Research Programs On Nanotechnology in The World: (Americas, Asia/Pacific, and Europe)
Research Programs On Nanotechnology in The World: (Americas, Asia/Pacific, and Europe)
Research Programs On Nanotechnology in The World: (Americas, Asia/Pacific, and Europe)
M.C. Roco1
National Science Foundation
INTRODUCTION
1
Opinions expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of
the National Science Foundation.
131
132 M.C. Roco
AMERICAS
2
For a more in-depth look at the state of nanoscale science and engineering R&D in the
United States, see Siegel et al. 1998.
8. Research Programs on Nanotechnology in the World 133
TABLE 8.1. Support for Nanotechnology Research from U.S. Federal Agencies in 1997
Agency Nanotechnology Research ($M)
National Science Foundation (NSF) 65
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 10
Army Research Office (ARO) 15
Office of Naval Research (ONR) 3
Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) 4
Department of Energy (DOE) 7
National Institutes of Health (NIH) 5
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 4
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 3
Total 116
7. nanomachining
8. miniaturization of spacecraft systems
In addition, neural communication and chip technologies are being
investigated for biochemical applications; metrology has been developed for
thermal and mechanical properties, magnetism, micromagnetic modeling,
and thermodynamics of nanostructures; modeling at the atomistic level has
been established as a computational tool; and nanoprobes have been
constructed to study material structures and devices with nanometer length
scale accuracy and picosecond time resolution. While generation of
nanostructures under controlled conditions by building up from atoms and
molecules is the most promising approach, materials restructuring and
scaling-down approaches will continue. Exploratory research includes tools
of quantum control and atom manipulation, computer design of
hierarchically structured materials (e.g., Olson 1997), artificially structured
molecules, combination of organic and inorganic nanostructures,
biomimetics, nanoscale robotics, encoding and utilization of information by
biological structures, DNA computing, interacting textiles, and chemical and
bioagent detectors.
Commercially viable technologies are already in place in the United
States for some ceramic, metallic, and polymeric nanoparticles,
nanostructured alloys, colorants and cosmetics, electronic components such
as those for media recording, and hard-disk reading, to name a few. The
time interval from discovery to technological application varies greatly. For
instance, it took several years from the basic research discovery of the giant
magnetoresistance (GMR) phenomenon in nanocrystalline materials
(Berkowitz et al. 1992) to industry domination by the corresponding
technology by 1997. GMR technology has now completely replaced the old
technologies for computer disk heads, the critical components in hard disk
drives, for which there is a $20+ billion market (Williams 1998). All disk
heads currently manufactured by IBM and HP are based on this discovery.
In another example, nanolayers with selective optical barriers are used at
Kodak in more than 90% of graphics black and white film (Mendel 1997)
and for various optical and infrared filters, which constitute a multibillion-
dollar business. Other current applications of nanotechnology are hard
coatings, chemical and biodetectors, drug delivery systems via nanoparticles,
chemical-mechanical polishing with nanoparticle slurries in the electronics
industry, and advanced laser technology. Several nanoparticle synthesis
processes developed their scientific bases decades ago, but most processes
are still developing their scientific bases (Roco 1998). Most of the
technology base development for nanoparticle work is in an embryonic
phase, and industry alone cannot sustain the research effort required for
establishing the scientific and technological infrastructure. This is the role
136 M.C. Roco
of government (e.g., NSF and NIH) and private agency (e.g., Beckman
Institute) support for fundamental research.
Nanotechnology research in the United States has been developed in
open competition with other research topics within various disciplines. This
is one of the reasons that the U.S. research efforts in nanotechnology are
relatively fragmented and partially overlapping among disciplines, areas of
relevance, and sources of funding. This situation has advantages in
establishing competitive paths in the emerging nanotechnology field and in
promoting innovative ideas; it also has some disadvantages for developing
system applications. An interagency coordinating “Group on
Nanotechnology” targets some improvement of the current situation. The
group was established in 1997 with participants from twelve government
funding/research agencies to enhance communication and develop
partnerships among practicing nanoscience professionals.
Canada
ASIA/PACIFIC
Japan
China
India
Taiwan
South Korea
Singapore
Australia
EUROPE
Germany
U.K.
France
Sweden
Switzerland
The Netherlands
The most active research centers in the Netherlands are the DIMES
institute at Delft University of Technology, which receives one-third support
from industry, and the Philips Research Institute in Eindhoven, which
144 M.C. Roco
Finland
Multinational Efforts
was connected to defense research. The first public paper concerning the
special properties of nanostructures was published in Russia in 1976. In
1979 the Council of the Academy of Sciences created a section on “Ultra-
Dispersed Systems.” Research strengths are in the areas of preparation
processes of nanostructured materials and in several basic scientific aspects.
Metallurgical research for special metals, including those with
nanocrystalline structures, has received particular attention; research for
nanodevices has been relatively less developed. Due to funding limitations,
characterization and utilization of nanoparticles and nanostructured materials
requiring costly equipment are less advanced than processing.
Russian government funds are allocated mainly for research personnel
and less for infrastructure (Chem. Eng. News 1997). Funding for
nanotechnology is channeled via the Ministry of Science and Technology,
the Russian Foundation for Fundamental Research, the Academy of
Sciences, the Ministry of Higher Education, and other ministries with
specific targets. The Ministry of Higher Education has relatively little
research funding. Overall, 2.8% of the civilian budget in Russia in 1997 was
planned for allocation to science. There is no centralized program on
nanotechnology; however, there are components in specific institutional
programs. Currently, about 20% of science research in Russia is funded via
international organizations. The significant level of interest in the FSU can
be identified by the relatively large participation at a series of Russian
conferences on nanotechnology, the first in 1984 (First USSR Conference on
Physics and Chemistry of Ultradispersed Systems), a second in 1989, and a
third in 1993.
The Ministry of Science and Technology contributes to nanotechnology
through several of its specific programs related to solid-state physics, surface
science, fullerenes and nanostructures, and particularly “electronic and
optical properties of nanostructures.” This last program involves a network
of scientific centers: the Ioffe Institute in St. Petersburg, Lebedev Institute in
Moscow, Moscow State University, Novgograd Institute of Microstructures,
Novosibirsk Institute of Semiconductor Physics, and others. This research
network has an annual meeting on nanostructures, physics, and technology,
and has developed interactions with the PHANTOMS network in the EC.
The U.S. Civilian Research and Development Foundation has provided
research funds in the FSU for several projects related to nanotechnology,
including “Highly Non-Equilibrium States and Processes in Nanomaterials”
at the Ioffe Institute (1996-1998).
Russian government and international organizations are the primary
research sponsors for nanotechnology in Russia. However, laboratories and
companies privatized in the last few years, such as the Delta Research
Institute in Moscow, are under development. With a relatively lower base in
146 M.C. Roco
CLOSING REMARKS
Based on the data for 1996 and 1997 collected during this WTEC study,
1997 government expenditures for nanotechnology research were at similar
absolute levels in the United States, Japan, and Western Europe (Table 8.2).
(Estimated OECD data for 1997 indicated GDPs of $4.49 billion for Japan,
$7.76 billion for the United States, and $7.00 billion for Western Europe.)
The largest funding opportunities for nanotechnology are provided by
NSF in the United States (approximately $65 million per year for
fundamental research), by MITI in Japan (approximately $50 million per
year for fundamental research and development), and by BMBF in Germany
(approximately $50 million per year for fundamental and applied research).
Large companies in areas such as dispersions, electronics, multimedia, and
bioengineering contribute to research to a larger extent in Japan and the
United States than in Europe. While multinational companies are pursuing
nanotechnology research activities in almost all developed countries, the
presence of an active group of small and medium-size companies
introducing new processes to the market is limited to the United States.
In the United States, individual and small-group researchers as well as
industrial and national laboratories for specialized topics have established a
strong position in synthesis and assembly of nanoscale building blocks and
catalysts, and in polymeric and biological approaches to nanostructured
materials. The Japanese large-group research institutes, and more recently
academic laboratories, have made particular advances in nanodevices and
nano-instrumentation. The European “mosaic” provides a diverse
combination of university research, networks, and national laboratories with
special performance in dispersion and coatings, nanobiotechnology, and
nanoprobes. With a relatively lower base in characterization and computing
infrastructure, the research focus in Russia is on physico-chemistry
phenomena, advanced processing, and continuum modeling. Interest and
economic support, particularly for device-related research, is growing in
China, Australia, India, Taiwan, Korea, and Singapore.
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