Valve, Piping & Pipeline

Handbook
Chapter III
Pressure Valves and Services

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Check Valves
Safety and Relief Valves
Self-Acting Reducing Valves
Air Relief Valves
Foot Valves

1. Check Valves
In general terms, check valves are intended to prevent reverse flow in a
line e.g. after a pump has stopped and to prevent water hammer. They are
also known as non-return valves, reflux valves, flap valves, retention
valves and foot valves in different services. The basic principle of the
valve is to only allow flow in one direction only and with non-return
valves, the check valve is self actuating when flow is reversed. Discs,
wafers or membrane diaphragms are used in this type of valve.
There are numerous types of closing systems in check valves but
basically the check valve can be categorised as follows:
(i) Swing- or plate-type valves (swing/plate check valves)-Figure 1,
where the check mechanism is a hinged plate or flap, or disc-see
chapter on Flap Valves, Section 2. The butterfly check valve is a variant
on this principle-see chapter on Butterfly Valves, Section 2.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
(ii) Tilting disc check valves, similar to swing-type check valves but
with a profiled disc.
(iii)
Guided or lift-type valves where the check mechanism
incorporates an element which lifts along an axis in line with the axis of
the body seat. These may be further sub-divided into:
(a) disc check valves.
(b) piston check valves.
(c) ball check valves.
(iv) Foot valves: specifically check valves fitted to the bottom of a
suction pipe.
(v) Spring-loaded check valves.
(vi) Wafer check valves: includes swing-type, sprung disc twin plate.
(vii) Check and surge-suppressor valves: including multi-door check
valves for larger pipelines, and electrically- and pneumatically-operated
surge-suppressor valves.
(viii) Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves.

1. Check Valves
Tilting disc check valves
The basis of the tilting disc check valve is a 'lifting' section disc,
pivoted in front of its centre of pressure and counterweighted and/or
spring-loaded to assume a normal closed position. With flow in one
direction the disc lifts and 'floats' in the stream, offering minimum
resistance to flow. The balance of the disc is such that as flow decreases
the disc will pivot towards its closed position, reaching this before
flow has actually ceased, sealing before reverse flow commences. With
reverse-flow, reverse-flow pressure and the counterweight system hold
the disc closed (Figure 2). Operation is smooth and silent under all
conditions.
Valves of this type normally have resilient sealing rings mounted on a
metal face. Metal seals may be used for high-temperature applications.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Guided or lift-type disc valves
Lift-type disc valves are similar in configuration to globe valves except
that the disc or plug is automatically operated, i.e. is capable of floating
in its seat. The disc or plug is lifted by flow in one direction, permitting
through flow. With reverse flow the disc or plug is held on its seat by
reverse-flow pressure, giving shut-off. A typical standard check valve is
shown in Figure 3. Valves of this type are further categorised by
geometric configuration, i.e. horizontal, angle (oblique) and vertical.
Piston check valves
The piston-type lift check valve incorporates a dashpot applied to the
check mechanism (Figure 4), otherwise it is basically similar to a lifttype disc valve. The advantage of the dashpot is that it provides a
damping effect during operation. Lift-type piston check valves are
commonly used in conjunction with globe and angle valves on
piping systems subject to surge pressures or frequent changes in flow
direction.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Ball check valves
The check element in a lift-type ball valve is a spherical ball, suitably
restrained but capable of floating off and onto a seat. With forward flow the
ball is forced away from the seat, opening the valve. With reverse flow the ball
is forced onto the seat to produce a seal and shut-off. A particular advantage of
ball check valves is that they can prove more suitable for use with viscous
fluids than other types (Figure 5).
Ball check valves maybe of all-metal construction, metal ball with
resilient seat, mixed construction (metal or plastic ball), or all-plastic
construction.
Foot valves
Foot valves, which often include a strainer, are fitted to the end of a suction
pipe and prevent a pump emptying when it stops and therefore not needing
priming when restarting. They should have a minimum resistance to flow, with
the actual valve element or flap as light as possible if the risk of cavitation is to
be avoided. The valves may be of the single flap (Figures 6 and 7) or multiple
flap-type, membrane, guided or ball-operating systems. See chapter on Foot
Valves.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Spring-loaded check valves
Lift-type check valves may be spring-loaded for more positive
shut-off action, particularly as regards more rapid-response cessation
of flow, i.e. they can be adjusted to close before flow has fully ceased
rather than having to rely on reverse-flow pressure. They can be of disc,
plug or ball-type and can work in any position, i.e. horizontal, inclined,
upward or downward flow (Figure 8).
Spring-loaded check valves can be made in the widest variety of
materials with stainless steel or high-duty alloy springs as necessary.
Opening characteristics are governed by the spring rate.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
In-line spring assisted valves
The advantages of valves of this type are that they can be installed in
the line in any orientation and typically they do not rely on gravity
or reverse flow to close. Instead, as the forward velocity of the fluid
slows, the spring assist starts to close the disc.
Due to the spring assist and short travel distance of the disc, by the
time forward velocity has decreased to zero, the valve disk has reached
the seat and the valve is closed. With reverse flow eliminated, the
forces necessary to produce water hammer on both upstream and
downstream sides of the valve are substantially reduced.
In-line check valves of this type are probably among the most popular
types and are used in many industries including chemical, food and
beverage, mining, oil and gas. pulp and paper, building services and
general industry duties. A basic in-line check valve is shown in Figure 9.
A list of typical applications for spring-assisted in-line check valves is
shown in Table 1.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Water hammer
This is the generation and effect of high-pressure shock waves
(transients) in relatively incompressible fluids. Water hammer is
caused by the shock waves that are generated when a liquid is stopped
abruptly in a pipe by an object such as a valve disc. Symptoms include
noise, vibration and hammering pipe sounds which can result in
flange breakage, equipment damage, ruptured piping and damage to
pipe supports. Whenever incompressible fluids exist in a piping
system, the potential exists forwater hammer. The risks of water
hammer developing are particularly high when the velocity of the fluid is
high, there is a large mass of fluid moving and/or when there are
large elevation changes within the piping systems. The check valve
shown in Figure 10 is specially designed for use on the discharge side
of reciprocating air or gas compressors. It includes a pulse damping
chamber to maintain the disc in the open position during the
momentary reductions in flow associated with each cycle of a
reciprocating compressor and to protect against premature seat wear.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Restrictor check valves are generally used for applications that
require higher cracking pressures to open the check valve. They
should not be considered a substitute for a pressure-relief valve. A
general check valve trouble shooting guide is given in Table 2.
The operation of in-line check valves is not normally affected by
their proximity to elbows, 'Ts' control valves, etc. It is not good practice
to install in-line check valves directly to the outlet of such devices
as it can result in decreased life due to turbulence caused by the
fitting. Some manufacturers recommend that in-line check valves be
installed a minimum of five pipediameters downstream of any
fitting that would cause turbulence. The flow arrow on the body
casing, if shown, must be pointed in the direction of the flow.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Wafer check valves
Typically wafer-style-design check valves are used as an effective
solution for the prevention of reverse flow in pipes carrying most types
of liquids, steam gases, and vapours. They are usually designed to fit
between two pipeline flanges. The valves are opened by the flow
pressure of the fluid and closed by a spring when flow ceases and before
reverse flow can occur (Figure 11).
Typical applications include:
Steam boiler flooding protection
Pipeline fitting protection
Prevention of reverse flow
Vacuum breaker
A typical wafer check valve with its pressure-loss diagram is
shown in Figure 12.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves
Check valves employed in hydraulic and pneumatic applications
are more comprehensively covered in the Hydraulic Handbook and
the Pneumatic Handbook both published by Elsevier Science Limited.
These valves are generally used where high pressures (up to 10,000
lb/in') in standard form where positive leak-tight sealing is required.
Various types of hydraulic and pneumatic check valves are shown in
Figure 13. The distinguishing feature of these valves is their zero leakage
achieved by a flexible seal seat (Figure 14).
The flexible seal seat design allows the poppet in the check valve
to impact only slightly on the O ring in the closed position. The
metal-to-metal contact between the poppet and the end cap serves as
a mechanical seat. Under reverse pressure, the O ring flexes only as
much as is needed to seat around the nose of the poppet and to expel any
foreign particles. As a result the O rings are protected from excessive
wear.

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves

1. Check Valves
Five flow holes drilled into the poppet core are positioned to
provide a streamlined flow path through the valve. The combined
area of these holes is greater than the area of either the inlet or
outlet parts. The flow is directed through the centre of the spring.
Typically, hydraulic and pneumatic check valves incorporate balltype, poppet, cartridge shuttle and split-flange designs and are used in a
wide variety of industries including agriculture, aerospace, road
equipment, robotics, industrial machinery, medical equipment
instrumentation and controls, chemical processing and handling.
Check valves are commonly used in combination with flow
control valves, the type and operating characteristics of which can
influence the choice of check valve type.

1. Check Valves
Suitable combinations are:
Swing check valve-used with ball, plug, gate or diaphragm
control valves.
Lift check valve-used with globe or angle valves.
Piston check valve-used with globe or angle valves.
Butterfly check valve-used with ball, plug, butterfly, diaphragm
or pinch valves.
Spring-loaded check valves-used with globe or angle valves.
The exception is the foot valve, normally associated with a pump (i.e.
there is no other valve positioned between the foot valve and the pump).
See also chapters on Swing check/Flap valves, Non-return valves, Water
services.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Valves that are vital for the protection of people and plant are termed Safety
and Relief Valves. These valves operate automatically when a
predetermined pressure level is exceeded by releasing an adjustable spring which
holds a valve disc against a valve seat.
There are, however, distinctions between safety valves and relief valves
that lead to the following definitions and terminology.
Safety Valve-A valve which automatically discharges gases and vapours so
as to prevent a pre-determined safe pressure being exceeded. It is characterised
by a rapid full-opening action and used for steam, gases or vapour service
(Figure 1). Safety valves can be further categorised as follows:
(i)
Low-Lift Safety Valve-A low-lift valve in which the disc lifts
automatically such that the actual discharge area is determined by the
position of the disc.
(ii) Full-Lift Safety Valve-A valve in which the disc lifts automatically such
that the actual discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc.
(iii) Pilot-Operated Safety Valve-A safety valve, the operation of which is
initiated and controlled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve which is
itself a direct loaded safety valve.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Relief Valve-A valve which automatically discharges fluid, usually liquid
when a pre-determined upstream pressure is exceeded (Figure 2). It may be
provided with an enclosed spring housing suitable for closed discharge system
application.
Pressure Relief Valve-A safety device designed to protect a pressurised vessel
or system during an overpressure event, by relieving excess pressure, and to
reclose and prevent the further flow of fluid after normal conditions have been
restored. It is characterised by a rapid opening pop action or by opening generally
proportional to the increase in pressure over the opening pressure (Figure 3).
Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve-A second type of pressure relief valve in
which the major relieving device is combined with and is controlled by a selfactuated auxiliary pressure relief valve.
Safety Relief Valve-A valve which will automatically discharge gases, vapours
or liquids so as to prevent a pre-determined safe pressure being exceeded. It is
characterised by a rapid full-opening action or by opening in proportion to the
increase in pressure over the opening pressure, depending on the application, and
may be used either for liquid or compressible fluid (Figure 4).

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

A safety relief valve can be further categorised as:
(i) A Conventional Safety Relief Valve-A valve which has a spring
housing vented to the discharge side of the valve. The operational
characteristics (open and closing pressure and relieving capacity) are
directly affected by changes of the back pressure on the valve.
(ii)
A Balanced Safety Relief Valve-A valve which incorporates
means of minimising the effect of back pressure on the operational
characteristics (opening and closing pressure and relieving capacity).
Since all of these types of valves are safety devices, there are many
codes and standards throughout the world written to control their
design and application. Some of these codes and standards are shown in
Table 1. Among the most widely used is the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, commonly referred to as the ASME Code.
More specific information may be found by referring to this
code, various published standards and by consulting literature
published by safety and relief valve manufacturers.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Safety Valves
Typical operating parameters for safety valves are given in Table
2. Safety valve set pressure and temperature limits are governed by a
number of factors and may not always coincide with manufacturers'
published limits for the applicable materials and flange ratings.
Particular limits may be based on spring limitations, specific material
selection or other design considerations. With boiler applications, for
example, set pressures and total capacity requirements for safety valves
are usually established by the design agent or boiler manufacturer.
Safety valves are intended to open and close within a narrow
pressure range; therefore, valve installations require careful and accurate
design, both as to inlet and discharge piping. The higher the operating
pressure and the greater the valve capacity, the more critical
becomes the need for proper design of the installation.
Safety valves should always be mounted in a vertical position directly
onnozzles having a well rounded approach that provides smooth,
unobstructed flow from the vessel or line to the valve.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

A safety valve should never be installed on a nozzle having an
inside diameter smaller than the inlet connection to the valve, or
on excessively long nozzles. The pressure drop occurring in the inlet
piping should be calculated at actual flow of the valve. Where safety
valves are installed to protect piping systems, as on the low pressure side
of a reducing valve or on a turbine by-pass, the pipe or header must be of
sufficient size to maintain flow under the safety valve while it is
discharging. A typical design of a pop-type safety valve is shown
in Figure 5.
The discharge piping from safety valves should be equal in size to, or
larger than, the nominal valve outlet and should be as simple and direct
as possible.
Good practices must be observed with discharge manifold lines.
All discharge piping in the discharge system must be vented to a safe
disposal area to prevent personnel injury when the valve discharges.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

The valve shown in Figure 6a is typically used for steam
generators and steam systems. It is a high capacity reaction-type valve
designed specifically for saturated steam service on boiler drums having
design pressures above 103 bar (1500 lb/in 2).
A typical valve operating cycle (Figure 6b) is as follows:
As pressure in, say, a boiler increases to the safety valve set point the
valve will pop open. After the valve opens steam passes through a
series of annular flow passages (A) and (B) which control the pressure
developed in chambers (C) and (D). The excess steam is exhausted
through guide ring openings (E) to the valve body bowl (F).
As pressure in the boiler decays, the dynamic forces on the lower
face of the disc holder assembly are reduced and the safety valve
disc begins to close. Assisted by pressure in chambers (C) and (D),
the valve at this point closes sharply and tightly.
Figure 7 shows a safety valve frequently used in process applications.
The valve has a closed bonnet that contains the process fluid within the
safety valve preventing any release to atmosphere.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

In Figure 8, the safety valve incorporates a balanced bellows to provide
satisfactory safety valve performance when the developed back pressure
becomes excessive. Balanced bellows ensure that safety valve
characteristics such as lift and relieving capacity, opening and closing pressure
and stability are not unduly influenced by static pressure in the discharge
manifold.
Balanced safety valves must be installed when the percentage build-up
back pressure in the exhaust system is allowed to exceed the percentage
overpressure applicable to the safety valve. Valves that vent to the
atmosphere, either directly or through short vent stacks, are not subjected to
elevated back pressure conditions. Valves installed in a closed system, i.e. on
corrosive, toxic or valuable recoverable fluids, or when a long vent pipe is
used, may develop high back pressure. Back pressure which may occur in the
downstream system while the safety valve is closed is called
superimposed back pressure. Back pressure which may occur after the
valve is open and flowing is called dynamic or built-up back pressure.
Figure 9 shows a double-spring high-lift safety valve that combines a top
guided design to provide an unobstructed seat bore with a floating disc.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Relief Valve
A basic difference between the design of spring-loaded safety valves
and relief valves is that, in safety valves, the poppet or disc overhangs
the seat to promote faster lift whereas, in a relief valve, the area exposed to
overpressure is the same whether the valve is open or closed. As a
consequence, a safety valve pops open while a relief valve lifts gradually
with increasing pressure until it reaches its fully open position.
The relief valve shown in Figure 10 is a standard type suitable for
relieving excess pressures of water oil, air, gases or steam where high
discharge rates are not required. Duties include the protection of
pipelines against overpressure and protection against thermal expansion.
It is filtered in the upright position. A spring-loaded side-discharge
version is shown in Figure 11.
Other spring relief valves have cartridge-type assemblies for easy
cleaning. They are usually suitable for use with positive displacement pumps
of the rotary or reciprocating type. They can also be used as combined relief
and by-pass valves.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

The relief valve (Figure 12) is manufactured from plastic PVC,
PVDF and CPVC with solid Teflon!c* shaft, intended as a
chemical-resistant relief valve for corrosive and pure liquids. The
relieving pressures can be adjusted by screwing the adjusting bolt up or
down to decrease or increase the pressure setting.
This type of valve is not a pop safety-type valve.
Emergency relief valves of the type shown in Figure 13 are designed to
meet the stringent conditions of container, rail, road and static tanks
for emergency venting under total fire engulfment conditions.
Usually manufactured from 316 stainless steel, these types of valves
can incorporate a manually operated vacuum vent button.
The type of relief valves shown in Figure 14 is ideally suited
for air, acetylene, ammonia, freon 12 and 22. hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, aromatic fuels, synthetic oils, tetrachloride and toluene, at
operating pressures up to 2400 lb/int. It can be mounted in horizontal
and vertical positions.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

In closed operation, the spring load is carried by a metal-to-metal seat.
An 0-ring provides a tight seal and the sealing efficiency increases as the
pressure increases up to cracking pressure. At cracking pressure the ports
in the poppet open fully and eliminate the rapid increase in pressure.
Flow is throttled between the poppet shoulder and seat and a regularly
increasing flow area is provided with increasing flow rates. When
fully open, the inline construction and full flow ports permit maximum
flow with minimum increase in system pressure (see Figure 15).
High pressure variants operate at pressures up to 10,500 lb/int.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Pressure Relief Valves
The basic spring-loaded pressure relief valve (Figure 16) has been
developed to provide overpressure protection.
Overpressure may be defined as a pressure increase over the set
pressure of a pressure relief valve, usually expressed as a percentage of set
pressure.
Set pressure is the pressure measured at the valve inlet at which a
pressure relief valve should commence to lift under service conditions.
Popping pressure is the value of increasing static pressure at which the
disc moves in the opening direction at a faster rate as compared with
corresponding movement at higher or lower pressures.
The valve shown in Figure 16 consists of a valve inlet or nozzle mounted
on the pressurised system, a disc held against the nozzle to prevent flow
under normal system operating conditions, a spring to hold the disc closed,
and a body or bonnet to contain the operating elements. The spring load is
adjustable to vary the pressure at which the valve will open.
The sole source of power for the pressure relief valve is the process fluid.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

The pressure relief valve must open at a pre-determined set pressure
and close when the system pressure has returned to a single safe level.
Pressure relief valves must be designed with materials compatible with
many process fluids from simple air and water to the most corrosive media.
This type of valve is required to remain on systems for long periods of
time and must have the ability to maintain tight shut-off. Most
manufacturers recommend that system operating pressures not exceed
95% of set pressure to achieve and maintain proper seat tightness
integrity.
Examples of spring-loaded pressure relief valves are given in Figure 17.
A rupture disk device (Figure 18) is a non-reclosing pressure relief
device actuated by inlet static pressure and designed to function by the
bursting of a pressure containing disk. A rupture disk is the pressure
containing and pressure sensitive element of a rupture disk device.
These products provide full opening with instantaneous pressure relief in
the event of system upset. Application of rupture disk devices to liquid
service should be carefully evaluated, especially if used in combination with
a safety or safety relief valve.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve
This type of valve consists of a main valve with a piston- or
diaphragm operated disc and a pilot. Under normal conditions the
pilot allows system pressure into the piston chamber. Since the piston
area is greater than the disc seat seal area, the disc is held closed. When
the set pressure is reached, the pilot actuates to shutoff system fluid
to the piston chamber and simultaneously vents the piston chamber.
This causes the disc to open (Figure 19).
Another version of a pilot-operated pressure reducing valve is
shown in Figure 20. Other constructions have integral porting,
eliminating the need for tubing to activate the valve and relieve the
system pressure, as all pressurisation is performed through porting
machined into the main valve and the mating pilot valves.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Pilot-operated relief valves have several advantages. As the
system pressure increases, the force holding the disc in the closed
position increases. This allows the system operating pressure to be
increased to values within 5% of set pressure without danger of
increased leakage in the main valve. Valves can be set fully open at the
set pressure and closed with a very short blowdown. A reducing valve
will modulate from its maximum capacity down to zero load when it
will shut. However, if the valve is to work under low load conditions for
much of its life, there may be a good case for fitting two smaller valves
in parallel.
Modulating pilot valve designs limit fluid loss and system shock.
However, this type of valve is generally only recommended for clean
service and is found in a broad range of applications and industries
including steam, air and industrial gases, petroleum-refining offshore
applications, chemical processing, pulp and paper mills and general
manufacturing. There are numerous styles and designs available from
many manufacturers.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Safety Relief Valve
The purpose of a safety relief valve is to discharge a given amount of vapour, gas or
liquid, whilst preventing the pressure increase exceeding a pre-determined level.
The safety relief valve should close with the smallest drop in pressure consistent with
tight closure, and it should remain pressure-tight up to the time of the next response
to an overpressure situation. A standard safety relief valve is shown in Figure 21.
The valve must be reliable so that the action is always a repeat of the previous
action. A safety relief valve should be used on any closed vessel or system in which
the pressure can be other than atmospheric and where, under any circumstances,
the design pressure of the system can be exceeded.
In most instances the discharge pipework is direct to atmosphere, but when the
medium is toxic, inflammable or otherwise objectionable, complex-type
discharge pipework systems are used and, frequently, more than one valve
discharges into the system, resulting in a variable back pressure at the safety relief
valve.
When such a discharge system is adopted, the safety relief valve must be designed in
such a way that the effects of the variable back pressure on the set pressure are
minimised. This requires the use of a balanced bellows valve.
The safety relief valve should be as maintenance-free as possible.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Sizing Safety and Relief Valves
Proper sizing and selection of safety and relief valves is critical. The
first step in applying overpressure protection to a vessel or system is to
determine the type of fluid, set pressure, back pressure, allowable
overpressure and required relieving capacity; the next step is to
establish inlet temperature, compressibility factor, gas constant or
isentropic coefficient, molecular weight, specific weight, specific
gravity and viscosity.
Sizing equations are available from manufactures and regulatory
bodies, e.g. British Standards BS 6759, American Standards to ASME
Code Section VIII and European Standards A.D. Merkblatt A2. All
capacities can be calculated in accordance with the internationally
accepted sizing equations using the certified coefficients of
discharge.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Manufacturers' engineering support information and technical data
are essential if the correct valve is to be selected for the job. Some
manufacturers supply full details on a computer program. Generally the
program is easy to use with many features including: quick and
accurate calculations, user-selected units, selection of valve size and
style, valve data storage, printed reports, specification sheets and
dimensional drawings.
There is no substitute for qualified engineering analysis, and the
application of safety and relief valves of any type or make should
be assigned only to fully trained personnel and be in strict
compliance with rules provided by the governing codes and standards.
Selection of safety and relief valves should not be based on arbitrarily
assumed conditions or incomplete information. Valve selection and
sizing is the responsibility of the system engineer and the user of the
equipment to be protected.

2. Safety and Relief Valves

Testing Safety Valves
Safety valves should be tested regularly to ensure that they have
retained their capability of operating at design lift-off pressure. Two
basic methods of testing are:
On-line testing by deliberate overpressure of the system to
determine the actual pressure at which the valve lifts off its seat.
Off-line testing by removal of the valve from its line or position and
determination of active lift-off by hydraulic test. It is also possible to
apply a hydraulic test for on-line testing using a portable hydraulic test
pack.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Self-acting reducing valves generally fall into two main categories: (i)
direct-acting valves and (ii) relay- or pilot-operated types.
An example of a direct-acting pressure reducing valve for steam, compressed
air and other gases is shown in Figure 1. The valve is designed for
point-of-use installations. On start-up, the upstream pressure, aided by a
return spring, holds the valve head against the seat in the closed position.
Downstream pressure is set by rotating a handwheel in a clockwise
direction which compresses the control spring and extends the bellows.
This downward movement is transmitted via a push rod which causes the
main valve to open.
Liquid then passes through the open valve into the downstream
pipework and also surrounds the bellows. As downstream pressure
increases, it acts through the bellows to counteract the spring force and
closes the main valve when the set pressure is reached. The main valve
modulates to give constant downstream pressure.
Materials used for the bellows include phosphor bronze and stainless steel
with nitrite main valve. Other diaphragms used include rubber, synthetic
rubbers, stainless steel and phosphor bronze materials.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

The direct-acting reducing valve shown in Figure 2 is designed for use
with liquids and incorporates a balanced piston design providing accurate
control of pressure under stable load conditions. The valve is installed
in a horizontal pipeline. Typical applications include laundry equipment
and reducing pressure at the point of use on injection Moulding machines.
Pressure reduction in water systems aids both the efficient design
of the piping network and protects consumers from excessive noise
from high velocity within buildings, high-pressure discharge at taps
and other outlets, and climbing overnight pressures when the
distribution network is lightly loaded. The ability to control waterentry pressures ensures a balanced distribution network and also
limits the maximum supply volume and so reduces water waste.
Cost-effective steam distribution depends on keeping pipe sizes to
the minimum and having the highest acceptable distribution pressure
between the boilerhouse and the areas of steam usage, then dropping
pressure at the working area to the levels for the highest heat transfer,
efficiency and safety.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

A relay- or pilot-operated reducing valve for steam services is shown in
Figure 3. It comprises:
(a) The valve body, which contains the main valve and seat piston
assembly.
(b) The control head, which houses the pilot valve assembly with its
associated diaphragm and main adjusting spring.
This type of valve works by balancing the downstream pressure against a
control spring. This modulates a small valve plug over a seat (the pilot).
The flow through this seat is directed in turn to the main valve diaphragm
(phosphor bronze or stainless steel), where it modulates the main valve.
Under stable load conditions, the pressure under the pilot diaphragm
balances the force set on the adjustment spring. This settles the pilot
valve, allowing a constant flow across the main diaphragm. This ensures
that the main valve is also settled to give a stable downstream pressure.
When the downstream pressure rises, the pilot valve closes and pressure
is released from the main valve diaphragm through the control orifice, to
close the main valve.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Any variations in load or pressure will immediately be sensed on the
pilot diaphragm which will act to adjust the position of the main valve,
ensuring a constant downstream pressure. In order to achieve the most
stable operating conditions an external pressure sensing pipe is used.
This becomes more important as the valve is used near its maximum
capacity or under critical flow conditions.
A solenoid will provide for remote on/off control and a fully
adjustable set point is possible using an air-driven pilot. The set point
can then be adjusted via a compressed air regulator situated away from
the valve. For example, the valve may be high up in a pipeline but
adjustment can be made from an air regulator at ground level.
The characteristics of both pilot-operated and direct-operated
reducing valves are shown in Figure 4. Both curves are shown for 25 mm
(1 in) valves reducing from 10 to 3.5 bar (150 to 509 lbf/in2).

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

It should be noted that in the case of the direct-acting valves (including
those with balance pistons) the outlet pressure falls as the flow through
the valve increases. Thus if the valve is set at a no-flow setting of 3.5 bar
(50 lbf/in2), the outlet pressure falls by about 0.35 to 3.15 bar (5 to 45
lbf/in2) when passing an average flow for this type of valve. The directacting valve is usually made equal in size to the inlet pipe.
In the case of the pilot-operated valve it will be seen that apart from an
initial pressure drop of 0.035 bar (2 lbf/in2) from the dead-end setting of
3.5 bar (50 lbf/inz) the outlet pressure remains constant until
maximum-rated capacity is reached.
It should also be noted that, in the examples shown, the 25 mm (1 in)
pilot-operated valve is capable of passing a flow of more than four times
that of the direct-acting valve, and with only 0.035 bar (2 lbf/in2)
pressure drop as compared with a drop of 0.35 bar (5 lbf/in2).

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Applications of reducing valves
Reducing valves are used for reducing one pressure to another, control
being via throttling of the fluid through the valve and its seat. Reducing
valves should never be deliberately oversized as if the valve is too big
then the lift of the valve will be small and wire drawing or erosion of the
valve and seat can result. Additionally, small variations in valve
opening cause large changes in flow which at small flow demands can
lead to pulsating pressure being generated in the downstream flow.
The following notes designate the main fields of application of selfacting reducing valves.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Air or gases
This application includes all compressed air systems for use with
power tools, pneumatic control systems, etc., and control valves for the
storage and distribution of industrial gases, etc.
Both direct-acting and pilot-operated reducing valves may be used
for these duties and are selected according to the accuracy of control
required and whether or not the valves are intended to give a dead
tight shut-off under no-flow conditions.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Water
Reducing valves are extensively used in industrial and domestic
water distribution, fire protection systems and the limitation of water
pressures in high buildings, etc. Direct-acting valves with piston valves
are generally used for these duties. As a general rule, reducing
valves are used mainly as pressure limiting devices in waterdistribution systems.
Because of high peak demands at times of heavy industrial
usage, water authorities usually have great difficulty in maintaining
pressures in the systems, although high pressures are usually
available at the source of distribution, such as at reservoirs or main
pumping stations. Very large pressure drops are experienced in the
system during high demands and as a result there is a tendency for the
pressure to be below normal at the point of usage.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

However, when the total demand in the system drops, much higher
pressures are experienced in the distribution system and these are
frequently in excess of the normal pressure ratings for the equipment
being used. This can give rise to burst mains or excessively high
discharge rates from domestic fittings, such as water closets, wash
basins, etc. or storage tanks.
It is therefore common practice to fit a reducing valve in the line
which, under high flow conditions, normally operates in the wide open
position and presents only a nominal resistance to flow (such as would
be experienced with an ordinary globe stop valve). However, at periods
of low demand and high pressure, the reducing valve becomes effective
and reduces the pressure in the downstream mains to an acceptable limit.
It is important in such applications that the outlet pressure is not affected
by inlet pressure variations and for this reason the direct-acting valves
with piston balance are admirably suited to this application.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Other liquids
In this field, reducing valves are used for such applications as:
controlling ram pressures on hydraulic presses; bearing lubrication
systems in rolling mills and heavy industrial equipment; and for
pressure control in fuel-oil systems.
Again valves are normally used for these applications. In many
applications the flow is relatively constant and the outlet pressure from
the reducing valve therefore remains constant.
In fuel-oil systems the flow variations are normally of the order of 50
to 100%, in which case the outlet pressure variation would probably
be of the order of 0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 3 lbf/in2), depending on the size
of valve used. The variation would be in the order of 0.35 bar (5 lbf/in2)
between full and no-flow conditions.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Steam
This particular category covers by far the majority of reducing
valve applications and in general there are two broad sections.
Power
Reducing valves are only occasionally used on power installations
involving steam, i.e. direct steam supply, steam engines and turbines,
etc. In these cases the general principles of application still apply,
although special problems do sometimes arise in the case of
reciprocating machinery which may give rise to pulsations in the
pipework system, and these can be amplified by the reducing valve
itself. This is normally overcome by providing adequate pipe
volume both upstream and downstream of the reducing valve to act as a
steam accumulator.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Process
With saturated steam, temperatures and pressures are strictly
related and, because of this, it is frequently found convenient to
control temperature by controlling the steam pressure. Applications
in the process field includes space heating, kitchen equipment,
sterilizing equipment, curing processes in the rubber and plastics
industries, etc., industrial cooking equipment, etc. In fact, anywhere
steam is used as a heat-transfer medium, reducing valves will
invariably be installed.
In general, only low pressure steam, usually below 3.5 bar (50 lbf/in2),
is used for process purposes. At such low pressures the latent heat
content of the steam is relatively high and is easily transferred from the
steam to the product being processed.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Size of pipes and fittings
The inlet and outlet pipes should be sized to suit the maximum steam demands of
the system, e.g. see Table 1. Pipe sizes should always be determined in terms of
pressure drop and not by such rules as arbitrary steam velocities.
Correct sizing of pipework and fittings associated with all valves is extremely
important in order to obtain the best possible operation. Specifically:
(i) Strainers should always be equal in size to the inlet pipe.
(ii) When globe valves are used as inlet and outlet stop valves, these should also
be equal in size to the respective pipe, into which they are fitted.
(iii) When parallel slide valves are used as stop valves, these can be fitted equal in
size to the reducing valve for reduced pressures between 30 and 70% of the inlet
pressure. They should be equal in size to the respective pipe when the pressure
difference between the inlet and outlet is 2 bar (30 lbf/in2) or less. When they are
connected directly to the reducing valve the length of distance pieces between
value and fitting should not exceed three pipe diameters.
(iv) In order to provide a streamlined flow at the approach to the reducing valve, a
straight length of pipe equal to 10 pipe diameters should be provided between the
fitting and the reducing valve (this does not apply to parallel slide valves). Typical
reducing valve layouts are shown in Figures 5 and 6.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Reducing valves in parallel
As already mentioned, two reducing valves in parallel should be
considered when the minimum flow through the system is less than 10%
of the maximum capacity of a single reducing valve, or when the valves
are expected to work for long periods on `no-flow' or `dead-end'
conditions, or working in partially completed plant systems. A typical
layout is shown in Figure 7.
In order that the valves can deal effectively with minimum capacity
variations of less than 10%, two unequally sized reducing valves
having a maximum capacity equal to the required capacity should be
connected in parallel with the outlet pressure of the smaller valve set
0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 3 lbf/in2) higher than that of the large valve. In this
way the larger valve would shut at low demands leaving the smaller
valve to handle the low flows. As the demand increases the larger valve
will open automatically as the reduced pressure falls, and share the
load with the small valve. By this method capacity ratios of up to 100:1
can be obtained.

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Superheated steam
Superheated steam is less dense than saturated steam and, therefore,
for the same pressure drop the reducing valve will have slightly
smaller capacity. The reduction in capacity is dependent on the amount
of superheat. Capacity figures quoted in manufacturers' catalogues are
normally for dry saturated steam. When steam is superheated above
28C (50F) before it enters the reducing valve, dry steam capacities
should be multiplied by the following factors:

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Steam traps
Whenever possible, pilot-operated reducing valves should be sited at some point
in the pipeline where they cannot become flooded with condensate during periods
of low flow or prolonged shutdown. If this is not possible then steam traps (and, if
possible, dirt pockets) should be fitted to both the inlet and outlet pipework to remove
any condensate which may accumulate in the vicinity of the reducing valve.
Condensate can be trapped between the piston and pilot valve when the steam flow
is resumed and this prevents the main valve from closing as the reduced pressure may
continue to rise above the setting and eventually cause the relief valve to blow.
The thermodynamic steam trap shown in Figure 8 is suitable for use in condensate
removal from high pressure steam mains and for turbine casing drainage.
On start up, incoming pressure raises the disc and cooled condensate plus air is
immediately discharged (A). Hot condensate flowing through the trap releases flash
steam. High velocity creates a low pressure area under the disc and draws it towards the
seat (B). At the same time there is a pressure build-up of flash steam in the chamber
above the disc, which forces it down against the pressure of the incoming condensate
until it seats on the inner ring and closes the inlet. The disc also seats on the outer ring
and traps pressure in the chamber (C). Pressure in the chamber is decreased by
condensation of the flash steam and the disc is raised by the incoming pressure. The
cycle is then repeated (D).

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

3. Self-Acting Reducing Valves

Fitting of balance pipes
It is strongly recommended that a balance pipe should be fitted when
the reduced pressure is 10% or less of the inlet pressure. The purpose of
this pipe is to improve the performance of the reducing valve when
working under difficult downstream conditions. It will also help to
counteract any pressure drops in downstream pipework caused by
undersized pipe fittings, etc., providing they are not excessive.
A stop valve should be fitted in the balance pipe to allow complete
isolation of the reducing valve from the steam flow (particularly
when a bypass line is fitted).
The balance pipe should be arranged to fall to allow it to drain into the
downstream pipe. The tapping into the downstream pipe should be
made at a point where smooth flow occurs preferably downstream
of the relief valve. The downstream pressure gauge should be fitted as
near to this point as possible.

4. Air Relief Valves

Air or gas trapped in a pipeline carrying a liquid can cause problems, e.g. reduce the
effective flow, aggravate the effects of surge, and cause pump cavitation. Possible
causes of air/gas entrainment are:
(i) The pipeline was fully charged with air/gas when empty.
(ii) Air is entrained at pump suction.
(iii) Air is drawn in through faulty joints or glands.
(iv) Air/gas is trapped in pockets during pipeline filling.
(v) Air/gas in solution is released due to changes in pressure and temperature.
The problem of dealing with air/gas entrainment is not usually a demanding one.
Entrained air/gas will tend to collect at high points in the system. It can then be removed by
introducing air release valves at these points. These may be simple, manually-operated
valves (bleed valves), or fully automatic. In the latter case the valve should perform the
following functions:
(a) release of air/gas accumulating in pipeline during normal pressurised operation, to
prevent restriction to fluid flow
(b) retention of the fluid in the pipeline without loss under all operating conditions
(c) release of air/gas during pipeline filling at a volume rate sufficient to prevent back
pressure restricting the filling rate
(d) admission of air to the pipeline during emptying at a rate sufficient to prevent
excessive vacuum pressure in the pipe.

4. Air Relief Valves

Single orifice valves (Figure 1) are capable of performing functions (a)
and (b). They are normally used where only relatively small volumes of
air/gas are to be released, or where it is desirable to provide
additional ventilation at operating pressures. Dual-orifice valves are
capable of performing all four functions. They can normally
provide complete protection against air/gas entrainment under all
system-operating conditions.
The type of fluid product being handled also affects the design
requirements of the air release valve (especially automatic valves). With
sewage or industrial effluent, for example, the solids content may
block the release passage(s) periodically, causing unreliable
operation. This can be overcome by using large-volume auxiliary
float chambers to contain the fluid under all operating conditions so
that it can never come into contact with the air valve elements. An
example of a dual-orifice air valve suitable for water systems is shown in
Figure 2

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

The valve combines small and large orifices. The small-orifice valve
comprises a composite float and lever assembly sealing off a small-orifice
vent. When the float chamber is filling with water, the orifice is closed
initially by the floatworking through a lever ratio of 5:1.
When the chamber is filled with water under pressure, the orifice is held
closed by the combined upthrust of the float and the differential pressure over
the orifice area. On air accumulated in the system entering the chamber under
working pressure, the water level in the chamber is depressed until it reaches
a point when the weight of the float is sufficient to uncover the orifice
and exhaust air. Air is expelled until the water level rises again and causes the
float to close the orifice.
The large-orifice valve consists of a float sealing off a large-orifice vent to
the atmosphere. The float is held at a predetermined height in its casing by a
ribbed cage which also guides the float onto the seat. During the pipeline
filling or emptying, the 'aerokinetic' feature holds the float off the seat and
keeps it completely stable under all air outflow or inflow conditions. The
valve cannot close prematurely during outflow. It closes only when water
enters the casing and raises the float onto the seat.

4. Air Relief Valves

An example of the working of dual-orifice air relief valves designed
for handling sewage and similar effluent is shown in Figure 3. When the
pipeline is empty, the spherical operating float is suspended from the
elevator within the main chamber and the cylindrical float element
of the air valve is supported by the guide cage. The operating lever
of the small-orifice valve is held open by a tappet on the elevator.
Air/gas having been inhaled or expelled from the pipelines is able to
flow freely through both orifices, the design of the valve being such that
the air flow creates a positive down force to hold the cylindrical float
element stable within the guide cage.
As the air/gas is exhausted from the pipeline, liquid enters the main
chamber and the operating float then rises with the liquid. The elevator,
raised by the float, releases the small-orifice valve and engages the base
of the cylindrical element, which rises until seated on the rubber face of
the large orifice.

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

At this point air/gas outflow ceases and further inflow of liquid to the main
chamber under pipeline pressure compresses the air/gas until maximum
working pressure is reached. The proportions of the main chamber are such that
the fluid level will not rise above the bottom face of the main chamber cover.
When the pipeline is emptied and pressure falls, the valve main chamber will
drain into the pipeline and the operating float, following the liquid level,
releases the cylindrical float to allow the large orifice to open. As the pipeline
pressure falls to atmospheric, it opens the small-orifice valve. The
pipeline is then able to ventilate freely and sub-atmospheric pressure
conditions are avoided.
During normal operating conditions, air/gas will be released from the liquid
and will collect under pressure in the main chamber, depressing the liquid level.
The operating float falls with the liquid but system pressure will hold the
cylindrical valve element on the large-orifice seat. As the operating float
approaches the limit of its travel, the tappet on the elevator opens the smallorifice valve, releasing the accumulated air/gas under pressure. This in
turn allows the liquid level to rise again and the small-orifice valve to close,
thus completing a cycle.

4. Air Relief Valves

4. Air Relief Valves

Positioning of air relief valves
In systems handling water, air relief valves would normally be placed at all high
points, i.e. where a rising section changes to a falling section. In systems handling
sewage or industrial effluent, rather more extensive treatment is necessary. as
illustrated in Figure 4.
Where the fluid is pumped through the pipeline it is desirable that a dualorifice
valve (valve A) be located just downstream of the pump-delivery valves.
Dual-orifice-type valves are also required at all peak points which are defined
relative to the hydraulic gradient and not necessarily to the horizontal. In practice a
peak may be considered as any pipe section which slopes up towards the
hydraulic gradient or runs parallel to it. In the latter case the minimum requirement
is a dual air valve at each end of the section (valve B); any additional valves may be
of a single-orifice type.
Positions where an increase in down slope occurs will require ventilation by a
small orifice valve which should also be installed at points of decrease in up slopes
(valve D).
Pipeline sections of uniform profile also require ventilation and dual-orifice
units should be installed at about 800 m (2500 ft) intervals on these sections (valves
E).

4. Air Relief Valves

5. Foot Valves
A foot valve is basically a check valve fitted to the end of a suction
pipe leading to a pump. Its purpose is to keep fluid trapped in the
suction pipe when the pump stops, thus maintaining a suitable
prime for the pump. When the pump restarts, the suction created opens
the valve, giving full flow to the pump inlet. (Foot valves are
unnecessary on self-priming pumps.)
Foot valves may be of a simple flap-type, or more usually liftcheck or ballcheck valves. They are commonly combined with an
integral strainer. Some examples follow.

5. Foot Valves
Poppet lift foot valve
In the example shown in Figure 1, the poppet assembly consists of a
plastic tripod which can be displaced along a bore above the seat valve.
The travel of the poppet is controlled by a stop on the end of the poppet
legs acting as supports for the return spring shouldered onto a washer.
This spring ensures that the valve will work in any position. The main
characteristics of this design are low head losses with good sealing
provided by a nitrile rubber 0-ring.
Figure 2 shows a design with the tripod in cast iron and with a cast-iron
poppet head with streamlined tripod hub. Sealing is provided by a flat
gasket shouldered by the poppet head and placed on a collar-type seat.
This is a simple and robust design suitable for general applications.
Figure 3 shows a further design where the all-metal poppet with profiled
head is guided by three legs and restrained by a downstream stop. Sealing
is by a flat seal on a flat bearing surface. Valve travel is limited by the
stop. A spring can be added to ensure that the valve will operate in any
position

5. Foot Valves

5. Foot Valves

5. Foot Valves

5. Foot Valves
Ball foot valve
An example of this type is shown in Figure 4. This is a simple ball
valve guided by an inclined cylindrical chamber and seating on an 0ring. Note that the ball is displaced laterally along its chamber with
inward flow, but it runs down the chamber onto its seat when the flow
rate decreases. It is particularly suitable for use with contaminated
waters or more viscous fluids. All examples illustrated are of the type
with integral strainer.

5. Foot Valves

5. Foot Valves
Membrane foot valves
Membrane foot valves consist of a cylindrical rubber membrane
fitted inside a steel strainer. When there is a suction developed at the
strainer, the membrane is displaced to allow fluid to flow through
the valve. When back-flow conditions exist, the cylindrical
membrane closes the apertures in the valve strainer, thus closing the
valve, (see Figure 5).
A selection of membrane foot valves is shown in Figure 6. The lever
fitted to one valve enables the valve to be drained by physically
displacing the membrane when the lever is lifted.
See also the chapter on Check Valves.

5. Foot Valves

5. Foot Valves