Chapter 1

ADOLESCENT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Jamie Stang and Mary Story
Biological, psychosocial and cognitive changes that begin during puberty and continue throughout
adolescence directly affect nutritional status and nutrient needs. Adolescents experience dramatic
physical growth and development during puberty, which in turn appreciably increases their
requirements for energy, protein, and many vitamins and minerals. Adolescents also experience
significant changes in their ability to assess and comprehend complex situations and information
and in their desire to become independent, unique individuals. The increased need for energy and
nutrients among adolescents, combined with increasing financial independence, increasing need for
autonomy when making food choices, and immature cognitive abilities, places adolescents at
nutritional risk. Therefore, it is vital that health care providers who provide nutrition education and
counseling have a thorough understanding of adolescent physical and psychosocial growth and
development.
NORMAL PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The beginning of biological growth and development during adolescence is signified by the onset of
puberty, which is often defined as the physical transformation of a child into an adult. A myriad of
biological changes occur during puberty including sexual maturation, increases in height and
weight, completion of skeletal growth accompanied by a marked increase in skeletal mass, and
changes in body composition. The succession of these events during puberty is consistent among
adolescents, however, there may be a great deal of deviation in the age of onset, duration, and
tempo of these events between and within individuals. For this reason, adolescents of the same
chronological age can vary greatly in physical appearance. This has direct relevance for the
nutrition requirements of adolescents. A 13-year-old male who has nearly completed the linear
growth spurt associated with puberty and has experienced significant muscular development will
have remarkably different energy and nutrient needs than those of a 13-year-old male who has not
yet experienced puberty. Consequently, sexual maturation should be used to assess the extent of
biological growth and development and the individual nutritional needs of adolescents in place of
chronological age.
Sexual Maturation Rating (SMR), also known as Tanner Staging, is based upon a scale of secondary
sexual characteristics that permits health professionals to gauge the degree of pubertal maturation
that has occurred among adolescents, regardless of chronological age (Table 1). SMR is based on
the appearance of pubic hair, the development of breasts, and the occurrence of menarche among
females; and on the degree of testicular and penile development and the appearance of pubic hair
among males. SMR stage 1 corresponds with prepubertal growth and development, while stages 2-5
indicate the progression of puberty. By SMR stage 5, sexual maturation has been completed. Sexual
maturation correlates remarkably well with linear growth, changes in weight and body composition,
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and hormonal changes.
Stang J, Story M (eds) Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services (2005)
http://www.epi.umn.edu/let/pubs/adol_book.shtm

GUIDELINES FOR ADOLESCENT NUTRITION SERVICES

TABLE 1
Sexual Maturity Rating

GIRLS
Breast Development

Stage

Pubic Hair Growth

Prepubertal; nipple elevation only

Prepubertal; no pubic hair

Small, raised breast bud

Sparse growth of hair along labia

General enlargement of raising of breast and

areola

Pigmentation, coarsening and

curling, with an increase in amount

Further enlargement with projection of areola and

nipple as secondary mound

Hair resembles adult type, but not

spread to medial thighs

Mature, adult contour, with areola in same contour

as breast, and only nipple projecting

Adult type and quantity, spread to

medial thighs

BOYS
Genital Development

Stage

Pubic Hair Growth

Prepubertal; no change in size or proportion of

testes, scrotum and penis from early childhood

Prepubertal; no pubic hair

Enlargement of scrotum and testes; reddening

and change in texture in skin of scrotum; little or
no penis enlargement

Sparse growth of hair at base of

penis

Increase first in length then width of penis; growth

of testes and scrotum

Darkening, coarsening and

curling, increase in amount

Enlargement of penis with growth in breadth and

development of glands; further growth of testes
and scrotum, darkening of scrotal skin

Hair resembles adult type, but not

spread to medial thighs

Adult size and shape genitalia

Adult type and quantity, spread to

medial thighs

Source: Data from Tanner JM. Growth at adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1962.

Figure 1 depicts the occurrence of the linear growth spurt and the onset of menarche relative to the
occurrence of secondary sexual characteristics among females during puberty. The first signs of
puberty among females are the development of breast buds and sparse pubic hair, which occurs
between ages 8-13 on average (SMR stage 2). The onset of menstruation occurs 2-4 years after the
initial appearance of breast buds and pubic hair, usually during SMR stage 4. The average age of
menarche is 12.4 years for females in the United States, but the age at which it occurs is highly
variable; menarche can occur as early as 9 or 10 years of age or as late as 17 years of age. The onset
of menstruation may be delayed in females who restrict their caloric intake and body weight or who
are competitive athletes.

Chapter 1. Adolescent Growth and Development

FIGURE 1
Sequence of Physiological Changes During Puberty in Females

Height Spurt
9.5 - 14.5 yrs

Menarche
Breast

SMR

2 3

10 - 16.5
yrs
4
5

8 13
SMR

Pubic Hair

8 14
8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Age (yrs)

*An average female is represented: the range of ages within which some of the events may occur is given by
the figures placed directly below them.
Source: Adapted from Tanner JM. Growth at adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1962. Reprinted with
permission. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/

There appear to be ethnic and racial differences in the initiation of sexual maturation among US
females. Research indicates that African American girls may enter puberty earlier than their white
peers. Among females in a large study, 48% of African American girls had reached SMR stage 2 by
age 8, compared to 15% of their white peers.2 Among African American girls in that study, the
average age of initial breast development was 8.8 years, while it was 9.9 years for white females.
Pubic hair growth began at age 8.7 years in African American females, occurring almost 2 years
earlier than their white peers. Menarche, however, occurred at approximately the same time in both
groups 12.2 years for African American and 12.8 for white females. The findings of that study
suggest that, on average, puberty may begin earlier and last longer among African American
females than among white females.
Testicular enlargement and change in scrotal coloring are the first signs of puberty among males,
usually occurring between 10.5 and 14.5 years of age (11.6 on average) during SMR stage 2
(Figure 2). The development of pubic hair is also observed during SMR stage 2. Testicular
enlargement starts between 9.5 and 13.5 years of age in most males (SMR 2 to 3), concluding
between the ages of 12.7 and 17 (SMR stage 5). Spermarche, or the onset of sperm production,
occurs at approximately age 14 among males. The onset of puberty among males is highly variable,
thus nutritional needs of male adolescents of the same chronological age are also highly variable.
The linear growth spurt begins most commonly during SMR stage 2 in females, between 9.5 and
14.5 years of age. Peak velocity of linear growth takes place at the end of SMR stage 2 and during
SMR stage 3, approximately 6 to 12 months prior to menarche. It is estimated that 15 to 25% of

GUIDELINES FOR ADOLESCENT NUTRITION SERVICES

3

final adult height is gained during the growth spurt of puberty. The average increase in height is
estimated at 8.24 in (20.5 cm), with a range of 2-10 in (5-25 cm) seen in most females.3,4 During the
peak of the linear growth spurt, females gain roughly 3.5 in (8 - 9 cm) per year. The linear growth
spurt lasts 24 to 26 months, ceasing by 16.5 years of age in most females. Some adolescent females
experience small increments of growth past age 19 years, however. Linear growth may be delayed
or slowed among females who severely restrict their caloric intake.
Peak velocity of linear growth occurs later in puberty among males than among females, most often
during SMR stage 4, at 14.4 years of age on average. The greatest rates of linear growth among
males coincide with or closely follow testicular development and the growth of facial hair.
Adolescent males experience increases in height of 4-12 in (10-30 cm) during puberty, with an
average of 2.8 - 4.8 in (7 - 12 cm) attained each year.3,4 Linear growth continues throughout
adolescence, at an increasingly slower rate, ceasing between 18 and 21 years of age.
FIGURE 2
Sequence of Physiological Changes During Puberty in Males

Height Spurt

10.5 16.0

13.5 17.5

Penis
10.5 14.5

12.5 16.5

Testes
9.5 13.5
2

SMR

Pubic Hair

13.5 17.0
3

8-14
8

10

11

12

13.5 17.0
13

14

15

16

17

Age (yrs)

An average male is represented: the range of ages within which each event charted may begin and end is
given by the figures placed directly below its start and finish.
Source: Adapted from Tanner JM. Growth at adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1962. Reprinted with
permission. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/

Approximately half of maximal adult bone mass is accumulated during adolescence. By 18 years of
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age, more than 90% of adult skeletal mass has been accrued. Many factors play a role in the
accrual of bone mass including genetic potential, hormonal fluctuations, weight bearing exercise,
cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and intakes of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin D,
calcium, phosphorous, boron and iron. It should be noted that more than one-third of adult bone
mass is thought to accrue during and immediately following puberty.5,6 After adult height is
achieved, the accumulation of significant amounts of additional bone mass is unlikely.

Chapter 1. Adolescent Growth and Development

Changes in Weight and Body Composition

Approximately half of adult ideal body weight is gained during adolescence. Peak weight gain
follows the linear growth spurt by 3 to 6 months in females and by approximately 3 months in
males. Girls will gain approximately 18.3 lb (8.3 kg) per year during peak rates of weight gain,
(12.5 years of age on average).3,4 Average weight gains during puberty among females are between
15-55 lb (7-25 kg), with a mean gain of 38.5 lb (17.5 kg). Weight gain slows around the time of
menarche, but will continue into late adolescence. Adolescent females may gain as much as 14 lb
(6.3 kg) during the latter half of adolescence. 3,4
Adolescent males gain an average of 20 lb (9 kg) per year during puberty.3,4 Overall, male teens
gain 15-65 lb (7-30 kg) during puberty, with a mean gain of 52.2 lb (23.7 kg).3,4
Body fat levels decrease among males during adolescence, dropping to an average of 12% body fat
by the end of puberty. Body composition changes more significantly among females during puberty.
The average lean body mass of teen females falls from 80%-74% while average body fat levels
increase from 16%-27% by the end of adolescence. Females experience a 120% increase in body fat
during puberty. On average, teen females acquire approximately 2.5 lb (1.14 kg) of body fat mass
each year during puberty.7
While the accretion of body fat mass is a normal, physiologically essential process, adolescent
females often view it with negativity. Weight dissatisfaction is widespread among teenage females,
leading to an increased risk of health-compromising behaviors such as excessive caloric restriction,
frequent dieting, use of diet pills or laxatives, severe body image distortions and eating disorders.
NORMAL PSYCHOSOCIAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
During adolescence teens develop a stronger recognition of their own personal identity, including
recognition of a set of personal moral and ethical values, and greater perception of feelings of selfesteem or self worth. Psychosocial and cognitive development is best understood when divided into
three periods: early adolescence (11-14 years), middle adolescence (15-17 years), and late
adolescence (18-21 years). Each of these distinct periods of development is marked by the mastery
of new emotional, cognitive and social skills (Table 2).
TABLE 2
Psychosocial Processes and the Substages of Adolescent Development
Substage
Early
adolescence

Emotionally Related
Adjustment to a new
body image, adaptation
to emerging sexuality

Cognitively Related
Concrete thinking; early
moral concepts

Socially Related
Strong peer effect

Middle
adolescence

Establishment of
emotional separation
from parents

Emergence of abstract
thinking, expansion of verbal
abilities and conventional
morality; adjustment to
increased school demands

Increased health risk

behavior; sexual interests
in peers; early vocational
plans

Late
adolescence

Establishment of a
personal sense of
identity; further
separation from parents

Development of abstract,
complex thinking;
emergence of postconventional morality

Increased impulse
control; emerging social
autonomy; establishment
of vocational capability

Source: Reprinted from Ingersoll GM, Psychological and social development. In: McAnarney E. Textbook of adolescent
medicine 1992, with permission from Elsevier.

GUIDELINES FOR ADOLESCENT NUTRITION SERVICES

Psychosocial Development
Adolescents experience dramatic biological changes related to puberty; these biological changes can
significantly affect psychosocial development. An increased awareness of sexuality and a heightened
preoccupation with body image are fundamental psychosocial tasks during adolescence. Dramatic
changes in body shape and size can cause a great deal of ambivalence among adolescents, especially
among females, leading to the development of poor body image and eating disturbances or disorders
if not addressed by family or health care professionals. Similarly, a perceived delay in sexual
maturation and biological development, especially among males, may lead to the development of
poor body image and lowered self-esteem. It is imperative that health professionals who work with
adolescents have a clear understanding of how normal psychosocial and cognitive development
relate to biological growth and development, and are able to appreciate how these processes affect
nutritional intake and status.
Peer influence is a dominant psychosocial issue during adolescence, especially during the early
stages. Young teens are highly cognizant of their physical appearance and social behaviors, seeking
acceptance within a peer group. The desire to conform can influence food intakes among teens. Focus
groups comprised of adolescent females have revealed that food is divided into two classification
groups: junk foods and healthy foods.8 Eating junk foods, according to these focus groups, was
associated with being with friends, having fun, gaining weight, and guilt, whereas eating healthy
foods was associated with family, family meals, and home life. Obviously, teens adopt or develop
food preferences and make food choices based on associations with feelings of being accepted and
having fun with peers and may use food as a way to exert independence from families and parents.
The broad chronological age range during which biological growth and development begins and
advances can become a significant source of personal dissatisfaction for many adolescents as they
struggle to conform to their peers. Males who enter puberty at a later age may consider themselves to
be late bloomers, and may feel physically inferior to their peers who mature earlier. This sense of
dissatisfaction may lead to the use of anabolic steroids and other supplements in an effort to increase
linear growth and muscle development and to gain weight. Such dissatisfaction can also lead to
markedly reduced self-esteem. For females, however, it is often early maturation that is associated
with poor body image, poor self-esteem, frequent dieting, and, possibly, disturbed or disordered
eating behaviors. Early maturing female teens are also at increased risk for engaging in other
unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and early sexual intercourse.9-11 Young
adolescents should be educated on normal variations in initiation and progression of biological
growth and development in an effort to facilitate the development of a positive self-image and body
image and to reduce the likelihood of early initiation of health compromising behaviors.
Cognitive Development
The early stage of adolescence is a time of great cognitive development. At the beginning of
adolescence, cognitive abilities are dominated by concrete thinking, egocentrism, and impulsive
behavior. The ability to engage in abstract reasoning is not highly developed in most young teens,
limiting their capacity to comprehend nutrition and health relationships. Young adolescents also
lack the skills necessary to problem solve in an effort to overcome barriers to behavior change and
the ability to appreciate how current behaviors can affect future health status.
Middle adolescence is characterized by growth in emotional autonomy and increasing detachment
from family. The bulk of physical growth and development is completed during this stage, however
body image concerns may continue to be a source of trepidation, especially among males who are

Chapter 1. Adolescent Growth and Development

late to mature and females who have experienced great changes in body composition and size.
Conflicts over personal choice, including food choices, become increasingly common during this
stage of adolescence. Peer groups become more important than family and their influence with
regard to making food choices peaks. Coinciding with the increased importance of peer acceptance,
the initiation of health compromising behaviors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, using street
drugs, and engaging in sexual activities often occurs during middle adolescence. Teens may
consider themselves invincible and often still display impulsive behaviors.
Abstract reasoning skills begin to emerge among most teens during middle adolescence, however,
these skills may not be highly developed. Adolescents will often regress to concrete thinking skills
when faced with overwhelming emotions or stressful situations. Teens start to comprehend the
relationship between existing health behaviors and future health status but their desire to fit in with
peers may make it difficult for adolescents to make health related choices based upon knowledge
rather than peer pressure.
The late stage of adolescence is characterized by the development of a strong personal identity.
Biological growth and development has concluded among most teens and body image issues are
less common. Older adolescents are able to manage increasingly sophisticated social situations, are
able to suppress impulsive behaviors, and are less affected by peer pressure. Economic and
emotional dependence upon family is markedly decreased and conflict over personal issues, such as
food choices, also decreases. Relationships with a single individual become more influential than
those with a group of peers as a stronger sense of personal identity emerges.
The expansion of abstract reasoning skills continues to occur during late adolescence, which assists
teens in developing an ability to comprehend how current health behaviors affect long-term health
status. This is an especially important skill for adolescent females who plan to have children or who
become pregnant during late adolescence. Older teens are now capable of learning problem solving
skills that can assist them in overcoming barriers to behavior change.
IMPLICATIONS FOR NUTRITION INTERVENTION
Because adolescence is a time of tremendous biological, psychosocial and cognitive growth and
development, nutrition interventions need to be tailored to the developmental level of each
individual adolescent. Health professionals should allow adequate time during the first session with
a teen to determine his/her degree of biological maturity and level of cognitive development. These
characteristics should be used to determine the individual nutritional needs and the type of
educational messages that are given when counseling the adolescent.
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nutrition in health and disease. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1994;759-769.

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Herman-Giddens ME, Slora EJ, Wasserman RC, Bourdony CJ, Bhapkar MV, Koch GG, et al. Secondary
sexual characteristics and menses in young girls seen in office practice: a study from the pediatric
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Barnes HV. Physical growth and development during puberty. Med Clin North Am 1975;59:1305-1317.

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Wong DL, Wilson D, Whaley LF. Whaley & Wong's nursing care of infants and children. 5th ed. St.
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Bonjour J, Theintz G, Buchs B, Slosman D, Rizzoli R. Critical years and stages of puberty for spinal and
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Frisch RE. Fatness, puberty and fertility: The effects of nutrition and physical training on menarche and
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Barr S. Associations of social and demographic variables with calcium intakes in high school students. J
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Attie I, Brooks-Gunn J. Development of eating problems in adolescent girls: a longitudinal study. Dev
Psychol 1989;25:70-79.

10. Killen JD, Hayward C, Litt I, Hammer LD, Wilson DM, Miner B, et al. Is puberty a risk factor for eating
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