aieia tel el arate) Advanced C Programming Technical Publications Pune’‘Table of Contents : Chapter-1 Basin Elements nf C (1. t)to (1 - 30) }Chapter-2 Operators and Expressions 2+ t)to (2 24) Chapier-3 Input and Output Statements (3-1) t0 (3-24 Chapter-4 Decision Making, Branching & Looping 4 - 1) to (4-38) Chapter-5 —_Arrays and Strings 5 - 1) 0 (5 - 38) Chapter-6 Pointers (6 - t}to (6-32) Chapter-7 Functions (-1)6(7-24) Chapter-6 Storage Classes 8 - 1)0 (B+ 12) Chanter -9 User Defined Data Types (9 - 1) to (9 - 28) Chapter-10 File Handling (10-4) to (10-38) Ghapter+11 Advanced Features 111) to (11 + 30) Appendix -A Programming Examples (A= 1)t04A- 62) Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of Anna University (Coimbatore) - 2007 Course: Semester-IH [CSE/I.T.] % k= Advanced C Programming S Computer Architecture ? Digital Principles and Systems Design Principles of Communication (4)Advanced C Programming ISBN 9788184314960 Al rights reserved with Technicol Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and relrievel system without prior permission in writing, fram Tachaicel Publications, Pune. Published by Technical Publications Pune” #1, Anit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Inks Printer : K Joshi & Co. 1945/9, Sadhashv Peth, Pine - 411030,nis less than 0. Have your program print an error message if n <0, then go back and read in the next pair of numbers of without computing the sum, Are any values of x also illegal ? If So, test for them too. . . . . AA 54 Program 49 . Write a C program to find the roots of a quadratic equation. . A=55 Program 50 . Write aC program to reverse the first n characters in a file. (Note : The fle name and n are specified on the command line.)........... A-56 Program 51 . Write a C program to convert a Roman numeral to its decimal equivalent. ... A-57 Program 52. Write a'C program that displays the position or index in the string S where the string T begins, or - 1 if S does not contain T......... Program 53 . Write a C program that uses function to insert a sub-string into given main string from agiven position, . A-59 Program 54. 2's complement of a number is obtained by scanning it from shtto to left and complementing all the bits after the first appearance of a 1. Thus 2's complement of. of 400 és 00100. Write a C program to find the 2's conrleent otabioayBasic Elements of C C is a computer programming language. This means, we can use C to create lists of instructions for a computer to follow. C is one of thousands of programming languages currently in use. C has been around for several decades and has won widespread acceptance because it gives programmers maximum control and efficiency. C is an easy language to learn. It is a bit more cryptic in its style than some other languages, but we get beyond that fairly quickly. 1.1 History of C The C language is developed by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell Laboratories, in 1972. It was named C because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called B. In 1970, the Ken Thompson developed and named language as B since it was a stripped down version of the BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language). BCPL was developed by Martin Richards, in 1967. Most of the modern languages including ANSI/ISO C are derived from the ALGOL, introduced in the 1960s. It was the first language to use block structure. ALGOL never gained wide acceptance in the United States, but it was widely used in Europe. After introduction of ‘Traditional C’ language by Dennis Ritchie in 1972, it was confined to use within Bell Laboratories until 1978, when Brian Kernighan and Ritchie published a book 'The C Programming Language’. The book was so popular that the language at that time is commonly referred to as "K&R C’. By the mid 1980s, the popularity of C has become wide spread. Numerous C compilers and interpreters had been written for computers. of all sizes, and many commercial application programs had been developed. Early commercial implementations of C differed somewhat from Kernighan and Ritchie's original definition, resulting in minor incomy between different implementations of the language. To avoid incompatil problems for system developers due to them, in 1983, the American National Standards Institute formed a committee to produce a C programming language standard. This “ANSI C” was completed in 1988, and was approved in 1989, It was then approved by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1990. The Fig. 1. shows the history of ANSI C. (@-4)Advanced C Programming 4-2 Basic Elements of C Developed by International Group in 1960 Developed by Martin Richards in 1967 Developed by Ken Thompson in 1970 Developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 Developed by Kernighan and Ritchie in 1978 Developed by ANSI committee in 1989 ANSgstandards Approved by ISO committee in 1990 Fig. 1.1 History of ANSI C 1.2 Characteristics of C We briefly list some of the characteristics of C language that define the language. The characteristics give an idea why C has now become a widely used professional language. Program written in C has comparatively small size. It allows loose typing — unlike PASCAL. It is a structured language. It is a complied language, i.e. once we write C program, we have to run it through a C compiler to turn program into an executable. C compilers are commonly available. It supports pointer implementation - extensive use of pointers for memory, array, structures and functions. It has only 32 keywords. It provides large number of built-in functions. It recommends extensive use of function calls. It has high-level constructs,Advanced C Programming 1-3 Basic Elements of C © It can handle low-level activities. Low level (Bitwise) programming readily available. It produces efficient and fast running programs. © It can be compiled on a variety of computers. * It is highly portable. This means that programs written on one computer can run on another computer having different operating system with little or no modification. 1.3 Simple C Programs The only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it, ie. learning by examples. The first program in C to display a message “hello students” is as follows. Though the program is very simple, the important points in the program are as follows : © The first line in the program is comment that identifies the purpose of the program. The comment begins with /* and ends with */ * include allows the program to interact with the screen, keyboard and file system of our computer. #include is a preprocessor directive. It includes the information required to execute specific functions from the specified header file. (in this program stdio.h) in the program when it is complied. The blank space between # and include is not permitted. © Every C program contains a function called main. This is the start point of the program. main() declares the start of the function, while the two curly brackets show the start and finish of the function. Curly brackets in C are used to group statements together as in a function, or in the body of a loop. Such a grouping is known as a compound statement or a block. naterialAdvanced C Programming 1-4 Basic Elements of C * printf(“hello, students\n”); This is a statement in the program. The printf is a built-in function provided by C. It prints the words on the screen. The text to be printed is enclosed in double quotes. The \n at the end of the text tells the program to print on the next line of the output. + It is important to note that each statement within the compound statement ends with a semicolon. Most C programs are in lower case letters. We will usually find upper case letters used in preprocessor definitions (which will be discussed later) or inside quotes as parts of character strings. C is case sensitive, that is, it recognizes a lower case letter and it’s upper case equivalent different. In the above program few new things are introduced which are as follows: © The words, number and sq are variable names. They are used to store numeric data. Here, both numbers are declared as integer data type. The word int is a keyword for integer. © scanf("%d", &number); This is a statement in the program. The scanf is a built-in function provided by C. It reads the value of the variable and assigns the value to the specified variable. + The argument %d in the scanf/printf functions tells compiler that the value of the number should be read/printed as a decimal integer. Copyrighted materialAdvanced C Programming 1-5 Basic Elements of C © The ampersand symbol (&) before variable name number is an operator that specifies the variable name's address. © sq = number * number; This is a particular type of expression statement called an assignment statement. This statement causes the square to be calculated from the given value of number. Within the statement the asterisks (*) represents multiplication sign. * The output section shows the program output. The bold matter shown is entered by the user. In the above program few new things are introduced which are as follows: The comments at the end of each line have been added in order to emphasize overall program organization. © fidefine statement is preprocessor compiler directive. It assigns a constant value to the symbolic name (PI in this program). © The words radius and area are variable names. They are used to store numeric data. Here, both numbers are declared as floating point data type. The word float is a keyword for floating point. The argument %f in the scanf/printf functions tells compiler that the value of the radius/area should be read/printed as a floating point number.Advanced C Programming Basic Elements of C The above program uses user defined function to change the value of variable num, Let us talk few things about function. The detail description of function is given in chapter 7. * A function is a self contained program segment that carries out some specific, well-defined task. Here, function modifies the value of variable num. + Every C program consists of one or more functions (in this program two functions). One of these functions must be a main function. * Execution of the program will always begin by carrying out the instructions in main. + The program has one argument in the function that is declared as integer. The value of num is passed on to n when the function modify ( ) is called. + The function returns the modified value to the main ( ) function when it is called in the statement. num = modify (num) ; Copyrighted materialAdvanced C Programming Basic Elements of C 1.4 Structure of C Program The programs given in the previous sections give the brief idea of a structure of C program. C program can be viewed as a group of building blocks called funetions. The function is subroutine program which includes one or more statements to perform specific task. The Fig. 1.2 shows the structure of the C program. Fig. 1.2 Structure of C program Copyrighted materialAdvanced C Programming 1-8 Basic Elements of © ‘As shown in the Fig. 1.2, every C program should consist of : Document Section (Optional) The C program begins with a document section. It includes a set of comment lines giving information such as name of the program, purpose of the program and other details. The documentation part is not compulsory; however it is recommended. Written by : AP. Godse Date : 1/8/2008 Preprocessor Directives + The preprocessor directives or precompiler directives are the special instructions to the preprocessor that tell it how to prepare our program for compilation. It begins with a number symbol (#) as a first non-blank character. One of the most’ important preprocessor directive is include. The include directive is used to tell the preprocessor that we need information from the selected library file known as header file. * The #define is also the commonly used preprocessor directive. It assigns a constant value to the symbolic constants. #include #include #include #define Name value #define PI 3.14159 #define MAX 100Advanced C Programming 1-9 Basic Elements of C Global Declaration Section By declaring the variables outside of all the functions, they can be made accessible to all functions in the program. Such variables are known as global variables and they are declared in’ the global declaration section which is outside of all the functions. The declaration of user defined function is also included in the global declaration section. Main Function Section The program may contain one or more functions, one of which must be main () function. The program will always begin by executing the main function. Additional function definitions in the program may precede or follow main ( ). The program execution begins at the opening curly brace and ends at the closing curly brace of the main function. Main Function Section Example Syntax : main() { function body | ) | Example: main() { int number, sq; 7* Declayations */ print{(‘Number = #* Executable statement */ scanf("%d", &number); #* Executable statement */ sq = number * number; /* Executable statement */ printf(‘\nSquare = %d", sq); /* Executable statement */ } The main function body (the portion of the program within the opening and closing curly braces) has two parts ; declarations and executable statements. The declarations declare all the variables except global variables used in the executable statements of the function. The variables declared within the function can be accessed only in that function. Such variables are known as local variables.Advanced C Programming 1-10 Basic Elements of C User Defined Function Section User Defined Function Section Example | | | Syntax : for function without input arguments : ftype function_name() { function body } | Example: — int cubo() { int number, c; /* Declarations */ printf(‘Number = /° Executable statement */ scanf("%d", &number); /* Executable statement */ | G = number * number * number; —_/* Executable statement */ return(c}; /* Executable statement */ } Syntax : for function with input arguments ftype function_name(argument list) { function body + i : Example; — int cube(int number) { int c; #* Declarations */ c= number* number * number; —_/* Executable statement */ return(c); /* Executable statement */ } Each user function must contain ; + A function heading, which consists of a function name followed by an optional list of arguments enclosed in parenthesis. In the above example, int keyword preceding function name indicates that the function will return integer value.Advanced C Programming 4-11 Basic Elements of C © A list of argument declarations, if arguments are included in the heading (Arguments are symbols that represent information being passed betiveen the functions and other parts of the program). + Function body, it is similar to m, also contains declaration: function body, i.e. user-defined function and executable statements. Important Notes : * All declarations and executable statements should be ended with semicolon. * Except main function all other parts are optional in the program. They are included as per the requirements of the program. 1.5 Program Style Most of the programs are examined or studied by someone other than the original programmer. In industry, programmers spend considerably more time on program maintenance (that is, updating and modifying the program) than they do on its original design or coding. Keeping these things in mind, the program that is neatly stated and whose meaning is clear makes everyone's job simpler. Let us see the important tips to make program neat and clear. /* This program adds two integer numbers written by : A. P Godse */ #inelude< stdio.h > Ncrereancel main() { and readable names Prove sorimer int num_i = 15, num_2 = 20; /* Local declaration */ int sum; sum = num_1 + num 2; /* calculate and assign the sum */ printf ( ‘Sum of two numbers is = %a", sum );)/* print the sum */ ———— Use of renee identation ‘opening and closing braces Fig. 1.3 Program style example * Write all program sections in lowercase letters except symbolic constants and text message enclosed in the double quotes (" ”) in the printf statement. * Braces group program statements together and mark the beginning and end of functions, Beginning and end braces must be aligned. * Give proper indentation of brace and statement to make program easier to read and debug.Advanced C Programming 1-12 Basic Elements of C «Insert proper comments to easily understand program logic. They are very iiseful for debugging and testing, the program. Excessive comments should be avoided because they may decrease program readability. * Choose meaningful names for variables and user defined functions, so their use is easy to understand. If a name consists of two or more words, placi the underscore character (_) between words will improve the readability of the name. For example, rupees_per_hour instead of rupees perhour. * Choose name long enough to convey proper meaning. But avoid excessively long names because they may increase the chances of typing errors. + To avoid confusion, do nat choose names that are similar to each other. 1.6 Editing, Compiling and Executing the Program Developing a program in a compiled language such as C requires at least four steps: + editing (or writing) the program * compiling it linking it and + executing it The Fig. 14 illustrates the process of editing, compiling, linking, and executing C program. 1.6.1 Editing Once the program has been handwritten, it must be entered into the computer before it can be complied, linked and executed. We need editor for this purpose. The editor program allows us to type the program directly inte a window on the screen and save the resulting text as a separate file. This is often referred to as the source file (we can read it with the TYPE command in DOs or the eat command in UNTX). The important thing is that the text of a C program is stored in a file with the extension .c for C programming language. To enter a new program in turbo C++ editor, we have to simply type the program into the editing area on a line-by-line basis and press the enter key at the end of each line. To edit the program in the line, we have to use the mouse or the cursor movement (arrow) keys to locate the beginning of the edit area. Then we have to use backspace or Delete keys to remove unwanted characters. We may also insert additional characters, as required. We may delete one or more lines by selecting (highlighting) the lines and then selecting Cut from the Edit Menu, or pressing Delete key. The Cut and Paste selections in the Edit menu allows movement of block of lines from one location to other.Advanced C Programming 1-13 Basic Elements of C Fig. 1.4 Flowchart showing sequence of editing, compiling, linking, and executing G programAdvanced C Programming 1-14 Basic Elements of C Once the program has been entered, it should be saved before it is executed. In Turbo C++, this is accomplished by selecting Save As from the File menu, and supplying a program name, such as HELLO.C. Once the program has been saved, it can again be saved after recent changes at some later time simply by selecting Save from the File menu. The program that has been saved can later be recalled by selecting Open from the File menu, and then either typing the program name or selecting the program name from a list of stored programs.Advanced C Programming 1-15 Basic Elements of C 1.6.2 Compiling We cannot directly execute the source file. Therefore, once the program has been entered into the computer, edited and saved, it can be compiled by selecting Compile from the Compile menu. A new window will then be opened which gives the information about warnings and errors in the program if any. If the program does not compile successfully, a list of error messages will appear in a separate message window. A successful compilation produces an intermediate object file - with the extension .ob}, the .ob3 stands for Object. We can also compile the program file by using short-cut keys - AILE9, ~ Ei + finclude main() € printf ("Hello world"); ? apie tl the active Edit window. r a Fig. 1.5 (c) Turbo C++ Editor with Compile Menu 1.6.3 Linking The first question that comes to most people's minds is why is linking necessary? The main reason is that many compiled languages come with library routines which can be added to the program. These routines are written by the manufacturer of the compiler to perform a variety of tasks, from input/output to complicated mathematical functions. In the case of C the standard input and output functions are contained in a library (stdio.h) so even the most basic program will require a library function. The object file can be linked by selecting Link from the Compile menu. A new window will then be opened which gives the information about warnings and errors in the program if any. A successful linking produces an executable file - with the extension .exe, the .exe stands for Executable. It is important to note that Build All from the Compile menu does the compilation of the program and if compilation is error free, it does linking of theAdvanced C Programming 1-16 Basic Elements of C program immediately after the compilation. If compilation results error, the object file is not created and hence there is no question of linking. 1.6.4 Executable Files The text editor produces .c source files, which go to the compiler, which produces -obj object files, which go to the linker, which produces .exe executable file. We can then run .exe files as we run other applications, simply by typing their names at the DOs prompt or run from the Run menu. We can also run the executable file by using short-cut keys - Ctrl+F9. 1.6.5 Using Microsoft C © Edit stage: Type program using one of the Microsoft Windows. editing packages. + Compile and link ; Select Building from Make menu. Building option allows us to both compile and link in the same option, + Execute : Use the Run menu and select Go option. Errors : First error highlighted. Use Next Error from Search menu for further errors if applicable. 1.6.6 Unix Systems In Unix operating system, the program is entered using a text editor ed or vi. The program file name should have extension .c. It is important to note that Unix is a case sensitive operating system and files named firstprog.c and FIRSTPROG.c are treated as two separate files on this system. The command for calling the editor and creating the program file is ed filename If file already exists, it is loaded; otherwise a new file with the given name is created. By default the Unix system compiles and links a program in one step, as follows: ce firstprog.c This command creates an executable file called a.out that overwrites any existing file called a.out. Executable files on Unix are run by typing their name. In this case the program is run as follows: aout If we want to prevent overwriting of previously created a.out file, we have to rename it before creating another one. This is accomplished by using the command ce -0 name source_fileAdvanced C Programming 1-17 Basic Elements of C For example : cc -o firstprog firstprog.c This produces an executable file called £irstprog which runs as follows: firstprog 1.7 The Character Set of C C uses the uppercase letters A to Z, the lowercase letters a to z, the digits 0 to 9, and certain special characters as building blocks to form a basic C program elements such as constants, variables, operators, expressions, etc. The Table 1.1 shows the entire character set of C. Uppercase Letters | ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Lowercase Letters | abcdetfghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz Digits 0123456788 Special Characters | , comma & ampersand period * caret semicolon colon 2 question mark | ' apostrophe * quotation mark | ! exclamation | vertical bar I slash mark \ backstash = tide under score | $ dollar sign % percent sign | * asterisk = minus sign + plus sign < opening angle bracket (or less than sign) > dosing angle bracket (or greater than sign) J right bracket Horizontal Tab Table 1.1 The character set of C (lef parenthesis |) right parenthesis [left bracket {left brace } right brace # number sign Blank space carriage retum Trigraph Characters A trigraph is a sequence of three characters that begins with two question marks (22). We use trigraphs to write C source files with a character set that does not contain convenient graphic representations for some punctuation characters. They provide the way to enter certain characters that are not available on some keyboard. (The resultant C source file is not necessarily more readable, but it is unambiguous.) The list of all defined trigraphs is shown in Table 1.2.Advanced C Programming 1-18 Basic Elements of C Trigraphs | Character(s) Description Represented 22 # pound sign or number sign 2% U left bracket 2) 1 right bracket Ne { left brace D> } right brace 2 \ backslash 27 A caret 7 | pipe or vertical bar 2 = tide Table 1.2 Trigraph characters The translator replaces each trigraph with its equivalent single character representation, Thus we can always treat a trigraph as a single source character. The translator does not alter any other sequence that begins with two question marks. For example, the expression statements: printf(*Case ??=3 is done??/n); print£("You said what??2?/n”); are equivalent to: printf ase #3 is done\n"); printf(*You said what2?\n"); 1.8 C Tokens C language programs are composed of lexical elements. The lexical elements of the C language are characters and white spaces that are grouped together into tokens. Kinds of tokens in C are : = Identifiers * Keywords + Constants * Operators In this section we study identifiers, keywords and constants. Operators are discussed in the next chapter,Advanced C Programming 1-19 Basic Elements of C 1.8.1 Identifiers “Identifiers” or “symbols” are the names we give for variables, types, functions, and labels in our program. Identifier names must differ in spelling and case from any keywords. We cannot use keywords as identifiers; they are reserved for special use. We can create an identifier by specifying it in the declaration of a variable, type, or function. Identifiers [ | © Consist of only sequence of letters, digits, and the special character | underscore (_). | + We cannot use keywords as identifiers. * A letter or underscore must be the 1 character of an identifier. * Cis case-sensitive: Apple and apple are two different identifiers. * C€ recognizes. only the first 31 characters. Additional characters are carried along for programmer convenience. Valid variable names var.1 num'2 this fumt 426East a_long_identitior +more Table 1.3 Examples of valid and invalid identifiers 1.8.2 Keywords In C there are certain reserve characters, called keywords. They have standard, predefined meanings, Keywords can be used only for their intended purpose; they cannot be used as programmer-defined identifier. We cannot use keywerds as identifiers; if we do, the compiler reports an error. The Table 14 shows the list of standard keywords.Advanced ¢ Programming Basic Elements of C const continue defautt do Table 1.4 ANSI C keywords 1.8.3 Constants Constants provide a way to define a variable which cannot be modified during the execution of the program, Constants can be defined by placing the keyword const in front of any variable declaration. There are four basic types of constants in C. These are: © integer constants : 0, 37, 2001 * floating constants : 0.8, 199.33, 1.0 * character constants : ‘a’, ‘5’, ‘+" © string constants ; “2”, "vonday” Integer and floating point constants represent numbers and hence they are often referred to as numeric constants. 1.8.3.1 Integer Constants An integer constant is an integer-valued number. It can represent decimal, octal, or hexadecimal values. Decimal Constant A decimal constant contains any of the digits 0 through 9, preceded by an optional - or + sign. The first digit cannot be 0, Integer constants beginning with the digit 0 are interpreted as an octal constant, rather than as a decimal constant. In decimal constants embedded spaces, commas, and non-digital characters are not permitted between digits. The Table 1.5 shows the valid and invalid decimal constants with reason for invalidity.Advanced C Programming 1-21 Basic Elements of C Valid Decimal Constants Invalid Decimal Constants 485976 13,43Sillegal character comma (,). — 433132211 10.234lllegal character period (.). +20 10 456illegal character biank scape ( ). 5 65-976lllegal character dash (-). 956 054367 The first digit cannot be zero. Table 1.5 Decimal constants Hexadecimal Constants. A hexadecimal constant begins with the 0 digit followed by either an x or X, followed by any combination of the digits 0 through 9 and the letters a through f or A through F. The letters A (or a) through F (or f) represent the values 10 through 15, respectively. Table 1.6 shows the examples of hexadecimal constants. Valid Hexadecimal Gonstants| —_ Invalid Hexadecimal Gonstants 0x 12,4lllegal character (.) 0 A436Does not begin with Ox or OX 0x7 Baillegal character (.) OxAG3illlegal character (G) Table 1.6 Hexadecimal constant Octal Constants An octal constant begins with the digit 0 and contains any of the digits 0 through 7, Valid Octal Constants Invatid Octal Constants 24315Does not begin with zero O4681Iliogal digit 8 07,34ltiegal character (.) 05,45illagal character (.) Table 1.7 Octal constant The magnitude of integer constant can range from zero to some maximum value that varies from one compiler to another compiler. If 16-bits are allotted to store integer constant, the maximum value is 2'°-1, ic. 32767 decimal (equivalent to 77777 octal or 7FFF hexadecimal). If 32-bits are allotted to store integer constant, the maximum value is 2"'-1, i.e. 2,147,483,647 decimal.Advanced C Programming 1-22 Basic Elements of C Unsigned and Long Integer Constants Unsigned integer constants can have only positive values hence they may exceed the magnitude of ordinary integer constants by approximately factor of 2. An unsigned integer constant can be identified by appending the letter U (either uppercase or lower case) to the end of the constant. Long integer constants may exceed the magnitude of ordinary integer constants, but requires more number of bits, ic. memory in the computer. Long integer constant can be identified by appending the letter L (either uppercase or lower case) to the end of the constant. The Table 1.8 shows the examples of unsigned and long integer constants. Constant Number system 4sese67U Decimal (unsigned) 95643. Decimal (Long) 68S46UL Decimal (unsigned Long) 045366. Octal (Long) satu oxAsb0L oxescr4u Hexadecimal (unsigned) Table 1.8 Unsigned and long integers 1.8.3.2 Floating-Point Constants Floating-point constants are numbers with decimal parts. A floating-point constant consists of: ¢ An integral part * A decimal point * A fractional part * An exponent part + An optional suffix. integer Fractional part part Optional ESS Decimal Exponent point part Fig. 1.6 Floating point constantAdvanced C Programming 1-23 Basic Elements of C Both the integral and fractional parts are made up of decimal digits. The number either contains a decimal point or an exponent or both. We can omit either the integral part or the fractional part, but not both. We can omit either the decimal point or the exponent part, but not both. + A suffix of f or F indicates a type of float, and a suffix of I or L indicates a type of long double. If a suffix is not specified, the floating-point constant has a type double. * A plus (+) or minus (-) symbol can precede a floating-point constant. However, it is not part of the constant; it is interpreted as a unary operator. * The limits for floating-point values are set in the float.h include file. The Table 1.9 shows the examples of vatid floating-point constants. Value 53876 4e-11 9.00000000004 double 1e+5, 1100000 double 7.3216-3 0.007321 double 3.264 32000 0.S0-6f 0.000008 0.45 60000000000 tong double Table 1.9 Examples of valid floating-point constants The Table 1.10 shows the examples of invalid floating-point constants with reason for invalidity. Invalid Floating-Point Reason for Invalidity Constants 23 Either decimal point or an expanent must be present. 3,500.0 Megal character (,) 4E+10.3 Exponent must be an integer quantity; it cannot contain a decimal point. SE 10 Wega! character blank space in the exponent. Table 1.10 Examples of invalid floating-point constants If a floating-point constant is too large in magnitude in C, it is set to the largest value representable by the type. If it is too small in magnitude, it is set to zero. 1.8.3.3 Character Constants A character constant is a single character, enclosed within the pair of single quotation mark (apostrophes). The examples of character constants are : ‘Any 6 >” “esAdvanced C Programming 1-24 Basic Elements of C a © A character constant is enclosed in single quotes. See © Any number enclosed in single quotes is a character constant; however, it is not same as number. For example, character constant '6' is not same as number 6. © The last character constant in the above examples is blank space, which is typed by pressing the apostrophe key, the space bar and the apostrophe key. Backslash Character Constants (Escape Sequences) In addition to the character, there can be backslash (\) between the two quote marks. The backslash (\) is known as eseape character. A backslash followed by one or more special character is known as escape sequence. The escape sequences are used to express certain non-printing characters, as well as the backslash and the apostrophe. The Table 1.11 shows the escape sequences used in C. Escape Sequence Character Represented ‘NO Null character ‘\at Alert (bell, alarm) "\bt Backspace "er Form feed (new page) "nt New-line "Net Carriage return "ct Horizontal tab "wv" Vertical tab ne Single quotation mark ne Double quotation mark "2" Question mark ™t Backslash_ ‘\oo0" Octal number ‘\xhh' Hexadecimal number Table 1.11 Escape sequences used in C Note : The null character constant ‘\0' is not equivalent to character constant ‘0’.Advanced C Programming 1-25 Basic Elements of C 1.8.3.4 String Constants A string constant or literal contains a sequence of zero or more characters or escape sequences enclosed in double quotation marks. For example , 7* the empty string */ "al 7* string with one character */ “Hello students’ /* string with more than one character */ The quotes are not part of the string, but serve only to delimit it. The same escape sequences used in character constants apply in strings; \" represents the double-quote character. String constants can be concatenated at compile time: “hello, ” “students” is equivalent to “hello, students”. This is useful for splitting up long strings across several source lines. « A string constant or literal contains a sequence of zero or more characters ‘or escape sequences enclosed in double quotation marks. * A string constant is an array of characters. * The internal representation of a string has a null character ‘\0’ at the end, so the physical storage required is one more than the number of characters written between the quotes. * There is no limit to how long a string can be, but programs must scan a string completely to determine its length. The standard library function strlen(s) retums the length of the string in characters. 1.8.4 Basic Data Types and Sizes C supports several data types, cach of which may be represented differently within the computer's memory. The basic data types in C are int, char, float and double. In addition, there are a number of qualifiers that can be applied to these basic types. The qualifiers short, long, signed and unsigned apply to integer whereas long apply to double. The following tables show the data types with necessary description.Advanced C Programming 41-26 Basic Elements of C Data type Description Required Memory | Min Value Max Value int Represent integers : signed — = 32,768, 3276T unsigned 0 65,535 int Represent integers : signed 4 Bytes — 2,147,483,648 | 2,147,483,647 unsigned 0 4,294 967,295 short int | Represent integers : signed 2 Bytes — 32,768 32767 unsigned ° 65,535, tong int | Represent intogers : signed aioe ~ 2,147,983,648 | 2,147,483,647 unsigned Bee 0 - | 4,294967.295 * Some computers use 48, 64 or more bits Description Required Memory| Min. Value | Max. Value char signed single character 1 Bytes - 128 127 char unsigned single character 1 Bytes 0 255 Required Memory Min Value Max Value 4 Bytes 34e-38 3.4e+38 double 8 Bytes 1.7e-308 1.7e+308, long double 10 Bytes 3.4e~4992 ide+4932 1.8.5 Variables ‘A variable is an identifier that is used to represent specified type of information. It is a name associated with a memory location(s) that have a type, such as integer, character or float and consequently a size, which is inherited from their type. The values stored in the variables can change as the program executes, thus we can assign different data values at various places within the program. However, the data type associated with the variable cannot change. Every variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable, the value stores data. There is a limitation on what these names can be. Every variable name inAdvanced C Programming 1-27 Basic Elements of C C must start with a letter, the rest of the name can consist of letters, numbers and underscore characters, C recognises upper and lower case characters as being different so x and X are two different names. Finally, we cannot use any of C’s keywords like main, while, switch ete. as variable names. Examples of legal variable names include : Examples of Variable Names. x | resut outfile | _bestyet xt [2 out file best_yet Pern ama nico It is conventional to avoid the use of capital letters in variable names. These are used for names of symbolic constants. At least the first 31 characters of an internal name are significant. For function names and external variables, the number may be less than 31, because external names may be used by assemblers and loaders over which the language has no control, For external names, the standard guarantees uniqueness only for 6 characters and a single case. An array is another type of variable. It is also an identifier that refers to a collection of data items that all have the same name. The data items must be of same type (eg,, all integers, all characters, etc.). The individual data items are represented by their corresponding array elements indicated by indexes. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7. result (0) result (1] ie rosult [2} CEiement } rosult [3] result [4] SS rout (8 result (6) rosuit [7] me oF the array, Fig. 1.7 Structure of an arrayAdvanced C Programming 1-28 Basic Elements of C 1.8.6 Variable Declarations In C, a variable must be declared before it can be used. Variables can be declared at the start of any block of code, but most are found at the start of each function. Most local variables are created when the function is called, and are destroyed on return from that function. A declaration begins with the data type, followed by the name of one or more variables. For example, int high, low; Declarations can be spread out, allowing space for an explanatory comment. Variables can also be initialised when they are declared, this is done by adding an equals sign and the required value after the declaration. int high = 258; /* Maximum Temperature */ int low = -30; /* Minimum Temperature */ Variable Declarations Declarations Comments int x. y: ‘The unsigned variables a and b can represent values that are twice as unsigned a, b: large as the values represented by x and y. int count = 0. Every time the function containing count is entered, count is set to 0. double area Variable area has data type double. Jong square_of_number Variable uses underscores as a word separators and has data type long integer. Like variables, an array must be declared before it can be used. Declaration tells the compiler the name of the array, the type of each element and the size of element in the array. The size of the array is constant and must be known at compilation time. The Fig. 18 shows three different array declarations : one for integers, one for characters and one for floating-point numbers.Advanced C Programming 1-29 Basic Elements of C Fig. 1.8 Array declarations Review Questions 1 1 3. 4. 5. 6 Comment on hristory of C language. What are the general characteristics of C ? Explain the basic structure of C program. What are preprocessor directives ? List the important tips to make program neat and clear. Explain the process of editing, compiling and executing the C program. Draw the flow chart of sequence of editing, compiling and executing C program. 1. Give the character seb of C. What do you mean by trigraph characters ? How are they usefull ? | List and describe various trigraph characters. What are identifiers ? List the rules to define vatid identifiers. . What are keywords ? What are constants ? How they differ from variabtes? 5. List the various types of constants with e 5. List uarious backslash character constants with the character represented by them. 7. Describe string constant. . Explain the various data types supported by C. What is variable ? What is meant by value of variable ? . Describe the array variable. . How and where are the variables declared ?(1 = 30)Operators and Expressions In the last chapter, we have seen constants and variables. These are the basic data objects manipulated in a program. Declarations list the variables to be used, and state what type they have and perhaps what their initial values are. Operators specify what is to be done to them. Expressions combine variables and constants to produce new values. An expression is a sequence of operands and operators that reduces to a single value. For example, 445 is an expression whose value is 9. The value can be any type other than void. C implements seven different expression formats, as shown in Fig. 2.1 C includes a large number of operators which fall into different categories. In this chapter, we are going to study various operators supported by C. These are : * Arithmetic operators * Relational operators * Logical operators * Assignment operator © Unary operators © Conditional operators * Bit-wise operators We also study how these operators are used along with variables and constants to form expressions. (2-4)Advanced C Programming 2-2 Operators and Expressions Primary jentifier , Constant Or Parenthetical expression Example : 2*(a-5) Postfix Operator Example: a+# (Samocffectasa=a+ 1) Unary Example: +4 (Sameeffectas a=a+ 1) Binary Example: a+b Tomary Ean] Example: y=(f ‘Note : A comma expression is a complex expression made up of two expressions separated by commas. It Is often used in for statement. (see chapter 5) Fig. 2.1 C exprassion formats 2.1 Arithmetic Operators To solve most programming problems we need to perform arithmetic operations by writing arithmetic expressions. The Fig. 2.2 shows all the arithmetic operators provided by C. Each operator manipulates two operands, which may be constants, variables or other arithmetic expression. The arithmetic operators +, -,*, and / may be used with int or double data type operands. On the other hand, the remainder operator also known as modulus operator can be used with integer operands to find the remainder of the division. #include int facto(int); void main() { int iflag=0; double angle, answer=1; elrser(); printf("Enter the angle : "); scanf(“%lf' ,&angle); angle = (angle*(22.0/7.0))/180.0; /* conversion to radian */ for(i=2;i<10i=1+2) { if (flag==0) { answer = answer — pow(angle,i)/facto(i); flag=1; print{(%iP answer); (A-1)Advanced C Programming A-2 Appendix -A getch(): } int facto(int n) { int i, factorial=1; for(i=1; i<=n; i++) { factorial = factorial } return(factorial); } Program 2 : Checks whether string is palindrome or not. /* Program checks whether string is palindrome or not. “ #include int palindrome(char s|]); int strlen (char |); void main() { char p[20]; gets(p); if(palindrome(p)) printf("%s is a palindrome\n", p); else print{("%s is not a palindrome\n", p); } /* retums 1 ifs is a palindrome, O otherwise */ int palindrome(char s{]) { int bottom, top; bottom = 0; top = strlen(s) - 1; while(bottom < top && s[bottom] +-+bottom; sitopl) { top; } if(bottom >= top) return 1;Advanced C Programming A-6 Appendix -A } else { answer = answer + pow(angle,i)/facto(i); flag=0; } } print{("élfanswer); getch(); } int facto(int n} factorial = factorial * i; } return(factorial); } Program 7 : Program demonstrates fe use 0 , addresses in function Program demonstrates the use of addresses in function arguments fe include void no_swap(int x, int y); void swap(int *p1, int *p2); main() { int a= 1,b = 999; printf('a = %d,b = %d\n", a, b); no_swap(a, b); printfi(’a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b); swap(&a, &b) printi(’a = %d,b = %d\n", a, b);Advanced C Programming A-T J* bad example of swapping - a function can't change Parameters */ void no_swap(int x, int y) { int temp; temp =; x=; y = temp; /* good example of swapping - a function can't change parameters but if a parameter is a pointer it can change the value it points to */ void swap(int "px, int *py) { int temp; temp = “px; Program 8 ; Finds the square of array elements. #define MAX_ROWS3 #define MAX_COLS4 void print_squarefint [ |}; /*fanction declaration */ ‘void main (void) { int row; int num [MAX_ROWS][MAX_COLS] = { {0, 1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6, 7}, {8, 9, 10, 11} k for(row=0; row x[mid]) low = mid +1; else { Print{("Location of target is %a, mid); break; / tha termination of leap. /* This program illustrates the use of break statement for the termination of loop written by : Date: s #include void main() { int i; for (i= { printf(‘%d\t",i); if (i==10) break; ;i < 100;i++)Advanced C Programming A-40 Appendix - A Program 12 : Stimulates calculator. #include #include #include float add(float x,float y) { float z; Zexty: return z; } float sub(float x,fleat y) { float 2; Bex yi return 2; } float mul(float x,float y) t float z; Zax" float div(float x,loat y) { float z; 2=x/yi return z; } float input() { float a; printf("\nEnter the number: scant("%f',&a); return a; } void display(float 1) {Advanced © Programming A-11 Appendix - A printf("\nThe resut is: %2f".r); } void main() { int choice; float par, float prev = 0.0; clrser(); printf(’.. do { printf(\nEnter your choice \n1:Addition\n2:Subtraction\n3:Multiplication\n4: scanf("ted',&choice); switch(choice) { case 1:if(prevl=0) { printf("The first number is %f"",prev); q=input(); t=add(prev,q); } else { p=input(); q=input(); r=add(p.q); Program for calculator... ivision\n§:Exit\n"); } display(r); preva; break; case 2:if(prevI=0) { printf(“The first number is %f:",prev); q=input(); t=sub(prev.q);Advanced C Programming A-16 Appendix -A char dept{12]; int sal; char date|10}; }Employee; /* Function Prototypes */ void addRecord(Employee); void displayFile(); void searchRecord(Employee); void copyRecord (Employee); void modifyRecord(Employee); /* For Adding New Record Into File */ void addRecord(Employee emp) { FILE “fp; fp = fopen("Emp_Info.txt","a+"); printi("\a Enter Employee ID sean{("%a",&emp id); print{("Enter Employee Name :"}; scan{("%s",emp.name); printi(" Enter Employee Address scanf("%s",emp.address); printi(" Enter Employee Department : "}; scan{("%s",emp.dept); printi(’ Enter Employee Salary scan{{"%d",kemp.sal}; printf(* Enter Joining Date scanf("Xs',emp.date); fprintf(fp ,"\n %4d %16s %15s %125 %6d %10s',emp.idemp .name,emp.address,emp.dept,emp.sal,emp.date); felose(fp); /* For Displaying All Records From File */ void displayFile() { FILE *fp;Advanced C Programming A-18 Appendix -A printf" %4d %1és %18s %12s %6d %10s"emp.id,emp.name,emp.address,emp deptemp.sal,emp.date); } else printf("\n Record Not Found In File’); felose(tp): /* To Modify An Existing Record */ void modifyRecord(Employee emp) { ‘int key.flag: Employee tem FILE “fp,"fp2; printf("\nEnter ID to Modify Record :") scant("%d" &key); fp = fopen(‘Emp_Info.txt',"r+"); fp2 = fopen("temp.txt'"w'}; printf("\n Enter Employee ID scanf("%d",&temp.id); printi(’ Enter Employee Name :"); scanf("%s",temp.name); printf(' Enter Employee Address: "); scanf("%s",temp. address); printf(’ Enter Employee Department : seanf("%s",temp.dept); printf(' Enter Employee Salary ="); scanf(""éd",&temp. sal); printi(' Enter Joining Date —:*}; scanf("%s",temp.date); while(!feof{fp)) { facanilfp,"kdks%s%e%d%s", &emp.idemp.name,emp.address,emp.dept,&emp.sal, emp.date); if(emp.id == key) {