ABSTRACT / SUMMARY

An experiment is conducted to prepare soap and thus, to

compare the properties of the prepared soap and synthetic
detergents which are precipitation, emulsification and cleaning
abilities. It can be concluded that soap has the properties of
emulsifying oil whereas detergent has not. The abilities of forming
precipitates can be seen clearly in soap solution whereas detergent
forms no precipitates at all. The experiment is completed and
successfully conducted.

INTRODUCTION

The making of soap was believed to be first invented by the

Babylonians in 2800 BC and the Phoenicians around 600 BC. In the
early history, soap was used for the purpose of cleaning textile
fibres such as wool and cotton in preparation for the dyeing process
instead of personal hygiene. Our ancestors from old days figured out
the layer of grease on garments which will obstruct the application
for the dyeing process.

Soap was named after Mount Sapo, according to a Roman

legend, was a place where the Romans performed a ritual of animal
sacrificing. Ironically, the fats of the animals that got mixed with

1
wood ashes was then washed downhill where the women discovered
that the mixture aided their cloth washing activities.

Eugène Chevreul was the person responsible for the founding

of chemical nature of soap and the modern soap-making begun in the
19th Century.

In today’s progressive world of science and technology, soap is

manufactured much like it was back then, where fats and oils are
technically heated with the presence of a strong base (commonly
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to produce fatty acid salts
and glycerol in a process termed as saponification. As a matter of
fact, the salt of a fatty acid is the soap, which is a soft and waxy
material that brush up the ability for cleaning purpose of water. A
positive ion, usually Na + or K+, and a negative ion usually the anions
of long-chained carboxylic acids yielded by hydrolysis of either
animals or vegetables fats.

The presence of double bonds (unsaturated) with fatty acids

materials, or soap tends to decrease its melting point and thus, the
compounds are in liquid state at room temperature. Technically,
vegetable fats are relatively unsaturated and liquid under the
ordinary conditions, whereas animals fats are relatively more
saturated and solid or semi-solid at the same temperature. Double
bonds are said to lower the melting point of a fatty acid chain
because its cis-conformation produces a bent chain which does not
easily adhere to a neighbouring chain by a Van der Waals attraction.

2
Hence a lower temperature is required for these materials to form a
solid crystal lattice.

However, during World War 1, the first synthetic detergent has

been produced, mainly because of the urge to find another cleaning
agent that would react in hard water.

A variety of detergents can be found today, which generally

contain surfactants, a builder, and other additives such as bleaching
agents and enzymes. The surfactants are the parts that are
responsible for the cleaning properties of that particular detergent.
Some of them may be ionic, cationic or even non-ionic. The builders
indeed are compounds responsible for removing the corresponding
calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.

However, there are two detergents which may not be as safe as

it may concern, mostly that contains phosphates. Such detergents
will end up in wastewater and cause excessive growth of algae and
other aquatic plants. When those die, bacteria that present in the
dead matter consume oxygen which results in the lack of oxygen left
for the fish and other aquatic lives.

3
 AIMS / OBJECTIVES

The purposes of conducting this experiment are to prepare

soap with using mineral oils and to study and compare the properties
of soap and synthetic detergent.

THEORY

If R-COOH represents a generalised fatty acid (R is

hydrocarbon chain of 13, 15 or 17 Carbon) then, the general formula
for a fat is:

A generalized saponification reaction is shown below:

4
 The particular structure of the soap molecule consists of a long
non-polar tail (the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid) and a highly
polar end (the ionic group COO -). The non-polar site, or also called
as hydrophobic tail is able to dissolve the grease and dirt whereas
the polar or hydrophilic end is attracted to water molecules.

The non-polar portion of the soap is commonly represented

with a zig-zag line and the polar head with a circle.

non-polar

polar
5
 A micelle, a spherical shape is formed resulting from the
negatively charged heads of the soap molecules. They then orient
themselves, where the non-polar tails rearrange towards the centre
of the micelle and the hydrophilic site facing the water. In the
presence of oil or dirt, the non-polar head interact with them, and
gathered it to the centre of the micelle. This is how soap cleans
technically. When rinsed with water, the micelle together with the
dirt washed away. Soap is theoretically acting as an emulsifying
agent, where emulsion is the dispersion of a liquid in a second
immiscible liquid.

water

In acidic or hard water, the soap molecules would not be able

to interact with water, micelles can hardly be formed and thus, soap
can no longer be able to perform its cleaning abilities. The COO -
group is literally protonated and the fatty acid precipitates, being
now water insoluble. Hard water is water which is highly
concentrated with Mg or Ca and these ions react with the carboxyl
and forming insoluble fats or scientifically known as scum, and
results in the inability of the soap to clean.

6
 APPARATUS

~stock soap solution, distilled water, synthetic detergent (dynamo),

mineral oils, CaCl2 solution, MgCl2 solution, FeCl2 solution, 1 M HCl,
tomato sauce, pH meter, test tubes with racks, beakers, and cloth
strips.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Part A: Soap preparation

1. 25 mL of vegetable oil is placed in a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask. 20

mL of ethanol and 25 mL of 6 M sodium hydroxide solution are added
to the flask. The mixture is stirred using a stirring bar to mix the

7
contents of the flask. The alcohol is carefully smelled by wafting it
towards our nose.

2. The 250-mL flask is heated in a 600 mL boiling-water bath.

3. The mixture is stirred continuously during the heating process to

prevent the mixture from foaming. If the mixture should foam to the
point of nearly overflowing, the flask is removed from the boiling-
water bath until the foaming subsides, then heating is continued. The
mixture is heated for 20-30 minute or until the alcohol odor is no
longer detectable.

4. The paste-like mixture is removed from the water bath and the
flask is cooled in an ice bath for 10-15 minutes.

5. While the flask is cooling, the vacuum filtration apparatus is

assembled as shown in the figure below. The vacuum flask is
secured to a ring stand with a utility clamp to prevent the apparatus
from toppling over.

6. A piece of filter paper is weighed to the nearest 0.001 g and the

mass is recorded. The filter paper is placed inside the Buchner
funnel. The paper is moistened with water so that it fits flush in the
bottom of the funnel.

8
7. Once the flask has cooled, 150 mL of saturated sodium chloride
(NaCl) solution is added to the flask to "salt out" the soap.

8. The water at the aspirator is slowly turned on. The mixture from
the flask is poured into the Buchner funnel. Once all of the liquid has
filtered through the funnel, the soap was washed with 10 mL of ice-
cold water. The suction filtration is continued until all of the water is
removed from the soap.

9. The soap is removed from the funnel and pressed between two
paper towels to dry it. The filter paper and dried soap are weighed,
and the mass is recorded to the nearest 0.001 g and the mass of the
soap determined by difference and the mass is then recorded.

Part B: Comparison of soap and detergent properties- precipitation

and emulsification.

1. A stock soap solution is prepared by dissolving 2g of the prepared

soap in 100 mL of boiling, distilled water. The mixture is stirred until
the soap has dissolved and the solution is allowed to cool.

2. Step 1 is repeated using 2 g of synthetic detergent. When both

solutions are cool, the pH of each solution is determined using pH
paper.

3. Three test tubes are labeled as test tube 1, 2, and 3. 4 drops of

mineral oil are added to each test tube. 5 mL of distilled water is
added to test tube 1. 5 mL of stock soap solution is added to test
tube 2. 5 mL of stock synthetic detergent is added to test tube 3.

9
4. Each solution is mixed by shaking and let stand for three to five
minutes. The solutions, if any, that emulsifies the oil by forming a
single layer is noted.

5. The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The three test
tubes are cleaned and dried.

6. Three more test tubes are labeled as test tube 1, 2, and 3. 2 mL

of stock soap solution is placed in each of the three test tubes. 2 mL
of 1% CaCl2 solution is added to test tube 1. 2 mL of 1% MgCl2
solution is added to test tube 2. 2 mL of l% FeCl2 solution is added
to test tube 3. Each test tube is shaken to mix the solutions. The
observations are recorded.

7. 4 drops of mineral oil are added to each of the test tubes in Step
6. Each test tube is shaken to mix the solutions and the solutions
are left to stand for three five minutes. The solutions, if any, that
emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer is noted.

8. Steps 6-7 is repeated using 2 mL of stock detergent solution. The

solutions that precipitated are observed.

9. The solutions, if any, that emulsifies the oil by forming a single

layer is noted.

10. The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The test tube
are cleaned and dried.

11. 5 ml of stock soap solution is poured in cine clean test tube and
5 mL of stock detergent solution in a second test tube. 1 M HC1 is
added one drop at a time to both solutions until the pH in each test
tube is equal to 3. The number of drops of acid added to each
mixture is counted. Any precipitate formed in either mixture is
observed.

10
12. 1 drop of mineral oil is added to each test tube in Step 11. Each
test tube is shaken to mix the solution. Any emulsification formed in
either mixture is observed.

Part C: Comparison of cleaning abilities of soap and detergents

1. The three beakers are cleaned, dried and labeled. Then 20 mL of

stock soap solution (from Step 1 in section 7.4.2) is placed in the
first beaker. After that, 20 mL of stock detergent solution (from Step
2 in Part B) is placed in the 2nd beaker. 20 mL of a commercial
liquid is added in a third beaker.

2. Three cloth test strips that have been soaked in tomato sauce are
obtained and then one strip is placed in each of the beakers.
Repeatedly each solution is stirred with a stirrer bar for 5 minutes.

3. The cloth strips is removed from the soap and detergent solution
and then the excess water is squeezed out. Each cloth strip is
observed and compared to determine their relative cleanliness.

11
 RESULTS

i)

Mass of filter (g) 0.3698

Mass of filter paper + soap + 140.0688
container (g)
Mass of soap recovered (g) 56.5872
Mass of container (g) 83.1118

ii) pH of soap solution: 10.06

pH of detergent solution: 8.61

iii)

Test tube Observations

4 drops of oil + 5mL of oil droplets formed
distilled water
4 drops of oil + 5mL of oil dissolves in solution
soap solution
4 drops of oil + 5mL of very tiny oil droplets and
detergent solution bubbles formed

iv)

Test tube Observations

2mL of detergent + 2mL of clear solution is formed
1% CaCl2
2mL of detergent + 2mL of Clear solution is formed
1% MgCl2
2mL of detergent + 2mL of Clear solution is formed
1% FeCl2

12
v)

Test tube Observations

2mL of soap solution + 2mL Scum is formed but disperse
of 1% CaCl2 in solution
2mL of soap solution + 2mL White scum is formed
of 1% MgCl2
2mL of soap solution + 2mL Yellowish scum is formed
of 1% FeCl2

vi)

Test tube Number of drops

5mL of soap solution 8 (precipitate is formed)
5mL of detergent solution 11

vii)

Material Cleaning abilities

Soap Clean
Detergent Clean faster

DISCUSSION

13
 In saponification, the fatty acid carboxylate ions are formed in
the presence of the base. These carboxylate ions are the conjugate
bases of the fatty acids, and therefore, able to accept a proton.
When placed into water, these conjugate bases are able to accept
protons from any source including water.

Water that contains calcium ions, Ca 2+, and magnesium ions,

Mg2+, is said to be hard water. These ions are leached from ground
water flowing over rock formations containing limestone and other
minerals. Hard water interferes with the cleaning action of soaps.

When soap is added to hard water, insoluble compounds are

formed which appear as sticky scum. This scum leaves a deposit on
clothes, skin, and hair. However, when boiled, hard water leaves a
deposit of calcium carbonate, CaCO 3. This scale builds up in tea
kettles and inside hot water heaters.

Detergents have undeniably replaced soap for many cleaning

jobs around the home. The development of synthetic detergents by
chemists was a great advantage for people with relatively hard tap
water in their homes.

However, there is a significant issue regarding the use of

synthetic detergent that is the biodegradability of some of its
components. In fact, many of the surfactants initially used in
detergents were not biodegradable whereas soaps are
biodegradable, apparently can be degraded by bacteria.

14
 From the observations obtained from this experiment, the soap
from precipitates in all of the solutions added (CaCl 2, MgCl2 and
FeCl2) as well emulsifies the oil. This may not appear as good
characteristic for soap as a cleaning agent if it forms precipitate and
emulsifies oil on cloth.

Nevertheless, detergent is a better cleaning agent as it forms

no precipitation and does not emulsifies the oil. Thus, grease and
dirt can be cleaned without involving any precipitation or oil
emulsification.

CONCLUSION

The soap is successfully prepared and the comparison of

properties of soap and detergent, which are precipitation,
emulsification and cleaning abilities, are made and observed.

It can be concluded that soap has the properties of emulsifying

oil whereas detergent has not. The abilities of forming precipitates
can be seen clearly in soap solution whereas detergent forms no
precipitates at all.

15
 RECOMMENDATIONS

There are a few recommendations that will significantly produce

better observations which will not deviate much from the theoretical
observations.

Firstly, the experiment should at least be repeated twice in

order to get more accurate observations. The observations might be
more convincing if the average is taken.

Secondly, any pH reading must be conducted at same

temperature for pH is varying at different temperatures.

Avoid contact with any chemical reagents involved. Thus, wash

hands before leaving the laboratory.

REFERENCES

16
1. Experiments in General Chemistry Featuring Measuring Net,
Bobby Shanton, Lin Zhu, C.H. Atwood, 2005, Brooks/Cole
Laboratory Series, USA.
2. Organic Chemistry (third edition) , R. T. Morrison & R. N.
Boyd,1973, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
3. Fundamentals of General, Organic and Biological Chemistry
(third edition), J. McMurry, M.E. Castellion, 1999, Prentice
Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

APPENDICES

~ Refer to the attachments provided on the next page.

17