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Horizontal Distance Measurement

This document discusses various methods for measuring distances in surveying, including pacing, odometry, tacheometry, taping, and electronic distance measurement. It provides details on how each method works, their relative precisions, and suitable applications. It also discusses potential errors in distance measurement and various corrections that can be applied, including for temperature, tension, slope, and elevation. Sample problems are provided to demonstrate computing pace factors, line distances, corrections to measured distances, and standard temperatures. The document concludes with other uses of tapes in surveying, such as erecting perpendiculars, measuring angles, and determining areas.

Uploaded by

Marc Dared Cagaoan
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
1K views

Horizontal Distance Measurement

This document discusses various methods for measuring distances in surveying, including pacing, odometry, tacheometry, taping, and electronic distance measurement. It provides details on how each method works, their relative precisions, and suitable applications. It also discusses potential errors in distance measurement and various corrections that can be applied, including for temperature, tension, slope, and elevation. Sample problems are provided to demonstrate computing pace factors, line distances, corrections to measured distances, and standard temperatures. The document concludes with other uses of tapes in surveying, such as erecting perpendiculars, measuring angles, and determining areas.

Uploaded by

Marc Dared Cagaoan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required
distance. The length of an individuals pace must be determined first. Pacing
furnishes a rapid means of approximately checking more precise measurements of
distance. It is used on reconnaissance surveys and, in small-scale mapping, for
locating details and traversing with the plane table. Pacing over rough country has
furnished a relative precision of 1/100; under average conditions, a person of
experience will have a little difficulty in pacing with a relative precision of 1/200.

Pace Distance = Pace Factor x No. of Paces


Pace Factor =

Known Length of Distance AB


Mean Number of Paces for AB

Mileage recorder, odometer, and other methods


Distance maybe measured
by observing the number of revolutions of the wheel of vehicle. The mileage
recorder attached to the ordinary automobile speedometer registers distance to 0.1
mi and may be read by estimation to 0.01 mi. Special speedometers are available
reading to 0.01 or 0.002 mi. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached
to any vehicle and directly registers the number of revolutions of a wheel. With the
circumference of the wheel known, the relation between revolutions and distance is
fixed. The distance indicated by either the mileage recorder or the odometer is
somewhat greater than the true horizontal distance, but in hilly country a rough
correction based on the estimated average slope may be applied.
Tacheometry
Tacheometry includes stadia with transit and stadia rod; stadia
with alidade, plane table, and rod; distance wedge and horizontal rod; and subtense
bar and theodolite.
Taping
Taping involves direct measurement of the distance with steel tapes
varying in length from 3ft (1 m) to 1000 ft (300 m). Graduations are in feet, tenths,
and hundredths, or metres, decimeters, centimeters, and millimeters.

The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of
refinement with which measurements are taken. On the one hand, rough taping
through broken country may be less accurate than the stadia. On the other hand,
when extreme care is taken to eliminate all possible errors, measurements have
been taken with a relative precision of less than 1/1,000,000. In ordinary taping over
flat, smooth ground, the relative precision is about 1/3000 to 1/5000.
Electronic distance measurement
Recent scientific advances have led to the
development of electro-optical and electromagnetic instruments which are of great
value to the surveyor for accurate measurements of distances. Measurement of
distance with electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment is based on the
invariant speed of light or electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. EDM equipment
which can be used for traverse, triangulation, and trilateration as well as for
construction layout is rapidly supplanting taping for modern surveying operations
except for short distances and certain types of construction layout.

Choice of methods
Most boundary, control, and construction surveys involving
long lines and large areas can be performed most accurately and economically
using modern EDM equipment. Where the distances involved are relatively short or
specific construction layout requirements are present, taping the distances can be
more practical. Stadia is still unsurpassed for small topographic surveys and
preliminary surveys for projects of limited extent.
Each of the methods mentioned in the preceding sections has a field of usefulness.
On the survey for a single enterprise, the surveyor may find occasion to employ a
combination of methods to advantage.
TapesTapes are made in a variety of materials, lengths, and weights. Those more
commonly used by the surveyor and for engineering measurements are the steel
tapes, sometimes called the engineers or surveyors tape, and woven nonmetallic
and metallic tapes.

Errors in measurement of Distances


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Tape not standard length


Imperfect alignment of tape
Tape not horizontal
Tape not stretch straight
Imperfection of observation
Variations in temperature
Variations in tension

Mistakes in Measurement of Distances


1. Adding or dropping a full tape length.
2. Adding a cm., usually in measuring the fractional part of tape length at the
end of the line.
3. Recording numbers incorrectly, example 78 is read as 87.
4. Reading wrong meter mark.
Correction applied for measurement of distances
1. Temperature correction: (To be added or subtracted)
Ct=K (T2-T1) L1
K=0.00000645 ft. per degree F
K=0.0000116 m. per degree C
T1=temp. when the length of tape isL1
T2=temp. during measurement

2. Pull Correction: (to be added or subtracted)


Cp= (P2-P1) L1
AE
P2=actual pull during measurement
P1=applied pull when the length of tape is L1
A=Cross-sectional area of tape
E=Modulus of elasticity of tape
3. Sag Correction: (To be subtracted only)
Cs=w2L3
24 P2
w=weight of tape in plf. or kg. m.
L=unsupported length of tape
p=actual pull or tension applied
4. Slope Correction: (To be subtracted only)

Cs = h 2
2S
H=S Cs
H=horizontal distance or corrected distance
S=inclined distance
h=difference in elevation at the end of the tape
5. Sea level correction:
Reduction factor = 1 h
R
B1 = B (1- h)
R
B= horizontal distance corrected for temperature, sag and pull.
B1 = sealevel distance
h=average altitude or observation
R=Radius of curvature

6. Normal Tension:
It is the tension which is applied to a tape supported over two supports which
balances the correction due to pull and due to sag. The application of the
tensile force increases the length of the tape whereas the sag decreases its
length, the normal tension neutralizes both corrections, therefore no
correction is necessary.
PN = 0.204 WAE
PN P1
P= applied normal tension
P1= tension at which the tape is standardized
W= total weight of tape
A= cross-sectional area of type
E= modulus of elasticity of tape
Sample Problem No. 1:
A line 100-m long was paced by a surveyor for four times with the following
data: 142, 145, 145.5 and 146. Then a new line was paced for four times again
with the following results, 893, 893.5, 891 and 895.5.
a. Determine the pace factor.

b. Determine the distance of the new line.

Sample Problem 2:
A 50 m tape was standardized and was found to be 0.0042 m too long than
the standard length at an observed temperature of 58C and a pull of 15 kilos. The
same tape was used to measure a certain distance and was recorded to be 637.92
m long at an observed temp. of 68 C and a pull of 15 kilos. Coefficient of thermal
expansion is 0.0000116 m/ C.
a. Determine the standard temperature.
b. Determine the total correction.
c. Determine the true length of the line.

Sample Problem 3:
A line is recorded as 472.90 m long. It is measured with a 0.65 kg tape which
is 30 m long at 20C under a 50 N pull supported at both ends. During
measurement, the temperature is 5 C and the tape is suspended under a 75 N pull.
The line is measured on 3% grade. E = 200 Gpa, cross-sectional area of tape is 3
mm2 and the coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.0000116 m/ C.
a. Compute the actual length of tape during measurement.
b. Compute the total error to be corrected for the inclined distance.
c. What is the true horizontal distance?

OTHER SURVEYS WITH TAPE


The tape is not necessarily limited only to the measurement of distances. There are
various problems arising in surveying fieldwork which can be solved just by the use
of a tape. Some of these surveying operations include: erecting perpendicular to a
line, measuring angles, laying off angles, determining obstructed distances, locating
irregular boundaries, and determining areas of different shapes.
1. Erecting Perpendicular To a Line
There are some instances when it would be necessary to erect on the ground
a perpendicular to an established line. For example, when the floor
dimensions of a building or a road intersection are to be laid out, it becomes
necessary to erect perpendicular lines. Commonly employed for such
particular requirements are the chord-bisection method and the 3:4:5
method.
a. Chord-Bisection Method
In the figure shown, it is required to erect a perpendicular to the line AB at
point m. Two equal lengths, mb and mc, are measured on each side of
point m. With b as center and taking any convenient length of tape as
radius, an arc of a circle is described. The same procedure is repeated at
point c. The intersection of the two arcs locates point d, and line dm is the
desired perpendicular to AB.
b. 3:4:5 Method

This method of erecting a perpendicular line is illustrated in the figure.


The method involves the setting up on the ground of a triangle whose
three sides are made in the proportions of 3, 4, and 5. Point A is selected
on line MN where a perpendicular is to be erected. From A and along line
MN, measure 3.0 m to the first tapeman at B and the 10-m mark held by
the second tapeman at A, a loop is formed by the third tapeman to bring
the 5-m and 6-m marks together. The third tapeman then pulls each part
of the tape taut to locate point C on the ground. The line joining points A
and C is the desired perpendicular to line MN.
Any other lengths in the proportions of 3, 4, and 5 can also be used such
as 6:8:10, 9:12:15, and 12:16:20.

Chord Bisection Method

3:4:5 Method

2. Measuring Angles with Tape


A tape is not frequently used in engineering constructions for measuring or
laying out angles. There may be some occasions, however, when a theodolite
or a transit is not readily available that the tape is used instead. The
measurement of very small angles with tape usually gives satisfactory
results. All angular measurements by tape are accomplished by the
application of very basic geometric and trigonometric principles.
a. In the figure shown, let it be required to measure the angle BOC (or ).
One way to do it is to lay out any convenient length (L) along lines OB and
OC to establish points a and b. If the chord distance ab (or d) is
measured and bisected, the angle BOC can be computed as follows.
Sin(/2) = d/2
L

b. If unequal lengths are laid out, as AB and AC in the figure shown, then
upon measuring the distance BC, the angle BAC (or < A) can be computed
using law of cosine.

Cos A = (AC)2 + (AB)2 - (BC)2


2(AC)(AB)

3. Determining Obstructed Distances


In some instances is may not be possible to directly measure distances due to
an obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessible or difficult to
measure. The following are some of the indirect methods which could be
employed to determine obstructed or inaccessible distances.
a. By Right Angle

In figure shown, point C is


established at a convenient
location away from the
obstruction and it is seen to
it that lines AC and BC
intersect at right angles.
Both lines are measured
accurately as possible. If A
and B define the end points
of the required line, the
length of line AB can be
computed
by
the
Pythagorean Theorem:

AB = (AC2 + BC2)

b. By Swing Offsets

The line AB in the figure shown could not be determined because of an


obstruction somewhere at the middle of the line. To determine its length,
the head tapeman anchors one end of the tape at B and swings it using
any convenient radius. The rear tapeman positions himself at point A and
lines in the other end of the tape with a distant point as D and directs the
marking of points a and b on the ground where the end of the tape
crosses line AD. The midpoint of line ab is located to establish point C.
With line BC established perpendicular to line AC, the length of AB can be
indirectly determined also by the Pythagorean Theorem since AC and BC
are known.

c. By Parallel Lines
If the necessary distance
from line AB is short,
perpendicular line AA = BB
are erected by either using
the chord-bisection method
or the 3:4:5 method to clear
the obstacle. The line AB is
then taped, and its length is
taken as that of AB.
d. By Similar Triangles
The method illustrated in the figure is one where two line, BD and CE, are
established perpendicular to the line ABC. The distance between the two
perpendiculars (or BC) is measured and with points D and E both line up
with A, the length of AB can then be determined by similarity of triangles
or:

AB = (AB + BC)
BD (AB + BC)
BD
CE

AB (CE) =

AB (CE) = BD (AB) + BD(BC)


AB (CE) - BD (AB) = BD(BC)
AB (CE
- BD)
or
AB = BD (BC)
(CE - BD)

BD (BC)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a tape. A
point on each fence line is established 30.0 m from the point of the
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20 m, what
is the intersection angle?

2. In the quadrilateral ABCD shown, the following lengths were measured by


tape: AB = 760.50 m, BC = 390.80 m, CD = 371.60 m, DA = 598.80 m
and AC = 765.40 m. Compute the interior angle at each corner.

3. In the figure shown, lines NQ and PR are established perpendicular to line


MNP, and points Q and R are lined up with the distant point M. If NQ =
318.55 m, PR = 475.62 m, and NP = 210.38 m, determine the length of MN
which represents the width of the river.

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