TYPES OF SUPERVISION

(detail xm)

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INPUT
Teaching &
Learning
Process

PROCESS

Supervision

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OUTPUT
Q Teaching
Q Learning
Q Communication
Q HR
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It refers to any set of activities planned to improve the

teaching and learning process. It fundamentally involves
a cycle of systematic planning, observation, diagnosis,
change, and renewed planning.
(Hoy & Forsyth, 1986)

So, What is the purpose of Supervision?

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To work cooperatively with teachers to

improve instruction
To help teachers solve immediate instructional
problems
To engage teachers in the study of the processes of
teaching and learning.
Improvement of instruction which is long- term
and a continuous process.

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School Supervision
Supervision and evaluation of teaching should
look for answers to the following questions:
What is actually going on in this classroom?
What is the teacher and what are the students
actually doing?
What are the actual learning outcomes?
What ought to be going on in this classroom
given our overall goals, educational platform,
knowledge of how children learn, and
understandings of the structure of the subject
matter to be taught?
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What do these events and activities of teaching

and learning mean to teachers, students, and
others?
What are the personal meanings that students
accumulate regardless of teacher intents?
How do teacher and principal interpretations
of teaching reality differ?
What actions should be taken to bring about
even greater understanding of teaching and
learning and better congruence between our
actions and beliefs?

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Definitions of supervision
Supervision as an act of administration
Supervision as an act of curriculum work
Supervision as an instructional function
Supervision as an act of human relations
Supervision as management
Supervision as a generic leadership role

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Special areas of supervisory competence

1. Supervisors Are Developers of People.
..schools are learning environment designed to
help children grow.
2. Supervisors Are Curriculum Developers
..real curriculum is what is experienced by
students at the classroom level.
3. Supervisors Are Instructional Specialists.
to improve learning opportunities for students.
(research, communication, teaching)
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Supervisory competence
4. Supervisors Are Human Relations Workers.
Sensitive to the needs of various clients
(diplomacy)
5. Supervisors Are Staff Developers.
Staff development programs- improving
performance by teachers
6. Supervisors Are Administrators.
..able to manage information and establish
effective record keeping in instructional areas.
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Supervisory Competence ...contd

7. Supervisors Are Manager of Change.
...perceive as managers of meaningful changeheld accountable
8. Supervisors Are Evaluators.
assessing teachers performance, program
outcomes, texts and materials, analyzing
testing results

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Clinical supervision
Collegial supervision
Self-directed supervision
Informal supervision
Inquiry-based supervision

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Clinical Supervision (History)

Late 1950s-Introduced by Robert Anderson, Morris
Cogan & Robert Goldhammer when supervising
interns in Harvard
Professor Cogan introduced a eight step process
called The Cycles of Supervision
Goldhammer refined it to a less complex method of
five stages- known asSequence of Supervision
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It refers to the study of classroom behaviour in a

systematic manner, in an atmosphere of colleagueship and
mutual respect.
(Hoy & Frosyth, 1986)

The professional development of teachers, with the

emphasis on improving teachers classroom performance.
(Acheson & Gall, 1992:1)

It refers to face to face contact with teachers with the intent

of improving instruction & increasing professional
growth. (Sergiovanni & Starratt,2002)
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A very effective strategy for bringing about

improvements in teaching.
(Goldhammer, Anderson &
Krajewski,1993)
It is a formative evaluation
Clinical supervision is both a concept and a
structure.
A non-traditional approach

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9 characteristics of Clinical Supervision as a concept

(Goldhammer, Anderson and Krajewski ,1993)
1. It is a technology for improving instruction.
2. It is a deliberate intervention into the instructional process.
3. It is goal oriented, combining school needs with personal growth
needs of those who work within the school.
4. It assumes a professional working relationship between teachers
and supervisors.
5. It requires a high degree of mutual trust, as reflected in
understanding, support and commitment to growth.
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6. It creates a productive (healthy) tension for bridging

the gap between the real and the ideal.

7. It is systematic although it requires a flexible and
continuously changing methodology.
8. It assumes that the supervisor knows a great deal
about the analysis of instruction & learning & also
about productive human interaction.
9. It requires both pre-service training (supervisors ) &
continuous in-service reflection on effective
approaches.
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THE CYCLE OF SUPERVISION

Five Sequential Steps
(Goldhammer, 1969)
1. Pre-conferencing with teacher

2. Observation of Classroom
3. Analyzing & Interpreting observation
& determining conference approach

4. Post-conference with teacher

5. Critique of steps 1 -4

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Step 1- Pre conferencing with teacher

(Before actual observation)
The purpose is to establish the guidelines & procedures for
The activities that will follow
supervisor sits with teacher & determines:
reason & purpose for the observation
focus of observation
method & form of observation
the time for observation
Time for post conferencing
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Step 2-Observation
It is based on the pre conferencing
Observer may use one observation/combinations of
observations
Methods- categorical frequencies, performance indicators,
visual diagramming , focused questionnaire, audio
taping, video taping etc

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Observer only notes down descriptions not

interpretations
Supervisor observes & collects data about
T & L episode
Information collected is codified in systematic
way

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Step 3 Analysis & Interpretations

Supervisor leaves class to study information collected.
(counting frequencies, see recurring patterns, isolate
major occurrence, discover which performance
indicator was used)
Makes sense of information & makes interpretation
based on analysis of description

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Puts information in a format that can be easily

interpreted & understood.
Makes decision on interpersonal approach in post
conference with teacher (directive control, directive
informational, collaborative & non-directive approaches)
It assists the supervisor & teacher in thinking
analytically about what was observed & coming to an
understanding of the issues, questions & principles that
are involved.

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Step 4 Post conference with Teacher (after

observation)
Aims:
to discuss the analysis of observation for review,
discussion & recommendations
to produce a plan for instructional improvement
Supervisor follows chosen interpersonal approach
Supervisor lets teacher in on observation- to reflect
to the what was seen
Develop a future plan for improvement (supervisor,
teacher & supervisor, teacher)

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Step 5- Critique of Steps 1-4

It has a symbolic and functional value.
It indicates that the supervisor is involved in an
improvement effort in the same way as the
supervisee (teacher)
It allows for
reviewing whether format & procedures were
satisfactory
revisions if needed before sequence is repeated
changes to be suggested

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Feedback from teacher enables supervisor to

decide on what practices to continue, revise, or
change when working with the teacher in future
Conclusion
After the 5 steps are complete a tangible plan of
future action is in the hands of the teacher.
Supervisor is prepared to review the plan in the
next pre conference and establish focus and
method of observation.

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It refers to a moderately formalized process by which

two or more teachers agree to work together for their
own professional growth, usually by observing each
others classroom, giving each other feedback about
the observations, and discussing shared professional
concerns.
(Glatthorn, cited in Sergiovanni & Starratt,2002)

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Glatthorn describes 5 different forms

Collegial Supervision might take:
1.Professional dialogue among teachers- guided discussion &
focus on teaching as a process of thinking. Purpose to enhance
reflective practice.
2.Curriculum dev.-how to operationalize existing curriculum, adapt
the curriculum and enrich curriculum by inventing & develop
materials.
3.Peer Supervision observation of each others teaching
followed by analysis & discussion

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4. Peer Coaching- collaborative dev. & practice of

new teaching methods & skills in workshops &
actual teaching conditions
5.Action research- study problems faced & dev. of
feasible solutions that results in changes in ones
teaching practice.

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GUIDELINES - COLLEGIAL SUPERVISION

1.Teachers have a voice in deciding their team
members.
2. Principals however have the final responsibility for
the make up of the team.
3.The structure of supervision should be formal
enough to allow records to be kept (time used) and
these should be sent to the principal annually.

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4.The principal should provide necessary resources &

support for teams to function during school hours.
5.Information generated regarding T&L should be
confidential within team members & not shared with
principal.
6.Principal should not seek evaluation data from one
teacher about the other.
7.Each teacher should keep a professional growth log
which shows reflection and professional growth as a
result of the activities.
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8.The principal should meet the team at least once a

year for purposes of general assessment & sharing
impressions & information about the process.
9.The principal should meet the individual teacher at
once a year to discuss professional growth log &
provide encouragement & assistance.
10.Generally new teams should be formed every
second/third year

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In self- directed supervision, teachers work alone by

assuming responsibility for their own professional
development.

It includes teachers developing a yearly plan with

targets & goals derived from assessment of their
own needs.
This plan is shared with a supervisor who ensures
the plan & targets are realistic and attainable.

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At the end of the year teacher & supervisor meet to

discuss the teachers progress in meeting development
targets.
Teacher is expected to provide time logs, reflective
practice diaries, schedules, tapes , samples of students
work and other documentation that illustrate progress
towards targets.
The end of the meeting would lead to the setting of new
targets for future self-directed supervision .

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CLINICAL SUPERVISION

Developed by Robert Goldhammer (1969), Morris

Cogan (1973):
The rationale and practice is designed to improve the
teachers classroom performance. It takes its principal
data from events of the classroom. The analysis of
these data and the relationships between teacher and
supervisor form the basis of the program, procedures,
and strategies designed to improve the students
learning by improving the teachers classroom
behavior.
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Clinical Supervision
Very effective strategy for bringing about
improvements in teaching (Garman, 1982;
Goldhammer, Anderson & Krajewski, 1993).
It focus is on building teacher motivation and
commitment.
Providing for on-line staff development for
teachers.
Help teachers to modify existing patterns of
teaching in the ways that make sense to them.

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Clinical Supervision
Goldhammers (1969) five-step clinical
supervision process:
Pre-observation Conference.
Observation of teaching
Analysis and strategy
Supervision conference
Post-conference analysis

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The Basic 5-stages Clinical Supervision

Sequence suggested by Goldhammer (1969)
Stage

1Pre-observation Conference
Stage 2Classroom Observation
Stage 3Data Analysis and Strategy
Stage 4Conference
Stage 5Post-conference Analysis

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Stage 1Pre-Observation Conference

Purpose-to establish guidelines and procedures
for the activities that will follow.
Teacher's Task:
To mentally rehearse and orally describe the
upcoming lesson, including the purpose and the
content, what the teacher will do, and what
students are expected to do and learn.
It provides the mental and procedural
framework for conducting classroom
observations and implementing the rest of the
cycle.

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Clinical Supervisor's Task:

To learn about and understand what the teacher has in
mind for the lesson to be taught by asking probing
and clarifying questions.
Discuss issues or areas of focus and the procedures
for collecting classroom data.
A contract is agreed upon.
Questions to Consider:
What type of data will be recorded (e.g., teacher
questions, student behaviors, movement patterns)?
How will data be recorded (e.g., video or audio
recording, verbatim transcript, anecdotal notes,
checklist)?
Who will do what in the subsequent stages?
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Pre-observation Conference (cont)

It serves to
a) confirm and nurture the relationship between
supervisor and teacher
b) provide an opportunity for the teacher to present
his or her lesson plan in its most polished version
c) give the teacher the opportunity to mentally
rehearse the lesson
d) give the teacher the opportunity to revise the
lesson
e) secure agreement on the reasons for the
observation and protocol to be followed.
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Stage 2Classroom Observation

Teacher's Task:
To teach the lesson as well as possible.
Clinical Supervisor's Task:
To record events occurring during the lesson
as accurately as possible.
The supervisor observes in the classroom and
collects data about the teaching-learning
episode.

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 Data

about classroom activities form the basis

for future planning, coaching, supervision
Information collected is codified in a
systematic way
Other data collection procedures audio
taping and videotaping.

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Stage 3Data Analysis and Strategy

Purpose: To make sense of the data collected

and to put the information in some format that
can be easily interpreted and understood.

Teacher's Task:
To help make sense of the data (if directly involved in
this stage).

Clinical Supervisor's Task:

To make some sense of the raw data and to develop a
plan for the conference.
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 The

analysis of teaching and the building of a

supervisory strategy.
It assists the supervisor, and ultimately the
teacher, in thinking analytically about what
was observed and coming to an understanding
of the issues, questions, and principles that are
involved.

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Questions to Consider:
What patterns are evident in the data?
Are any critical incidents or turning points
obvious?
What strengths did the teacher exhibit?
Were any techniques especially successful?
Are there any concerns about the lesson?
Which patterns, events, and concerns are most
important to address?
Which patterns, events, and concerns can be
addressed in the time available?
How will the conference begin?
How will the conference end?
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Stage 4Conference
Teacher's Task:
To critically examine his or her own teaching
with an open mind and to tentatively plan for the
next lesson.

Clinical Supervisor's Task:

To help clarify and build upon the teacher's
understanding of the behaviors and events that
occurred in the classroom.

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Questions to Consider:
What patterns and critical incidents are evident
in the data?
What is the relationship between these events
and student learning?
Were any unanticipated or unintended
outcomes evident?
What will the teacher do differently for the
next class meeting (e.g., new objectives,
methods, content, materials, teacher behaviors,
student activities, or assessments)?

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Stage 5Post-Conference Analysis

Teacher's Task:
To provide honest feedback to the clinical
supervisor about how well the clinical
supervision cycle went.

Clinical Supervisor's Task:

To critically examine his or her own performance
during the clinical supervision cycle.

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 The

information collected during the

observation along with the analysis is
presented to the teacher for review, discussion,
and recommendations.
It provides the supervisor and the teacher with
the opportunity to review the behavior that
were initially agreed upon
It gives the supervisor the opportunity to
discuss with the teacher possible solutions and
techniques of self- supervision.
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 Supervisory

techniques, assumptions,
emotional variables, and goals are analyzed
The supervisor reflects on his or her behavior
to determine if the best agreement with the
teacher was developed and if the teacher was
helped.
Helps the supervisor find an answer to the
question, How effective was I?

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Questions to Consider:

Generally, how

well did the clinical

supervision cycle go?
What worked well?
What did not work well?
If you could do it again, what would you do
differently?
What will you do differently during the next
clinical supervision cycle?
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Clinical Supervision- Common Themes

For clinical supervision to be effective:
Teachers and supervisors develop a collegial
relationship characterized by trust, respect, and
reciprocity.
Teachers control which aspects of their
teaching learning process will be focused on
Teacher retain control over decisions that
impact their teaching practices
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The clinical supervision process continues

over an extended period
Supervisors provide teachers with non
-judgmental observational data that focus on
interactions of interest to the teacher
Both teachers and supervisors engage in
reflective practice.

(Nolan, Hawkes & Francis , 1993)

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Advantages of School Supervision

Supervision is a means of improving the

quality of teaching and learning
- teachers can be evaluated for promotion
- improve staff performance through
development of individual accountability
- a positive relationship can develop which can
provide a two way process of feedback and
discussion
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 Supervisors

help teachers improve and

develop skills in using instructional
strategies:
- provide teachers with objectives
feedback on the current state of their
instruction
- support teachers by providing time and
opportunity to reflect and discuss issues
- provide teachers with staff development
courses to enhance their skills
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 Instructional

problems can be diagnosed and

solved
- by understanding teachers strengths and
weaknesses.
- through teamwork and team spirit
- with a harmonious and supportive
relationship

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Successful matching of options to teachers

Commitment of teachers and supervisors help

teachers develop a positive attitude about
continuous professional development

Teachers choice of pedagogy suitable to type

of students

Collaborative team work

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Disadvantages of School Supervision

Supervision can be equated with evaluation it
makes people nervous/stress.
This is due to the historical role of the supervisor
seen as an inspector, not a helper.
Teachers may view supervision as evaluation
rather than improving relationship.
It can be seen as fulfilling the need of the
supervisor, not the teachers.

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The unpleasantness can reduce the amount of

interaction between them when increased
interaction is what is needed.

Some supervisors may display unprofessional

attitude teachers can be criticized in front of
the class or other supervisors.

Sometimes, teachers are not consulted when

other people are invited to observe them.
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Supervisors may not have enough relevant

experience of parenting support work to
provide effective supervision.

New supervisors rarely have adequate training

to supervise / observe / evaluate other people
due to time and budget constraints.

The organizational structure of the school may

not support effective supervision.
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Time, work pressures, anxieties and organizational

constraints can limit both the effectiveness and
efficiency of supervision.

It rarely include pre- and post observation.

Going through the process from time to time can

make it too routinized and ritualized.

It can be burdensome and tiresome for both teachers

and supervisors.
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Through face-to-face interaction, the

supervisor and the teacher may find that their
differing orientation styles, personalities and
worldview may clash during the observation.

Some supervisors may withhold negative

feedback from teachers.

This is because some feedback may be harder

to give than others personality or
professional issues.
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There can be a lack of priority of professional

activities among teachers.

Teachers who have a strong interest in

maintaining the status quo may reject a process
that will lead to change in the form of growth
and improvement.

Teachers who view change as personal loss may

view supervision as a threat.
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Clinical supervision may be suitable for some

teachers in certain school contexts but not for
others.

Teacher needs, dispositions, learning styles

and work styles vary among teachers.

These concerns must be taken into

consideration and examination if supervision
is to be effective and beneficial.

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Thank You

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