac alhjeac:

P
A
Y

P
Y
A

Diabzontac kat mkoc twn grammn, o pnakac lei oti tan h P enai alhjc , h P
enai yeudc, kai tan h P enai yeudc, h P enai alhjc. Me ton dio trpo mporome na
efarmsoume thn rnhsh se na kathgrhma. En P (x) enai to kathgrhma x > 5, tte
P (x) diabzetai enai yeudc oti x > 5, isodnama x 6> 5.
H rnhsh mac prtashc pou periqei posodektec odhge se ma endiafrousa katstash.
Ekola antilambanmaste oti h prtash enai yeudc oti x S : P (x), enai to dio me
 x S : P (x). (En enai yeudc oti P (x) alhjeei gia kje x S , tte prpei na
uprqei kpoio x S gia to opoo P (x) enai yeudc, opte P (x) enai alhjc). Aut
grfetai sumbolik:

x S : P (x)

shmanei to dio me

x S : P (x)

(4.1)

x S : P (x)

shmanei to dio me

x S : P (x)

(4.2)

Parmoia

H deterh prtash lei oti h kfrash den uprqei x gia to opoo P (x) enai alhjc
shmanei to dio me gia kje x S, P (x) enai yeudc.

Pardeigma 4.8
x R : x2 < 0

shmanei

den uprqei x R gia to opoo x2 < 0.

x R : (x2 < 0) shmanei

gia kje x R isqei x2 6< 0.

Auto oi do aplo kannec, oi opooi onomzontai kannec tou De Morgan gia

posodektec, qoun meglh shmasa sta majhmatik epiqeirmata. O 4.1 shmanei oti:

68

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Gia na dexoume oti na kathgrhma P (x) den enai alhjc gia la ta x S , arke na brome
na x S gia to opoo P (x) enai yeudc.
O 4.2 lei oti
Gia na dexoume oti den uprqei x S gia to opoo alhjeei to kathgrhma P (x), enai
aparathto na dexoume oti P (x) enai yeudc gia kje x S .

'Askhsh 4.1 Gryte thn rnhsh thc prtashc

> 0 > 0 x R y R : [(|x y| < ) (|f (x) f (y)| < )]
kai diatupste thn se strwt ellhnik.
Wc aplo kannec gia thn rnhsh protsewn pou perilambnoun posodektec, oi kannec
tou De Morgan enai idiatera qrsimoi tan emfanzontai pollo posodekec se ma prtash.
'Ena qarakthristik pardeigma enai o orismc thc sgklishc mac akoloujac, se logik
sumbolism:
> 0 N N n > N : (|an `| < ) .
Gia na dexoume oti h akolouja (an ) den tenei sto rio `, apodeiknoume thn rnhsh autc
thc prtashc, dhlad

[ > 0 N N n > N : (|an `| < )] .

Efarmzontac tou kannec 4.1 kai 4.2 aut gnetai, diadoqik,

> 0 [N N; , n > N : (|an `| < )] ,

katpin

> 0 N N [n > N : (|an `| < )] ,

kai

> 0 N N n > N : (|an `| < ) ,

to opoo telik shmanei

> 0 N N n > N : (|an `| 6< ) .

Gia na epalhjesoume oti h akolouja (an ) den sugklnei sto `, prpei na dexoume aut
to teleutao, dhlad oti uprqei kpoio sugkekrimno > 0 ttoio ste gia kje fusik
arijm N uprqei pnta kpoioc megalteroc fusikc arijmc n > N gia ton opoo isqei
|an `| <
6 . Meglo mroc thc duskolac thc majhmatikc anlushc ofeletai ston
qeirism ttoiwn protsewn. Me thn pera kai thn exskhsh gnetai pol pio ekolo, all
pnta anatrqoume stouc kannec gia thn rnhsh posodeiktn.

Logiko sndesmoi
Sta Majhmatik qrhsimopoiome touc sunhjismnouc sundsmouc pwc  kai, , klp.
me pol sugkekrimno nhma. Gia pardeigma, o sndesmoc  qrhsimopoietai me thn
egkleistik nnoia, dhlad en P kai Q enai protseic, tte P Q ( pou sumbolzetai

Keflaio 4

69

Majhmatik Logik

P Q) enai prtash pou jewretai alhjc en toulqiston ma ap tic P , Q, enai alhjc.

Aut paristnetai ston akloujo pnaka alhjeac:
P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P Q
A
A
A
Y

Diabzoume kat mkoc twn orizntiwn grammn. Gia pardeigma, h deterh gramm lei
oti en P enai alhjc kai Q enai yeudc, tte P Q enai alhjc.
'Alloi sndesmoi pou qrhsimopoiontai suqn sta majhmatik enai oi kai, sunepgetai
kai en kai mnon en, pou sumbolzontai antstoiqa, , , . 'Eqoun touc akloujouc
pnakec alhjeac:
P Q P Q
A A
A
A Y
Y
Y A
Y
Y
Y Y

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P Q
A
Y
A
A

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P Q
A
Y
Y
A

Auto oi pnakec diabzontai me ton dio trpo. O prtoc kai o teleutaoc enai arket
profanec. P kai Q jewretai alhjc mno tan h P kai h Q enai alhjec. P en kai
mnon en Q jewretai alhjc mnon tan oi P kai Q qoun tic diec timc alhjeac.
Perisstero endiafron parousizei o pnakac alhjeac thc sunepagwgc. En h P
enai alhjc, tte ap thn prth kai th deterh gramm parathrome oti h sunepagwg
P Q enai alhjc tan h Q enai alhjc, en enai yeudc tan h Q enai yeudc. Aut
deqnei oti tan alhjeei h P Q, en h P enai alhjc tte h Q prpei na enai alhjc.
Aut enai h kanonik ermhnea thc sunepagwgc , kai giaut to lgo h prtash P Q
suqn ermhneetai en P , tte Q. All prosxte ti sumbanei tan h P enai yeudc. H
trth kai h ttarth gramm deqnoun oti h sunepagwg P Q jewretai alhjc, ete enai
alhjc h Q ete qi. Suqn akoei kanec pollc anohsec giautn thn perptwsh: pc
enai dunatn to yedoc thc P na sunepgetai thn aljeia thc Q?
Mporome na katanosoume kaltera autn thn perptwsh en qrhsimopoisoume touc
sundsmouc me kathgormata ant gia protseic. En P (x) kai Q(x) enai kathgormata
pou orzontai sto snolo S , tte mporome na qrhsimopoisoume touc sundsmouc gia na

70

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

proume ta kathgormata P (x)Q(x), P (x)Q(x), klp. Eidiktera qoume to kathgrhma

P (x) Q(x). Uprqoun periptseic pou to kathgrhma P (x) Q(x) enai alhjc gia
kje x S . Aut enai h perptwsh pou diasafhnzei th shmasa tou pnaka alhjeac. Gia
pardeigma, en P (x) enai x > 5 kai Q(x) enai x > 2, kje majhmatikc ja sumfwnose
oti to kathgrhma P (x) Q(x) enai alhjc gia kje tim tou x R. Pollo ja to
dibazan en x > 5 tte x > 2 kai den ja dinan shmasa sto ti sumbanei tan x 6> 5. Ac
antikatastsoume diforec timc tou x, na dome ti sumbanei:
Gia x = 4,

P (4) enai yeudc kai Q(4) enai alhjc.

Gia x = 2,

P (2) enai yeudc kai Q(2) enai yeudc.

Autc enai akribc h trth kai h ttarth gramm tou pnaka alhjeac thc sunepagwgc ,
kai bohjne na katanosoume thn akloujh ermhnea tou pnaka:
P Q enai alhjc
shmanei oti
a) en P enai alhjc, tte Q prpei na enai alhjc
all
b) en P enai yeudc, tte Q mpore na enai ete alhjc ete yeudc.

'Askhsh 4.2 Estw oti P sumbolzei thn prtash H lh enai endiafrousa, Q sumbolzei thn prtash Oi askseic enai dskolec kai R sumbolzei thn prtash To mjhma
enai euqristo. Gryte tic paraktw protseic se sumbolik morf.
a. H lh enai endiafrousa kai oi askseic enai dskolec.
b. En h lh den enai endiafrousa kai oi askseic den enai dskolec, tte to mjhma
den enai euqristo.
g. To oti h lh enai endiafrousa shmanei oti oi askseic enai dskolec, kai to antstrofo.
d. Ete h lh enai endiafrousa ete oi askseic den enai dskolec, all qi kai ta
do.
Mporome na jewrsoume kai llouc sundsmouc, pwc gia pardeigma thn apokleistik
dizeuxh, pou th sumbolzoume Y, me pnaka alhjeac

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P YQ
Y
A
A
Y

H P Y Q enai alhjc tan mia ap tic P, Q enai alhjc, all qi kai oi do, dhlad tan
alhjeei akribc ma ap tic P , Q.
Ja mporosame na orsoume pnakec alhjeac kai gia llouc sundsmouc, all auto
mporon na kataskeuasjon sunjtontac touc basikoc. Gia pardeigma, h apokleistik

Keflaio 4

Majhmatik Logik

71

dizeuxh mpore na ekfraste wc (P Q) (P Q). Ja dome pio analutik aut to

jma se epmenh pargrafo.
'Otan ma majhmatikc grfei Majhmatik, den periorzetai stouc sundsmouc pou anaframe. Qrhsimopoie kai llouc sundsmouc thc glssac, pwc all, epeid, efson,
diti, klp. Autc oi ekfrseic qoun ma, sunjwc profan, ermhnea. Gia pardeigma, o
pnakac alhjeac
thc prtashc Pall Q enai o dioc me autn thc prtashc
P kai Q. H

2
prtash

2
enai
rrhtoc
all
(
2)
enai
rhtc
shmanei
to
dio
me

2
enai
rrhtoc kai
2
( 2) enai rhtc. Parmoia, P epeid Q kai Q ra P  qoun ton dio pnaka alhjeac
me thn Q P .

H sqsh me th jewra sunlwn

An efarmsoume touc sundsmouc kai thn rnhsh se kathgormata mac metablhtc, qoume
ma apl sqsh me to sunolojewrhtik sumbolism. Upojtoume oti P (x) kai Q(x) enai
kathgormata pou orzontai sto dio snolo S , kai exetzoume ta uposnola gia ta opoa
diforec snjetec ekfrseic enai alhjec. Gia to sndesmo kai qoume:

{x S| P (x) Q(x)} = {x S| P (x)} {x S| Q(x)} ,

dhlad thn tom twn sunlwn sta opoa alhjeoun ta kathgormata P (x) kai Q(x).

Sqma 4.1: Sunolojewrhtik ermhnea tou sndesmou kai.

Parmoia, gia to sndesmo  qoume:

{x S| P (x) Q(x)} = {x S| P (x)} {x S| Q(x)} ,

dhlad thn nwsh twn sunlwn sta opoa alhjeoun ta kathgormata P (x) kai Q(x).
Autc enai nac lgoc gia ton opoo protimome na qrhsimopoiome thn egkleistik
dizeuxh, , kai qi thn apokleistik dizeuxh, Y, h opoa antistoiqe sth summetrik
diafor sth jewra sunlwn.
H rnhsh efarmozmenh sto kathgrhma P (x) antistoiqe sto sunolojewrhtik sumplrwma.
{x S| P (x)} = S \ {x S| P (x)}

72

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Sqma 4.2: Sunolojewrhtik ermhnea tou sundsmou .

Sqma 4.3: Sunolojewrhtik ermhnea thc apokleistikc dizeuxhc.

Sqma 4.4: Sunolojewrhtik ermhnea thc logikc rnhshc.

Edame oti P (x) Q(x) enai alhjc tan h Q(x) enai alhjc tan h P (x) enai

Keflaio 4

Majhmatik Logik

73

yeudc,

{x S | P (x) Q(x)} = (S \ {x S | P (x)}) {x S | Q(x)} .

Sqma 4.5: Sunolojewrhtik ermhnea thc sunepagwgc.

Perisstero endiafron parousizei h perptwsh pou P (x) Q(x) enai alhjc gia
la ta x. Se aut thn perptwsh, en P (x) enai alhjc, to dio prpei na isqei gia
to Q(x), dhlad en a {x S| P (x)} tte a {x S| Q(x)}, to opoo shmanei oti
{x S| P (x)} {x S| Q(x)}. H aljeia thc kfrashc P (x) Q(x) gia kje x S
antistoiqe sto sunolojewrhtik egkleism.

Sqma 4.6: Logik sunepagwg kai egkleismc.

Parmoia, P (x) Q(x) gia kje x S antistoiqe sthn isthta

{x S| P (x)} = {x S| Q(x)} .

Snjetec ekfrseic
Qrhsimopointac sundsmouc mporome na kataskeusoume pio snjetec protseic kai
kathgormata ap kpoia dedomna, pwc (P Q) R. Aut h kfrash perilambnei treic

74

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

protasiakc metablhtc, kai o pnakac alhjeac thc qei 23 = 8 grammc1 .

P
A
A
A
A
Y
Y
Y
Y

Q
A
A
Y
Y
A
A
Y
Y

R
A
Y
A
Y
A
Y
A
Y

Endimesoc Upologismc
P Q
A
A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

(P Q) R
A
A
A
Y
A
Y
A
Y

Parathrste oti h kfrash (P Q) R enai sthn pragmatikthta ma suntag gia na

kataskeusoume ma na prtash na no kathgrhma, ap tra dojnta. Thn onomzoume
snjeto tpo tou protasiako logismo, kai jewrome ta P, Q, R wc metablhtc pou
antiproswpeoun aprosdiristec protseic kathgormata. 'Otan antikatastsoume tic
metablhtc P, Q, R me sugkekrimnec protseic, gia pardeigma

(2 > 3 2 > 6) 2 > 1 ,

parnoume ma snjeth prtash. En tic antikatastsoume me sugkekrimna kathgormata,
onomzoume to apotlesma snjeto kathgrhma. Gia pardeigma,

(x > 3 x > 6) 2 > 1

enai na snjeto kathgrhma.
'Ena meglo mroc kje majhmatikc apdeixhc qei na knei me to qeirism snjetwn
protsewn kai kathgorhmtwn. 'Otan ta kataskeuzoume, enai suqn aparathto na qrhsimopoiome parenjseic gia na fanetai h dom touc. Gia pardeigma o snjetoc tpoc
P (Q R) enai diaforetikc ap ton (P Q) R. An koitxoume sthn bdomh gramm
tou pnaka, blpoume oti tan P enai yeudc, Q enai yeudc kai R enai alhjc, tte
(P Q) R enai alhjc. 'Omwc mporome na elgxoume oti se autn thn perptwsh
P (Q R) enai yeudc. Anloga isqoun kai gia kathgormata. Prpei loipn na
topojetome tic parenjseic sth swst jsh, gia na mhn dhmiourgontai asfeiec. (Se orismnec periptseic mporome na paralepoume parenjseic. Gia pardeigma, o (P Q)R
qei ton dio pnaka alhjeac me ton P (Q R), ra den prokaletai sgqush an gryoume
P Q R.)
Kajc kataskeuzoume snjetouc tpouc qrhsimopointac sundsmouc, mpore na prokyoun tpoi pou qoun diaforetik emfnish all ton dio pnaka alhjeac. Gia pardeigma, P Q kai (Q) (P ) :

P
A
A
Y
Y
1 Prosxte

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P Q
A
Y
A
A

pc grfoume susthmatik tic timc alhjeac twn metablhtn ston pnaka, exasfalzontac
oti exantlome louc touc dunatoc sunduasmoc.

Keflaio 4

75

Majhmatik Logik

P Q P Q (Q) (P )
A A
Y
Y
A
A Y
Y
A
Y
Y A
A
Y
A
Y Y
A
A
A
paralepontac touc endimesouc upologismoc,
P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

(Q) (P )
A
Y
A
A

Se aut thn perptwsh lme oti oi do snjetoi tpoi enai logik

En sumbolzoume do snjetouc tpouc me S1 kai S2 grfoume

isodnamoi.

S1 S2
gia na sumbolsoume oti enai logik isodnamoi. To prohgomeno apotlesma sumbolzetai

P Q (Q) (P ) .
Ma endiafrousa idithta twn snjetwn tpwn enai oti merikc forc do tpoi mpore
na enai isodnamoi parlo pou den periqoun ton dio arijm metablhtn. Aut sumbanei
tan h allag thc timc alhjeac mac metablhtc den ephrezei to telik apotlesma.
Gia pardeigma, P (P ) enai pntote yeudc. Upologzoume ton pnaka alhjeac tou
(P (P )) (Q)
P Q (P (P )) (Q)
A A
Y
A Y
A
Y A
Y
Y Y
A
kai blpoume oti (P (P )) (Q) qei pnta thn dia tim alhjeac me to Q, anexrthta
ap thn tim tou P . Mporome na jewrsoume tupik to Q wc sunrthsh tou P kai tou
Q, opte o pnakac alhjeac gnetai

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

Q
Y
A
Y
A

Me autn ton trpo qoume oti

Q (P (P )) (Q).
'Enac snjetoc tpoc onomzetai tautologa en enai alhjc gia opoiesdpote timc
alhjeac twn metablhtn tou. Qarakthristik paradegmata enai

P (P )
P (P Q)
(P Q) P
(P Q) ((Q) (P ))
(P Q) ((P Q) (Q P )).

76

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Prpei na elgxete oti oi pnakec alhjeac autn twn tpwn ddoun pntote thn tim A.
En nac snjetoc tpoc enai yeudc gia opoiesdpote timc alhjeac twn metablhtn
tou, onomzetai antfash. Gia pardeigma, P (P ) enai antfash.
Kje do tautologec enai logik isodnamec, kai kje do antifseic enai logik
isodnamec. Epshc, nac snjetoc tpoc S enai tautologa en kai mnon en S enai
antfash.
Sumbolzoume ma tautologa me T , kai ma antfash me C . 'Eqoume tte kpoia endiafronta apotelsmata. Gia pardeigma, (P ) C enai logik isodnamo me to P . Oi
pnakec enai:
P (P ) C
P P
A
A
A A
Y
Y Y
Y
(Upologzontac ton prto pnaka, prosxte oti C qei pnta tim alhjeac Y.)
'Eqoume to dio apotlesma en antikatastsoume to C me opoiadpote sugkekrimnh
antfash:

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

(P ) (Q (Q))
A
A
Y
Y

P
A
A
Y
Y

Q
A
Y
A
Y

P
A
A
Y
Y

Prpei na elgxete louc touc endimesouc upologismoc ston prto pnaka, gia na katalbete ti akribc sumbanei.
Ant na sugkrnoume touc pnakec alhjeac do snjetwn tpwn S1 kai S2 gia na elgxoume en enai logik isodnamoi, mporome na exetsoume mno ton pnaka tou S1 S2 .
En o S1 enai logik isodnamoc me ton S2 tte o S1 S2 enai tautologa, kai antstrofa, en S1 S2 enai tautologa, tte S1 S2 . Gia pardeigma, h logik isodunama twn
P Q kai (Q) (P ) antistoiqe sto oti o tpoc [P Q] [(Q) (P )] enai
tautologa.

Logik sumpersmata
H genik strathgik miac apdeixhc suqn gkeitai sto na apodeiqje, ant gia thn isq
thc dojesac prtashc, h isqc miac prtashc pou enai logik isodnamh me th dojesa.
Shmantik ttoia paradegmata enai ta aklouja.
1. Antijetoantstrofh.

(P Q) ((Q) (P ))
Gia na apodexoume P Q, epalhjeoume thn prtash (Q) (P ).
2. Apagwg se topo.

P ((P ) C)
pou C enai ma antfash. Gia na apodexoume to P , epalhjeoume thn prtash
(P ) C .

Keflaio 4

77

Majhmatik Logik

3. En kai mnon en.

(P Q) ((P Q) (Q P )) .
4. En kai mnon en, deterh ekdoq.

(P Q) ((P Q) ((P ) (Q))) .

Gia na apodexoume thn prtash P Q, epalhjeoume tic protseic P Q kai
(P ) (Q).
Gia na epalhjesoume ma snjeth prtash, exetzoume pwc kataskeuzetai h prtash
ap gnwstc protseic, kai qrhsimopoiome pnakec alhjeac. Ac upojsoume oti gnwrzoume pwc h P enai alhjc, kai pwc h (Q) (P ) enai alhjc. Ap aut ta dedomna
mporome na sumpernoume oti h Q enai alhjc. Ta dojnta mpore na enai snjetec protseic, pwc h (Q) (P ), kai mpore na gnwrzoume oti h snjeth prtash alhjeei,
qwrc na qoume plhroforec gia thn aljeia twn sunistwsn thc. 'Etsi mpore na gnwrzoume oti (Q) (P ) enai alhjc, qwrc na gnwrzoume tic timc alhjeac twn P kai Q.
Akma kai se autn thn perptwsh mporome na bgloume kpoio sumprasma, pwc, gia
pardeigma, oti h logik isodnamh prtash P Q enai alhjc. Ston akloujo pnaka,
en gnwrzoume oti oi protseic sthn prth stlh alhjeoun, mporome na sumpernoume
oti alhjeei h prtash sth deterh stlh.
En alhjeoun autc oi protseic...

...tte alhjeei kai aut

P, (Q) (P )

P C, pou C antfash

P, P Q

P Q, Q R

P R

P Q, P

P Q

P Q

P Q, Q P

P Q

P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn

P1 P2 . . . Pn

P1 , . . . , Pn , (P1 . . . Pn ) Q

Autc o pnakac mpore na suneqiste ep peiron. Gia na proume ma akmh gramm,
grfoume nan arijm ap snjetouc protasiakoc tpouc S1 , . . . , Sn sthn arister stlh. Sthn antstoiqh jsh sth dexi stlh bzoume kpoio snjeto protasiak tpo D,
tou opoou h aljeia enai exasfalismnh tan alhjeoun oi S1 , . . . , Sn . Gia na to elgxoume aut exetzoume touc pnakec alhjeac twn S1 , . . . , Sn kai D. Mporome mwc na
to elgxoume exetzontac ton pnaka alhjeac thc prtashc

(S1 S2 . . . Sn ) D .

78

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

En aut enai tautologa, tte en alhjeoun oi S1 , . . . , Sn alhjeei kai h D.

Mia tautologa thc morfc (S1 S2 . . . Sn ) D onomzetai kannac exagwgc
sumperasmtwn kannac apagwgc. En se na ttoio kanna, tan antikatastsoume sugkekrimnec protseic gia tic metablhtc stouc snjetouc protasiakoc
tpouc, oi protseic S1 , . . . , Sn enai alhjec, tte mporome na sumpernoume oti kai h
prtash D enai alhjc.
Otan oi protseic pou emfanzontai perilambnoun posodektec, prpei na exetsoume
pwc sundontai gia na dome en h isqc mac prtashc enai fusik sunpeia twn dedomnwn.
Se ma apl perptwsh, en gnwrzoume oti x S : P (x) enai alhjc, mporome na
sumpernoume oti x S : P (x) enai epshc alhjc. En gnwrzoume oti alhjeoun oi
x S : P (x) kai x S : Q(x), mporome na sumpernoume oti alhjeoun pollc
protseic, pwc x S : (P (x) Q(x)) , [ x S : P (x)] [ x S : Q(x)], P (a) Q(b),
pou a, b S , klp. Mporome pli na gryoume na pnaka kannwn sumperasmtwn pou
mporome na bgloume ap protseic me posodektec.
En alhjeoun autc oi protseic...

...tte alhjeei kai aut

x S : P (x), x S : Q(x)

x S : [P (x) Q(x)]

x S : P (x)

(pou S 6= )

x S : P (x)
P (a)

(pou a S )

x S : P (x)
P (a) gia opoiodpote a S
x S : P (x)

( x S : P (x))

x S : (P (x))

( x S : P (x))

x S : (P (x))

Autc o pnakac mpore na suneqiste me pljoc llwn kannwn sumperasmtwn. Sthn

arister stlh grfoume protseic S1 , . . . , Sn oi opoec mpore na periqoun posodektec,
kai sth dexi stlh grfoume ma prtash D, h opoa enai upoqrewtik alhjc, en lec
oi S1 , . . . , Sn enai alhjec. Aut mporome na to elgxoume exetzontac thn prtash
(S1 S2 . . . Sn ) D. 'Omwc oi snjetec ekfrseic pou periqoun kathgormata
me posodektec enai pol pio polplokec ap tic protseic, kai den ja diatupsoume ma
genik mjodo elgqou se autn thn perptwsh, anlogh twn pinkwn alhjeac gia tic
snjetec protseic.

Apdeixh
Gia th logik parousash mac apdeixhc xekinme me kpoiec protseic, tic upojseic
H1 , H2 , . . . , Hr , kai jloume na sumpernoume thn isq mac prtashc D, tou sumpersmatoc. H diadikasa mpore na enai arket polplokh, me thn eisagwg llwn bohjhtikn protsewn. Katagrfoume th diadikasa se bmata, grfontac na peperasmno
pljoc grammn, me ekfrseic L1 , L2 , . . . , Ln ttoiec ste Ln = D, kai pou gia kje
m = 1, . . . , n, h gramm Lm ete enai kpoia ap tic upojseic H1 , H2 , . . . , Hr , ete enai logik sunpeia twn prohgomenwn grammn L1 , L2 , . . . , Lm1 . Me autn ton trpo

Keflaio 4

79

Majhmatik Logik

exasfalzoume oti h teleutaa gramm D enai alhjc en oi upojseic H1 , H2 , . . . , Hr

enai alhjec. En h Lm den enai kpoia ap tic upojseic, elgqoume oti enai logik sunpeia twn L1 , L2 , . . . , Lm1 exetzontac thn tim alhjeac thc snjethc prtashc
L1 L2 . . . Lm1 Lm .
'Otan to telik sumprasma D enai thc morfc P Q, tte suqn oi majhmatiko
allzoun th diadikasa thc apdeixhc, grfontac grammc me ekfrseic L1 , . . . , Ln pou
P enai h prth kfrash L1 kai Q h teleutaa Ln . Kje endimesh gramm ete enai ma
ap tic upojseic, ete enai sunpeia twn prohgomenwn grammn.

Pardeigma 4.9 Me tic upojseic

H1 : 5 > 2
H2 : 1, x, y, z R : ((x > y) (y > z) (x > z))
mporome na gryoume thn apdeixh thc prtashc (x > 5) (x > 2) wc exc
L1 : x > 5
L2 : 5 > 2
L3 : x, y, z R : ((x > y) (y > z) (x > z))
L4 : x > 2

An kai to sugkekrimno sumprasma den enai entupwsiak, deqnei th genik morf thc
apdeixhc, thn opoa apokrustallnoume ston akloujo orism.

Orismc. Ma apdeixh thc prtashc P Q, (pou P kai Q enai prtash kathgrhma), me dedomnec tic upojseic H1 , . . . , Hr apoteletai ap na peperasmno pljoc
grammn

L1 : P
L2 : . . .
..
.
Ln : Q
pou kje gramm Lm , gia 2 m n, ete enai ma ap tic upojseic Hs , 1 s r, ete
ma prtash na kathgrhma, ttoio ste

(L1 L2 . . . Lm1 ) Lm
enai alhjc prtash.
Up autc tic sunjkec, en h P enai alhjc, tte kje epmenh gramm enai epshc alhjc, kai eidiktera h Q enai alhjc. Ap ton pnaka alhjeac thc sunepagwgc
blpoume oti aut exasfalzei thn aljeia thc P Q.
Axzei na dome ti sumbanei tan h P enai yeudc. Aut mpore na sumbe, gia pardeigma tan h P enai kathgrhma, opte h antikatstash sugkekrimnwn timn ddei yeud
prtash. 'Etsi, sto prohgomeno pardeigma, x > 5 den enai alhjc tan x = 1, kai h
gramm L4 gnetai 1 > 2, to opoo enai epshc yeudc. Ap thn llh, en x = 3, tte h L1
enai yeudc, 3 > 5, all h L4 enai 3 > 2, alhjc. Me lga lgia, en h P enai yeudc den
mporome na bgloume kpoio sumprasma wc proc thn aljeia to yedoc twn epmenwn
grammn. Gnwrzoume mwc oti h snjeth prtash P Q enai alhjc.
Edame ton tupik orism logikn bhmtwn se ma apdeixh. Ti mwc grfoume sthn
prxh, tan parousizoume ma apdeixh? Aut ja exetsoume sto epmeno keflaio.

80

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 4.3 Gryte mia snjeth prtash h opoa na enai alhjc tan akribc do ap
tic treic protseic P , Q kai R enai alhjec.
Gryte mia snjeth prtash h opoa na enai alhjc, tan kama, mia, do ap tic treic
protseic P , Q kai R enai alhjec.

'Askhsh 4.4 Kataskeuste pnakec alhjeac gia tic paraktw protseic

a. (P P ) (P P )
b. (P R) (Q R) ((P Q) R)
g. (P Q) (Q R) (P R)

'Askhsh 4.5 Ftixte nan (koin) pnaka alhjeac gia tic protseic
0 . (P Q) (Q P )

P Q

'Eqoun autc oi protseic pnta tic diec logikc timc?

Knete to dio kai me ta zegh protsewn

0.
(P Q) R
0 . (P Q) (Q R)
0.
P Q

,
,
,

P (Q R)
P R
P Q

'Askhsh 4.6 Gryte tic paraktw protseic me logik smbola, kai exetste en enai
alhjec.

a. Gia kje pragmatik arijm x, uprqei pragmatikc arijmc y , ttoioc ste y 3 = x.

b. Uprqei pragmatikc arijmc y , ttoioc ste, gia kje pragmatik arijm x, to
jroisma x + y enai jetik.
g. Gia kje rrhto arijm x, uprqei akraioc n ttoioc ste x < n < x + 1.
d. To tetrgwno kje akeraou afnei uploipo 0 1 tan diaireje me to 4.
e. To jroisma twn tetragnwn do prtwn arijmn diaforetikn ap to 2 enai rtioc
arijmc.

'Askhsh 4.7 Diatupste tic paraktw protseic sta ellhnik.

a. x R y R : x2 3xy + 2y 2 = 0
b. y R x R : x2 3xy + 2y 2 = 0
g. N N R : (( > 0) (n > N )) ( n1 < )
d. x N y N z N : x + z = y

Keflaio 4

81

Majhmatik Logik

e. x Z y Z z Z : x + z = y
Ektc ap thn kat smbolo metfrash, dste kai mia diatpwsh se pio strwt glssa,
pou na mhn alloinei th shmasa. Poic ap tic protseic enai alhjec?

'Askhsh 4.8 Gryte thn rnhsh kje miac ap tic akloujec protseic
a. x : (P (x) Q(x))
b. x : (P (x) Q(x))
g. x R y R : (x y)
d. x R y R z Q : (x + y z)

'Askhsh 4.9 Sqhmatste touc pnakec alhjeac twn paraktw protsewn, kai exetste
poic ap autc enai tautologec.
a. P (P )
b. (P R) (Q R) ((P Q) R)
g. (P Q) (P Q)
d. (P Q) (Q P ) (Q)

'Askhsh 4.10 Sqhmatste touc pnakec alhjeac twn paraktw zeugn protsewn, kai
exetste en oi do protseic enai logik isodnamec.
a. (P Q)

(P ) (Q)

b. (P Q)

(P ) (Q)

g. (P (P ))

P (P )

d. P R

(P ) R

e. P R

(R) P

. (P Q) R

P (Q R)

z. (P (Q)) (R (R))

P Q

Keflaio 5
Majhmatik Apdeixh
Sto prohgomeno keflaio exetsame th logik qrsh thc glssac sta Majhmatik, kai
ton trpo me ton opoo h aljeia mac prtashc prokptei ap llec dedomnec. Edame oti mporome na jewrsoume ma apdeixh wc ma akolouja logikn sumperasmtwn.
Sthn prxh den enai ikanopoihtik na grfoume apodexeic me autn ton trpo: en sumperilboume kje bma to apotlesma enai exairetik makroskelc. Se aut to keflaio
exetzoume th genik eikna miac majhmatikc apdeixhc, kai blpoume pwc grfoun apodexeic oi majhmatiko sthn prxh. Ektc ap to logik skelet, to gryimo mac apdeixhc
apaite krsh gia thn posthta twn leptomerein pou armzoun sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh. Ti prpei na sumperilhfje kai ti mpore na paralhfje. Pol lga stoiqea mpore
na afsoun xw shmantik mroc tou epiqeirmatoc, en pra poll stoiqea mpore na
suskotsoun thn sunolik eikna.
Xekinme parnontac ma kanonik apdeixh, grammnh se sunhjismno majhmatik stul,
thn opoa sugkrnoume me thn tupik dom thc apdeixhc sto prohgomeno keflaio.

Jerhma 5.1 En (an ) kai (bn ) enai akoloujec, ttoiec ste an a kai bn b kajc

n , tte (an + bn ) a + b.

Apdeixh. 'Estw > 0. Afo an a, uprqei N1 ttoio ste

n > N1 |an a| <

Afo bn b, uprqei N2 ttoio ste

n > N2 |bn b| <

Jtoume N = max{N1 , N2 }. En n > N , tte

|an a| <

kai

|bn b| <

1
,
2

ra, ap thn trigwnik anisthta

|(an + bn ) (a + b)| |an a| + |bn b|

1
1

+
2
2
= .
82

Keflaio 5

83

Majhmatik Apdeixh

'Epetai oti (an + bn ) a + b.

gramm, pro-

Gia na analsoume th dom thc apdeixhc, thn xanagrfoume, gramm

sjtontac merik sqlia pou aposafhnzoun to epiqerhma.
Oi upojseic tou jewrmatoc enai:
H1 : (an ) enai akolouja pragmatikn arijmn, kai an a kajc n .
H2 : (bn ) enai akolouja pragmatikn arijmn, kai bn b kajc n .
kai to sumprasma enai
D: gia thn akolouja pragmatikn arijmn (an + bn ) qoume oti an + bn a + b kajc
n .
H apdeixh enai:
1. 'Estw > 0
2. Afo (an ) a, uprqei N1 ttoio ste n > N1 |an a| <
3. Afo (bn ) b, uprqei N2 ttoio ste n > N2 |bn b| <

1
2

1
2

4. 'Estw N = max{N1 , N2 }
5. En n > N tte |an a| <

1
2

kai |bn b| < 12 .

6. |(an + bn ) (a + b)| |an a| + |bn b| ap thn trigwnik anisthta.

7. |an a| + |bn b| <
8.

1
2

1
2

+ 12

+ 12 =

9. (Uprqei N = max{N1 , N2 } ttoio ste) n > N |(an + bn ) (a + b)| < .

10. (an + bn ) a + b, o.e.d.
H gramm 1 enai to kathgrhma: P () : > 0, kai koitntac pio ktw blpoume oti sth
gramm 9 katalgoume sthn parxh enc N ttoiou ste n > N |(an +bn )(a+b)| < .
En Q() enai to kathgrhma:

(N N) : ((n > N ) (|(an + bn ) (a + b)| < )) ,

oi grammc 1 9 apotelon apdeixh thc sunepagwgc P () Q(). Sth gramm 10 aut
ermhneetai wc to sumprasma, oti (an + bn ) (a + b).
Stic grammc 2 kai 3 oi upojseic H1 , H2 , diatupnontai analutik, qrhsimopointac
ton orism thc sgklishc: an a kajc n shmanei
Gia kje > 0 uprqei N ttoio ste n > N |an a| < .
Prosxte oti paralepetai to epiplon bma, oti en > 0 tte 12 > 0. Sthn prxh, ttoia
mikr bmata, pou apotelon mroc thc teqnikc, paralepontai.
Sth gramm 4 eisgetai nac noc orismc: orzoume to smbolo N sunartsei twn
N1 kai N2 . Ja mporosame na paraleyoume aut ton orism, kai na antikatastsoume kje for sthn apdeixh to smbolo N me to max{N1 , N2 }, qwrc kami ousiastik

84

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

diafor. Sunhjzetai mwc na qrhsimopoiontai na smbola gia snjetec nnoiec pou kataskeuzontai ap llec, gia na diathretai pi aplc o sumbolismc kai na anadeiknontai
shmantik stoiqea thc apdeixhc.
H gramm 5 enai sunpeia twn 2, 3, 4: n > N n > N1 |an a| < 12 kai
n > N n > N2 |bn b| < 12 . Prosxte oti oi profanec sunepagwgc, oti en
n > N = max{N1 , N2 } tte n > N1 kai n > N2 paralepontai ap thn apdeixh.
Sth gramm 6 paralepetai o stoiqeidhc algebrikc qeirismc |(an + bn ) (a + b)| =
|(an a) + (bn b)|, kai katpin efarmzetai h trigwnik anisthta gia na proume to
telik apotlesma. An kai h prtash moizei na enai kathgrhma sto n, jewrome oti h
metablht desmeetai ap ton (uponoomeno) posodekth (n > N ) sth gramm 5.
H gramm 7 enai sunpeia twn 5 kai 6, efarmzontac (siwphr) idithtec prsjeshc
anisottwn.
Sth gramm 8 ektelontai aplc arijmhtikc prxeic.
Tloc h gramm 9 enai sunpeia twn 2 8.
Ti parathrome ap thn anlush autc thc sqetik aplc apdeixhc? Oi majhmatiko
den grfoun apodexeic akribc me ton trpo pou perigryame thn tupik apdeixh. Oi
kuriterec diaforc enai oti
1. Paralepontai upojseic.
2. Paralepontai bmata sthn exagwg sumperasmtwn.
3. Eisgontai orismo nwn ennoin.
To apotlesma enai na parousizetai h apdeixh se ma pio reust graf ap oti h
akolouja protsewn thc tupikc apdeixhc.
Stqoc thc apdeixhc enai na knei katanoht thn allhlouqa twn sumperasmtwn. H
parleiyh leptomerein pou jewrontai perittc, kai h eisagwg nwn sumblwn, epitrpei
na gnei h apdeixh pio sntomh kai euangnwsth.
O anjrpinoc noc kataskeuzei jewrec anagnwrzontac gnwstc qarakthristikc morfc sta epiqeirmata, paramerzontac leptomreiec pou enai kal katanohtc. O basikc
perioristikc pargwn enai h posthta nwn plhroforin pou mpore na sugkrate kje
stigm sthn prosoq o nouc, kai h sumpknwsh pou prorqetai ap ton paramerism
leptomerein kai thn enopohsh ennoin, enai aparathth gia th sllhyh thc sunolikc
eiknac. 'Etsi, bmata thc logikc apdeixhc, ta opoa apotelon mroc thc basikc teqnikc, suntomeontai, gia na anadeiqje h sunolik eikna.
'Otan ma majhmatikc anaptssei ma na jewra, tenei na diakrnei metax twn gnwstn
apotelesmtwn, pou apotelon mroc thc teqnikc, kai tou nou uliko pou anaptssei.
Ta gnwst stoiqea mporon na suntomeujon se meglo bajm, kajc ja mporosan na
analujon kai na sumplhrwjon en etjento up amfisbthsh. Na stoiqea, pou apotelon ton purna thc anaptussmenhc jewrac, antimetwpzontai me megalterh prosoq.
Anafrontai rht wc upjesh tan qreizontai.
Se ti bajm proqwrei aut h diadikasa parlhyhc kai suntmeushc, enai zthma fouc
kai exarttai ap to koin sto opoo apeujnetai h apdeixh: diaforetik ja grafte mia
apdeixh se na egqeirdio, se ma ereunhtik monografa, se na rjro se episthmonik
periodik.
H apdeixh sto pardeigma, apeujnetai se foithtc majhmatikn tou 1ou tou 2ou
touc. Etsi, sth melth thc majhmatikc anlushc, oi kannec thc arijmhtikc jewrontai

Keflaio 5

Majhmatik Apdeixh

85

entelc oikeoi, kai den anafrontai. Oi nec nnoiec, pwc ta ria akoloujin, anafrontai
rht. H trigwnik anisthta jewretai gnwst, all qi tso oikea, kai gnetai ma
anafor se aut.

Axiwmatik sustmata
H diadikasa thc apdeixhc, pwc edame, exgei kpoia sumpersmata ap kpoiec upojseic, oi opoec mpore na enai rht diatupwmnec na prosdiorzontai ap to antikemeno
thc melthc. Gia na qei aut h diadikasa streec bseic, prpei na qoume kpoiec arqikc
upojseic, tic opoec deqmaste wc aximata, kai ap autc sumperanoume la ta lla
apotelsmata thc jewrac.
Aut ta apotelsmata ta onomzoume jewrmata, protseic, lmmata porsmata. Aut
ta diaforetik onmata bohjon na parousisoume pio anglufa th dom thc jewrac kai
thn allhlexrthsh twn apotelesmtwn. Sunjwc jewrmata onomzoume ta pio shmantik
apotelsmata, en protseic ta ligtero shmantik. Gia na dieukolunje h parousash mac
makroskeloc apdeixhc, mporome na diakrnoume apotelsmata pou apotelon sustatik
thc apdeixhc, kai na protxoume thn apdeixh thc. Ttoia apotelsmata ta onomzoume
lmmata. Antijtwc, prisma enai na apotlesma pou petai enc llou apotelsmatoc
ap to opoo apodeiknetai mesa.
'Eqoume arketc gnseic gia touc fusikoc arijmoc. Gia na touc meletsoume axiwmatik ja prpei na epilxoume kpoiec idithtec thc arijmhtikc wc basik aximata, kai
pnw se aut na oikodomsoume lh th jewra, qrhsimopointac tic apodeiktikc diadikasec. Bebawc mporome na qrhsimopoisoume th diaisjhtik gnsh thc arijmhtikc pou
qoume gia na mac kajodhgsei sth axiwmatik melth.
Sto epmeno keflaio ja exetsoume me autn ton trpo touc fusikoc arijmoc. Se
lla majmata, jewrntac dedomna ta apotelsmata gia touc fusikoc arijmoc, ja
exetsoume lla arijmhtik sustmata.

86

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 5.1 Ja apodexoume, me eic topo apagwg, oti 1 enai o megalteroc akraioc.

Brete to ljoc!
Apdeixh. Upojtoume oti o 1 den enai megalteroc akraioc. Estw n o megalteroc
akraioc. Tte n > 1. Tte n2 enai epshc akraioc, kai n2 = n n > n 1 = n. Ara
n2 > n, pou antifskei me thn upjesh oti n einai o megalteroc akraioc. Ara 1 enai o
megalteroc akraioc.

'Askhsh 5.2 Apodexte me eic topo apagwg oti:

En x, y R kai y x + gia kje > 0, R, tte y x.
a. Gryte thn apdeixh se strwt majhmatik ellhnik.
b. Diatupste thn prtash se tupik glssa, kai apodexte oti h rnhsh thc prtashc
sunepgetai ma antfash.

Keflaio 6
Oi Fusiko Arijmo
Apdeixh me epagwg
H apdeixh me epagwg den fanetai na tairizei sto sqma pou perigryame sto Keflaio
5. Ac dome na pardeigma.

Prtash 6.1 To jroisma twn fusikn arijmn ap to 1 wc to n enai 12 n(n + 1).

Apdeixh. Gia n = 1, to jroisma enai aplc 1, kai enai prgmati so me 21 1(1 + 1).
En alhjeei gia to k , dhlad en

1
1 + 2 + 3 + + k = k(k + 1) ,
2
tte, prosjtontac k + 1 kai stic do pleurc qoume

1
k(k + 1) + (k + 1)
2
1 2
=
(k + 3k + 2)
2
1
=
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + k + (k + 1) =

Ara o tpoc alhjeei gia k + 1. Epagwgik, o tpoc alhjeei gia kje fusik arijm.

Se polloc anjrpouc aut to epiqerhma moizei na baszetai se na kai otw kajexc:

afo exasfalsoume thn aljeia thc prtashc gia n = 1, kai to genik bma ap to k sto
k +1, efarmzoume aut to bma me k = 1, gia na pme ap 1 sto 2, katpin to efarmzoume
xan gia na pme ap to 2 sto 3, kai otw kajexc, sec forc jloume. Gia pardeigma,
met ap 592 efarmogc tou geniko bmatoc ja fjname to 593. Bebawc gia na fjsoume
meglec timc tou n apaitontai pollc epanalyeic tou geniko bmatoc. To prblhma
enai oti me autn ton trpo den enai dunatn na kalyoume pot louc touc fusikoc
arijmoc me mia apdeixh peperasmnou mkouc
L1 , L2 , . . . , Lm .
H lsh se aut to prblhma enai na bgloume to kai otw kajexc ap thn apdeixh
kai na to topojetsoume ston dio ton orism twn fusikn arijmn. Tte h apdeixh me
epagwg ja tairizei me to sqma pou perigryame sto prohgomeno keflaio.
87

88

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Oi fusiko arijmo
Den enai dunatn na perigryoume to snolo twn fusikn arijmn katagrfontac na na
la ta stoiqea tou. Qreizetai mia diaforetik prosggish. Eutuqc, h diaisjhtik nnoia
thc aparjmhshc ekola mpore na ekfraste me sunolojewrhtik trpo. Arqzoume me to
1, met enai to 2, met to 3, kai suneqzoume me autn ton trpo, onomzontac kje for
ton epmeno fusik arijm, so jloume. Gia an sullboume lh autn th diadikasa thc
aparjmhshc se mia nnoia, jewrome ton epmeno arijm san mia sunrthsh sto snolo
N,
: NN
me katllhlec idithtec, ste (n) na enai o epmenoc fusikc, (1) = 2, (2) = 3, klp.
Do profanec idithtec enai

den enai epeiknish ep tou N, afo (n) 6= 1 gia kje n N.

enai eneiknish, dhlad m 6= n sunepgetai (m) 6= (n).
Uprqei mia trth shmantik idithta, pou epitrpei tic apodexeic me epagwg.

Upojtoume oti S N enai ttoio ste 1 S , kai gia kje n N, en n S tte

(n) S . Tte S = N.
Dhlad, en na snolo periqei to 1, kai periqei to (n) kje for pou periqei to n,
tte to snolo kalptei louc touc fusikoc arijmoc.
Enai entupwsiak oti autc oi treic idithtec arkon gia na perigryoume touc fusikoc
arijmoc. Gia mia axiwmatik prosggish thc Arijmhtikc arke na apaitsoume thn parxh
enc sunlou me tic treic autc idithtec. Gia praktikoc lgouc enai suqn protimtero
na arqsoume me to 0 ant to 1. Otan qrhsimopoiome touc fusikoc arijmoc gia na
ekfrsoume ditaxh, gia pardeigma wc dektec se ma akolouja, enai pio katllhlo to
N, qwrc to 0. An mwc jloume oi fusiko arijmo na ekfrzoun to pljoc stoiqewn
twn peperasmnwn sunlwn, tte pio bolik enai na qoume kai to 0 wc fusik arijm,
kajc aut ekfrzei to pljoc stoiqewn tou . Sthn arijmhtik epshc enai qrsimo na
qoume to stoiqeo 0. Giautoc kai llouc lgouc ja arqsoume me to 0 sto axiwmatik
mac ssthma, kai ja qrhsimopoisoume to smbolo N0 gia na dhlsoume to snolo twn
fusikn arijmn pou periqei to 0.
Eqoume ta aximata Peano gia touc fusikoc arijmoc, ap ton Ital majhmatik pou
anptuxe autn thn prosggish twn fusikn arijmn sto tloc tou 19ou aina.
Jewrome na snolo N0 kai mia sunrthsh : N0 N0 ttoia ste:
(F1) H sunrthsh den enai epeiknish ep tou N0 : uprqei stoiqeo 0 N0 ttoio ste,
gia kje n N0 , (n) 6= 0.
(F2) H sunrthsh enai eneikonik: en (m) = (n) tte m = n.
(F3) En S N0 enai ttoio ste 0 S kai gia kje n N0 :

(n S (n) S)
tte S = N0 .

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89

Den prokptei oti uprqei na ttoio snolo N0 , kai prpei na jewrsoume thn parx
tou wc na ap ta basik aximata twn majhmatikn mac.

Axwma parxhc twn Fusikn Arijmn

Uprqei na snolo N0 kai mia sunrthsh : N0 N0 pou ikanopoion ta aximata (F1),

(F2), (F3).
Ap aut ta aximata mporome na apodexoume la ta apotelsmata thc arijmhtikc,
na kataskeusoume touc akeraouc, touc rhtoc, touc pragmatikoc kai touc migadikoc
arijmoc. Ja dome epshc oti to axwma (F3), pou lgetai Arq Epagwgc, emperiqei
th dunatthta apdeixhc me epagwg, pwc sto akloujo pardeigma.

Prtash 6.2 En n N0 , n 6= 0, tte uprqei monadik stoiqeo m N0 ttoio ste

n = (m).

Apdeixh. Jtoume
S = {n N0 | n = 0 n = (m) gia kpoio m N0 } .
Ja dexoume oti S = N0 . Profanc 0 S . En n S , ete n = 0, opte (n) = (0) S ,
ete n = (m) gia kpoio m N0 , opte (n) = ((m)) kai efoson (m) N0 , (n) S .
Sunepc, ap to axwma (F3), S = N0 . Ara, gia kje n N0 \ {0}, uprqei m N0 ttoio
ste (m) = n. H monadikthta enai sunpeia tou aximatoc (F2).

H Prtash 6.2 deqnei oti to 0 enai to monadik stoiqeo pou den enai epmeno kpoiou
llou, mia idithta pou to diakrnei ap la ta lla stoiqea tou N0 . Orzoume to snolo
twn fusikn arijmn, N = N0 \ {0}. Sumbolzoume to (0) me 1. Aut to stoiqeo ankei
sto N.
H apdeixh thc Prtashc 6.2 qei thn akloujh dom: orzoume na snolo S , kai
(a) deqnoume oti 0 S ,
(b) deqnoume oti: n S (n) S ,
(g) epikalomaste to axwma (F3) gia na sumpernoume oti S = N0 .
Mia apdeixh me epagwg qei pnta autn th dom. Sthn prxh to snolo S enai thc
morfc
S = {n N0 | P (n)}
pou P (n) enai na kathgrhma pou orzetai (dhlad pou enai alhjc yeudc) gia kje
n N0 . Ta bmata (a), (b), (g) gnontai
(aa) deqnoume oti h prtash P (0) enai alhjc,
(bb) deqnoume oti en P (n) enai alhjc tte P ((n)) enai alhjc,
(gg) epikalomaste to axwma (F3) gia na sumpernoume oti P (n) alhjeei gia kje n
N0 .

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

H qrsh tou aximatoc (F3) oloklhrnei thn apdeixh qwrc na qreizetai kanna kai
otw kajexc. H basik dom autc thc apdeixhc qrhsimopoijhke sthn Prtash sthn
arq tou Kefalaou, me th diafor oti arqsame ap to 1 ant ap to 0 kai gryame n + 1
ant (n). Argtera ja dexoume oti h dia mjodoc efarmzetai xekinntac ap opoiodpote
k N0 , eidiktera ap k = 1, kai sunepc h Prtash sthn arq tou Kefalaou enai na
apl pardeigma apdeixhc me epagwg, basismnh sto axwma (F3).
Sthn prxh to axwma (F3) den anafretai rht. H apdeixh diatupnetai se sqsh me
na kathgrhma P (n), kai tan apodeiqjon ta bmata (aa) kai (bb), lme oti me epagwg,
to P (n) alhjeei gia la ta n. Aut h diatpwsh enai mia anafor sto axwma (F3), pou
onomzetai, giautn to lgo, axwma epagwgc. Kat th dirkeia thc apdeixhc, h upjesh
oti P (n) alhjeei onomzetai epagwgik upjesh kai h apdeixh oti P (n) P ((n))
onomzetai epagwgik bma. Sthn arq, tan meletme tic basikc idithtec tou N0 ja
anafermaste rht sto snolo S .

Anadromiko orismo
Jloume na orsoume thn prsjesh fusikn arijmn xekinntac ap thn nnoia tou epomnou. Gia kje m N0 jtoume
m+0=m
kai katpin orzoume m + (n) qrhsimopointac to m + n kai jtontac

m + (n) = (m + n) .
To axwma epagwgc fanetai na tairizei se mia ttoia diadikasa. Prgmati, to epmeno jerhma exasfalzei oti mporome na orsoume sunartseic me mia ttoia anadromik
diadikasa.

Jerhma 6.3 (Jerhma Anadromc) En X enai na snolo, f : X X mia

sunrthsh, kai c X , tte uprqei monadik sunrthsh : N0 X ttoia ste
a. (0) = c,
b. ((n)) = f ((n)) gia kje n N0 .
Upenjumzoume oti ap th skopi thc jewrac sunlwn mia sunrthsh : N0 X enai
na uposnolo N0 X me tic idithtec

i. Gia kje n N0 , uprqei x X ttoio ste (n, x) ,

ii. En (n, x) kai (n, y) , tte x = y .
Ara gia na orsoume th sunrthsh arke na prosdiorsoume to katllhlo uposnolo. Oi
idithtec thc sth diatpwsh tou Jewrmatoc shmanoun oti aut to uposnolo prpei
na ikanopoie
A. (0, c) ,
B. En (n, x) tte kai ((n), f (x)) .

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Oi Fusiko Arijmo

Uprqoun poll uposnola me autc tic idithtec, pwc gia pardeigma lo to N0 X .

To zhtomeno enai h tom lwn autn twn uposunlwn, giat mnon aut ja ikanopoie tic
idithtec (i) kai (ii).
H apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc Anadromc ddetai sto Parrthma, sto tloc tou Kefalaou.
San efarmog tou Jewrmatoc Anadromc ddoume touc akloujouc orismoc:
1. Prsjesh
Orzoume th sunrthsh m : N0 N0 , m (n) = m + n anadromik me

m (0) = m
m ((n)) = (m (n)) .
Se autn thn perptwsh, c = m, f = .
2. Pollaplasiasmc
Orzoume th sunrthsh m : N0 N0 , m (n) = mn anadromik me

m (0) = 0
m ((n)) = m (n) + m .
Ed c = 0, f (r) = r + m.
3. Dunmeic
Orzoume m : N0 N0 , m (n) = mn me

m (0) = 1
m ((n)) = mm (n) .
Ed c = 1, f (r) = rm.
4. Epanalambanmenh snjesh
miac sunrthshc f : X X , orzetai me

f 0 (x) = x
f (n) (x) = f (f n (x)) gia la ta x X.

Oi kannec thc Arijmhtikc

Eqontac orsei thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm, enai tra sqetik apl na apodexoume touc sunhjismnouc kannec thc arijmhtikc. Oi apodexeic den enai entelc
tetrimmnec: h kria duskola brsketai sthn eresh thc katallhlterhc seirc me thn
opoa na gnoun oi apodexeic. Se kje perptwsh to krio ergaleo enai h epagwg.
Upenjumzoume touc orismoc:
(pr1) m + 0 = 0 , (pr2) m + (n) = (m + n) ,
(pl1) m0 = 0 ,
(pl2) m(n) = mn + m .
Ap ta (pr2) kai (pr1) blpoume oti m + (0) = (m + 0) = (m). Sumbolzoume to
(0) me 1, ra qoume (m) = m + 1.

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Lmma 6.4 Gia kje m N0 ,

1. 0 + m = m,
2. 1 + m = (m),
3. 0m = 0,
4. 1m = m.

Apdeixh. Se kje perptwsh qrhsimopoiome epagwg sto m. Ddoume gia pardeigma

thn apdeixh tou (1). Jtoume

S = {m N0 | 0 + m = m} .
Profanc, ap to (pr1), 0 S . En m S , tte 0 + m = m, ra ap thn (pr2),
0 + (m) = (0 + m) = (m). Sunepc (m) S , kai ap to (F3), S = N0 .

Jerhma 6.5 (Kannec thc arijmhtikc) Gia la ta m, n, p N0 ,

1. Prosetairistik idithta thc prsjeshc:

(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) ,
2. Metajetik idithta thc prsjeshc:

m + n = n + m,
3. Prosetairistik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo:

(mn)p = m(np) ,
4. Metajetik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo:

mn = nm ,
5. Epimeristik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo wc proc thn prsjesh:

m(n + p) = mn + mp .
H apdeixh twn kannwn thc arijmhtikc ddetai sto Parrthma.
Afo qoume apodexei aut ta jemelidh apotelsmata, mporome na efarmzoume elejera touc kannec thc arijmhtikc ap ed kai pra. Prta, antikajistome to (n)
me to n + 1. Etsi to axwma epagwgc (F3) parnei thn pio sunhjismnh morf
En S N0 , 0 S kai (n S n + 1 S ), tte S = N0 ,
en to axwma (F2) gnetai

m + 1 = n + 1 m = n,
kai aut mpore na epektaje epagwgik, pwc sthn akloujh Prtash.

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Prtash 6.6 Gia kje m, n, q N0 ,

1. m + q = n + q m = n
2. q 6= 0, mq = nq m = n.

Apdeixh. Gia na apodexoume to (1) qrhsimopoiome epagwg sto q. Jtoume

S = {q N0 | m + q = n + q m = n} .
Profanc 0 S . En q S , upojtoume oti

m + (q + 1) = n + (q + 1)
kai tte, ap to Jerhma 6.5,

(m + q) + 1 = (n + q) + 1
kai ap to (F2)

m+q =n+q
kai efoson q S ,

m = n.
Sunepc q + 1 S , kai epagwgik S = N0 .
Gia to (2) jtoume

S = {m N0 | q 6= 0, mq = nq m = n} .
Gia na dexoume oti 0 S , upojtoume oti q 6= 0, kai

nq = 0q = 0 .
Tte q = p+1 gia kpoio p. En n 6= 0 tte n = r +1 gia kpoio r, kai nq = (pr +p+r)+1
ra den enai 0. Sunepc n = 0, kai 0 S .
Tra upojtoume oti m S , kai q 6= 0, en

(m + 1)q = nq .
Opwc prohgoumnwc, n 6= 0, ra n = r + 1 gia kpoio r N0 . Tte mq + q = rq + q . Ap
to (1) qoume oti mq = rq , kai ap thn epagwgik upjesh m = r. Dhlad m + 1 = n,
pou oloklhrnei thn apdeixh.

Tra mporome na anaferjome sthn afaresh. Upojtoume oti p = r + q . Ap thn

Prtash 6.6, to r prosdiorzetai me monadik trpo ap ta p kai q , kai sunepc mporome
na to sumbolzoume p q . Gia opoiadpote m, n N0 orzoume th sqsh me

m n shmanei r N0 (m = r + n) .
Gia dedomna m, n N0 , h diafor m n orzetai mnon tan m n. Mporome ekola
na epalhjesoume diforouc kannec thc afareshc, pwc

m (n r) = (m n) + r
m + (n r) = (m + n) r
m(n r) = mn mr

tan m n r ,
tan n r ,
tan n r .

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Gia ton teleutao, gia pardeigma, efoson n r, grfoume n = s + r, kai qoume

mn = m(s + r) = ms + mr .
Ap ton orism,

mn mr = ms = m(n r)
efoson s = n r.
Mporome epshc na exetsoume th diaresh, kai sthn perptwsh pou m = rn, (n 6= 0)
na sumbolsoume to r me m/n.

H ditaxh twn fusikn arijmn

Eqoume dh orsei th sqsh sto N0 . Oi llec sqseic ditaxhc orzontai wc exc:

m > n m n kai m 6= n,
m n n m,
m<n n>m
Jloume na dexoume oti autc enai prgmati sqseic ditaxhc, me thn nnoia tou Kefalaou
2. Deqnoume prta oti h sqsh enai metabatik, (AD1), kai antisummetrik, (AD3).

Prtash 6.7 m n, n p m p gi kje m, n, p N0 .

Apdeixh. Uprqoun r kai s sto N0 ttoia ste m = r + n kai n = s + p. Ara

m = r + (s + p) = (r + s) + p, kai sunepc m p.

Prtash 6.8 En m, n N0 kai m n, n m, tte m = n.

Apdeixh. Uprqoun r, t N0 ttoia ste m = r + n, n = t + m, ra m = r + t + m.
Ap th Prtash 6.6 (1), r + t = 0. En t 6= 0, tte t = q + 1 gia kpoio q N0 ap thn
Prtash 6.2, kai tte 0 = (r + q) + 1, to opoo antifskei proc to Axwma F1. Ara t = 0
kai sunepc n = m.

H apdeixh oti h sqsh ikanopoie thn idithta (AD2) mac asjenoc ditaxhc enai
pio polplokh, kai thn afnoume gia argtera. Enai pntwc ekolo na elgxoume oti h
sqsh sumperifretai kal wc proc tic arijmhtikc prxeic sto N0 .

Prtash 6.9 Gia la ta m, n, p, q N0 ,

1. En m n, p q , tte m + p n + q .
2. En m n, p q , tte mp nq .

Apdeixh. Gia to (1), parathrome oti uprqoun r, s N0 , ttoia ste m = r + n,

p = s + q . Ara, met ap aplopohsh, brskoume oti m + p = (r + s) + (n + q). Gia to (2),
parmoia, mp = nq + (rs + ns + rq).

To 0 enai to mikrtero stoiqeo tou N0 , me thn akloujh nnoia:

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Lmma 6.10 En m N0 , tte m 0.

Apdeixh. m = m + 0.

To 1 enai to epmeno mikrtero:

Lmma 6.11 En m N0 kai m > 0, tte m 1.

Apdeixh. En m 6= 0, tte m = q + 1 gia kpoio q N0 . Ara m 1.

Geniktera, isqei to akloujo:

Prtash 6.12 En m, n N0 kai m > n, tte m n + 1.

Apdeixh. Eqoume m = r + n gia kpoio r N0 , kai r 6= 0, efson m 6= n. Ara
r = q + 1 gia kpoio q N0 , kai m = q + (n + 1), dhlad m n + 1.

Tra mporome na oloklhrsoume thn apdeixh oti enai ma sqsh ditaxhc:

Prtash 6.13 H sqsh enai sqsh asjenoc ditaxhc sto N0 .

Apdeixh. Ap ton orism thc asjenoc ditaxhc, prpei na apodexoume oti gia la ta
m, n, p N0

(AD1) m n kai n p sunepgontai m p,

(AD2) Gia kje do stoiqea m kai n tou N0 , isqei na ap ta m n n m, kai ta
do,
(AD3) m n kai n m sunepgontai m = n.
Eqoume dh apodexei oti isqoun ta (AD1) kai (AD3), stic Protseic 6.7 kai 6.8. Gia na
apodexoume to (AD2) jewrome to snolo

S(m) = {n N0 | m n n m} .
Stoqeoume na dexoume oti S(m) = N0 gia kje m N0 . Gia opoiodpote dojn m,
qoume 0 S(m), efson m 0. Upojtoume oti n S(m). Tte ete m n ete
n m. En n m tte n + 1 m. En m n tte ete m = n kai n + 1 m, ete
m > n opte m n + 1 ap thn Prtash 6.12. Se kje perptwsh, n + 1 S(m) kai ap
epagwg S(m) = N0 .

Ap ta apotelsmata tou Kefalaou 2, petai oti > enai sqsh gnsiac ditaxhc:
ikanopoie th metabatik idithta

m > n kai n > p m > p

kai thn triqotoma
Alhjeei akribc na ap ta m > n, m = m, n > m .
H akloujh Prtash enai sqedn to antstrofo thc Prtashc 6.6.

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Prtash 6.14 Gia la ta m, n, q N0 ,

1. m + q > n + q m > n
2. q 6= 0, mq > nq m > n.

Apdeixh. En m 6> n, tte ap thn triqotoma m n. All m n sunepgetai oti

m + q n + q ap thn Prtash 6.9. Aut antifskei proc thn upjesh, kai apodeiknei
to prto mroc. To detero mroc apodeiknetai me parmoio trpo.

En sthn Prtash 6.14 antikatastsoume th sqsh > me th , qoume akribc to

antstrofo thc Prtashc 6.6, to opoo alhjeei.

Allec morfc epagwgc

Se merikc periptseic, h upjesh oti alhjeei h P (n) den arke gia na apodexoume thn
P (n + 1). Mpore na qreizetai h upjesh oti lec oi protseic P (1), P (2), . . . , P (n)
alhjeoun. Se autn thn perptwsh anatrqoume sth legmenh Isqur morf thc Arqc
Epagwgc.

En h upjesh oti alhjeoun oi P (m) gia kje m < n, sunepgetai oti h P (n)
alhjeei,
Tte h P (n) alhjeei gia kje n N0 .
Arqik fanetai oti aut apotele mia ousiastik genkeush thc Arqc thc Epagwgc,
all en jewrsoume to kathgrhma

Q(n) : gia kje m N0 , ttoio ste m n, alhjeei h P (m)

blpoume oti h Isqur morf thc Arqc Epagwgc gnetai
Q(0) alhjeei
En alhjeei h Q(n) tte alhjeei h Q(n + 1).
Ara h Isqur morf thc Arqc Epagwgc enai aplc epagwg gia to kathgrhma Q, kai
jewrhtik den enai pi genik ap thn epagwg. Sthn prxh suqn bohjei na aplopoisoume apodexeic. Th qrhsimopoiome gia na apodexoume mia llh shmantik idithta twn
fusikn arijmn, pou mpore na qrhsimopoihje enallaktik proc thn Arq thc Epagwgc.

Jerhma 6.15 (Arq Elaqstou) Kje mh ken uposnolo tou N0 qei na elqisto stoiqeo, dhlad na stoiqeo pou ankei sto uposnolo aut kai enai mikrtero so
ap kje llo stoiqeo tou uposunlou.
Apdeixh. Prpei na dexoume oti en S N0 , S 6= , tte uprqei a S ttoio ste

gia kje s S , isqei a s.

Upojtoume oti den uprqei ttoio a kai katalgoume se antfash. Jewrome to kathgrhma P (n) : n 6 S . Tte P (0) enai alhjc: en 0 S tte to 0 enai to elqisto
stoiqeo tou S , all upojsame oti den uprqei elqisto stoiqeo tou S , ra 0 6 S .

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Oi Fusiko Arijmo

Upojtoume oti P (m) alhjeei gia kje m n, dhlad en m n tte m 6 S . En

s S tte s > n, ra s n + 1. En n + 1 S tte n + 1 enai to elqisto stoiqeo
tou S . Ap thn upjesh qoume oti n + 1 6 S , kai sunepc P (n + 1) alhjeei. Ap thn
Isqur morf thc Arqc Epagwgc, P (n) alhjeei gia kje n N0 , ra S = . Aut
antifskei proc tic upojseic tou Jewrmatoc. Ara uprqei elqisto stoiqeo sto S .

Diaresh
En m, n N0 kai n 6= 0, den enai dunat na diairsoume to m me to n kai na proume na
fusik arijm. Aut sumbainei mnon en m enai pollaplsio tou n, dhlad en m = qn
gia kpoio q N0 . En den isqei aut, tte h diadikasa thc diareshc afnei uploipo.

Jerhma 6.16 (Algrijmoc diareshc) En m, n N0 kai n 6= 0, tte uprqoun

monadiko fusiko arijmo, q, r N0 , ttoioi ste m = qn + r kai r < n.

Apdeixh. Efarmzoume epagwgh sto m. 'Estw

S = {m N0 : m = qn + r me q, r N0 , r < n} .
Afo 0 = 0n + 0, isqei 0 S .
Upojtoume m S . Tte m = qn + r, me r < n, kai

m + 1 = qn + r + 1 .
Afo r < n, isqei r + 1 n. En r + 1 = n, tte

m + 1 = (q + 1)n + 0 ,
en en r + 1 < n, tte
me

m + 1 = qn + (r + 1)

r + 1 < n.

Se kje perptwsh, m + 1 S kai, epagwgik, S = N0 .

Gia na dexoume oti q kai r enai monadiko, upojtoume oti

m = qn + r = q 0 n + r0

me

r < n kai r0 < n .

Tte

qn m < (q + 1)n ,
qn0 m < (q 0 + 1)n .
Ap metabatikthta thc ditaxhc, qn < (q 0 + 1)n, ap thn Prtash 6.14, q < q 0 + 1 kai
sunepc ap thn Prtash 6.12 q q 0 . All isqei epshc q 0 n < (q + 1)n kai sunepc
q 0 q . 'Ara q = q 0 , kai ap thn Prtash 6.6, r = r0 .

98

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Paragontopohsh
Tra mporome na asqolhjome me thn paragontoposhsh se prtouc arijmoc, kai eidiktera na apodexoume th monadikthta. Sto uploipo auto tou Kefalaou, ja asqolhjome
mno me mh mhdenikoc fusikoc arijmoc, kai ja ergazmaste sto N = N0 \{0}. Arqzoume
me kpoiouc basikoc orismoc.
Lme oti k N enai pargontac diairthc tou m N, kai to sumbolzoume k|m,
en uprqei s N ttoioc ste m = ks. To 1 kai to m enai tetrimmna diairtec tou
m. Kje lloc diairthc onomzetai gnsioc diairthc. Onomzoume nan arijm m
prto en m > 1 kai o m den qei gnsiouc diairtec. (Enai pio bolik na mhn jewrome
ton 1 prto, pwc ja dome, gia pardeigma, sto jerhma Monadikc Paragontopohshc.)
Ekola blpoume oti nac diairthc k tou m prpei na ikanopoie 1 k m: en k > m,
tte, afo s 1, qoume ks > m. 'Ara nac gnsioc diairthc k ikanopoie 1 < k < m.

Prtash 6.17 Kje fusikc arijmc m > 1 enai ginmeno prtwn arijmn.
Apdeixh. 'Estw M to snolo twn fusikn arijmn oi opooi enai megalteroi ap

to 1 kai den enai ginmeno prtwn arijmn. En M 6= , ap thn Arq Elaqstou

uprqei elqisto stoiqeo m M . O m enai megalteroc ap to 1 kai den enai prtoc
(afo den enai ginmeno prtwn). Sunepc uprqoun fusiko arijmo r kai s ttoioi ste
1 < r < m, 1 < s < m kai m = rs. Afo m enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou M , oi r kai
s den ankoun sto M , kai sunepc enai ginmena prtwn arijmn. All tte m = rs
enai epshc ginmeno prtwn arijmn; topo. 'Ara M = , kai kje fusikc arijmc
megalteroc ap ton 1 enai ginmeno prtwn arijmn.

Jerhma 6.18 Uprqoun peiroi prtoi arijmo.

Apdeixh. Upojtoume oti to snolo twn prtwn arijmn enai peperasmno, stw

{p1 , p2 , . . . , pr }. O akraioc m = p1 p2 pr + 1 qei na prto diairth, smfwna me thn

Prtash 6.17, stw pi . Tte o pi diaire ton m kai ton m 1 = p1 p2 pr , sunepc o pi
diaire ton 1; topo.

En k enai diairthc do arijmn m, n N, onomzetai koinc diairthc. O 1 enai

pnta koinc diairthc. En den uprqei lloc, lme oti oi m kai n enai prtoi metax
touc. Ant na qarakthrsoume ton mgisto koin diairth wc ton megaltero ap touc
koinoc diairtec, protimome na ton orsoume me na pio qrsimo trpo. Lme oti h N
enai o mgistoc koinc diairthc twn m, n N, en h enai koinc diairthc twn m, n
kai qei thn idithta oti kje lloc diairthc twn m, n enai diairthc tou h. Sumbolzoume
ton mgisto koin diairth h = mkd (m, n).
O aplosteroc trpoc na dexoume oti do opoioidpote mh mhdeniko fusiko arijmo
qoun mgisto koin diairth, enai na ton upologsoume. Aut mpore na gnei me nan
algrijmo, ton Eukledio Algrijmo, o opooc baszetai stic do akloujec idithtec.
1. En r1 = qr2 , tte mkd (r1 , r2 ) = r2
2. En r1 = qr2 + r3 , me r3 6= 0, tte mkd (r1 , r2 ) = mkd (r2 , r3 ).

Keflaio 6

99

Oi Fusiko Arijmo

Oi idithtec apodeiknontai ekola, qrhsimopointac ton orism tou mgistou koino diairth. Eidiktera, h 2 isqei giat h isthta r1 = qr2 + r3 deqnei otinac koinc diairthc
twn r1 kai r2 , prpei na diairi ton r3 , en nac koinc diairthc twn r2 kai r3 prpei na
diaire ton r1 .

O Eukledioc Algrijmoc
Gia na brome ton mgisto koin diairth twn r1 kai r2 , qrhsimopoiome epaneilhmmna ton
algrijmo thc diareshc kai brskoume qi , ri ttoia ste

r1 = q1 r2 + r3
r2 = q2 r3 + r4
..
.
ri = qi ri+1 + ri+2

r3 < r2
r4 < r3
..
.
ri+2 < ri+1

Afo r2 > r3 > r4 > > ri , aut h diadikasa den mpore na suneqiste ep' ariston
giat, ap thn Arq Elaqstou, to snolo autn twn arijmn qei na elqisto stoiqeo.
En aut to elqisto stoiqeo enai rk 6= 0, tte ap ton algrijmo thc diareshc qoume
rk1 = qk1 rk + rk+1 , me rk+1 < rk , topo. 'Ara to elqsto stoiqeo rk = 0, kai rk1 enai
to mikrtero jetik uploipo pou prokptei ap aut th diadikasa. Jtoume h = rk1 kai
qrhsimopointac tic parapnw idithtec qoume

h =
=
=
=

mkd (rk2 , rk1 )

mkd (rk3 , rk2 )
...
mkd (r1 , r2 ).

Pardeigma 6.1 Upologzoume ton mgisto koin diairth twn arijmn 612 kai 221:
612
221
170
51

= 2 221 + 170
= 1 170 + 51
= 3 51 + 17
= 3 17

'Ara 17 = mkd (612, 221).

Prosxte oti aut h mjodoc brskei ton mkd qwrc na qreizetai paragontopohsh twn
arijmn se prtouc pargontec.

Pardeigma 6.2 Upologzoume to mgisto koin diairth twn n10 1 kai n6 1:

n10 1 = n4 (n6 1) + n4 1
n6 1 = n2 (n4 1) + n2 1
n4 1 = (n2 + 1)(n2 1)
'Ara

mkd (n10 1, n6 1) = mkd (n6 1, n4 1)

= mkd (n4 1, n2 1)
= n2 1 .

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Prtash 6.19 En h enai o mkd twn r1 , r2 N, kai n N, tte o mkd twn nr1 kai nr2
enai nh.

Apdeixh. En jewrsoume ta bmata tou Eukledeiou Algrijmou gia ton mkd (r1 , r2 ),
kai pollaplasisoume kje isthta me n, qoume

nr1
nr2
..
.

= q1 nr2 + nr3
= q2 nr3 + nr4
..
.

nrk2 =

nr3 < nr2

nr4 < nr3

qk2 nrk1

afo rk = 0. H monadikthta twn upolopwn ston algrijmo thc diareshc, sunepgetai

oti autc oi isthtec ddoun ton Eukledeio Algrijmo gia ton mkd (nr1 , nr2 ), kai oti
mkd (nr1 , nr2 ) = nrk1
= nmkd (r1 , r2 )

Aut h paratrhsh odhge sto epmeno shmantik apotlesma.

Lmma 6.20 En m, n N kai p enai prtoc arijmc pou diaire to ginmeno mn, tte
ete o p diaire ton m ete o p diaire ton n.

Apdeixh. Upojtoume oti o p den diaire ton m. Tte, afo o p enai prwtoc, oi mnoi

diairtec tou enai o 1 kai o p, kai o mkd (m, p) = 1. Ap thn Prtash 6.19 o mkd tou
mn kai tou pn enai o n. All o p diaire ton mn kai ton pn. Ap ton orism tou mkd ,
sumperanoume oti o p diaire ton n.

To akloujo prisma apodeiknetai me epagwg sto k 2.

Prisma 6.21 En o p enai prtoc arijmc pou diaire to ginmeno m1 m2 . . . mk , tte

o p diaire toulqiston na ap touc m1 , m2 , . . . mk .

To Lmma
6.20 qrhsimopoietai sthn apdeixh oti o arijmc 2 den enai rhtc.2 Prgmati, en 2 = p/q , pou p kai q enai fusiko arijmo, kai mkd (p, q) = 1, tte p = 2q 2 .
Tte o 2 diaire ton p2 , kai ap to Lmma 6.20, o 2 diaire ton p. All tte o 2 diaire to
q 2 kai sunepc o 2 diaire ton q . 'Atopo, afo upojsame oti mkd (p, q) = 1.
Klenoume aut to Keflaio me to Jerhma Monadikc Paragontopohshc, Jemelidec Jerhma Arijmhtikc: h paragontopohsh enc fusiko arijmo se ginmeno prtwn
enai monadik, ektc ap anaditaxh twn paragntwn.

Jerhma 6.22 ( Jerhma Monadikc Paragontopohshc) Upojtoume oti m

N, m 2 kai oti uprqoun prtoi arijmo p1 , p2 , . . . , pr kai q1 , q2 , . . . qs ttoio ste

m = p1 p2 pr = q1 q2 qs .

Tte r = s kai uprqei amfimonosmanth apeiknish : {1, . . . , r} {1, . . . , s} ttoia

ste p1 = q(i) gia kje i = 1, . . . , r

Keflaio 6

101

Oi Fusiko Arijmo

Apdeixh. 'Estw fusikc arijmc m 2, kai prtoi p1 , . . . , pr kai q1 , . . . , qs ttoioi

ste

m = p1 pr = q1 qs
Upojtoume oti r s, kai efarmzoume epagwg sto r. En r = 1, tte m = p1 =
q1 qs . Ap to Prisma 6.21, o p1 diaire kpoion ap touc q1 , . . . , qs , stw ton qi .
All o qi enai prtoc, kai sunepc p1 = qi . En s > 1, ap thn Prtash 6.6 qoume
1 = q1 qi1 qi+1 qs , topo afo oi prtoi arijmo qj > 1. Sumperanoume oti s = 1 kai
m = p1 = q1 .
En r > 1 kai m = p1 pr = q1 qs , o prtoc arijmc pr diaire ginmeno q1 qs ,
kai sunepc diaire kpoion ap touc q1 , . . . , qs , stw ton qi . All o qi enai prtoc, kai
sunepc pr = qi . Sumperanoume oti

p1 pr1 = q1 qi1 qi+1 qs .

Ap thn epagwgik upjesh, r 1 = s 1 kai uprqei amfimonosmanth : {1, . . . , r
1} {1, . . . , i 1, i + 1, . . . , s} ttoia ste pj = q(j) . 'Ara r = s, kai h zhtomenh
amfimonosmanth apeiknish enai

(j) en j = 1, . . . , r 1
(j) =
i
en j = r

102

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 6.1 Orste mn , gia m, n N0 , anadromik me
m0 = 1 , mn+1 = mn m.
Jewrntac gnwstc tic idithtec thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo, dexte, me katllhla epagwgik epiqeirmata, oti
a. mn+r = mn mr
b. mnr = (mn )r
g. (mn)r = mr nr

'Askhsh 6.2 'Estw R, R me + > 0. Apodexte oti gia kje n N0 :

n + n

+
2

n
.

'Askhsh 6.3 Orzoume anadromik to n! me 0! = 1 kai (n + 1)! = n! (n + 1).

a. Dexte me epagwg oti (n r)! r! diaire to n! gia la ta r me 0 r n.

n!
enai fusikc arijmc. Ton onmzoume diwnumik
(n r)! r!
n
suntelest kai ton sumbolzoume
. Dexte oti
r
n
=1
(i)
0
n
(ii)
=n
1
n n
(iii)
=
r
nr

b. Ap to a qoume oti

g. Dexte oti

n
r

n
r1

n+1
r

d. Dexte me epagwg oti oi diwnumiko suntelestc enai akribc oi suntelestc sto

anptugma tou diwnmou (a + b)n :

(a + b)n =

n
0

an +

n
1

an1 b + +

n
r

anr br + +

n
n

bn .

Sto Keflaio 7 ja dome ma llh ermhnea twn diwnumikwn suntelestn.

Keflaio 6

103

Oi Fusiko Arijmo

'Askhsh 6.4 Antistrfontac th diadikasa tou Eukledeiou Algrijmou, mporome na

brome akraiouc arijmoc a, b Z, ttoiouc ste

mkd (p, q) = ap + bq.

Qrhsimopoiste aut thn paratrhsh gia na gryete to 17 sth morf 612a + 221b, me
a, b Z.

'Askhsh 6.5 Dexte oti en p, q, r N, p|r, q|r kai mkd (p, q) = 1, tte pq|r.
'Askhsh 6.6 Upologste ton mgisto koin diairth twn arijmn 2244 kai 2145,
a. qrhsimopointac ton Eukledio Algrijmo.
b. paragontopointac touc do arijmoc se prtouc pargontec.

'Askhsh 6.7 Dexte oti en p, q kai n enai fusiko arijmo, pn |qn en kai mnon en p|q.
'Askhsh 6.8 Dexte oti en p enai prtoc arijmc kai p|qn , tte pn |qn .

104

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Parrthma
Jerhma (Jerhma Anadromc) En X enai na snolo, f : X X mia sunrthsh, kai c X , tte uprqei monadik sunrthsh : N0 X ttoia ste
a. (0) = c,
b. ((n)) = f ((n)) gia kje n N0 .

Apdeixh. Ap th skopi thc jewrac sunlwn mia sunrthsh : N0 X enai na

uposnolo N0 X me tic idithtec

i. Gia kje n N0 , uprqei x X ttoio ste (n, x) ,

ii. En (n, x) kai (n, y) , tte x = y .
Ara gia na orsoume th sunrthsh arke na prosdiorsoume to katllhlo uposnolo. Oi
idithtec thc sth diatpwsh tou Jewrmatoc shmanoun oti aut to uposnolo prpei
na ikanopoie
A. (0, c) ,
B. En (n, x) tte kai ((n), f (x)) .
Uprqoun poll uposnola me autc tic idithtec, pwc gia pardeigma lo to N0 X .
To zhtomeno enai h tom lwn autn twn uposunlwn, giat mnon aut ja ikanopoie tic
idithtec (i) kai (ii). Jewrome to snolo V lwn twn uposunlwn U N0 X gia ta
opoa isqoun
(0, c) U ,

(n, x) U ((n), f (x)) U .

T
'Eqoume V 6= , afo N0 X V . Jtoume = V . Tte ikanopoie tic (A') kai (B'),
enai mlista to mikrtero snolo pou tic ikanopoie. Apomnei na dexoume oti ikanopoie
tic (i) kai (ii).
Jtoume
S = {n N0 | (n, x) gia kpoio x X} .
Ap to (A'), 0 S kai ap to (B') n (n) S . Me epagwg qoume S = N0 , kai h (i)
ikanopoietai.
Gia na dexoume thn (ii), jtoume

T = {n N0 | (n, x) gia monadik x X} .

Gnwrzoume oti (0, c) . En (0, d) kai c 6= d, orzoume = \{(0, d)}. Tte
ikanopoie thn (A'). En (n, x) , tte ((n), f (x)) kai den enai so me (0, d)
efson (n) 6= 0. 'Ara ((n), f (x)) kai ikanopoie thn (B'). All to enai to
mikrtero snolo pou ikanopoie tic (A') kai (B'). Ara den uprqei ttoio d, kai 0 T .
Gia to epagwgik bma: en n T tte uprqei monadik x X ttoio ste (n, x) ,
ra, gia na dexoume oti (n) T prpei na dexoume oti den uprqei y 6= f (x) toio
ste ((n), y) . En uprqe ttoio zegoc, jewrste to = \{((n), y)}. Opwc

Keflaio 6

105

Oi Fusiko Arijmo

prohgoumnwc, efoson 0 6= (n), ikanopoie thn (A'). Gia na dexoume oti ikanopoie thn
(B') elgqoume oti

(m, z) ((m), f (z)) gia kje m N0 .

Gia m = n aut isqei, afo uprqei mnon na x X ttoio ste (n, x) , kai giut
to x, ((n), f (x)) ap to (B'), kai den enai ((n), y), afo y 6= f (x). Gia m 6= n,
qoume ((m), f (z)) , ap to (B'), kai (m) 6= (m). 'Ara ((m), f (x)) 6= ((n), y), kai
sunepc ((m), f (z)) . Kai stic do periptseic, ikanopoie th (B'), kai qoume
antfash, kajc enai elqisto. Epagwgik, T = N0 , pou oloklhrnei thn apdeixh.

Jerhma (Kannec thc arijmhtikc) Gia la ta m, n, p N0 , isqoun ta ak-

louja:

1. Prosetairistik idithta thc prsjeshc:

(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) ,
2. Metajetik idithta thc prsjeshc:

m + n = n + m,
3. Prosetairistik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo:

(mn)p = m(np) ,
4. Metajetik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo:

mn = nm ,
5. Epimeristik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo wc proc thn prsjesh:

m(n + p) = mn + mp .

Apdeixh. To (1) apodeiknetai me epagwg sto p, qrhsimopointac to snolo

S = {p N0 | (m + n) + p = m + (n + p)} .
Prton

(m + n) + 0 = m + n ap thn (pr1)
= m + (n + 0) ap thn (pr1),
ra 0 S .
Katpin, en p S , tte

(m + n) + p = m + (n + p) ,

(6.1)

106

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

ra

(m + n) + (p) =
=
=
=

((m + n) + p) ap thn (pr2)

(m + (n + p)) ap thn 6.1
m + (n + p) ap thn (pr2)
m + (n + (p) ap thn (pr2)

pou sunepgetai oti (p) S . Epagwgik, S = N0 .

To (2) apodeiknetai me epagwg sto n, qrhsimopointac to

S = {n N0 | m + n = n + m} .
To Lmma 6.4 (1) deqnei oti 0 S . En n S , tte

m+n=n+m

(6.2)

kai

m + (n) =
=
=
=
=
=

(m + n) ap thn (pr2)
(n + m) ap thn 6.2
n + (m) ap thn (pr2)
n + (1 + m) ap to Lmma 6.4(2)
(n + 1) + m ap to Jerhma 6.5(1)
(n) + m ,

kai sunepc (n) S . Epagwgik S = N0 .

Enai protimtero na apodexoume katpin to (5), qrhsimopointac epagwg sto p. Jtoume
S = {p N0 | m(n + p) = mn + mp} .
Tte

m(n + 0) = mn ap thn (pr1)

= mn + 0 ap thn (pr1)
= mn + m0 ap thn (pl1),
kai sunepc 0 S .
En p S , tte

m(n + p) = mn + mp
kai sunepc

m(n + (p)) =
=
=
=
=

m(n + p) ap thn (pr2)

m(n + p) + m ap thn (pl2)
(mn + mp) + m ap thn 6.3
mn + (mp + m) ap thn (1)
mn + m(p) ap thn (pl2),

(6.3)

Keflaio 6

107

Oi Fusiko Arijmo

ra (p) S kai epagwgik, S = N0 .

H apdeixh tou (3) enai tra sqetik ekolh kai moia me tic prohgomenec. Apomnei
na apodexoume to (4), pou enai kpwc pio polploko. Jtoume

S = {n N0 | mn = nm} .
Ap to Lmma 6.4(3), 0 S . En n S , tte
(6.4)

mn = nm
kai qoume

m(n) = mn + m ap thn (pl2)

= nm + m ap thn 6.4.
En gnwrzame oti aut enai so me (n)m ja eqame teleisei, all dustuqc aut den
to gnwrzoume akmh. Mporome mwc na to apodexoume, me mia deterh epagwg, sto m.
Jtoume
T = {m N0 | nm + m = (n)m} .
Tte 0 T , kai en m T tte
(6.5)

nm + m = (n)m
kai sunepc

n(m) + (m) =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

n(m + 1) + (m + 1)
(nm + n) + (m + 1) ap thn
nm + (n + (m + 1)) ap thn
nm + ((n + m) + 1) ap thn
nm + ((m + n) + 1) ap thn
nm + (m + (n + 1)) ap thn
(nm + m) + (n + 1) ap thn
(n)m + (n) ap thn 6.5
(n)(m) ap thn (pl2),

(5)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(1)

ra (m) T kai T = N0 . Epistrfontac sthn prohgomenh epagwg, qoume oti (n) S

kai S = N0 . Etsi oloklhrnetai h apdeixh tou (4).

Keflaio 7
Sunduastik
Aparjmhsh se peperasmna snola
Gia na aparijmsoume ta stoiqea enc sunlou, dhlad na metrsoume psa enai, ta
sugkrnoume me sugkekrimna uposnola twn fusikn arijmn. Prta orzoume aut ta
uposnola, gia kje k N0 :

N(0) =
N(k) = {n N | n k}, gia kje k N .

Lmma 7.1 Uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N(k) N(m) en kai mnon en

k = m.

Apdeixh. To apotlesma enai profanc alhjc en m = 0: tte N(m) = , kai h

monadik amfimonosmanth sunrthsh ap to ken snolo enai h ken sunrthsh .

Upojtoume oti to apotlesma isqei gia kpoio m N0 kai jewrome mia amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
: N(m + 1) N(k).
En k = 0, tte N(k) = , kai sunepc m + 1 = 0, pou antifskei proc to 1. 'Ara k 6= 0,
kai k = n + 1 gia kpoio n N0 . Tra kataskeuzoume mia amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
: N(m + 1) N(n + 1) gia thn opoa isqei (m + 1) = n + 1.
En gia th isqei oti (m + 1) = n + 1, jtoume = .
En qi, tte uprqei kpoio q n gia to opoo (q) = n + 1, kai orzoume th wc
exc:

(q) = (m + 1)
(m + 1) = n + 1
(r) = (r) gia r 6= q, r 6= m + 1.
Tra periorzoume thn sth sunrthsh

|N(m) : N(m) N(n).

Aut enai profanc amfimonosmanth, kai ap thn epagwgik upjesh, m = n. 'Ara
m + 1 = n + 1, kai me epagwg qoume to zhtomeno.

Orismc. Lme oti na snolo A qei k stoiqea, gia k N0 , en uprqei ma amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N(k) A. Ena snolo enai peperasmno en qei k
108

Keflaio 7

109

Sunduastik

stoiqea gia kpoio k N0 . Ton arijm twn stoiqewn enc peperasmnou sunlou A ton
sumbolzoume |A| card (A).
To Lmma 7.1 exasfalzei oti o arijmc twn stoiqewn enc peperasmnou sunlou
enai kal orismnoc: en uprqoun amfimonosmantec sunartseic f : N(k) A kai
g : N(m) A, tte h g 1 f : N(k) N(m) enai amfimonosmanth, kai ra k = m.

Pardeigma 7.1 To qei 0 stoiqea, || = 0. To {} qei na stoiqeo: uprqei

amfimonosmanth apeiknish ap to {} sto {1}, ra |{}| = 1.
O arijmc twn stoiqewn peperasmnwn sunlwn qei orismnec aplc idithtec.

|A B| |A| + |B|
|A B| min{|A|, |B|} .
H akribc sqsh anmesa stouc tssereic arijmoc ddetai sthn akloujh tautthta:

Prtash 7.2 En A kai B enai snola, tte

|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B| .
Den ja dsoume austhr apdeixh thc parapnw tautthtac. Parapmpoume sto digramma Venn, kai thn paratrhsh oti ta stoiqea sthn tom A B aparijmontai mia for
sto |A B|, en sto |A| + |B| aparijmontai do forc.

Prisma 7.3 En A B = tte |A B| = |A| + |B|.

Me lgh skyh epektenoume ton tpo gia thn nwsh trin sunlwn.

|A1 A2 A3 | = |A1 | + |A2 | + |A3 |

|A1 A2 | |A1 A3 | |A2 A3 |
+|A1 A2 A3 |

Pardeigma 7.2 Psoi arijmo ap to 1 wc to 100 diairontai me to 2, to 3 to 5?

50 arijmo diairontai me to 2, 33 diairontai me to 3 kai 20 diairontai me to 5. Oi arijmo

pou diairontai me to 2 kai to 3 enai auto pou diairontai me to 6 kai enai 16. Oi arijmo
pou diairontai me to 2 kai to 5 enai auto pou diairontai me to 10 kai enai 10. Oi arijmo
pou diairontai me to 3 kai to 5 enai auto pou diairontai me to 15 kai enai 6. Tloc
oi arijmo pou diairontai me to 2, to 3 kai to 5 enai ta pollaplsia tou 30 kai enai 3.
Antikajistntac ston tpo qoume:
50 + 33 + 20 16 10 6 + 3 = 74

Ara uprqoun 74 arijmo ap to 1 wc to 100 pou diairontai me to 2 to 3 to 5.

To epmeno Jerhma ddei to genik tpo gia ton arijm stoiqewn sthn nwsh r sunlwn. H diatpws tou apotele skhsh sth qrsh tou sumbolismo tou ajrosmatoc.

110

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Jerhma 7.4 (Arq Egkleismo kai Apokleismo) En A1 , A2 , . . . , Ar enai

peperasmna snola, tte

|A1 A2 Ar | =
r
r1 X
r
X
X
=
|Ai1 |
|Ai1 Ai2 | +
i1 =1

i1 =1 i2 =i1 +1

+(1)k+1

rk+j

rk+1
X rk+2
X

i1 =1 i2 =i1 +1
r+1

+(1)

ij =ij1 +1

r
X

|Ai1 Aik | +

ik =ik1 +1

|A1 A2 Ar |

To Jerhma apodeiknetai me qrsh thc Isqurc morfc thc Arqc Epagwgc sto r,
xekinntac ap r = 2. Gia na apofgoume ton polploko sumbolism, den ja apodexoume
to genik epagwgik bma, all ja upojsoume oti o tpoc isqei gia 2 kai 3, kai ja
apodexoume oti isqei gia 4.

|A1 A2 A3 A4 | =
= |(A1 A2 A3 ) A4 |
= |A1 A2 A3 | + |A4 | |(A1 A2 A3 ) A4 |

(7.1)

All

|(A1 A2 A3 ) A4 | =
= |(A1 A4 ) (A2 A4 ) (A3 A4 )|
= |A1 A4 | + |A2 A4 | + |A3 A4 |
|(A1 A4 ) (A2 A4 )| |(A1 A4 ) (A3 A4 )|
|(A2 A4 ) (A3 A4 )| + |(A1 A4 ) (A2 A4 ) (A3 A4 )|
= |A1 A4 | + |A2 A4 | + |A3 A4 |
|A1 A2 A4 | |A1 A3 A4 | |A2 A3 A4 |
+|A1 A2 A3 A4 |
Antikajistntac sthn 7.1 qoume to zhtomeno.

Jerhma 7.5 (Arq Ajrosmatoc) En A1 , A2 , . . . , Ar enai snola, ana do xna

metax touc, dhlad Ai Aj = en i 6= j , tte

|A1 A2 . . . Ar | = |A1 | + |A2 | + + |Ar | .

Jerhma 7.6 En A kai B enai peperasmna snola, tte A B enai peperasmno, kai
|A B| = |A| |B| .

Apdeixh. Estw |A| = k, |B| = r. En A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }, jtoume Ai = {ai }, gia

i = 1, 2, . . . , k . Tte A = A1 A2 Ak , kai AB = (A1 B)(A2 B) (Ak B).
Ta snola Ai B kai Aj B enai xna metax touc en i 6= j , afo (Ai B) (Aj B) =
(Ai Aj ) B = B = . Ara |A B| = |A1 B| + |A2 B| + + |Ak B|. All

Keflaio 7

111

Sunduastik

ta stoiqea tou Ai B enai zegh (ai , b), b B , kai uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
Ai B B , ra |Ai B| = |B| = r. Kajc uprqoun |A| = k roi sto jroisma,

|A B| =

k
X

r = k r = |A| |B| .

i=1

Jerhma 7.7 (Arq Ginomnou) En A1 , A2 , . . . , Ar enai peperasmna snola, tte

|A1 A2 Ar | = |A1 | |A2 | |Ar | .

Apdeixh. Me epagwg sto r, xekinntac ap r = 2. Jewrome r + 1 peperasmna

uposnola A1 , A2 , . . . , Ar+1 . Jtoume A = A1 A2 Ar kai B = Ar+1 . Tte

|A1 A2 Ar | = |A B| = |A| |B|, kai ap thn epagwgik upjesh aut enai so
me (|A1 | |A2 | |Ar |)|Ar+1 |.

Jerhma 7.8 En A enai peperasmno snolo,

|P(A)| = 2|A| .

Apdeixh. Me epagwg sto r = |A|. 'Otan r = 0, A = kai |P()| = |{}| = 1 = 20 .

En A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ar+1 }, jewrome ta snola

S1 = {X A | ar+1 6 X}
kai

S2 = {X A | ar+1 X} .
Tte P(A) = S1 S2 kai S1 S2 = . Jtoume B = A \ {ar+1 }. Tte S1 = P(B). Ap
to S2 orzoume amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : S2 S1 me f (X) = X \ {ar+1 }. Ara
|S1 | = |S2 |. Ap thn epagwgik upjesh, |S1 | = 2r , ra

|P(A)| = |S1 | + |S2 | = 2|S1 | = 2 2r = 2r+1 .

Sunduastik
Orismc. Perama sth sunduastik onomzoume ma fusik diadikasa pou qei na
peperasmno snolo ap dunat parathrsima apotelsmata.
Paradegmata ttoiwn diadikasin enai
1. Epilgoume k ap ta n stoiqea enc sunlou.
2. Topojetome k krmata se n kouti.

112

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

3. Katanmoume grafea stouc metaptuqiakoc foithtc tou Tmmatoc.

4. Rqnoume do zria kai katagrfoume to apotlesma.
5. Strboume na nmisma 20 forc kai katagrfoume ta apotelsmata.
6. Moirzoume ma trpoula se tssereic paktec.
Stqoc thc sunduastikc enai na aparijmsoume la ta dunat apotelsmata enc
peirmatoc, aut ap ta apotelsmata pou qoun kpoia sugkekrimna qarakthristik.
Ja diatupsoume tic do basikc arqc aparjmhshc gia thn perptwsh do peiramtwn.
Arq Ginomnou: En na perama qei k dunat apotelsmata kai na llo perama
qei r dunat apotelsmata, tte uprqoun kr dunat apotelsmata tan gnontai kai ta
do aut peirmata.
Arq Ajrosmatoc: En na perama qei k dunat apotelsmata kai na llo perama qei r dunat apotelsmata, tte uprqoun k + r dunat apotelsmata tan gnetai
akribc na ap ta do peirmata.
Gia pardeigma, en uprqoun 7 majmata pou didskontai to prw kai 5 majmata pou
didskontai to apgeuma, ja uprqoun 35 = 7 5 epilogc gia foithtc pou jloun na
grafton se na mjhma pou didsketai to prw kai se na mjhma pou didsketai to
apgeuma. En ja uprqoun 12 = 7 + 5 epilogc gia foithtc pou jloun na grafton se
na mjhma, ete to prw ete to apgeuma.
H anlush polln diaforetikn peiramtwn enai, ap majhmatik poyh, h dia. Gia
pardeigma, to na rxoume do zria enai ap majhmatik poyh to dio me to na topojetsoume do krmata se 6 kouti, arijmhmna ap to 1 wc to 6. Na stryoume na krma
20 forc enai ousiastik to dio me to na moirsoume 20 antikemena se do kouti.
Ja meletsoume analutik orismnec parallagc tou prtou problmatoc, tou peirmatoc epilogc: Epilgoume k ap ta n stoiqea enc sunlou.

Ditaxh kai epanlhyh

Sto perama epilogc k antikeimnwn ap ta n antikemena enc sunlou, uprqoun do
basiko pargontec pou kajorzoun tic dunatc parallagc.

En katagrfoume th seir me thn opoa epilgoume ta stoiqea qi

En epitrpetai na epilxoume to dio stoiqeo perissterec forc qi.
To basik perama pou ja ektelome enai to akloujo: Ma sakola periqei n mplec,
arijmhmnec 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. Ap autc epilgoume k mplec, me ton trpo pou perigrfetai
se kje perptwsh.
I. Sthn perptwsh pou mac endiafrei h seir me thn opoa gnetai h epilog twn k stoiqewn ap ta n stoiqea tou sunlou, kai epitrpetai na epilxoume to dio stoiqeo
perissterec forc, lme oti aparijmome diatxeic twn n stoiqewn an k
me epanlhyh.

Keflaio 7

113

Sunduastik

II. Sthn perptwsh pou mac endiafrei h seir me thn opoa gnetai h epilog twn k
stoiqewn ap ta n stoiqea tou sunlou, kai den epitrpetai na epilxoume to dio
stoiqeo perissterec forc, lme oti aparijmome diatxeic twn n stoiqewn
an k (qwrc epanlhyh). Se autn thn perptwsh qoume k n.
III. Sthn perptwsh pou den mac endiafrei h seir me thn opoa gnetai h epilog twn k
stoiqewn ap ta n stoiqea tou sunlou, kai den epitrpetai na epilxoume to dio
stoiqeo perissterec forc, lme oti aparijmome sunduasmoc twn n stoiqewn an k (qwrc epanlhyh). Se autn thn perptwsh qoume k n.

IV. Sthn perptwsh pou den mac endiafrei h seir me thn opoa gnetai h epilog twn k
stoiqewn ap ta n stoiqea tou sunlou, kai epitrpetai na epilxoume to dio stoiqeo perissterec forc, lme oti aparijmome sunduasmoc twn n stoiqewn
an k me epanlhyh.
Autc enai oi tssereic basikc parallagc tou peirmatoc epilogc pou ja meletsoume. Eidikterec parallagc ja dome se sugkekrimna paradegmata.

I. Diatxeic n stoqewn an k me epanlhyh.

Ap th sakola pou periqei n arijmhmnec mplec, epilgoume diadoqik k mplec, katagrfontac gi kje epilog ton arijm thc mplac kai epanatopojetntac th mpla sth
sakola prin thn epmenh epilog. Etsi katalgoume se ma diatetagmnh k -da arijmn
ap to 1 wc to n. Ap thn Arq Ginomnou, o arijmc twn dunatn apotelesmtwn enai to ginmeno twn arijmn dunatn apotelesmtwn gia kje epilog. Gia kje epilog
qoume n dunat apotelsmata, ra sunolik qoume nk diaforetik dunat apotelsmata.

Prtash 7.9 O arijmc twn diatxewn n stoiqewn an k enai nk .

Paradegmata

En rxoume na zri 5 forc, qoume 65 diaforetik dunat apotelsmata, en lambnetai upoyin h seir me thn opoa rqontai oi arijmo.
En stryoume na nmisma 20 forc, qoume 220 diaforetik dunat apotelsmata, en
lambnetai upoyin h seir me thn opoa emfanzontai korna grmmata.

II. Diatxeic n stoqewn an k qwrc epanlhyh, k n.

Epilgoume kje mpla ap th sakola pwc sthn perptwsh I, all met thn katagraf
den epistrfoume th mpla sth sakola. Se autn thn perptwsh prpei na isqei k n.
Gia na epilxoume thn prth mpla qoume n dunatthtec. Met thn epilog thc prthc
mplac, apomnoun n 1 mplec sth sakola. Poic enai autc exarttai ap thn prth
epilog, all o arijmc touc enai se kje perptwsh n 1. Ara gia thn epilog thc
deterhc mplac qoume n1 dunatthtec. Met thn epilog thc deterhc mplac uprqoun
n2 mplec sth sakola, ra gia thn epilog thc trthc mplac qoume n2 dunatthtec.
Ap thn Arq Ginomnou, gia thn epilog twn trin mpaln uprqoun

n(n 1)(n 2)

114

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

diaforetikc dunatthtec. Suneqzontac me autn ton trpo, qoume n 3 dunatthtec gia

thn epilog thc ttarthc mplac, k.o.k. katalgontac me n k + 1 dunatthtec gia thn
epilog thc teleutaac k -ostc mplac. Efarmzontac pli thn Arq Ginomnou, qoume
sunolik

n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1) =
n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)(n k) 1
=
(n k)(n k 1) 1
n!
=
(n k)!
dunatthtec na epilxoume k ap tic n mplec sth sakola. Autc o arijmc sumbolzetai
P (n, k).

Prtash 7.10 O arijmc twn diatxewn n stoiqewn an k qwrc epanlhyh enai

P (n, k) =

n!
.
(n k)!

Pardeigma 7.3 Me psouc trpouc mporon na klhrwjon 5 diaforetik dra se

100 laqnoc?
Efson ta dra enai diaforetik metax touc mporome na jewrsoume oti qoume mia
ditaxh, 1o dro, 2o dro, k.o.k. Ara to prblhma afor touc trpouc me touc opoouc
mporome na epilxoume mia diatetagmnh 5-ada, ap to snolo twn 100 laqnn, qwrc epanlhyh afo upojtoume oti nac laqnc pou klhrnetai den xanampanei sthn klhrwtda.
Ara o zhtomenoc arijmc enai P (100, 5) = 100!
= 9 034 502 400.
95!

Ma eidik upoperptwsh thc perptwshc II enai tan k = n. Tte lme oti qoume ma

metjesh twn n antikeimnwn.

II.a. Metajseic n diaforetikn antikeimnwn.

Epilgoume diadoqik lec tic mplec, qwrc epanatopojthsh. Ta dunat apotelsmata
enai lec oi metajseic tou sunlou {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}.

Prtash 7.11 O arijmc twn metajsewn n antikeimnwn enai n!.

III. Sunduasmo n stoiqewn an k, qwrc epanlhyh.

Se autn thn perptwsh den epanatopojetome tic mplec sth sakola, ote katagrfoume th seir me thn opoa tic epilgoume. Mporome na upojsoume oti parnoume k ap
tic n mplec se ma epilog, kai oti exetzoume ta uposnola megjouc k enc sunlou
megjouc n. Gia na aparijmsoume aut to snolo to sugkrnoume me to snolo twn
diatxewn n stoiqewn an k . Ap na uposnolo k stoiqewn mporome
na proume k!

diaforetikc diatxeic twn k stoiqewn. Ara, en sumbolsoume nk ton arijm twn diaforetikn uposunlwn me k stoiqea, kai P (n, k) ton arijm twn diatxewn n stoiqewn an
k , qoume:
n
= P (n, k) .
k!
k

Keflaio 7

115

Sunduastik

Antikajistntac P (n, k) =

n!
(nk)!

qoume

n
k

n!
.
k!(n k)!

Prtash 7.12 O arijmc twn sunduasmn n stoiqewn an k, qwrc epanlhyh, enai

n
k

n!
.
k!(n k)!

O arijmc nk onomzetai diwnumikc suntelestc, epeid emfanzetai wc o suntelestc tou rou ank bk sto anptugma tou diwnmou
(a + b)n .
n

P
Ap ton trpo pou upologsame ton arijm k enai faner oti nk=0 nk prpei na
enai so me ton arijm lwn twn uposunlwn enc sunlou me n stoiqea:
n
X
n
k=0

= 2n .

Eqoume dei sthn 'Askhsh 6.3 llec idithtec twn diwnumikn suntelestn:
n n
n n n + 1
=
,
+
=
.
k
nk
k1
k
k
Ta epiqeirmata pou qrhsimopoisame sthn perptwsh III epitrpoun na genikesoume
to apotlesma II.a.

III.a. Metajseic n antikeimnwn, pou diakrnontai kat omdec.

Upojtoume oti qoume n mplec, qrwmatismnec me r diaforetik qrmata: n1 mplec
qrmatoc 1, n2 mplec qrmatoc 2, . . . , nr mplec qrmatoc r, tsi ste

n = n1 + n2 + + nr .
Psec diaforetikc diatxeic twn n mpaln uprqoun en mporome na diakrnoume ta
diaforetik qrmata all qi tic diaforetikc mplec tou idou qrmatoc?

Pardeigma 7.4 En qoume mplec do diaforetikn qrwmtwn, me n1 = 2, n2 = 2,

tte oi diaforetikc diatxeic enai oi akloujec 6:

Gia na upologsoume ton arijm sth genik perptwsh, upojtoume oti oi mplec enai
lec diaforetikc: arijmome tic mplec tou qrmatoc 1 ap 1 wc n1 , tic mplec tou qrmatoc 2 ap 1 wc n2 k.o.k. Tte o arijmc twn diaforetikn diatxewn enai o arijmc twn
metajsewn n stoiqewn n!. Jloume na upologsoume psec ap autc tic n! diaforetikc

116

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

diatxeic den diakrnontai an agnosoume thn arjmhsh twn mpaln kje qrmatoc. Oi n1
mplec tou qrmatoc 1, mporon na anadiataqjon se n1 ! diaforetikoc trpouc, pou ja
ddoun to dio apotlesma tan agnosoume thn arjmhsh. Parmoia, oi n2 mplec qrmatoc 2, mporon na anadiataqjon se n2 ! diaforetikoc trpouc, k.o.k. En sumbolsoume
M (n1 , n2 , . . . , nr ) ton arijm twn metajsewn n antikeimnwn pou diakrnontai se r omdec
megjouc n1 , n2 , . . . , nr , n = n1 + n2 + . . . + nr , tte ap ta prohgomena qoume

n1 ! n2 ! . . . nr ! M (n1 , n2 , . . . , nr ) = n!

Prtash 7.13 O arijmc twn metajsewn n antikeimnwn pou diakrnontai se r omdec

megjouc n1 , n2 , . . . , nr , n = n1 + n2 + . . . + nr , enai

M (n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ) =

n!
n1 ! n2 ! . . . nr !

Pardeigma 7.5 Me psouc diaforetikoc trpouc mporon na diataqjon ta grmmata

thc lxhc

MISSISSIPPHS?
'Eqoume 5 diaforetik grmmata, M, I, S, P, H. Ta M, H emfanzontai ma for, to P
emfanzetai 2 forc, to I trec forc kai to S pnte forc. 'Ara n = 12, n1 = n2 =
1, n3 = 2, n4 = 3, n5 = 5. 'Eqoume M (1, 1, 2, 3, 5) diaforetikc diatxeic,

M (1, 1, 2, 3, 5) =

IV.

12!
= 332640.
2 3! 5!

Sunduasmo n stoiqewn an k, me epanlhyh.

Upojtoume oti qoume ma sakola me n mplec, arijmhmnec ap to 1 wc to n, kai na

pnaka me n stlec:
1 2
...
n
Epilgoume ma mpla ap th sakola kai shmeinoume na staur sth stlh pou antistoiqe ston arijm thc. Katpin epistrfoume th mpla sth sakola. Epanalambnoume
th diadikasa k forc (pou k mpore na enai megaltero ap to n). To apotlesma mpore
na enai nac pnakac san ton akloujo, pou n = 4 kai k = 5:

Se aut thn perptwsh epilxame 2 forc th mpla 1, 2 forc th mpla 3, kai ma for
th mpla 4, en den epilxame th mpla 2. Mporome na sumptxoume ton pnaka, qwrc na
qsoume thn plhrofora pou periqei, an gryoume ma seir ap stauroc kai grammc |:

|| |

Keflaio 7

117

Sunduastik

Blpoume oti uprqei ma amfimonosmanth sunrthsh ap touc sunduasmoc n stoiqewn

an k me epanlhyh, stic diatxeic k staurn kai n 1 grammn. Ap thn perptwsh III.a.
gnwrzoume oti o arijmc autn twn diatxewn enai

(n + k 1)!
n+k1
M (k, n 1) =
=
k! (n 1)!
k

Prtash 7.14 O arijmc

twnsunduasmn n stoiqewn an k me epanlhyh ddetai ap
to diwnumik suntelest

n+k1
k

Perama Katanomc
Exetzoume to perama topojthshc k kermtwn se n kouti. Den enai dskolo na antilhfjome oti uprqei ma antistoiqa anmesa se aut to perama kai to perama epilogc.
Upojtoume oti qoume n kouti, arijmhmna ap to 1 wc to n, kai k krmata, arijmhmna ap to 1 wc to k . Topojetome ta k krmata sta n kouti. Oi parallagc pou
sqetzontai me th ditaxh kai thn epanlhyh sto perama epilogc, sto perama katanomc
qoun na knoun me to en shmeinoume touc arijmoc twn kermtwn, kai en epitrpetai
na topojetsoume perisstera ap na krmata se kje kout.
H metfrash anmesa sta do peirmata enai apl:
EPILOGH

KATANOMH

mpla

kout

arijmc epilogc

arijmc krmatoc

j epilog enai mpla i

krma j topojetetai sto kout i

Oi tssereic basikc parallagc tou peirmatoc epilogc antistoiqon sta aklouja peirmata katanomc.
I. Kje kout mpore na periqei aperiristo arijm kermtwn, kai shmeinoume touc
arijmoc sta krmata.
II. Kanna kout den mpore na periqei perisstera ap na krma, kai shmeinoume touc
arijmoc sta krmata.
III. Kanna kout den mpore na periqei perisstera ap na krma, kai den shmeinoume
touc arijmoc sta krmata.

IV Kje kout mpore na periqei aperiristo arijm kermtwn, kai den shmeinoume
touc arijmoc sta krmata.
Se orismnec periptseic, oi epiplon sunjkec pou jloume na epibloume se na perama,
ekfrzontai pio fusiologik gia to perama katanomc par gia to perama epilogc.

Pardeigma 7.6 Me psouc trpouc mporome na qwrsoume 4 toma se do zegh?

To prblhma antistoiqe sto perama katanomc 4 kermtwn se do kouti, tsi ste na

topojethjon akribc do krmata se kje kout, kai lambnontac up yin touc arijmoc

118

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

sta krmata. Brskoume 3 dunatthtec:

1

Aut enai swst en den endiafrei h ditaxh twn do zeugn. En mwc endiafrei (gia
pardeigma, to prto zegoc qei to serbc se agna tnic) tte qoume llec trec dunatthtec, pou prokptoun ap metajseic twn zeugn:
3

Geniktera, exetzoume to prblhma katanomc k arijmhmnwn kermtwn, se n arijmhmna kouti,

tsi ste na topojethjon kj krmata sto kout j , k1 + k2 + . . . + kn = k .
'Eqoume kk1 trpouc na epilxoume ta k1 krmata pou ja topojethjon sto kout 1. Ka

1
tpin qoume kk
trpouc na epilxoume ta k2 krmata tou koutio 2, k.o.k. O arijmc
k2
twn trpwn na katanemoume ta krmata enai:

k
k k1
k k1 . . . kn1
=
k1
k2
kn
(k k1 )!
(k k1 k2 )!
k!
=
k1 !(k k1 )! k2 !(k k1 k2 )! k3 !(k k1 k2 k3 )!
(k k1 k2 . . . kn1 )!
...
kn ! 0!
k!
=
k1 ! k2 ! . . . kn !
= M (k1 , k2 , . . . , kn ) .

Keflaio 7

Sunduastik

119

Askseic
Upodexeic gia Askseic Sunduastikc
a. En den blpete pwc na proseggsete na prblhma, dokimste kpoia perptwsh
me sqetik mikroc arijmoc. Aut ja sac bohjsei na epishmnete ti prpei na
metrhje, kajc kai tuqn epanalyeic paraleyeic.
b. Spste to prblhma se mikrtera, en aut enai aplostera sto qeirism. Suqn bohj na stajeropoisete ma metablht kai katpin na metrsete tic moiec
periptseic.
g. Den enai pnta skpimo na epiqeirsete mia bma proc bma prosggish. Oi periplokc mpore na auxnoun aptoma.

'Askhsh 7.1 Jlete na agorsete gia dro na pokmiso / kai ma grabta.Uprqoun

tra diaforetik pokmisa kai do diaforetikc grabtec.

a. Psec dunatthtec qete na agorsete na pokmiso ma grabta?.

b. Psec dunatthtec qete na agorsete na pokmiso kai mia grabta?

'Askhsh 7.2 Psa diaforetik arqik mporete na gryete me 2 3 grmmata tou

ellhniko alfabtou?

'Askhsh 7.3 Me psouc diaforetikoc trpouc mporete na epilxete ma epitrop 3

atmwn ap 20 toma?
Me psouc trpouc mporete na epilxete predro, grammata kai tama ap 20 toma?

'Askhsh 7.4 En qete 2 krmata tou 1 eur, 2 eikoslepta kai 3 pentlepta, psa
diaforetik pos mporete na plhrsete, qwrc na qreiastete rsta?

'Askhsh 7.5 Me psouc trpouc mporete na dialxete 4 papotsia ap 5 diaforetik

zeugria?
Se psouc ap autoc qete toulqiston na zeugri?

'Askhsh 7.6 Me psouc trpouc mporete na moirsete 10 bibla se do stobec, tsi

ste kje stoba na qei toulqiston 1 biblo? Exetste tic tssereic diaforetikc
periptseic, anloga me to an ta bibla kai oi stobec jewrontai diaforetik qi.

'Askhsh 7.7 Me psouc diaforetikoc trpouc mporon na anakatwjon ta 52 qarti

thc trpoulac?
Se psouc ap autoc brskontai oi tssereic ssoi se diadoqikc jseic?
Se psouc ta 5 prta qarti qoun to dio qrma?
(Sthn trpoula uprqoun 4 diaforetik qrmata.)

'Askhsh 7.8 Me psouc trpouc mporome na topojetsoume n mplec se n kouti,

tsi ste na menei akribc na kout deio. Exetste do periptseic: en oi mplec enai
lec diec lec diaforetikc.

Keflaio 8
To peiro
Plhjiko arijmo
Ti enai to peiro? Ma pijan apnthsh pou ja dsei nac mh eidikc se aut to erthma
enai kti megaltero ap kje fusik arijm. Me ma austhr nnoia, aut enai swst.
'Enac ap touc jrimbouc thc jewrac sunlwn enai oti h nnoia tou aperou mpore na
lbei safc nhma. Brskoume oti den uprqei mno na, all poll, ma terstia ierarqa
ap peira. Mporome na apantsoume na erthma pwc psoi pollo rhto arijmo
uprqoun? me thn aprsmenh apnthsh tsoi soi enai oi fusiko arijmo. Ta pio
qrsima erwtmata enai auto tou tpou. Ant na rwtme psa stoiqea uprqoun se
na snolo, enai pol pio apotelesmatik na sugkrnoume do snola, kai na rwtme en
uprqei to dio pljoc stoiqewn sta do. Lme oti uprqei to dio pljoc stoiqewn
sta snola A kai B en uprqei ma amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : A B . Ant na
arqsoume me lh thn ierarqa twn aperwn, ac arqsoume me aut pou, pwc ja dome, enai
to mikrtero. Wc basik snolo gia sgkrish ja jewrsoume touc fusikoc arijmoc N.
Enai protimtero na qrhsimopoisoume to N ant gia to N0 , epeid h amfimonosmanth
sunrthsh f : N B bzei ta stoiqea tou B se ma akolouja: onomzoume f (1) to
prto stoiqeo tou B , f (2) to detero, klp. Me aut th diadikasa qoume na trpo
na aparijmsoume to B . Bebawc en aparijmome ta stoiqea qrhsimopointac aut thn
antistoiqa, f (1), f (2), . . ., den ftnoume pot sto tloc, all gnwrzoume oti gia kje
stoiqeo b B, b = f (n) gia kpoio n N, kai sunepc ja ftsoume kpoia stigm aut
to stoiqeo.
Upenjumzoume ap to Keflaio 7 oti orsame N(0) = kai gia kje n N, N(n) =
{m N | 1 m n}. Lme oti to snolo X enai peperasmno en uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N(n) X gia kpoio n N0 . Lme oti X enai arijmsimo
ete en to X enai peperasmno ete en uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N X .
En uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N(n) X , tte lme oti to X qei n stoiqea. Aut enai h sunhjismnh diadikasa aparjmhshc. En uprqei amfimonosmanth
sunrthsh f : N X , lme oti to X qei 0 stoiqea. To smbolo enai to prto
grmma tou ebrako alfabtou, kai onomzetai lef. 0 enai to prto pardeigma pou
sunantme mac nac nnoiac arijmo, pou qrhsimopoietai gia na ekfrsoume pso meglo
enai na peiro snolo. 'Otan lme oti na snolo X qei 0 stoiqea, shmanei apl oti
uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh metax tou N kai tou X , pou shmanei akribc oti to
X qei ton dio plhjik arijm ( to dio pljoc stoiqewn) me to N. Prin exetsoume
120

Keflaio 8

121

To peiro

plhjikoc arijmoc geniktera, ac dome pio prosektik thn nnoia thc arijmhsimthtac.

Pardeigma 8.1 N0 enai arijmsimo. Orzoume f : N N0 me f (n) = n 1. H f enai

amfimonosmanth sunrthsh. Aut enai h prth ekplhktik idithta auto tou trpou
aparjmhshc aperwn sunlwn. To N enai gnsio uposnolo tou N0 , ra diaisjhtik
ja prepe na qei ligtera stoiqea, mwc me thn nnoia thc parxhc amfimonosmanthc
sunrthshc, ta do snola qoun to dio pljoc stoiqewn.
Istorik, o Galilaoc dwse na pio entupwsiak pardeigma to 1638, tan epdeixe ma
antistoiqa metax twn fusikn arijmn kai twn tetragnwn fusikn arijmn:

Pardeigma 8.2 (Galilaoc). Uprqei antistoiqa metax twn fusikn arijmn kai
twn telewn tetragnwn:

1 2 3 4 ... n ...

1 4 9 16 . . . n2 . . .
Sth sgqronh sunolojewrhtik glssa, en S = {n2 N | n N}, h apeiknish f : N
S , pou f (n) = n2 , enai amfimonosmanth.
Gia perissterouc ap do ainec, aut h fainomenik antfash aptreye kje prospjeia na jewrhje to peiro me austhrthta. O Leibniz ftase sto shmeo na protenei
oti prpei na exetzoume mno peperasmna snola, diti h antfash prokptei ap thn
apeira twn fusikn arijmn. H apnthsh tou sto prblhma tan oti en jewrosame
mno peperasmna snola fusikn arijmn, ac pome touc arijmoc mqri to ekat, tte
den uprqei antistoiqa metax twn fusikn arijmn mqri to ekat kai twn telewn tetragnwn mqri to ekat. H eplush tou pardoxou ap ton Cantor sthn dekaeta tou 1870
tan pio dramatik. 'Edeixe oti en ermhnesoume to dio pljoc stoiqewn na shmanei
uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh metax do sunlwn, tte kje peiro snolo qei
to dio pljoc stoiqewn me na gnsio uposnol tou! Ed peiro ennoetai na snolo
B gia to opoo den uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N(n) B , gia opoiodpote
n N0 .

Prtash 8.1 (Cantor) En na snolo B enai peiro, tte uprqei na gnsio upos-

nolo A B, A 6= B , kai ma amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : B A.

Apdeixh. Prta epilgoume na peiro uposnolo X tou B , me ton akloujo trpo.

Afo den uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh metax N(0) kai B , to B den enai ken, kai
uprqei kpoio stoiqeo sto B , to opoo onomzoume x1 . Orzoume ma sunrthsh g : N
B wc exc: g(1) = x1 , kai en qoume epilxei ta diaforetik stoiqea x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
afo den uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh g : N(n) B , prpei na uprqei kpoio
llo stoiqeo tou B , to opoo onomzoume xn+1 , kai to opoo enai diaforetik ap ta
x1 , . . . , xn . Orzoume g(n + 1) = xn+1 . Jewrome to snolo

X = {xn B | n N}.
Tra jewrome to snolo A = B \ {x1 } kai orzoume f : B A me

f (xn ) = xn+1 gia xn X

kai

f (b) = b gia b 6 X.

122

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

H sunrthsh f enai amfimonosmanth.

Qrhsimopointac to pardeigma tou Galilaou, mporome na epilxoume kai na uposnolo C B , pou B \ C enai peiro, kai mwc uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
f : B C . Arke na epilxoume na snolo X pwc sthn apdeixh, na jewrsoume to
snolo
C = B \ {xn X | n den enai tleio tetrgwno}
kai na orsoume th sunrthsh f : B C me

f (xn ) = xn2 gia xn X

kai

f : (b) = b gia b 6 X.

Xekinntac me na peiro snolo B , mporome na afairsoume na (arijmsimo) peiro uposnolo, kai mwc na mac menei na uposnolo C to opoo qei to dio pljoc stoiqewn
me to B!
O Cantor luse to prblhma tou aperou eisgontac thn nnoia tou plhjiko arijmo. Proc stigmn, ja upojsoume oti gia kje snolo X uprqei ma nnoia, pou
onomzetai plhjikc arijmc me thn idithta oti en uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
f : X Y , tte to X kai to Y qoun ton dio plhjik arijm, kai en den uprqei ttoia
sunrthsh oi plhjiko arijmo touc enai diaforetiko. Gia peperasmna snola qoume
na katllhlo upoyfio gia plhjik arijm. En uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
f : N(n) X , mporome na pome oti o plhjikc arijmc tou X enai n. Parmoia,
en uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N X , lme oti o plhjikc arijmc tou X
enai 0 . Gia lla peira snola mpore na qreiastome na smbola gia touc plhjikoc
arijmoc touc. Genik, ja sumbolzoume to plhjik arijm ( plhjrijmo) tou X me |X|
card (X), kai en uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : X Y ja jewrome oti
|X| = |Y |. Se autn thn perptwsh |X| kai |Y | enai diaforetik smbola gia ton dio plhjik arijm. En uprqei ma eneikonik sunrthsh f : X Y tte ja lme oti |X| |Y |.
En |X| |Y | kai |X| 6= |Y |, lme oti |X| < |Y |. Genik, en X enai uposnolo tou Y , o
egkleismc i : X Y , i(x) = x, enai eneiknish, ra isqei

X Y |X| |Y |.
H Prtash 8.1 lei oti, gia kje peiro snolo B , uprqei gnsio uposnolo A ttoio
ste |A| = |B|. 'Ara, gia peira snola, X Y kai X 6= Y den sunepgontai oti X < Y .
To dlhmma pou tjhke ap to pardeigma tou Galilaou enai perisstero yuqologik
par majhmatik. Kajc epektenoume to ssthma twn fusikn arijmn kai thn aparjmhsh gia na sumperilboume peirouc plhjikoc arijmoc, to megaltero ssthma mpore na
mhn qei lec tic idithtec tou mikrterou. H oikeithta me to mikrtero ssthma mac odhge na anamnoume orismnec idithtec, kai sugquzmaste tan ta kommtia den tairizoun
pwc ta perimname. Parmoia anasfleia prokuye tan to tetrgwno enc migadiko arijmo parabase ton kanna twn pragmatikn arijmn oti to tetrgwno kje arijmo enai
jetik. Aut xepersthke tan antilhfjkame oti oi migadiko arijmo den epidqontai ma
ditaxh, pwc gnetai gia to uposnolo twn pragmatikn arijmn. Anloga, h fainomenik

Keflaio 8

123

To peiro

antfash tou Galilaou epiletai tan antilhfjome oti en ennosoume ton dio plhjik
arijm wc ma amfimonosmanth antistoiqa metax sunlwn, to gnsio uposnolo A tou
B den apokleetai na qei ton dio peiro plhjik arijm me to B .
Ac exetsoume tra thn nnoia thc arijmhsimthtac. Arqik, gia kje peiro snolo
B mporome, pwc sthn apdeixh thc Prtashc 8.1 na epilxoume na peiro arijmsimo
snolo X B . Aut shmanei oti 0 = |X| |B|, kai sunepc 0 enai o mikrteroc
peiroc plhjikc arijmc. Prokale kplhxh psa ap ta gnwst mac snola, pou fanetai
na enai pol megaltera ap to N, qoun ton dio plhjik arijm 0 .

Pardeigma 8.3 To snolo twn akerawn enai arijmsimo.

Orzoume f : N Z me

f (n) =

k
en n = 2k
1 k en n = 2k 1

kai qoume thn antistoiqa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...

0 1 1 2 2 3 3 . . .
Prosxte oti an kai f enai amfimonosmanth sunrthsh, den diathre th ditaxh: m < n
den sunepgetai oti f (m) < f (n), gia pardeigma f (2) > f (3). 'Otan orzoume amfimonosmantec antistoiqec metax sunlwn me ditaxh, mpore na qreiaste na anakatyoume
pol ta prgmata, pwc deqnei to epmeno pardeigma.

Pardeigma 8.4 To snolo twn rhtn arijmn enai arijmsimo. Ja to dexoume aut
se bmata, arqzontac ap touc jetikoc rhtoc. 'Enac trpoc na aparijmsoume touc
rhtoc enai na gryoume la ta klsmata se na pnaka

1/1
2/1
3/1
4/1
..
.

1/2
2/2
3/2
4/2
..
.

1/3
2/3
3/3
4/3
..
.

1/4
2/4
3/4
4/4
..
.

...
...
...
...

kai na ta diabzoume kat mkoc qiast diagwnwn, 1/1, katpin 1/2, 2/1, katpin 1/3, 2/2,
3/1, k.o.k. Me aut ton trpo parnoume mia akolouja 1/1, 1/2, 2/1, 1/3, 2/2, 3/1, . . .
sthn opoa periqontai loi oi rhto, all uprqoun epanalyeic, epeid 1/1 = 2/2, kai
pio pra ja qoume 3/3, 4/4 klp. Parmoia 1/2 = 2/4 = 3/6 klp. Jewrome kje
stoiqeo sthn akolouja, kai to diagrfoume en qei dh emfaniste. To arqik kommti
thc akoloujac pou apomnei enai

1/1, 1/2, 2/1, 1/3, 3/1, . . .

Onomzoume to n-ost arijm sthn enapomenasa akolouja an , kai orzoume th sunrthsh
f ap touc fusikoc stouc jetikoc rhtoc me f (n) = an . All kje rhtc arijmc enai
ete jetikc mhdn arnhtikc, kai sunepc h akolouja

0, a1 , a1 , a2 , a2 , . . . , an , an , . . .

124

Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

periqei kje rht arijm akribc ma for. H sunrthsh g : N Q pou orzetai wc

g(k) =

0 en k = 1
an en k = 2n

an en k = 2n + 1

enai h zhtomenh amfimonosmanth sunrthsh. Axzei na epishmnoume oti, an kai den

qoume dsei na tpo gia th sunrthsh g(n), qoume ma sugkekrimnh diadikasa gia ton
upologism thc. Oi prtoi roi enai:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 . . .

0 1 1 12 21 2 2 13 31 3 3 14 . . .
kai ja mporosame na suneqsoume so jloume.
Se pio proqwrhmna majmata Jewrac Sunlwn ja dome na pol isqurtero apotlesma (to jerhma SchroederBernstein) pou mac epitrpei na dexoume oti do snola
qoun ton dio plhjik arijm qwrc na qreiaste na kataskeusoume ma sugkekrimnh
amfimonosmanth apeiknish.
O lgoc gia ton opoo orsame ton ro arijmsimo na perilambnei tso ta peperasmna
so kai ta arijmsima peira snola fanetai sto epmeno apotlesma.

Prtash 8.2 'Ena uposnolo arijmsimou sunlou enai arijmsimo.

Apdeixh. En qoume ma amfimonosmanth sunrthsh f : N A, kai B A, tte
ete to B enai peperasmno, ete mporome na orsoume ma sunrthsh g : N B me

g(1) = f (m) pou m enai to elqisto m N gia to opoo f (m) B .

En qoume orsei ta g(1), g(2), . . . , g(n), tte g(n) = f (m) pou m enai to elqisto m N gia to opoo f (m) B \ {g(1), . . . , g(n)}.

Ma axioshmewth idithta twn arijmsimwn sunlwn enai oti mporome na kataskeusoume

ap aut snola pou fanetai na enai pol megaltera, ta opoa mwc enai pli arijmsima.

Prtash 8.3 H nwsh mac arijmsimhc oikogneiac arijmsimwn sunlwn enai arijmsimo snolo.

Apdeixh. En qoume mia arijmsimh sullog sunlwn, mporome na jewrsoume to N

wc to snolo deiktn, kai na gryoume ta snola An , n N. (En h sullog perilambnei

mno peperasmno pljoc sunlwn A1 , . . . , Ak , jtoume An = gia n > k .) Afo kje
An enai arijmsimo, mporome na gryoume ta stoiqea tou An se ma gramm,

an1 , an2 , . . . , anm , . . .

Keflaio 8

125

To peiro

h opoa ja teleinei en to An enai peperasmno, en ja enai ma peirh akolouja

en to
S
An enai peiro arijmsimo. Tra katagrfoume ta stoiqea thc nwshc nN An se na
pnaka,
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 . . .
a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 . . .
a31 a32 a33
a41 a42 a43 a44 a45 . . .
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
kai ta diabzoume kata mkoc twn qiast diagwnwn, pwc kname gia na aparijmsoume
touc rhtoc arijmoc: a11 , a12 , a21 , a13 , a22 , a31 , a14 , . . . . Mpore na uprqoun ken ston
pnaka, en kpoia ap ta snola enai peperasmna (pwc to A3 sto pardeigma), en
to pljoc twn sunlwn enai peperasmno. Mpore na uprqoun epanalyeic en kpoia
snola qoun koin stoiqea, tsi ste na stoiqeo sth gramm n na epanalambnetai
sth gramm m. Aplc prospernme ta ken, kai ta stoiqea pou qoun dh emfaniste.
Aut h diadikasa ddei ete ma peperasmnh
akolouja, ete ma peirh akolouja qwrc
S
epanalyeic, kai deqnei oti h nwsh nN An enai arijmsimo snolo.

Prtash 8.4 To kartesian ginmeno do arijmsimwn sunlwn enai arijmsimo snolo.

Apdeixh. En A kai B enai arijmsima, grfoume ta stoiqea tou A wc ma akolouja

a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . (h opoa ja teleinei en A enai peperasmno). Parmoia grfoume ta
stoiqea tou B wc b1 , b2 , . . . , bm , . . . Tra grfoume ta stoiqea tou kartesiano ginomnou A B se na orjognio pnaka,
(a1 , b1 ) (a1 , b2 ) (a1 , b3 )
(a2 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 ) (a2 , b3 )
(a3 , b1 ) (a3 , b2 ) (a3 , b3 )
..
..
..
.
.
.

...
...
...

kai ta diabzoume kata mkoc twn qiast diagwnwn. En na ap ta A B enai peperasmno, ja uprqoun ken, ta opoa paralepoume. En kai ta do enai peperasmna, to
ginmeno A B enai peperasmno. En kai ta do enai peira , mporome na gryoume analutik ton tpo thc amfimonosmanthc sunrthshc f : N A B . Uprqei na stoiqeo
sthn prth qiast diagnio, do sth deterh, kai genik n sth n-ost. 'Ara uprqoun
1 + 2 + . . . + n = 12 n(n + 1) stoiqea stic n prtec qiast diagniouc. To r-ost stoiqeo sthn epmenh qiast diagnio enai to (ar , bn+2r ), ra h amfimonosmanth sunrthsh
f : N A B enai

1
n(n + 1) + r gia 1 r n + 1 .
2
Wc efarmog thc Prtashc 8.4 qoume to akloujo apotlesma.
f (m) = (ar , bn+2r ) pou m =

Pardeigma 8.5 To snolo twn shmewn tou epipdou me rhtc suntetagmnec enai
arijmsimo.

Se aut to shmeo, dikaiologhmna, ja mporose kanec na upojsei oti kje peiro snolo enai arijmsimo, all aut den isqei, pwc ja dome exetzontac touc pragmatikoc
arijmoc.

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Jerhma 8.5 To snolo R twn pragmatikn arijmn den enai arijmsimo.

Apdeixh. Aut to apodeiknoume me apagwg se topo, deqnontac oti kama sunrthsh

f : N R den mpore na enai ep, kai ra den uprqei amfimonosmanth sunrthsh

f : N R. En f : N R enai ma sunrthsh, grfoume kje arijm f (m) R se
dekadik parstash
f (m) = am , am1 am2 am3 . . . amn . . .
pou am enai akraioc, kai gia kje n, amn
enai to n-ost dekadik yhfo tou f (m),
0 amn 9. Gia pardeigma, en f (m) = 2 = 1, 41421356... qoume am = 1, am1 = 4,
am2 = 1, am3 = 4, am4 = 2, . . .
En f (m) enai dekadik klsma, pwc o 125
= 1, 25, sumplhrnoume thn dekadik
100
parstash me mhdenik, 1,250000. . . 'Etsi qoume ma akolouja

f (1) = a1 , a11 a12 a13 . . .

f (2) = a2 , a21 a22 a23 . . .
f (3) = a3 , a31 a32 a33 . . .
..
..
.
.
f (n) = an , an1 an2 an3 . . .
..
..
.
.
Ja dexoume oti h sunrthsh f den enai ep, grfontac th dekadik parstash enc arijmo
pou enai diaforetikc ap la ta f (n). 'Estw o arijmc = 0, b1 b2 . . . bn . . . pou

1 en ann = 0
bn =
0 en ann 6= 0
Tte o enai diaforetikc ap ton f (n), giat diafrei sto n-ost dekadik yhfo,
bn 6= ann .
Aut to epiqerhma onomzetai diagnio epiqerhma tou Cantor kai deqnei oti
|N| 6= |R|. Afo N R, kai ra |N| |R|, sumperanoume oti o plhjikc arijmc tou
sunlou twn pragmatikn arijmn enai gnsia megalteroc ap ton plhjik arijm twn
fusikn arijmn, |R| > |N|. Sumbolzoume ton plhjik arijm tou R me c. 'Eqoume dexei
oti
c > 0 .

Ma parallag tou diagwnou epiqeirmatoc mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia na dexoume

oti gia kje plhjik arijm mporome na brome nan megaltero. Apl deqnoume oti gia
kje snolo A to dunamosnolo P(A) qei gnsia megaltero plhjik arijm.

Prtash 8.6 Gia kje snolo A, |P(A)| > |A|.

Apdeixh. Profanc h sunrthsh g : A P(A) h opoa apeikonzei to stoiqeo a A

sto monosnolo {a}, g(a) = {a}, enai na proc na, kai sunepc |A| |P(A)|. Prpei
na dexoume oti |A| 6= |P(A)|. Ja dexoume oti kama sunrthsh f : A P(A) den enai
ep. En qoume ma ttoia sunrthsh, f (a) P(A) gia kje a A, ra f (a) enai na
uposnolo tou A. 'Ara gia kje a A mporome na jsoume to erthma ankei to a sto

Keflaio 8

127

To peiro

uposnolo f (a)?. H apnthsh enai pnta ete nai ete qi. Epilgoume ta stoiqea A
gia ta opoa h apnthsh enai qi, kai orzoume to snolo

B = {a A | a 6 f (a)} .
Tra isqurizmaste oti to uposnolo B A den ankei sthn eikna thc f . Prgmati,
en B ankei sthn eikna thc f , dhlad en B = f (b) gia kpoio b A, odhgomaste se
antfash:
en b B tte, ap ton orism tou B , b 6 f (b) = B
en b 6 B tte, ap ton orism tou B , b f (b) = B
Sumperanoume oti to B P(A) den ankei sthn eikna thc f , kai ra h f : A P(A)
den enai ep. Sunepc h f den mpore na enai amfimonosmanth.

H Prtash 8.6 deqnei oti uprqei ma ierarqa ap peira. Xekinme me to 0 = |N|. To

|P(N)| enai gnsia megaltero, to |P(P(N))| enai pli megaltero, k.o.k.

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

Askseic
'Askhsh 8.1 Jewrste to snolo X twn shmewn (x, y, z) R3 gia ta opoa x, y, z
Q. Enai to X arijmsimo?

'Askhsh 8.2 Jewrste to snolo S twn sfairn sto R3 twn opown ta kntra qoun

rhtc suntetagmnec, kai twn opown h aktna enai rhtc arijmc. Dexte oti to S enai
arijmsimo.

'Askhsh 8.3 Poi ap ta aklouja snola enai arijmsima? (Dste apdeixh se kje
perptwsh).

a. {n N | n enai prtoc}
b. {r Q | r > 0}
g. {x R | 1 < x < 101000000 }
d. C
e. {x R | x2 = 2a 3b gia kpoia a, b N}

'Askhsh 8.4 Apodexte oti h J : N0 N0 N0 me

J(n, m) = 2n (2m + 1) 1
enai 1 1 kai ep tou N0 .

'Askhsh 8.5 Apodexte oti kje snolo xnwn diasthmtwn sto R enai arijmsimo.
Qrhsimopoiste to parapnw gia na apodexete oti to snolo shmewn asunqeiac miac
axousac f : R R enai arijmsimo.
Upd. An f : R R enai axousa, tte gia kje a R uprqoun ta pleurik ria
thc f sto a kai
lim f (x) lim+ f (x)
xa

xa

'Askhsh 8.6 Apodexte oti kje snolo diasthmtwn me rht kra sto R enai arijmsimo. Qrhsimopoiste to parapnw gia na apodexete oti to snolo twn topikn megstwn
(elaqstwn) miac suneqoc f : R R enai arijmsimo.

'Askhsh 8.7 'Estw A snolo. Gia kje Y A h qarakthristik sunrthsh

tou Y orzetai wc exc

Y (t) =

1
0

an t Y
an t
6 Y

Apodexte oti h sunrthsh F : P(A) {0, 1}A me F (Y ) = Y enai amfimonosmanth.

Eplogoc
Jemelwsh thc jewrac sunlwn
Mqri aut to shmeo epikentrsame tic prospjeiec mac na brome ma tupik dom gia thn
arijmhtik, sth bsh thc jewrac sunlwn. All den qoume anaferje sthn axiwmatik
jemelwsh thc diac thc jewrac sunlwn. Se teleutaa anlush, den apotele meglh
prodo na bassoume mia tupik jewra twn arijmn se ma tuph, epoptik kai afel
jewra sunlwn. Ja mporosame na kratsoume thn tuph, epoptik kai afel jewra
twn arijmn!
Ap thn epoq tou Cantor kai tou Dedekind, pou eisgagan thn epoptik jewra aunlwn, qoun doje difora axiwmatik sustmata gia th jewra sunlwn, pou apofegoun
ta pardoxa pou sunantsame, pwc aut tou Russell. Ta pio gnwst enai aut twn
ZermeloFraenkel kai twn von NeumannBernaysGoedel. H basik mjodoc pou qrhsimopoion gia na apofgoun ta pardoxa enai na periorsoun thn nnoia tou sunlou,
ste na mhn perilmbnei opoiadpote sullog se na lon kajorismnwn antikeimnwn
thc skyhc thc epopteac mac pou enai entelc diakrit metax touc pwc thn eqe
perigryei o Cantor. Gnetai h dikrish metax txewn (classes) kai sunlwn mpanoun
periorismo sta snola. Autc oi axiwmatikc jewrec, maz me to axwma parxhc twn
fusikn arijmn, eparkon gia na anaptxoun th jewra twn arijmn, fusikn, rhtn,
pragmatikn, migadikn.
Uprqoun mwc do aximata pou qoun ma idiaterh jsh, kai qoun apasqolsei
arket touc majhmatikoc.

To axwma epilogc
Sthn Prtash 8.1, qrhsimopoisame na epiqerhma sto opoo epilgoume na stoiqeo x1
ap na snolo B , katpin na x2 ap to B \ {x1 }, . . . , kai genik na stoiqeo xn+1 ap
to snolo B \ {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Par lo pou aut moizei me thn anadromik diadikasa
orismo, den kalptetai ap to jerhma 6.3, giat to xn+1 epilgetai me aujareto trpo,
kai qi msw mac prokajorismnhc sunrthshc. H mjodoc mac apaite na knoume peiro
pljoc aujaretwn epilogn. Mpore na apodeiqje (an kai den enai ekolo!) oti ta
uploipa aximata thc jewrac sunlwn den eparkon gi aut. Apaitetai na ep plon
axwma, to Axwma Epilogc (Axiom of Choice).
H jsh auto tou aximatoc enai diaisjhtik dskolo na gnei antilhpt, all qei
plon gnei kal katanoht. Ote h upjesh thc aljeiac auto tou aximatoc, ote
h rnhsh tou, antifskoun me ta uploipa aximata thc jewrac sunlwn (pwc ote h
apodoq tou aitmatoc twn parllhlwn tou Eukledh, ote h rnhsh tou antifskei me
ta uploipa aximata thc Gewmetrac). En to apodeqjome qoume ma pio kal jewra
129

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Jemlia twn Majhmatikn

plhjikn arijmn: gia kje do snola X, Y isqei (toulqiston) na ap ta |X| |Y |,

|Y | |X|.
Parmoia jsh katqei na llo axwma. H Upjesh tou Suneqoc lei oti den uprqei
peiroc plhjikc arijmc metax tou 0 kai tou c, dhlad oti den uprqei snolo X gia
to opoo na isqei
|N| < |X| < |R|.
Ote h apodoq ote h rnhsh thc Upjeshc tou Suneqoc antifskoun prc ta uploipa
aximata, proc to Axwma Epilogc.

Sunpeia
Paramnei akma to erthma: qontac bre to snolo twn axiwmtwn thc jewrac sunlwn, pc gnwrzoume oti den emfanzontai pardoxa? Mqri tra ta qoume apofgei (afo
kanec den qei bre kpoio) all pwc mporome na emaste sgouroi oti den uprqoun krummnec antifseic? Tra qoume ma saf, telik apnthsh se aut to erthma. Dustuqc
aut enai h exc: den mporome pot na emaste sgouroi.
Gia na exhgsoume aut, prpei na pme psw ston Hilbert. Ac onomsoume na ssthma axiwmtwn sunepc (consistent) en den odhge se antifseic. O Hilbert jele na
apodexei oti ta aximata thc jewrac sunlwn enai sunep.
Gia merik sustmata axiwmtwn aut enai ekolo. En mporome na brome na montlo
gia ta aximata, dhlad ma dom h opoa ta ikanopoie, tte prpei na enai sunep (alloic
den ja uprqe to montlo). To prblhma enai t ulik mporome na qrhsimopoisoume
gia thn kataskeu tou montlou? Enai genik apodekt oti na peperasmno montlo
enai ikanopoihtik, afo kje isqurismc gi' aut mpore na elegqje, kat' arqn, se
peperasmno qrno. All na ssthma pou periqei touc fusikoc arijmoc den enai
peperasmno.
H ida tou Hilbert tan na qrhsimopoisei kti ligtero perioristik, pou onmase
diadikasa apfashc. Se sgqronh glssa, na peperasmno prgramma upologist, sto
opoo tan doje opoiadpote prtash sth jewra sunlwn, ektele ma diadikasa kai
apofanetai en h prtash enai alhjc qi. En mporsoume na kataskeusoume na
ttoio prgramma kai na apodexoume oti douleei pnta, tte arke na tou dsoume thn
prtash
0 6= 0.
En apantsei alhjc tte ta aximata thc jewrac sunlwn den enai sunep. Gia kpoio disthma faintan oti h ida tou Hilbert mporose na doulyei. All ta jewrmata
tou Goedel apdeixan to antjeto. O Goedel apdeixe oti uprqoun sth jewra sunlwn protseic oi opoec enai alhjec, all gia tic opoec den uprqei apdeixh (Jerhma
mh Plhrthtac) kai oti en h jewra sunlwn enai sunepc, tte den uprqei diadikasa
apfashc pou na to exakribnei (Jerhma mh Apokrisimthtac).
Ta apotelsmata tou Goedel dilusan tic elpdec tou progrmmatoc tou Hilbert. Shmanoun oti uprqoun kpoioi mfutoi periorismo sthn dia thn axiwmatik mjodo. Den
deqnoun oti aut enai peritt. Antijtwc, apotele na ikanopoihtik plasio gia la ta
sgqrona majhmatik, kai mpneush gia thn anptuxh nwn iden. All me ta apotelsmata
tou Goedel mporome na apofgoume thn autapth oti la enai tleia, kai na antilhfjome
touc periorismoc thc axiwmatikc mejdou, maz me tic dunatthtec pou prosfrei.