Nguyen 1

Selene Nguyen
Professor Haas
Writing 39C
8 May 2016
A Historical Literature Review on Elephant Cognition, Social Groups, and Grief
Introduction
Humans and animals have long coexisted together. Although considered an animal
species ourselves, it has been proposed that humans hold ultimate superiority over the other
supposedly mindless creatures on Earth due to cultural and religious influences prompting the
notion that we have been granted natural dominion over them. Rene Descartes, a 17th century
French philosopher once said, The reason animals do not speak as we do is not that they lack
the organs, but that they have no thoughts (Qtd by Kluger 10). Since it represented the attitude
of most humans towards animals during this time, Descartes ideals were firmly held by the
majority of the populous as well as by the scientific community for years until Charles Darwin
introduced his theory of evolution in his book, On the Origin of Species (1859) which proposed
that animal minds differed from humans only in degree, not kind (Animal Minds). Darwins
stance on animals vastly differed from traditional European-thought -- that animals did not have
minds. One of his last books, The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, (1872)
explored similar emotional traits possessed by both humans and animals. Although for years
leading up to the mid-20th century, Descartes beliefs were more widely held than Darwins,
recent progress in research over the last 40 years has prompted scientists to abandon their notions
of behaviorism -- a view which takes on the assumption that animals passively learn through
their environmental stimuli -- to take on a more Darwinist view of animals. This review of

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literature is meant to challenge the outdated ideals of animal inferiority by exploring the research
that scientists have been conducting which delves deep into the animal science of elephants in
hopes of answering the very question that has fueled debates hundreds of years ago, Do animals
have minds? By discussing articles by prominent scientists in the field of elephant studies such
as Carl Safina, Iain Douglas-Hamilton, Joshua Plotnik, Elizabeth Archie, and others, this paper
will first examine how elephants are capable of a higher degree of cognition similar to humans,
and then it will elaborate on elephant social groups and how this plays a role in their overall
intelligence. Lastly, the paper will explore the area of elephant grief which supports the idea that
these creatures are able to express some form of emotion.
Cognition
It has been falsely presumed that the size of the brain dictates the level of intelligence an
animal has. This reason has been widely used to justify human superiority over our fellow
animals. But, if the size of an animals brain truly matters, we must then examine the elephant;
an animal that is not only the biggest creature on land, it is also one that possesses the largest
brain of land mammals as well, weighing in at almost 13 pounds. Although the notion of animal
consciousness and intelligence has long been studied, Bernhard Rensch, a German evolutionary
biologist, took on the task of measuring the capacity of elephant intelligence through
experiments conducted on a five-year-old female elephant at a German zoo which tested her
visual memory and abstract prowess.

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One of the visual abstract tasks Renschs elephant needed to pass. Rensch 1957.

The image presented represents one of the tests given to the elephant. This one in particular was
designed to test her ability to understand the abstract idea of a cross...The elephant had been
trained to recognize the cross at upper left as a positive signal. She chose all the other figures as
positive except the ones in the middle of the top row, at the left in the middle row and at lower
left (Rensch 48). This trial conducted demonstrated that elephants are able to discriminate
between various symbols and understand conceptual ideas. Before Renschs study in 1957, little
attention had been paid to the brain of elephants. Based on his research, Rensch hypothesized
that brain size is quite evidently a decisive factor in the brains learning capacity after the
elephant in his experiments passed an overwhelming majority of his intelligence trials (49).
However, German neurologist, Gerhard Roth and his colleague, Ursula Dicke, a behavioral
physiologist, later deemed in 2005 that the relationship between relative brain size and
intelligence is inconclusive (253). They referenced a previous study by P.A.M. van Dongen, a
neurobiologist who found that shrews, despite their small size, have brains up to 10% of their
mass compared to the 2% of humans. Although brain size does not necessarily dictate

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intelligence as concluded by Roth and Dicke, the fact that elephants they have the largest number
of cortical neurons, second only to humans (254) may explain how elephants display such clear
cognitive intelligence, being capable of passing Renschs visual tests and capable of selfrecognition.
The mirror self-recognition (MSR) test is another widely used test to determine mental
capacity in animals. Elephants, apes, and dolphins are among the few known creatures who can
pass it. In a study orchestrated in 2006 by Joshua Plotnik, an animal behavior psychologist who
specializes in elephant research, and his colleagues, three Asian elephants were subjected to the
MSR test. By recording the four stages of behavior the elephants experienced when exposed to a
large mirror, they concluded that the elephants actions were very similar to the known animals
who have passed the test before, such as the great apes and dolphins. Plotnik et al.s research
provides greater insight into the cognitive abilities and intelligence of elephants, demonstrating
that elephants possess a theory of mind -- the capacity to understand ones and others own
mental states -- since they showed the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror.
Moreover, in his book, Beyond Words: What Animals Think and Feel, award-winning
ecologist Carl Safina argues in his section, The Same Basic Brain, that despite our species
difference, humans and elephants have the same fundamental wiring in our brains; we
experience very similar feelings so much so that the dividing line between us and them are
becoming blurred. He states, we maintain a certain insecure instance that animals are not like
us -- though we are animals. Could any relationship be more fundamentally miscomprehended?
(20). In the same excerpt from his book, Carl Safina argues that animals are indeed capable of
consciousness despite lacking a cerebral cortex that humans have. As evidenced by a man named
Roger who lost his cerebral cortex due to a brain infection, he still understood and acted like a

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human even without a brain that resembled one (22). Based on the review of the literature
presented with the sources above, it is suggested that animals may not lack any intelligence after
all and that their brains have evolved to suit the context within their own environment, both
natural and social.
Social Groups
What might drive intelligence may not just be in an animals brain, but how animals
function in their collective societies. Machiavellian Intelligence, also known as social
intelligence, was at first a term used to describe intelligence in humans and primates, but is now
used in reference to elephants, dolphins, and other creatures. As stated by Byrne et. al, a
neuroscientist studying the of cognitive and social behavior, there is a considerable body of
ftheory and supportive data to suggest that living in an extensive social network often correlates
with, and likely promotes, cognitive sophistication (Byrne & Bates) (66). As highly social
animals, elephants must be able to pick up on the cues that distinguishes between certain
elephants in their own herd to others in another. Not only does it take brainpower to be able to
recognize hundreds of elephants based on subtle notions alone, these creatures can also utilize
low frequency calls that take the form of rumbles to communicate with the members in their herd
and those in relation to them (Poole et al. 391). From research conducted by Joyce Poole, an
ethologist specializing in elephant behavioral studies, and her colleagues in 1988, they concluded
after conducting vocalization research on elephants that their data indicate that elephants use
very low frequency calls as a medium to coordinate some aspects of their reproductive and group
behavior (391).
Recently in 2011, Elizabeth Archie, a behavioral ecologist who focuses on social
behavior in animals, and her colleagues outlined the social relationships formed by female

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elephants. As stated in the text, Elephantsboth Asian and Africanlive in flexible, multitiered, fission- fusion societies (Archie et. al 8) with elephant matriarchs leading the herd.
Observed through genetic analysis of the structure of elephant communities, Archie et al. found
that while elephants spent more time around their maternal kin, this did not stop them from
socializing with other elephants as well due to the benefits attributed to these social interactions.
In her research, Archie et al. communicated that, In fact, females without any close kin in their
family were just as likely to have close neighbors, receive affiliation, or engage in a cooperative
coalition...with another group member as were females that had many close maternal kin (243).
Similar to humans, elephants are highly social creatures. As suggested by the research, however,
their relationships with others in their groups provides the female elephants a way to successfully
reproduce and survive. Because of their social nature, elephants are capable of displaying signs
of empathy such as helping the fellow members in their herd through actions such as babysitting
another elephants calf or providing emotional comfort when one is in distress for both related
and unrelated elephants (Bates et al. 222-223). The research explored through the review of
scientific literature conducted here supports the notion that elephants display incredible social
intelligence through the behavior exhibited in their social groups for the benefit of the species as
a whole.
Grief
Stated in the prior paragraph, elephants are highly capable of exhibiting forms of
empathy, and because of this, it can be assumed that they can also demonstrate signs of grief
when experiencing a loss of one of their own. African elephants in particular have shown high
levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species as stated by McComb et al., a
professor of animal behavior and psychology (26). In this regard, they display similar traits to

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humans who attach significance to the deceased bodies of those closest to them and created
elaborate rituals to mourn their dead. Moreover, since elephants are incredibly social creatures
and exist in matrilineal communities, the matriarchs, often the oldest surviving female, are
exceptionally valued. The event of their death may lead to the destruction of a herd and the
devastation of its members as explored by Iain Douglas-Hamilton, a world renowned zoologist
and elephant researcher, and his colleagues in their 2006 study, published the same year as
McCombs.
Although recent research has suggested that humans and animals share similar traits, in
order to further understand their behavior, Hamilton et al. conducted observations of elephants
through the eventful death of a matriarch named Eleanor of the family unit known as the First
Ladies (FL) in Kenya. In terms of methodology, Hamilton had closely monitored the elephants
through radio-tracking and whenever an elephant came up to Eleanors body, a photograph
would be taken directly at the site. Through days of close observation, Hamilton et. al found that
elephants seem to show interest in the bodies of other dying or dead elephants that is not only
restricted to kin (15) since four unrelated elephant families paid a visit to the matriarchs dead
body, depicting a clear interest in her carcass. In the case of Eleanors death, the researchers
concluded that elephants and humans share emotions, such as compassion, and have an
awareness and interest about death (15). Observations gathered from Hamiltons research and
through prior studies on the subject suggest that elephants have a generalized response to
suffering and death of conspecifics and that this is not restricted to kin (15). The case of
Eleanors death provides a clear example of elephants exhibiting genuine emotions with humans
such as sadness, compassion, and grief.
Conclusion

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To conclude, based on the review of literature, many studies conducted over the last
century have forced us humans to look at other animal species in a new light. Peter Singer, a
renowned bioethicist from Princeton University who helped launch the animal rights movement,
argued that the ability to suffer is a great cross-species leveler, and we should not inflict pain on
or cause fear in an animal that we wouldnt want to experience ourselves (Qtd by Kluger 10).
Although for centuries society has held onto the firm belief that animals lack consciousness, do
not think, and cannot feel to justify the acts of cruelty humans have collectively committed on
these animals, times are changing and we now understand that animals are quite similar to
humans in numerous ways. Elephants in particular are capable of profound intelligence, forming
close social bonds with those of their old species, and feeling grief over the loss of a companion.
For this very reason we can no longer justify the actions committed on elephants because of the
ivory trade which kills 35,000 elephants each year (Poladian). We must work together to bring
awareness to ivory poaching and save these sentient beings to alleviate their dwindling numbers.

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Amboseli Elephants A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mammal (2011): 238-45.

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