(Part I – Internal Combustion Engines)

Topics covered
I.C. Engines
 Introduction of I.C. Engines
 Classification of I.C. Engines
 Constructional details of I.C. Engine
 Comparison of Two-stroke and Four-stroke Cycle Engine
 Working of two stroke and four stroke diesel
and petrol engines
 Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engine
 Introduction of I.C. Engine
Heat Engines - A machine or device which derives heat from the
combustion of fuel and converts part of this energy into mechanical
work is called a heat engine. Heat engines may be classified into two
main classes as follows:
1. External combustion engines
2. Internal combustion engines.

1. External Combustion Engines - In this case, combustion of fuel

takes place outside the cylinder as in the case of steam engines
where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam which
is used to move a piston in a cylinder. Other examples of external
combustion engines are hot air engines, steam turbine and closed
cycle gas turbine.
Introduction of I.C. Engine (contd..)
2. Internal Combustion Engines - In this case, combustion of fuel with
oxygen of the air occurs within the cylinder of the engine. The internal
combustion engines group includes engines employing mixtures of
combustible gases and air, known as gas engines, those using lighter
liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines and those using heavier
liquid fuels, known as oil, compression ignition or diesel engines.

The important applications of I.C. engines are: (i) Road vehicles,

locomotives, ships and aircraft, (ii) Portable standby units for power
generation in case of scarcity of electric power, (iii) Extensively used
in farm tractors, lawn movers, concrete mixing devices and motor
boats.
 Classification of I.C. Engines
The internal combustion engines may be classified in the following
ways:
1. According to the type of fuel used
a) Petrol engines, b) Diesel engines, and c) Gas engines.
2. According to the method of igniting the fuel
a) Spark ignition engines, and b) Compression ignition
engines.
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle
a) Four stroke cycle engines, and b) Two stroke cycle
engines.
4. According to the cycle of operation
a) Otto cycle engines, b) Diesel cycle engines, and c) Dual
cycle engines.
Classification of I.C. Engines (contd..)
5. According to the speed of the engine
a) Slow speed engines, b) Medium speed engines, and
c) High speed engines.
6. According to the cooling system
a) Air-cooled engines, and b) Water-cooled engines.
7. According to the method of fuel injection
a) Carburettor engines, and b) Air injection engines.
8. According to the number of cylinders
a) Single cylinder engines, and b) Multi-cylinder engines.
 Classification of I.C. Engines (contd..)
9. According to the arrangement of cylinders
a) Vertical engines, b) Horizontal engines, c) Radial engines,
d) In-line multi-cylinder engines, e) V-type multi-cylinder
engines,
f) Opposite-cylinder engines, and g) Opposite-piston engines.
10. According to the valve mechanism
a) Overhead valve engines, and b) Side valve engines.
11. According to the method of governing
a) Hit and miss governed engines, b) Quantitatively
governed engines, and Qualitatively governed engines.
 Basic Idea of I.C. Engines
The basic idea of internal combustion engine is shown in Fig. (Basic
idea of I.C. engine). The cylinder which is closed at one end is filled
with a mixture of fuel and air. As the crankshaft turns it pushes
cylinder. The piston is forced up and compresses the mixture in the
top of the cylinder. The mixture is set alight and, as it burns, it creates
a gas pressure on the piston, forcing it down the cylinder.

This motion is shown by arrow ‘1’. The piston pushes on the rod
which pushes on the crank. The crank is given rotary (turning) motion
as shown by the arrow ‘2’. The flywheel fitted on the end of the
crankshaft stroes energy and keeps the crank turning steadily.
Fig. Basic idea of I.C. engine
 Constructional details of I.C. Engines
A cross-section of an air-cooled I.C. engine with principal parts is
shown in Fig. (Air-cooled I.C. engine).
A. Parts common to both Petrol and Diesel engine:
1. Cylinder, 2. Cylinder head, 3. Piston,
4. Piston rings, 5. Gudgeon pin, 6. Connecting rod,
7. Crankshaft, 8. Crank, 9. Engine bearing,
10. Crank case. 11. Flywheel, 12. Governor,
13. Valves and valve operating mechanism.
B. Parts for Petrol engines only:
1. Spark plug, 2. Carburettor, 3. Fuel pump.
C. Parts for Diesel engine only :
1. Fuel pump, 2. Injector.
Fig. Air-cooled I.C. engine
Constructional details of I.C. Engines (contd..)
The details of the I.C. Engine parts are:
1. Cylinder - It is one of the most important part of the engine, in
which the piston moves to and fro in order to develop power. The
engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure (more than 50 bar)
and temperature (more than 2000 deg C). Thus the material for the
engine cylinder should be such that it can retain sufficient strength at
such a high pressure and temperature. For ordinary engines, the
cylinder is made of ordinary cast iron. But for heavy duty engines, it is
made of steel alloys or aluminum alloys.
Sometimes, a liner or sleeve is inserted into the cylinder, which can
be replaced when worn out. As the material required for liner is
comparatively small, it cab be made of alloy cast iron having long life
and sufficient resistance to rapid wear and tear to the fast moving
reciprocating parts.
Constructional details of I.C. Engines (contd..)
2. Cylinder head - It is fitted on one end of the cylinder, and act as a
cover to close the cylinder bore. Generally, the cylinder head
contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh charge and
exhausting the burnt gases. In petrol engines, the cylinder head also
contains a spark plug for igniting the fuel-air mixture, towards the end
of compression stroke. But in diesel engines, the cylinder head
contain nozzles, (i.e. fuel valve) for injecting the fuel into the cylinder.

The cylinder head is cast as one piece and bolted to one end of the
cylinder. The cylinder block and cylinder head are made from the
same material. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided between the
engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air-tight joint.
Constructional details of I.C. Engines (contd..)
3. Piston – It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose
main function is to transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge
to the connecting rod. The piston are generally made of aluminium
alloys which are light in weight. They have good heat conducting
property and also greater strength at higher temperature.
4. Piston rings – These are circular rings and made of special steel
alloys which retain elastic properties even at high temperatures. The
piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on
the outer surface of the piston. Generally, there are two sets of rings
mounted for the piston. The function of the upper rings is to provide
air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower
portion. Similarly, the function of the lower rings is to provide effective
seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
Constructional details of I.C. Engines (contd..)
5. Connecting rod – It is a link between the piston and crankshaft,
whose main function is to transmit force from the piston to the
crankshaft. Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of the piston
into circular motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The
upper (i.e. smaller) end of the connecting rod is fitted to the piston
and the lower (i.e. bigger) end of the crank.

The special steel alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the
manufacture of connecting rods. A special care is required for the
design and manufacture of connecting rod, as it is subjected to
alternatively compressive and tensile stresses as well as bending
stresses.
Constructional details of I.C. Engines (contd..)
6. Crankshaft – It is considered as the backbone of an I.C. engine
whose function is to covert the reciprocating motion of the piston into
the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod. This shaft contains
one or more eccentric portions called cranks. This part of the crank,
to which bigger end of the connecting rod is fitted, is called crank pin.
Special steel alloys are used for the manufacture of crankshaft. A
special care is required for the design and manufacture of crankshaft
7. Crank case – It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and
crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also serves as a sump for the
lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed
plate, which is fixed with the help of bolts.
8. Flywheel – It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose
function is to maintain its speed constant. It is done by storing excess
energy during power stroke, which, is returned during other stroke.
 Terms relating to I.C. Engines
The various terms relating to I.C. engines are elaborated in Fig.
1. Bore – The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore.
2. Stroke – As the piston reciprocates inside the engine cylinder, it
has got limiting upper and lower positions beyond which it cannot
move and reversal of motion takes place at these limiting positions.
The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting
positions, is called stroke.
3. Top Dead Centre (T.D.C.) – The top most position towards cover
end side of the cylinder is called “top dead centre”. In case of
horizontal engines, this is known as inner dead centre.
4. Bottom Dead Centre – The lowest position of the piston towards
the crank end side of the cylinder is called “bottom dead centre”. In
case of horizontal engines it is called outer dead centre.
Fig. Terms relating I.C. engines
 Terms relating to I.C. Engines (contd..)
5. Clearance volume – The volume contained in the cylinder above
the top of the piston, when the piston is at top dead centre, is called
the clearance volume.
6. Swept volume – The volume swept through by the piston in moving
between top dead centre and bottom dead centre, is called swept
volume or piston displacement. Thus, when piston is at bottom dead
centre,
Total volume = swept volume + clearance volume.
 Sequence of Operation
The sequence of operation in a cycle are as follows:
1. Suction stroke – In this stroke, the fuel vapour in correct
proportion, is applied to the engine cylinder.
2. Compression stroke –. In this stroke, the fuel vapour is
compressed in the engine cylinder.
3. Expansion stroke – In this stroke, the fuel vapour is fired just
before the compression is complete. It results in the sudden rise of
pressure, due to expansion of the combustion products in the engine
cylinder. This sudden rise of pressure pushes the piston with a great
force, and rotates the crankshaft. The crankshaft, in turn, drives the
machine connected to it.
4. Exhaust stroke – In this stroke, the burnt gases (or combustion
products) are exhausted from the engine cylinder, so as to make
space available for the fresh fuel vapour.
 Two-stroke and Four-stroke Cycle
In a two-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes
of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft. This is achieved by
carrying out the suction and compression processes in one stroke (or
in inward stroke), expansion and exhaust process in thr second
stroke (or in outward stroke).

In a four-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four strokes

of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. This is achieved by
carrying out suction, compression, expansion and exhaust processes
in each stroke.
Comparison of Two-stroke and Four-stroke
Cycle Engine
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of two-stroke cycle
engines over four-stroke cycle engines:
Advantages
1. A two stroke cycle engine gives twice the number of power strokes
than the four stroke cycle engine at the same engine speed.
2. For the same power developed, a two-stroke cycle engine is
lighter, less bulky and occupies less floor area.
3. As the number of working strokes in a two-stroke cycle engine are
twice than the four-stroke cycle engine, so the turning moment of a
two-stroke cycle engine is more uniform. Thus it makes a two-stroke
cycle engine to have a lighter flywheel and foundations. This also
leads to a higher mechanical efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine.
Comparison of Two-stroke and Four-stroke
Cycle Engine (contd..)
4. The initial cost of a two-stroke cycle engine is considerably less
than a four-stroke cycle engine.
5. The mechanism of a two-stroke cycle engine is much simpler than
a four-stroke cycle engine.
6. The two-stroke cycle engines are much easier to start.

Disadvantages
1. Thermal efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is less than that a
four-stroke cycle engine.
 Comparison of Two-stroke and Four-stroke
Cycle Engine (contd..)
2. Overall efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is also less than that
of a four-stroke cycle engine because in a two-stroke cycle, inlet and
exhaust ports remain open simultaneously for sometime. A small
quantity of charge is lost from the engine cylinder.
3. In case of a two-stroke cycle engine, the number of power strokes
are twice as those of a four-stroke cycle engine. Thus the capacity of
the cooling system must be higher. There is a greater wear and tear
in a two-stroke cycle engine.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two-stroke cycle
engine because of high operating temperature.
5. The exhaust gases in a two-stroke cycle engine creates noise,
because of short time available for their exhaust.
 Two-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine
In this cycle, the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust takes
place during two strokes of the piston. There is one working stroke
after every revolution of the crankshaft. A two stroke engine has ports
instead of valves. All the four stages of a two stroke petrol engine are
described below:
1. Suction stage – In this stage, the piston, while going down towards
bottom dead centre (BDC), uncovers both the transfer port and the
exhaust port. The fresh fuel-air mixture flows into the engine cylinder
from the crank case, as shown in Fig.

2. Compression stage – In this stage, the piston, while moving up,

first covers the transfer port and then exhaust port. After that the fuel
is compressed as the piston moves upwards as shown in Fig. In this
stage, the inlet port opens and fresh fuel-air mixture enters into the
crank case.
Fig. Two-stroke cycle petrol engine
Fig. p-V diagram for a two-stroke cycle engine
Two-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine (contd..)
3. Expansion stage – Shortly before this piston reaches the top dead
centre (TDC) during compression stroke, the charge is ignited with
the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and
temperature of the products of combustion but the volume remains
constant. Due to rise in the pressure, the piston is pushed
downwards with a great force as shown in Fig. The hot burnt gases
expand due to high speed of the piston. During this expansion, some
of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work.

4. Exhaust stage - In this stage, the exhaust port is opened as the

piston moves downwards. The products of combustion, from the
engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust port into the
atmosphere, as shown in Fig. This completes the cycle and the
engine cylinder is ready to suck the charge again.
 Two-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
In a two-stroke Diesel cycle engine all the operations are the same as
in the spark ignition (Otto cycle) engine with the differences; firstly in
this case, only air is admitted into cylinder instead of air-fuel mixture
and secondly fuel injector is fitted to supply the fuel instead of a
sparking plug. All the four stages of a two-stroke cycle diesel engine
are described below:

1. Suction stage – In this stage, the piston while going down towards
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) uncovers the transfer port and the
exhaust port. The fresh air flows into the engine cylinder from the
crank case.
2. Compression stage – In this stage, the piston while moving up, first
covers the transfer port and then exhaust port. After that the air is
compressed as the piston moves upwards. In this stage, the inlet port
opens and the fresh air enters into the crank case.
Two-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine (contd..)
3. Expansion stage – Shortly before the piston reaches the Top Dead
Centre (TDC) during compression stroke, the fuel oil is injected in the
form of very fine spray into the engine cylinder through fuel injection
valve. At this moment, temperature of the compressed air is
sufficiently high to ignite the fuel. It suddenly increases the pressure
and temperature of the products of combustion. The fuel oil is
assumed to be burnt at constant pressure. Due to increased
pressure, the piston is pushed with a great force. The burnt gases
expand due to high speed of the piston. During the expansion, some
of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work.
4. Exhaust stage – In this stage, the exhaust port is opened and the
piston moves downwards. The products of combustion from the
engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust port into the
atmosphere. This completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder is
ready to suck the air again.
 Four-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine
It requires four strokes of the piston to complete one cycle of
operation in the engine cylinder. The four strokes of a petrol engine
sucking fuel-air mixture (petrol mixed with proportionate quantity of
air in the carburettor known as charge) are described below:
1. Suction stroke – In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and charge is
sucked into the cylinder as the piston moves downward from TDC. It
continues till the piston reaches its BDC as shown in Fig.
2. Compression stroke – In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust
valves are closed and the charge is compressed as the piston moves
upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression, the pressure
and temperature of the charge increases considerably. This
completes one revolution of the crank shaft. The compression stroke
is shown in Fig.
Fig. Four-stroke Otto cycle engine
Fig. Theoretical p-V diagram of a four-stroke Otto cycle engine
Four-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine (contd..)
3. Expansion stroke – Shortly before the piston reaches TDC, the
charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases
the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion but the
volume, practically remains constant. Due to the rise in pressure, the
piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases
expand due to high speed of the piston. During this expansion, some
of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work.
During this working stroke, as shown in Fig., both the valves are
closed and piston moves from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke – In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as piston
moves from BDC to TDC. This movement of the piston pushes out
the product of combustion, from the engine cylinder and exhausted
through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere, as shown in Fig. This
completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the
charge again.
 Four-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition
takes place due to the heat produced in the engine cylinder at the
end of compression stroke. The four strokes of a diesel engine
sucking pure air are described below:
1. Suction stroke – In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and pure air is
sucked into the cylinder as the piston moves downwards from the
TDC. It continues till the piston reaches its BDC as shown in Fig.
2. Compression stroke – In this stroke, both the valves are closed
and the air is compressed as the piston move upwards from BDC to
TDC. As a result of compression, pressure and temperature of the air
increases considerably. This completes one revolution of the crank
shaft. The compression stroke is shown in Fig.
Fig. Four-stroke Diesel cycle engine
Fig. Theoretical p-V diagram of a four-stroke Diesel cycle
Four-stroke Cycle Diesel Engine (contd..)
3. Expansion stroke – Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC, the
fuel oil is injected in the form of very fine spray into the engine
cylinder, through fuel injection valve. At this moment, temperature of
the compressed air is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel. It suddenly
increases the pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion. The fuel oil is assumed to be burnt at constant pressure.
Due to increased pressure, the piston is pushed down with a great
force. The hot burnt gases expand due to high speed of the piston.
During this expansion, some of the heat energy is transformed into
mechanical work. During this working stroke, both the valves are
closed and the piston moves from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke – In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as the
piston moves from BDC to TDC. The movement of the piston pushes
out the products of combustion from the engine cylinder through the
exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This completes the cycle and the
engine cylinder is ready to suck the fresh air again.
 Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines
Petrol Engines Diesel Engines
1. A petrol engine draws a mixture of A diesel engine draws only air during
petrol and air during suction stroke. suction stroke.
2. The carburettor is employed to mix
air and petrol in the required The injector or atomiser is employed
proportion and to supply it to the to inject the fuel at the end of
engine during suction stroke. combustion stroke.
3. Pressure at the end of compression
is about 10 bar. Pressure at the end of compression is
4. The charge (i.e. petrol and air about 35 bar.
mixture) is ignited with the help of The fuel is injected in the form of fine
spark plug. spray. The temperature of the
compressed air is sufficiently high to
ignite the fuel.
 Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines (contd..)

5. The combustion of the fuel takes The combustion of the fuel takes place at
place at constant volume. It works constant pressure. It works on Diesel
on Otto cycle. cycle.
6. A petrol engine has compression A diesel engine has compression ratio
ratio from 6 to 10. from 15 to 25.
7. The starting is easy due to low The starting is difficult due to high
compression ratio. compression ratio.
8. As the compression ratio is low, the As the compression ratio is high, the
petrol engines are lighter and diesel engines are heavier and
cheaper. costlier.
9. The running cost of a petrol engine The running cost of diesel engine is
is high because of the higher cost low because of the lower cost of
of petrol. diesel.
 Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines (contd..)

10. The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.

11. The thermal efficiency is about The thermal efficiency is about 40%.
26%. Overheating trouble is less due to high
12. Overheating trouble is more due to thermal efficiency.
low thermal efficiency. These are relatively low speed
13. These are high speed engines. engines.
The diesel engines are generally
14. The petrol engines are generally employed in heavy duty vehicles like
employed in light duty vehicle such buses, trucks, and earth moving
as scooters, motorcycles and cars. machines.
These are also used in aeroplanes.