Chapter 1

Matrices and determinants

Matrices and matrix operations

Matrix:
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are
called the entries in the matrix. The size of a matrix is described in terms of
the number of rows (horizontal lines) and columns (vertical lines) it contains.
Examples of matrices:
 
2 −1
 
 
 0 3 
 
4 1
is a 3 × 2 matrix.
 
a b c
 
d e f
is a 2 × 3 matrix.

Notes:
1. In a size description the first number always denotes the number of rows

1
and the second denotes the number of columns.
2. We usually use capital letters for matrices and lowercase letters for entries.

The entry that occurs in row i and column j of a matrix A will be denoted
by aij . Thus a general 3 × 4 matrix might be written as
 
a11 a12 a13 a14
 
 
 a21 a22 a23 a24 
 
a31 a32 a33 a34

Definition 1:
If m and n are positive integers, then an m × n matrix is a rectangular array
of m rows and n columns of the form
 
a a12 a13 · · · a1n
 11 
 a21 a22 a23 · · ·
 
a2n 
 .. .. .. .. 
 
 . . . . 
 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn

where each aij is a number called entry or element of the matrix.

A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix. For example
h i
2 1 0 −3

is a 1 × 4 row matrix.
A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix. For example
 
1
 
3

is a 2 × 1 column matrix.
A matrix in which number of rows is equal to number of columns is called a

2
square matrix. A n × n square matrix B is of the form
 
a a12 · · · a1n
 11 
a22 · · · a2n 
 
 a21
B= .. .. .. 

 . . . 
 
an1 an2 · · · ann

the entries a11 , a22 , · · · , ann are said to be on the main diagonal of B.
Definition 2
Two matrices are said to be equal if they have the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal.

If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are m × n matrices, A = B if and only if aij = bij

for every i and j.
For example: 1.
   
23 0 32 8 0 9
 = 
3 2 2
(−2) (−1) 8 −8 1 4

are equal matrices.

2. If
   
a 6 2 6
   
 10 d  =  10 −1 
   
   
e 0 3 0

, then a = 2, d = −1, e = 3
3. Consider the matrices
     
2 1 2 1 2 1 0
A= , B =  , C= 
3 x 3 5 3 4 0

If x = 5 then A = B but for all other values of x, matrices A and B are not
equal.

3
 If two matrices have different dimensions, they cannot be equal.

There is no value of x for which A and C are equal since A and C have
different sizes.
Definition 3
If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are m × n matrices, their sum, A + B, is the m × n
matrix obtained by adding the corresponding entries, that is,

[aij ] + [bij ] = [aij + bij ]

The difference A − B, is the m × n matrix obtained by subtracting the corre-

sponding entries, that is,

[aij ] − [bij ] = [aij − bij ]

If two matrices have different dimensions, their sum and differ-

ence are not defined.

     
3 −2 0 −4 4 5 2 1
A= , B= , C= 
6 −1 2 8 0 1 3 4
 
3 − 4 −2 + 4 0 + 5
A+B = 
6 + 8 −1 + 0 2 + 1
 
−1 2 5
= 
14 −1 3
 
3 − (−4) −2 − 4 0 − 5
A−B = 
6−8 −1 − 0 2 − 1
 
7 −6 −5
 
−2 −1 1

4
The expressions A + C, B + C, A − C, B − C are not defined due to different
dimensions.
Important results
Result 1
Matrix Addition is commutative.
This means that A + B = B + A, where A, B are 2 matrices of the same order.
If
   
1 −1 3 0 1 3
A= , B= 
4 0 −2 −2 0 4
   
1+0 −1 + 1 3+3 1 0 6
A+B = = 
−2 + 4
4 + (−2) 0+0
2 0 2
   
0 + 1 1 + (−1) 3 + 3 1 0 6
B+A= = 
−2 + 4 0+0 4−2 2 0 2
thus A + B = B + A.
Result 2
Matrix addition is associative i.e., if A, B, C are 3 matrices, then (A+B)+C =
A + (B + C)
Definition 4
If A = [aij ] is any m × n matrix and c is any scalar, then the scalar product
cA is the m × n matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of the matrix A by
c, that is

c[aij ] = [caij ]

The matrix cA is said to be the scalar multiple of A.

Example: If
 
3 −7 2
A= 
−1 0 2

5
then
   
9 −21 6 −3 7 −2
3A =  , −A =  
−3 0 6 1 0 −2

Definition 5
If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p matrix then the product AB is
an m × p matrix.

Note: The only requirement restricting the definition of product AB is

that the number of columns of A must be equal to the number of rows in
matrix B.

The entry in row i and column j of AB is determined as follows:

Single out row i from the matrix A and column j from the matrix B.
Multiply the corresponding entries from the row and column together and then
add up the resulting products.
Example1: Consider the matrices
   
1 2 3 2
A= , B =  
3 4 1 5

then
   
(1 × 3) + (2 × 1) (1 × 2) + (2 × 5) 5 12
AB =  = 
(3 × 3) + (4 × 1) (3 × 2) + (4 × 5) 13 26

Example2: Consider the matrices

 
  4 5 −1 3
1 3 −2  
A= , B =  1 −2
 
0 1 
−3 0 5  
2 −1 0 2

6
since A is 2 × 3 and B is 3 × 4, the product C = AB is defined and is an 2 × 4
matrix. We compute the eight entries as follows:

c11 = 1(4) + 3(1) + (−2)(2) = 3

c12 = 1(5) + 3(−2) + (−2)(−1) = 1

c13 = 1(−1) + 3(0) + (−2)(0) = −1

c14 = 1(3) + 3(1) + (−2)(2) = 2

c21 = (−3)(4) + 0(1) + 5(2) = −2

c22 = (−3)(5) + 0(−2) + 5(−1) = −20

c23 = (−3)(−1) + 0(0) + 5(0) = 3

c24 = (−3)(3) + 0(1) + 5(2) = 1

 
3 1 −1 2
AB =  
−2 −20 3 1
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Matrix multiplication is not commutative AB 6= BA in general.

Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., (AB)C = A(BC), whenever both

sides are defined.
Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition i.e., (i) A(B + C) =
AB + BC
(ii) (A + B)C = AB + AC whenever both sides of equality are defined.

7
 Transpose of a matrix, Trace of a matrix,
Diagonal, Triangular, Symmetric matrices

Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix A, denoted by AT , is obtained by interchanging its
rows and columns e.g the first column of AT is the first row of A, the second
column of AT is the second row of A, and so far.
If A is m × n matrix,the transpose of A is n × m matrix.
Examples
If
   
2 −1 3 h i 2 5
A= , B= 1 3 5 ,C =  
0 5 2 −3 7

Then
   
2 0 1  
T
    2 −3
A =  −1 5  , BT =  3  , C T = 
    
    5 7
3 2 5

Trace of a matrix
If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, is defined to be the sum of
elements on the main diagonal. It is denoted by tr(A) and is undefined if A is
not a squire matrix.
Examples
1. If
 
−2 2 3
 
A =  −1 1 3
 

 
2 0 −1

then tr(A) = −2 + 1 − 1 = −2.

8
2. Consider the matrix
 
−1 2 7 0
 
5 −8 4 
 
 3
B= 
7 −3 
 
 1 2
 
4 −2 1 0

then tr(A) = −1 + 5 + 7 + 0 = 11.

Diagonal matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which the entries outside the main
diagonal are all zero. The diagonal entries themselves may or may not be zero.
Here are some examples of diagonal matrices:
 
  6 0 0 0
  2 0 0  
 0 −4
 
2 0   0 0 
 ,  0 −9 0  , 
 
0 −5
 
   0 0 0 0 
0 0 7  
0 0 0 8
A general n × n diagonal matrix D can be written as
 
d 0 ··· 0
 1 
d2 · · · 0 
 
 0
D=  .. .. .. 

 . . . 
 
0 0 · · · dn
Power of diagonal matrices are easy to compute, if k is a positive integer then
 
dk1 0 · · · 0
 
k
0 d2 · · · 0 
 
k

D = . .

.. 

.
 . . . . 
 
0 0 · · · dkn
Example: If
 
1
0 02
 
 1
A= 0 3 0 

 
0 0 14

9
  
( 12 )−k 0 0
 
−k
A = ( 13 )−k
 
0 0 
 
0 0 ( 14 )−k
which can written as
 
k
2 0 0
 
−k k
A = 0 3 0 
 
 
k
0 0 4
 
1
0 0
 4 
2 1
A = 0 9 0 
 
 
1
0 0 16
 
4 0 0
 
A−2 =  0 9 0 
 
 
0 0 16

Result 1: To multiply a matrix A on the left by a diagonal matrix D, one

can multiply successive rows of A by the successive diagonal entries of D.
For example:
    
d 0 0 a11 a12 a13 a14 d1 a11 d1 a12 d1 a13 d1 a14
 1    
 =  d2 a21 d2 a22 d2 a23 d2 a24
    
 0 d2 0   a21 a22 a23 a24 
    
0 0 d3 a31 a32 a33 a34 d3 a31 d3 a32 d3 a33 d3 a34

Result 2: To multiply a matrix A on the right by a diagonal matrix D,

one can multiply successive columns of A by the successive diagonal entries of
D.
For example:
 
   d1 a11 d2 a12 d3 a13
a a a a d 0 0  
 11 12 13 14  1   d1 a21 d2 a22 d3 a23

  
=
 
 a21 a22 a23 a24   0 d2 0 


    d1 a31 d2 a32 d3 a33 
a31 a32 a33 a34 0 0 d3  
d1 a41 d2 a42 d3 a43

10
 Triangular matrices
A triangular matrix is a special kind of square matrix where the entries either
below or above the main diagonal are zero.
Lower triangular matrix
A square matrix in which all the entries above main diagonal are zero is called
lower triangular matrix.
Upper triangular matrix
A square matrix in which all the entries below main diagonal are zero is called
upper triangular matrix.
Examples
1. The 3 × 3 matrix
 
1 0 0
 
A= 5 2 0 
 
 
3 9 5

is lower triangular matrix.

2. The 4 × 4 matrix
 
1 0 0 0
 
 
 3 2 0 0 
B= 
 −2 3
 
5 0 
 
3 7 −2 1

is lower triangular matrix.

3. The 3 × 3 matrix
 
1 3 −1
 
C= 0 2 4
 

 
0 0 5

is upper triangular matrix.

11
4. The 4 × 4 matrix
 
1 5 2 −9
 
 
 0 2 8 10 
D= 


 0 0 5 20 
 
0 0 0 1

is upper triangular matrix.

Results
1. The transpose of a lower triangular matrix is upper triangular matrix.
2. The transpose of a upper triangular matrix is lower triangular matrix.
3. The product of lower triangular matrices is lower triangular matrix.
4. The product of upper triangular matrices is upper triangular matrix.
5.The product of a lower triangular matrix and upper triangular matrix of
same order is not a triangular matrix.
Examples A in above example is lower triangular matrix, its transpose is
 
1 5 3
 
AT =  0
 
2 9 
 
0 0 5

which is an upper triangular matrix.

Similarly B T is an upper triangular matrix.
The transpose of C and D is lower triangular matrix. You may check it!
The product AC is not a triangular matrix. Check!

12
 Symmetric matrices
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = AT .
Examples
1. The matrix
 
1 2 3
 
A =  2 −4 7
 

 
3 7 6

is symmetric as
 
1 2 3
 
AT =  2 −4 7 =A
 
 
3 7 6

2. The following matrices are symmetric:

 
2 5
B= 
5 3
 
1 4 5
 
C =  4 −3 0 
 
 
5 0 7
 
a h g p
 
 
 h b f q 
D= 


 g f c r 
 
p q r s
as B = B T , C = C T , D = DT .
Example
Find values of a, b, c for which A is symmetric
 
2 a − 2b + 2c 2a + b + c
 
A= 3
 
5 a+c 
 
0 −2 7

13
Solution: First we will calculate the transpose of matrix A
 
2 3 0
 
AT =  a − 2b + 2c −2 
 
5
 
2a + b + c a + c 7

For matrix A to be a symmetric matrix we must have A = AT which gives

   
2 a − 2b + 2c 2a + b + c 2 3 0
   
a + c  =  a − 2b + 2c −2 
   
 3 5 5
   
0 −2 7 2a + b + c a + c 7

The equality of matrices implies a − 2b + 2c = 3, 2a + b + c, a + c = −2

which yields a = 11, b = −9, c = −13. Thus matrix A is symmetric when
a = 11, b = −9, c = −13 and matrix A is given by
 
2 3 0
 
A =  3 5 −2 
 
 
0 −2 7

Example: Let A = [aij ] where aij = 2i + 2j be 3 × 3 matrix. Determine

whether A is symmetric.
Solution: The entries of A using aij = 2i + 2j, i = 1, 2, 3; j = 1, 2, 3 are
a11 = 4, a12 = 6, a13 = 8, a21 = 6, a22 = 8, a23 = 10, a31 = 8, a32 = 10, a33 = 12,
thus matrix A is given by
 
4 6 8
 
A =  6 8 10 
 
 
8 10 12
 
4 6 8
 
AT =  6 8 10  .
 
 
8 10 12
A = AT , so A is a symmetric matrix.

14
 Row-Echelon Form

Elementary row operations:

1. Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant.

2. Interchange two rows.

3. Add a multiple of one row to another row.

Pivot

The first non-zero entry in a row is called a pivot(leading coefficient) of

a matrix.

Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is in row-echelon form when the following conditions are met.

1. All rows that contain only zeros are grouped at the bottom of the
matrix.

2. For each row that does not contain only zeros, the pivot appears
strictly to the right of the pivot of each row that appears above it.

3. Below each pivot is a column of zeros.

15
 Notes

1. In some books, they require that the pivot of each non-zero row is
one and call it as leading one.

2. The pivot of a row does not have to be to the immediate right of

the pivot of the previous row.

3. The row-echelon form of a matrix is not necessarily unique.

How to convert a matrix to Row-echelon form?

Step 1: Locate the leftmost column that does not consist entirely of zeros.

Step 2: Interchange the top row with another row, if necessary, to bring a
nonzero entry to the top of column found in step 1.

Step 3: If the entry that is now at the top of the column found in pre-
vious Step is a, multiply the first row by 1/a in order to introduce a leading
one.

Step 4: Add suitable multiples of the top row to the rows below so
that all entries below the leading 1 become zero.

Step 5: Now cover the top row in the matrix and begin again with
Step 1 applied to the submatrix that remains. Continue in this way until the
entire matrix is in row-echelon form.

16
All matrices of the following types are in row-echelon form:
   
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
   
 0 1 ∗ ∗   0 1 ∗ ∗ 
   
 ,  
 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 
   
  0 0 1
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
  0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
1 ∗ ∗ ∗  
 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 
   
 0 1 ∗ ∗ 
   
 , 
 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 

 
 0 0 0 0   
0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 
 
   0 0 0
0 0 0 0  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗

Example 1 : Write the following matrix in row-echelon form :

 
2 −1 −1 3
 
 −6 5 −3 
 
6
 
4 4 7 3

3R1 + R2 −→ R2 , −2R1 + R3 −→ R3
 
2 −1 −1 3
 
 
 0 3 2 6 
 
0 6 9 −3

−2R2 + R3 −→ R3
 
2 −1 −1 3
 
 
 0 3 2 6 
 
0 0 5 −15

The leading entries of the other rows move from left to right as we move down
the rows and each column consist of zeros below leading coefficients. Thus the
matrix is now in row echelon form.

17
We can make pivot as 1 If we let 12 R1 −→ R1 , 1/3R2 −→ R2 , 1/5R3 −→ R3
and we obtain
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 0 1 −3

Example 1 Revisited: Write the following matrix in row-echelon form :

 
2 −1 −1 3
 
 −6 5 −3 
 
6
 
4 4 7 3
1
R
2 1
−→ R1
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 −6 −3 
 
6 5
 
4 4 7 3

6R1 + R2 −→ R2 , −4R1 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 3 2 6 
 
0 6 9 −3
1
R
3 2
−→ R2
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 6 9 −3

−6R2 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 0 5 −15

18
1
R
5 3
−→ R3
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 0 1 −3

which is row-echelon form of given matrix.

Example 2: Write the following matrix in row-echelon form :
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
 −1 −2 −1 3
 
1 
 
 −2 −3 0 3 −1 
 
 
0 −3 −6 4 9

R1 + R2 −→ R2 , 2R1 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
4 −6 −6 
 
 0 2
 
 0 5 10 −15 −15 
 
 
0 −3 −6 4 9

1
R
2 2
−→ R2
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
2 −3 −3 
 
 0 1
 
 0 5 10 −15 −15 
 
 
0 −3 −6 4 9

5R2 + R3 −→ R3 , 3R2 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
 0 1 2 −3 −3 
 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 −5 0

19
R3  R4
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
1 2 −3 −3 
 
 0
 
0 0 −5 0 
 
 0
 
0 0 0 0 0

− 15 R3 −→ R3
 
1 4 5 −9 −7
 
2 −3 −3 
 
 0 1
 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0

thus matrix is now in row-echelon form.

Example 3: Write the following matrix in row-echelon form :
 
2 1 −1 8
 
 −3 −1 2 −11 
 
 
−2 1 2 −3
1
R
2 1
−→ R1
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 −3 −1 −11 
 
2
 
−2 1 2 −3
3R1 + R2 −→ R2 , 2R1 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 
 0 1/2 1/2 1 
 
0 2 1 5
2R2 −→ R2
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 
 0 1 1 2 
 
0 2 1 5

20
−2R2 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 
 0 1 1 2 
 
0 0 −1 1

−R3 −→ R3
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 
 0 1 1 2 
 
0 0 1 1

the entire matrix is now in row-echelon form.

Example 4: Write the following matrix in row-echelon form :

 
2 1 −1 8
 
 −4 −2 2 −11 
 
 
4 −3 6 
 
 4
 
−2 −3 2 −3

1/2R1 −→ R1
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 −4 −2 −11 
 
2
 
−3
 
 4 4 6 
 
−2 −3 2 −3

4R1 + R2 −→ R2 , −4R1 + R3 −→ R3 , 2R1 + R4 −→ R4

 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 
 0 0 0 5 
 
−1 −10 
 
 0 2
 
0 −2 1 5

21
We interchange second and third rows. R2  R3
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
−1 −10 
 
 0 2
 
 
 0 0 0 5 
 
0 −2 1 5
1
R
2 2
−→ R2
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 0 1 −1/2 −5 
 
 
 
 0 0 0 5 
 
0 −2 1 5
2R2 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 0 1 −1/2 −5 
 
 
 
 0 0 0 5 
 
0 0 0 −5
1
R
5 3
−→ R3
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 0 1 −1/2 −5 
 
 
 
 0 0 0 1 
 
0 0 0 −5
5R3 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 1/2 −1/2 4
 
 0 1 −1/2 −5 
 
 
 
 0 0 0 1 
 
0 0 0 0
Now the empty row is on the bottom and the leading entries of the other rows
move from left to right as we move down the rows and each column consist of
zeros below leading ones. Thus the matrix is now in row echelon form.

22
 Reduced Row-Echelon Form

Reduced Row-Echelon Form

A matrix in reduced row echelon form has the following properties:

1. All rows that contain only zeros are grouped at the bottom of the
matrix.

2. For each row that does not contain only zeros, then first nonzero
number in the row is a 1. We call this as leading 1.

3. For each row that does not contain only zeros, the leading 1 of any
row is to the right of the leading one of the previous row.

4. If a column contains a leading 1, then all other entries in that col-

umn are zero.

Notes 1. The leading one of a row does not have to be to the imme-
diate right of the leading one of the previous row.

2. A matrix in reduced row-echelon form will have zeros both above

and below the leading ones.

3. The reduced row-echelon form of a matrix is unique.

23
 Example 1 The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form.
 
    0 1 −2 0 1
1 0 0 4 1 0 0  
     0 0 0 1 3 

 
 0 1 0 7 ,  0 1 0 , 
    
     0 0 0 0 0  
0 0 1 −1 0 0 1  
0 0 0 0 0

How to convert a matrix to reduced Row-echelon form?

Step 1: Locate the leftmost column that does not consist entirely of zeros.

Step 2: Interchange the top row with another row, if necessary, to bring a
nonzero entry to the top of column found in step 1.

Step 3: If the entry that is now at the top of the column found in pre-
vious Step is a, multiply the first row by 1/a in order to introduce a leading
one.

Step 4: Add suitable multiples of the top row to the rows below so
that all entries below the leading 1 become zero.

Step 5: Repeat Steps 1-4 for submatrix obtained by ignoring the top
row. Continue in this way until the entire matrix is in reduced row echelon
form.
Most important, each time you return to Step 1, ignore the rows already
taken care of.

24
 All matrices of the following types are in reduced row-echelon form:
   
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∗
   
0   0 1 0 ∗ 
   
 0 1 0
 ,  
0   0 0 1 ∗ 
   
 0 0 1
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
  0 1 ∗ 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
1 0 ∗ ∗  
 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 
   
∗ ∗ 
 
 0 1  
 , 
 0 0 0 0 1 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 

 
 0 0 0 0   
0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 
 
   0 0 0
0 0 0 0  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗

Example 2 : Write the following matrix in reduced row-echelon form

 
0 2 3 −4 1
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
2 −5 2 4 
 
 2
 
2 0 −6 9 7

Solution:
Step 1: First column is the leftmost nonzero column.
Step 2: Interchange the first row with the third or fourth row to bring a nonzero
entry to the top of column found in step 1. R1  R3 (We can also R1  R4 ,
try in this way also!)
 
2 2 −5 2 4
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
2 3 −4 1 
 
 0
 
2 0 −6 9 7

25
Step 3: To introduce leading one in first column, letting 12 R1 −→ R1 , we have
 
1 1 −5/2 1 2
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
−4 1 
 
 0 2 3
 
2 0 −6 9 7

Step 4: Make all other entries in the first column zero by adding suitable
multiples of the first row to the other rows.
−2R1 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 1 −5/2 1 2
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
−4 1
 
 0 2 3 
 
0 −2 −1 7 3

Step 5: Repeat Steps 1-4 until the entire matrix is in reduced row echelon
form.
R2  R3 (We can also R2  R4 , try in this way also!)
 
1 1 −5/2 1 2
 
−4 1 
 
 0 2 3
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
0 −2 −1 7 3

1
R
2 2
−→ R2
 
1 1 −5/2 1 2
 
3/2 −2 1/2 
 
 0 1
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
0 −2 −1 7 3

26
−R2 + R1 −→ R1 , 2R2 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 0 −4 3 3/2
 
1 3/2 −2 1/2 
 
 0
 
 
 0 0 2 3 4 
 
0 0 2 3 4
1
R
2 3
−→ R3
 
1 0 −4 3 3/2
 
 0 1 3/2 −2 1/2 
 
 
 
 0 0 1 3/2 2 
 
0 0 2 3 4

− 23 R3 + R2 −→ R2 , 4R3 + R1 −→ R1 , −2R3 + R4 −→ R4
 
1 0 0 9 19/2
 
 0 1 0 −17/4 −5/2 
 
 
 
 0 0 1 3/2 2 
 
0 0 0 0 0

Now the empty row is on the bottom and the leading ones of the other rows
move from left to right as we move down the rows and each column consist of
zeros below and above leading ones. Thus the matrix is now in reduced row
echelon form.
Example 3 : Write the following matrix in reduced row-echelon form
 
2 −1 −1 3
 
 −6 6 5 −3 
 
 
4 4 7 3
1
R
2 1
−→ R1
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 −6 −3 
 
6 5
 
4 4 7 3

27
6R1 + R2 −→ R2 , −4R1 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 3 2 6 
 
0 6 9 −3
1
R
3 2
−→ R2
 
1 −1/2 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 6 9 −3

1/2R2 + R1 −→ R1 , −6R2 + R3 −→ R3
 
1 0 −1/6 5/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 0 5 −15
1
R
5 3
−→ R3
 
1 0 −1/2 3/2
 
 
 0 1 2/3 2 
 
0 0 1 −3

−2/3R3 + R2 −→ R2 , 1/2R3 + R1 −→ R1
 
1 0 0 0
 
 
 0 1 0 4 
 
0 0 1 −3
which is reduced row-echelon form of given matrix.
 
2 7 −3 8 3
 
 0 −3 7 5 1 
 
 
A= 0 0
 
6 7 6 
 
 
 0 0 0 9 8 
 
0 0 0 0 4

28