Complex Carbohydrates in Foods

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A Series of Monographs, Textbooks, and Reference Books
EDITORIAL BOARD
Senior Editors
Owen R. Fennema University of Wisconsin–Madison
Y.H. Hui Science Technology System
Marcus Karel Rutgers University (emeritus)
Pieter Walstra Wageningen University
John R. Whitaker University of California–Davis
Additives P. Michael Davidson University of Tennessee–Knoxville

Dairy science James L. Steele University of Wisconsin–Madison
Flavor chemistry and sensory analysis John H. Thorngate III University
of California–Davis
Food engineering Daryl B. Lund University of Wisconsin–Madison
Food proteins/food chemistry Rickey Y. Yada University of Guelph
Health and disease Seppo Salminen University of Turku, Finland
Nutrition and nutraceuticals Mark Dreher Mead Johnson Nutritionals
Phase transition/food microstructure Richard W. Hartel University of
Wisconsin–Madison
Processing and preservation Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Washington
State University–Pullman
Safety and toxicology Sanford Miller University of Texas–Austin
1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Horn-

stein, P. Issenberg, and E. L. Wick
2. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, John R. Whitaker
3. Low-Temperature Preservation of Foods and Living Matter, Owen R.
Fennema, William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth
4. Principles of Food Science
Part I: Food Chemistry, edited by Owen R. Fennema
Part II: Physical Methods of Food Preservation, Marcus Karel, Owen
R. Fennema, and Daryl B. Lund
5. Food Emulsions, edited by Stig E. Friberg
6. Nutritional and Safety Aspects of Food Processing, edited by Steven
R. Tannenbaum
7. Flavor Research: Recent Advances, edited by R. Teranishi, Robert A.
Flath, and Hiroshi Sugisawa
8. Computer-Aided Techniques in Food Technology, edited by Israel
Saguy
9. Handbook of Tropical Foods, edited by Harvey T. Chan
10. Antimicrobials in Foods, edited by Alfred Larry Branen and P. Michael
Davidson
11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic
Determination, edited by James F. Lawrence
12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry, edited by Lewis D. Stegink
and L. J. Filer, Jr.
13. Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects,
edited by Lawrence J. Machlin
14. Starch Conversion Technology, edited by G. M. A. van Beynum and J.
A. Roels
15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Owen R. Fennema
16. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures, Mi-
chael O'Mahony
17. Alternative Sweeteners, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C.
Gelardi
18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, S. V. Ting
and Russell L. Rouseff
19. Engineering Properties of Foods, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H.
Rizvi
20. Umami: A Basic Taste, edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R.
Kare
21. Food Biotechnology, edited by Dietrich Knorr
22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement, edited by
Howard R. Moskowitz
23. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human Health and Disease, John E.
Kinsella
24. Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables, edited by J. Weichmann
25. Handbook of Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach, Mark L. Dreher
26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B, Jose M. Concon
27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry, Roger W. Binkley
28. Trace Minerals in Foods, edited by Kenneth T. Smith
29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing, edited by R. Dixon
Phillips and John W. Finley
30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages, edited by Steven Nagy, John A.
Attaway, and Martha E. Rhodes
31. Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, edited by Michael P. Doyle
32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition, edited by
Ruth H. Matthews
33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, edited by Keith H.
Steinkraus
34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy · Science · Law,
edited by Roger D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik
35. Food Additives, edited by A. Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, and
Seppo Salminen
36. Safety of Irradiated Foods, J. F. Diehl
37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease, edited by Robert S. Lees
and Marcus Karel
38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Kåre Larsson and Stig E. Friberg
39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition, George M. Pigott and
Barbee W. Tucker
40. Handbook of Vitamins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Lawrence J. Machlin
41. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Klaus J. Lorenz and
Karel Kulp
42. Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up, Kenneth J. Valentas,
Leon Levine, and J. Peter Clark
43. Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision, edited by L. F. Pau and R.
Olafsson
44. Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages, edited by Henk Maarse
45. Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance in Foods, edited by
Daniel Y. C. Fung and Richard F. Matthews
46. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H.
Marth
47. Acesulfame-K, edited by D. G. Mayer and F. H. Kemper
48. Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, ed-
ited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
49. Food Extrusion Science and Technology, edited by Jozef L. Kokini,
Chi-Tang Ho, and Mukund V. Karwe
50. Surimi Technology, edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee
51. Handbook of Food Engineering, edited by Dennis R. Heldman and
Daryl B. Lund
52. Food Analysis by HPLC, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
53. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, edited by Ching
Kuang Chow
54. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in Foods, edited by
Andreas H. W. Hauschild and Karen L. Dodds
55. Cereals in Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach,
Ann-Charlotte Eliasson and Kåre Larsson
56. Low-Calorie Foods Handbook, edited by Aaron M. Altschul
57. Antimicrobials in Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by P. Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen
58. Lactic Acid Bacteria, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
59. Rice Science and Technology, edited by Wayne E. Marshall and
James I. Wadsworth
60. Food Biosensor Analysis, edited by Gabriele Wagner and George G.
Guilbault
61. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition, John
R. Whitaker
62. Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, edited by Casimir C.
Akoh and Barry G. Swanson
63. Engineering Properties of Foods: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
64. Handbook of Brewing, edited by William A. Hardwick
65. Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants,
edited by Ike J. Jeon and William G. Ikins
66. Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, edited by Anilkumar
G. Gaonkar
67. Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications, edited by Alistair M.
Stephen
68. Safety of Irradiated Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J.
F. Diehl
69. Nutrition Labeling Handbook, edited by Ralph Shapiro
70. Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition,
Storage, and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam
71. Food Antioxidants: Technological, Toxicological, and Health Perspec-
tives, edited by D. L. Madhavi, S. S. Deshpande, and D. K. Salunkhe
72. Freezing Effects on Food Quality, edited by Lester E. Jeremiah
73. Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
74. Carbohydrates in Food, edited by Ann-Charlotte Eliasson
75. Baked Goods Freshness: Technology, Evaluation, and Inhibition of
Staling, edited by Ronald E. Hebeda and Henry F. Zobel
76. Food Chemistry: Third Edition, edited by Owen R. Fennema
77. Handbook of Food Analysis: Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Leo M. L.
Nollet
78. Computerized Control Systems in the Food Industry, edited by Gauri
S. Mittal
79. Techniques for Analyzing Food Aroma, edited by Ray Marsili
80. Food Proteins and Their Applications, edited by Srinivasan Damo-
daran and Alain Paraf
81. Food Emulsions: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Stig
E. Friberg and Kåre Larsson
82. Nonthermal Preservation of Foods, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas,
Usha R. Pothakamury, Enrique Palou, and Barry G. Swanson
83. Milk and Dairy Product Technology, Edgar Spreer
84. Applied Dairy Microbiology, edited by Elmer H. Marth and James L.
Steele
85. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiology and Functional Aspects: Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte
von Wright
86. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production,
Composition, Storage, and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and
S. S. Kadam
87. Polysaccharide Association Structures in Food, edited by Reginald H.
Walter
88. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology, edited by
Casimir C. Akoh and David B. Min
89. Spice Science and Technology, Kenji Hirasa and Mitsuo Takemasa
90. Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes, P.
Walstra, T. J. Geurts, A. Noomen, A. Jellema, and M. A. J. S. van
Boekel
91. Coloring of Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, Gisbert Otterstätter
92. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
93. Complex Carbohydrates in Foods, edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho,
Leon Prosky, and Mark Dreher
94. Handbook of Food Preservation, edited by M. Shafiur Rahman
95. International Food Safety Handbook: Science, International Regula-
tion, and Control, edited by Kees van der Heijden, Maged Younes,
Lawrence Fishbein, and Sanford Miller
96. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
97. Seafood Enzymes: Utilization and Influence on Postharvest Seafood
Quality, edited by Norman F. Haard and Benjamin K. Simpson
98. Safe Handling of Foods, edited by Jeffrey M. Farber and Ewen C. D.
Todd
99. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology: Second Edition, Re-
vised and Expanded, edited by Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.
100. Food Analysis by HPLC: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
101. Surimi and Surimi Seafood, edited by Jae W. Park
102. Drug Residues in Foods: Pharmacology, Food Safety, and Analysis,
Nickos A. Botsoglou and Dimitrios J. Fletouris
103. Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and
Detection, edited by Luis M. Botana
104. Handbook of Nutrition and Diet, Babasaheb B. Desai
105. Nondestructive Food Evaluation: Techniques to Analyze Properties
and Quality, edited by Sundaram Gunasekaran
106. Green Tea: Health Benefits and Applications, Yukihiko Hara
107. Food Processing Operations Modeling: Design and Analysis, edited
by Joseph Irudayaraj
108. Wine Microbiology: Science and Technology, Claudio Delfini and
Joseph V. Formica
109. Handbook of Microwave Technology for Food Applications, edited by
Ashim K. Datta and Ramaswamy C. Anantheswaran
110. Applied Dairy Microbiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Elmer H. Marth and James L. Steele
111. Transport Properties of Foods, George D. Saravacos and Zacharias
B. Maroulis
112. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by Lyn O’Brien Nabors
113. Handbook of Dietary Fiber, edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho and Mark
L. Dreher
114. Control of Foodborne Microorganisms, edited by Vijay K. Juneja and
John N. Sofos
115. Flavor, Fragrance, and Odor Analysis, edited by Ray Marsili
116. Food Additives: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by A.
Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, Seppo Salminen, and John H.
Thorngate, III
117. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Casimir C. Akoh and David B. Min
118. Food Protein Analysis: Quantitative Effects on Processing, R. K.
Owusu-Apenten
119. Handbook of Food Toxicology, S. S. Deshpande
120. Food Plant Sanitation, edited by Y. H. Hui, Bernard L. Bruinsma, J.
Richard Gorham, Wai-Kit Nip, Phillip S. Tong, and Phil Ventresca
121. Physical Chemistry of Foods, Pieter Walstra
122. Handbook of Food Enzymology, edited by John R. Whitaker, Alphons
G. J. Voragen, and Dominic W. S. Wong
123. Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Vegetables: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Jerry A. Bartz and Jeffrey K. Brecht
124. Characterization of Cereals and Flours: Properties, Analysis, and Ap-
plications, edited by Gönül Kaletunç and Kenneth J. Breslauer
125. International Handbook of Foodborne Pathogens, edited by Marianne
D. Miliotis and Jeffrey W. Bier
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Handbook of Dough Fermentations, edited by Karel Kulp and Klaus

Lorenz
Extraction Optimization in Food Engineering, edited by Constantina

Tzia and George Liadakis
Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Second Edition, Revised

and Expanded, Marcus Karel and Daryl B. Lund
Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, edited by Y. H.

Hui, Sue Ghazala, Dee M. Graham, K. D. Murrell, and Wai-Kit Nip
Food Process Design, Zacharias B. Maroulis and George D.

Saravacos
Preface
To establish the effect that any nutrient has on human physiology takes
years of research, punctuated by ongoing scientific debate. The task of determin-
ing what benefits can be derived from eating complex carbohydrates is no less
rigorous. The term ‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ became popular in February of
1977, when the U.S. Senate Committee on Human Needs and Nutrition loosely
indicated it as available starch. In their report, the committee encouraged liberal
consumption of complex carbohydrates to achieve better health. In 1991 the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed listing its quantities on food
labels (as starches and any dextrins of 10 or more saccharide units). However,
when the final regulations were issued in 1993, complex carbohydrates were not
included in the labeling guidelines. During the 2-year interim, the FDA and U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) had concluded that although increased con-
sumption of complex carbohydrates was desirable, neither a specific definition
of nor a methodology for analyzing complex carbohydrates was clearly enough
established to commence the labeling. The 1995 USDA dietary guidelines contin-
ued to recommend diets high in complex carbohydrates (defined as starch and
dietary fiber). Yet the tool that would ultimately inform consumers about the levels
of complex carbohydrates in their food (the nutrition label) still does not exist.
Because less conflict occurred in defining ‘‘dietary fiber,’’ an analytical
methodology was developed, validated, and has been now used in nutrition label-
ing since the 1980s. Labeling for complex carbohydrates, on the other hand, has
not yet achieved its place in consumer nutrition education.
iii
iv Preface
As with any scientific issue that results in debate and public policy, each
idea and method about how to define and analyze complex carbohydrates has its
supporters, detractors, and those whose opinions vacillate (sometimes fre-
quently). Current efforts to educate the public about the health benefits of com-
plex carbohydrates through publicity and food labeling continue to be offset, in
part, by individuals and groups who want the term discontinued. Such arguments
are similar to ones heard in the course of creating a methodology and labeling
system for dietary fiber, although there was more universal agreement.
In 1990, after initially supporting the term ‘‘dietary fiber,’’ members of a
task force from the British Nutrition Foundation decided that they wanted instead
to make the term obsolete in scientific literature. They wanted to refer to just a
portion of dietary fiber, the entity ‘‘non-starch polysaccharides.’’ However, their
position was not accepted among international scientists and the term dietary
fiber prevailed. Today, it is accepted and used even by members of the task
force. Books and research continue to focus on dietary fiber and reinforce the
importance of a liberal dietary fiber intake. One need only look at the number
of workshops and symposia to realize that the term and its definition will continue
to form the base of discussions for years to come.
Mirroring this earlier debate over dietary fiber, a small but vocal number
of scientists want the term ‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ to be discontinued. These
scientists are suggesting that because of unresolved differences of opinion on
small details regarding the makeup of complex carbohydrates, we should throw
out the term and ignore the important strides that have been made in understand-
ing this important component of our diet. However, the majority of scientists
working in the field support a continued effort in researching analytical methodol-
ogies and physiological effects even though the definition of complex carbohy-
drates remains loose. The term ‘‘dietary fiber’’ returned to routine use after years
of debate. We predict that over the next few years the term ‘‘complex carbohy-
drates’’ will also return on food labels as consensus over its definition continues
to be accepted.
As with any developing research, informed scientists must continue to
speak out about their findings and pursue answers to questions of analytical meth-
ods and physiological impact. Unlike marketing or advertising careers where pro-
fessionals must keep pace with fads, most scientists and nutritionists have the
opportunity to stick with a subject until key issues are resolved and results show
that their work will either benefit mankind or must be set aside because it has
little or no value. The public understands how important complex carbohydrates
are. Health recommendations made by government agencies as well as those of
health and nutrition professionals have been pivotal in establishing this aware-
ness.
The editors of this book seek to bring the issues that have been raised for
adding complex carbohydrates to the nutrition label closer to a solution. They
Preface v
have also sought to bring health benefits and applications of complex carbohy-
drates to new food products development. This book includes international patent
activities on the use of complex carbohydrates (starch gums and dietary fiber)
in low fat and low calorie food products development as well as food content of
dietary fiber and carbohydrates. In all, it is hoped that a valuable view of the
current literature, practices, and prespectives is presented.
Susan Sungsoo Cho

Leon Prosky
Mark Dreher
Contents
Preface iii
Contributors xi
1. Introduction 1
Susan Sungsoo Cho, Leon Prosky, and Jonathan W. Devries
Part I: Health Benefits and Definition of Complex Carbohydrates

and Dietary Fiber 5
2. Dietary Guidelines for Complex Carbohydrates/Dietary Fiber 7
Joanne L. Slavin
3. Complex Carbohydrates and the Food Label: An FDA Perspective 15
F. Edward Scarbrough
4. Dietary Fiber Properties and Health Benefits of Non-Digestible
Oligosaccharides 25
M. B. Roberfroid
5. Suggested Alternatives to the Term ‘‘Complex Carbohydrates’’ 35
F. W. Scott, R. Mongeau, and P. Wood
vii
viii Contents
6. Complex Carbohydrates: The Science and the Label 39

David R. Lineback, Mark Dreher, Jonathan W. Devries,
Joanne L. Slavin, Alison Stephen, Dennis Gordon, Leon Prosky,
F. Edward Scarbrough, Gary Henderson, Susan Sungsoo Cho,
Beth Olson, and Fergus Clydesdale
7. The Role of Dietary Fiber in the Prevention of Lipid Metabolism
Disorders 53
Elzbieta Bartnikowska
8. Health Benefits of Complex Carbohydrates 63
David Kritchevsky
9. Worldwide Dietary Fiber Intake: Recommendations and Actual
Consumption Patterns 71
Susan Sungsoo Cho, K. O’Sullivan, and Sharon Rickard
Part II: Complex Carbohydrates—Chemistry and Analytical

Methodology 113
10. The Chemistry of Complex Carbohydrates 115
David R. Lineback
11. Complex Carbohydrates: Definition and Analysis 131
Susan Sungsoo Cho and Leon Prosky
12. Determination of Complex Carbohydrate Fractions in Foods 145
Betty W. Li
Part III: Resistant Starch—Analysis 155

13. In Vivo Techniques to Quantify Resistant Starch 157
M. Champ, L. Martin, L. Noah, and M. Gratas
14. Analytical Methods for Resistant Starch 169
M. Champ, L. Martin, L. Noah, and M. Gratas
Part IV: Resistant Oligosaccharides—Analytical Methodology 189

15. A Sensitive and Reproducible Analytical Method to Measure
Fructooligosaccharides in Food Products 191
F. Ouarne, A. Guibert, D. Brown, and F. Bornet
16. Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary Fiber: Analytical,
Nutritional and Legal Aspects 203
Paul Coussement
Contents ix
17. Determination of Inulin and Oligofructose in Food Products

(Modified AOAC Dietary Fiber Method) 213
P. Dysseler, D. Hoffem, J. Fockedey, B. Quemener,
J.-F. Thibault, and Paul Coussement
18. Polydextrose as Soluble Fiber and Complex Carbohydrate 229

S. A. S. Craig, J. F. Holden, J. P. Troup, M. H. Auerbach,
and H. Frier
Part V: Dietary Fiber—Analytical Methodology 249
19. Progress in the Certification of Five New Food Reference

Materials by AOAC, Englyst and Uppsala Methods of
Dietary Fiber Analysis 251
Alan W. Pendlington
20. High Performance Anion Exchange Chromatography with Pulsed

Amperometric Detection (HPAE-PAD): A Powerful Tool for the
Analysis of Dietary Fiber and Complex Carbohydrates 267
Alan Henshall
21. NIR Analysis of Dietary Fiber 291

Sandra E. Kays, Franklin E. Barton II, and William R. Windham
22. Definition and Analysis of Dietary Fiber 305

R. Mongeau, F. W. Scott, and R. Brassard
23. Estimation of Psyllium Content in Ready-to-Eat Cereals 317

Susan Sungsoo Cho and Mike Bussey
24. Food Sources and Uses of Dietary Fiber 327

Mark Dreher
25. Chemical and Physical Modifications of Dietary Fiber 373

Mary Ellen Camire
26. Production of Resistant Starch 385

Pierre Würsch
27. Effect of Processing on Dietary Fiber in Foods 395

Eckhard Rabe
28. Application of Complex Carbohydrates to Food Product

Fat Mimetics 411
x Contents
29. Patent Literature Review on Complex Carbohydrates as

Fat Mimetics 431
Susan Sungsoo Cho
30. The Application of Complex Carbohydrates to Functional Food
Development 593
Susan Sungsoo Cho and M. Jenab
Appendix I Perspectives on Dietary Fiber Definition 605

Appendix II Total Carbohydrates and Total Dietary Fiber
Content in Grain-Based Foods 609
Index 661
Contributors
M. H. Auerbach H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut

Elzbieta Bartnikowska Warsaw Agricultural University, Warsaw, Poland
Franklin E. Barton II Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, Ag-
ricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia
F. Bornet Eridania Béghin-Say, Vilvoorde Research and Development Centre,
Vilvoorde, Belgium
R. Brassard Food Directorate, Nutrition Research Division, Banting Research
Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
D. Brown Golden Technologies Co., Johnstown, Colorado
Mike Bussey The Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, Michigan
Mary Ellen Camire University of Maine, Orono, Maine
M. Champ I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition,
Nantes, France
Susan Sungsoo Cho The Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, Michigan
Fergus Clydesdale University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
Paul Coussement ORAFTI, Tienen, Belgium
xi
xii Contributors
S. A. S. Craig H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut

Jonathan W. Devries General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
Mark Dreher Nabisco, Inc., East Hanover, New Jersey
P. Dysseler Institut Meurice, Brussels, Belgium
J. Fockedey Sucrerie de Warcoing, Pecq-Warcoing, Belgium
H. Frier H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut
Dennis Gordon North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota
M. Gratas I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition,
Nantes, France
A. Guibert Béghin-Say, INSA, Toulouse, France
Gary Henderson Kraft Foods, White Plains, New York
Alan Henshall Dionex Corporation, Sunnyvale, California
D. Hoffem Institut Meurice, Brussels, Belgium
J. F. Holden H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut
M. Jenab University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Sandra E. Kays Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia
David Kritchevsky The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Betty W. Li Food Composition Laboratory, Beltsville Human Nutrition Re-
search Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Beltsville, Maryland
David R. Lineback College of Agriculture, University of Idaho, Moscow,
Idaho
L. Martin I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition, Nantes,
France
R. Mongeau Food Directorate, Nutrition Research Division, Banting Research
L. Noah I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition, Nantes,
France
K. O’Sullivan The Kellogg Company, Arabic Areas
Beth Olson The Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, Michigan
Contributors xiii
F. Ouarne Béghin-Say, INSA, Toulouse, France

Alan W. Pendlington RHM Technology Ltd., High Wycombe, Bucks, En-
gland
Leon Prosky Prosky Associates, Rockville, Maryland
B. Quemener INRA, Nantes, France
Eckhard Rabe Federal Center for Cereal, Potato and Lipid Research, Detmold,
Germany
Sharon Rickard University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
M. B. Roberfroid Département des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Université Ca-
tholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
F. Edward Scarbrough U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington,
D.C.
F. W. Scott Food Directorate, Nutrition Research Division, Banting Research
Joanne L. Slavin University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Alison Stephen University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Canada
J.-F. Thibault INRA, Nantes, France
J. P. Troup H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut
William R. Windham Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, Ag-
ricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia
P. Wood Centre for Food and Animal Research, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Pierre Würsch Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Switzerland
1
Introduction
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

The Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, Michigan
LEON PROSKY
Prosky Associates, Rockville, Maryland
JONATHAN W. DEVRIES
General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
Over the past two decades consumers, health nutrition professionals, and the
media have received extensive education about the importance of increasing com-
plex carbohydrates in one’s diet. Research linking the consumption of complex
carbohydrates and the reduced risk of chronic disease (including cardiovascular
diseases and cancers) has been passed on to consumers. Nevertheless, the govern-
ment has yet to establish regulations that would quantify complex carbohydrates
on food packaging labels and help consumers to make educated choices at the
supermarket.
The lack of labeling results from an ongoing debate in the scientific commu-
nity over the definition of complex carbohydrates. This debate has created a rift
between the knowledge of nutrition scientists and the general population that
they ordinarily serve. In January 1993 the U. S. Food and Drug Administration
1
2 Cho et al.
(FDA) announced that in spite of general scientific evidence showing that com-
plex carbohydrates were beneficial to human health it could not recommend that
they be labeled on food product nutrition panels as part of the of the final Nutrition
Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) regulations (1, 2). As its rationale the FDA
cited the lack of consensus in the scientific community over the definition of
complex carbohydrates. It reported that without a consensual definition no mean-
ingful analysis of complex carbohydrates or labeling could occur.
Between 1990 and 1991 the FDA proposed a definition of complex carbo-
hydrates as total carbohydrates minus sugar minus dietary fiber (3, 4). However,
many professional and trade organizations, as well as many industries, reacted
in opposition with another proposal that suggested expanding the definition to
include dietary fiber or making the same calculation as total carbohydrates minus
sugar (1).
Between 1991 and 1996 new steps were taken by this scientific community
to expedite an agreement. The Food and Nutrition Methods Committee of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) International arranged three
international surveys (one on complex carbohydrates and two on dietary fiber)
(5-10). The surveys were conducted by referees (5, 6) who solicited the opinion
on the definitions of dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates from professionals
in the field.
The results showed that scientists generally defined complex carbohydrates
as polysaccharides or starch plus dietary fiber and that they also supported ex-
panding the definition of complex carbohydrates to include dietary fiber (5). The
survey indicated interest in including resistant oligosaccharides, non-starch poly-
saccharides, resistant starches, and lignin in the term dietary fiber. However, more
work was needed before agreement could be reached on augmenting the defini-
tion of complex carbohydrates with the components of resistant oligosaccharides
and lignin.
In September 1995 the AOAC International held a workshop in Nashville,
Tennessee. Fifty-seven participants attended from the United States and Europe
(8). They represented industry, academia, and government and included the
world’s foremost authorities on complex carbohydrates. Their discussions fo-
cused on the recent international surveys by Lee and Prosky and a workshop that
had also deliberated over complex carbohydrate labeling by the International Life
Science Institute (ILSI) North American Workshop in Washington, D.C. (9).
During the panel discussion moderator L. Prosky and panelists J. Slavin,
D. Gordon, M. Roberfroid, F. Scott, E. Bartnikowska, and R. Wood analyzed
the appropriateness and advantages of labeling complex carbohydrates. The dis-
cussion centered around how the term “complex carbohydrates” is interpreted by
lay persons, scientists, and politicians. In addition, the panel raised the point that
certain components (resistant oligosaccharides) were not fully recovered in the
Introduction 3
dietary fiber fraction prepared by currently available AOAC methods. These re-
sistant oligosaccharides (oligofructans, polydextrose) exert many of the physio-
logical properties of dietary fiber. To improve the recovery of this fraction, they
suggested that a new method for determining it be studied under the auspices of
the AOAC.
Because of general agreement that dietary fiber should be included in the
definition of complex carbohydrates and that resistant oligosaccharides are part
of dietary fiber, the panel recommended that a vote be taken to establish a working
definition of complex carbohydrates. Twenty-nine participants representing 85%
of the 34 who gave definitions of complex carbohydrates agreed that the definition
should be the sum of dietary fiber and starch (technically speaking, available
or enzyme-available starch). They concurred that for use in labeling complex
carbohydrates could be derived either from the sum of analytically measured
starch and dietary fiber values or from the calculation of total carbohydrates mi-
nus sugar minus available oligosaccharides.
Among the 29 scientists agreeing that the complex carbohydrates definition
should be the sum of starch and dietary fiber, 16 (55%) supported labeling analyti-
cally derived values (total dietary fiber and available starch) and 13 (45%) felt
that values calculated by the difference method would also be acceptable. The
panel recommended that the associate referee coordinate a study among different
laboratories to validate a methodology. Only 2 participants of the workshop had
supported the FDA’s 1991 definition of complex carbohydrates as total carbohy-
drates minus dietary fiber minus simple sugars. Other definitions of complex
carbohydrates considered by the workshop participants included the sum of starch
and non-starch saccharides (3 votes). No one supported the definition as the sum
of starch and non-starch polysaccharides (corresponding to polysaccharides)
which received some support in the previous survey. Many showed a strong inter-
est in developing analytical methods for resistant oligosaccharides, and they rec-
ommended establishing new associate refereeships in this area.
By the end of the workshop participants unanimously supported including
resistant oligosaccharides in dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates definitions
and expanding the complex carbohydrates definition to include dietary fiber and
available starches. They agreed, too, that the new definition would not include
the available oligosaccharides present in candy.
With this understanding complex carbohydrates could be derived as the
sum of analytically measured starch and dietary fiber values or as the calculation
of total carbohydrates minus sugar minus available oligosaccharides for most
nutrition labeling. This complex carbohydrate definition would satisfy both the
scientific community and government agencies. It would alleviate the FDA’s con-
cern about the possibility of candy producers claiming that their products are a
source of complex carbohydrates simply because they contain a significant
4 Cho et al.
amount of maltotriose and maltotetrose. This problem might occur if complex

carbohydrates values were derived by calculating total carbohydrates minus sim-
ple sugar.
Now that a group of scientists has reached a general consensus in defining
complex carbohydrates we must collaborate to develop a method that analyzes
and validates it. With these decisions made we can move ahead and reactivate
research in the areas of nutrition and food technology. It is now possible to de-
velop a common understanding of complex carbohydrates including resistant oli-
gosaccharides, and to study the physiological effects of these nutrients. We want
to emphasize that although the new complex carbohydrate definition will change
the analytical methodology it will not affect the complex carbohydrate and dietary
fiber values for most food products unless they are formulated with ingredients
containing resistant oligosaccharides.
REFERENCES
1.
Food and Drug Administration. (1993) Food Labeling, General Provisions: Nutrition
Labeling: Label Format: Nutrient Content Claims: Ingredient Labeling: State and
Local Requirements; and Exemptions: Final Rules. Fed. Register 58:2301–2964.
2. Department of Agriculture. (1993) Food Labeling; General Provisions: Nutrition
Local Requirements; and Exemptions: Final Rules. Fed. Register 58:631–691.
3. Department of Health and Human Services. (1990) Food Labeling. Fed. Register
55:29476–29486.
4. Department of Health and Human Services. (1991) Food Labeling; Proposed Rules.
Fed. Register. 56:60366–61878.
5. Lee, S.C., and Prosky, L. (1994a) Summary of AOAC International Survey on Com-
plex Carbohydrates. International Life Sciences Institute. North American Workshop
on Complex Carbohydrates, Washington, D.C. November 2, 1994.
6. Lee, S.C., and Prosky, L. (1995) International Survey on Dietary Fiber Definition,
Analysis, and Reference Materials. J. AOAC Int. 78:22–36.
7. Lee, S.C. and Prosky, L. (1994b) ‘‘Perspectives on New Dietary Fiber Definition.’’
Cereal Foods World 39:767–768.
8. Anonymous. (1995a) International Workshop on Complex Carbohydrates Defini-
tion. The Referee 19(10):15.
9. Anonymous. (1995b) Special Report: Complex Carbohydrates: The Science and the
Label. Nutr. Rev. 53:186–193.
10. Lee, S.C., and Prosky, L. (1996) Perspectives on complex carbohydrates definition.
Cereal Foods World, 41:88–89.
I
HEALTH BENEFITS AND DEFINITION
OF COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
AND DIETARY FIBER
2
Dietary Guidelines for Complex
Carbohydrates/Dietary Fiber
JOANNE L. SLAVIN
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
INTRODUCTION
Nutrition educators agree consumers should increase intake of complex carbohy-
drates and dietary fiber, both for the beneficial health effects of these dietary
ingredients and as a means to reduce dietary fat intake. Interest in dietary fiber
has varied throughout the 20th century, but dietary guidance since the 1970s has
consistently recommended increased dietary fiber in our diets. The USDA food
pyramid recommends 6-11 servings from the grain group, 3-5 servings from the
vegetable group, and 2-4 servings from the fruit group. Dietary Guidelines for
Americans support increased intake of starch and dietary fiber in the form of
bread, cereal, rice, pasta, and foods from the vegetable and fruit group. The Na-
tional Research Council in 1989 recommended Americans eat every day five or
more servings of a combination of vegetables and fruits, especially green and
yellow vegetables and citrus fruits. They also recommend an increase in starches
and other complex carbohydrates by eating six or more daily servings of a combi-
nation of breads, cereals, and legumes. Specifically, the 1987 FASEB report rec-
ommended Americans consume 10-13 grams of dietary fiber per 1,000 kilocalo-
7
8 Slavin
ries consumed. Other dietary fiber recommendations have been published and
are in the range of 20-35 grams/day.
Although there is general agreement that we should include more dietary
fiber and complex carbohydrates in our diet, it is difficult to give specific recom-
mendations for complex carbohydrates because of lack of agreement on defini-
tions and methods. Nutrition labels listing dietary fiber have helped consumers
assess their dietary fiber intake and select foods rich in fiber. Consumers are not
able to estimate their complex carbohydrate intake and compare it to a nutrition
standard.
In the United States, the term complex carbohydrates was used in the
McGovern report and included digestible carbohydrates or starch. The British
Nutrition Foundation Report included both starch and non-starch polysaccharides
as complex carbohydrates. Consumers are familiar with the term complex carbo-
hydrate and need more information on the complex carbohydrate content of foods
to follow existing dietary guidance to increase complex carbohydrate intake.
DIETARY GUIDANCE
Since the 1940s scientific bodies have met to discuss nutrition recommendations.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) have been developed to provide nu-
trient allowances for the maintenance of good health. These guidelines are most
useful to health professionals in planning and evaluating diets. For consumers,
more general nutrition education tools have been developed. Food groups, meal
plans, or exchange lists are examples of food guides available to help consumers
plan and prepare more nutritious meals. These tools have evolved and generally
try to meet the need for a simple nutrition education system that still provides
the nutritional detail needed.
The U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has published food guides
to help Americans choose a healthful diet for almost 100 years (1). A food guide
is a conceptual framework for selecting the kinds and amounts of foods of various
types that together provide a nutritionally satisfactory diet. Food guides are not
dietary standards (such as the Recommended Dietary Allowances or the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans) but are translations of these recommendations on nu-
trient intake into quantities of food that people should eat on a daily basis.
The first food guide was issued in 1916, the Basic Seven in the 1940s, and
the Basic Four in the 1950s. In the 1970s the focus of dietary recommendations
shifted to concerns about dietary excesses. The release of the Dietary Goals by
a U. S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs in 1977 was a
turning point in that quantitative limits were set for the dietary intake of certain
food components that were linked to chronic diseases such as heart disease and
cancer (2). The Dietary Goals were followed in 1980 by the first edition of Nu-
trition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, jointly released
Dietary Guidelines 9
by USDA and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) (3).
The Dietary Guidelines are updated every five years and are currently being re-
released (1995).
The USDA Food Guide Pyramid was developed to help people follow the
Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The pyramid graphic is designed to emphasize
the importance of increased consumption of vegetables, fruits, and grain products
for a healthful diet and decreased consumption of fats, sugars, and alcohol.
As reviewed by Truswell (4) there is almost complete agreement on the
following six dietary recommendations:
1. Eat a nutritionally adequate diet composed of a variety of foods.
2. Eat less fat, particularly saturated fat.
3. Adjust energy intake for weight control; exercise.
4. Eat more foods containing complex carbohydrates and fiber.
5. Reduce salt intake.
6. Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all.
Other recommendations on specific fats, sugars, cholesterol, and others
vary among different dietary guidelines.
DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Dietary guidance for consumption of carbohydrates has resembled laboratory
analysis of carbohydrates: take away the fat and protein and the remainder must
to be carbohydrate. Nutritionists generally accept the fact that humans don’t need
more than 10-12% of kilocalories from protein, and less than 30% of kilocalories
from fat. Subsequently, intake of carbohydrate should be 55% of kilocalories or
more. Human diets historically have contained 40-80% of their energy as carbo-
hydrate (5), although as income increases, so does the fat content of the diet
while the carbohydrate content of the diet, especially the starch, decreases.
More specific recommendations for carbohydrate have become more likely
in dietary guidance. In the 1980s the number of recommendations for carbohy-
drate intake increased and these recommendations became more specific. The
recommendations generally divide carbohydrate intake into sugars and complex
carbohydrates and starch. Sugar recommendations are often divided into naturally
occurring sugars and refined sugars, despite the recognition that metabolically
differences among sugars are not great. The Dietary Goals for the United States
recommended Americans “increase the consumption of complex carbohydrates
and naturally occurring sugars from about 28% of energy intake to 48% of energy
intake.” Such a recommendation would be difficult to follow with the limited
information on the complex carbohydrate content of foods.
According to the RDA, 10th edition, of the carbohydrates in individual
diets, an average of 41% comes from grain products and 23% comes from fruits
10 Slavin
and vegetables (6). About half of the total digestible carbohydrate intake is made
up of monosaccharides and disaccharides. These are found naturally in fruits and
milk and also enter the diet as sugars in soft drinks, candies, jams, and sweet
desserts mainly composed of sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup. Complex car-
bohydrates, which constitute the other half of digestible carbohydrate intake, are
starches found predominantly in cereal grains, potatoes, legumes, and a few other
vegetables. In 1985 sugars and starches provided an average of 45.3% of the
energy in the diet of adult men in the United States. This is less than the levels
recommended for overall carbohydrate consumption and disproportionately high
in simple sugars.
DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR DIETARY FIBER

Dietary guidance recommendations generally agree that Americans should in-
crease their consumption of dietary fiber. For example, Dietary Guidelines for
Americans recommends “. . . choose a diet with plenty of vegetables, fruits, and
grain products.” Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th edition, suggests we
“. . . achieve a desirable fiber intake by consumption of fruits, vegetables, le-
gumes, and whole-grain cereals.” Other general recommendations for increased
dietary fiber intake are given in the Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and
Health (7) and Diet and Health, National Research Council, National Academy
of Sciences(8).
Specific recommendations for dietary fiber intake are offered by some orga-
nizations. In Physiological Effects and Health Consequences of Dietary Fiber,
Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimen-
tal Biology, the recommendation is to consume a wide variety of whole-grain
products, fruits, and vegetables, leading to a dietary fiber intake range of 20 to
35 g/day (10-13 g/1000 kcal) for the healthy adult population (9). The American
Dietetic Association (ADA) states that “. . . although a recommended dietary
allowance for fiber has not been established, the current evidence suggests that
high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets containing 20 to 35 grams dietary fiber per day
from a variety of food sources may be beneficial for health promotion and disease
risk reduction in the healthy adult population of the United States”(10). The ADA
note that this recommendation is not appropriate for the pediatric or geriatric
populations. Food, not dietary fiber supplements, provides the best means of in-
creasing daily consumption of both soluble and insoluble fiber. The practice of
taking fiber supplements to replace consumption of high-carbohydrate, nutrient-
dense foods is not supported at this time by any health care authorities as a
component of a balanced diet. In 1991 the United Kingdom issued recommenda-
tions for dietary fiber that state that “. . . diets should contain an average of 18
g/day (range of 12-24) non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) from a variety of foods
whose constituents contain it as a naturally integrated component”(11).
Despite widespread acceptance that dietary fiber intakes are too low and
need to be approximately doubled, little progress has been seen in increasing
dietary fiber consumption in this country. Dietary fiber intake has been estimated
at about 12 grams per day in the United States. A recent study found no increase
in dietary fiber consumption despite widespread nutrition education efforts to in-
crease dietary fiber consumption (12). A recent technical report on modeling
nutrition intake by the USDA’s Economic Research Service found that nutritional
education strategies emphasizing general attitudinal messages such as five-a-day
intake are likely to have greater effect in modifying dietary patterns than strate-
gies emphasizing specialized knowledge about the nutrient content of foods.
Higher intakes of dietary fiber consumption were also linked to years of formal
education and consumption of a vegetarian diet.
DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR COMPLEX

CARBOHYDRATES
In the U.S. the term complex carbohydrates was used in the McGovern report and
included digestible carbohydrates or starch (2). The British Nutrition Foundation
Report (13) included both starch and non-starch polysaccharides as complex car-
bohydrates. The British report defined polysaccharides as carbohydrates with 20
or more sugar residues. The British report stated that there are a variety of foods
which are rich in complex carbohydrates and display great diversity in their physi-
cal and biological properties. Thus, it is difficult to make generalizations about
properties of complex carbohydrates. They also noted that there is more overlap
between the behavior and properties of the starches and non-starch polysaccha-
rides than was previously thought.
Resistant starch is probably metabolized similar to some dietary fiber com-
ponents in the gut. Thus, it appears that complex carbohydrate should contain
both dietary fiber and starches and we must recognize that substances (such as
phytate, phenolic compounds) and micronutrents (such as zinc and magnesium)
are important nutritional components associated with complex carbohydrates. Di-
etary recommendations to increase intake of complex carbohydrate assume that
the carbohydrates are not isolated, but come from intact foods.
Most dietary guidance is offered as a general endorsement of starches and
complex carbohydrate to replace dietary fat. For example the U. S. Department
of Agriculture food pyramid recommends 6-11 servings from the grain group,
3-5 servings from the vegetable group, and 2-4 servings from the fruit group (1).
Such a diet would contain significantly more complex carbohydrate than the typi-
cal American diet. Dietary Guidelines for Americans also support increased in-
take of starch and dietary fiber in the form of bread, cereal, rice, pasta and foods
from the vegetable and fruit group (3). The Surgeon General’s Report on Nutri-
12 Slavin
tion and Health (7) recommends increased consumption of whole grain foods
and cereal products, vegetables (including dried beans and peas), and fruits. In
1989 the National Research Council examined the relationship between diet and
health and issued new recommendations (8). They recommend that Americans
consume five or more servings of a combination of vegetables and fruits (espe-
cially green and yellow vegetables and citrus fruits) and increase starches and
other complex carbohydrates by eating six or more daily servings of a combina-
tion of breads, cereals, and legumes daily.
There is growing acceptance that isolated carbohydrates provide different
physiological responses than whole foods. Thus, it is difficult to study complex
carbohydrates since they must be fed in their refined state. It is then difficult if
not impossible to generalize the results to the unrefined complex carbohydrates
fed in their native state. This is compounded further by the fact that many other
nutritional ingredients cloud the physiological results of the experiment. If an
exciting physiological response is seen with intake of a whole grain high in com-
plex carbohydrate the question arises as to the true origin of the response: is it due
to the carbohydrate, a specific component of the carbohydrate or an associated
substance such as an antioxidant, phytoestrogen, trace mineral, and so on.
Another important consideration in devising nutrition guidance for carbo-
hydrates is how they are metabolized. As discussed by Hirsch (14), more research
is needed on the roles and benefits of carbohydrates in the diet. To determine how
carbohydrates fit into dietary guidelines, he suggests we consider three issues:
1. The role of carbohydrate in the control of food intake in humans.
2. The effect of carbohydrate on energy metabolism as measured by long-
term feeding experiments in small numbers of human subjects.
3. Whether a large carbohydrate intake leads to increased lipogenesis in
humans.
Obviously, these are all important issues when considering the metabolic effects
of carbohydrates. But such experiments are costly and dietary recommendations
will have to be made before all experiments on these topics have been conducted.
Determining the appropriate metabolic tests to compare complex carbohy-
drates will also be difficult. Metabolic studies use human subjects and results
tend to vary greatly among subjects. If we accept a physiological definition of
dietary fiber as complex carbohydrate that escapes digestion in the small intestine,
do we measure dietary fiber by gut fermentation? If we are convinced that slow
digestion and absorption determines a complex carbohydrate from a simple car-
bohydrate, do we use glycemic index as the physiological determinant of a com-
plex carbohydrate? As more research is available it may be easier to answer these
questions, but meanwhile consumers need the best dietary guidance on complex
carbohydrate intake.
Complex carbohydrates also need further definition. Should complex carbo-
hydrates be only long chain (⬎10 DP) carbohydrates or should shorter carbohy-
drates that resist digestion in the smaller intestine be included in complex carbo-
hydrates, especially if we accept a physiological definition for complex
carbohydrates. If carbohydrates are isolated from non-traditional food sources or
are manufactured in laboratory, can they qualify as complex carbohydrates if
they act similarly to long chain carbohydrates in the gut? If we as an industry
accept a chemical definition for complex carbohydrates it would be difficult to
argue that we only accept complex carbohydrates that are in their native state
and will not accept chemically altered or manufactured carbohydrates if they
meet our chemical definition. If consumers are unwilling or unable to increase
consumption of complex carbohydrate and dietary fiber with usual food sources,
should we fortify the diet with isolated carbohydrates that have been shown to
have the desired physiological effects? The questions are many but need answers
if consumers are to be able to select high complex carbohydrate foods that are
convenient or if they are to have access to useful data on complex carbohydrate
content of foods to help in food selection.
CONCLUSION
Dietary recommendations for complex carbohydrates must be based on a synthe-
sis of epidemiological, metabolic, animal, and mechanistic data (15) and by ne-
cessity will be non-specific. The British report notes that for most adults consum-
ing nutritionally adequate diets and increased intake of complex carbohydrates
it is unlikely to lead to deficiencies in micronutrents. Further, it appears sensible
for adults to increase their intake of a variety of foods that are rich in complex
carbohydrates. Obviously a wide range of carbohydrate intake is consistent with
health (16) and dietary recommendations for carbohydrate intake will not be
based on classical approaches for defining nutrient requirements since there is
no clear-cut deficiency disease for carbohydrates.
In the past 25 years, dietary fiber has been defined, methods have been
developed, and foods have been analyzed for dietary fiber. As a result, nutrition
labels now contain information on the dietary fiber content of food. This informa-
tion allows consumers to select foods high in dietary fiber and increase the dietary
fiber content of their diet. Complex carbohydrates are universally recommended
as the base of our diet, but scientific agreement is not available on a definition
or a method to measure complex carbohydrate. Like dietary fiber, complex carbo-
hydrate is not a single entity and many issues surround its definition and measure-
ment. Should we accept a chemical or physiological definition, should isolated
carbohydrate compounds be included, or should the term be discarded and some-
thing better found? Because of the industry’s equity position in complex carbohy-
drates and the universal recommendation to increase consumption of complex
14 Slavin
carbohydrates, the term should be kept and further efforts exerted to see that it
is better defined and measured to be included as part of the nutrition label.
REFERENCES
1. S Welsh, A Shaw, D Davis. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 34:441–451, 1994.
2. Dietary Goals for the United States, Select Committee on Nutrition and Human
Needs, US Senate, 2nd ed.: US Government Printing Office, 1977.
3. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 3rd Ed., US Depts
of Agriculture and Health and Human Services, Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232,
Washington D.C., 1990.
4. AS Truswell. In: ME Shils, JA Olson, M Shike, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health
and Disease. vol 2, , Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1994, pp. 1612–1625.
5. N Asp. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59S:679S-681S, 1994.
6. Recommended Dietary Allowances, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,
1989.
7. US Department of Health and Human Services, The Surgeon General’s Report on
Nutrition and Health, Public Health Service. DHHS (PHS) Publication no. 88-50210,
Washington, D.C., 1988.
8. National Research Council, Diet and Health Implication for Reducing Chronic Dis-
ease Risk, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1989.
9. S Pilch. Physiological effects and health consequences of dietary fiber, Life Sciences
Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology,
Bethesda, MD, 1987.
10. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Health implications of dietary fiber,
J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 93:1446–1447, 1993.
11. Department of Health: Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for
the United Kingdom. London, HMSO, pp. 61–71, 1991.
12. T Nicklas, R Farris, L Myers, GS Berenson. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 95, 209–214, 1995.
13. The British Nutrition Foundation. Complex Carbohydrates in Foods, Chapman and
Hall, London, 1990.
14. J Hirsch. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61S:996S-1000S, 1995.
15. WC Willett. Science 264:532–537, 1994.
16. BO Schneeman. J. Nutr. 124:1747S–1753S, 1994.
3
Complex Carbohydrates and the
Food Label: An FDA Perspective
F. EDWARD SCARBROUGH
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
From their first issuance in 1980 the Dietary Guidelines have advised Americans
to increase the amount of complex carbohydrates in their diets. Largely because
of consumers’ familiarity with the term “complex carbohydrate,” certain seg-
ments of the food industry have sought for years to include quantitative amounts
of this nutrient within nutrition labeling. However, current nutrition labeling regu-
lations continue to prohibit listing of complex carbohydrate within the “Nutrition
Facts” panel for at least four reasons. First, the mandatory inclusion of complex
carbohydrate on the label may suggest that this food component has greater public
health significance than has been established by existing diet and health studies.
Second, dietary guidance documents have not specified a recommended level of
intake for complex carbohydrates. Third, the term “complex carbohydrate” has
not been clearly or consistently defined. And fourth, available analytical methods
for carbohydrates in foods are not considered sufficiently specific for regulatory
purposes. The Food and Drug Administration is working closely with health and
15
16 Scarbrough
science professional groups and the food industry to address these issues, particu-
larly the questions of definition and analytical methodology.
THE FOOD LABEL AND DIETARY GUIDELINES

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans which is issued every five years jointly
by the Departments of Health and Human Services and of Agriculture represent
fundamental, federal government public health policy. The fourth edition of the
Dietary Guidelines recognizes the food label, especially the new “Nutrition
Facts” label, along with the Food Guide Pyramid as the educational tools Ameri-
can consumers should use to put the Dietary Guidelines into practice. Consumers
are advised to: “use the Nutrition Facts Label to choose a healthful diet” (1, page
4). The same guidelines advise Americans to “choose a diet with plenty of grain
products, vegetables, and fruits . . .” because they provide complex carbohydrates
(1, page 22). However, for the nutrient “complex carbohydrates” the food label
is not a very useful tool because “complex carbohydrates” do not appear in the
Nutrition Facts panel.
This has been the case since the issuance of the first edition of the Dietary
Guidelines in 1980. The first edition advised Americans to
Eat foods with adequate starch and fiber . . . complex carbohydrate foods
are better than simple carbohydrates . . . . Complex carbohydrate foods–
such as beans, peas, nuts, seeds, fruits and vegetables, and whole grain
breads, cereals and products–contain many essential nutrients in addi-
tion to calories (2, page 13).
The Guidelines advise that to eat more complex carbohydrates daily, substi-
tute starches for fats and sugars and select foods that are good sources of fiber
and starch (2, page 14). The second edition of the Dietary Guidelines in 1985
continued the advice to
Eat foods with adequate starch and fiber . . . [S]imple carbohydrates,

such as sugars, and complex carbohydrates, such as starches, have about
the same caloric content. Most foods high in sugars . . . contain no
vitamins or minerals. . . . Foods high in starch contain many of these
essential nutrients. . . . Eating more foods containing complex carbohy-
drates can also help to add dietary fiber to your diet (3, page 17).
The third edition of the guidelines advised “choose a diet with plenty of
vegetables, fruits, and grain products,” with the explanation that “complex carbo-
hydrates, such as starches are in breads, cereals, pasta, rice, dry beans and peas,
and other vegetables such as potatoes and corn” (4, page 18).
Food Labels 17
PRE–NUTRITION LABELING AND EDUCATION ACT

OF 1990
Even before the issuance of the first Dietary Guidelines for Americans in 1980,
the FDA and the food industry had realized the problems created by there being
no indication on the food label of the “complex carbohydrate” content of a food.
At the same time dietary guidance almost universally advised consumers to in-
crease their consumption of “complex carbohydrates”. For example, in 1978, the
Kellogg Company had submitted a petition to the FDA to voluntarily permit the
declaration of (1) “grams per serving of starch and related carbohydrates”, (2)
“grams per serving of sucrose and other sugars”, and (3) “grams per serving of
total carbohydrates [the sum of (1) and (2)]”. The Agency did not grant the Kel-
logg petition, but in the years from 1980 to 1993 many cereal companies listed
either “complex carbohydrates” or “starches” and “related carbohydrates” on the
labels of their products and the FDA took no regulatory actions.
In 1979 the FDA in cooperation with the United States Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) undertook a major
food label reform initiative. The tentative positions of the three agencies were
published in the Federal Register of December 29, 1979. However, the issue of
complex carbohydrates did not surface as one of the major issues of the initiative.
(5) Because of a number of factors, including a change in political administra-
tions, little came of the 1979 food label reform initiative.
In the late 1980s the FDA again launched a food label reform effort. This
effect was primarily based on the recognition that the food label continued to be
out of step with the shifts in public health concerns from nutrient deficiencies to
the health consequences of over-consumption. This label initiative was an-
nounced by Secretary of Health and Human Services, Dr. Louis Sullivan, in
March 1989. On August 8, 1989, the FDA published an Advance Notice of Pro-
posed RuleMaking (ANPRM) asking all interested parties to comment on a num-
ber of specific labeling issues. (6) The agency specifically asked, “How should the
listing of components of carbohydrates be treated within the context of nutrition
labeling (e.g., complex starches, total sugars)?” (6) Throughout the fall of 1989,
the FDA conducted a series of Public Hearings and Consumer Exchange meetings
on how the food label could be improved. The inclusion of complex carbohydrate
content on the food label was often raised in these discussions.
In July 1990 the agency proposed to modify the nutrition label. (7) In that
document, the FDA clearly set out the factors that it considered in deciding
whether a nutrient or food component should be mandatory or voluntary in nutri-
tion labeling.
The agency has proposed to make the declaration of a nutrient or food

component mandatory in nutrition labeling when quantitative intake rec-
18 Scarbrough
ommendations with respect to the nutrient or component are high-lighted

in the reports cited above (e.g., “Reduce total fat intake to 30% or less
of calories.”. . .), and the nutrient or component is of particular public
health significance as defined in several recent consensus documents.
. . . On the other hand, for those nutrients or food components for which
quantitative intake recommendations are not highlighted but that do have
some public health significance (e.g., “. . . increase intakes of starches
. . .”), or for which quantitative recommendations are available but that
are not of pressing public health importance (e.g., the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for several vitamins and minerals . . .), the agency
is proposing to make declaration of the nutrient or component voluntary”
(7, p 29493).
Following these principles, the FDA did not propose to require the manda-
tory declaration of complex carbohydrates in nutrition labeling. It should also be
noted that the National Academy of Sciences, in their report, Nutrition Labeling,
had recommended that the declaration of complex carbohydrates be volun-
tary. (8)
In response the FDA in July of 1990 proposed to make the declaration of
complex carbohydrates voluntary with the following statement.
The FDA is proposing in 101.9(c)(6)(i) to permit the voluntary declara-
tion of the complex carbohydrate content because recent dietary reports
have discussed the need to increase consumption of complex carbohy-
drates. (9, 10) Because recommendations to increase consumption of
complex carbohydrates have not been quantified, however, the agency
finds that a basis for requiring declaration of this food component in
nutrition labeling has not been established (7, page 29497).
For labeling purposes the FDA defined complex carbohydrates in the pro-
posal as the sum of dextrins and starches, or more specifically those carbohydrate
components that contain 10 or more saccharide units exclusive of dietary fiber (7,
p. 29497). The agency, however, expressed concern that the inclusion of dextrins
(saccharide units of 10 or more) within the definition of complex carbohydrates
may inappropriately classify the relatively low molecular weight carbohydrates
in some nutritive sweeteners as complex carbohydrates.
This definition may result in some foods, such as coffee whiteners and ice
cream, that contain large amounts of low conversion (low dextrose equivalent)
corn sweeteners, being classified as sources of complex carbohydrates. These
low molecular weight carbohydrates may have nutritional or metabolic effects
different from those of commonly recognized complex carbohydrates. Thus, it
may be misleading to consumers if these foods are labeled as containing complex
carbohydrate.
Food Labels 19
Comments on this proposal indicated consumer interest in having complex

carbohydrates as a mandatory part of nutrition labeling, based largely on the
dietary guidance recommendations. Industry comments, however, generally sup-
ported a voluntary declaration of complex carbohydrates. There were four main
reasons cited by comments advocating voluntary listing.
First, the mandatory inclusion of complex carbohydrate on the label may
suggest that this food component has greater public health significance than has
been established by existing diet and health studies. The identification of a spe-
cific health benefit for complex carbohydrates is confounded by the fact that diets
high in complex carbohydrates are usually mixed diets that contain significant
amounts of cereal grains, fruits, and vegetables which are high in vitamins, miner-
als, and fiber and low in fat. It is unclear the extent to which complex carbohy-
drates impart health benefits separate from these factors.
Second, dietary guidance documents have not specified a recommended
level of intake for complex carbohydrates and thus the agency would be unable
to establish a label reference value, such as a Daily Recommended Value (DRV),
for labeling purposes. It was felt that DRVs would be helpful in planning overall
diets and the extent to which the absence of a DRV for complex carbohydrates
would be problematic or confusing to consumers was unknown.
Third, the term “complex carbohydrate” had not been clearly or consis-
tently defined. For labeling purposes the agency needed a chemical definition
that reflected the physiological effects and health benefits. For voluntary labeling
purposes the agency had defined “complex carbohydrates” as the sum of dextrins
and starches, or those carbohydrate components that contain 10 or more saccha-
ride units, exclusive of dietary fiber. But FDA was concerned about the appropri-
ateness of this rather arbitrary definition.
Fourth, and perhaps most important of all, available analytical methods for
carbohydrates in foods were not considered sufficiently specific for regulatory
purposes. For example, methods generally measured carbohydrates either as more
than 4 saccharide units or as single saccharide units up to 4 units. Suitable analyti-
cal procedures were needed if complex carbohydrates were to be defined as those
carbohydrates that contain a specified number of saccharide units.
POST–NUTRITION LABELING AND EDUCATION ACT

OF 1990
When Congress passed the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990
(NLEA) one of the principal differences of that act compared to the FDA’s 1990
proposal was the inclusion of “complex carbohydrates” as one of the components
that was mandatory on the nutrition label (Section 403(q)(1)(D)) (11). In Novem-
ber 1991 the FDA published a revised proposal for mandatory nutrition labeling
to conform agency regulations to the NLEA requirements. (12) Following the
20 Scarbrough
lead of Congress the agency proposed that complex carbohydrates be made man-
datory on nutrition labels in that document. The definition (starches and dextrins
with 10 or more saccharide units) remained as had been proposed in July 1990.
However, the November 1991 re-proposal recognized that the NLEA gave the
FDA some latitude in determining which nutrients should be listed on the nutri-
tion label. Section 403(q)(2)(B) of the act allows the Secretary (and, by delega-
tion, the FDA) to determine whether information relating to nutrients specified
in section (q)(1)(D) inter alia is necessary to assist consumers in maintaining
healthy dietary practices and, if not, to delete such nutrients from the required
list of nutrients in nutrition labeling. The agency raised the four concerns cited
above and requested specific comment.
Many comments on the revised proposal expressed opposition to the FDA’s
proposed definition of complex carbohydrate. The comments raised concerns
about the feasibility of compliance and the economic burden of developing data-
bases and analytical methods. Many comments recommended that the definition
of “complex carbohydrate” be changed to be the difference between total carbo-
hydrate and sugars because this difference could be readily calculated. Comments
also noted that carbohydrates with saccharide units of 5 through 9 would not be
accounted for in any of the labeled sub-components of carbohydrate, leading to
possible consumer confusion. The cut-off of 10 saccharide units was criticized
as being arbitrary because there are no known nutritional or physiological differ-
ences to justify a distinction between polysaccharides at this dividing line. Several
comments suggested that the commonly accepted usage of “complex carbohy-
drate” includes all carbohydrates larger than disaccharides. Other comments sug-
gested that complex carbohydrate should be defined as all digestible polysaccha-
rides (e.g., dextrins, starch, and glycogen) rather than on the basis of the number
of saccharide units, but no information was provided on reliable methods for
determining carbohydrate digestibility or for distinguishing energy derived from
intestinal digestion from that derived from colonic fermentation. Comments em-
phasized that while there was not a consensus on a precise definition for “complex
carbohydrate,” the agency’s proposed definition was not commonly recognized,
nor was it consistent with the use of the term in the IOM report. (8) One comment
from a state government recommended that to avert undue emphasis on complex
carbohydrate substances added to foods and to avoid the potential for misleading
claims about complex carbohydrates, the term “other carbohydrate” should be
used rather than “complex carbohydrate.”
In the final regulations implementing the NLEA, published in the Federal
Register on January 6, 1993, the FDA concluded that the comments indicated
that there was not sufficient consensus on the meaning of the term “complex
carbohydrate” to justify adopting a definition and requiring mandatory inclusion
in the nutrition label. (13) Further, because there was no apparent consensus on
the health benefits or physiological effects of “complex carbohydrates” per se,
Food Labels 21
the agency determined that the term “other carbohydrates” should be used volun-
tarily on the label. “Other carbohydrate” is calculated as the amount of carbohy-
drate remaining after subtraction of dietary fiber, sugars, and sugar alcohols from
total carbohydrate. The agency recognized that this new definition will include
many substances added to processed foods for technical purposes, such as for
texture modification or as bulking agents. The FDA stated the belief that to de-
clare these substances as complex carbohydrates would be misleading. The intent
of dietary recommendations to increase the consumption of complex carbohy-
drates and dietary fiber is to select diets with plenty of fruits, vegetables, and
grain products, not foods that have complex carbohydrates as added texturizers
or bulking agents.
Because “other carbohydrate” is calculated as that amount of carbohydrate
remaining after subtraction of the amount of dietary fiber, sugars, and sugar alco-
hols (when declared) from total carbohydrate, it was logical to rearrange the sub-
components of total carbohydrate to place “other carbohydrate” at the bottom of
the list. This reordering was intended help to reduce any potential confusion over
the meaning of the term “other carbohydrate.”
When “other carbohydrate” is omitted from the label, the declared subcom-
ponents of total carbohydrate (i.e., dietary fiber and sugars) will not add up to
the value for total carbohydrate in most foods. The agency recommended that
consumer education programs should inform interested persons that other forms
of carbohydrate beyond those declared on the label are in the food product. This
situation is analogous to the fat category where the sum of saturated, polyunsatu-
rated, and monounsaturated fatty acids often do not add up to 100 percent of the
value for total fat because trans fatty acids are not included in the definition of
the fatty acids but are included in the value for total fat.
CONCLUSION
The issue of “complex carbohydrates” clearly has not been settled. Many in aca-
demia, professional societies, and the food industry continue to express interest
in including “complex carbohydrate” on the food label. In November 1994 the
International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) sponsored a workshop to evaluate the
scientific issues associated with complex carbohydrates and, in light of these
issues, address the rationale for adding complex carbohydrates to the nutrition
label. (14) This workshop concluded that “it is clear that this is not a simple task.
Classifications cannot be made simply for chemical or analytical expediency if
they do not express physiological significance.” As a follow-up to the ILSI Con-
ference the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) International
sponsored a Workshop in September 1995 with a goal of reaching a consensus
on the definition of complex carbohydrates to support food labeling and dietary
guidelines, to discuss state-of-the-art techniques in analytical methods, and to set
22 Scarbrough
the direction for future improvement in analytical methods. (15) Growing out of
this workshop, the AOAC International has launched a collaborative study of a
promising analytical methodology and in which the FDA is participating as a
collaborator.
Building on the firm scientific basis that will be provided by these above
efforts, the FDA will then be able to move to a regulatory position that will allow
complex carbohydrate content to be declared on the nutrition label, thus bringing
about greater correspondence between the nutrition label and dietary guidance.
REFERENCES
1. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Fourth Edition.
(1995) Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services,
Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232.
2. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. (1980) Department
of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services, Home and Garden
Bulletin No. 232.
3. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Second Edition.
(1985) Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services,
Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232.
4. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Third Edition. (1990)
Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services, Home
and Garden Bulletin No. 232.
5. U. S. Department of Health Education, and Welfare, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, and Federal Trade Commission. (1979) Advance Notice of Rulemaking, Tenta-
tive Positions of the Agencies, Federal Register 44:75990-76020, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., December 21, 1979.
6. Food and Drug Administration. (1989) Food Labeling; Advance Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking, Federal Register 54:32610-32615, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., August 8, 1989.
7. Food and Drug Administration. (1990) Food Labeling; Reference Daily Intakes and
Daily Reference Values; Mandatory Status of Nutrition Labeling and Nutrient Con-
tent Revision; Serving Size, Proposed Rules, Federal Register 55:29475-29533,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 19, 1990.
8. Committee on the Nutrition Components of Food Labeling, Food and Nutrition
Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences. (1990) Nutrition Label-
ing: Issues and Directions for the 1990’s (Porter, D.V. and Earl, R.O. editors), Na-
tional Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
9. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. (1988) The
Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and Health, DHHS(PHS) Publication No.
88-50210, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
10. Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutrition Board, Commission on Life
Sciences, National Research Council, Diet and Health (1989): Implications for Re-
ducing Chronic Disease Risk, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Food Labels 23
11. Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990, Public Law 101-535, 104 Stat. 2353,
1990.
12. Food and Drug Administration. (1991) Food Labeling; Proposed Rules, Federal Reg-
ister 56:60366–60878, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., No-
vember 21, 1991.
13. Food and Drug Administration, Food Labeling; Final Rules, Federal Register 58:
2066-2941, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., January 6, 1993.
14. Lineback, D. et al. (1995) Complex Carbohydrates: The Science and the Label, Nu-
trition Reviews 53(7):186–193, July 1995.
15. AOAC Workshop on Definition and Analysis of Complex Carbohydrate / Dietary
Fiber. (1995) Annual Meeting, September 15–16, 1995, Nashville, Tennessee.
4
Dietary Fiber Properties and Health
Benefits of Non-Digestible
Oligosaccharides
M. B. ROBERFROID
Département des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Université Catholique de
Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
INTRODUCTION
Non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs, recently referred to as “resistant oligo-
saccharides”) are complex carbohydrates which are resistant to hydrolysis by acid
and enzymes in the human digestive tract due to the configuration of their osidic
bonds. Most dietary oligo-/polysaccharides are quantitatively hydrolyzed in the
upper part of the gastrointestinal tract. The resulting monosaccharides are trans-
ported via the portal blood to the liver and, subsequently, to the systemic circula-
tion. Such carbohydrates are essential for health as they serve both as substrates
and regulators of major metabolic pathways. They also trigger hormone secretion.
But some of the dietary oligo-/polysaccharides do resist, more or less quantita-
tively, the digestive process. Consequently, such carbohydrates reach the caeco-
colon as they have been eaten and so do not provide the body with monosaccha-
rides (1).
25
26 Roberfroid
Once they have reached the caeco-colon, most (but not necessarily all)
of the non-digestible oligosaccharides are hydrolyzed to small oligomers and
monomers that are further metabolized by one, a few, or most of the anaerobic
bacteria. Such a metabolic process, known as fermentation, not only serves the
bacteria by providing energy for proliferation, but also produces gases (H2, CO2,
CH4 ) which are metabolically useless to the host. Small organic acids such as
acetate, propionate, butyrate, and L-lactate, which are named short chain carbox-
ylic acid (SCCA) are additional products. By a mechanism which is still a matter
of some debate (2, 3) the SCCA are largely (90–95%) absorbed through the
intestinal wall, in the caecum and the ascending part of colon. Except for butyrate
(which is a major energy substrate for colonocytes) the other SCCA reach the
portal circulation and enter the liver, the main site of their metabolism. However,
part of acetate (25–50%) escapes hepatic metabolism and, via the systemic circu-
lation, reaches the peripheral tissues, mainly the muscle (4, 5). Even though they
do not provide the body with monosaccharides, the non-digestible oligo-/polysac-
charides are, thus, indirect energy substrates and metabolic regulators. Thanks
to the symbiosis between the caeco-colon and a myriad of colonizing bacteria,
they are transformed to SCCA, which essentially via the same route as monosac-
charides (portal blood), feed the liver and other important tissues with energy.
Acetate, propionate, butyrate, lactate, and so on are indeed important substrates
and/or intermediates in cell metabolism. Moreover, it has recently been demon-
strated that, at least some of these molecules may also serve as modulators of
key metabolic pathways.
The most important class of dietary non-digestible saccharides is that com-
posed of short (up to 10 monomers) and medium (up to 50–60 units) chain-length
homopolymers (Table 1). Some NDOs, like inulin and its hydrolysis product
oligofructose, which belong to the group of fructans, are common natural food
ingredients (6) while others like galactooligosaccharides or Neosugar are syn-
thetic products resulting from the enzymatic and/or chemical modification of
natural disaccharides like saccharose, lactose, and so on.
Among these NDOs the chicory fructooligosaccharides (inulin and its prod-
uct of partial enzymatic hydrolysis, oligofructose) are authorized as food ingredi-
ents in most European countries. Others like trans-galactooligosaccharides (TOS
or GOS), isomaltooligosaccahrides (IMO), soybean oligosaccharides (SOS) and
xylooligosaccharides (XOS) are recognized as functional foods by Japanese au-
thorities.
The aim of the present chapter is to review the nutritional and physiological
properties of chicory fructooligosaccharides that are, so far, the most studied
NDOs. Similar evidence exists, however, for the other NDOs. The objective is
to give scientific support to the classification of chicory fructooligosaccharides
as dietary fiber (7).
Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides 27
TABLE 1 Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides

Name Osidic
(abbreviation) Chemical structure bond Origin Trade name
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
Inulin Glucosyl (fructosyl)n β1 → 2 Plant Raftiline
fructose (n ⫽ 2 Fibrulin
→ 20)
Glucosyl (fructosyl)n
Oligofructose Fructose (fructosyl)m β1 → 2 Plant and enzy- Raftilose
fructose (n ⫽ 1 matic hydrol-
→ 6, m ⫽ 2 → ysis of inulin
7)
Neosugar Glucosyl (fructosyl)n β1 → 2 Enzymatic syn- Neosugar
fructose (n ⫽ 1 thesis from Actilight
→ 3) sucrose
Galactooligo- Glucosyl (galacto- β1 → 6 Enzymatic syn- Oligomate
saccharides syl)n galactose thesis from
(GOS or (n ⫽ 1 → 3) lactose
TOS)
Transgalacto- (Galactosyl)n galac- α1 → 6 Enzymatic syn- Cup-oligo
oligosaccha- tose (n ⫽ 2) thesis from
rides lactose
Isomaltooligo- (Glucosyl)n glu- α1 → 4 Enzymatic re- Isomalto
saccharides cose (n ⫽ 2 → 7) arrangement
(IMO) of maltose
Palatinose Condensates (PC)
Polydextrose Randomly branched Glucose Poly-
⫹ citric acid pyrolysis-citric dextrose
(n ⫽ 2 → 100?) acid
Pyrodextrins Complex mixture Pyrolysis of corn
or potato
starch
Sololigosac- Rafficose ⫹ stachy- Enzymatic Soya-Oligo
charides ose (n ⫽ 3 → 4) synthesis ⫹
(SOS) pyrolysis
Xylooligosac- (Xylosyl)n xylose β1 → 4 Xylooligo
charides (n ⫽ 2 → 4)
(XOS)
28 Roberfroid
BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTS OF CHICORY

FRUCTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES IN THE GASTRO-INTESTINAL
TRACT
Non-Digestibility
The evidence that fructooligosaccharides are resistant to hydrolysis and are not
absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract comes from in vivo human
studies, essentially performed in ileostomy subjects. More than 90–95% of in-
gested fructooligosaccharides are indeed recovered in the ileostomy effluent (8,
9). A study in rats fed 14C-labeled Neosugar provided similar evidence (10).
Fermentation by Anaerobic Colonic Bacteria

In an extensive study using the model of mixed fecal culture, Wang and Gibson
(11) have reported that the utilization of chicory fructooligosaccharides was much
more specific than that of other substrates (like polydextrose, pectin, or fructose
for example). Indeed, a marked proliferation of bifidus occurred, while popula-
tions of bacteroides, lactobacilli, clostridia, coliforms and gram positive cocci
were maintained at a relatively low level or even reduced. Such a high specificity
of chicory fructooligosaccharides for bifidobacteria is mainly due to the secretion
by these bacteria of a β-fructosidase, as demonstrated in pure cultures (12). The
accepted mechanism by which bifidobacteria inhibit the growth of other bacteria
involves a decrease in pH as a consequence of the intense production of SCCA.
However, the acidity is not the only mechanism of inhibition of growth of E.
coli and C. perfringens as shown in fermentation systems in which pH is main-
tained constant (11,13).
Other authors have also shown that bifidobacteria are able to produce sub-
stances that would be bactericidal to others including some members of the genus
Clostridium (14). The fermentability and the bifidogenic effect of chicory fructo-
oligosaccharides, demonstrated in vitro were also confirmed in vivo. A marked
increase in bifidobacteria and consequently a profound modification of the fecal
flora have been demonstrated in vivo in human healthy volunteers fed 3 x 5 g a
day of oligofructose or inulin for two weeks (15) or 8 g/day for up to 5 weeks
(N. Guggenbuhl et al., personal communication).
Bulking Effect
An increase in fecal dry weight excretion observed in oligofructose-fed rats is
also a parameter related to the increased number of bacteria resulting from its
extensive fermentation. Calculations have indicated that about 40% of the carbon
atoms ingested as oligofructose are incorporated into newly synthesized bacteria

(16).
A bulking effect has also been observed in the human volunteers in the
study performed by Gibson et al. (15). Such an effect expressed as grams of
increase of fresh fecal weight by grams of chicory fructooligosaccharides eaten
(bulking index) compares well, both in rats and in humans, with that obtained
after eating soluble or mixed dietary fibers like pectin, oat bran, wheat bran or
guar gum (Table 2).
Chicory Fructooligosaccharides as Prebiotics

It can thus be hypothesized that feeding chicory fructooligosaccharide has a major
impact on gut microflora, by favoring the proliferation of beneficial bacteria like
bifidobacteria and by reducing the number of potentially harmful anaerobes. It
is thus likely to be beneficial for the host, but the exact role of gut microflora
on health, as well as the definition of a healthy flora, still remains open questions
(23).
By analogy, living bacteria that are added to food (e.g., in yogurt) which
cross the upper gastrointestinal tract to colonize the caeco-colon have been called
probiotics. We propose to call them prebiotics with NDO used as food ingredients
to modify the composition of endogenous gut microflora (24).
TABLE 2 Bulking Effect of Chicory Fructooligosaccharides

as Compared to Dietary Fiber
Species Carbohydrates Bulking index* Reference
Rats Oligofructose (10%) ⫹1 16

Inulin (10%)
Pectin (10%) ⫹1 17
Oat Bran (14%) ⫹ 0.7 18
Wheat Bran (13%) ⫹ 1.3–2.0 17, 18
Humans Oligofructose (15g) ⫹ 1.2 15

Inulin (15g) ⫹2.1
Pectin ⫹ 1–2 19, 20
Guar Gum ⫹ 1–2 19, 20
Wheat Bran (15g) ⫹ 2.5–5 18–21
*Bulking index ⫽ g of increase in fresh fecal weight / g of carbohydrates eaten

( ) Indicates either % added to rat diet or g eaten per day
30 Roberfroid
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF CHICORY

FRUCTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES
Effects on Lipid Metabolism
The main systemic effect of NDOs so far studied is the effect on lipid metabolism.
A few Japanese studies have suggested that feeding rats with fructans leads to
modification of blood lipid concentration. Even if controversial studies are re-
ported fructans administration often leads to a decrease in cholesterol and/or
triglycerides concentration. By using chicory fructooligosaccharide as model sub-
stances we have analyzed the influence of feeding rats a diet containing these
NDOs on lipidemia in protocols differing in the basal diet, the dose of NDOs,
and the duration of the treatment. In all these protocols, the constant effect was
a decrease in triglyceride concentration.
Our recent data have further shown that the hypotriglyceridemic effect of
chicory fructooligosaccharides, given at 10% in the standard diet of rats for 3
months, was accompanied by a decrease in serum cholesterol and phospholipids.
That decrease was most exclusively due to a change in the very low density
lipoprotein (VLDL) fraction (25).
We hypothesize that such changes in lipid parameters are the consequence
of a metabolic adaptation of the liver that might be induced by SCCA. Indeed,
hepatocytes isolated from oligofructose fed rats have a reduced capacity to syn-
thesize triglycerides from free fatty acids and acetate and a decreased fatty acyl
synthase activity (26). Such an effect on triglyceridemia has been demonstrated
in rats and compares rather well with similar effects reported for guar gum or
sugar beet fiber (Table 3) and has to be confirmed in humans, in particular in
hyperlipidemic patients.
Caloric Value
As a consequence of their fermentation and of the resorption of fermentation
products the next nutritional property of chicory fructooligosaccharides to be
TABLE 3 Hypolipidemic Effects of Chicory Fructooligosaccharides

as Compared to Dietary Fiber
% change / g of dietary
supplement
Species Carbohydrates TC LDL-C TG

Rats Oligofructose (10%) ⫺ 10 0 ⫺ 20
Guar Gum (10%) ⫺5 ⫺ ⫺5
Sugar Beet Fiber (10%) ⫺4 ⫺ ⫺4
discussed concerns their caloric value. Indeed, being exclusive substrates for co-
lonic fermentation, oligofructose and inulin have also much lower caloric value
than equivalent but digested carbohydrates. Moreover, they are (at least) partly
used as direct and indirect substrates for bacterial proliferation, a process that
further reduces their bioavailability to the host. Based on experimental evidence
as well as on basic biochemical knowledge a theoretical approach has been pro-
posed to compare the metabolic efficiency (in term of ATP production) and thus
the effective caloric value of a fructosyl moiety in chicory fructooligosaccharide
and sucrose (as a typically digested substrate). As compared to sucrose chicory
fructooligosaccharide has a relative caloric value of 25 to 35%, or 1 to 1.5 kcal/
g or 4 to 6 kJ/g (16).
Mineral Bioavailability
As chicory fructooligosaccharides modify intestine and colon physiology, it
should be asked whether they might influence the nutritional balance of several
macro- or micronutrients.
Our recent studies (27) have shown that feeding rats with oligofructose or
inulin at the dose of 10% leads to an increased fecal excretion of N, resulting
most probably from an increase in fecal bacteria and leading to a decreased uri-
nary excretion of urea and decreased uremia. Such results are in accordance with
those obtained with other dietary fibers.
The possible interference of dietary fibers with ion absorption relative to
their physiological effects on the small intestine and the colon has regularly been
questioned. In a recent experiment in rats fed a diet supplemented with 10% FOS
or inulin, we have demonstrated that the balance for Ca, Mg, and Fe is improved
(27). This beneficial effect, quite surprising as compared to the effect of dietary
fiber, may result from an increased intestinal absorption of the minerals. This
effect has also been observed by Levrat et al. (28) in rats fed a diet containing
10% inulin, and by Ohta et al. (29). All showed that in rats fed a diet enriched
in synthetic fructans the absorption of Ca⫹⫹, Mg⫹⫹ and P was significantly
higher than in rats fed a diet supplemented with lactose. They also showed that
galactooligosaccharides had no effect. Neither Zn or Cu bioavailability nor lipid
soluble vitamins (A and E) homeostasis was modified by chicory fructooligosac-
charides.
DISCUSSION: NON-DIGESTIBLE OLIGOSACCHARIDES

AS DIETARY FIBER
Within the vast group of dietary carbohydrates (Table 1) the non-digestible oligo-
saccharides belong to the class of compounds which resist digestion. The chicory
32 Roberfroid
fructooligosaccharides are extensively fermented in the colon, have prebiotic

properties, and are likely to modulate systemic physiological function (24).
“Dietary fiber” must be defined more as a concept rather than as a chemical
(or an analytical) entity (30). Such a concept must include “resistance to diges-
tion” as a key factor together with the saccharidic nature and the plant origin
of the material. The term dietary fiber must therefore cover any plant’s oligo-/
polysaccharides that resist hydrolysis in the human digestive tract and reach the
colon where they can eventually be fermented. They belong to the group of co-
lonic foods and, if selectively fermented by one or a limited number of colonic
bacteria, become classified as prebiotics (24).
The non-digestible oligosaccharides in general, and the chicory fructooligo-
saccharides in particular, resist digestion, behave as colonic foods, are selectively
fermented (e.g. by bifidobacteria) and exert systemic effects. As a consequence
of these properties they have bulking effects and they might positively modulate
lipid metabolism without interfering with mineral absorption. Indeed, they tended
to enhance and improve said absorption.
From a conceptual perspective non-digestible oligosaccharides in general
and chicory fructooligosaccharides in particular have to be classified as dietary
fiber and they have to appear as such on nutrition labeling. From a nutritional
perspective, chicory fructooligosaccharides have to be viewed as prebiotics: due
to their selective fermentation by bifidobacteria they improve the composition of
the colonic microbiota.
Finally, via their systemic effects, they might also positively modulate lipid
metabolism. Within the recently promoted functional foods (defined as any food
constituent which affects the functions of the body in a targeted way so as to
have positive effect which may justify functional or health claims) the chicory
fructoligosaccharides (the most developed non-digestible oligosaccharides) are
likely to occupy a key position (31). In the frame of a stepwise strategy for
research and development (32) they are eligible for a functional claim like “bi-
fidogenic factor”, but further studies in human volunteers might justify more of
such claims. By allowing to quantitatively modify the composition of the colonic
microbiota in favor of bifidobacteria, these food ingredients are a useful tool to
study the positive effects on health (if any) of such a modification (23).
REFERENCES
1. Lee, S.C., and Prosky, L. (1995) J. Assoc. Org. Anal. Chem. 78, 22–36.
2. Ruppin, H., Bar Meir, S., Soergel, K.H., Wood, C.M., and Schmitt, M.G. (1980)
Gastroenterology, 78, 1500–1507.
3. Yeo, S. (1991) Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, UNI-Dissertation
information service, 174 p.
4. Rémésy, C., and Demigné, C. (1993) Ann. Nutrition. Metabol., 27, 57–70.
5. Schummann, W.C., Magnusson, I., Clandromouli, V., Rumaran, K., Wahren, J., and
Landan, B. R. (1991) J. Biol. Chem., 266, 6985–6990.
6. Van Loo, J., Coussement, P., De Leenheer, L., Hoebregs, H., and Smits, G. (1995)
C.R.C. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 35, 525–552.
7. Coussement, P. (1995) See chapter 20 in this book.
8. Knudsen, K.E.B., and Prosky, L. (1995) J. Assoc. Anal. Org. Chem. 78, 22–36.
9. Ellegärd, L., Andersson, H., and Hessou, I. (1995) Br. J. Nutr., 74, 101–113.
10. Tokunaga, T., Oku, T., and Hosoya, N. (1989) J. Nutr., 119, 553–559.
11. Wang, X., and Gibson, G.R. (1993) J. Appl. Bateriol., 75, 373–380.
12. McKellar, R.C., and Modler, H.W. (1989) Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 31, 537–
541.
13. Wang X. (1993) Ph.D. thesis, MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Center, University of
Cambridge, England.
14. Meghrous, J., Euloge, A.M., Junelles, J., Ballongue, J., and Petitdemange, H. (1990)
Biotechnol. Lett. 12, 575–580.
15. Gibson, G.R., Beatty, E.B., Wang, X. and Cummings, J.H. (1995) Gastroenterology,
108, 975–982.
16. Roberfroid, M., Gibson, G.R., and Delzenne, N. (1993) Nutr. Rev. 51, 137–146.
17. Armstrong, E.F., Eastwood, M. A., and Brydon, W.G. (1993) J. Nutr. 69, 913–920.
18. Hansen, I., Bach Knudsen, K.E., and Eggum, B. O. (1992) Br. J. Nutr. 68, 451–
462.
19. Cummings, J.H. (1984) Postgrad Med. J., 60, 811–819.
20. Spliller, G.A. (1986) Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition, CRC Press
Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, USA.
21. Spoiler, G.A., Story, J.A., Wong., L.G., Nooses, J.D., Alton, M., Petro, M.S., Furu-
moto, E.J., Whittman, J.H., and Scala, J. (1986) J. Nutr. 116, 778–785.
22. Tomlin, J. and Read, N. W. (1988) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 42, 857–861.
23. Roberfroid, M.B., Bornet, F., Bouley C., and Cummings J.H. (1995) Nutr. Rev. 53,
127–130.
24. Gibson, G.R., and Roberfroid, M.B. (1995) J. Nutr. 125, 1401–1412.
25. Fiordaliso, M.F., Kok, N., Desager, J.P., Goethals, F., Deboyser, D., Roberfroid,
M., and Delzenne, N. (1995) Lipids 30, 163–167.
26. Kok, N., Roberfroid, M., and Delzenne, N. (1995) Arch. Biochem. Physiol. 103,
B19.
27. Delzenne, N., Aertsens, J., Verplaetse, H., Roccaro, M., and Roberfroid, M. (1995)
Life Sci. 57, 1579–1587.
28. Levrat, M.A., Rémésy C., and Demigné C (1991) J. Nutr. 121, 1730–1737.
29. Ohta A., Ohtuki M., Takizawa T., Inaba H., Adachi T. and Kumura S. (1994) J.
Vit. Nutr. Res. 64, 316–323.
30. Roberfroid, M. (1993) C.R.C. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 33, 103–148.
31. Roberfroid, M.B. (1995) World Ingredients March-April, 42–44.
32. Roberfroid, M.B. (1996) Nutr. Rev. 54, 538–542.
5
Suggested Alternatives to the Term
“Complex Carbohydrates”
F. W. SCOTT AND R. MONGEAU

Food Directorate, Nutrition Research Division, Banting Research Centre,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
P. WOOD
Centre for Food and Animal Research, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
INTRODUCTION
The Canadian Nutrition Recommendations published in 1990 by Health Canada
refer to the benefits of diets high in complex carbohydrates, defined essentially
as starches. For the purposes of food labeling claims in Canada the term “complex
carbohydrates” is permitted and has been taken to mean only starch which is the
term used on the nutrition label itself. In other jurisdictions, the term “complex
carbohydrates” has been taken to mean either starches or starches plus dietary
fiber. Thus, the term is a source of confusion, is difficult to define in a manner
that can be verified analytically and has little scientific meaning for many scien-
tists and lay people alike (1, 2). There is a need to simplify and more clearly
define in chemical terms what is meant by the advice to consume foods high in
complex carbohydrates. It is time to re-think the use of this chemically undefined
35
36 Scott et al.
term and we suggest that “complex carbohydrate” be replaced by the terms starch
and dietary fiber.
MEASUREMENT AND IDENTIFICATION

OF CARBOHYDRATES
As the physiological effects of different polysaccharides become better under-
stood it is appropriate to bring improved definition and precision to the area of
food carbohydrates. This message is important when one considers that as re-
cently as 1992 carbohydrate was still measured “by difference” in USDA Hand-
book 8, a practice subject to error because it includes minor non-carbohydrate
components and is subject to cumulative analytical error derived from the analy-
ses for protein, fat, moisture and ash. The FDA does not permit the term complex
carbohydrate but requires the term “other carbohydrate” which is defined as the
amount of carbohydrates remaining after subtraction of dietary fiber, sugars and
sugar alcohols from total carbohydrates (3). This introduces another ill-defined
and confusing term and continues to avoid mentioning by name the chemically
well-defined term starch.
STARCH
We feel that a more useful and practical solution at present is to use the terms
starch and dietary fiber separately. An appropriate definition of starch follows:
“Starch is a large polymer of glucose consisting of glucose units formed into
unbranched amylose chains composed of alpha-1,4 linked glucose residues and
highly branched amylopectin with alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 bonds.” There are sev-
eral methods to measure starch (4–9). There are commercially available kits to
measure starch based on converting it to soluble fragments with minimal produc-
tion of glucose followed by quantitative hydrolysis by amyloglucosidase (4).
(This kit can also provide an estimation of enzyme-“resistant” starch). In the
method for total starch, starch is solubilized with DMSO or the sample is cooked
in buffer with a thermostable alpha-amylase. Complete breakdown to dextrins is
carried out by subsequent treatment with the de-branching enzyme pullulanase
in combination with alpha-amylase to minimize the amount of free glucose
formed by continued action of alpha-amylase. Quantitative hydrolysis of the re-
sulting maltotrioses and maltoses, (which are not substrates for the bacterial
alpha-amylase) to glucose is carried out with amyloglucosidase and glucose is
measured using a standard enzyme/color reaction with samples read in a spectro-
photometer. Unlike the term “complex carbohydrates”, starch is a more defined
chemical entity and can be measured by several methods.
Suggested Alternatives 37
DIETARY FIBER
Dietary fiber is essentially dietary non-starch polysaccharides and cell wall-
associated components such as lignin. The report of the Canadian Expert Com-
mittee (10) strongly emphasized that dietary fiber excludes polymers formed during
food processing or preparation and that the labeling of dietary fiber content in a
food has value only because certain physiological benefits are expected of fiber.
To consider dietary fiber as complex carbohydrates also ignores the fact
that the non-carbohydrate components participate in maintaining the botanical
(plant cell wall) structure of dietary fiber and the structure of the food. The botani-
cal structure and particle size may account for a significant proportion of the
beneficial effects of dietary fiber on postprandial blood glucose response and
intestinal function (11).
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND LABELING

The approach we suggest here focuses on two groups of components that can be
analyzed using available methods.
The ingestion of starches can have a variety of effects depending on the
plant source, cooking conditions and the individual’s digestive tract. These varia-
tions result from interactions in both the upper gastrointestinal tract and in the
colon and are not necessarily a consequence of chemical differences that are
easily identified. Evidence that small amounts of “resistant starch” may have
effects on gastrointestinal function and metabolism is important but this is just
one aspect of a spectrum of effects originating from the same chemical entity.
Information on these effects is not yet sufficient to include recommendations with
respect to different starches and should not be of concern for the purpose of food
labeling at this time.
Because high carbohydrate diets containing foods high in starches and di-
etary fiber can have beneficial health effects, the most useful and practical posi-
tion at present for the purposes of labeling is to identify starches and dietary fiber
separately. This approach to simplifying the definitions, analytical and labeling
issues would facilitate healthy food choices by the consumer.
Products enriched in non-native or novel fiber sources also have a place
in the market and may have benefit for particular segments of the population.
Thus, the only justification for enriching foods in these materials should be the
clear demonstration of beneficial physiological effects and not simply the artifi-
cial inflation of total carbohydrate and dietary fiber values.
REFERENCES
1. Asp, N.-G. (1994) Nutritional classification and analysis of food carbohydrates. Am
J. Clin. Nutr. 59 (Suppl), 679S–681S.
38 Scott et al.
2. Johnson, I. T., and Southgate, D.A.T. (1994) Dietary fibre and related substances.
in Dietary fibre and related substances. Chapman and Hall, London. 132 pp.
3. Anonymous (1993) Discussion on other carbohydrates. Federal Register 58, 2177.
4. Total starch procedure TSA 9/92 (1993) Megazyme Australia, 2/11 Ponderosa Pa-
rade, Warriewood, (Sydney), NSW 2102, Australia (Fax: 612-979-8272).
5. Moreels, E. (1987) Measurement of the starch content of commercial starches. Starch
39, 414–416.
6. Mitchell, G. A. (1990) Methods of starch analysis. Starch 42, 131–134.
7. Henry, R. J., Balkeney, A. B., and Lance, R.C.M. (1990) Enzymatic determination
of starch in samples with high sugar content. Starch 42, 468–470.
8. Batey, I.L. (1982) Starch analysis using thermostable alpha-amylases. Starch 34,
125–128.
9. Baur, M.C., and Alexander, R. J. (1979) Enzymatic procedure for determination of
starch in cereal products. Cereal Chem. 56, 364–366.
10. Health and Welfare Canada (1985) Report of the Expert Advisory Committee on
Dietary Fibre, National Health and Welfare Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
11. Mongeau, R., Scott, F. W., and Brassard, R. (1997) Definition and analysis of dietary
fiber. In Complex carbohydrates: Definition, analysis, and applications. Marcel Dek-
ker, New York.
6
Complex Carbohydrates: The Science
and the Label
DAVID R. LINEBACK
University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
MARK DREHER
Nabisco, Inc., East Hanover, New Jersey
JONATHAN W. DEVRIES
General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
JOANNE L. SLAVIN
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
ALISON STEPHEN
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
DENNIS GORDON
North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota
LEON PROSKY
F. EDWARD SCARBROUGH
U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
GARY HENDERSON
Kraft Foods, White Plains, New York
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO AND BETH OLSON
FERGUS CLYDESDALE
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
Reprinted with permission from Nutrition Reviews, Volume 54, No. 7, pp. 186 – 193. Copyright
1995 International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, D.C. 20036-4084.
39
40 Lineback et al.
On November 2, 1994, the International Life Science’s Institute (ILSI) North

America Project Committee on Fiber/Complex Carbohydrates (now known as the
Technical Committee on Carbohydrates) sponsored a workshop titled Complex
Carbohydrates: The Science and the Label. This workshop evaluated the scientific
issues associated with complex carbohydrates and, in light of these issues, ad-
dressed the rationale for adding complex carbohydrates to the nutrition label.
Nutrition Reviews is pleased to publish the summary of this workshop.
PREFACE AND OVERVIEW*

The objectives for the workshop were: 1) To evaluate complex carbohydrates
from the perspectives of definition and methodology, nutrition and health, and
dietary guidelines and public health; 2) To evaluate critically the scientific issues
associated with the possible addition of complex carbohydrates to the nutrition
label; and 3) To explore issues associated with developing a rational public policy
for the labeling of complex carbohydrates.
Since the 1970s, complex carbohydrates have been an important component
of various dietary guidelines. However, the term has been used without much
attention given to definition, analytic methodology, or physiologic effects. These
issues must be resolved before complex carbohydrates can meet the criteria for
use in food labeling.
The current opportunities to educate consumers utilizing clearly defined
food labels have never been greater. Using the synergy between the Nutrition
Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) and the revised Food Guide Pyramid has
facilitated great strides toward a better understanding on the part of the public
regarding the constituents of a healthy diet. Just as it has learned the terms “satu-
rated fat”, “soluble fiber,” and “dietary cholesterol”, the public is capable of un-
derstanding the term “complex carbohydrate” if the scientific issues are clarified.
The primary questions are
1. What are the components included in the term “complex carbohy-

drate”?
2. Can analytic methodology be developed that reflects all of the compo-
nents encountered in the broad definition of complex carbohydrates?
3. Is there a clear understanding of the physiologic benefits of complex
carbohydrates?
This workshop was an initial step toward resolving these questions.
*
David Lineback and Mark Dreher
The Science and the Label 41
INTRODUCTION*
On November 27, 1991, the term complex carbohydrates was proposed as a man-
datory listing in the Nutrition Facts segment of the nutrition label. The calculation
of complex carbohydrates was to be the sum of digestible polysaccharides with
a degree of polymerization greater than nine. The final regulations of January 6,
1993, do not allow use of the term complex carbohydrates on the nutrition label
because of lack of a clear definition and commensurate methodology. This is
problematic because the term complex carbohydrate has become very familiar
(even colloquial) to consumers by way of media reinforcement for the past 18
years. Although consumers are aware of the recommendations to increase their
consumption of complex carbohydrates, they are unable to find this information
readily on the food label.
Complex carbohydrates, with or without other concurrent nutrients, have
been a significant topic of scientific research and public interest. This interest
has spanned the three decades since the initial observations that populations that
consumed diets high in complex carbohydrates and their sub-components suf-
fered from a decreased prevalence of certain conditions such as coronary heart
disease, diabetes, etc.
Public education about complex carbohydrates began in the United States
in 1977, with Dietary Goals for the United States, a report from the United States
Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs (McGovern Commis-
sion) (1). Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, first
issued in 1980, continues to recommend that consumers increase their intake of
foods containing complex carbohydrates (2). In 1988 The Surgeon Generals Re-
port on Nutrition and Health also recommended an increased consumption of
complex carbohydrates and fiber, with an emphasis on diets high in whole-grain
cereal products, vegetables, and fruits (3). The 10th edition of Recommended
Dietary Allowances and Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Dis-
ease Risk echoed the call for increased complex carbohydrate consumption (di-
gestible complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber) (4,5). Finally, the 1992 Food
Guide Pyramid reemphasized the need to increase consumption of complex car-
bohydrates relative to other foods (i.e., three times as many vegetables, fruits,
and grain products) (6). Thus, consumers, health and nutrition professionals, and
the media have been extensively educated about the need to increase complex
carbohydrates in the diet. Consumers are aware of the need for increased con-
sumption of complex carbohydrates, but the data are not readily available as part
of the food label’s nutrition facts.
The Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) International has
responded to the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) proposed regulations
*
Jonathan W. Devries
42 Lineback et al.
about the labeling of complex carbohydrates by committing itself to pursuing and

validating appropriate methodology if these new labeling regulations are adopted.
AOAC International has initiated work to establish a single clear definition and
to provide commensurate official methodology. Complex carbohydrates should
include both dietary fiber and the digestible complex carbohydrate fractions of
food. Analytic methods have been developed and proposed for collaborative vali-
dation. The definition and methods encompass both the physiologic and chemical
bases for complex carbohydrates. Enzyme systems used for analysis mimic the
human digestive system, thus providing a physiologic basis. Complexity of the
carbohydrate is chemically established by the insolubility of the fraction in four
parts alcohol and one part water, which has long been considered the standard
basis for separating the simple from the more complex compounds in food ma-
trices.
A potential scheme for listing carbohydrate information on labels and in
nutrition data table might be:
Total carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates
Dietary fiber
Digestible complex carbohydrates
Sugars
Sugar alcohols (optional)
Other carbohydrates
AOAC International is committed to validating appropriate methodology,
and progress is being made. Nutrition knowledge will continue to increase and
so will the validated methods, because inclusion of complex carbohydrate data
on the nutrition label would be beneficial to consumers.
DIETARY GUIDANCE ISSUES*

Nutritionists generally accept that humans do not need more than 10–12% of
their total energy from protein and that fat should provide no more than 30%.
By mathematical difference, carbohydrate intake should be approximately 55–
60% of total daily calories. Human diets have historically contained 40-80% of
their energy as carbohydrate. However, as income has increased, fat content has
increased as well, while the carbohydrate content, especially starch, has de-
creased.
In the 1980s the number of recommendations for increasing carbohydrate
intake grew and became more specific. Generally, the recommendations divided
*
Joanne Slavin
the carbohydrate intake into two groups: 1) sugars and 2) complex carbohydrates
and starch. However, issues associated with definitions and methods of isolating
complex carbohydrates need to be resolved before complex carbohydrates can
be added to the nutrition label.
In the United States, the term “complex carbohydrates” was first used in
the Senate Select Committee Report and included digestible carbohydrates or
starch (1). The British Nutrition Foundation report included both starch and non-
starch polysaccharides as complex carbohydrates and stated that because foods
rich in complex carbohydrates have greatly diverse physical and biological prop-
erties, it is difficult to generalize about these properties (7). The report also noted
that there is more overlap between the behavior and properties of the starches
and non-starch polysaccharides than was previously thought. Resistant starch is
probably metabolized similarly to some dietary fiber components in the gut. Thus,
it appears that complex carbohydrates should contain both dietary fiber and
starches and that certain substances (e.g., phytate and phenolic compounds) and
micronutrients (e.g., zinc and magnesium) are important components associated
with complex carbohydrates.
Classification of complex carbohydrates should not specify the minimum
chain length of saccharides. Dietary recommendations to increase intake of com-
plex carbohydrates are based on the assumption that the carbohydrates are not
isolated, but rather are derived from intact foods. Most dietary guidance is offered
as a general endorsement of starches and complex carbohydrates to replace di-
etary fat. There is growing acceptance that isolated carbohydrates provide differ-
ent physiologic responses than do whole foods.
Dietary recommendations for complex carbohydrates must be based on a
synthesis of epidemiological, metabolic, and mechanistic data and by necessity
will be nonspecific. The British Nutrition Foundation report noted that for most
adults consuming nutritionally adequate diets, an increased intake of complex
carbohydrates is unlikely to lead to deficiencies in micronutrients (7). Further, it
appears sensible for adults to increase their intake of a variety of foods that are
rich in complex carbohydrates. A wide range of carbohydrate intake is consistent
with health, but recommendations for carbohydrate intake cannot be based on
classical approaches for defining nutrient requirements because there is no clear-
cut deficiency disease related to carbohydrates.
THE PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS*

Complex carbohydrates are important sources of dietary energy, and those that
resist digestion are now emerging as important components of the diet. Some of
*
Alison Stephen
44 Lineback et al.
these carbohydrates are fermented like soluble dietary fiber. Others resist fermen-
tation and are excreted in the same manner as insoluble dietary fiber.
The soluble fiber component of non-starch polysaccharides resists digestion
within the small intestine and undergoes extensive fermentation to short-chain
fatty acids within the large intestine. Production of acetic, propionic, and butyric
acids from non-digestible non-starch polysaccharides by the microflora of the
colon has been shown to benefit colonic health. Resistant starch could be consid-
ered to act like a non-starch polysaccharide within the complex carbohydrate
umbrella now recognized to resist digestion and to undergo extensive colonic
fermentation to butyric acid.
Numerous factors determine the proportion of dietary starch that becomes
resistant starch. The extent of resistant starch fermentation is controlled by physi-
cal factors such as source, granular structure, degree of processing (cooking and/
or cooling), and relative ratio to protein, fat, plant silica, lignin, and phytate.
Physiologic factors such as extent of chewing, rate of passage through the small
intestine, and activity of intestinal amylases also determine the amount of in-
gested starch available for colonic fermentation.
A growing body of evidence suggests that the preferential fermentation of
resistant starch to butyric acid not only improves colonic health but also may
protect against the development of colon cancer. Inhibition of uncontrolled cancer
cell growth by butyric acid has been attributed to its ability to promote acetylation
of histones, its direct interaction with genetic material, its effect on cell methyla-
tion, and its promotion of programmed cell death. The factors responsible for
the inhibition of cancer cell growth by butyric acid are less well defined. Butyric
acid is thought to affect cell growth by regulating the production of epidermal
growth factor, estrogen receptors, or polyamines.
Epidemiological analysis of individual dietary intake has shown a signifi-
cant inverse relationship between starch consumption and colon cancer mortality.
This may be due in part to increased availability of resistant starch for colon
fermentation.
DEFINING SIMPLE AND COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES*

Carbohydrate-rich foods contain mixtures of sugars, starches, and fibers. Differ-
ent criteria are used to define the analytic and physiologic distinctiveness of these
components. Because the impact of carbohydrates on human nutrition is more
rigorous than inherent in simplified definitions, integrated analytic and nutrition
terminologies are necessary to convey the importance of carbohydrates in human
health.
*
Dennis Gordon
Although there is an established analytic nomenclature for carbohydrates,

appropriate descriptors are required to indicate their collective physiologic attri-
butes and roles. The term “complex carbohydrates” was adopted to simplify the
dietary contributions of a broad and chemically diverse group of carbohydrates.
For instance, variable inclusion or exclusion of total dietary fiber is one of the
recognized incongruities related to the common use of the term.
The lack of accepted measurements for defining the components of com-
plex carbohydrates resulted in the exclusion of information about complex carbo-
hydrates from the recently implemented NLEA. Although the term complex car-
bohydrates is used in most education materials, human physiologic response to
dietary carbohydrates is more complicated than that implied by the labels “sim-
ple” and “complex.” Use of the terms “total carbohydrates” and “other carbohy-
drates” in nutrition labeling is without precedence; no quantitative measure of
carbohydrates is represented by the calculated values.
The proposed classification of simple and complex carbohydrates requires
establishment of an accepted system for determining solubility and requires reli-
able methods for the recovery of all non-digestible carbohydrates and commer-
cially available bulking agents used in some foods. Establishment of an accepted
system would require agreement to define the average degree of polymerization
separating soluble and insoluble oligosaccharides or dextrins.
Under the proposed FDA definition complex carbohydrates would include
starches and dietary fiber. Starches would include amylose, amylopectin, modi-
fied starches, resistant starches, and insoluble and digestible or non-digestible
oligosaccharides and dextrins. Dietary fiber would include insoluble dietary
fiber, soluble dietary fiber, soluble or insoluble non-digestible oligosaccharides
and polysaccharides, non-digestible and non-absorbable disaccharides, non-
absorbable monosaccharides, and sugar alcohols. Inclusion of resistant starches
with dietary fiber is consistent with the proposed definitions. It may be more
beneficial to list sugar alcohols as a separate category. Simple carbohydrates
would include any soluble, digestible, and absorbable sugars and any soluble and
digestible oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT*
The McGovern commission recommended that FDA establish a definition of
complex carbohydrates. The FDA methodology for measuring complex carbohy-
drates is determined by summing the total dietary fiber and available starch mea-
sured in the sample. Using 80% aqueous ethanol simple carbohydrates (sugars
*
Leon Prosky and Susan Sungsoo Cho
46 Lineback et al.
and low-molecular-weight dextrins) are removed from the food to be analyzed.

Fat is extracted if the food contains more than 10% fat.
Duplicate samples of the de-sugared, sugar- and fat-extracted food are
treated with a heat-stable amylase to degrade its starch. Each sample is then
digested with a protease and an amyloglucosidase mixture to remove protein and
starch. Incubation is performed under conditions specified in the AOAC Interna-
tional current method for dietary fiber in food and food products. After the addi-
tion of four volumes of ethanol, each sample is filtered. The filtrate is collected
and set aside for analysis of available starch content. The residue collected on
the filter is washed with ethanol and acetone to remove any remaining low-
molecular-weight materials, dried, and weighed.
Total dietary fiber is calculated after correction for the protein and ash
contents of the collected residue. The available starch content of the original food
is calculated from the glucose content of the filtrate set aside after the addition
of four volumes of ethanol. The collected filtrate is evaporated before various
spectrophotometric or chromatographic procedures determine its glucose con-
tent. Spectrophotometric procedures include either an ultraviolet-enzymatic or a
visible-colorimetric method. Chromatographic methods use high-pressure liquid
chromatography (HPLC) with either a bonded-amine column, which is preferred,
or an ion-exchange column.
In a recent survey conducted by the AOAC International Food and Nutri-
tion Committee the FDA methodology appears to meet the definition criteria
most frequently cited as appropriate by scientists working in the area of complex
carbohydrates. However, a number of methodology issues still require resolution.
Two basic issues concern completeness of starch digestion by the alpha-amylase-
protease-amyloglucosidase mixture, and elimination of the long and tedious step
of filtrate evaporation through implementation of newer, more sensitive HPLC
detectors. Complex carbohydrate methodology must address quantification of oli-
gosaccharides resistant to digestion in the human alimentary system. Finally,
methodology implemented for determining complex carbohydrates requires
multi-laboratory validation of its ruggedness, accuracy, and precision no matter
how it is defined.
PERSPECTIVES ON LABELING*
Perspectives from both the U. S. government and the food industry about complex
carbohydrates were presented.
FDA permits the term “other carbohydrate” (calculated as the amount of
carbohydrate remaining after subtraction of dietary fiber, sugars, and sugar alco-
*
F. Edward Scarbrough and Gary Henderson
hols from total carbohydrate) on the nutrition label rather than the term “complex
carbohydrate”. The reasons for this decision were: 1) The inclusion of complex
carbohydrate on the label might have suggested greater public health significance
than that established by diet and health studies; 2) The term “complex carbohy-
drate” had not been clearly defined; and 3) The analytic methodologies for com-
plex carbohydrate were not sufficiently developed. Also, FDA was unable to
establish a daily recommended value (DRV) for label reference purposes. FDA
concluded from submitted comments that there was not sufficient consensus re-
lated to the meaning of the term “complex carbohydrate” and was persuaded to
change the name to “other carbohydrate”. The FDA has acknowledged that acade-
mia, professional societies, and the food industry continue to express interest in
including complex carbohydrate on the label and hoped that this conference
would give the agency some guidance about how to proceed.
From the perspective of the U. S. food industry, consumers do not under-
stand the term “other carbohydrate”. A study was conducted to compare con-
sumer understanding of the terms “complex carbohydrate” and “other carbohy-
drate” in the cereal category 6 months before and 6 months after NLEA labels
appeared in the marketplace. Results indicated that there is a fair amount of confu-
sion among consumers regarding the term “other carbohydrate.” The reason for
this confusion is the equity in the term “complex carbohydrate” that has been
building since 1977 through references in dietary guidelines, programs by health
professionals and industry, and use in pre-NLEA labeling. The return to the term
“complex carbohydrate” would reduce consumer confusion. Factors that should
be considered in reinstatement are: 1) Opportunities for the use of complex carbo-
hydrate as a marker nutrient; 2) Provision of quantitative information if the lack
of consensus on daily value is seen as a barrier; and 3) Consideration of the
physiologic effect in developing a definition.
SUMMARY OF AOAC SURVEY ON COMPLEX

CARBOHYDRATES*
In 1992 the AOAC International Task Force on Nutrients Labeling Analysis and
its Subcommittee on Carbohydrates Methodology concluded that more work was
necessary to develop an analytic methodology for complex carbohydrates. In
1993 AOAC International subsequently established refereeship in the area of
complex carbohydrates to accommodate the analytic needs. As the first step in
establishing analytic methodology an international survey on complex carbohy-
drate definition and analysis under the auspices of AOAC International was initi-
ated.
*
48 Lineback et al.
The survey was designed to determine if a consensus could be reached on

the definition of complex carbohydrates and associated methodologies. Approxi-
mately 200 survey questionnaires were distributed to professionals in the area of
carbohydrates and 114 replies were received. The survey results indicated that
complex carbohydrates should include available starch and total dietary fiber. In
the previous two international surveys on dietary fiber definition and analysis
respondents generally supported including lignin (a non-carbohydrate substance
closely associated structurally with other dietary fiber components) and resistant
oligosaccharides in the definition, in addition to non-starch polysaccharides and
resistant starches. Considering the results from these three international surveys
and the traditional labeling of dietary fiber that has included lignins, it is logical
to conclude that complex carbohydrates can be described for labeling purposes
as the sum of available starches and dietary fiber including resistant oligosaccha-
rides and lignin. The current AOAC International position is that analytic method-
ology can be developed to meet this proposed definition for complex carbohy-
drates.
PANEL DISCUSSION*
1. What are the important scientific reasons for including complex carbo-
hydrates on the label?
The panel emphasized the need to increase the physiologic database sup-
porting the overall benefits of a diet high in complex carbohydrates to support
and substantiate the current dietary recommendations and reach a consensus on
the definition and methodology to reduce the research fragmentation that cur-
rently exists. The panel suggested practical reasons for putting the term complex
carbohydrate on the label:
1. Complex carbohydrates are a marker of foods people should be con-
suming.
2. Use of the term is a normal progression of knowledge about the health
benefits of carbohydrates; complex carbohydrates and even types of
complex carbohydrates (such as resistant starch) are an important com-
ponent of the diet. It was noted that this is similar to the progression
of knowledge on the importance of fiber and on specific types of fiber
(for example, soluble and insoluble fiber).
*
Moderator: Beth Olson. Panelists: Jonathan W. Devries; David Kritchevsky, Wistar Institute, Phila-
delphia, PA; Elaine Lanza, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD; Betty W. Li, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, DC; Linda Van Horn, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago,
IL; Thomas Wolever, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada; John Vanderveen, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, Washington, DC.
3. There is a history to the use of the term and consumer recognition that
they should look for it in foods.
There was consensus that use of the term “complex carbohydrate” will help
the progress of science in the area.
2. Given the current methodology, what should the definition of complex
carbohydrates be for purposes of nutrition labeling?
The panel suggested the following definitions: starch and dietary fiber,
starch and non-starch polysaccharides, and carbohydrates with degree of poly-
merization greater than or equal to 10.
3. If methodology could be developed, what would the ideal definition be
for purposes of nutrition labeling?
Future definitions would ideally be physiologically based. As more knowl-
edge is gained about the health benefit of particular carbohydrates and how to
measure them, they should be included on the label. Examples of future possibili-
ties given for labeling purposes were lignin and resistant starch.
4. What definition would best serve the purposes of current scientific rec-
ommendations to increase complex carbohydrates consumption (e.g., Dietary
Guidelines for Americans, The Surgeon General’s Report on Nutrition and
Health)?
The panel felt that to determine the best definition, analytic starch values
would need to be available to researchers working on the health benefits of carbo-
hydrate. Also, more knowledge is needed about healthful diets and what these
diets comprise.
5. What are the gaps in our scientific knowledge of complex carbohy-
drates?
The gaps are in the three areas of the analytic, physiologic, and health
benefits of complex carbohydrates. Some health benefits are known, but less is
known about the physiologic effects behind these health benefits. The panel mem-
bers agree that there needs to be more starch analysis done, particularly by the
government. The analytic data must be available for researchers working in the
area of carbohydrates so that they can find the components in food and then
investigate health benefits.
6. Is there sufficient scientific rationale to put the term complex carbohy-
drates on the nutrition label?
Several members of the panel agreed that additional scientific evidence is
required to provide the foundation for the labeling of complex carbohydrates.
They emphasized the need to advance the definition, methodology, and physio-
logic data to support such labeling efforts. Members also indicated that the term
could have a practical labeling purpose.
It was stated that the term “other carbohydrate” is not meaningful and that
“complex carbohydrate” is preferable because of the history of its use. Some
50 Lineback et al.
members felt that the best compromise for the definition should be: “starch plus
dietary fiber or non-starch polysaccharides”. This is because there is evidence
that these components are important in the diet. In addition, these compounds are
markers of a good diet, and people therefore should find that the term “complex
carbohydrate” provides useful information on the Nutrition Facts label. It was
felt that the term should be reconsidered for labeling after the standardization of
definition and methodology.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION*

This conference resulted in a foundation upon which consensus will be built
in the future. Further, it provided a forum for the articulation of the critical need
for carbohydrates in human nutrition. We have come a long way in the past 25
years in the food and nutrition sciences and this conference well illustrated that
point. At the White House Conference on Nutrition in 1969, macronutrients were
never even mentioned as being necessary to nutrition; only micronutrients were
emphasized. In 1977 the term “complex carbohydrate” was used without defini-
tion in the Dietary Goals for the United States (1). This conference encapsul-
ated the tremendous strides that have been made concerning the chemical, nutri-
tional, biologic, and physiologic importance of carbohydrates in health and
disease.
It is fascinating to review the recommendations concerning complex carbo-
hydrate from 1977 on. The list includes recommendations made by the Senate
Select Committee in 1977, the Dietary Guidelines of 1980, 1985, and 1990, the
Surgeon General’s reports of 1979 and 1988, the 10th edition of Recommended
Dietary Allowances, the 1989 National Academy of Sciences Diet and Health:
Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk, the 1991 FDA proposal for
labeling, and the 1992 Food Guide Pyramid (1-6,8). Indeed, as Joanne Slavin
pointed out, “. . . there is a wide range of consensus that increased complex
carbohydrate is consistent with good health . . . ” and certainly as Gary Henderson
said, “. . . the term complex carbohydrate has equity with consumers.”
With this level of apparent clarity it is difficult at first to identify a problem
for the food label. After all, if consumer health would benefit why not simply
do it? However, a problem does exist in that carbohydrates may be classified
chemically in groups that are difficult to analyze and to define as to their physio-
logic function in the body. Indeed, complex carbohydrates defined by chain
length may have molecular structures less complex than those of smaller units
and may vary in solubility and digestibility. A continuum does exist in each of
the chemical, analytical, and physiologic characteristics of carbohydrates. Scien-
*
Fergus Clydesdale
tists do not like a continuum and regulators probably like it even less, but such
a continuum holds great promise for future consensus. This continuum provided
the thoughtful alternatives presented above by Jonathan Devries, Dennis Gordon,
and Alison Stephen. Devries suggested a scheme of complex carbohydrates, sug-
ars, and sugar alcohols, while Gordon suggested complex carbohydrates, dietary
fiber, and simple carbohydrates, and Stephen suggested starch, sugar, and non-
starch polysaccharides. Surely, we can develop a meaningful technique for label-
ing from these recommendations, which illustrate the continuum.
Further complicating the complicated scientific questions are the questions
raised by consumer understanding and education. The label is not only a state-
ment of truth for package content but is a tool for creating better-educated and
better-fed consumers. Scarbrough pointed out that FDA was concerned because
a DRV does not exist for complex carbohydrates and because health benefits
should not be exaggerated. Both of these are legitimate concerns. We are cur-
rently recommending that carbohydrate be the major macronutrient in the diet,
which seems to lessen the concern for a DRV and exaggerated claims to eat
more.
Consumers will conceivably derive many benefits from the labeling of what
we consider complex carbohydrate. We must obtain more data from consumers
on what and how they understand some of the proposals put forth today. If we
do this correctly we can certainly do a better job of educating consumers. By
labeling carbohydrates rationally and tracking our scientific knowledge, we will
be able to reduce the good food / bad food syndrome that is all too prevalent in
much of our nutrition education system. We could also eliminate the term “other
carbohydrate” which can only cause confusion and concern. Lastly, and perhaps
most importantly, we will have the potential to increase the consumption of foods
that are high in carbohydrates.
Aside from consumer education other benefits would be derived from in-
cluding complex carbohydrates on the food label. Incentives would be created
for the support of more research to better define the relationship between carbohy-
drates and health as well as more research into the development of new food
products that are consistent with national dietary goals.
It is clear that this is not a simple task. Classifications cannot be made
simply for chemical or analytic expediency if they do not adequately express
physiologic significance. However, we are all committed to achieving a means
to satisfy this continuum, and I have no doubt that in the future we will have
labels presenting what we all think of as complex carbohydrate.
This summary has been reviewed and approved by each of the speakers
and panel members from the workshop on Complex Carbohydrates: the Science
and the Label. The views expressed herein are those of the individual au-
thors and/or their organizations, and do not necessarily reflect the views of ILSI
North America.
52 Lineback et al.
REFERENCES
1. U. S. Congress, Senate (1977) Dietary Goals for the United States, Stock no. 052-
070-03913-2. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
2. U. S. Department of Agriculture/U. S. Department of Health and Human Services
(1985) Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2nd ed., Home
and Garden Bulletin no. 232, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
3. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services (1988) The Surgeon General’s Re-
port on Nutrition and Health, DHHS (PHS) Publ. no. 88-50210, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
4. National Research Council (1989) Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th ed., Na-
tional Academy Press, Washington, D. C.
5. National Research Council (1989) Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing
Chronic Disease Risk, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C.
6. U. S. Department of Agriculture and U. S. Department of Health and Human Services
(1992) The Food Guide Pyramid, Home and Garden no. 252, U. S. Government Print-
ing Office, Washington, D.C.
7. British Nutrition Foundation (1994) Starchy foods in the diet. British Nutrition Foun-
dation, London, UK.
8. U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1979) Healthy people: the Sur-
geon General’s report on health promotion and disease prevention, DHEW (PHS)
Publ. no. 79-55071, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
7
The Role of Dietary Fiber in the
Prevention of Lipid Metabolism
Disorders
ELZBIETA BARTNIKOWSKA
Warsaw Agricultural University, Warsaw, Poland
INTRODUCTION
The earlier assumptions regarding the importance of dietary fiber relate to the
controversy on the differences of white and brown bread in terms of health and
better nutrition. Popular taste has tended to prefer white flour. Therefore white
bread with its higher cost and greater aesthetic appeal had social esteem, which
generally persisted until today.
The first researchers to pay attention to the health contribution of whole
cereal foods were S. Graham and J. H. Kellogg. History was not on their side
at that time, and the components of dietary fiber have largely been neglected as
they were considered to have no nutritive value. In the last three decades, how-
ever, attention has been focused on the fiber content in the diet. Interest in fiber
arose from epidemiological studies indicating the low prevalence of coronary
heart disease, diabetes, gallstones, obesity, appendicitis, diverticulosis, varicose
veins and hemorrhoids in underdeveloped countries, but common in Western
53
54 Bartnikowska
countries, may be due to the consumption of greater amounts of plant foods rich
in fiber.
Epidemiological evidence linking the intake of dietary fiber and serum lipid
levels indicates that the concentration of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total
cholesterol and triglycerides in blood serum are significantly lower in populations
habitually consuming high-fiber diets. Detailed experimental animal studies indi-
cate the water soluble components of dietary fiber reduce serum total cholesterol
and atherosclerotic changes in the aorta wall. The hypocholesterolemic effects
of water soluble fibers were more visible when experimental diets were supple-
mented with cholesterol and/or saturated fats. Similar results were obtained in
clinical studies in humans. The most effective dietary fiber components are pec-
tins present in fruits and vegetables, guar gum in beans, and soluble beta-glucans
in cereal grains, particularly in oat and barley. The hypocholesterolemic effect
of the soluble components of dietary fiber depends on its form and amount of
fiber intake, and was more pronounced in patients with hyperlipidemia than in
persons without lipid metabolism disorders.
It should be stressed that it is very important to distinguish between the
effects of food rich in fiber and diets containing fiber as an added ingredient.
Foods rich in fiber are usually rich in complex carbohydrates, microelements,
and vitamins with antioxidative properties like vitamin C, tocopherols, tocotrie-
nols and carotenoids. Interactions between these dietary components may be re-
sponsible not only for the prevention of lipid metabolism disorders, but also for
coronary heart disease (CHD).
INFLUENCE OF DIETARY FIBER

ON LIPID METABOLISM
Epidemiologic Studies
Epidemiologic studies performed by Burkitt, Trowell, and Walker indicate there
are great differences in intakes of dietary fiber depending on geographical loca-
tion, and simultaneously significant negative correlation between the consump-
tion of dietary fiber and the prevalence of CHD (1, 2). Nutritional studies in
which diet composition of people living in rural areas in Africa and in urban
areas in Europe were compared indicate that diets rich in fiber and complex carbo-
hydrates may prevent lipid metabolism disorders and atherosclerosis (3, 4). This
hypothesis was further confirmed by the observation that Africans who adopt
European lifestyles and diets based on refined products showed a significant in-
crease in the prevalence of hyperlipidemias and CHD.
It is well established that LDL and total cholesterol levels are correlated
according to the exponential curve with the risk of CHD. Simultaneously, there
is a negative correlation between high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and
The Role of Dietary Fiber 55
the risk of CHD. Hence, there arises great need to perform indirect studies on
the influence of dietary components on blood lipids and lipoprotein levels in
experimental animals, as well as the comparison of obtained results with the
results from histopathological studies. These findings also create the possibility of
studying the influence of different dietary components on blood lipid metabolism
indices and the risk of atherosclerosis in humans.
Studies performed by Sacks et al. (5) and other investigators (6) demon-
strate that total, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and LDL cholesterol levels
are significantly higher in nonvegetarians than in matched vegetarian controls.
Although the HDL-cholesterol levels also are higher in nonvegetarians, the ratio
of HDL cholesterol to total cholesterol is significantly lower compared to vegetar-
ians. Additionally, blood triglyceride levels in nonvegetarians are significantly
higher than in vegetarians. Simultaneously, the prevalence of CHD in nonvegetar-
ians is higher than in vegetarians (7).
The epidemiologic data linking the intake of dietary fiber and risk of CHD
is less consistent than the data on blood lipid levels. Liu et al. (8) found the rate
of CHD in 20 developed countries varied inversely with fiber intake. Morris et
al. (9), for example, reported that fiber from cereals protect against CHD.
Animal Studies
The influence of dietary components on blood lipids and atherogenesis depends
on the animal model, some of which are more susceptible than others to athero-
sclerotic lesions induced via the alimentary tract. Hence, this may account for
difference in data obtained from animal studies. It should be also stressed that
there are multidirectional interactions of dietary fiber and other diet components,
which may be responsible for the observed effects.
As it appears from the summary of studies performed on rats by Anderson
and Chen (10), water soluble components of fiber (pectin, guar gum) significantly
lower the concentration of total cholesterol in blood, whereas the hypocholester-
olemic effect of water insoluble components (cellulose) is less pronounced. From
the detailed studies performed by Newman et al. (11), with the use of the enzyme
beta-glucanase, beta-glucan has significant hypocholesterolemic properties.
It is generally accepted that dietary cholesterol, saturated fats, and animal
protein increase the concentration of total cholesterol in blood and raise the risk
of atherosclerosis. Results of experimental studies showed that fiber counteracts
the hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic action of dietary cholesterol, saturated
fats, and animal proteins (12).
Similar to the effects on blood cholesterol levels, separate components of
dietary fiber differently influence liver cholesterol levels in laboratory animals.
Supplementation of a rat diet with insoluble fibers such as cellulose raised liver
cholesterol above that of the control group of rats. Contrary to this, in rats receiv-
56 Bartnikowska
ing soluble components such as pectin or carboxyl methylcellulose, less choles-

terol was accumulated in the liver than in the control group (13).
Clinical and Metabolic Studies

Results of animal experiments as well as epidemiological observations encour-
aged many research workers to perform clinical studies on humans. It appears the
influence of dietary fiber components added to the diet is different. A summary of
studies with wheat bran and cellulose by Anderson and Chen (10) indicates the
influence of these fiber sources may depend on the dose of fiber. However, in
the majority of studies with wheat bran, the content of fiber was not specified.
Due to production technology wheat bran may consist of 16% to 45% dietary
fiber. Due to the lack of detailed characteristics of the wheat bran used most
results are difficult to interpret. However, in humans and experimental animals
wheat bran (as opposed to oat bran) has no hypocholesterolemic effect.
It should be mentioned that Hillman et al. (14) demonstrated the consump-
tion of diet supplemented with lignin by persons with hypercholesterolemia is
associated with a decrease of total cholesterol concentration in the blood. How-
ever, in persons without disorders of lipid metabolism lignin has no such effect.
Studies performed in vitro demonstrate that lignin binds bile acids (15). The
hypocholesterolemic action of lignin may be the result of binding bile acids in
the intestinal lumen. This mechanism is similar to cholestyramine or plant sterols
that have a marked hypocholesterolemic effect in persons with hypercholesterol-
emia (16). Although different doses of fiber were used in these separate studies
it appears from these summaries that the water insoluble components of dietary
fiber are relatively ineffective in lowering the total cholesterol concentration in
blood in humans, while the water soluble components are moderately effective.
It should be stressed that it is very important to distinguish between the
effects of food rich in fiber and diets containing dietary fiber components as an
added ingredient. Guar gum and pectin are fiber sources that were commonly
added to the diet as purified preparations of dietary fiber. It was found that the
hypocholesterolemic effect of such preparations depends on the dose of fiber and
the forms in which they were administered (biscuits, gelatin capsules and water
gel form). The most effective are fibers (pectin) in water gel form without sugar.
Additionally, the hypocholesterolemic effect of fiber (pectin and beta-glucans)
was more pronounced in patients with hypercholesterolemia than in persons with-
out lipid metabolism disorders.
Palmer and Dixon (17) reported that a dose of pectin below 10 grams per
day is ineffective in lowering cholesterol levels. In turn, enlarging the dose of
pectin to 40–50 grams per day did not multiply its hypocholesterolemic activity.
In addition, a 40–50 gram per day dose caused unfavorable side effects, particu-
larly flatulence, and sometimes diarrhea and vomiting (18). The most often-used
dose of pectin was 15 g/day. Some authors suggest that such a dose of pectin
included in the diet is optimal (19). Ershoff and Wells (20) demonstrated that
pectin derivatives, such as pectic acid, galacturonic acid or polygalacturonic acid,
at levels of 5% of diet did not affect serum and liver cholesterol concentrations
in cholesterol fed rats. Likewise, methylated polygalacturonic acid had no hypo-
cholesterolemic activity. Thus it would appear that only intact pectin has hypo-
cholesterolemic activity, which is partially determined by its methoxyl content.
TABLE 1 Influence of Oat Products on Lipoprotein Cholesterol Level

in Humans
Percent of Percent of
control control
Dose of fiber Cholesterol Cholesterol
References Fiber source (g/day) HDL LDL
Kirby et al., Oat bran 27 0 ⫺1.4
1981 (23)
Kestin et al., Oat bran 95 ⫺2.8 ⫺6.8
1990 (24)
Anderson et Oat bran 110 ⫹10.4 ⫺12.1
al., 1991
(25)
Leadbetter et Oat bran 30 ⫺5.1 ⫺2.5
al., 1991
(26)
Oat bran 60 ⫺4.5 1.7
Oat bran 90 ⫺8.9 ⫺4.0
Lepre et al., Oat bran 60 ⫹2.3 ⫺3.0
1992 (27)
Uusitupa et al., Oat bran 29.8 ⫺1.3 ⫺4.8
1992 (28)
Whyte et al., Oat bran 123 ⫹4.9 ⫺5.6
1992 (29)
Kashtan et al., Oat bran 100 ⫺9.8 ⫺12.4
1992 (30)
Poulter et al., Oat bran 50 ⫹3.4 ⫺8.1
1993 (31)
He et al., 1995 Oat bran ⬍25 0 ⫺3.8
(32)
Oat bran 25–90 ⫹2.5 ⫺16.8
Oat bran ⬎90 ⫺7.7 ⫺4.9
58 Bartnikowska
Our results demonstrated that in patients with hyperlipidemia, high me-

thoxylated pectin exerts significantly higher hypocholesterolemic activity than
low methoxylated pectin. In persons with hyperlipidemia, the degree of hypocho-
lesterolemic activity of pectin depends on the blood total cholesterol levels. Pectin
exerts higher hypocholesterolemic activity in patients with hypercholesterolemia
than in persons without disorders of lipid metabolism (2).
Similar results were obtained with oat preparations (meal, bran) rich in
beta-glucans. Inclusion of oat preparation to the diet of persons with hypercholes-
terolemia caused significant reduction of blood total cholesterol, whereas in per-
sons without disorders of lipid metabolism, the hypocholesterolemic effect of oat
preparations was low (21). Similarly, the hypocholesterolemic effect of oat de-
pends also on the dose of oat fiber, but exceeding such a dose does not give an
appropriate hypocholesterolemic response.
In order to evaluate if oat products decrease total cholesterol concentration
in blood, Ripsin et al. (22) performed a meta-analysis of the results of clinical
studies with oat. This analysis provided strong support for the hypothesis that
approximately 3 g per day of soluble fiber from oat products can lower total
cholesterol level by 0.13 to 0.16 mmol/l, and that the reduction is greater in
persons with initially higher blood cholesterol levels. From the summary of re-
sults of clinical studies with oat bran (23–32), it appears soluble beta-glucans
decrease LDL cholesterol without marked influence on HDL cholesterol. As a
result, the ratios of HDL cholesterol to LDL cholesterol as well as the ratio of
HDL cholesterol to total cholesterol were increased.
MECHANISMS OF ACTION
The mechanism of lowering blood cholesterol by dietary fiber is not fully under-
stood. Since dietary fiber is not absorbed, it may be expected that its effect would
be exerted in the gastrointestinal tract. Dietary fiber binds cholesterol and bile
acids in the intestinal lumen and increases their excretion (10). This may partly
explain the observation that the hypocholesterolemic action of water soluble com-
ponents of dietary fiber is more visible in cases of diets supplemented with choles-
terol.
The results of a detailed study performed by Thomas et al. (33) demon-
strated that fiber from black gram increases hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl CoA (HMG
CoA) reductase activity in liver. Increased activity of HMG CoA reductase (the
main enzyme controlling cholesterol biosynthesis) may reflect increased choles-
terogenesis in response to increased losses of cholesterol and bile acids in faces
after high fiber meals.
Studies performed by Marlett et al. (34) with the use of stable isotope la-
beled bile acids demonstrated that oat bran not only reduced bile acid absorption
and increased bile acid synthesis, but also changed the proportion of separate
bile acids in the total bile acid pool. The pool size of cholic acid was decreased,
whereas the pool size of its secondary bile acid (chenodesoxycholic acid) dou-
bled. Decreased absorption of bile acids leads to switching of cholesterol to syn-
thesis of bile acids, resulting in less cholesterol is available for synthesis of lipo-
protein in liver.
Dietary fiber alters transit time as well as the morphology of the intestinal
mucosa in a manner that could influence lipid digestion and absorption (10).
Gallaher et al. (35) in studies with radiolabeled cholesterol and triglycerides dem-
onstrated that cellulose changed the site at which lipids are absorbed from the
intestine. The incorporation of fiber into diets is associated with slowing digestion
and promoting more absorption from ileum, which in turn alters the lipid and
protein pattern in lymph. Altered size and composition of chylomicrons influence
their subsequent metabolism (10).
The other experimental studies performed on rats adapted short or long
term to a high fiber diet with canulated mesenteric lymph system demonstrated
that after a test meal, transport of cholesterol to the lymph is decreased (36). The
results of our experiment performed on canulated pigs not adapted to a high fiber
diet demonstrated that supplementation of test meal with pectin delayed transport
of cholesterol to the lymph (37).
Similarly, in animals fed diets supplemented with water soluble fiber com-
ponents for a long time secretion of chylomicrons to the lymph after a test meal
was slowed down (36). The delayed secretion of chylomicrons to the lymph by
water soluble components of fiber may be the result of transit time elongation
by slowing gastric emptying (35), changes in peristaltic movements, modifica-
tions of pancreas enzymes activity (38), inhibition of lipid diffusion to the intesti-
nal wall or their defusion though an unstirred water layer (35). Sustained supple-
mentation with fiber alters intestinal surface morphology, the membrane function
involved in the transmural transport of nutrients, and biosynthetic events in muco-
sal cells (36). Farness and Schneeman (39) reported that the ingestion of pectin
increases the length of the small intestine and mucosal weight in rats relative to
a fiber free diet.
Water soluble components of fiber, unlike insoluble components, are fer-
mented almost completely by colonic bacteria to short chain fatty acids, acetate,
propionate and butyrate. The concentration of these fatty acids in hepatic portal
venous blood of rats fed pectin were higher than those fed cellulose. It has been
shown that in isolated rat hepatocytes, acetate and propionate suppress de novo
cholesterol synthesis. However, these inhibitory effects of short chain fatty acids
are influenced by their higher concentration than those produced during fermenta-
tion of soluble fiber in large intestine (40, 41). Short chain fatty acids might
additionally help to reduce blood cholesterol concentration.
60 Bartnikowska
Mechanisms of hypocholesterolemic effect of fiber may also include the

influence of fiber on increased catabolism of LDL and possibly on increased
peripheral LDL receptors and LDL clearance (42).
DIETARY FIBER AND ANTIOXIDANTS

Recently, considerable attention has been focused on the role of dietary antioxi-
dants (particularly vitamin E, carotenoids and vitamin C) in counteracting the
formation of lipid peroxides and oxidative modifications of LDLs, which play
an important role in the progression of atherosclerosis. Dietary fiber binds bile
acids and increases formation of micelles in the intestinal lumen. It may lead to
decreased absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. In experiments on the influence of
dietary fiber components on absorption of vitamin A and β-carotene in animals,
conflicting results were obtained (43, 44). It should be mentioned, however, that
diets rich in plant foods and high in fiber are also rich in antioxidants such as
vitamin C, tocopherols and tocotrienols, carotenoids and other phenolic com-
pounds such as tannins with high antioxidative properties. If dietary fibers were
to suppress the absorption of dietary antioxidants, such action of fiber would be
compensated by a simultaneous rise in dietary antioxidant intake.
Hostmark et al. (45) observed that in nonvegetarians who consumed a typi-
cal vegetarian diet for three weeks, apart from a reduction of total cholesterol,
the concentration of lipid peroxides in blood decreased significantly. This obser-
vation suggests that the antioxidant status in humans is influenced by dietary
habits, and may explain why many epidemiological studies show an inverse rela-
tionship between intake of fresh fruits and vegetables, rich in fiber and antioxi-
dants, and mortality from CHD.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partly supported by grant No. 5830701006 from the State Commit-
tee for Scientific Research in Poland.
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1. Anderson J.W., Deakins D. A., Bridges S. R. (1990) in Dietary Fiber Chemistry,
Physiology, and Health Effects. D. Kritchevsky, C. Bonfield, & J.W. Anderson
(Eds), Plenum Press, New York, pp.339–363.
2. Bartnikowska E., & Michajlik A. (1980) Kardiol. Pol. 23, 131–138.
3. Burkitt D.P., Walker A.R.P., Painter N.S. (1974) J. Am. Med. Assoc. 229, 1068–
1074.
4. Burkitt D.P. (1973) Br. Med. J. 1, 274–278.
5. Sacks F.M, Castelli W.P., Donner A., Kass E. (1975) N. Engl. J. Med. 292, 1148–
1151.
6. Resnicow K., Barone J., Engle A., Miller S., Haley N.J., Fleming D., & Wynder E.
(1991) J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 91, 447–453.
7. Burr M.L., & Sweetman P.M. (1982) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36, 873–877.
8. Liu K., Stamler J., Trevison M., Moss D. (1982) Arteriosclerosis 2, 221–227.
9. Morris J.N., Marr J.W., Clayton D.G. (1977) Br. Med. J. 2, 1307–1314.
10. Anderson J.W., & Chen W.J.L. (1979) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 32, 346–363.
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14. Hillman L.C., Peters S.G., Fisher C.A. (1985) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42, 207–213.
15. Story J.A. (1982) in: Dietary Fiber in Health and Disease. G.V. Vahouny and D.
Kritchevsky (Eds), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 253–264.
16. Von Bergman K. (1990) Current Opinion in Lipidology 1, 48–50.
17. Palmer G.H., Dixon D. G. (1966) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 18, 437–442.
18. Miettinen T. A., Tarpila S. (1977) Clin. Chim. Acta 79, 471–477.
19. Kay R.M. (1976) Lancet II, 799–800.
20. Ershoff B.H., Wells A. F. (1963) Exp. Med. Surgery 21, 108–112.
21. Lund E.K., Farleigh C.A., Johnson I. T. (1990) in Dietary Fibre: Chemical and Bio-
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62 Bartnikowska
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man Nutr. 43, 55–61.
8
Health Benefits of Complex
Carbohydrates
DAVID KRITCHEVSKY
The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
The modern fiber era was launched with a paper by Cleave (1) that attributed
many of the diseases of developed countries to consumption of refined sugar and
refined flour. Burkitt, Trowell and Walker, all of whom worked in Africa, noticed
the low incidence of large bowel cancer, ischemic heart disease, diabetes, and
gallstones in rural areas.
Burkitt and Trowell expanded these observations and brought them to the
attention of the nutrition and medical communities (2–6). Hipsley (7) coined the
term ‘‘dietary fiber.’’ Dietary fiber may be defined as plant material that resists
digestion by human alimentary enzymes. It includes substances of unique chemi-
cal structure, distinct physical properties, and individual physiological effects.
Except for lignin, all are carbohydrate in nature. They are degraded by enzymes
of gastrointestinal bacteria to give by fermentation hydrogen, methane, carbon
dioxide and short chain fatty acids (8). The chemical structure of fiber offers no
clues to physiological effects but can be grouped into soluble (viscous, easily
fermentable) and insoluble (non-viscous, slowly fermentable) fibers. These gen-
eral types of fiber exhibit different physiological effects; the former may be useful
63
64 Kritchevsky
in the treatment of diabetes and hyperlipidemia and the latter in the treatment of
gastrointestinal problems such as constipation, diverticulitis and may even be
protective against bowel cancer. The fiber era in the United States began with a
paper by Burkitt, Walker and Painter (9) which summarized the view that a high
fiber diet prevented or protected against the disease conditions most prevalent in
this country.
There are many data relating to the beneficial effects of fiber but we lack
an intellectually satisfying structure/function relationship and while dietary fiber
is ingested in the form and structure native to individual plant foods much of
our data are derived from experiments using a purified form of a specific fiber
whose only relationship to its native state lies in similarity of structure.
For more than two decades evidence has been accumulating regarding the
hypoglycemic action of soluble fiber. Jenkins et al. (10) reported that the addition
of soluble fiber to a test meal lowered blood glucose and insulin response. Kiehm
et al. (11) make a similar observation—soluble fibers such as guar or pectin were
effective (12) but insoluble fibers such as cellulose or wheat bran were not (13).
The soluble fibers increased viscosity of the food bolus and it was thought that
this reduced the rate of gastric emptying (14). Wolever (15) has reviewed the
role of dietary fiber in the management of diabetes: fasting serum glucose is
reduced, on average, by 16% and plasma cholesterol and triglycerides by 18%
and 10% respectively.
Dietary soluble fiber also tends to reduce serum or plasma lipid levels. In
what may be regarded as the ‘‘Medieval Age’’ of fiber, Ershoff and Wells (16,
17) found that feeding several fibers could lower slightly the serum cholesterol
and lower markedly the liver cholesterol compared to levels in rats fed 1% choles-
terol in a fiber-free diet. Pectin, guar, or locust bean gum, and carrageenan were
effective in this regard but cellulose and alginic acid were not. It has been demon-
strated that certain types of fiber can reduce the severity of atherosclerosis in
rabbits fed a semi-purified, cholesterol-free diet (18–20). Pectin will reduce the
severity of atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed chickens (21).
The possible influence of dietary fiber on heart disease in man cannot be
studied directly but there have been numerous studies of fiber effects on hyper-
cholesterolemia, which is one of the major risk factors for development of cardio-
vascular disease. A review by Truswell and Beynen (22) tabulated data on a
number of different fibers that are effective in this regard. In most of the studies
the fiber was used in a pharmacological sense as a lipid lowering agent. An earlier
review (23) found that wheat bran was almost totally ineffective in lowering
cholesterol levels. Cellulose is also without effect (24). Pectin, guar gum, and
oat fiber are generally effective cholesterol lowering agents and Truswell and
Beynen (22) cite single studies which showed that other soluble fibers namely
gum arabic, xanthan gum, gum acacia, karaya gum, and locust bean gum were
hypocholesterolemic. Psyllium has also been shown to lower cholesterol (25–
Health Benefits 65
27). In general the active fibers will lower total and LDL-cholesterol but do not
influence HDL-cholesterol (28). Epidemiological data have recently become
available relating to the effects of high fiber diets on coronary disease mortality
and these have been reviewed by Humble (29). Khaw et al. (30) studied a group
of 356 men and 503 women aged 50–79 years over a 12 year period: they ob-
served reduced mortality from coronary disease with increasing fiber intake.
Humble et al. (31) studied 1801 men aged 45–59 years over a 9 year period and
Rimm et al. (32) reported data from 43,757 men aged 40–75 years obtained over
a 6 year period. In both cases a higher fiber diet led to significant reduction in
death from coronary disease. Dietary fiber intake was judged to be more signifi-
cant indicator of risk than fat intake.
Heaton (33) has pointed out that dietary fiber exerts its effects throughout
the length of the gastrointestinal tract. In the mouth it stimulates salivary flow
and in the stomach it dilutes the contents and prolongs storage. In the small
intestine fiber is a diluent of the contents and delays absorption and in the large
intestine it acts as a diluent, bacterial substrate and traps water. Finally, dietary
fiber softens and enlarges the stool. To expand on some of the above, constipation
is relieved by the addition of fiber to the diet, the most effective fiber being wheat
bran (34). Fiber may also restore normal bowel function in individuals who have
become laxative-dependent (35). Paradoxically, fiber may also reduce diarrhea
(36). Patients with irritable bowel syndrome also respond to a high fiber diet (37)
as do subjects with diverticular disease (38). Heaton (39) has also reviewed the
role of dietary fiber in the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.
In addition to the conditions discussed above, he marshals data which suggest
that dietary fiber can reduce risk of gallstones and possibly appendicitis.
The findings regarding the role of fiber in treatment, or possibly prevention,
of obesity are moot (40). Probably the greatest emphasis on a particular health
aspect of dietary fiber has been on its possible protective role against colon or
colorectal cancer. The data are not unanimous but there is enough encouragement
to stimulate interest in continuing trials. A thorough review, which covered the
literature through 1986 (41), reported that among 22 ecological (population) stud-
ies there were 15 negative correlations, one positive correlation, and 6 in which
no effect was seen. Among 22 case control studies, there were 8 negative correla-
tions, 6 six positive correlations, and 8 in which there was no effect. Subsequently
published reviews show a similar scatter of results (42–44). Meta-analysis of 13
studies leads to a conclusion that fiber is protective (45). Two Australian studies
yielded opposite results. Potter and McMichael (46) in Adelaide found increasing
risk with increasing fiber intake whereas Kune et al. (47) in Melbourne found
risk to be reduced dramatically with increasing fiber intake. This dichotomy illus-
trates the importance of other factors, physiologic and dietary.
Jensen et al. (48) compared diet and incidence of large bowel cancer in
Finland and Denmark. Total fiber intake, in men aged 50–59 years, was higher
66 Kritchevsky
in the Finnish population. After analyzing 39 variables only two, alcohol intake
and concentration of fecal bile acids, were correlated positively with risk. There
were significant negative correlations with saturated fatty acids, carbohydrate,
starch, protein, cereals and total dietary fiber. Hill et al. (49) found the average
fecal bile acid concentration in three countries with low incidence of colon cancer
(Uganda, Japan, India) to be 0.61⫾0.13 mg/g feces, whereas for England, Scot-
land and the United States the average concentration was 6.15⫾0.66 mg/g feces.
Finns and Americans excrete about the same amount of bile acid daily (275 mg)
but the concentration is 4.6 mg/g feces in the Finns and 12.3 mg/g feces in
Americans (50).
Walker et al. (51) compared fiber intake with colon cancer risk in five
groups of South Africans. These were rural and urban blacks (very low risk),
Indians (low risk) and white (very high risk). Fiber intake was similar in the five
groups, however one striking difference was in fecal pH which ranged from 6.12
in rural blacks to 6.88 in whites. This finding suggests a difference in colonic
acidity which could be due, in part, to the short chain fatty acids produced by
fermentation of dietary fiber by the colonic flora. Since the total fiber intake of
the various groups was similar the differences may be due to different types of
dietary fiber or different strains of resident microorganisms. The principal short
chain fatty acids formed by fermentation in the colon are acetic, propionic, and
butyric. Butyric acid has been shown to suppress cellular proliferation (52) and
to alter properties of human colorectal cells grown in vitro (53).
Interaction between dietary fiber and bile acids may underlie its modes of
action in reducing hyperlipidemic and cancer risk. Portman and Murphy (54)
showed that substitution of a semi-purified diet for commercial ration increased
bile acid turnover in rats. It has been demonstrated amply that bile acids and bile
salts are bound to the fiber (52–58) or to fiber containing foods (59, 60). The
degree of binding is a function of both the fiber and the bile acid or salt. Alberts
et al. (61) have shown that a diet high in wheat bran and calcium carbonate leads
to significant reduction in bile acid concentrations and excretion rates in subjects
with resected colon adenomas. Two studies relating to the mechanisms by which
psyllium or oat bran lower cholesterol have also shown effects on bile acid com-
position, pool size, and turnover (62,63).
The fiber hypothesis rests on data derived from observations of populations
eating a diet high in fiber. Most chemical and physiological studies, however,
are conducted using single substances. Fiber in the diet can be obtained from
four sources (64), namely:
1. Whole food high in fiber

2. A high fiber fraction (such as wheat bran) which can be produced with-
out affecting the structure or composition of the material as present in
food
Health Benefits 67
3. Concentrated fiber such as cellulose or pectin which has been altered

in the course of extraction and purification
4. Fiber-enriched foods
There is no evidence to show that purified pectin, for instance, is biologically
equivalent to a pectin-rich food.
Fiber-rich foods may also be sources of carotenoids, antioxidant vitamins
(C and E), selenium, dithiolthiones, indoles and glucosinolates, flavonoids, cou-
marins, isothiocyanates and thiocyanates, saponins, phenols (such as ferulic or
ellagic acid), sterols, inositol hexaphosphate, and allium compounds, all of which
have demonstrated biological activity. Most of these compounds have inhibited
tumor growth to some extent and some also have hypolipidemic properties.
Proper understanding of the mode of action of fiber will involve elucidation of
the individual roles played by all the plant components and their interactions.
Recommendations for daily intake of fiber are all in the range of 20–40 g
or 13–25 g per 1000 kilocalories. This range represents a level of intake that
poses no risk.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Supported, in part, by a Research Career Award (HL00734) from the National
Institutes of Health.
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9
Worldwide Dietary Fiber Intake:
Recommendations and Actual
Consumption Patterns
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

K. O’SULLIVAN
The Kellogg Company, Arabic Areas
SHARON RICKARD
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
INTRODUCTION
The role of dietary fiber (DF) in the prevention and treatment of constipation has
been recognized for a century, but dietary fiber is now considered as an important
nutrient in reducing the risk of Western diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular
disease, and diabetes. Data exists to relate dietary fiber intake to certain diseases.
However, lack of agreement on what dietary fiber is and how it should be mea-
sured often makes data interpretation difficult. In 1972–1976, dietary fiber was
defined as the remnants of plant components that are resistant to hydrolysis by
human alimentary enzymes. Most dietary fiber intake databases have been devel-
71
72 Cho et al.
oped based on analytical values to meet this definition. Recently, the scientific
community has supported the expansion of the definition to include resistant oli-
gosaccharides and resistant starch in addition to non-starch polysaccharides and
lignin. Except for special products, this new definition would not affect dietary
fiber values in most food tables in the next decade. Typical recommendations in
various countries are set at 20–30 grams of dietary fiber daily. Despite the enor-
mous amount of scientific literature on the benefits of dietary fiber and dietary
guidelines, dietary fiber intakes of the general public are well below the recom-
mended levels. For example, the recommended DF intake in the United States
is 20–30 g/day while actual consumption ranges from 11–13 g daily. In Arabic
countries, dietary fiber intake levels have decreased significantly over the past
decades as whole grains are replaced with refined grain flours. Special nutrition
education may be required to improve public health related to optimum consump-
tion of fiber-rich foods. Whole grain or bran-enriched food products should be
promoted in such nutritional education programs.
Based on studies done in rural Africa, Burkitt and Trowell (1) proposed
that the consumption of diets deficient in fiber is associated with increased inci-
dence of diseases common to Western industrialized countries. In the past 25
years, evidence of the beneficial effects of dietary fiber (DF) in diabetes, heart
disease, colon cancer and other chronic diseases of the gastrointestinal tract has
accumulated (2). Studies on the relationship of DF to health and disease are de-
pendent on accurate DF values for foods. However, the existing methodologies
for the measurement of dietary fiber for a particular food give widely ranging
values (3). This variability and inconsistency is then reflected in the variety of
food composition tables utilized by epidemiologists and other research scientists
to estimate DF intake.
Despite these difficulties, government agencies around the world have been
able to set recommended levels of DF intake based on existing data. Unfortu-
nately, the actual intake has been far below these recommended levels. Education
on the benefits of consuming higher levels of fiber need to be implemented. In
this review, the recommendations and intake levels in North America, Europe,
Latin America, and the Asia-Pacific region will be discussed. However, before
these issues are addressed, DF will be defined and the various methodologies for
its measurement will be reviewed.
WHAT IS DIETARY FIBER?

Burkitt and Trowell’s definition of DF, the sum of polysaccharides and lignin
that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes, has gained a wide accep-
tance (4,5). This physiological definition allows the inclusion of other compounds
that may differ in chemical structure but have fiber-like characteristics. On the
other hand, analytical chemists prefer the definition proposed by Southgate in
Dietary Fiber Intake 73
1982 (6) where DF is the sum of lignin and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP).
The NSP consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses, β-glucans, pectin, gums, and muci-
lages. Lignin, the noncarbohydrate constituent of DF, is a complex three dimen-
sional polymer of phenyl propane units. Resistant starches, formed by retrograda-
tion of amylose that escapes digestion in the small intestine (7,8), are also
included in the definition of DF because they behave like NSP in the gut.
Two international surveys were conducted by the AOAC International in
order to fulfill two objectives: 1) to determine if a consensus could be reached on
the definition of DF and associated methodologies; and 2) to consider appropriate
classification of oligosaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary
enzymes (9). Results of the survey should help international harmonization of
acceptable definitions of DF and its components. The survey results will also
provide insight for chemists seeking to modify analytical methods and develop
reference materials to meet the accepted definition.
The first survey was initiated in December 1992 and 144 professionals
participated (9). A large majority of participants (70%) supported that the DF
definition should reflect both chemical and physiological perspectives. The sur-
vey results indicated that 65% of people supported the current DF definition as
polysaccharides and lignin that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes.
However, 59% supported the future expansion of DF definition to include oligo-
saccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes.
In December 1993, a follow-up survey was sent out, specifically addressing
the issue of a new definition that may include oligosaccharides that are not hy-
drolyzed by human alimentary enzymes, along with the results from the first
survey for confirmation (9). The second time, 65% of the participants supported
the inclusion of these oligosaccharides. Eighty (80) % supported the inclusion
of resistant starches and lignin in the DF definition beyond NSP. It is noteworthy
that only 6% believe DF includes only NSP or plant cell wall components, sug-
gesting a general agreement that the chemical entity of DF is not limited to these
components.
Based on these survey results, Cho (formerly Lee) and Prosky (9) have
proposed the expansion of the definition of DF to include resistant oligosaccha-
rides, in addition to the currently included NSP, resistant starch, and lignin. Resis-
tant oligosaccharides, defined as oligosaccharides that are resistant to hydrolysis
by human alimentary enzymes, can be used synonymously with the term ‘‘un-
available oligosaccharides.’’ This proposal was adopted at the AOAC Workshop
on Complex Carbohydrates held in Nashville, TN, USA in October, 1995.
The addition of resistant oligosaccharides to the DF definition may open
up new avenues in the nutritional, analytical, and food technology research areas.
Along this line, a common understanding on resistant oligosaccharides should
be developed. Certain types of oligosaccharides may be claimed for DF in the
future if the unavailability in the human upper gastrointestinal tract and the re-
74 Cho et al.
sulting physiological actions similar to other DF components are fully proven.

It should be emphasized that most of the foods in today’s market do not contain
resistant oligosaccharides, except a few formulations using resistant oligosaccha-
rides as ingredients. Thus this new definition would not affect the DF values of
most food products. Nevertheless, the inclusion of resistant oligosaccharides
would allow new product development efforts as well as nutrition research to
more actively evolve. Subsequently, analytical methodology should be fine tuned
to fully recover these resistant oligosaccharides as well as resistant starch in the
DF analysis. Until a reliable methodology is developed to meet this new defini-
tion, current DF methods should continue to be used for DF labeling and dietary
assessment studies (5).
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR DIETARY FIBER

Dietary fiber analysis can be subdivided into gravimetric and component analysis
procedures. Gravimetric methods are simpler and faster than component analysis
methods but are limited to estimates of total dietary fiber (TDF) or soluble (SDF)
and insoluble (IDF) components. Conversely, component analysis allows for the
determination of individual sugars, both neutral and acidic (i.e. uronic acids), as
well as a separate estimation for lignin in some cases. The TDF content can then
be calculated as the sum of these components. A drawback of component analysis
is that the procedures are longer and more complex, rendering them less suitable
for routine dietary analysis. Table 1 summarizes the methods that have been
collaboratively studied and used in the development of fiber tables.
Gravimetric Procedures
Crude Fiber Determination
The crude fiber (CF) method received official final action by AOAC in 1936 and
was officially approved for flour (AOAC method 920.86) and animal feed
(AOAC method 962.09) in 1920 and 1962, respectively (10). The technique in-
volves digestion of the food sample with boiling, dilute acid and alkali with
corrections for residual ash content. Under these harsh conditions, all of the solu-
ble fiber is lost with variable amounts of insoluble fiber leaving mainly lignin
and cellulose. Lignin and cellulose values are usually 10–40% and 50–90%,
respectively, of their original levels (3). Thus, the CF estimate underestimates
DF and does not give a constant value for any fiber component. Nevertheless,
CF determination is still used for nutritional labeling purposes in some countries
where Western diseases are not a major health concern.
TABLE 1 The Status of Methods Collaboratively Studied and Used in the

Construction of Fiber Tables
Method Status Reference
AOAC 985.29 (Prosky enz.-gravimetric) TDF 15, 80

AOAC method 991.42 (Prosky enz.- IDF 80
gravimetric)
AOAC method 993.19 (Prosky enz.- SDF 80
gravimetric)
AOAC method 991.43 (Lee, enz.- TDF (measured and calculated), 16, 80
gravimetric) SDF/IDF
AOAC method 994.24 (Uppsalla GLC TDF, NSP Glucose, fructose, 18, 80
method) xylose, arabinose and uronic
acids
Englyst NSP method Total, soluble, and insoluble 21–23
NSP GLC and colorimetric
Detergent Methods of Fiber Analysis

The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) method was developed in 1967 by Van Soest
and Wine (11). Food samples are boiled with a detergent solution (sodium lauryl
sulfate) at neutral pH and the residue, consisting of cellulose, lignin, and some
hemicelluloses, is collected by filtration. The acid detergent fiber (ADF) method
includes dilute acid to solubilize the hemicelluloses leaving cellulose and lignin
in the residue (12). Thus, by difference of the NDF and ADF, the amount of
hemicellulose can be determined. Further treatment of the ADF with strong acid
dissolves the cellulose, allowing quantification of all IDF components. The NDF
detergent does not solubilize starch efficiently, leading to erroneously high fiber
values for starchy foods like flours or potatoes (3). Schaller’s modification of
the NDF procedure, which was adopted by the American Association of Cereal
Chemists as their official fiber method in 1977, employed α-amylase treatment
of the sample after filtration to reduce starch interference (13).
Hellendoorn Method
Hellendoorn and colleagues (14) believed that quantification of undigestible car-
bohydrates required digestion with mammalian enzymes. However, although the
method employs pepsin and pancreatin to digest protein and starch, respectively,
some protein and starch residue still remains.
Total Dietary Fiber (TDF) Method
Growing awareness of the physiological importance of soluble fiber led to the
development of the present official AOAC method (methods 985.29 and 991.42)
76 Cho et al.
known as the TDF method (15). Food samples undergo sequential enzymatic
digestion with a heat-stable α-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase to re-
move starch and protein. Precipitation of soluble fiber with 95% ethanol followed
by filtration yields a residue containing cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, and pec-
tin and corrections are made for residual protein and ash. Estimates of the insolu-
ble and soluble fiber components can be determined by (a) filtering the fiber
digest before the addition of ethanol to isolate the IDF and (b) ethanol precipita-
tion followed by filtration to isolate the SDF in the filtrate. A minor modification
of these methods (AOAC method 991.43) includes the addition of morpholino-
ethane sulfonic acid (MES) to the buffer solution used which minimizes the co-
precipitation of buffer reagents in the ethanol. In addition, this buffer is not sensi-
tive to changes in ethanol concentration nor to the final pH of the enzyme
digestate, making the DF determination more rigorous (16). The AOAC TDF
methods are the most ideal among all current techniques regarding their accuracy,
precision, simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and suitability for routine use. They may
require more fine tuning for more complete recovery of resistant starch and resis-
tant oligosaccharides.
Component Analysis Procedures

Unavailable Carbohydrate Method
Southgate (17) had developed an analytical procedure to fractionate DF into its
various components. Hot water digestion removes the soluble starches and pec-
tins, the enzyme takadiastase dissolves the insoluble starch, dilute acid breaks
down the hemicelluloses, and finally strong acid hydrolyzes the cellulose. The
residue remaining is lignin. The insoluble starch and hemicelluloses can be quan-
tified either colorimetrically or by liquid chromatography. The method has been
criticized for both the incomplete removal of starch and the nonspecific colorimet-
ric methods used for quantification of sugar components (3).
Uppsalla Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC) Method

The Uppsalla method (18) (AOAC method 994.24) involves gelatinization fol-
lowed by treatment with Termamyl, an α-amylase, and amyloglucosidase to re-
move starches. After precipitation of the soluble fiber with 80% ethanol, the dried
residues are subjected to acid hydrolysis for liberation of neutral sugars and uro-
nic acids. Neutral sugars are determined as alditol acetate derivatives by GLC,
and uronic acids are determined by either decarboxylation or colorimetric meth-
ods. The acid-insoluble fraction, called Klason lignin, can be determined gravi-
metrically. An important point to note is that this method does not use any protein
digestion step (18). Marlett (19) has established fiber tables using the Uppsalla
GLC method in the U.S. Although the AOAC enzymatic-gravimetric method and
the Uppsalla GLC method will give comparable TDF values in most cases, the
GLC method tends to be lower.
The DNS Reduction Method for Soluble

and Insoluble NSP
The NSP method, developed by Englyst and colleagues (20), has gone through
several modifications since its inception for evaluation of NSP alone, NSP plus
resistant starch, resistant starch alone and/or lignin determination (21–23). Like
the Uppsalla method, neutral sugars are quantified by GLC after derivitization
with alditol acetate. Colorimetric techniques are also used. The soluble NSP con-
tent is calculated as the difference between TDF and IDF to avoid the problems
of incomplete precipitation of SDF (23). The NSP method has been chosen to
replace the unavailable (CHO) carbohydrate method for fiber labeling purposes
in the United Kingdom based on the superior precision in comparison to other
component analysis procedures. Although NSP are major components of dietary
fiber, the values do not represent all the DF values. For high starch foods, grains,
and cereals, NSP values are significantly lower than TDF values obtained by
AOAC methods. Differentiating NSP from resistant starch does not sufficiently
address the issue of the physiological effects of these fractions. The physiological
function of DF as a quantified entity is more acceptable. Major improvements
are required to measure TDF, resistant starch and lignin if separate labeling is
the goal with the Englyst methods. The employment of dimethylsulfoxide
(DMSO) in this method to solubilize starch makes the soluble and insoluble NSP
value interpretation complicated since DMSO is a known solvent for hemicellu-
loses (24,25).
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DIETARY FIBER

INTAKE LEVELS
Before making DF recommendations, the physiological effects of its different
components must be known. The two main types of DF, water-soluble (SDF)
and water-insoluble (IDF), have some different mechanisms of action in vivo.
The SDF such as soluble β-glucans, pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicel-
luloses delay transit time in the gut, delay gastric emptying, impede the absorption
of certain nutrients like glucose, and decrease serum cholesterol levels (26). Insol-
uble DF like cellulose, lignin, and other hemicelluloses increase intestinal transit
time and fecal weight, slow starch hydrolysis, and delay glucose absorption (26).
Appropriate amounts of both types of fiber are important for overall health.
The health beneficial effects of a dietary recommendation should also out-
weigh potential deleterious consequences. Using the estimation that 35% of all
cancer cases are attributable to diet, 315,000 new cancer cases or 166,000 cancer
78 Cho et al.
deaths would result in the United States if dietary goals for cancer prevention
such as increasing DF intake levels are not achieved (27). This could cost as
much as $25 billion a year. Based on international correlation statistics, an inverse
relationship has been found between fiber and fiber-containing foods and colon
cancer risk (28, 29). After examination of all fiber sources, the Life Science
Research Office (LSRO) (30) determined that the IDF-rich wheat bran most con-
sistently reduced colon tumor incidence in animal models. Recurrence of precan-
cerous polyp lesions in the rectum has also been shown to be lower with wheat
bran in humans (31). Both IDF and SDF may reduce breast cancer risk by binding
estrogen, a potent promoter, and thus preventing enterohepatic reabsorption and
lowering circulating levels (32). Although increased DF intake seems to be bene-
ficial in terms of cancer, there are concerns about impaired mineral availability.
Examination of populations that consume much higher levels of DF (e.g. vegetari-
ans vs. omnivores) showed that mineral levels in various biological samples were
comparable to those with lower DF intakes (30). In addition, bone mineral mass
was observed to be higher or at least the same. Thus, bioavailability of minerals
with higher DF intakes does not appear to be an issue as long as intakes are
adequate.
Other issues that are considered in making a recommendation are the in-
tended audience, the current intake levels of DF, and how the DF will be con-
sumed (i.e. in foods vs. supplements) (30). Recommendations are generally based
on a healthy, adult population and are not applicable to special populations like
young children and the elderly. In reviewing existing data on current DF intakes
of a population, the methods used for dietary assessment and chemical analysis
of the DF content of a food are determined since they both influence the estimated
intake level. Finally, recommendations are for DF in foods and not supplements.
The use of DF supplements may affect the balance of nutrients in an otherwise
healthy diet. Limited data exist on the effects of isolated DF which may differ
from the DF naturally present in a food (30).
Worldwide Dietary Fiber Intake Recommendations

Recommendations for DF intake by the World Health Organization (WHO) are
16–24 g/d of NSP or 27–40 g/d of TDF (Table 2). The Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (1995) recommends that individuals
should eat a variety of foods in order to obtain all the necessary nutrients for
proper health (Table 3). Carbohydrates was one of seven food groups mentioned,
with cereals listed as a choice. In contrast, the WHO Study group (33) advocated
that complex carbohydrates should be a major portion of the diet at 50–70% of
the total energy consumed. Suggested sources of NSP included fruits and vegeta-
bles (no less than 400 g/d) and pulses, nuts, and seeds (no less than 30 g/d but
TABLE 2 Dietary Fiber Daily Intake Recommendations

Recommended
Country intake Basis Source of recommendation
WHO 16–24 g NSP Report: Diet, nutrition and the pre-

27–40 g TDF vention of chronic diseases
Australia 30 g DF Australian Government Department
of Community Services and
Health
Belgium 26–38 g (male) DF National Council for Nutrition (un-
19–28 g (female) official)
Canada 25–35 g DF Expert Panel in 1985 (unofficial)
Central America 18–24 g DF Institute of Nutrition of Central
America and Panama (INCAP)
Columbia 15–20 g NSP Health Ministry (1992)
Denmark 25–30 g TDF National Food Agency/Nutrition
Council
Finland 25–30 g DF National Food Agency/Nutrition
Council
France 25–30 g DF French gastroenterologist–
unpublished
Germany 30 g DF German Society of Nutrition
India 40 g DF Indian Council of Medical Re-
search, National Institute of Nu-
trition
Ireland 25–35 g DF The Food Advisory Committee of
the Department of Health (1987)
Italy 19 g TDF National Nutrition Institute
Japan 20–25 g TDF Ministry of Health and Welfare
Mexico 25–30 g DF National Nutrition Institute
Netherlands 3 g/MJ/day DF Dutch Nutritional Values 1989: Nu-
(24–30 g) tritional Council
Norway 25 g DF National Food Agency/Nutrition
Council
Puerto Rico 25 g/2000 kcal DF Food and Drug Administration
(FDA)
South Africa 30–40 g TDF Heart Foundation, Cancer Associa-
tion, Association of Dietetics,
Department of Health (unoffi-
cial)
Spain 30 g TDF General literature references, no of-
ficial figures
Sweden 25–30 g DF National Food Agency/Nutrition
Council
80 Cho et al.
TABLE 2 Continued
Recommended
Country intake Basis Source of recommendation
United Kingdom 18 g NSP Department of Health Committee

on Aspects of Food Policy, De-
partment of Health Dietary Ref-
erence Values Report
United States 25 g/2000 kcal (adult) DF Food and Drug Administration
(FDA)
United States ‘‘Age ⫹ 5’’ to ‘‘Age DF American Health Foundation
⫹ 10’’ g (3–20
years of age)
United States 0.5 g/kg BW up to 25 DF American Academy of Pediatrics
g/day (adolescents)
Venezuela 8–10 g/1000 kcal DF National Nutrition Institute (1993)
part of the 400 g recommendation for fruit and vegetables). The WHO further
specified that free sugars should be no more than 10% of energy (33).
Dietary Fiber Intake Recommendations

in North America
Final food labeling regulations by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) were disseminated through the Jan-
uary 6, 1993 issue of the Federal Register (34, 35). Both the FDA and USDA
recognize the AOAC methods 985.29 (TDF) (15) and 991.43 (TDF, SDF/IDF)
TABLE 3 Dietary Recommendations Around the World—References to

‘‘Grain-Based’’ Foods*
Reference to ‘‘grain-based’’
Country Name/Source of recommendation foods
Worldwide Food and Agriculture Organization Recommend eating a variety of
(FAO) of the United Nations. foods; 7 groups of foods listed.
‘‘Get the best from your food’’ One is ‘‘foods rich in carbohy-
(1995) drate’’ which are ‘‘. . . rice,
maize, wheat and other cereals
. . .’’
*Source: L. O’Rourke and S. Cho, Kellogg Company, USA

(16) as suitable methodologies for the analysis of DF for nutrition labeling pur-
poses. Professionals in the DF research field, however, strongly support the enzy-
matic-gravimetric technique as the most appropriate approach for nutrition label-
ing and quality control purposes (9). Thus, recommendations for DF intake in
both the United States and Canada are generally based on the AOAC methods.
Recommendations for DF intake in North America range from 25 to 35 g/d. The
U.S. FDA recommends that DF goals be based on a caloric basis (Table 2).
General dietary recommendations by organizations in the U.S. and Canada are
to increase intakes of grain products, fruits and vegetables which will increase
overall DF intake if followed (Table 4). Recent U.S. recommendations for intakes
of grain-based foods are at least 6 servings per day. In Canada, recommended
intake levels of breads, cereals and other grain products have increased from 3–
5 servings/d to 5–12 servings/d (Table 4).
Even though pediatric guidelines for intakes in the U.S. have been set for
the consumption of other macronutrients such as protein, fat and carbohydrates,
no specific recommendations on DF levels have been made until recently. In
1993, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Nutrition made
the recommendation that DF intake in children over age 2 should be 0.5 g/kg
body weight (36) (Table 2). To avoid the potential hazards of excessive consump-
tion, especially for overweight children, the AAP suggest a cap at 35 g/d. How-
ever, intakes up to 25 g/d should not be deleterious even with suboptimal mineral
intake (36). The American Health Foundation (AHF) recommends that a range
of DF intake, between ‘‘Age ⫹ 5’’ and ‘‘Age ⫹ 10’’ g/d may represent a safe
and tolerable level for most children over the age of 2 years (37) (Table 2).
Consistent with guidelines for adult DF intake, the AHF recommendation gradu-
ally increases the fiber intakes to the minimal adult DF level by age 20. Consump-
tion of recommended levels of DF by children may help reduce the risk of devel-
oping chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease later on in
life (37).
Dietary Fiber Intake Recommendations in Europe

In the U.K., the recommendation for DF intake is based on NSP because it is
the major fraction of DF regardless of the DF definition used and is chemically
identifiable and measurable with reasonable precision. In the early 1970s, fiber
tables in the U.K. had been constructed with Southgate’s unavailable CHO
method (17) which overestimates DF values of high-starch foods due to incom-
plete starch removal during the procedure (3). The NSP methods of analysis
developed by Englyst and colleagues (21–23), classifying NSP into soluble and
insoluble fractions, are now used for labeling purposes in the U.K. The U.K.
Department of Health recommends an average NSP intake of 18 g/d to be con-
sumed from a variety of foods and not supplements (Table 2). Confusion in data
82 Cho et al.
TABLE 4 Dietary recommendations in the U.S. and Canada

References to ‘‘grain-based’’ and
Country Name/Source of recommendation complex CHO/DF
U.S. American Cancer Society (ACS), Eat 5 or more servings of fruits and
‘‘Guidelines on Diet, Nutrition, vegetables each day. Eat other
and Cancer Prevention’’ (1996) foods from plant sources, such as
breads, cereals, grain products,
rice, pasta, or beans several times
each day. Choose whole grains
over processed grains.
U.S. U.S. Department of Health and Hu- Eat lots of fruits and vegetables,
man Services (USDHHS), Action grains, and beans.
Guide for Healthy Eating (1996)
U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Re- Choose a diet with plenty of grain
port of the Dietary Guidelines, products, vegetables, and fruits.
Advisory Committee on the Di- Adults should eat at least 3 serv-
etary Guidelines for Americans ings of vegetables, 2 servings of
(1995) fruits, and 6 servings of grain
products each day.
U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture and Choose a diet with plenty of grain
USDHHS, ‘‘Nutrition and Your products, vegetables, and fruits.
Health: Dietary Guidelines for
Americans,’’ 4th edition (1995)
U.S. American Cancer Society, Nutrition Eat more high fiber foods. Fiber is
and Cancer: Cause and Preven- found in fruits and vegetables,
tion (1993) whole grains, and dried beans.
U.S. American Cancer Society, Eating (indirect) Eat more high-fiber foods;
Smart (1993) eat a varied diet including fruits
and vegetables.
U.S. American Dietetic Association The consensus drawn from numer-
(ADA), Position of the American ous health authorities is that
Dietetic Association: Health Impli- Americans should consume at
cations of Dietary Fiber (1993) least 5 servings of fruits/vegeta-
bles and 6 servings of breads/
cereals/legumes per day.
U.S. USDA Food Guide Pyramid (1992) ‘‘At the base of the Food Guide Pyr-
amid are the breads, cereals, rice
and pasta–all foods from grains.
You need the most servings of
these each day (6–11).’’ Break-
fast cereals mentioned in text as
an option.
U.S. USDHHS, Eating to Lower Your (indirect) Choose foods high in com-
High Blood Cholesterol (1992) plex carbohydrates (starch and fi-
ber).
TABLE 4 Continued
U.S. ACS, Nutrition and Cancer: Ameri- Include a variety of fruits and vege-
can Cancer Society Guidelines, tables in the daily diet. Eat more
Programs, and Initiative (1990) high-fiber foods, such as whole
grain cereals, vegetables, and
fruits. ‘‘Whole grain cereals’’ rec-
ommended; i.e. breakfast cereals.
U.S. American Heart Association (AHA) (indirect) Increase consumption of
Report: The Healthy American complex carbohydrates and fiber.
Diet (1990)
U.S. California Department of Health Adults in California should eat 4
and Human Services, The Califor- servings of whole grain breads ev-
nia Daily Food Guide: Dietary ery day (plus addit’l servings of
Guidance for Californians (1990) other grains to a total 6 servings
per day). Eat 5 servings or more
of fruits and vegetables every
day.
U.S. USDHHS, Report of the Expert Eat a greater quantity and variety of
Panel on Population Strategies fruits, vegetables, breads, cereals,
for Blood Cholesterol Reduction and legumes. Carbohydrates
(1990) should be increased to 50–60%
of total calories.
U.S. National Research Council, National ‘‘Every day eat 5 or more servings
Academy of Sciences Diet and of fruits and vegetables and in-
Health–Implications for Reducing crease intake of starches and
Chronic Disease Risk (1989) other complex carbohydrates by
eating 6 or more daily servings of
a combination of breads, cereals,
and legumes.’’ ‘‘Whole grain ce-
reals’’ referred to in text as a
good cereal choice; ‘‘cereals’’ is
understood to include breakfast
cereals.
U.S. AHA, Position Statement–Dietary (indirect) Carbohydrate intake
Guidelines for Healthy American should constitute 50% or more of
Adults, A Statement for Physi- calories, with emphasis on com-
cians and Health Professionals plex carbohydrates.
by the Nutrition Committee
(1988)
U.S. USDHHS, The Surgeon General’s Increase consumption of whole
Report on Nutrition and Health grain foods and cereal products,
(1988) vegetables, and fruits.
84 Cho et al.
TABLE 4 Continued
U.S. AHA, Position Statement–Dietary (indirect) Carbohydrate intake

Guidelines for Healthy American should constitute 50% or more of
Adults, A Statement for Physi- calories, with emphasis on com-
cians and Health Professionals plex carbohydrates.
by the Nutrition Committee
(1988)
U.S. ACS, Taking Control—10 Steps to Add more high-fiber foods to the
a Healthier Life and Reduced diet. Fiber occurs in whole grains
Cancer Risk (1987) (such as wheat and bran cereals),
fruits, and vegetables. ‘‘Bran cere-
als’’ noted as a good fiber source.
U.S. United States Senate, Dietary Goals (indirect) Increase the consumption
for the United States (1977) of complex carbohydrates.
Canada Health and Welfare Canada, Can- ‘‘Enjoy a variety of foods from
ada’s Food Guide to Healthy each group every day.’’ Groups
Eating (1992) include ‘‘Grain Products’’–
‘‘choose whole grain and en-
riched products more often (5–12
servings per day)’’; ‘‘Vegetables
and Fruit’’–‘‘choose dark green
and orange vegetables and orange
fruit more often (5–10 servings
per day).’’ ‘‘. . . Choose whole
grain and enriched products more
often.’’
Canada Health and Welfare Canada, Sum- Emphasize cereals, breads, other
mary of Report of the Scientific grain products, vegetables, and
Review Committee and the fruits. ‘‘Preferably whole grain’’
Communications/Implementation products recommended.
Committee
Canada Canada’s Guidelines for Healthy ‘‘Preferably whole grain’’ products
Eating (1989) recommended.
Canada Canada Cancer Society, Healthy (indirect) Eat more fiber-containing
Food Choices May Reduce Your foods. Eat several servings of
Cancer Risk (1988) fruits and vegetables daily.
Canada Canadian Consensus Conference on (indirect) Thirty-five to 40 percent
Cholesterol: Final Report (1988) of energy should come from car-
bohydrates, with emphasis on
polysaccharides from a variety of
foods containing dietary fiber.
TABLE 4 Continued
Canada Canadian Cancer Society, Fact on (indirect) Eat more fiber-containing

Cancer and Diet–Your Food foods. Have several servings of
Choices May Help You Reduce vegetables and fruits daily.
Your Cancer Risk (1986)
Canada Health and Welfare Canada, Can- Eat 3–5 servings of breads and cere-
ada’s Food Guide Handbook als, ‘‘Preferably whole grain’’
(1985) products recommended. Eat 4–5
servings of fruits and vegetables.
interpretation had resulted in the previous recommendation of 30 g/d, based on

the unavailable CHO method, by the British National Advisory Committee on
Nutrition Education in 1983 (38).
The present NSP recommendation is based on its importance for overall
colonic health and regularity. At NSP intakes of less than 12 g/d, stool weights
are less than 100 g/d which is associated with an increased risk of bowel disease
(39). However, a recent study showed that NSP plus resistant starch, and not
NSP alone, correlated with colon cancer incidence (28). Carbohydrate metabo-
lism, insulin metabolism, or blood lipid profiles were not considered in the recom-
mendation due to the lack of evidence that NSP plays any significant role (39).
There does not appear to be any significant reduction in mineral bioavailability
with populations which habitually consume high levels of NSP. Because this may
be a factor in those with marginal mineral intakes like the elderly, the recommen-
dation is only applicable to healthy adults (39).
In Continental Europe, DF tables are generally based on the AOAC TDF
method 985.29 (15). Since NSP represent most, but not all DF fractions, the NSP
values used in the U.K. tend to be lower than TDF values, especially for grain-
based foods (3). Using the TDF method as a basis, most countries in Europe
recommend a daily DF intake of 20–35 g (Table 2). General recommendations
are to increase consumption of fruits, vegetables, and cereals and cereal products,
replacing energy intakes from fatty or sugary foods (Table 5).
Dietary Fiber Recommendations in the

Asia-Pacific Region
Generally, DF tables in the Asia-Pacific region are based on the AOAC TDF
method 985.29 and 991.43, sometimes with modifications for foods unique to
the country (e.g. Japan). Korea, India, and Australia use ‘‘food pyramids’’ as in
86 Cho et al.
TABLE 5 Dietary Recommendations in Europe

Name/Source of References to ‘‘grain-based’’
Country recommendation and complex CHO/DF
Europe Health Directorate General of the Increase intake of fresh fruits and
European Commission. ‘‘Eu- vegetables. Eat high-fiber cere-
rope vs. Cancer’’ als more often. Recommend
‘‘high fiber’’ cereals.
Europe European Atherosclerosis Soci- Increase intake of fruit, vegeta-
ety, Strategies for the Preven- bles, and cereal fiber, with em-
tion of Coronary Heart Dis- phasis on legumes. ‘‘Increase
ease: A Policy Statement of the intake of . . . cereal fiber.’’
European Atherosclerosis Soci-
ety (1987)
France French Health Education Com- One of the recommended food
mittee groups is ‘‘cereals and their
derivatives, potatoes, and
dried vegetables.’’ Breakfast
cereals are mentioned as a
choice which offers several pos-
itive nutrition characteristic
(‘‘rich in carbohydrate, essen-
tially starch and in fiber–for
whole grain cereals. Also pro-
vide protein and minerals.
Some are enriched in iron and
vitamins.’’)
France National Center for Coordination Refer to the food groups defined
of Research on Nutrition and by the French Health Educa-
Diet (edits RDA’s from French tion Committee, one of which
population) (1992) is ‘‘. . . cereals and their deriv-
atives’’ (see above)
In a section on fiber, indicate that
it is ‘‘. . . important to con-
sume vegetables, cereals, le-
gumes, wholemeal bread’’
France National Food Council. Cam- ‘‘One should eat every day . . .
paign to reduce risk of cardio- at least one food from each of
vascular disease and over- the food groups–this includes
weight (1989) the group ‘bread, cereals, and
pasta’ . . .’’
Germany German Society for Nutrition Recommendations for carbohy-
drates and fiber include grain-
based foods.
TABLE 5 Continued
U.K. Health Education Council, A Dis- Fiber intake should increase on

cussion Paper on Proposals average to 30 g per day, the in-
for Nutritional Guidelines for crease to come mainly from
Health Education in Britain the increased consumption of
(1983) whole grain cereals. An in-
crease in vegetable and fruit
should also be warranted. Spec-
ifies ‘‘whole brain cereals.’’
U.K. Department of Health, Eat Well– (indirect) Any reduction in fat
An action plan from the Nutri- consumption will need to be
tional Task Force to achieve balanced by an increased con-
the Health of the Nation tar- sumption of the basic staple
gets on diet and nutrition foodstuffs–starchy, fiber-rich
(1994) foods such as breads, potatoes,
pasta and rice, and vegetables
and fruit.
U.K. Health Education Authority, The (indirect) Eat plenty of foods rich
Balance of Good Health (1994) in starch and fiber.
U.K. U.K. Department of Health, The Elderly people, in common with
Nutrition of Elderly People. Re- those of all ages, should be ad-
port of the Working Group on vised to eat more fresh vegeta-
the Nutrition of Elderly People bles, fruit, and whole grain ce-
of the Committee on Medical reals. ‘‘Whole grain cereals’’
Aspects of Food Policy (1992) recommended.
U.K. The Health of the Nation. A Con- . . . to replace fatty and sugary
sultative Document for Health foods by cereal and starchy
in England (1991) foods
U.K. Ad Hoc Working Group on Coro- (indirect) Reduce fat contribution
nary Prevention, Prevention of to energy requirements by
Coronary Heart Disease in the eating foods rich in complex
United Kingdom (1982) carbohydrates, particularly
breads, vegetables, potatoes,
and fruits; this would also in-
crease dietary fiber intake.
U.K. Europe Against Cancer. Cancer For another source of fiber,
Education Coordinating Group choose foods made with whole
(HEA, Health Education Board grains and whole grain flours
for Scotland, Health Promotion of all kinds.
Wales, and Health Promotion
Agency for Northern Ireland)
88 Cho et al.
TABLE 5 Continued
Ireland Health Promotion Unit (Dublin), Eat plenty of foods rich in starch
A Guide to Daily Healthy and fiber–choose whole grain
Choices. Food Pyramid (1995) products more often.
Ireland Nutrition Advisory Group Recom- Starchy foods such as bread (pref-
mendations for a Food Nutri- erably wholemeal), cereals,
tion Policy for Ireland (1995) pasta and rice, as well as fruit
and vegetables, should be
eaten daily.
Italy National Institute of Nutrition, Di- Reduce fat and increase use of
etary Guidelines fiber; eat grain-based food
(pasta, rice, potatoes, bread,
high fiber content cereals, and
polenta). Recommend ‘‘high
fibre content cereals.’’
Italy Italian Association Against Can- Reduce fat and increase use of
cer, 10 Recommendations fiber; eat grain-based food
(pasta, rice, potatoes, bread,
high fiber content cereals, and
polenta). Specifies ‘‘high fibre
content cereals’’. Suggests
eating ready-to-eat cereals ev-
ery day for breakfast.
Scandinavian Keys, A. Official Collective Rec- The consumption of vegetables,
Countries ommendation on Diet in the fruits, potatoes, skimmed milk,
Scandinavian Countries (1968) fish, lean meat, and cereal prod-
ucts should be increased.
Norway National Nutrition Council of Eat more bread and grain based
Norway foods.
Finland National Public Health Institute, It is good to eat bread and por-
Finland ridge regularly, preferably
whole grain products.
Sweden Swedish National Food Admin- Eat foods with complex carbohy-
istration drates and fiber. Bread, cereals,
grains, pasta, fruit, vegetables,
potatoes, and root-crops.
the U.S. to demonstrate relative proportions in which different food groups should
be consumed (Table 6). Recommendations are to emphasize grain-based foods
like rice, breads, and cereals.
Recommendations for DF intake are lower in Japan (20–25 g/d) than in
Australia (30 g/d) (Table 2). Australians have dietary habits similar to that of
Americans. However, officials in Japan believe that the American RDA for DF
is probably too high for the Japanese considering the lower energy consumption,
lower fat intake, and insufficient calcium intakes which may be exacerbated by
high DF levels (40). Another point for consideration was the recent fad in Japan
to consume drinks containing 5 g/bottle or more of soluble oligosaccharides and
the unknown health impact if DF recommendations were set at a higher level.
In determining appropriate DF intakes for Japanese, Nishimune and colleagues
estimated the TDF intakes in 1935, 1955, and 1990 using a database with values
derived from the AOAC enzymatic-gravimetric method and, using the same
method, measured the TDF of model duplicate meals and composites for the
average Japanese in 1985 (40). Using the average Japanese energy intakes of
2,088 kcal in 1985, suggested daily DF intake levels are 10–12 g/1,000 kcal
(about 20–25 g/d). The lower limit is based on the DF required for a daily fecal
output of 140–150 g since this is associated with bowel disease risk (41). Factors
considered in establishing the upper limit are mineral sufficiency, fat consump-
tion, ratio of IDF to SDF intake, the decreasing trend in Japanese TDF intake,
and the increase in mortality rates of diabetes mellitus, ischemic heart disease,
and diverticulosis.
Dietary Fiber Recommendations in Latin America

The recommendations in Latin America, generally based on the AOAC TDF
method 985.29 and 991.43, are similar to other countries around the world (Table
2). In the late 70s and early 80s, the NDF method was the basis for Latin Ameri-
can food labeling. Latin American government agencies advocate increasing
complex CHO intake by increasing consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes,
and grain products (Table 7). Mexico, Chile, and Puerto Rico (which follows
U.S. recommendations) give guidelines for relative consumption of DF from dif-
ferent food sources. Brazil and Argentina have no official guidelines in place
(Table 7).
Dietary Fiber Recommendations in South Africa

The Department of Health Services and Welfare in South Africa and (HMAC)
Subcommittee on Nutrition Services have published booklets containing recom-
mendations to satisfy the normal requirements of healthy South Africans. They
endorse the consumption of fiber-rich foods such as whole grain products, fruits,
vegetables, and dry legumes. In concern for the unknown effects of consuming
90 Cho et al.
TABLE 6 Dietary Recommendations in the Asia-Pacific Region

Name/Source of References to ‘‘grain-based’’ and
Country recommendation complex CHO/DF
Taiwan No official guideline Eat cereals for three meals (?)

Korea Korean Nutrition Society Food Eat more grain and starch of
Pagoda foods (pictoral demonstration)
India Indian Dietetic Association, Food Recommends consumption of ce-
Pyramid reals. Ready-to-eat cereals are
specified as a choice.
China Chinese Nutrition Society, Rec- Encourage consumption of more
ommended Dietary Allow- grain based foods–should con-
ances (1989) tribute about 70% of calories
Japan Ministry of Health and Welfare, Recommends variety . . . each
Dietary Guideline for Japanese ‘‘menu’’ should include a ‘‘sta-
ple’’ food which is defined as
rice, bread, or other grain-
based food
Singapore, No official guideline
Indonesia,
Philippines
Australia Australian Nutrition Foundation, ‘‘Bread, Cereal’’ group is at base
Healthy Eating Pyramid of pyramid along with ‘‘vegeta-
bles, dried peas, beans, lentils,
and fruits’’ group. States ‘‘. . .
including whole grain cere-
als’’.
Australia Anti Cancer Foundation ‘‘Breads and Cereals’’ groups
(CSIRO) (1991) are at the base of the Food Pyr-
amid. Five or more servings
per day are recommended.
Ready-to-eat cereal is pictured
as one option in the ‘‘bread
and cereal’’ group.
Australia National Health and Medical Re- ‘‘. . . Eat plenty of breads and ce-
search Council, Dietary Guide- reals (preferably whole grain)
lines for Australia . . .’’ Breakfast cereals noted
as an option in the ‘‘Cereal’’
group; recommend preferably
whole grain cereals.
Australia Department of Community Ser- Eat more breads and cereals
vices and Health (Australia), (preferably whole grains) and
Towards Better Nutrition for vegetables and fruits. Empha-
Australians, 1987 sis on ‘‘whole grain’’ cereal
choices.
TABLE 7 Dietary recommendations in Latin America

Country recommendation foods and complex CHO/DF
Mexico National Institute of Nutrition Grains and their products: eat

(Mexico), Food Pyramid in sufficient amounts . . .
preferably their whole grain
versions. ‘‘. . . Complex car-
bohydrates should make up
70% of total energy . . .
grains are one of the best
sources . . .’’ (Note: fruits
and vegetables are at the
base of the Mexican food
pyramid.) All Bran is pic-
tured as a grain-based food
option.
Chile Institute of Nutrition and Food First level of pyramid is cere-
Technology (INTA). Food als, potatoes, legumes, and
guidelines (still in draft peas
form) (1996)
Central America Nutrition Institute of Central Complex carbohydrates should
America and Panama be the main energy source.
(INCAP). WHO affiliate These can only be found in
(based in Guatemala), Di- plant foods, particularly in
etary Recommendation. cereals, legumes, roots, and
tubers.
Venezuela National Institute of Nutrition/ ‘‘Include in your daily diet
Cavendes Foundation grains, fruits, vegetables, or
cereals to guarantee your or-
ganism the necessary fiber.’’
‘‘. . . to obtain more of your
money’s worth, buy foods
that in addition to energy pro-
vide other nutrients, such as
cereals and grains.’’
Puerto Rico (Follows U.S. guidelines)
Brazil and No official guidelines
Argentina
Colombia Colombian Institute of Well- One of the 3 food groups is
being for Families, Food ‘‘. . . energy supplying
Composition Tables (1978) foods: this includes ‘cereals
and their products’ . . .’’
92 Cho et al.
isolated DF products, they also state that it is preferable to consume foods natu-
rally high in fiber than to add bran to low fiber foods. Increasing fiber intake
by consuming unrefined cereal products like brown and whole wheat bread and
high-fiber breakfast cereals is advocated. The recommended DF intake is 30-40
g TDF/d (Table 2).
PROBLEMS IN ASSESSING DIETARY FIBER INTAKES

One of the difficulties encountered in making specific recommendations for DF
intake is in assessing the current intake levels. Variability in estimated DF intakes
can be attributed in part to the type of dietary assessment and method of fiber
analysis utilized.
There are three main methods for obtaining dietary data: (1) food balance
(e.g. per capita disappearance) statistics; (2) household food surveys; and (3)
studies of individuals (42). Dietary data obtained from food balance statistics
tend to overestimate actual consumption by individuals (42, 43). Household food
survey data need to be corrected for food waste, consumption of meals outside
the home, locally grown produce, and household size and composition (42). Stud-
ies on individuals, which are probably more representative than the other two
techniques, use a variety of methods to assess intake: 24-h recall, food frequency
questionnaires, and food records for varying periods which may or may not in-
clude weighing of food consumed. Assessments through single 24-h recall tend
to underestimate and detailed food records tend to overestimate intake levels (44).
The coefficient of variation in day-to-day intake in individuals, which cannot be
assessed by 24-h recall, is much greater than intake variability observed season-
to-season (44). In comparing a food frequency questionnaire with 7-d weighed
records, Saba et al. (45) found that TDF estimates were higher with the question-
naire for all categories of high DF foods. Weighed food records strongly correlate
with chemical analysis methods of food composites and independent markers of
food intake (i.e. urinary and fecal nitrogen excretion) (46). Thus, the most objec-
tive method available is the weighing and recording of all food eaten, but even
the act of doing so can disturb a person’s normal eating pattern (44).
Most of the fiber databases established in the 1970s were based on CF
values. Subsequently, much of the fiber intake data in the 70s and early 80s
are derived from the CF method. Bright-See and McKeown-Eyssen reported an
estimation of CF and DF (as unavailable CHO) supply in different countries
around the world (Table 8) (43). CF estimates drastically underestimate DF val-
ues. It should be noted that the DF values reported in this study are much higher
than many of the studies cited below because the Southgate method generally
reports the highest DF values for high-starch foods and per capita disappearance
overestimates nutrient intakes. Marlett and Bokram (47) have tried to establish
a relationship between CF and DF which has been used by subsequent studies
TABLE 8 Estimate of DF Intake in Various Countries Using

Unavailable Carbohydrate (CHO) and CF Methods*
Unavailable
Region Country CF (g/d) CHO
North America U.S. 5.9 27.4
Canada 5.4 24.6
Latin America Costa Rica 8.2 48.3
Cuba 9.1 42.2
Chile 12.8 55.9
Mexico 13.2 93.6
Uruguay 9.3 42.3
Asia-Pacific Region Japan 6.0 31.9
China (Hong Kong) 6.8 35.0
Singapore 7.9 36.6
Australia 4.5 22.8
New Zealand 5.0 24.0
Europe U.K. 5.0 23.5
Ireland 5.0 26.0
France 5.4 25.3
Italy 7.0 36.1
Portugal 14.7 71.4
Spain 12.5 51.3
Yugoslavia 7.3 45.6
Romania 16 88.1
Hungary 12.3 51.6
Poland 7.5 37.2
Germany 5.6 28.0
Austria 8.9 39.6
Belgium & Luxembourg 5.4 25.9
Bulgaria 16.1 68.1
Czechoslovakia 10.6 45.4
Greece 14.9 62.4
Sweden 4.4 22.1
Switzerland 4.8 23.7
Denmark 5.0 32.5
Finland 4.5 23.1
Netherlands 4.5 22.1
Iceland 5.5 24.2
Norway 8.2 35.3
*Data from ref. #43 based on FAO food disappearance data, 1972–1974
94 Cho et al.
as a conversion factor (48–50). Since the CF level can vary from 10–50% of
the TDF value depending on the nature of the food, dietary intake data employing
the CF method should be interpreted with caution. Tables of DF levels in foods
have been improved by employing AOAC TDF 985.29/991.43, NSP, or unavail-
able CHO methodology, but limited intake data are available using these new
databases.
DIETARY FIBER INTAKE LEVELS AROUND

THE WORLD
Dietary fiber intake levels in North America, the Asia-Pacific Region, and most
industrialized nations in Europe are far below the recommended levels (Tables
9–11). In North America, usual intake levels of TDF are between 10 and 15 g/d
(Table 9). Estimates of DF intakes in Europe, mostly based on Southgate’s un-
available CHO method, are in the range of 18–25 g/d (Table 10). Two European
studies, one in Italy (51) and one in the Netherlands (52), obtained much higher
estimates of about 32 g/d. In the U.K. and Scandinavia, NSP intakes range from
13–18 g/d. Studies in Australia and New Zealand have found DF intake levels
in the range of 18–20 g/d (unavailable CHO) whereas countries like Japan and
Korea are even lower at 10–17 g TDF/d. However, South Asians who have
immigrated to the U.K. were found to have much higher intake levels than the
native British in one study (53). Dietary fiber consumption in Latin America are
closer to recommended levels (20–23 g/d) but still fall below official guidelines
(Table 9).
As mentioned previously, some of the variability in estimated DF intake
levels is due to the fiber analysis method used in the assessment. Studies compar-
ing values derived from the Southgate unavailable CHO method with the NSP
(54, 55), TDF (56), or a combination of methods (57) always found Southgate
estimates to be higher. In a Japanese study by Nakaji et al. (56), Southgate esti-
mates were only slightly higher than the TDF estimates by the AOAC TDF
method. However, the proportion of DF from different food sources differed
greatly between the two methods, especially for grains and vegetables (Table 12).
The major source of DF varies from region to region. Kasper et al. (48)
found that most of the DF in Germany was from cereals (44–52%) and then
potatoes and vegetables (25-32%). Studies in Japan, the U.K., and Italy have
found more of the DF intake to come from vegetables (51, 53, 58, 59). In Asia,
rice constitutes the greatest proportion of grain products consumed at approxi-
mately 12% (58, 60). Decreasing trends in bread and cereal consumption have
resulted in a concomitant rise in fruit consumption in the Netherlands (52, 61).
Unfortunately, decreased consumption of cereals and cereal products can have
a serious impact on DF intakes. Emmett and colleagues found that increasing
TABLE 9 Dietary Fiber Intake Levels in North America and Latin America
Country/
Investigator Region Data source/Subject Fiber analysis method DF intake (g/day)
Mueller et al., 1997 (74) U.S. USDA’s Continuing Survey AOAC TDF (985.29, Age 3: 9
of Food Intakes by Individ- Prosky; and 991.43, Age 9: 14
Dietary Fiber Intake

uals (1989–1991); children Lee) USDA Hand- Age 20: 15.6
and adolescents (to age 20) book No. 8
Lytle et al., 1996 (75) U.S. Child and Adolescent Trial AOAC TDF (985.29 Caucasian; 15.1 ⫾ 7.4
for Cardiovascular Health Prosky; and 991.43, African-American: 15.1
(CATCH), 24-h recall Lee) USDA Hand- ⫾ 8.5
book No. 8 Hispanic: 14.8 ⫾ 7.6
Other: 12.1 ⫾ 3.6
Slesinski et al., 1996 U.S. Food frequency questionnaire, AOAC TDF (985.29, Daily
(71) 1992 National Health Inter- Prosky; and 991.43, M: 14.6 ⫾ 0.2
view Survey Epidemiology Lee) USDA Hand- F: 11.9 ⫾ 0.1
Supplement; adults stra- book No. 8 Occasionally
tified by supplement use M: 14.1 ⫾ 0.3
(n ⫽ 11,643) F: 11.8 ⫾ 0.3
Seldom
M: 13.5 ⫾ 0.1
F: 10.5 ⫾ 0.8
Ballew and Sugerman, U.S. 24-h recall; low income Mexi- AOAC TDF (985.29 16.9
1995 (68) can women in Chicago, IL, and 991.43) USDA
USA (n ⫽ 186) Handbook No. 8
Marlett and Bokram, U.S. 2-d records; males (n ⫽ 57), Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 19.91 ⫾ 9.97
1981 (47) females (n ⫽ 143), college (Southgate) F ⫽ 13.41 ⫾ 6.02
students
95
96
TABLE 9 Continued
Country/
Hallfrisch et al., 1988 U.S. Data from the Baltimore Lon- CF (originally) extrapo- 15
(49) gitudinal Study (1959– lated to DF based
1975), 7-d diet records Uppsalla method
males (n ⫽ 843) aged
20–103
Block and Lanza, 1987 U.S. Data from the Second Na- NDF (Van Soest), NDF Age: 20–29.5
(67) tional Health and Nutrition plus water-soluble WM 13.8
Examination Survey fraction, unavailable WF 9.2
(NHANES II, 1976–1980); CHO, TDF (USDA BM 11.2
males and females (both Handbook No. 8), BF 8.1
white and black), n ⫽ NSP (Englyst) Age: 30–54
11,658, aged 19–74 years WM 13.0
WF 9.4
BM 10.9
BF 7.4
Age: 55–74
WM 12.6
WF 10.4
BM 7.4
BF 9.1
Cho et al.
Ahrens and Boucher, U.S. Per capita use in 1965–1966, Unavailable CHO 19.1
1978 (81) from USDA 1965 House- (Southgate)
hold Food Consumption
Survey
Lanza et al., 1987 (57) U.S. Data from the Second Na- TDF, NDF, NSP, un- Southgate
tional Health and Nutrition available CHO Males, 15.7
Examination Survey Females, 11.1

(NHANES II, 1976–1980), Combination
⬎19 years of age Males, 12.9
Females 9.4
Gibson and Scythes, Canada 3-d records; 100 females, 30 Unavailable CHO 19.4 ⫾ 6.6
1982 (82) ⫾ 6 years of age (Southgate)
Anderson et al., 1981 Canada 56 females, Seventh Day Ad- Unavailable CHO 30.9 ⫾ 11.0
(72) ventists, 53 ⫾ 15 years of (Southgate)
age
Kay et al., 1980 (83) Canada 24-h recall; 200 males, 50–59 Unavailable CHO 17.8 ⫾ 9.4
years of age (Southgate)
Arauz, et al., 1991 (84) Costa Rica 1-d weighed records; 51 fami- AOAC TDF (Prosky, 20.3
lies, urban 985.29)
Acevedo and Bressani, Central America Per capita consumption, 1969 CF (USDA Handbook El Salvador 12.5
1989 (64) and Panama and 1986, preschool No. 8) Costa Rica 5.4
children
Rosado et al., 1995 (50) Mexico Per capita consumption in CF (USDA Handbook 1979: 19.8–4.0 (27.2 ⫾
1979 and 1989, 219 rural No. 8) recalculated 3.3)
communities as TDF (Prosky, 1989: 17.5–27.1 (22.5
985.29) ⫾ 2.2)
Abbreviations: M ⫽ male; F ⫽ female; WM ⫽ white male; WF ⫽ white female; BM ⫽ black male; BF ⫽ black female
97
98
TABLE 10 Actual Dietary Fiber Intake Levels in Europe
Country/
Emmett et al., 1993 (54) Great Britain Food frequency questionnaire; NSP (Englyst), unavail- NSP
males (n ⫽ 739, aged 40– able CHO (Southgate) M: 15.5–16.4
69), females (n ⫽ 976, F ⫽ 14.3–5.1
aged 25–69) Unavailable CHO:
M ⫽ 23.2–25.3
F ⫽ 21.6–23.3
Lewis and Buss, 1988 (55) Great Britain Per capita consumption from Unavailable CHO Unavailable
National Food Survey in (Southgate); NSP CHO: 21.8
1986 (Englyst) NSP: 12.9
O’Neill and Fehily, 1991 U.K. 7-d weighed records; compari- Unavailable CHO 1980–1983: 19 ⫾ 7
(85) son of survey taken in (Southgate) 1990: 21 ⫾ 9
1980–83 (n ⫽ 665) and in
1990 (n ⫽ 98)
McKeigue et al., 1989 (70) U.K. 7-d record, food-frequency Unavailable CHO South Asian, nonvegetar-
questionnaires; 299 house- (Southgate) ian: 26.4
holds, South Asian vegetar- South Asian, vegetarian:
ian and non-vegetarian and 32.2
British British: 17.9
Davies et al., 1986 (59) U.K. 7-d weighed records; males Unavailable CHO preretirement 17.6 ⫾ 6.5
(n⫽ 41) and females (Southgate) postretirement 18.4 ⫾ 6.1
(n ⫽ 53)
Bingham et al., 1979 (86) U.K. 7-d weighed records; M and Unavailable CHO 19.9 ⫾ 5.3
F (n ⫽ 63), aged 20–80 (Southgate)
Thomson et al., 1985 (87) Scotland 7-d weighed records; 164 Unavailable CHO 19.8
Cho et al.
men, aged 45–54 (Southgate)

Thomson et al., 1982 (88) Scotland 7-d weighed records; males Unavailable CHO 17.5 ⫾ 0.6
(n ⫽ 97), age 49 (Southgate)
Eastwood et al., 1982 (89) Scotland 7-d diet history, 23 couples, Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 15.9 ⫾ 6.1
aged 35–82 (Southgate) F ⫽ 12.7 ⫾ 4.6
Bull et al., 1982 (90) Scotland Food diary for 1 month; M Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 16.5
(n ⫽ 16) and F (n ⫽ 27), (Southgate) F ⫽ 15.0
aged 21–69

Fielding and Melvin, 1979 Ireland Retrospective 7-d diet history; Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 22.6 ⫾ 4.1
(91) M (n ⫽ 9) and F (n ⫽ 16) (Southgate) F ⫽ 22.7 ⫾ 4.3
Bagheri and Debry, 1990 France Per capita consumption NSP (Englyst), Unavail- 16.53
(92) able CHO (Southgate)
Le Quintrec and Gendre, France Per capita consumption, Unavailable CHO 17.85–24.6
1986 (93) EUROSTAT 1970–80 (Southgate)
Macquart-Moulin et al., France Food frequency questionnaire; Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 11.6 ⫾ 6.4
1983 (94) M (n ⫽ 122) and F (n ⫽ (Southgate) F ⫽ 6.6 ⫾ 4.0
129)
Myer and Le Quintrec, France 24-h recall; 22 females, with Unavailable CHO With/Without constipa-
1981 (95) or without constipation (Southgate) tion: 12.4/12.7
Frexinos and Allegret, France Retrospective 7-d diet history; Unavailable CHO (May)
1980 (96) males (n ⫽ 27) and fe- (Southgate) M: 10.61 ⫾ 0.70
males (n ⫽ 50), seasonal F: 11.81 ⫾ 1.88
variations (May and Octo- (October)
ber) M: 8.34 ⫾ 1.08
F: 8.64 ⫾ 0.70
Turrini et al., 1995 (51) Italy Food-frequency questionnaire Unavailable CHO 32.4
twice a year, 24-h recall ev- (Southgate), AOAC
ery 2 yr for 10 year period TDF (Prosky, 985.29)
Bingham and Cummings, Yugoslavia Records of duplicate food col- Unavailable CHO 25.5 ⫾ 7.5
1980 (97) lections, males (n ⫽ 49) (Southgate)
99
100
TABLE 10 Continued
Country/
Samuelson et al., 1996 (76) Sweden 7-d weighed records, food fre- Unavailable CHO (Uppsalla)
quency questionnaire; boys (Southgate) Boys: 18 ⫾ 6
(n ⫽ 193) and girls (n ⫽ Girls: 16 ⫾ 5
218) age 15 (Trollhattan):
Boys: 18 ⫾ 6
Girls: 14 ⫾ 4
Kasper et al., 1980 (48) Germany Food diaries for October to CF (USDA Handbook Unavail. CHO
December; 150 Manual, No. 8), unavailable M: 22.0 ⫾ 5.5
Students, Teachers, Admin. CHO (Southgate) S: 24.8 ⫾ 8.4
(M, S, T, A respectively) T: 21.7 ⫾ 5.5
A: 17.6 ⫾ 7.7
Crude fiber
M: 6.2 ⫾ 1.8
S: 6.3 ⫾ 2.0
T: 5.0 ⫾ 1.4
A: 4.6 ⫾ 2.4
Asp et al., 1979 (99) Sweden 1-d duplicate; 35 men and NDF (Englyst), unavail- NDF:
women able CHO (Southgate) M ⫽ 17.8 ⫾ 6.9
F ⫽ 11.1 ⫾ 3.5
Unavailable CHO:
M ⫽ 27.5 ⫾ 5.9
F ⫽ 21.1 ⫾ 4.8
Cho et al.
Rottka, 1980 (98) Germany Food diary; 135,000 males CF values (USDA Hand- M ⫽ 25.1
and females book No. 8) converted F ⫽ 22.3
to unavail. CHO
(Southgate)
Beer-Borst, et al., 1994 Switzerland 24-h recall, n ⫽ 3653 Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 33
(65) (Southgate) W ⫽ 30
Englyst et al., 1982 (69) Scandinavia 4-d weighed records, males NSP (Englyst) rural Finland M18.4 ⫾ 7.8

(n ⫽ 30), 50–59 years of rural Denmark M18.0 ⫾ 6.4
age, rural and urban com- urban Finland F14.5 ⫾ 5.4
munities urban Denmark F 13.2 ⫾ 4.8
Kromhout et al., 1990 (52) Netherlands Data from Zutphen Study di- Unavailable CHO 1960: 33.2
etary surveys in 1960 (n ⫽ (Southgate) 1985: 31.5
1049) and 1985 (n ⫽ 51),
retrospective dietary history
Van Staveren et al., 1982 Netherlands 7-d food record; males (n ⫽ Unavail. CHO (South- M: 27.5 ⫾ 7.8
(61) 44) and females (n ⫽ 56), gate), IDF (Hellen- F: 21.3 ⫾ 4.7
aged 25–65 doorn)
Van Dokkum et al., 1982 Netherlands Diet composites every 2 mo. IDF (Hellendoorn) 17.7
(100) for a 2 year period; M &
F, aged 16–18
Frost Andersen et al., 1995 Norway Food frequency questionnaire; ?–Unavailable CHO Boy ⫽ 25
(53) boys (n-710) and girls (n ⫽ (Southgate)–? Girls ⫽ 19
854), age 18
101
102 Cho et al.
the NSP contribution from cereals greatly increases the overall NSP intake (62).
Unfortunately, negative trends in DF consumption have been observed in some
countries. Dietary fiber intakes in Japan have been declining consistently since
the 1950s (40, 63). Similar drops are being observed in certain rural and urban
areas of Latin America (50, 64). So although some positive dietary patterns have
been observed in certain regions (52, 65), especially in Italy where significant
positive trends in DF intake have been observed (66), dietary intake levels of
DF are still falling short of the recommended levels.
Dietary fiber intake levels can also vary according to sex, ethnicity, and
lifestyle. Women usually have lower intakes than men. In some cases, this is due
to lower energy intakes. Some investigators have found that although women’s
overall intake of DF was lower, they chose more fiber-dense diets (57) consisting
of foods such as brown breads, cereals, raw fruit, and salads (54). However, men
and younger people tended to consume more DF from potatoes cooked in fat
and pulses in one study (54). In the U.S., Block and Lanza found trends in DF
intakes also differ between the sexes. Dietary fiber intakes in women increased
with age whereas the opposite occurred in men (67). In the same study, ethnic
differences in DF intakes existed with Blacks tending to consume less than
Whites in both sexes across all age groups (67). However, Ballew and Sugerman
found that DF intakes in Mexican women living in Chicago were different than
those living in Texas, suggesting that within an ethnic group there are also tempo-
ral and regional variations in dietary intake patterns (68). Greater DF intakes in
rural vs. urban areas is not uncommon (69). Lifestyle plays a large role in the
level of DF consumed. In general, those with healthier lifestyles or concerned
about getting adequate nutrient intakes had higher intakes of DF (53, 70–73).
As in the adult population, DF intakes in children are lower than recom-
mended levels, but their dietary patterns are also undesirable. In the U.S., DF
intakes of children are not increasing with age according to the AHF ‘‘Age ⫹
5’’ guideline (74). Mueller and colleagues found that as children age, their con-
sumption of fruits, vegetables, and cereals decline (74). Dietary fiber intake levels
are lowest in Japanese under the age of 19 (40). In the Child and Adolescent
Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) study (Table 10), dietary intervention
to reduce total fat in school children did indicate a shift in energy from fat to
CHO while keeping energy level from protein stable. However, the relative pro-
portions of energy from simple sugars and complex CHO remained the same
(75). Norwegian adolescents consume too much fat and sugar and not enough
DF (70). In Sweden, young people may have adopted advice about consuming
less fat, but instead of increasing their fiber intake, consumption of sweets and
soft drinks is considerable (76). Thus, it is important to educate the youth about
the importance of consuming adequate amounts of dietary fiber as part of a
healthy diet.
Adequate intakes of DF are necessary to prevent the onset of constipation
TABLE 11 Actual Dietary Fiber Intake Levels in the Asia-Pacific Region
Fiber analysis
Investigator Country/Region Data source/Subject method DF intake (g/day)
Nakaji et al., 1993 Japan Per capita consumption, Modified AOAC TDF Unavailable
(56) Aomori Nutrition Survey (Prosky, 985.29), CHO:
unavailable CHO 23.7 ⫾ 8.4
(Southgate) TDF: 22.2 ⫾ 8.5
Bingham, 1985 (44) European Eco- Monthly weighed food rec- Unavailable CHO Holland: 22.6

nomic Commu- ords over 3-year period (Southgate) Belgium: 26.8 to 28.9
nity (EEC), 11 (data from Cresta et al., Luxembourg: 29.1
regions 1969101); 30 families, Germany: 27.3
1963–65 France: 23.8 to 29.6
Italy: 23.8 to 26.9
Nishimune et al., 1993 Japan Menu-based questionnaire in Modified AOAC TDF ⱕ19 years: 11.5
(40) 1990, duplicate analysis of (Prosky, 985.29) 20–29 years: 13.5
food composites
Morita, 1987 (63) Japan 3-day duplicate food collec- NDF and ADF (Van M ⫽ 8.5 ⫾ 0.9 to 16.5 ⫾ 2.8
tions; males (n ⫽ 6) and fe- Soest) F ⫽ 6.6 ⫾ 0.6 to 10.3 ⫾ 1.5
males (n ⫽ 6), aged 30–50
Minowa et al., 1983 Japan Per capita consumption in Unavailable CHO 19.4
(102) 1979, National Nutrition (Southgate)
Survey
Hwang et al., 1996 Korea 3-day food records, M college AOAC TDF (Prosky, 20.54 ⫾ 5.82
(60) students (n ⫽ 80) 985.29)
Lee et al., 1994 (58) Korea Per capita consumption in AOAC TDF (Prosky, 10–15
1989, Nat’l Nutrition 985.29)
Survey
Zhi-Ping and Su-Fang, China Dietary survey in 1979, vari- CF (USDA Handbook 6.6 to 11.3
1986 (103) ous parts of China No. 8?)
Prior et al., 1981 (104) Polynesia 7-d weighed records, 24 h re- Unavailable CHO M ⫽ 16.5
call; M (n ⫽ 95) and F (Southgate), (105) F ⫽ 14.9
103
(n ⫽ 161) on island of To-

kelau
104 Cho et al.
TABLE 12 Dietary Fiber Intake and Food Sources in

Aomori, Japan Calculated Using Southgate and Prosky
Methods*
Southgate Prosky
Total 23.7 ⫾ 8.4 g/day 22.2 ⫾ 8.5 g/day
Dietary fiber source
Grains 32.3% 19.0%
Vegetables 22.7% 31.3%
Beans 15.6% 18.0%
Fruits 7.8% 11.6%
*Data from ref. #56.
which is more prevalent in the elderly. People over the aged 65⫹ have lower
overall intakes of fiber because of reduced energy consumption. Because of this,
it is difficult to increase intakes in the elderly to the general recommended levels
of 25–30 g without resorting to supplements and this may have serious conse-
quences in terms of mineral availability (59). However, there is still some indica-
tion that dietary fat intakes are still high in this population (77). Interestingly,
Davies and colleagues found that despite increased awareness of DF and avail-
ability of high fiber foods, DF intake levels remained the same after retirement.
This particular post-retirement study population believed that constipation was
a problem for the ‘‘elderly’’ (59).
Thus, diet-related and health-related beliefs play an important role in one’s
ability to make changes in their dietary patterns such as increasing DF consump-
tion. In a study on American rural energy workers, a worker’s efficacy expecta-
tion, i.e. their perceived ability to perform a behavior, was an important variable
in raising their DF intake level (78). Smith and Owen found that both diet and
health related beliefs were independently associated with higher fiber density
(79). Perceptions of external influences on food choices, not related to social
status, were also positively associated. Thus, beliefs and perceptions related to
diet and health should be addressed for interventions to be successful in raising
DF intakes.
SUMMARY
It is important that regulatory agencies, researchers in nutrition and analytical
areas, industry representatives, consumers, and health professionals have a com-
mon understanding of the definition of DF. International surveys like those con-
ducted by the AOAC are a necessary step in keeping abreast of perceptions about
the definition of DF. Chemical methodology for DF analysis needs to keep up
with changing or expanding definitions of DF for proper food labeling for the
consumer and for assessment in epidemiological studies. Although AOAC TDF
methods appear to be the most ideal, improvements must be made for better
recoveries of resistant starch and resistant oligosaccharides that are part of the
new and expanded DF definition. Dietary recommendations for fiber must take
into account several factors: (1) physiological effects of various fiber compo-
nents; (2) long-term effects of fiber on health and disease; (3) potential adverse
effects of mineral availability in more susceptible populations; (4) the intended
population for the recommendation; (5) current intake levels to assess feasibility
of the recommended level; and (6) whether DF will be consumed in foods or
supplements. Although analysis and characterization of DF is one of the more
popular areas of research according to the European Management Committee of
COST 92 (42), research into DF epidemiology and intakes is severely lacking.
Despite official recommendations and increased awareness around the world to
increase DF consumption by increasing intakes of grain products, fruits, and veg-
etables, this advice is not being adhered to by the general public. Children and
adolescents are an important group to reach since the early development of good
dietary habits will most likely be carried throughout adulthood, affording protec-
tion against the development of chronic diseases associated with low fiber intakes.
A necessary step is increased education about the importance of DF to change
the existing perceptions about foods choices. Diet and health-related beliefs are
crucial factors in changing dietary patterns.
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626–9.
II
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES—
CHEMISTRY AND ANALYTICAL
METHODOLOGY
10
The Chemistry of Complex
Carbohydrates
DAVID R. LINEBACK
University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ has been used in dietary recommendations
for the past two decades in the United States. There is a lack of a clear definition
of what is included in complex carbohydrates. Beginning with the second edition
of the Dietary Goals in 1977 (1), the emphasis has been on complex carbohydrates
as ‘‘starches,’’ i.e. digestible (available) polysaccharides, primarily starch and
dextrins. The 1979 Surgeon General’s Report on Health Promotion and Disease
Prevention (2) referred to complex carbohydrates in terms of whole grains, cere-
als, fruits and vegetables, a usage that appears to include starch and non-starch
polysaccharides (dietary fiber). A task force of the British Nutrition Foundation
proposed elimination of the term dietary fiber and that complex carbohydrates
be defined as starches plus non-starch polysaccharides (3). However, it does not
appear that these recommendations will be accepted. In its July 1990 proposal
for food labeling, the Food and Drug Administration proposed that, for regulatory
purposes, complex carbohydrates be defined as the sum of dextrins and starches
115
116 Lineback
including those carbohydrate components that contain 10 or more saccharide

units, excluding dietary fiber (4). This was not allowed in the final regulations
when the term ‘‘other carbohydrates’’ was adopted rather than complex carbohy-
drates because of the lack of an accepted definition and analytical methodology
for the latter (5).
Recently, AOAC International conducted surveys to determine whether a
consensus could be reached, among professionals in the carbohydrate area, on
the definition of complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber. Results indicated that
complex carbohydrates should include available starch and dietary fiber or its
polysaccharides (6). There was also general support that the definition of dietary
fiber should be expanded to include resistant oligosaccharides in addition to non-
starch polysaccharides, resistant starches, and lignin. At an AOAC International
Workshop on Definition and Analysis of Complex Carbohydrates/Dietary Fiber
in November 1995, there was general agreement among the participants that di-
etary fiber should be included in the definition of complex carbohydrates and
that resistant oligosaccharides are part of dietary fiber.
Thus, while the lack of an accepted definition and analytical methodology
has limited the use and understanding of the term ‘‘complex carbohydrates,’’
there appears to be an increasing consensus that complex carbohydrates should
be defined as available starch plus dietary fiber (non-starch polysaccharides plus
lignin) with resistant oligosaccharides and resistant starch included in the defini-
tion of dietary fiber. This is the definition that will be used in this brief review
concerning the chemistry of complex carbohydrates. Since lignin is not a polysac-
charide, being a complex cross-linked polymer based on oxygenated phenylpro-
pane units, it will not be discussed further.
The emphasis on increasing the consumption of complex carbohydrates
probably had its origin in the desire to decrease the fat content of diets while
increasing the amount of dietary fiber without increasing the consumption of
simple sugars. This was partially based on long held understanding that complex
carbohydrates are more slowly digested and absorbed than simple sugars, re-
sulting in a decreased insulin and blood glucose response. It was believed that
all complex carbohydrates had similar effects on these responses. Studies have
indicated that this assumption is not universally true and that different types of
complex carbohydrates produce significantly different responses (7).
The increased consumption of complex carbohydrates continues to be ad-
vocated in dietary recommendations. Since information on complex carbohy-
drates is not listed on labels, consumers lack a readily identified means of de-
termining the complex carbohydrate content of foods and what foods are good
sources of complex carbohydrates. This is an important driving force in arriving
at an accepted definition of complex carbohydrates and the analytical methodolo-
gies needed to determine their content in foods.
The complex carbohydrates commonly encountered in foods include starch
The Chemistry of Complex Carbohydrates 117
(available), resistant starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectic substances, hydro-

colloids (gums, mucilages), modified starches, and resistant oligosaccharides.
There is much yet to be learned about this area and the components involved,
e.g. isolation, structures, properties, physiological responses, definitive analytical
procedures. It is made difficult by the fact that complex carbohydrates cannot be
clearly defined on the basis of structure, analytical methodology, or physiological
response. The components of complex carbohydrates/dietary fiber have tradition-
ally been defined on the basis of the solvent extraction procedures used for their
isolation. This does not result in clearly definitive separations of the components,
nor in definition when a structural basis is used.
STARCH
Starch is the most important reserve polysaccharide of many higher plants where
it occurs as discrete granules in the leaf, stem (pith), root (tuber), seed, fruit and
pollen. The size, shape and gelatinization temperature of the granules depend on
the botanical source of the starch. Common food starches are derived from seed
(wheat, maize, rice, barley) and root (potato, cassava/tapioca) sources.
Starch consists of a mixture of two polymers, amylose and amylopectin,
that are composed entirely of glucose units, i.e. homopolysaccharides. The gluco-
pyranosyl units in amylose are linked through alpha-D-(1 → 4)-glucosidic link-
ages. Amylose has traditionally been considered to be a linear polymer with an
average chain length and degree of polymerization of approximately 1000 or less.
However, it is now known that it contains a limited amount of branching involv-
ing alpha-D-(1 → 6)-glucosidic linkages at the branch points. Amyloses, as iso-
lated, are often a mixture of linear and branched molecules (Figure 1). The behav-
ior of amylose is dominated by two major properties:
(a) Its ability to form inclusion complexes with iodine, aliphatic primary
alcohols, lipids and surfactants. Amylose produces a deep blue inclusion complex
with iodine, used in the detection of starch, in which the amylose chain forms a
helix around the iodine molecule with six glucosyl units per turn of the helix.
(b) Its ability to form strong intermolecular interactions, hydrogen bonding,
leading to precipitation or gel formation when a solution of amylose is cooled.
Amylopectin is a high molecular weight, highly branched polymer con-
taining about 5–6% alpha-D-(1 → 6)-glucosidic linkages. It has an average chain
length of 20 to 25, an average degree of polymerization in the thousands, and
molecular weights in the millions. The structure of amylopectin contains clusters
in which about 20–25 chains containing 12–16 glucose units are involved (8)
(Figure 1). These clusters, in which many of the chains exist as double helices,
are responsible for the crystalline regions of starch granules.
While the manner in which amylose and amylopectin are organized to form
the granule is not clearly understood, the granule is partially crystalline exhibiting
118 Lineback
FIGURE 1 (a) Structural models for the molecules in rice amylose. (b) Struc-
tural model for three clusters in amylopectin. A, B1, B2, and B3 represent
different chain lengths within the clusters: A and B1 chains make a single
cluster; B2 and B3 chains extend into two and three clusters, respectively.
an x-ray diffraction pattern and birefringence. Most common cereal starches con-
tain 20–30% amylose. Waxy starches (maize, rice, sorghum, barley) have no
amylose and contain essentially 100% amylopectin. High-amylose starches
(maize, barley) having 50–70% amylose are available. Waxy and high-amylose
starches have properties different from normal starches that make them of use
in certain food products.
Native starch, i.e. granules, are not water-soluble but easily hydrate in aque-
ous suspension, swelling about 10% in volume, but not losing their birefringence
unless heated. When an aqueous suspension of granules is heated additional
swelling occurs and a temperature is reached at which a transition from organiza-
tion to disorganization occurs that is characterized by loss of birefringence and
the x-ray diffraction pattern, and appearance of an endotherm in the differential
scanning calorimetric thermogram. This is known as the gelatinization tempera-

ture and normally occurs over a range of about 10°C. Upon further heating (past-
ing or cooking), swelling continues and the amylose and portions of the amylo-
pectin leach from the granule producing a viscous suspension. Cooling of this
suspension leads to the formation of a gel. With further time, realignment of the
linear chains of amylose and the short chains of amylopectin can occur in the
process known as retrogradation. In food products based on starch gels, this can
lead to liquid being expressed from the gel in the phenomenon known as synere-
sis—generally an undesirable occurrence. Retrogradation is most rapid with amy-
lose and much slower and more incomplete with amylopectin due to the short
chain length of its branches.
Starch granules are susceptible to the action of digestive enzymes (alpha-
amylases) but the rate of enzymatic degradation is greatly increased when the
starch is gelatinized. It is now recognized that a portion of the starch may not
be digested and absorbed in the small intestine, but is passed into the lower intes-
tine where it is fermented with production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA).
This fraction has become known as resistant starch.
CELLULOSE
Cellulose, the major cell wall structural component in plants, is an unbranched
linear chain of several thousand glucose units with beta-D-(1 → 4)-glucosidic
linkages. Hydrogen bonding occurs between hydroxyl groups on adjacent gluco-
syl units, causing the cellulose chain to exist in an extended, relatively inflexible
conformation. In turn, this conformation favors the formation of hydrogen bonds
between chains. These interchain hydrogen bonds are strong enough that forma-
tion of crystalline microfibrils up to 25 nm in diameter occurs. Cellulose’s me-
chanical strength, resistance to biological degradation, low aqueous solubility,
and resistance to acid hydrolysis occur because of the hydrogen bonding within
the microfibrils (9). There is a portion, 10–15%, of the total cellulose, referred
to as ‘‘amorphous,’’ that is more readily acid hydrolyzed. Controlled hydrolysis
of cellulose, i.e. the amorphous fraction, yields microcrystalline cellulose. Cellu-
lose has been used as a bulking agent in food due to its water-absorbing ability
and low solubility. Some of the early ingredient sources of dietary fiber were
based on cellulose powders or microcrystalline cellulose. Cellulose is not digested
to any extent by the enzymes of the human gastrointestinal system.
HEMICELLULOSES
The cell wall polysaccharides of higher plants involve a number of non-starch
polysaccharides that include cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectic substances. His-
torically, these have been defined by the extraction procedures used, i.e. hemi-
120 Lineback
celluloses were those polysaccharides solubilized by aqueous alkali after water-

soluble and pectic substances were removed (10). The situation is actually much
more complex. Cell wall polysaccharides exist as heterogeneous mixtures of
polysaccharides that are associated by hydrogen bonding and even covalently
linked to varying extents. These include homopolysaccharides, those that contain
only one type of carbohydrate monomer such as cellulose and mixed-linked beta-
glucans, and heteropolysaccharides, those that contain more than one type of
carbohydrate monomer such as arabinoxylans, galactomannans and xyloglucans.
Structural determination and characterization of these polysaccharides are
made difficult by several factors. For each carbohydrate monomer involved, the
following must be determined (11):
1. the identity of the monomer, i.e., D-glucose, D-xylose, L-arabinose;
2. the ring size (pyranose or furanose);
3. nature of the linkage (hydroxyl groups involved in linking monomer
units), e.g., 1 → 4, 1 → 3, 1 → 2;
4. anomeric configuration, i.e., alpha or beta;
5. sequence of the different carbohydrate monomers in heteropoly-
saccharides; and
6. sequence of linkages in homopolysaccharides with multiple types of
linkages.
Hemicelluloses may be present in soluble and insoluble forms and are com-
prised of a number of branched and linear pentose- and hexose-containing poly-
saccharides. In cereal grains, soluble hemicelluloses are termed ‘‘pentosans.’’
Hemicelluloses are of much lower molecular weight than cellulose. Component
monosaccharide units may include xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, glu-
cose, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid.
Hemicelluloses are normally classified by the predominant carbohydrate
monomer present. Illustrations are given in Table 1. The most abundant and wide-
spread noncellulosic cell wall components are the xylans, polymers with a main
chain of beta-D-(1 → 4)-linked D-xylose. The backbone structure may be substi-
tuted with single (4-O-methyl)-alpha-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid units, single
alpha-L-arabinofuranose units or longer side chains in which the L-arabinofura-
nose residues have additional substituents. A general structure for xylans is shown
below: some side chains (R) include D-galactose, L-galactose, and D-xylose
units.
TABLE 1 Polysaccharides of Cell Walls in Higher Plants (11)

General category Structural classification
Cellulose β-D-Glucan (4-linked)

Pectic substances Galacturonans and rhamnogalacturonans
Arabinans
Galactans and arabinogalactans I 1
Hemicelluloses Xylans [including arabinoxylans and (4-o-methyl)]
glucuronoxylans
β-D-Glucans (3- and 4-linked)
Xyloglucans (4-linked-D-glucans with attached
side chains)
Other polysaaccharides Arabinogalactans II 1
Glucuronomannans
1
Arabinogalactans of type I are essentially linear and contain 4-linked β-D-galactan
chains, whereas those of type II contain branched 3- and 6-linked β-D-galactan chains.
These polysaccharides may occur in part as proteoglycans or polysaccharide-protein
conjugates.
While the arabinosyl residues play a major role in the solubility of the
polymer and the shape of the molecule in arabinoxylans, there does not appear
to be any consistent relationship between solubility and the amount of substitution
with arabinose units. Water-soluble arabinoxylans (pentosans) are present in mi-
nor amounts in cereal grains, but they are of functional importance because of
their water-binding capacity and ability to increase viscosity. In rye, the major
portion of the arabinoxylans is water insoluble. The water-soluble arabinoxylans
from rye exist as a range of polymer structures that differ in molecular weight,
arabinose-to-xylose ratio, ferulic acid content, ratio of di- to monosubstituted
xylose, and ratio of disubstituted xyloses that are isolated, paired, or present in
longer sequences in the xylan chain (13).
The (1 → 3)(1 → 4)-beta-D-glucans, i.e. the mixed linkage beta-glucans,
have generated considerable interest in recent years due to their physiological
response as soluble dietary fiber. While these glucans are found in relatively
small quantities in wheat, they are a major component of cell-wall material in
barley and oats. These glucans form viscous aqueous solutions and have been
shown to be effective in reducing serum cholesterol concentrations (13). Oat
betaglucan is a linear polymer containing about 70% 4-O-linked beta-D-gluco-
pyranosyl units and about 30% 3-O-linked beta-D-glucopyranosyl units. The
(1 → 3) linkages appear to occur singly while the (1 → 4)-linkages occur in
groups of two or three. Thus the polysaccharide contains beta-(1 → 3)-linked
cellotriosyl and cellotetraosyl units. Oat bran, a rich source of the beta-D-glucan,
122 Lineback
has been incorporated into many food products, particularly cereals, as a source
of the soluble fiber that has been touted for cholesterol reduction.
Both soluble and insoluble hemicelluloses play important roles in food
products, the former functioning as soluble fiber. They are characterized by their
ability to bind water and hence serve as bulking agents. The presence of acidic
components in some hemicelluloses impart the capacity to bind cations. Hemicel-
luloses are digested/fermented to a greater extent than cellulose in the colon.
PECTIC SUBSTANCES
Pectic substances can be extracted with boiling water or with solutions of ammo-
nium oxalate or ethylenedinitrilotetraacetic acid (EDTA) when they are present as
salts in cell walls (11). They are normally considered as partially methyl esterified
(pectins) or free (pectic acid) alpha-D-(1 → 4)-galacturonans. However, the situa-
tion is more complex since small amounts of rhamnose, galactose, arabinose and
xylose are also present. At one time it was believed this indicated the presence
of a mixture of galacturonans, galactans, and arabinans. This, too, appears to be
an oversimplification. Rhamnose units are now known to be present in the main
chain of alpha-D-(1 → 4)-galacturonic acid units to the extent of about 10%
(11) while the neutral sugars are present in side chains. In some regions of the
rhamnogalacturonan, rhamnose units may be adjacent or in alternate positions.
Neutral polysaccharides such as beta-D-(1 → 4)-galactans, highly branched arabi-
nans, and arabinogalactans containing 4-linked beta-D-galactan chains may be
found in association with the rhamnogalacturonan. The nature of these associa-
tions is not clearly known.
The solubility of pectins increases with increasing extent of esterification.
Pectins find widespread use in foods such as jams and jellies because of their
ability to form stable gels. Completely esterified pectins do not require the addi-
tion of acid or electrolyte to form gels. The presence of calcium salts enhances
the gelling capacity and decreases the dependence on pH and sugar concentration.
Pectic substances are of importance as a component of dietary fiber because of
their ion-exchange, due to the presence of the galacturonic acid units, and gelling
(viscosity enhancing) properties.
HYDROCOLLOIDS (GUMS, MUCILAGES)

Hydrocolloids are used in food products for their thickening (viscosity increas-
ing), gelling, stabilizing or emulsifying ability. They are derived from seaweed
extracts, plant exudates, seeds and microbial sources.
Agar, carrageenan, furcellaran and alginates are obtained from seaweed
extracts. The first three are galactose polymers that exhibit thermoreversible gela-
tion and form gels having helix cross-linkages in their gel frameworks (14, 15).
The structures of furcellaran and alginates also contain sulfate esters. Three carra-
geenan fractions exist: one (kappa) does not gel, one (lambda) forms brittle gels
in the presence of potassium ions, and one (iota) yields a more elastic gel in the
presence of calcium ions. Alginates are linear copolymers of D-mannuronic acid
(M-blocks) and L-guluronic acid (G-blocks) with regions (blocks) containing
only one of the acids. Solubility properties are controlled by the ratio of mannuro-
nic acid blocks to guluronic acid blocks. Alginate gels can be formed in the
cold in the presence of calcium which induces intermolecular associations in the
G-block regions and have sufficient stability to withstand heat processing.
Gums arabic, karaya and tragacanth are complex heteropolysaccharides de-
rived from plant exudates. Guar and locust bean (carob) gums, obtained from
seeds, are galactomannans where the mannan is made soluble by single galactose
unit side chains. Guar gum (mannose to galactose ratio of 2: 1) is more substituted
than locust bean gum (4 :1 ratio), and is cold water soluble. Locust bean gum
requires hot water. An example of a mucilage not commercially available but
used to thicken foods during cooking, particularly in the southeastern part of the
United States, is that from okra. This is a rhamnogalacturonan in which L-rham-
nose is linked to D-galacturonic acid units in the interior chain of the polymer.
Xanthan gum, produced by microbial fermentation, has a cellulose main
chain that is made soluble by the presence of short side chains on every second
glucose unit. These side chains contain glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid
units in a 3 :3 :2 ratio. Xanthan has a molecular weight in the millions and forms
a synergistic gel with locust bean gum but not with guar gum.
While these are used in small amounts in food products, their complex
carbohydrate nature and structure cause them to function as a component of di-
etary fiber. They are not digestible by the enzymes of the human gastrointestinal
system.
MODIFIED STARCHES
Many starches do not have the functional properties needed to impart or maintain
desired qualities in food products. As a result, starches have been modified to
obtain the functional properties required. The types of modified food starches,
also known as ‘‘starch derivatives,’’ are listed in Table 2 (16).
The starches most commonly modified for commercial use are those from
normal maize, tapioca, potato, and waxy maize. The methods used to produce
modified starches include dextrinization, acid-hydrolysis, oxidation, cross-link-
ing, monosubstitution by esterification and etherification, and combinations of
these processes. The manufacture of food starches (chemicals used, amount incor-
porated into the starch, amount of residues permitted) is regulated by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) and listed in the Code of Federal Regulations
(21CFR 172.892). Modified food starches must be approved by the FDA as food
124 Lineback
TABLE 2 Types of Modified Starches (16)

Bleached Oxidized
Lighter in color, sterile
Converted Hydrolyzed
Reduces viscosity
(a) Thin boiling Fluidity
(b) Dextrins Dry roasted
(c) Oxidized Creaminess, short body
Cross-linked Strengthens granule
Increases viscosity
Tolerance to acidity
Yields to shear resistance
Heat penetration
Stabilized Resist retrogradation
Add specific functional properties
Low temperature stability
additives before they can be used in food products. It has been many years since
a new starch derivative has been developed and approved because of the time
and cost involved in obtaining approval.
Food starches are modified to obtain one or more of the following improve-
ments in functional properties (16):
1. Decrease viscosity
2. Increase dispersion stability
3. Increase gel formation and strength
4. Improve gelatinization properties (lower temperature, rapid cooking,
less viscosity breakdown)
5. Affect cold-water dispersibility
6. Introduce functional group properties
Modified starches are used to improve viscosity, shelf stability, particulate
integrity, processing parameters, textures, appearance and emulsification. While
virtually all of the different types of modified starches find use in the food indus-
try, substituted and cross-linked starches are particularly important. These two
types of modified starches are produced by reactions in which a small number
of hydroxyl groups on the glucose units of amylose and amylopectin, mostly in
amorphous regions and on the surface of the granule, are modified without de-
stroying the granular nature of the starch.
Substituted starches are produced by etherification or esterification. This
reduces the tendency of chains to realign (retrograde) following gelatinization of
starch during heat processing. Substitution lowers the gelatinization temperature,
gives freeze-thaw stability, increases viscosity, increases clarity, inhibits gel for-
mation, and reduces syneresis.
Cross-linked starches are produced by introducing a limited number of link-
ages between the chains of amylose and amylopectin using difunctional reagents.
Cross-linking essentially reinforces the hydrogen bonding occurring within the
granule. Cross-linking increases gelatinization temperature; yields acid stability,
heat stability and shear stability; inhibits gel formation; and controls viscosity
during processing.
RESISTANT STARCH
While starch was long thought to be completely digested, it is now recognized
that there is a portion (resistant starch) which resists digestion, passes into the
lower intestine, and is fermented there. Resistant starch has been defined as ‘‘the
sum of starch and products of starch degradation not absorbed in the small intes-
tine of healthy individuals’’ (17). Three types of resistant starch have been identi-
fied (17,18):
RS1—Physically Trapped Starch

These starch granules are physically trapped within a food matrix so that digestive
enzymes are prevented or delayed from having access to them. This can occur
in whole or partly ground grains, seeds, cereals, and legumes. The amount of
type 1 resistant starch will be affected by food processing and can be decreased
or eliminated by milling.
RS2—Resistant Starch Granules

Certain raw (native) starch granules, such as potato and green banana, are known
to resist attack by alpha-amylase. This is probably related to the crystalline nature
of the starch, i.e., crystalline regions of the starch granule are less susceptible to
attack by acid and enzymes than the amorphous regions. The double helical na-
ture of the chains in the cluster regions of amylopectin are known to confer added
stability to attack by acid and enzymes. Native starches having a B-type x-ray
diffraction pattern (tuber starches) appear to be more resistant to digestion than
starches having an A-type pattern (cereal starches) or C-type (pea and bean
starches)(19, cited in 17).
Gelatinization normally occurs during cooking and food processing, al-
though the extent is dependent on the moisture content of the food product and
may not be complete in water-limited systems, e.g. sugar cookies. Gelatinized
starch is much more rapidly digested by enzymes than is raw starch. Gelatinized
potato and green banana starch are digested by alpha-amylases.
High amylose maize starches have high gelatinization temperatures, requir-
126 Lineback
ing temperatures that are often not reached in conventional cooking practices,
i.e., 154–171°C before the granules are completely disrupted. As a result, undi-
gested starch granules were observed in the effluent from ileostomates fed a meal
containing high amylose maize (17). Thus, these starches offer an important op-
portunity to manipulate the amount of resistant starch present in food products.
RS3—Retrograded Starch
The amylose and amylopectin components of starch undergo the process of retro-
gradation in a time dependent process after starch has been gelatinized/cooked.
The rate at which amylose retrogrades is much higher than that for amylopectin
which has much shorter chain lengths. Amylose can be retrograded to a form
that resists dispersion in water and digestion with alpha-amylase (20–23, cited
in 17). This form of resistant starch can be generated during food processing.
There is currently great interest in resistant starch because of its potential
use as a food ingredient to increase the dietary fiber content of foods and also
because it may be possible to manipulate the amount of resistant starch in food
products through processing conditions.
Of special interest is the fermentation of resistant starch in the large intes-
tine to short chain fatty acids. In both in vitro and in vivo studies, it has been
shown that starch is a rich source of butyrate via fermentation (17). This has also
been shown in humans. A recent human study indicated that diets containing
resistant starch increased fecal bulk and concentrations of short chain fatty acids
(acetate and butyrate, with butyrate increasing by the larger amount), and lowered
fecal pH (24). Butyrate may play a role in reducing colon cancer.
RESISTANT OLIGOSACCHARIDES
The term ‘‘resistant oligosaccharides’’ has been proposed for those oligosaccha-
rides that are resistant to hydrolysis by human alimentary enzymes. There is
support for expanding the definition of dietary fiber to include this group of carbo-
hydrates (6).
Commonly encountered examples of resistant oligosaccharides include the
raffinose series of alpha-galactosides, i.e., the trisaccharide raffinose, the tetrasac-
charide stachyose, and the pentasaccharide verbascose. These are commonly
found in beans, lentils and peas, where they occur in amounts from 5–8% (dry
matter basis), and are associated with the flatulence commonly encountered from
the consumption of these foods.
Fructans, such as inulin, and fructooligosaccharides occur in a number of
plants, such as Jerusalem artichokes, onions, asparagus, wheat, rye, and triticale.
In Jerusalem artichokes and onions, they may represent up to 60–70% of the dry
matter. Smaller amounts of fructooligosaccharides are present in cereal

grains (25).
Fructooligosaccharides are industrially prepared enzymatically from inulin
or sucrose. They have a taste profile similar to sucrose with about 30% of the
sweetness. They do not undergo the Maillard browning reaction since they are
non-reducing oligosaccharides (26).
Fructans and fructooligosaccharides are not digested by human alimentary
enzymes, but they are fermented in the large intestine. Their lower molecular
weight compared to many other components of dietary fiber do not make then
any less a complex carbohydrate. They are of interest as potential ingredients in
foods because of their effects on intestinal flora, their functionality and their
reduced caloric value.
CONCLUSION
It is trite, but true, to note that the area of complex carbohydrates is truly complex.
The components comprising this class of carbohydrates cannot clearly be defined
on the basis of structure, physiological response, or analytical methodology used
to measure them. They have traditionally been defined based on the extraction
procedures used to isolate them. Whenever solubility is used as a major criterion
for a definition, the result is a lack of clear separation and delineation. It is becom-
ing clear that these carbohydrate components can be measured, although the dif-
ficulties are clearly those so frequently encountered and discussed for dietary
fiber. Analytical chemists have established a good basis of agreement for these
procedures, have conducted many collaborative studies and surveys, and are in
the process of fine tuning the methods to be used. The definition still is elusive
and of little value to the consumer. As long as the United States uses the term
‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ in dietary recommendations but not on food labeling,
the consumer be confused.
REFERENCES
1. Dietary Goals for the United States, Second Edition, U.S. Senate Select Committee
on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., 1977.
2. Healthy People, The Surgeon General’s Report on Health Promotion and Disease
Prevention, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1979.
3. S. C. Lee and L. Prosky, Dietary Fiber Analysis for Nutrition Labeling. Cereal Foods
World 38:135 (1993).
4. Department of Health and Human Services, Food Labeling, Federal Register 55:
29476 (1990).
128 Lineback
5. Food and Drug Administration, General provisions on food labeling, nutrition label-
ing, label format, nutrient content claims, ingredient labeling, state and local require-
ments and exemptions. Final rules. Federal Register 58:631, 2302 (1993).
6. S. C. Lee and L. Prosky, Perspectives on complex carbohydrate definition. Cereal
Foods World 41:88 (1996).
7. J. C. Brand, Digestion and absorption of cereal products–fast or slow? In The Role of
Cereals in the Human Diet, L. O’Brein and K. O’Dea (eds), p. 29, Cereal Chemistry
Division, Royal Australian Chemical Institute, Parkville, Victoria, 1988.
8. S. Hizukuri, Polymodal distribution of the chain lengths of amylopectins and its
significance. Carbohydrate Res. 147:342 (1986).
9. D. R. Lineback and V. F. Rasper, Wheat Carbohydrates. In Wheat: Chemistry and
Technology, Y. Pomeranz (ed), Vol. 1, p. 277, American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1988.
10. O. Theander and P. Aman, The chemistry, morphology and analysis of dietary fiber
components. In Dietary Fibers: Chemistry and Nutrition, G. E. Inglett and S. I. Falke-
hag (eds), p. 215, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1979.
11. G. O. Aspinall, Analysis of polysaccharides. In Food Carbohydrates, D. R. Lineback
and G. E. Inglett (eds), p. 356, AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1982.
12. C. J. A. Vinkx, H. R. Reynaert, P. J. Grobet, and J. A. Delcour, Physicochemical
and functional properties of rye nonstarch polysaccharides. V. Variability in the
structure of water-soluble arabinoxylans. Cereal Chem. 70:311 (1993).
13. J. W. Anderson and S. R. Bridges, Hypocholesterolemic effects of oat bran in hu-
mans. In Oat Bran, P. J. Wood (ed), p. 139, American Association of Cereal Chem-
ists, St. Paul, MN, 1993.
14. Y. Pomeranz, Functional Properties of Food Components, p. 91, Academic Press,
New York, NY, 1985.
15. P. Chinachoti, Carbohydrates: functionality in foods. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 61 (suppl):
922S (1995).
16. P. S. Smith, Starch derivatives and their use in foods. In Food Carbohydrates, D. R.
Lineback and G. E. Inglett (eds), p. 237, AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1982.
17. J. G. Muir, G. P. Young, K. O’Dea, D. Cameron-Smith, I. L. Brown and G. R.
Collier, Resistant starch—the neglected ‘dietary fiber’? Implications for health. Di-
etary Fiber Bibliography and Reviews, 1:33 (1993).
18. H. N. Englyst, S. M. Kingman and J. H. Cummings, Resistant starch: Measurement
in foods and physiological role in man. In Plant Polymeric Carbohydrates, F. Meuser,
D. J. Manners, and W. Seibel (eds), p. 137, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cam-
bridge, U.K., 1993.
19. D. J. Gallant, B. Bouchet, A. Buleon, and S. Perez, Physical characteristics of starch
granules and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation. European J. Clin. Nutr. 46
(suppl):S3 (1992).
20. M. J. Miles, V. J. Morris, and S. G. Ring, The roles of amylose and amylopectin
in the gelation and retrogradation of starch. Carbohydrate Res. 135:257 (1985).
21. M. J. Miles, V. J. Morris, P. D. Orford, and S. G. Ring, The roles of amylose and
amylopectin in the gelation and retrogradation of starch. Carbohydrate Res. 135:271
(1985).
22. S. G. Ring, P. Colonna, K. J. I’Anson, M. T. Kalichevsky, M. J. Miles, V. J. Morris,
and P. D. Orford, The gelation and crystallization of amylopectin. Carbohydrate Res.

152:277 (1987).
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Its chemical form in foodstuffs and effect on digestibility in vitro. Food Chemistry
28:97 (1988).
24. J. Phillips, J. G. Muir, A. Birkett, Z. X. Lu, G. P. Jones, K. O’Dea, and G. P. Young,
Effect of resistant starch on fecal bulk and fermentation-dependent events in humans.
Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 62:121 (1995).
25. N.-G. L. Asp, Classification and methodology of food carbohydrates as related to
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763S (1994).
11
Complex Carbohydrates:
Definition and Analysis
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

LEON PROSKY
DEFINITION
Introduction
Dietary recommendations in many Western societies promote the consumption
of a diet rich in complex carbohydrates and fiber (1–5). Such dietary guidelines,
issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, and by a variety of public and private agencies,
often serve as a basis of policy in public health nutrition, including nutrition
labeling and allowable health claims. An increasing number of studies show high-
fiber, low-fat diets to be protective against disease, including atherosclerosis, co-
lon cancer, and gastrointestinal disease (6–8). Health claims for products high in
fiber and complex carbohydrates need to be well supported by scientific evidence.
Therefore, accuracy in the definition of complex carbohydrates and fiber for food
131
132 Cho and Prosky
labeling purposes is an issue of prime importance both to the food industry and
the consumer (9).
There was little consensus on what complex carbohydrates are, how they
should be defined, and what information about their content in foods is most
appropriate for a nutrition label. It would be most helpful for regulatory agencies
if researchers in nutrition and food science, industry representatives, and health
professionals were all to agree on a common definition of complex carbohydrates
with consumers being aware of their finding. The term complex carbohydrates
acquired importance because of the 1977 dietary advice form the U.S. Senate
Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs. However, there has been no
general consensus whether the definition of complex carbohydrates should be
limited to digestible polysaccharides, primarily starch, or should also include
dietary fiber. Given a professional consensus on what complex carbohydrates are,
standardized analytical methods could be developed to test this definition. The
present survey aimed at establishing a professional consensus regarding the defi-
nition of complex carbohydrates for food labeling purposes.
In the United States, following the passage of the 1990 Nutrition Labeling
and Education Act (NLEA), the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is-
sued in 1991 its proposed labeling regulations for the purpose of soliciting public
comment. In response to this solicitation, AOAC International in 1992 assembled
a Task Force on Nutrient Labeling Analysis to review the available methods for
carbohydrate analysis. The Subcommittee on Carbohydrate Methodology, com-
posed of representatives from the FDA, USDA, academia and the food industry,
was specifically charged with recommending appropriate analytical methodology
to be used in carbohydrate analysis of foods for labeling purposes. The Subcom-
mittee was also charged with identifying both immediate and future needs in the
area of carbohydrate analysis.
The Subcommittee’s work revealed two basic questions. First, there was no
clear definition of complex carbohydrates. Second, there was a lack of validated
analytical methods for those definitions of complex carbohydrates that were put
forth. The Subcommittee concluded that more work was needed to develop ana-
lytical methods for complex carbohydrates. The FDA also concluded that there
was not sufficient professional consensus on the meaning of the term complex
carbohydrate to justify developing a definition, and requiring mandatory nutrition
labeling. The final food labeling regulations issued in January 1993 by the FDA
and the USDA did not include the term complex carbohydrate (10,11). One ques-
tion posed was whether complex carbohydrates could be well defined from the
standpoint of structure, function, and contribution to health. The other concerned
the methodology for the analysis of complex carbohydrates.
To further address these issues, AOAC International established a refer-
eeship in the area of complex carbohydrates in 1993. The first step taken by the
Complex Carbohydrates 133
two referees, S. S. Cho (formerly S. C. Lee) and L. Prosky, was to initiate an

international survey on complex carbohydrates, which was conducted under the
auspices of AOAC International. The purpose of the survey was to determine if
an international consensus could be reached on the definition of complex carbohy-
drates and the most appropriate methods for their analysis.
International Survey on Complex

Carbohydrates Definition
Approximately 200 survey questionnaires were distributed to prominent profes-
sionals in carbohydrate science. The survey yielded 114 respondents, representing
scientists from 29 different countries. Table 1 shows the geographic distribution
of the survey participants. Fifty-one percent of respondents were from Europe;
another 26% were from North America; 19% were from the Pacific Rim, includ-
ing Australia, Japan and Korea; and the remaining 3% were from Latin America.
The research interests of the respondents were reported as nutrition (43%), analyt-
ical chemistry (29%), medical research (13%), food technology (10%), and other
(6%). The respondents affiliations were reported as university (30%), research
institutes (30%), industry (16%), and government/state agencies (13%).
Respondents were first asked to select from a provided list of carbohydrate
components those which, in their view, should be included in the definition of
complex carbohydrates for food labeling purposes. The question was presented
in a multiple choice format, with the possibility of writing in additional options.
The various options are listed in Table 2. The 107 respondents were also asked
to explain and justify their choices.
Most respondents felt that available starches (72%) should be included in
the definition of complex carbohydrates. The majority of respondents also listed
the terms non-starch polysaccharides (69%), total starches (58%), and unavailable
or resistant starches (58%) to be included in the complex carbohydrate fraction.
Approximately one-third of respondents included both available (33%) and un-
TABLE 1 Distribution of Survey Participants

No. of No. of
Region and country persons countries
Europe 58 18
North America 31 2
Asia 21 5
Latin America 4 4
134 Cho and Prosky
TABLE 2 Answers to Question 1: For nutrition labeling purposes,

which should be included in the complex carbohydrate definition?
Check all that apply.
No.
Definition choices N ⫽ 107 Percent
Available starches 77 72%

Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) 74 69%
Total starches 62 58%
Unavailable starches (Resistant starches) 62 58%
Oligosaccharide, available 35 33%
Oligosaccharide, unavailable (Resistant oligosaccharides) 34 32%
Lignin 31 29%
available oligosaccharides (32%) and lignin (29%) in their definition of complex

carbohydrates. Further data analyses showed that 62% of respondents indicated
that both total starches and unavailable polysaccharides were complex carbohy-
drates.
The second survey question (Table 3) asked respondents to define complex
carbohydrates using their own descriptions. This open-ended question was in-
tended to elicit an unprompted definition of complex carbohydrates directly from
the respondent. Of the 72 persons who replied, 63 provided a definition of com-
plex carbohydrates, while 9 stated that they did not like the term and failed to
provide a definition. Out of the 63 respondents, 52 (82%) included dietary fiber
polysaccharides in addition to available starches in their own definition of com-
plex carbohydrates. Table 3 shows the most common descriptions of complex
carbohydrates as provided by the 52 respondents. While 19 (26%) respondents
described complex carbohydrates simply as polysaccharides, 10 (14%) based
their answers on the physiology of digestion, defining complex carbohydrates as
glucose polymers that are slowly digested or not digested in the small intestine.
Another 10 respondents (14%) included all carbohydrates except simple sugars
in their definition, while 7 (9%) described complex carbohydrates as starch plus
dietary fiber. Eight responses referred to complex carbohydrates as starches or
available starches, and the remainder used such terms as unavailable starches or
oligosaccharides, cell wall carbohydrates or lignin.
Results of the AOAC Survey indicate that a consensus exists among profes-
sionals that dietary fiber polysaccharides should be included in the definition of
complex carbohydrate. However, the inclusion of unavailable carbohydrates and
lignin in the definition of complex carbohydrates for labeling purposes does pose
certain dilemmas.
TABLE 3 Answers to Question 2: Using your own description, please

define complex carbohydrates.
No. of
respondents
providing the
Definition provided definition Percent
Polysaccharides 19 26%
Glucose polymers which are slowly digested or not 10 14%
digested in the small intestine
Carbohydrates minus simple sugars 10 13%
Don’t like the term 9 9%
Starch and dietary fiber 7 5%
Available starches 4 5%
Starch ⫹ dietary fiber ⫹ oligosaccharides 4 5%
Glucans with a complex structure 2 3%
Dietary fiber ⫹ unavailable oligosaccharides 1 1%
NSP ⫹ lignin 1 1%
Starch and cell wall carbohydrates 1 1%
Unavailable carbohydrates 1 1%
Glucans not soluble in 80% ETOH 1 1%
Carbohydrates of plant origin (⬎DP4) 1 1%
International Survey Results on Dietary

Fiber Definition
If the definition of complex carbohydrates is to include dietary fiber, results of
two prior international surveys on fiber should be of major interest (11). One
hundred forty-four experts participated in the first survey and 122 responded to
the second, representing professionals from 30 countries. The results of the first
survey were reported in Lee and Prosky (9, 12, 13). In these surveys (Table 4),
respondents generally supported the definition of dietary fiber as those polysac-
charides and lignin that are not hydrolyzed by the human alimentary enzymes.
According to this definition, dietary fiber would include non-soluble polysaccha-
rides, resistant saccharides and lignin. In general, fiber survey respondents also
supported the idea that the definition of dietary fiber be expanded to include ROs,
unavailable polysaccharides, resistant starch and lignin.
Resistant oligosaccharides were defined as oligosaccharides that are not
hydrolyzed by the human alimentary enzymes or as oligosaccharides that escape
digestion in the human upper GI tract, including the mouth, stomach and small
intestine. In the second survey, some 66% of survey respondents supported the
136 Cho and Prosky
TABLE 4 Answers to Question: How would you define dietary fiber?

(Check only one.) a
No. Percent Option
34 22.2 a. Remnants of plant components resistant to human alimentary en-

zymes. These include undigestible polysaccharides, lignin, undigest-
ible proteins and lipids, etc.
66 43.1 b. The sum of lignin and polysaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by
human alimentary enzymes, i.e., the sum of non-starch polysaccha-
rides, resistant starch, and lignin.
10 6.5 c. Polysaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary en-
zymes, i.e., the sum of non-starch polysaccharides.
11 7.2 d. The sum of non-starch polysaccharides plus lignin.
5 3.3 e. Plant cell-wall components.
9 5.9 f. Non-starch polysaccharides only.
16 10.5 g. Other answers.
2 1.3 No answer.
a
Up to 2 answers were accepted
inclusion of ROs in the definition of dietary fiber. Respondents cited the following
reasons to include ROs in the definition: (1) ROs are difficult to distinguish from
the non-hydrolyzable polysaccharides, whether they are part of the total dietary
fiber or the soluble dietary fiber fraction, and (2) they have a physiological effect
in the large intestine similar to those of other dietary fibers. Those respondents
(34%) who felt that ROs should not be included in the dietary fiber gave the
following reasons: (1) there are no validated methods for analyzing ROs (e.g.,
ROs precipitate incompletely in 80% ETOH), (2) ROs are not true polysaccha-
rides, (3) ROs are not part of the plant cell-wall material, (4) there is a lack of
knowledge about the physiological effects of high amounts of ROs, and (5) the
inclusion of ROs would complicate the definition.
A large percentage of respondents (86%) indicated that lignin should also
be included in the expanded definition of complex carbohydrates. Although lignin
is a polyphenol, and not a carbohydrate, it is historically included for several
reasons: lignin (1) is resistant to human digestion, (2) has a physiological effect
similar to dietary fiber on intestinal transit and fermentation, (3) is closely related
in function to dietary fiber, and (4) is of cell-wall origin. Those respondents (14%)
who opposed including lignin in the definition of dietary fiber gave the following
reasons: lignin (1) is not a carbohydrate, (2) does not ferment in the intestine,
(3) has no proven health benefits, and (4) there is no suitable analytical methodol-
ogy for the determination of lignin content.
The 1995 AOAC International Workshop Results

To conclude the results of the three international surveys, an AOAC International
Workshop was also held in Nashville, Tennessee, on September 15–16, 1995,
with 57 participants from the United States, Canada, and Europe. The foremost
authorities in the world from industry, academia, and government participated.
The Workshop is a follow-up to the international surveys as well as the activities
of the Carbohydrates Subcommittee of the Nutrients Labeling Analysis Task
Force of 1992–1993 and the International Life Science Institute (ILSI)-North
American Workshop held in November 1994 in Washington, D.C. (14).
The workshop results indicated that there is a general agreement among
industry that complex carbohydrates equal available starch and dietary fiber (15).
There was a general agreement among the workshop participants that dietary
fiber should be included in the definition of complex carbohydrates and that ROs
are part of dietary fiber. Twenty-nine persons, representing 85% of the 34 people
providing a definition for complex carbohydrates, agreed that the definition is
the sum of dietary fiber and starch (technically speaking, available or enzyme
available starch). For the nutrition label, complex carbohydrates could be derived
as the sum of analytically measured starch and dietary fiber values or by the
calculation as total carbohydrates—(sugar ⫹ available oligosaccharides). Among
the 29 scientists supporting the definition of complex carbohydrates as the sum
of starch and dietary fiber, 16 persons (corresponding to 55%) supported the
labeling of analytically derived values (total dietary fiber and available starch)
and 13 persons (45%) were of the opinion that the values calculated by the differ-
ence method would be acceptable. It was recommended that the associate referee
continue study based on this definition of complex carbohydrates as the sum of
available starch and dietary fiber. It is in agreement with the definition of complex
carbohydrates used in recent U.S. Dietary Guidelines of 1995 (2). An interesting
point to note is only two persons supported the FDA’s 1991 definition of complex
carbohydrates as total carbohydrates—dietary fiber—simple sugars. Other defi-
nitions considered were the sum of starch and non-starch saccharides (3 persons)
and the sum of starch and non-starch polysaccharides (which correspond to poly-
saccharides; 0 person). Strong interest was shown in analytical methods for ROs.
It was recommended to establish new associate refereeships in this area (15).
ANALYSIS
An analytical method was developed to measure complex carbohydrates (CC) in
foods as the sum of available starch and total dietary fiber. Desugared food sam-
ples were subjected to sequential starch and protein digestion by using heat stable
alpha-amylase, protease, and amyloglucosidase, and filtered. Filtrate containing
138 Cho and Prosky
enzymatic digestate of starch was analyzed for glucose and maltose by using a
high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. Residues were subjected
to further analysis of dietary fiber by using a gravimetric method. The available
starch values obtained by the HPLC method were precise and in agreement with
those derived by the calculation method (%Available Starch ⫽ %Total Carbohy-
drate ⫺ %Total Dietary Fiber ⫺ %Sugars ⫺ %H2O ⫺ %Protein ⫺ %Fat ⫺
%Ash). The complex carbohydrates values generated as the sum of analytically
measured available starch and total dietary fiber were precise and agreed with
those calculated by the difference method (%CC ⫽ %Total Carbohydrates ⫺
%Sugars ⫺ %H2O ⫺ %Protein ⫺ %Fat ⫺ %Ash).
Sample
Samples included the following products: (1) corn cereal; (2) rice cereal; (3)
wheat cereal; (4) wheat bran cereal; (5) fat-free cracker; (6) high-fiber cereal; (7)
green bean; and (8) wheat bran. The samples were purchased at a local supermar-
ket, with the exception of the green bean, which was freeze dried. The samples
were ground in a Wiley mill with a 0.5 mm screen. If the fat content of any food
exceeded 10%, the food was defatted with petroleum ether before milling.
To test the sugar extraction efficiency, the following known standards were
included: (1) standard mix, consisting of 40% sucrose, 30% corn starch, and 30%
cellulose; (2) wheat starch standard; and (3) cellulose standard.
Method
Complex carbohydrates are determined as the sum of available starch and dietary
fiber. Duplicate samples of dried foods, fat-extracted if containing ⬎10% fat,
undergo sequential enzymatic treatments by heat-stable α-amylase, protease, and
amyloglucosidase to digest starch and protein. Enzymatic digestion steps have
been adopted from AOAC official final action methods 991.43 (17, 18) and
985.29 (18, 19). For available starch, the enzyme digestate, containing mostly
monosaccharides and some disaccharides, is analyzed by HPLC. Measured glu-
cose and maltose are converted into a starch unit and reported as available starch.
HPLC conditions have been adopted from AOAC official final action method
982.14 (18) for sugar determination. For total dietary fiber (TDF), the enzyme
digestate is treated with alcohol to precipitate soluble dietary fiber before filtering,
and TDF residue is washed with alcohol and acetone, dried, and weighed. TDF
residue values are corrected for protein, ash, and blank. TDF determination is
the same for method 991.43.
Analytical Column: Zorbax NH2 , 4.6 mm I.D. x 25 cm
Guard Column: Supelco, 10 cm, aminopropylsilyl
Mobile Phase: 70% acetonitrile, 30% water (v/v)
Flow Rate: 1.0 mL/min.

Injection Temperature: room temp.
Elution Mode: Isocratic
Detector: Refractive index
Detector Sensitivity: 0.020 x 10⫺3
Response Time: 2.0 min.
Run Time: 25 min.
Injection Volume: 15 µL
Note: Parameters may vary in order to optimize the chromatography.
Sugar extraction efficiency was calculated by comparing the sugar content

of ethanolic extract prepared by the method described in this paper and the sugar
content of the original sample analyzed by AOAC sugar method 982.14.
sugar extracted, %
% Sugar extraction efficiency ⫽ ⫻ 100
sugars in samples, %
Analytical Results
The HPLC method described in this paper is a quantitative method for available
starch in foods. A variety of samples, such as grains, ready-to-eat breakfast cere-
als, breads, crackers, fruits, vegetables, and mixed diets can be analyzed by using
this method. Complex carbohydrates are determined as the sum of available
starch and dietary fiber; available starch by high performance liquid chromatogra-
phy determination of glucose and maltose present in the enzymatic hydrolysates
of desugared sample; and dietary fiber by enzymatic gravimetric method, official
final action method 991.43.
It is important to remove simple sugars prior to enzymatic hydrolysis of
starches, so that simple sugars do not carry over in the sugar analysis for available
starch determination. For the efficient desugaring, we used 49% ethanol in water
initially for easier dissolution of sugars. Additional 95% ethanol was added to
make the final concentration of 78% ethanol to precipitate dietary fiber extraction.
This procedure would ensure that simple sugars are efficiently removed without
eliminating water soluble dietary fiber components. Table 5 indicates that the
extraction efficiency is generally excellent, ranging from 90% to 99%. One cereal
sample which showed 90% desugaring efficiency had a low sugar content (6.2%)
in the original sample to begin with. Ethanolic extract of that sample contained
5.6% sugars. We consider both 6.2% and 5.6% to be in the normal analytical
variability range for sugar determinations. Thus, overall efficiency of the desugar-
ing step is considered excellent.
The elution orders of standard sugars in this HPLC method, using an amino-
bonded silica column packing and acetonitrile-water mobile phase, follow the
expected saccharide polarity: fructose, glucose, sucrose, and maltose. The enzy-
140 Cho and Prosky
TABLE 5 Sugar Extraction Efficiency

Sugars in
Sugar extracted, sample, % Extraction
Source % % efficiency
Standard Mix 39.8 40.0 99.0
Green Bean 15.6 16.2 96.3
Wheat Bran Cereal 15.9 17.0 92.9
Prune 53.5 56.2 95.2
Bread 5.6 6.2 90.3
Cellulose 0 0 0
Wheat Starch 0 0 0
Cracker ⬍1.0 ⬍1.0 0
matic digestate of the desugared sample showed mostly glucose peaks and negli-
gible peaks from maltose and sucrose. The sample chromatograms demonstrated
that the starch digestion steps using three enzymes, heat stable alpha-amylase,
protease, and amyloglucosidase, were near completion, producing mostly glu-
cose. The glucose values in the enzyme hydrolysate were multiplied by the factor
0.9 to convert into starch values.
The Final Food Labeling Regulations in the United States (6) have recog-
nized that HPLC methods are the most appropriate for nutrition labeling pur-
poses among all the sugar determination techniques. The HPLC approach
offers the most accurate and specific determinations of mono- and di-saccha-
rides. Thus, the HPLC technique can give the most accurate figures for available
starch, which is derived from glucose and maltose values of the starch hydroly-
sates. However, the method requires a high capital investment and trained person-
nel for troubleshooting. The presence of salt, especially in the hydrolysate of
processed foods, interferes with the analysis because chloride ions elute quickly
after glucose. It is important to wash the column for 2 hours at 1.5 mL/min with
a solution of 0.1% tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) (pH approximately 7 with
acetic acid) in 78% acetonitrile in water and finally with normal mobile phase
(20).
Table 6 shows the percent recovery of several standards. Percent recoveries
of available starch and DF for these known standards are excellent. The starch
digestion in our method was done by heat stable alpha-amylase and amyloglucosi-
dase, which are more specific to glucose-glucose bonds. Thus, most of the sucrose
in the sample (99%) was recovered as sucrose in the enzyme hydrolysate.
In Table 7 are the reported available starch data generated by HPLC and
TABLE 6 Percent Recovery of Standards

Available
Source TDF starch
Cellulose 105.8 0.5

Wheat Starch 0.4 99.0
Corn Starch 0.5 100.8
Standard Mix 108.9 99.9
the difference methods. The samples tested were corn cereal, rice cereal, wheat
and wheat bran cereals, crackers and bread, wheat bran and green beans.
Complex carbohydrate values derived analytically as the sum of DF and
available starch were precise (Table 7). The current TDF methods do not fully
recover RO. For the samples containing added RO sources such as inulin and
polydextrose, the supplemental method should be used (21, 22). On the other
hand, the difference method cannot be used for the samples containing significant
amounts of available oligosaccharides, such as malto-triose and malto-tetrose,
present in candies. The difference method would significantly overestimate com-
plex carbohydrate content in these types of products.
Based on the results, we suggest that this HPLC method for analysis of
available starches be collaboratively validated by different laboratories.
TABLE 7 Determination of Available Starch in Foods

(by HPLC) and Complex Carbohydrates* 1 * 2
Sample % Available starch % Complex CHO
Corn Cereal 76.2 ⫾ 2.59 78.8 ⫾ 2.59

Rice Cereal 72.5 ⫾ 0.27 73.5 ⫾ 0.27
Wheat Cereal 22.6 ⫾ 0.86 53.5 ⫾ 0.86
Wheat Bran Cereal 49.3 ⫾ 0.50 67.0 ⫾ 1.10
Cracker 71.4 ⫾ 0.59 74.6 ⫾ 0.37
Bread 57.7 ⫾ 1.01 64.9 ⫾ 0.89
Green Bean 16.6 ⫾ 0.30 46.7 ⫾ 0.30
Wheat Bran 19.6 ⫾ 1.03 62.8 ⫾ 0.14
*1 N ⫽ 4
* 2 Available starch (calculation) ⫽ 100 ⫺ %H2O ⫺ %protein ⫺ %ash ⫺
%fat ⫺ %sugar ⫺ %TDF.
Relative values comparing analytical and calculated values ⫽ (analyti-
cal values/calculated values) ⫻ 100.
142 Cho and Prosky
REFERENCES
1. USDA’s Food Guide Pyramid. Human Nutrition Information Service (1992) Home
and Garden Bulletin No 249, USDA and USDHHS, Washington, D.C.
2. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines For Americans (1995) Home and
Garden Bulletin No 232, 3rd Ed., USDA and USDHHS, Washington, D.C.
3. National Research Council (1989) Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing
Chronic Disease Risk. Report of the Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutri-
tion Board, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
4. U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services (1991) Healthy People 2000. National
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives, PHS Publ 91-50212, Wash-
ington, D.C.
5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1988) Surgeon General’s Report
on Nutrition and Health. USDHHS Publ. No. 88-50210, Washington, D.C.
6. Anderson, J. W., et al. (1984) Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Oat-bran or Bean
Intake for Hypercholesterolemic Men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 40:
1146–1155
7. Klurfeld, D. M. (1987) The role of dietary fiber in gastrointestinal disease. Journal
of the American Dietetic Association. 87:1172–1177
8. Greenwald, P., Lanza, E., and Eddy, G. A. (1987) Dietary Fiber in the Reduction
of Colon Cancer Risk. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 87:1178–1188
9. Lee, S. and Prosky, L. (1995) International Survey on Dietary Fiber: Definition,
Analysis, and Reference Materials. Journal of AOAC International 78:22–36
10. Food and Drug Administration (1993) Food Labeling, General Provisions: Nutrition
Local requirements; and Exemptions: Final Rules. Fed. Register 58:2302–2941,
1993
11. Department of Agriculture (1993) Food Labeling; General Provisions: Nutrition La-
beling: Label Format: Nutrient Content Claims: Ingredient Labeling: State and Local
requirements; and Exemptions: Final Rules. Fed. Register 58:631–691.
12. Lee, S. C., and Prosky, L. Summary of AOAC International Survey on Complex
Carbohydrates. International Life Sciences Institute. North American Workshop on
Complex Carbohydrates, Washington, D.C. November 2, 1994
13. Lee, S. C. and Prosky, L. (1994) Perspectives on New Dietary Fiber Definition.
Cereal Foods World. 39:767–768
14. Anonymous. (1995) Special Report: Complex Carbohydrates: The Science and the
Label. Nutr. Rev. 53:186
15. Anonymous. (1995) International Workshop on Complex Carbohydrates Definition.
The Referee 19(10), 15
16. Lee, S. C., Vincent, R., Prosky, L., Sullivan, D. M. (1996) Evaluating an analytical
method for complex carbohydrate determinations. Cereal Foods World. 41:64–70.
17. Lee, S. C., Prosky, L., DeVries, J. W. (1992) Determination of Total, Soluble, and
Insoluble Dietary Fiber in Foods-Enzymatic- Gravimetric Method, MES-TRIS
Buffer: Collaborative Study. J. AOAC Int. 75:395–416
18. Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, Official Methods of Anal-
ysis, 16th Ed. The Association, Arlington, VA, 1995.
19. Prosky, L., Asp, N.-G., Schweizer, T. F., DeVries, J. W., Furda, I. (1988) Determina-
tion of Insoluble, Soluble and Total Dietary Fiber in Foods and Food Products: Inter-
laboratory Study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71:1017–1023.
20. DeVries, J. W., Chang, H. L., Heroff, J. C., and Johnson, K. D. (1983) High Pressure
Liquid Chromatography Determination of Carbohydrates in Food Products: Evalua-
tion of Methods. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 66:197–198.
21. Craig, S. A. S., Holden, J. F., Troup, J. P., Auerbach, M. H., and Frier, H. (1995)
Polydextrose as Soluble Fiber and Complex Carbohydrates. AOAC International
Workshop on Definition and Analysis of Complex Carbohydrates, Dietry Fiber,
Nashville, TN, September 15–16, 1995.
22. Quemener, B., Thibault, J. F., and Coussement, P. (1994) Determination of Inulin
and Oligofructose in Food Products, and Integration in the AOAC Method for Mea-
surements of Total Dietary Fiber. Lebensm. Wiss. U. Technol. 27:125–132.
12
Determination of Complex
Carbohydrate Fractions in Foods
BETTY W. LI
Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
A general scheme has been developed to determine sugars, starches, total dietary
fiber, and dietary fiber polysaccharides in a half-gram freeze-dried food sample.
Triplicate samples are weighed into teflon tubes; free sugars (mono- and disaccha-
rides) are extracted into 80% methanol and analyzed on a gas-liquid chromato-
graph (GLC). The residues after 80% methanol extraction are incubated with
amyloglucosidase and hydrolysates are removed for glucose determination by
GLC. Starch content is calculated as glucose (g/100 g) ⫻ 0.9. The remaining
hydrolysates are diluted with 95% ethanol, filtered through glass crucibles matted
with Celite filter aid. The residues are dried and weighed. One of the triplicate
residues is analyzed for crude protein, and the second one for ash. The third
residue is hydrolyzed in H 2 SO 4; analyzed for neutral sugars on GLC and uronic
acids spectrophotometrically. Total dietary fiber content is calculated as the resi-
due weight corrected for residual protein and ash, and dietary fiber polysaccha-
rides are the sum of neutral sugars and uronic acids. According to this scheme,
145
146 Li
complex carbohydrates are found in the fractions represented by starch, total

dietary fiber, and dietary fiber polysaccharides. Data will be presented on the
contents of these complex carbohydrate fractions of some frequently consumed
foods.
In the National Research Council’s ‘‘Recommended Dietary Allowances’’
(1), dietary carbohydrates are defined as sugars and complex carbohydrates. Sug-
ars include monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, and disaccharides,
such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)
comprise starches and dietary fibers. While starches are polymers of glucose that
are known to be digestible by human gastrointestinal enzymes, dietary fibers are
mainly indigestible complex carbohydrates in plant cell walls and a variety of
gums, mucilages, and algal polysaccharides. Adopting the above definitions, we
have developed and tested a method for determining sugars, starches, total dietary
fiber, and dietary fiber polysaccharides in half-gram replicates of freeze-dried
food samples.
METHOD
Triplicate samples (0.5 g) of freeze-dried foods are weighed into teflon tubes and
extracted with 15 mL of n-hexane if the samples contain ⬎5% fat; residues are
ex-tracted with 10–15 mL of 80% methanol (Figure 1). The alcohol extract is
used for the separation and quantitation of individual sugars using GLC (Figure
2). Residues after the alcohol extraction are suspended in 25 mL deionized water
and autoclaved at 121°C for 1 h, cooled and mixed with a solution of amyloglu-
cosidase (No. 208-469, Boehringer-Mannheim Corp.) in acetate buffer; the mix-
ture is incubated at 55°C for 2 h. Aliquots (0.1 mL) of the hydrolysate are re-
moved, dried, and derivatized for GLC analysis for glucose. Starch content is
calculated as glucose ⫻ 0.9 (Figure 3). To the remaining hydrolysate and suspen-
sions is added 4 ⫻ volume of 95% ethanol. After 1 h, the mixtures are filtered
through glass crucibles matted with Celite (CAFA); residues are dried at 105°C
and weighed. One of the triplicate residues is analyzed for crude protein as nitro-
gen ⫻ 6.25, the second is heated in a muffle furnace at 525°C for 5 h for ash
determination (Figure 4). The third is hydrolyzed in H 2 SO 4; aliquot of the acid
hydrolysate is derivatized to alditol acetates and analyzed for neutral sugars by
GLC, and for uronic acid colorimetrically (Figure 5) (2). Total dietary fiber (TDF)
is the weight of residue after enzyme hydrolysis corrected for the weights of
crude protein and ash. Dietary fiber polysaccharides (DFP) is the sum of neutral
sugars and uronic acid in the residue.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to the method described above, complex carbohydrate fractions
(starches and dietary fiber) are determined after the removal of alcohol soluble
Carbohydrate Fractions 147
FIGURE 1 Sample Preparation and Extraction for Sugars, Starches, and Di-
etary Fiber Determination
sugars (mainly mono- and disaccharides). The procedures for the enzymatic hy-
drolysis of starches are essentially those we have reported earlier as a single
enzyme method for total dietary fiber (3). It differs from AOAC method 985.29
and method 991.43 as follows: a) an autoclave is used to gelatinize starches in
the sample, b) only one enzyme—amyloglucosidase—is used, and c) the protease
treatment of samples has been eliminated. Since the amount of protein remaining
in the gravimetrically isolated residue is usually much higher than that in a similar
148 Li
FIGURE 2 Sugar Derivation Procedure for GLC
FIGURE 3 Determination of Starches

FIGURE 4 Determination of Total Dietary Fiber
residue obtained using either one of the AOAC methods, the determination of
nitrogen for crude protein correction is especially critical with this method. How-
ever, the method is less labor intensive and more cost effective. The quantitation
of glucose in starch hydrolysate can be done using GLC, HPLC, or other enzy-
matic methods. The above method was used to analyze a number of frequently
consumed foods that had been stored at ⫺20°C after they had been analyzed for
sugars by HPLC, soluble and insoluble dietary fiber by AOAC method 991.43.
The earlier analyses were done in a commercial laboratory (4) with a contract
from the Nutrient Data Laboratory, ARS, USDA (formerly the Human Nutrition
Information Service, USDA). Detailed procedures of our method and compari-
sons between the two laboratories of the data on sugars and dietary fiber contents
of the same 34 foods are given elsewhere (3). Sample data from our laboratory
on total sugar, starches, and total dietary fiber are presented here for 4 groups
of foods. Table 1 gives the values for baked products; Table 2 for cereal grains
and pasta; Table 3 for legumes, and Table 4 for vegetables. Table 5 gives the
values for individual sugars, neutral sugars [(arabinose ⫹ fucose ⫹ galactose ⫹
glucose ⫹ mannose ⫹ rhamnose ⫹ xylose) ⫻ 0.89], uronic acid, dietary fiber
polysaccharides (neutral sugars ⫹ uronic acid) and total dietary fiber of 12 se-
lected foods.
Based on the dry weight of selected foods, baked products contain between
50 and 70 g/100 g of starch, 6 and 18 g/100 g of TDF; cereal grains and pastas
contain between 55 and 90 g/100 g of starch, 2 and 10 g/100 g of TDF; canned
legumes contain between 20 and 40 g/100 g of starch, 20 and 30 g/100 g of
150 Li
FIGURE 5 Englyst Procedure for Neutral Sugars and Uronic Acid Determina-
tion
TABLE 1 Total Sugar, Starches, and Total Dietary Fiber Content

of Baked Products
Foods Total sugar Starch Total dietary fiber
Bread, white, soft 3.03 ⫾ 0.09 70.78 ⫾ 0.77 5.82 ⫾ 0.07
Bread, white, red. cal. soft 2.63 ⫾ 0.18 48.87 ⫾ 0.90 18.13 ⫾ 0.34
Bread, rye, w/seed 3.41 ⫾ 0.33 57.96 ⫾ 4.92 7.05 ⫾ 0.05
Bread, wheat, soft 5.02 ⫾ 0.04 56.55 ⫾ 2.40 11.43 ⫾ 0.97
Tortilla, corn, RTE 0.12 ⫾ 0.01 72.42 ⫾ 1.96 8.75 ⫾ 0.10

of Cereal Grains and Pasta
Foods Total sugar Starch Total dietary fiber
Rice, white, long grain 89.33 ⫾ 0.51 1.79 ⫾ 0.06

Rice, brown, long grain 0.55 ⫾ 0.03 74.90 ⫾ 7.90 5.08 ⫾ 0.03
Spaghetti, regular 1.14 ⫾ 0.05 67.20 ⫾ 2.12 4.86 ⫾ 0.05
Oats, quick 0.54 ⫾ 0.03 72.55 ⫾ 1.34 8.36 ⫾ 0.01
Oatmeal, regular 0.82 ⫾ 0.01 55.50 ⫾ 1.55 10.73 ⫾ 0.12
TABLE 3 Total Sugar, Starches, and Total Dietary; Fiber Content of

Legumes
Foods Sugar Total starch Total dietary fiber
Pork⫹beans w/tomato sauce 14.18 ⫾ 0.12 18.58 ⫾ 1.32 22.77 ⫾ 0.63

Red kidney beans 6.27 ⫾ 0.15 42.00 ⫾ 0.17 23.15 ⫾ 0.75
Chickpeas (garbanzo beans) 1.59 ⫾ 0.02 27.81 ⫾ 1.07 24.06 ⫾ 0.33
Pinto beans 1.70 ⫾ 0.05 33.11 ⫾ 1.09 20.79 ⫾ 0.71
Split peas 1.66 ⫾ 0.09 34.18 ⫾ 2.45 28.19 ⫾ 0.62

of Vegetables
Foods Sugar Total starch Total dietary fiber
Beans, green, fresh steamed 28.48 ⫾ 0.24 4.74 ⫾ 0.12 28.48 ⫾ 0.24
Potato, white, boiled, peeled 1.20 ⫾ 0.12 77.12 ⫾ 0.63 6.82 ⫾ 0.14
Corn, yellow, from cob; store 21.89 ⫾ 0.23 23.32 ⫾ 0.47 25.19 ⫾ 0.44
Corn, yellow or white, from cob; 18.62 ⫾ 0.38 46.90 ⫾ 1.35 11.18 ⫾ 0.67
farmers’ market
Peas, green frozen, microwaved 25.34 ⫾ 0.33 15.02 ⫾ 0.04 18.01 ⫾ 0.74
TDF; cooked vegetables contain between 5 and 80 g/100 g of starch, 7 and 30

g/100 g of TDF. When the sum of these two fractions is expressed as complex
carbohydrates (CC), the range for all the foods shown in Tables 1 through 4 is
between 33 and 90 g/100 g, with green beans having the lowest CC but the
highest TDF, and rice having the highest CC but the lowest TDF. For other foods,
a value for complex carbohydrates does not provide any information as to the
ratio of starch to total dietary fiber. The acid hydrolysates of the dietary fiber
152
TABLE 5 Neutral Sugar and Uronic Acid Contents of Selected Foods
DFP
Neutral Uronic as %
Foods Rha Fuc Ara XyI Man Gal GIu sugar acid DFP TDF TDF
Bread, reduced calorie ND ND 1.22 3.01 0.70 1.14 9.85 14.15 0.70 14.85 18.13 81.92
Bread, wheat ND ND 1.10 1.61 0.37 0.27 5.23 7.59 0.64 8.23 11.43 71.99
Tortilla, corn ND ND 1.17 1.60 0.18 0.29 3.00 0.58 0.21 5.79 8.75 66.14
Spaghetti, cooked ND ND 0.88 1.11 0.21 0.21 2.59 4.45 0.16 4.61 4.86 94.86
Grits, quick ND ND 0.59 0.69 0.15 0.13 5.77 6.62 0.17 6.79 8.36 81.27
Oatmeal, cooked ND ND 1.00 1.23 0.22 0.23 6.59 8.26 0.33 8.58 10.73 80.00
Kidney beans, canned ND 0.22 3.19 1.93 0.76 0.97 13.00 17.94 0.46 18.40 23.15 79.50
Chick peas, canned 0.11 ND 2.72 0.49 0.27 0.54 17.29 19.00 1.38 2.00 24.06 85.11
Pinto beans, canned 0.12 0.12 1.88 0.96 0.49 0.47 1.00 12.77 0.61 13.38 20.79 64.36
Beans, green, steamed 0.42 0.14 1.35 1.57 1.51 2.80 11.18 16.89 5.52 22.41 28.48 78.68
White potato, boiled 0.09 ND 0.24 0.10 0.17 1.48 3.38 4.87 0.55 5.42 6.82 79.45
Peas, green, microwaved 0.29 ND 2.62 0.74 0.25 0.52 13.30 15.77 2.10 17.87 18.11 99.22
Li
residues of 6 baked products, cereal grains and pasta contain arabinose, galactose,
glucose, mannose, and xylose, but no detectable amount of rhamnose or fucose,
the amount of dietary fiber polysaccharides (DFP) corresponds to the percentage
of total dietary fiber range from 65 to 99%. Legumes and cooked vegetables
shown here contain varying amounts of rhamnose and fucose along with the
other sugars usually found in polysaccharide hydrolysates. All 12 foods, except
chickpeas, contain uronic acids. Analytically, we can define complex carbohy-
drates as the sum of enzymatically hydrolyzable starch and enzymatic-gravimetri-
cally obtained total dietary fiber as shown above. However, nutritionally, it may
be important to know the actual amount of each of the fractions and the composi-
tion of neutral sugars and uronic acid in the dietary fiber fraction.
REFERENCES
1. National Research Council (1989) Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th Ed., Na-
tional Academy Press, Washington, D.C., p. 39.
2. Englyst, H. N. & Cummings, J. H. (1988) J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71, 808–814.
3. Li, B. W. (1996) J. AOAC International, 79, 718–723.
4. Southern Testing and Research Laboratories, Inc. (1994) Final Report USDA/HNIS
Requisition No. H393004600, pp. 1a–11b.
III
RESISTANT STARCH—ANALYSIS
13
In Vivo Techniques to Quantify
Resistant Starch
M. CHAMP, L. MARTIN, L. NOAH, AND M. GRATAS

I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition, Nantes, France
INTRODUCTION
The physiological definition of resistant starch, which is largely adopted, implies
the analytical methods of resistant starch in foods to be validated with in vivo
data obtained from healthy individuals. The intubation technique is the only one
to be applicable to healthy volunteers. The main drawback of the method is the
presence of the tube along the small intestine (direct collection of ileal content)
and its possible influence on the transit. Several other methods are available to
assess physiologically resistant starch in vivo. Resistant starch can be quantified
directly, by collecting ileal samples in human ileostomates or animals, or indi-
rectly by estimating the amount of starch fermented in the colon. The ileostomy
model allows direct and quantitative determination of small bowel excretion, pro-
vided the bacterial degradation of the effluent can be minimized. Hydrogen breath
test is also used to quantify malabsorption of starch. It is rapid and simple but
indirect and consequently semi-quantitative. Rats (antibiotic treated, germ-free
or colectomized) and pigs (ileum cannulated or with ileorectal anastomosis) are
considered as useful models for estimating starch digestion in humans. However
157
158 Champ et al.
TABLE 1 Main In Vivo Techniques to Quantify RS

Animal models Humans
Pigs Indirect
Ileum cannulated H2 Breath test
Anastomosis Direct
Rats Ileostomy model
Antibiotic treated Intubation of healthy subjects
Germ-free Caecectomized
Colectomized
H2 excretion
it cannot be expected from these animal models to predict accurate values of

ileal digestibility.
Resistant starch (RS) is present in a number of foods and constitutes up to
15% of the dry matter of the product. Recent studies indicate that its presence
in foods might be beneficial for health. RS is by definition not absorbed in the
small intestine, thus it does not contribute to postprandial hyperglycemia (1,2).
Its effect on lipid metabolism has recently been investigated. RS, added to the
meals, might be beneficial for patients with subnormal or abnormal level of li-
pemia (3). Moreover, some animal studies indicate a serum cholesterol lowering
effect but no evidence of similar effect on humans has been demonstrated. RS
is largely fermented, producing short-chain fatty acids and bacterial cells. It may
be important in determining colonic epithelial cell health through effects on bile
acids, butyrate production and moderation of nitrogen metabolism (4). A number
of studies of the effect of RS on bowel habit have been reported but findings are
somewhat inconsistent (4).
The interest in RS has led to the need for a valid analytical method to
quantify it in foods. The definition of RS being physiological, any analytical
method should be validated on the basis of in vivo data obtained preferably on
healthy subjects. Until now, all the methods available to quantify RS in healthy
humans being criticizable, several methods applicable to animal models or hu-
mans have been proposed (Table 1).
STARCH DIGESTION IN HUMANS

Starch is mainly digested in the upper part of the digestive tract and absorbed
as glucose in the duodenum and jejunum. Starchy foods are first chewed in the
mouth and prehydrolyzed by salivary amylase. The salivary amylolysis is effi-
cient in the stomach until it is inhibited by acidification due to hydrochloric acid
secretion. The mechanical action of the stomach can disrupt the structure of most
In Vivo Techniques 159
food. It thus increases the accessibility of the starch to α-amylase when it is

entrapped in a protein network or in cell walls in unrefined seeds and grains.
Pancreatic secretions at the duodenal level are very efficient and hydrolyze most
of the starch. Glucoamylase, maltase and isomaltase of the brush border disrupt
the small oligosaccharides into glucose which is absorbed in the portal blood to
be delivered to the liver. A small fraction of the glucose is first metabolized by
the intestinal cells. Most of it is metabolized by the liver and the peripheral cells.
A small part of the starch might be hydrolyzed later in the ileum and also
be absorbed as glucose. Finally, another fraction can escape this endogenous
hydrolysis and become a substrate for the bacterial flora. At this level, the final
products of this fermentation are mainly short chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic
and butyric acids) and gases (CO 2, H2, and in some cases CH 4).
QUANTIFICATION OF RS IN ANIMAL MODELS

Pigs and rats are traditional models of humans in nutritional studies. Both species
are omnivorous. Rats are useful animal models because of their size and small
intake. Digestive physiology of pigs is closer to that of humans, however the
digestive capacity of pigs is much higher than that of humans. Indeed, a piglet
of 25 kg has been shown to have the digestive capacity of a man of 65 kg.
The Pig Model

It is possible to determine directly ileal digestibility in the pig. Two categories
of techniques are available: ileum cannulations and ileo-rectal anastomosis. The
main advantages and shortcomings of these methods are summarized in Table 2.
TABLE 2 Advantages and Shortcomings of the Pig as an Animal Model

Advantages Shortcomings
❒ Digestive physiology close to that of ❒ Requires surgery

humans ❒ Stomach and small intestine more
❒ Digestibility can be measured in the heavily colonized by microflora than
small and large intestine of the same in humans
animal (cannulations) ❒ Requires a marker technique to mea-
sure ileal digestibility (when the col-
lection is not complete)
❒ Relatively expensive to use
Ileum cannulated pigs: simple T-cannulations, postvalvular T-caecum cannulation,
ileoileal and ileo-caecal re-entrant cannulation, ileo-colic post-valvular cannulation
Anastomosis: ileo-rectal anastomosis
Adapted from (5)
160 Champ et al.
TABLE 3 Digestibility of Plant Polysaccharides from Barley in

the Small Intestine of Pigs (ileum cannulated pigs)
Digestibility
Diet Intake (g/d) Starch NSP Ref.

Basal diet 380 95.5 35 (6)
⫹β-Glucanase 380 96.7 41 (6)
Barley, raw 190 83.7 28 (7)
Barley, extruded 208 96.9 25 (7)
Barley, hull-less, raw 94.8 50 (8)
Barley, hull-less, baked 98.6 62 (8)
An example of such a study is presented in Table 3. It confirms that the

hydrolysis of the viscous β-glucans by β-glucanase slightly increases the starch
digestibility. However, hydrothermic treatments significantly improve starch di-
gestion.
The Rat Model

Several methods utilizing the rat as a model are potentially available. Their main
advantages and shortcomings are presented in Table 4.
The Nebacitin (antibiotic) treated rats have extensively been used by Asp
and collaborators. They have been used in the validation of an in vitro method
developed by this group (9,10) (Table 5).
Digestibility of starchy foods has also been determined in surgically modi-
fied rats. The aim of these surgeries is to remove most or all the large intestine.
None of these methods eliminate enough bacteria to quantify properly the di-
gestiblity of starch in the small intestine of the rat. Indeed, a large fraction of
the most fermentable fiber disappears in the gastrointestinal tract of such animals
confirming the lack of interest of the caecectomized rat to estimate RS (Table
6). The colectomized rat is potentially a more appropriate animal model to esti-
mate RS in humans than is the caecectomized rat.
QUANTIFICATION OF RS IN HUMANS
One indirect and two direct methods have been used to estimate RS in humans.
They are presented in Table 7.
H2 Breath Test
Hydrogen is one of the end-products of carbohydrates fermentation. It is exclu-
sively formed in the colon by the bacterial fermentation, partly absorbed and
TABLE 4 Advantages and Shortcomings of the Rat as an Animal Model

Antibiotic treated rats
Treatment: 0.7% Nebacitin (2/3 Bacitracin, 1/3 Neomycin)
→ microbial density & activity: ⫺80–90%; Starch digestibility performed on
faecal sample
Low cost Efficiency of Nebacitin ⫾
Easy to use and standardize Endogenous α-amylase in the large intestine
Germ-free rats kept in sterile isolators
No microflora Requires specific equipments
Non-invasive High cost
Correlation with data/humans?
H2 excretion in rats
Measurement of total H2 excretion (breath and flatus) in a respiration chamber
Non-invasive Requires specific equipments
Not suited as a quantitative model
Surgically modified rats
Caecectomized (Cc): resection of the colon; Colectomized (Cl): ileorectal anastomosis
Eliminate 70–80% (Cc) and 90% Requires skilled persons to perform surgery
(Cl) of the microflora without the Microflora not completely eliminated (Cc)
use of drugs Digestibility of starch overestimated (Cc)
cleared in a single passage of the lungs, then excreted in the expired lungs. The
results of gas perfusion techniques have suggested that a rather constant fraction
of the total H2 production is excreted by the lungs, and that rates of breath H2 and
H2 production correlate well (15). Using a non-absorbable but quickly fermented
oligosaccharide (the lactulose) to ‘‘calibrate’’ the subject, it can be expected to
quantify a malabsorbed carbohydrate. Whereas this procedure remains quantita-
tive for oligosaccharides it is only qualitative for insoluble or slowly fermented
substrates. Table 8 illustrates the finding that in many cases, the method is inap-
propriate to quantify RS. The comparison of the RS values obtained by the H2
breath test and by intubation of healthy subjects (direct measurement) when the
162 Champ et al.
TABLE 5 In Vivo Recovery of RS in Nebacitin Treated Rats

Compared to In Vitro Values
In vitro
Source of starch In vivo (ASP method) Ref.
Peas purée, autoclaved 29.2 23.4–29.0 (10)
Potato purée, autoclaved 7.5 7.0–9.2 (10)
Infant purée, canned 18.1 13.9–17.5 (10)
Dent corn arepas 4.1 4.2 (11)
High amylose arepas 32.5 32.2 (11)
Red bean, precooked flour 10 8.7 (12)
Red bean, coarse precooked flour 8 11.9 (12)
Lentil, precooked flour 11 8.3 (12)
volunteers were fed the same starch (high amylose corn starch retrograded and
complexed) is characteristic of the discrepancy between the two methods.
Sample Test
An example of a protocol described in the literature (31) is the following:
Twelve young healthy volunteers first submitted to a lactulose test then
took part in three experimental tests. Each H2 breath test was at least one week
apart.
The lactulose test, consisting of 10 g lactulose syrup in 100 ml water, was
TABLE 6 Digestibility of Plant Polysaccharides in Surgically

Modified Rats
Diet Intact rats Modified rats Ref.
Caecectomized rats*
Digestibility (%) (barley diet)
Starch 100 99.4 (13)
β-Glucans 100 79–88 (13)
Arabinoxylans 32–59 7–27 (13)
Cellulose 18–31 5–11 (13)
Colectomized rats**
Digestibility of starch (%)
Rice 99.8 (14)
Peas 84.8 (14)
*Resection of the caecum; **ileorectal anastomosis

TABLE 7 Advantages and Shortcomings of the Studies Performed with

Humans
H2 breath test
Determination of the increase in hydrogen in the breath after the consumption of
malabsorbed carbohydrates
Simple and non-invasive
Healthy subjects Semi-quantitative
Strict standardization necessary
Large intra- and inter-individual variation in H2
excretion
Ileostomy model
Patients who had had a colectomy for ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease
Direct collection of the ileal effluent Cannot be considered as healthy

→ quantitative Physiological adaptation
Easy to perform water & electrolytes absorption
bacterial overgrowth
Transit time (not normal)
Intubation of healthy subjects
Collection of the ileal content in healthy subjects after intubation using a constant
perfusion technique of solution containing an unabsorbable marker
Healthy subjects Disturbance of the normal physiology by the

Direct collection of the ileal effluent long triple lumen tube
Quantification of the flow rate using a liquid
phase marker
Risk of selectivity of the tube in case of hetero-
geneous food
Expensive and long
Adapted from (5)
done at 0900 h after suitable oral hygiene. Breath samples were collected at 15-
min intervals from 30 min before lactulose ingestion until 6 h afterwards.
The meals were eaten at 0900h within 6 min after an overnight fast and
immediately followed by meticulous oral hygiene. Each evening meal preceding
the morning test was standardized to contain a low level of indigestible material.
164 Champ et al.
TABLE 8 Malabsorption of Starch Estimated by Different Techniques

Starch
ingested Malabsorption
Source of starch (g) % Ref.
H2 breath test
HACS, raw 30 9.2 (16)
HACS, complexed 30 9.5 (16)
HACS, retrograded 30 5.5 (16)
Cooked potatoes 60 6.7 (17)
Cooked & cooled potatoes 60 22.8 (17)
Cooked, cooled, and warmed-up potatoes 60 5.0 (17)
White bread 120 10.7 (18)
Whole meal bread 120 8.3 (18)
Wheat flour 50 2.8 (19)
Whole meal 50 13.6 (19)
Oat flakes (raw) 35 7.8 (20)
Oat flakes (cooked) 35 5.8 (20)
Lentils 120 17.6 (18)
Beans 100 38.0 (19)
Green banana 100 38.6 (21)
Banana ⫹ rice n.m. 0.0 (22)
Ileostomy model
Rice ⫹ bread 98–127 0.5 (23)
Bread 107 0.8 (24)
White bread 100 13 (18)
White bread 61.9 2.5 (25)
Whole meal bread 100 11 (18)
Oat flakes 57.8 2.2 (25)
Corn flakes 74.2 5.0 (25)
Cooked potatoes 45.4 3.3 (25)
Cooked & cooled potatoes 47.2 12.9 (25)
Cooked, cooled, and warmed-up potatoes 47.2 7.6 (25)
Banana (ripe) 2.1 66.7 (26)
Banana (unripe) 20.1 95.0 (26)
Lentils 100 21 (18)
Intubation of healthy subjects
HACS, complexed 32.5 21.1 (27)
HACS, retrograded 32.5 50.9 (27)
Banana (unripe) 23.1 83.7 (28)
Banana ⫹ rice 20 10.5 (22)
Banana ⫹ rice ⫹ potatoes 61 8.0 (22)
Bread ⫹ pasta ⫹ potatoes 100 5.2 (29)
Bread ⫹ pasta ⫹ potatoes 200 4.1 (29)
Beans 68.5 16.5 (30)
Breath samples were collected at 15-min intervals from 30 min before to 9 h

after ingestion of the test meal.
Alveolar air samples were obtained by having the subjects exhale through
a mouthpiece into two bags connected by a three-way valve. When the first 500
ml of expiratory air filled one plastic bag, the end alveolar air was then collected
in a second bag (1-L rubber anesthesia bag adapted with a one-way valve). The
end alveolar air was then immediately transferred into 50 ml plastic syringes fitted
with three-way stopcocks, and was usually analyzed within 2 h of collection. The
hydrogen concentrations in breath samples were determined with a Microlyze
DP gas chromatograph (Quintron Instrument Company, Milwaukee, WI).
A sample of gas was then injected in the GC and the quantitative data were
available very quickly.
During the 9-h period after the test meal, an increase in hydrogen concentra-
tion of ⬎10 ppp over baseline, measured upon two consecutive 15-min interval
breath samplings, was considered to represent significant starch malabsorption.
Other procedures to collect and store the H2 samples are described in the
literature and are summarized by Rumessen (32). The calculations are performed
usually by determining a ratio between the areas under the curves after the test
meal and the lactulose. Knowing the amount of lactulose fermented, the amount
of carbohydrate from the experimental meal which has been theoretically fer-
mented can be calculated. Even if the principle appears as quite simple, there
are several theories on the best way to do this quantification (32).
Ileostomy Model
The ileostomy model offers a method for direct and quantitative determination
of small bowel excretion provided the bacteriological degradation of the effluent
can be minimized. The subjects who take part in these studies had a conventional
ileostomy after proctocolectomy for ulcerative colitis. This surgery is performed
by eversion of the distal 5–10 cm of the small bowel pulled onto the abdominal
wall as a fistula (33). These people can easily collect their effluent in a bag which
is usually changed every second hour during daytime. The ileostomy bags are
immediately deep frozen on carbon dioxide ice when possible. After the experi-
mental meal, the subjects fast for 4 h, then they are given several snacks (plant
polysaccharide-free) (34).
Intubation Technique (28)

Healthy volunteers are intubated with a triple-lumen polyvinyl tube whose transit
down the gut is aided by a terminal inflatable bag containing mercury. When the
bag reaches the cecum, as confirmed fluoroscopically, it is deflated and the sub-
jects must remain in a semirecumbent position. One lumen is used to sample ileal
content 5 cm above the ileocecal junction, and the other lumen, 25 cm proximal
to the aspiration port, is used for perfusion. The perfusate contained NaCl and
166 Champ et al.
polyethylene glycol 4000 as a recovery marker to estimate water flow through

the distal ileum. The solution is maintained at 37°C and stirred until the end of
perfusion. The day after the intubation, the subjects are given the experimental
meal as a breakfast. A second marker (previously (14C)PEG, now indium) is added
to the meal, and the intestinal contents are aspirated for 14 h, while subjects do
not eat or drink. Intestinal contents are continuously collected on ice by manual
aspiration to aspirate as much fluid as possible. Samples are divided into 30-min
aliquots which are frozen in liquid nitrogen and then freeze-dried. Maintenance
of tube position is confirmed fluoroscopically at the end of all experiments.
COMPARISON OF THE IN VIVO MODELS

Pigs/Humans
Two recent studies performed with the same meal based on beans on pigs (T-
cannulation) and healthy humans (intubation) confirmed the greater digestive ca-
pacity of the pig compared to human subjects. Indeed with the same starch intake,
malabsorption of starch was lower (11.2 ⫾ 3.6%) for pigs (Gratas, personal com-
munication) than for humans (16.5 ⫾ 1.3%) (21). Mougham et al. (35) recently
estimated that the digestive capacity of a man of 65 kg was equivalent to the
one of a piglet of 25 kg.
H2 Breath Test/Ileostomy Model/Intubation

It is difficult to compare the data obtained within different studies with different
types of meal and different starch intakes. However one comparison can be made
between two studies performed with the ileostomy model (34) and the ileal intu-
bation in healthy subjects (20) with the same meal containing 30 g of starch from
green banana. The ileal excretions of starch (⫽RS) were respectively 15.8 ⫾ 0.7
and 19.3 ⫾ 0.7 g/day for the ileostomates and the healthy subjects.
Such a difference can be explained by an underestimation of RS in ileosto-
mates and/or by an overestimation of RS when intubation techniques is used.
Indeed, on one hand, there is evidence of a bacterial overgrowth in the distal
ileum of the ileostomates as well as in the collection bags. On the other hand,
the intubation is thought to be the cause of a decrease of the oroileal transit time
due to the tube which could decrease the efficiency of the intestinal digestion.
CONCLUSIONS
Several methods are available to evaluate RS in vivo in humans and animal mod-
els. It cannot be expected from any of the animal models to predict accurate
values of human ileal digestibility, however they can be used for screening or
for a qualitative evaluation.
The only direct technique to be appliquable to healthy volunteers is the

intubation technique. The main drawback of the method is the presence of the
tube along the small intestine and its possible influence on the transit. It might
thus slightly overestimate the RS content of the foods. Resistant starch can also
be quantified directly, by collecting ileal samples in human ileostomates. The
determination of small bowel excretion is quantitative, provided the bacterial
degradation of the effluent can be minimized. This technique probably slightly
underestimates RS content of the foods. Hydrogen breath test is also used to
quantify malabsorption of starch. It is rapid and simple but indirect and conse-
quently semi-quantitative. However the use of an appropriate standard for the
‘‘calibration’’ of the subject could improve the quality of the method.
In conclusion, the two direct methods performed on humans undoubtedly
are the best techniques to quantify RS as it has been defined in 1992 as ‘‘. . .
the sum of starch and products of starch degradation not absorbed in the small
intestine of healthy individuals.’’ (1)
REFERENCES
1. Asp, N. G. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 46(S2), S1.
2. Ranganathan, S., Champ, M., Pechard C., Blanchard P., N’Guyen, M., Colonna P.,
Krempf, M. (1994) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59, 879–883.
3. Faisant, N., Champ, M., Ranganathan, S. S., Azoulay, C., Kergueris, M. F., Krempf,
M. (1995) in Proceedings of the concluding plenary meeting of EURESTA, N. G.
Asp, J. M. M. van Amelsvoort & J.G.A.J. Hautvast (Eds), European Flair-Concerted
Action on Resistant Starch—No. 11 (COST 911), pp. 113–114.
4. Cummings, J. H., Edwards, C., Gee, J., Nagengast, F., Mathers, J. (1995) in Proceed-
ings of the concluding plenary meeting of EURESTA, N.G. Asp, J.M.M. van Amels-
voort & J. G. A. J. Hautvast (Eds), European Flair-Concerted Action on Resistant
Starch–No. 11 (COST 911), pp. 38–55.
5. Bach Knudsen, K. E. (1991) in Methodological aspects of in vivo methods for mea-
surement of starch digestibility, Gudmand-Hoyer, E. (Ed), Report of the European
Flair Concerted Action Workshop (EURESTA, Contract no. AGRF/0027), Velbaek,
Copenhagen, 10–12 November 1991, 40–54.
6. Graham, H., Hesselman, K., Jonsson, E., Aman, P. (1986) Nutr. Rep. Int. 34, 1089–
1096.
7. Fadel, J. G., Newman, C. W., Newman, R. K., Graham, H. (1988) Can. J. Anim.
Sci. 68, 891–897.
8. Fadel, J. G., Newman, R. K., Newman, C. W., Graham, H. (1989) J. Nutr. 119,
722–726.
9. Bjôrck, I., Nyman, M., Pedersen, B., Siljestršm, M., Asp, N. G., Eggum, B.O.(1986)
J. Cereal Sci. 4, 1–11.
10. Bjôrck, I., Siljestršm, M. (1992) J. Sci. Food Agric. 58, 541–553.
11. Granfeldt, Y., Drews, A., Bjôrck, I. (1993) J. Nutr. 123, 1676–1684.
12. Tovar, J., Bjôrck, I. M., Asp, N. G. (1992) J. Nutr. 122, 1500–1507.
168 Champ et al.
13. Bach Knudsen, K. E., Agergaard, N., Olesen, H. P. (1991) J. Anim. Physiol. Anim.
Nutr. 66, 190–203.
14. Hildenbrandt, L. A., Marlett J. A. (1991) J. Nutr. 121, 679–686.
15. Levitt, M. D. (1969) N. Engl. J. Med. 284, 1394–1398.
16. Bornet, F., Cloarec, D., Gouilloud, S., Champ, M., Colonna, P., Barry, J. L., Gal-
miche, J. P. (1990) Gastroenterol. Clin. Biol. 14, A90.
17. Scheppach, W, Bach, M., Bartram, P., Christl, S., Bergthaller, W., Kasper, H. (1991)
Dig. Dis. Sci. 36, 1601–1605.
18. Wolever, T. M. S., Cohen, Z., Thompson, L. U., Thorne, M. J., Jenkins M. J. A.,
Prokipchuk, E. J., Jenkins, D. J. A. (1986) Am. J. Gastroenterol. 81, 115–122.
19. Levitt, M. D., Hirsch, P., Fetzer, C. A., Sheahan, M., Levine, A. S. (1987) Gastroen-
terol. 92, 383–389.
20. Lund, E. K., Johnson, I. T. (1991) J. Nutr. 121, 311–317.
21. Christl, S. U., Murgatroyd, P. R., Gibson, G. R., Cummings, J. H. (1992) Gastroen-
terol. 102, 1269–1277.
22. Stephen, A. M., Haddad, A. C., Phillips, S. F. (1983) Gastroenterol. 85, 589–595.
23. Sandberg, A. S., Andersson, H., Hallgren, B., Hasselblad, K., Isaksson, I. (1981) J.
Nutr. 45, 283–294.
24. Sandberg, A. S., Andersson, H., Kivistš, B., Sandstrŝm, B. (1986) Br. J. Nutr. 55,
245–254.
25. Englyst, H. N., Cummings, J. H. (1985) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42, 778–787.
27. Molis, C., Champ, M., Flouri, B., Pellier, P., Bornet, F., Colonna, P., Kozlowski,
F., Rambaud, J. C., Galmiche, J. P. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 46, S131–S132.
28. Faisant, N., Bulon, A., Colonna, P., Molis, C., Lartigue, S., Galmiche, J. P., Champ,
M. (1995) Br. J. Nutr. 73, 111–123.
29. Flouri, B., Leblond, A., Florent, F., Rautureau, M., Bissalli, A., Rambaud, J. C.
(1988) Gastroenterol. 95, 356–363.
30. Noah, L., Guillon, F., Bouchet, B., Bulon, A., Gallant, D. J., Colonna, P., Molis,
C., Faisant, N., Galmiche, J. P., Champ, M. (1995) in Proc. Eur. Assoc. for Grain
Legume Research Conf. July 9–13, pp. 276–277.
31. Bornet, F. R. J., Cloarec, D., Barry, J. L., Colonna, P., Gouilloud, S., Delort-Laval,
J., Galmiche, J. P. (1990) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 421–427.
32. Rumessen, J. J. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 46(S2), S77–S90.
33. Andersson, H. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 46(S2), S69–S76.
34. Langkilde, A. M., Andersson, H., Faisant, N., Champ, M. (1995) in Proceedings of
the concluding plenary meeting of EURESTA, N. G. Asp, J. M. M. van Amels-
voort & J. G. A. J. Hautvast (Eds), European Flair-Concerted Action on Resistant
Starch—No. 11 (COST 911), pp. 28–30.
35. Mougham, P. J., Cranwell, Darragh, A. J., Rowan, A. M. (1994) in Proc. VIth Inter-
national Symposium on Digestive Physiology in Pigs. Souffrant W.-B. & Hagemeis-
ter H. (Eds), Bad Doberan, D, 4–6 October 1994. pp. 389–396.
14
Analytical Methods for
Resistant Starch
M. CHAMP, L. MARTIN, L. NOAH, AND M. GRATAS

I.N.R.A., Laboratoire de Technologie Appliqué la Nutrition, Nantes, France
INTRODUCTION
Resistant starch has recently been defined as ‘‘. . . the sum of starch and products
of starch degradation not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy individuals’’
(1). An analytical method for RS should then take into account all the starch
and α-dextrins covering this physiological definition. Furthermore, it should be
validated using in vivo data from human healthy subjects. The general principle
of the method is the following: 1) the samples are digested by a pancreatic α-
amylase then 2) resistant starch content is determined by direct analysis of the
residual starch after hydrolysis or by substracting to the total starch of the sample,
the amount of starch which has been digested. None of the ‘‘European methods’’
(Englyst et al., 1992, Bjôrck et al., 1986, Champ, 1992, Faisant et al., 1995) are
exempt of criticism. Moreover, none of them are able to analyze resistant starch
as defined because they do not consider potentially digestible starch arriving at
the end of the ileum. The last two methods appeared to be more quickly and
easily reproduced than Englyst’s method. However Englyst’s method is the only
one which has been validated in vivo on humans. Besides these European meth-
169
170 Champ et al.
ods, Muir and O’Dea (1992, 1993) developed another procedure, validated in
vivo, that is supposed to mimic physiological conditions for starch digestion.
Resistant starch should then be analyzed using a method which mimics the
digestion of starchy food in the upper part of the digestive tract. Several methods
have been published during the past 15 years, some of them being validated on
the basis of in vivo measurements.
CLASSIFICATION OF RS
The increasing knowledge of starch digestion in humans has allowed a new classi-
fication of RS which is commonly approved (2). Three classes of RS are identi-
fied:
RS1
Physically inaccessible starch (RS1) is found in partly milled grains and seeds.
Legumes such as beans or lentils are known to be one of the main sources of
RS. The preparation and cooking process is of great importance in the RS content
of the food.
RS2
B-type starch when uncooked is known to be very resistant to enzymatic hy-
drolysis. B-type refers to the X-ray diffraction pattern of the starch. Raw starches
are classified in 3 main types: A (ex: most cereal starches, cassava starch), B
(ex: potato and banana starches) and C (most legume starches). Banana is the
main source of RS2 in the human diet. During ripening of the fruit, starch is
being converted into simple sugars and sucrose and in ripe bananas still have a
significant amount of starch. Most of the cooking procedures are able to gelatinize
raw starches allowing the disappearance of RS2 in the food.
RS3
Retrograded starch is present in most starchy foods which have been cooked then
cooled and stored from several hours to several months. The retrogradation is a
recrystallization of starch granules which occurs after the gelatinization and
which implies mostly the linear fraction of the starch: the amylose. However,
amylopectin can also retrograded on a much longer term than for amylose. Pota-
toes cooked then cooled have been shown to contain RS (3). Reheating of starch
Analytical Methods 171
TABLE 1 RS (g/100 g total starch) from

Different Sources of RS Determined In Vitro
Source of starch TS % DM RS % TS
Beans, canned 43.6 17.1

Lentils, canned 50.7 12.1
Chickpeas, canned 46.3 11.0
Lasagne 69.9 3.6
Spaghetti 70.6 3.0
reduces RS content of the potato showing that the retrogradation is partly revers-
ible. Several cycles of heating then cooling allow an increase of RS.
RS1, RS2 and RS3 can coexist in the same food. Indeed a meal of beans
contains both RS1 and RS3 (4) whereas RS1 and RS2 are both present in ba-
nanas (5).
ANALYSIS OF TOTAL STARCH

RS is often expressed as percentage of total starch or in in vivo studies as a
percentage of malabsorbed starch. Therefore an analysis of total starch prior to
RS analysis is usually needed. Moreover, some of the methods need a preliminary
total starch analysis to allow the suited weight of sample to respect the right
enzyme/starch ratio in the determination of RS.
Starch has long been analyzed using polarimetric methods. This method is
still used in feed industry because it allows a quick analysis of the starchy material
then of the feed at the different steps of the process. However these methods
were mostly abandoned for precise analysis of starch in food and feed because
of numerous artifacts (amino acids, oligosaccharides, simple sugars etc.).
Any analysis of starch implies 4 major steps:
Preparation of the Samples: To allow a proper analysis of starch, it has to

be fully accessible to amylolytic enzymes. Therefore grinding should be efficient
enough to disrupt the cell walls and/or protein network surrounding the starch
granules.
Dispersion of the Starch: In order to be completely hydrolyzed by the amy-
loglucosidase, the starch must be decrystallized and amylose and amylopectin
must be accessible to the enzyme. This step was performed using boiling water
and autoclaving. Then the use of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) was proposed but
now most methods suggest the use of alkali such as sodium and potassium hy-
droxide (2M as a final concentration in the dispersion medium).
172 Champ et al.
Hydrolysis of Starch: Starch is hydrolyzed by an amyloglucosidase into

glucose. The enzyme is an endoenzyme able to hydrolyze both α1–4 and α1–6
linkages.
Quantification of Glucose: If properly ground, dispersed then hydrolyzed,
starch should be totally analyzed as glucose. The choice of the analytical method
for glucose should be guided by the expected concentration of glucose as well
as by the possible presence of pigment(s) in the sample. Indeed, the complex
hexokinase/glucose-6-P-deshydrogenase is very sensitive and does not have any
contraindication whereas the use of the glucose-oxidase/peroxidase complex
should be prohibited in the presence of pigments such as biliary pigments (diges-
tive contents, for example).
GOD-POD or GOD-PAP :glucose-oxidase/peroxidase
GOD
D-glucose ⫹ H 2 O ⫹ O 2 → H 2 O 2 ⫹ gluconic acid
POD
H 2 O 2 ⫹ DH 2 → 2H 2 O ⫹ D
DH 2 :4-aminoantipyrine ⫹ 4-hydroxybenzoic acid
(Merckotest, ref. 14365,Darmstadt, Germany)
D :N-(4-antipyryl)-p-benzoquinone imine
HK-G6PDH :hexokinase/glucose-6-phosphate-deshydrogenase
HK
D-glucose ⫹ ATP → glucose-6-phosphate
G6PDH glucose-6-P ⫹ NADP⫹ → gluconate-6-P ⫹ NADPH ⫹ H⫹
NADPH absorbance is determined at 340 nm. It is proportional to the
amount of glucose present in the sample after the complete hydrolysis of starch.
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR RS

During recent years, a lot of effort has been put into the evaluation, then into
the improvement of the existing methods of RS. Roughly, two analytical methods
are now proposed in the literature: one was described by Englyst et al. (1992)(2),
the other was obtained during the European Research Program EURESTA (6).
They provide very similar data for most starch samples however they both proba-
bly underestimate RS as defined above. Indeed, RS collected in vivo in humans
(ileostomates or healthy subjects using the intubation technique) is composed
of oligosaccharides (including glucose), α-glucans of high molecular weight
(mainly starch granules) and a crystalline fraction whose size depends on the
origin and the treatment of the starch. None of the analytical methods of RS takes
into account the potentially digestible starch (oligosaccharides and part of the
high molecular weight fraction) (7,8).
General Principle
In order to quantify RS, the first step is to remove the digestible starch from the
sample. This is performed using a pancreatic (α-amylase. In some of the methods,
an amyloglucosidase is added in order to avoid a possible inhibition of the α-
amylase by the products of the digestion (mainly maltose, maltotriose). The amy-
lolysis is also sometimes preceded by a proteolysis which is supposed to reflect
the action of the pepsin inside the stomach and of the trypsin which is secreted
in the pancreatic juice together with the α-amylase.
After the hydrolysis of the digestible starch, RS is quantified directly in
the residue (isolated most of the time by 80% ethanolic precipitation) (6,9) or
by difference between total starch and digestible starch which are quantified sepa-
rately (2).
Main Analytical Methods

The main methods proposed in the literature will be briefly described and criti-
cized.
The Method of Bjôrck et al., 1986 (10)

Principle
It quantifies the starch residue present in the dietary fiber residue obtained by
the methods of Asp et al. (1983) (11) or Prosky et al. (1988) (12).
Procedure (Figure 1)
Main Characteristics
• Some of the samples such as bread can be analyzed as eaten without
further drying. All the samples have to be milled (⬍0.5 mm).
• The samples are then submitted to a triple hydrolysis by Termamyl
(100°C, 15 min), pepsin and pancreatin. The main consequence of this
procedure is the gelatinization of all raw starch present in the sample
which cannot be quantified as resistant starch.
Advantages and Drawbacks
• Can be performed with total dietary fiber analysis
• Analyze mostly retrograded starch
• Validated with a rat model (antibiotic treated rat). Figure 2 shows the
174 Champ et al.
FIGURE 1 Determination of resistant starch according to Bjôrck et al., 1986

(10) (From Ref. 6).
good correlation between this in vitro method and the determination of

the digestibility in antibiotic (Nebacitin) treated rats (13).
The Method of Englyst et al., 1992 (2)
Principle
The various types of starch are determined by controlled enzymic hydrolysis and
measurement of the released glucose using glucose oxidase. Resistant starch
is defined as the starch not hydrolyzed after 120 min incubation with pan-
creatic amylase and amyloglucosidase at 37°C. It is calculated by deducting
from total starch content, the slowly digestible starch and the rapidly digestible
starch contents of the sample hydrolyzed respectively after 120 and 20 min
incubation.
FIGURE 2 Correlation between in vitro method (10) and the determination of

the digestibility in antibiotic (Nebacitin) treated rats (From Ref. 13).
• Fresh foods can be analyzed as eaten. They are passed through a mincer.
The hydrolysis is performed in presence of glass ball and guar gum (to
prevent mechanical alteration of very sensitive starch such as raw potato
starch).
• The samples are hydrolyzed with pancreatin, amyloglucosidase and in-
vertase. The pancreatin contains several enzymic activities including
α-amylase and proteolytic enzymes which allows the digestion of the
digestible material (starch and proteins). In contrast, the lipolytic activ-
ity of the pancreatin might be ineffective due to the absence of bile in
the medium, into glucose and fructose. The invertase is added in order
to hydrolyze all the sucrose present in the sample. The sucrose must
then be quantified separately. This step has been introduced in the
method because of the presence of an invertase contaminating activity
in the amyloglucosidase. This activity could lead to an overestimation
of the starch content of the sample.
• The digestible starches (starches hydrolyzed after 20 and 120 min hy-
drolysis) are quantified on an ethanolic extract (64.4% ethanol). The
extract is hydrolyzed into glucose by amyloglucosidase. Then the glu-
cose is quantified using GOD-PAP kit.
• RS content is determined by difference between total starch and digest-
ible starch contents.
176 Champ et al.
FIGURE 3 Determination of resistant starch according to Englyst et al.,

1992 (2).

• Optimization of the conditions of hydrolysis
• Adapted to a large variety of substrates
• Long and poor reproducibility without long training
• Need for very specific equipment (mincer, shaking water-baths)
• Enzymes not all commercially available
The Method of Muir & O’Dea, 1992 & 1993 (14, 15)
Principle
The chewed food sample is incubated with pepsin, then hydrolyzed by α-amylase
and amyloglucosidase. The insoluble residue represents RS.
• The food is first chewed by a volunteer in standardized conditions. The
sample weighed for the analysis contains about 100 mg carbohydrate.
• Pepsin, α-amylase and amyloglucosidase are used for the hydrolysis of
the digestible fraction of the sample.
• RS is recovered by centrifugation followed by aqueous washing of the
pellet.
• Starch in the residue is hydrolyzed into glucose by Termamyl then pan-
creatin and amyloglucosidase. Dimethylsulfoxide is used prior to the
second hydrolysis step to allow a complete dispersion of the RS. Glu-
cose is then quantified using a GOD-PAP kit.

This method has been validated with in vivo studies on ileostomates (15,16).
From the 7 comparisons available, it seems satisfactory. No comparison with
other in vitro have been published. Being used, until now, only by the authors,
difficulties and reproducibility cannot be evaluated.
The Method of Champ et al., 1992 (6)

Principle
In vitro RS was defined as the starch not hydrolyzed by incubation with α-
amylase. Hydrolysis products are extracted in 80% ethanol and discarded. RS is
then solubilized with 2N KOH and hydrolyzed with amyloglucosidase. In the
new procedure, amyloglucosidase is added to the pancreatic α-amylase to avoid
inhibition of the amylase by the products of the digestion.
• In the first two methods, the sample has to be dried (freeze-dried when
possible) and ground into fine particles. In the new procedure, fresh
178 Champ et al.
FIGURE 4 Determination of resistant starch according to Muir & O’Dea

(14, 15).
samples can be analyzed after a grinding in a mincer which is supposed

to simulate chewing of the food.
• 100 mg of test material are weighed for the analysis, in Faisant et al.
(1995)(9). In the new procedure, the sample must be weighed to contain
about 50 mg starch.
FIGURE 5 Determination of resistant starch according to Champ (1992)

(Method A) (From Ref. 6).
• Only pancreatic α-amylase is used for the hydrolysis of the digestible

starch in the first two methods whereas amyloglucosidase is introduced
in the new method. Sodium azide is used in the last two methods to
prevent bacterial proliferation (and degradation) during the overnight
hydrolysis.
• RS is recovered by ethanolic precipitation. In Champ method (1992)(6)
the precipitate was washed then dried with acetone. The drying has
been suppressed in the last two methods.
• RS is then dispersed using potassium hydroxide before the amyloglu-
cosidase hydrolysis into glucose. A first step of gelatinization has been
added in the last two methods to facilitate starch dispersion. Glucose
is analyzed with GOD-PAP kit.
180 Champ et al.

• Simple and relatively rapid
• Ten samples can easily be analyzed (in duplicates) in a normal day of
work
No particular training is needed. The first methods were optimized using values
provided by Englyst et al. (2). The new procedure has recently been validated
in collaboration with Dr. Langkilde and Prof. H. Andersson using in vivo values
obtained from ileostomates. More comparisons will be performed between in
vitro and in vivo values.
COMPARISON OF THE MAIN METHODS

Few comparisons have been performed using exactly the same samples. How-
ever, one has been published by Champ (6) and Englyst et al. (2) within
EURESTA program (Table 2).
As expected, the method of Bjôrck et al. (10) provides the lowest values
however the significant underestimation is observed only for native and treated
pure starches. Englyst et al. (2) and Champ (6) methods give very similar values.
The method modified by Faisant et al. (9) provides a significantly higher value
of RS for the raw potato starch. This value is closer to the in vivo value obtained
with ileostomates. This was later confirmed by the data published by Langkilde
and Andersson (19). The comparison of the new Champ method (Appendix) with
Englyst’s method has been performed on a sample of fresh and mashed beans.
Both methods provided exactly the same result: 7.3 g RS/100 g dry matter.
TABLE 2 Analysis of RS (g/100 g dry matter) in Different Sources of

Starch with Different in Vitro Methods
Bjorck et al., Englyst et al., Champ, 1992 Faisant et al.,
Source of starch 1986 1992 (method A) 1995
Reference (10) (2) (6) (9)
Potato starch, raw 0.2 64.9 6602 85.3
HACS,1 raw 68.8 67.3
HACS, retrograde 30.0 35.3
HACS, pregelatinized 9.6 16.3 15.7
Bean flakes 4.3 5.0 5.0 4.5
Corn flakes 2.3 2.4 2.8 2.8
1
HACS: High amylose corn starch
TABLE 3 In Vivo Recovery of RS in Nebacitin Treated Rats

Compared to In Vitro Values
In vitro
Source of starch In vivo (10)–(20 meth. C) Ref.
Peas purée, autoclaved 29.2 23.4–29.0 (20)
Potato purée, autoclaved 4.5 7.0–9.2 (20)
Infant purée, canned 18.1 13.9–17.5 (20)
Dent corn arepas 4.1 4.2 (21)
High amylose arepas 32.5 32.2 (22)
Red bean, precooked flour 10 8.7 (22)
Red bean, coarse precooked flour 8 11.9 (22)
Lentil, precooked flour 11 8.3 (22)
Comparison Between In Vitro and

In Vivo Measurements
Some of the in vitro methods have been validated using in vivo data which are
in most cases obtained with ileostomates (Tables 2–4). However, Bjôrck and
collaborators compared their in vitro values to data obtained in rats (Nebacitin
treated rats).
This comparison appears relatively satisfactory. However RS in potato bis-
cuit is probably, as expected, underestimated. It is unexpected not to have the
same discrepancy with banana biscuit if it is made from green banana as the
main ingredient.
The predicting power of the in vitro method is satisfactory. However a
slight discrepancy appears with some of the samples: baked beans, low and high
RS meals.
TABLE 4 In Vivo Recovery of RS (g/100 g dry matter)

from Different Sources of RS in Ileostomates (from (2))
Resistant starch
Mean
Source of starch Fed (g) Recovered (g) recovery (%)
Wheat Biscuit 0 0.3 —
Wheat RS Biscuit 8.5 9.0 106
Maize RS Biscuit 8.5 8.6 101
Potato Biscuit 11.7 13.7 117
Banana Biscuit 15 13.7 91
182 Champ et al.
TABLE 5 In Vivo Recovery of RS (g/100 g dry matter) from

Different Sources of RS in Ileostomates (from (15) and (16))
G starch % RS
Source of starch Ingested Recovered In vivo In vitro Ref.

High RS meal 52.7 19.9 37.8 35.1 (16)
Baked beans 22.7 1.3 5.7 6.9 (15)
Pearl barley 41.0 2.3 5.5 5.5 (15)
Low RS meal 51.8 2.4 4.6 3.1 (16)
Corn flakes 44.1 1.4 3.1 2.9 (15)
Whole rice 48.9 1.5 3.1 2.7 (15)
Ground rice 46.1 0.3 0.7 0.8 (15)
In Vitro Data from Champ and Collaborators and

In Vivo Data from Langkilde and Andersson
The new method described in Annex 1 appears to be satisfactory when compared
to in vivo data obtained on ileostomates with the same starchy foods (Table 6).
However it underestimates the RS values, when compared to data obtained in
healthy subjects by the intubation technique, except in the case of canned beans.
Indeed, intubation technique always provides higher RS values than the ileostomy
model; the exception of canned beans is probably due to a partial collection of
the bean residues due to the presence of large particle in the ileum.
TABLE 6 Comparison of Resistant Starch (RS % total starch) Data

Determined In Vivo and In Vitro
In vitro RS
In vivo RS
Englyst et al., Faisant et al.,
Source of starch 1992 (2) 1995 (9) Champ et al. RS Ref.
Potato starch, raw 66.5 83.0 77.7 78.8 *
HACS,1 raw 71.4 72.2 52.8 50.3 *
HACS, retrograded 30.5 36.4 29.6 30.1 *
Bean flakes 10.6 12.4 11.2 9–10.9 23
Corn flakes 3.9 4.9 4.3 3.1–5.0 14,2
Beans, raw 17.1 17.1 16.5 4
1
*Langkilde et al., personal communication
TABLE 7 RS Content of Some Samples Fed to Antibiotic Treated

Rats and Compared with Two In Vitro Methods (g/100 g dry
matter) from Different Sources of RS in Ileostomates (from (24))
Resistant starch (%, dry matter basis)
In vitro
Englyst et al., Champ, 1992 (6)
Source of starch In vivo 1992 (2) (method A)
Raw potato starch 45 65 68
Pregelatinized potato starch 1 Nd Nd
Bean flakes 4 5 5
Raw green banana 4 54 47
Cooked green banana 3 4 5
Raw HACS 1 37 69 Nd
Extruded retrograded HACS 22 30 29
1
The in vitro methods described by Englyst et al. (2) and Champ (6) provide
much higher values of RS than the antibiotic treated rat (Table 7).
CONCLUSIONS
Resistant starch, as defined in the physiological definition, is composed of strictly
resistant starch but also of potentially digestible fractions. None of the methods
presently available have been shown to analyze all RS as defined. However sev-
eral methods are proposed in the literature, some of them being validated on a
quantitative basis with in vivo data obtained from healthy subjects, ileostomates
or antibiotic treated rats. Main methods which are validated with digestibility
values obtained from human volunteers provided acceptable values but are never
exempt of criticism.
The method proposed by Englyst and collaborators has been optimized to
be appliable to any food, however it is long and offers a bad reproductibility
when technicians don’t undergo a specific training.
Muir & O’Dea provided a new method derived from Englyst’s method.
Unfortunately, until now no comparison with other methods is available and it
has not apparently been used outside Australia. The number of comparisons with
in vivo data is still too limited to conclude as to its validity.
We suggest the use of our own method (Annex 1) which provides sim-
ilar values to those obtained with Englyst’s method but is much simpler and
184 Champ et al.
easy to use. Some comparisons have been performed with in vivo values
obtained in ileostomates and in healthy subjects but more comparisons are nec-
essary.
APPENDIX
Analysis of Resistant Starch in Dry and Fresh Samples
(Champ et al., New Procedure)
Principle
Resistant starch is the starch not hydrolyzed by pancreatic α-amylase. Hydrolysis
products, solubilized in 80% ethanol, are discarded. Resistant starch, present in
the pellet, is solubilized in 2N KOH then hydrolyzed into glucose with an amylo-
glucosidase. Glucose is then quantified with a glucose oxidase/peroxidase analy-
sis kit.
Reagents
• Tris maleate buffer 0.1M pH 5.25 containing CaCl2 4 mM and sodium
azide (0.02%).
• A: 0.2M tris maleic acid (24.2 g of tris hydroxymethylaminomethane
and 23.2 g of maleic acid in 1 L)
• B: 0.2M NaOH
• (250 ml of A ⫹ 48.5 mL of B) then 588 mg CaCl2, 2H 2 O and 200 mg
NaN3 diluted with water to 1000 mL final volume
• Pancreatic α-amylase Sigma ref A-3176 (500U)
• 10 mg/mL of tris maleate buffer
• Acetic acid 0.5M, CaCl2, 2H 2 O 4 mM
• 28.6 mL pure acetic acid and 4 ml CaCl2, 2H 2 O 1M (1.47 g in 10 mL
H 2 O) diluted with water to 1000 mL final volume
• Solution of saturated benzoic acid
• 4 g/L filtered at 25°C
• Glucose standard 2.5 mg/mL (2.5 g of anhydrous glucose dehydrated
under vacuum) in 1L with 50% saturated benzoic acid solution
• Potassium hydroxide 4M (224.4 g/L)
• Amyloglucosidase Novo Nordisk Bioindustries AMG 400L, 400 AGU/
mL
• Sol. 1: 6 AGU/mL. Dilute the enzyme solution: 0.15 mL ⫹ 9.85 mL
H2O
• Sol. 2: 14 AGU/mL. Dilute the enzyme solution: 0.14 mL ⫹ 3.86 mL
H2O
• GOD-PAP kit Merckotest ref Merck 14365
Method
Determine total starch content of the sample
• Weigh the amount of sample containing 50 mg of starch in centrifuga-

tion tubes of 100 mL.
• Add 5.8 mL of tris maleate buffer and 4 mL of enzymatic solution (10
mg of pancreatic α-amylase/mL of buffer) and 0.2 mL amyloglucosi-
dase 6AGU/mL (Sol. 1)
• Mix and incubate in a shaking bath at 37°C during 16 h.
• Add 40 mL absolute ethanol, mix and leave 1 h at ambiant temperature.
• Centrifuge 10 min at 3000 g.
• Discard the supernatant and rinse the pellet with 10 mL 80% ethanol,
centrifuge and discard the supernatant (twice).
• Collect the pellet with 10 mL H 2 O.
• Leave in a shaking bath during 30 min.
• Cool in ice.
• Add 10 mL KOH 4M and shake under magnetic shaking at 0°C during
30 min.
• Transfer 1 mL in 10 mL acetic acid solution 0.5M containing CaCl2
and add 0.2 mL amyloglucosidase 14 AGU/mL (Sol. 2).
• Incubate 30 min in a bath at 70°C then 10 min at 100°C.
• Cool
• Neutralize with 0.6 mL KOH 4M.
• Centrifuge 10 min at 4000g
• Collect 0.1 mL of supernatant in 2 mL of GOD-PAP reactant.
• Shake, leave 20 min at 37°C and read the absorbance at 510 nm.
• In parallel, prepare 2 glucose standards and 2 enzyme blanks in the
same conditions: 0.5 mL of glucose standard or 0.5 mL H 2 O diluted
in a same volume of 4M KOH are transferred to tubes containing 10
mM acetic acid solution, incubate 30 min at 70°C then 10 min at 100°C,
cool, neutralize, centrifuge and then analyze the glucose as previously
described.
• The samples are analyzed in duplicates.
Calculation
Resistant starch % of the dry matter ⫽ Ae*Vt*C*D*0.9/(Ast*We)
Ae ⫽ Absorbance of the sample corrected from the absorbance of the enzyme
blank
Vt ⫽ Volume of the test (10)
D ⫽ Dilution factor
C ⫽ Concentration in mg/mL of glucose standard (2.5)
186 Champ et al.
Ast ⫽ Absorbance of the standard corrected from the absorbance of the enzyme
blank and diluted like the sample
We ⫽ Weight of dry sample in mg
0.9 is the correction factor glucose → starch
Remark
Fresh samples like canned lentils or beans or cooked pasta have to be passed
through a mincer (Plate of 9 mm diam. holes) before weighing (equivalent of 50
mg starch).
REFERENCES
1. Asp, N. G. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 46(S2), S1.
2. Englyst, H. N., Kingman, S. M., Cummings, J. H. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 46(S2),
S33–S50.
4. Noah, L., Guillon, F., Bouchet, B., Bulon, A., Gallant, D. J., Colonna, P., Molis,
C., Faisant, N., Galmiche, J. P., Champ, M. (1995) in Proc. Eur. Assoc. for Grain
Legume Research Conf. July 9–13, pp. 276–277.
5. Faisant, N., Bulon, A., Colonna, P., Molis, C., Lartigue, S., Galmiche, J. P., Champ,
M. (1995) Br. J. Nutr. 73, 111–123.
6. Champ, M. (1992) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 46(S2), S51–62.
7. Faisant, N., Champ, M., Colonna, P., Bulon, A. (1993) Carboh. Polym. 21, 205–
209.
8. Faisant, N., Champ, M., Colonna, P., Bulon, A., Molis, C., Langkilde, A. M.,
Schweizer, T., Flouri, B., Galmiche, J. P. (1993) Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 47, 285–296.
9. Faisant, N., Planchot V., Kozlowski F., Pacouret, M. P., Colonna, P., Champ, M.
(1995) Sci. Alim. 15, 83–89.
10. Bjôrck, I., Nyman, M., Pedersen, B., Siljestrsvm, M., Asp, N. G., Eggum, B. O.
(1986) J. Cereal Sci. 4, 1–11.
11. Asp, N. G., Johansson C. G., Hallmer, H., Siljestrsvm, M. (1983) J. Agric. Fd Chem.
31, 476–482.
12. Prosky, L., Asp, N. G., Schweizer T. F., De Vries, J. W., & Furda, I. (1988) J. Ass.
Off. Analyt. Chem. 71, 1017–1023.
13. Bjôrck, I., Asp, N. G. (1991) in Methodological aspects of in vivo methods for
measurement of starch digestibility, E. Gudmand-Hoyer (Ed), European Flair-
Concerted Action on Resistant Starch–Contract No. AGRF/OO27, pp. 35–39.
14. Muir, J. G., O’Dea K. (1992) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 56, 123–127.
15. Muir, J. G., O’Dea K. (1993) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 540–546.
16. Muir, J. G., Birkett A., Brown, I., Jones, G., O’Dea, K. (1995) Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
61, 82–89.
17. Englyst, H. N., Wiggins, H. S., Cummings, J. H. (1982) Analyst 107, 307–318.
18. Berry, C. S. (1986) J. Cereal Sci. 4, 301–314.
19. Langkilde, A. M., Andersson, H. (1995) in Proceedings of the concluding plenary
meeting of EURESTA, N.G. Asp, J. M. M. van Amelsvoort & J. G. A. J. Hautvast

(Eds), European Flair-Concerted Action on Resistant Starch–No. 11 (COST 911),
pp. 31–32.
20. Bjôrck, I., Siljestrôm, M. (1992) J. Sci. Food Agric. 58, 541–553.
21. Granfeldt, Y., Drews, A., Bjôrck, I. (1993) J. Nutr. 123, 1676–1684.
22. Tovar, J., Bjôrck, I.M., Asp, N.G. (1992) J. Nutr. 122, 1500–1507.
23. Schweizer, T. F., Andersson, H., Langkilde A. M., Reimann, S., Torsdottir, I. (1990)
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 44, 567–575.
24. Ekwall, H., Bjôrck, I., Asp, N. G. (1995) in Proceedings of the concluding plenary
meeting of EURESTA, N. G. Asp, J. M. M. van Amelsvoort & J. G. A. J. Hautvast
(Eds), European Flair-Concerted Action on Resistant Starch–No. 11 (COST 911),
pp. 105–107.
IV
RESISTANT OLIGOSACCHARIDES—
ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY
15
A Sensitive and Reproducible
Analytical Method
to Measure
Fructooligosaccharides
in Food Products
F. OUARNE AND A. GUIBERT

Béghin-Say, INSA, Toulouse, France
D. BROWN
Golden Technologies Co., Johnstown, Colorado
F. BORNET
Eridania Béghin-Say, Vilvoorde Research and Development Centre,
Vilvoorde, Belgium
INTRODUCTION
Short-chain fructooligosaccharides (DP5) (Actilight, Nutraflora) are undi-
gestible oligosaccharides industrially produced from sucrose. A recent survey (1)
was conducted to get the views of professionals in the field concerning the defini-
tion of dietary fibers (DF). The majority felt that the definition of DF should
191
192 Ouarne et al.
be revised to include oligosaccharides which are resistant to hydrolysis by the

alimentary tract. The AOAC DF analytical method does not measure short-chain
fructooligosaccharides (FOS) because of their ethanol/water mixture solubility.
In order to overcome this problem, we developed an analytical method to
measure short-chain FOS in food products (small cakes, dairy products). This
method is based on an extraction step, followed by anion exchange liquid chroma-
tography (Dionex) associated with an hydrolysis step using invertase. This
method has been applied to two types of small cake and three dairy products. In
all cases 100% of added FOS has been recovered and measured. The results
demonstrated the validity and reliability of the method for determining FOS in
food products.
Fructooligosaccharides are naturally occurring molecules present in numer-
ous edible plants. For example, they have been found in asparagus (2), banana
(3) and onion (4). With a polymerization degree lower than 5, FOS are composed
of one sucrose molecule to which is bound one to three fructose molecules. The
resulting compounds are 1-kestose or GF2, nystose or GF3, and fructosylnystose
or GF4. The production of these FOS from sucrose is protected by patents owned
by the Japanese company Meiji Seika Kaisha. In Europe, these patents are ex-
ploited through a Béghin-Say-Meiji Seika Kaisha joint-venture :Béghin-Meiji-
Industries.
The commercialization of such a new ingredient for human food involves
the investigation of its nutritional properties. First of all, in vitro studies incubat-
ing FOS with human saliva, rat pancreas homogenates, rat and rabbit intestine
mucosa (5), purified sucrase, α-amylase and isomaltase (3) have demonstrated
that FOS are not hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes.
We did complementary in vitro and in vivo studies on humans (from stom-
ach to stools). The first in vitro study showed the stability of FOS incubated with
human gastric juice (personnal communication). The second in vitro study
showed the stability of FOS incubated with small intestine mucosa (6). The third
study, in vivo, concerning the adsorption of FOS along the small intestine,
showed the non-adsorption in this part of the intestine and allowed us to deter-
mine the energy value of FOS:2 Kcal/g.
In another we have demonstrated that FOS were fermented preferentially
by bifidobacterium microflora and thus increased this population as well as the
fructooligohydrolase activity of stools.
Therefore FOS, like dietary fibers, enter the large intestine without any
change in their structure. At this stage, they are totally fermented by the resident
microflora and not directly used as an energy source.
As a conclusion of all these studies, in 1994, the French ‘‘Conseil Supérieur
d’Hygiène Publique’’ (Council for Public Health) admitted for the first time a
functional claim for a food ingredient. Industrial users can now claim the stimu-
Method to Measure FOS 193
lating effect of FOS on the growth of bifidobacteria microflora in the human

colon. It must be noted that the use of this claim is limited to G(F)n type mole-
cules for which n is lower than 4.
Furthermore, a recent survey by Lee and Prosky (1) in 1995 conducted to
obtain the view of professionnals concerning the definition of dietary fibers sup-
ports that dietary fibers should be re-defined to include short chain FOS resistant
to hydrolysis by the alimentary tract.
The AOAC procedure for the determination of total dietary fiber involves
three enzymatic digestion steps with (α-amylase, protease and amyloglucosidase.
These enzymatic treatments do not modify the FOS structure. The obtained
solution then undergoes an ethanol precipitation. Only the resulting precipitate
is used for the determination of total dietary fibers with the AOAC method. FOS
are soluble in an ethanol/water mixture, and because of this, the AOAC dietary
fiber analytical method does not measure short chain FOS.
This is why we needed to develop an analytical method to measure short
chain FOS in food products. Our aim was to determine the validity and the repeat-
ability of a method to quantify FOS in dairy products and cakes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Products
The concentrations of FOS which were determined in food products came from
the Actilight* P powder which had a mass composition of quantifiable sugars as
follows: glucose (G) 1.0%, fructose (F) 0.8%, sucrose (GF) 3.3%, GF2 38.8%,
GF3 46.6% and GF4 9.5%.
Food Products
A Danone plain yogurt
Composition: milk of 13 g fat per liter, powder skimmed milk, yogurt starters.
Mean nutritional value per 100 g: proteins 4.4 g, lipids 1.2 g, glucides 6.4 g,
calcium 164 mg, sodium 57 mg, potassium 210 mg, phosphorus 114 mg.
A Danone Bio yogurt
‘‘Plain fermented milk with active bifidus’’. Composition: milk of 3.5% fat per
liter, powder skimmed milk, Bifidobacterium (ACTIVE BIFIDUS). Mean nutri-
tional value per 100 g: proteins 4.5 g, lipids 4.4 g, glucides 6.5 g, calcium 166
mg.
A Lactel fruit yogurt (strawberry)
Composition: full fat milk, sugar (11.5%), strawberry (8%), powder skimmed
194 Ouarne et al.
milk, selected yogurt starters. Mean nutritional value per 100 g: proteins 3.4 g,
lipids 2.6 g, glucides 15.4 g, calcium 129 mg.
A LU ‘‘Petit Brun Extra’’ biscuit

Composition: wheat flour, sugar, vegetable fat, invert sugar, powder skimmed
milk, baking powder, salt, artificial aroma, antioxidant.
A J. PASQUIER Pâtissier ‘‘Madeleine Superstar’’ small cake

Composition: wheat flour, egg, sugar, butter, stabilizing agent E420, glucose,
powder skimmed milk, baking powder, salt, artificial aroma.
Sample Preparation
The product was diluted 5 times (Md: final mass of dilute yogurt) with a solution
of Actilight P (final concentration of approximately 1.5 g FOS per 100 g yogurt
and 20 g FOS per 100 g bakery product). The suspension thus obtained was
homogenized 5 min at 4°C with a high speed mixer (Ultraturax: Labortechnik,
Saufer, Germany). Aliquots were taken (10 aliquots of a known mass Mk of
approximately 10 g) and centrifuged 20 min, 2500 g at 4°C. A known volume,
Vs, was filtered on a 0.45 µm porous filter, ultrafiltered by centrifuging 25 min
at 2500 g on a 30 kD porous membrane (Microsep, Filtron, Northborough, MA),
diluted, and then analyzed by anion exchange chromatography (Dionex). The
pellet was weighed and dried in order to determine the volume (Vp) of liquid it
contained.
Determination of Recovery of FOS Contained

in Yogurt
The quantity of FOS determined is calculated as follows:
FOS quantity in g ⫽ C(Vs ⫹ Vp)(Md/Mk)
where
• C ⫽ FOS concentration in sample (g/L), determined by anion exchange

chromatography
• Vs ⫽ volume of supernatant (L)
• Vp ⫽ volume of liquid in pellet (L)
• Md ⫽ mass of dilute yogurt (g)
• Mk ⫽ sample known mass (g)
The recovery corresponds to 100 times the ratio of the amount of FOS determined
to the amount of FOS added to the yogurt.
Validity of the Analysis

To establish the sugar composition of products without FOS addition, they were
diluted 5 times with ultra pure water. The suspension thus obtained was treated
and analyzed as previously described.
To determine the nature of the oligosaccharides present in FOS containing
samples, the supernatants obtained during sugar extraction were incubated 6
hours at 40°C in the presence of invertase (Max Invert, Gist Brocade, Delft,
Netherlands, final activity: 1326 U/L reaction medium). One U of invertase activ-
ity was defined as the amount of enzyme which produced one mole of fructose
per min at 60°C in a 0.5 mol/L sucrose solution in 0.1 mol/L acetate buffer at
pH 4.5.
Invertase is an enzyme hydrolyzing the β1 → 2 linkage between glucose
and fructose in sucrose, as well as the β1 → 2 linkages between fructoses in
FOS. This step allows us to confirm the results of the direct analysis, by compar-
ing them to the amount of glucose and fructose produced during hydrolysis. The
solutions obtained before and after treatment by invertase were injected directly
on the Dionex Ion Chromatograph.
Analysis of the Products by Dionex Ion Chromatograph

Principle of the Determination of Sugars by Dionex Ion
Chromatograph
The determination of sugars was carried out on a Dionex (Sunnyvale, Ca, USA)
chromatograph equipped with a gradient pump, a degas module and a pulsed
amperometric detector (p.a.d.). The column used was a Dionex, Carbopac TM
PA1 (4 ⫻ 250 mm) with a precolumn Carbopac PA (3 ⫻ 25 mm). The p.a.d.
sensitivity was set at 3K. Results were recorded on a Hewlett-Packard H.P. 3365
integrator, series II. The volume of the injection loop was 25 µL. Detection was
performed by a gold electrode under three alternating potentials. The values and
duration of these potentials are: E1 ⫽ 0.05 V, t1 ⫽ 480 ms; E2 ⫽ 0.65 V, t2 ⫽
120 ms; E3 ⫽ ⫺0.65 V and t3 ⫽ 60 ms, respectively. The elution gradient was
established by combining an eluent A (NaOH 150 mM) with an eluent B (NaOH
150 mM, NaOAc 600 mM). In the course of the analysis, sodium acetate concen-
tration varied from 6 to 180 mM in 20 min with a constant flow rate of 1 mL/
min. Eluents were prepared with ultra pure water which had been degassed by
sparging with helium. Under these conditions, it was possible to separate all the
products contained in Actilight*950P.
Calibration of the Pulsed Amperometric Response
FOS standard solutions were prepared from purified standards. Quantities of 300
µL were injected with a Spectra Physics SP8875 autosampler. A linear response
196 Ouarne et al.
was obtained on the integrator for concentration values ranging from 0.15 to 70
mg/L. The lower detection limit was based on a peak height at least three times
that of the background noise.

Validity of the Method and Determination
of the Recovery
In order to establish the sugar composition of the control dairy products, a sample
of each yogurt without FOS addition was treated and analyzed as previously
described.
For all yogurts, the determination showed only a simple sugar, galactose,
and a disaccharide, lactose. The retention times of these sugars differed from
those of FOS and therefore should not interfere with the determination of FOS
in yogurt.
Inversely, the determination of sugars in the control cake with no FOS
addition showed two simple sugars, glucose and fructose, one disaccharide, su-
crose, and two starch residues, Rs1 and Rs2, the retention times of which corre-
spond respectively to those of GF2 and GF3 peaks (Figure 1).
As can be seen in Figure 2, the H.P.L.C. analysis of the supernatant of a
FIGURE 1 Determination of sugars in the control cake before FOS addition.

FIGURE 2 Determination of sugars in a small cake after FOS addition.
small cake (J. Pasquier pâtissier ‘‘madeleine superstar’’) after FOS addition
showed glucose (G), fructose (F), sucrose (GF), GF2, GF3 and Rs1 and Rs2.
To investigate the nature of the oligosaccharides present in cakes containing
FOS, the supernatants obtained during sugar extraction were incubated in the
presence of invertase.
After the invertase action (Figure 3) the disappearance of oligosaccharides
can be observed, correlated to an increase in glucose and fructose concentrations.
On the other hand, Rs1 and Rs2 were not hydrolyzed, and appear on the chro-
matogram. If the specific areas of GF2 and GF3 were related to Rs1 and Rs2,
respectively, the theoretical concentrations of these sugars in the supernatants
analyzed could then be determined. The theoretical amounts (in g) of Rs1 and
Rs2 in cakes can be calculated from the chromatogram corresponding to Figure
3. The recovery is then calculated as follows:
[(GF2 ⫹ RS1) ⫺ RS1] ⫹ [(GF3 ⫹ RS2) ⫺ RS2] ⫹ GF4

⫻ 100
(GF2i ⫹ GF3i ⫹ GF4i)
where:
• GF2i ⫽ quantity (in g) of GF2 introduced in cake

• GF2 ⫹ RS1 ⫽ quantity (in g) of GF2 ⫹ RS1 determined in cake con-
taining FOS
198 Ouarne et al.
FIGURE 3 Determination of sugars in a supernatant of a small cake after in-

vertase addition.
• GF3 ⫹ RS2 ⫽ quantity (in g) of GF3 ⫹ RS2 determined in cake con-

taining FOS
• RS1 ⫽ quantity (in g) of RS1 determined in control cake without FOS
• RS2 ⫽ quantity (in g) of RS2 determined in control cake without FOS
With the invertase treatment, sucrose and FOS could be specifically hy-
drolyzed and the recovery of fructooligosaccharides calculated. The results ob-
tained during direct analysis could also be verified by measurement of the glucose
and fructose produced during hydrolysis (Table 1). Indeed, a quantitative study
TABLE 1 Sugar Concentrations in a Small Cake After FOS Addition

Calculated sugar concentration before inverse hydrolysis:
GF2 ⫹ GF3 ⫹ Total Total
Sugars G F GF RS1 RS2 GF4 glucose fructose
g/L 2.3 7.6 38 11 12.1 3.2

mM 13.3 42.2 111 21.8 18.2 3.9 168.2 267.3
Concentration of glucose and fructose produced during the hydrolysis step:

Sugars G F
g/L 30.4 47.221
mM 168.7 261.9
demonstrated a direct correlation between the concentrations of FOS analyzed,

and the quantities of glucose and fructose produced (Table 1).
The results demonstrated with certainty the validity of the method for de-
termining FOS levels in cakes.
Recovery of FOS in Food Products

The final FOS concentration studied was 1.5 g fructooligosaccharide per 100 g
of yogurt. The extraction rates of FOS are listed in the table. As can be seen,
for each sample, the study of the repeatability of the extraction method was done
by treating each sample ten times. For plain yogurt, the mean recovery is equal
to 99.7% of initial FOS, with a standard deviation of 1.9%. The recovery of FOS
from Bio yogurt is equal to 99.2% of initial FOS with a standard deviation of
2.4%. For fruit yogurt, the mean extraction rate is equal to 99.2% of initial FOS
with a standard deviation of 1.3%. The results obtained for cakes can be observed
in Table 3. Here, the final fructooligosaccharide concentration studied was 20 g
FOS per 100 g of cake.
We studied the repeatability of the extraction method in the same way as
for dairy products. For cookies ‘‘Petit Brun’’ LU, the mean recovery was 100.9%
of the initial FOS with a standard deviation of 1.5%. For J. Pasquier pâtissier
‘‘Madeleine Superstar’’ cakes, the mean recovery was 99.7% of the initial fruc-
tooligosaccharide with a standard deviation of 1.1%.
The results obtained for yogurts can be observed in Table 2.
TABLE 2 Recovery of FOS Contained in Dairy Products

Recovery of FOS in dairy products (%)
Extraction Plain yogurt Bio yogurt Fruit yogurt
1 97.4 100.4 101.1

2 99.1 102.6 99.9
3 97.6 97.8 100.4
4 98.0 97.5 99.7
5 100.3 102.1 100.0
6 103.9 98.1 97.7
7 100.9 99.8 99.0
8 99.8 94.4 100.0
9 98.9 98.4 98.3
10 101.2 101.4 96.4
Average 99.7 99.2 99.2
Standard deviation 1.9 2.4 1.3
200 Ouarne et al.
TABLE 3 Recovery of FOS Contained in Bakery

Products
Recovery of FOS in cookies and
small cakes (%)
Extraction Petit brun Madeleine superstar
1 100.8 100.1
2 103.5 100.6
3 100.1 98.8
4 102.3 100.6
5 100.7 100.9
6 101.8 97.2
7 99.1 100.2
8 98.4 99.5
9 99.6 NA
10 102.5 NA
Average 100.9 99.7
SD 1.5 1.1
Sensitivity of the Method for Determining FOS

in Cakes and Dairy Products
With the defined experimental protocol and with the sensitivity of the H.P.L.C.
method used, the detection limit of quantifiable FOS is 0.04 g per 100 g of yogurt
and 0.75 g per 100 g of cake. However, in these conditions, in cakes there is an
excess of maltooligosaccharides in relation to FOS. In such a product, we intro-
duced the extra step of hydrolysis of the maltooligosaccharides with α-glucosi-
dase, followed by hydrolysis with invertase.
CONCLUSION
From the results of our work, we believe a valid, sensitive method, with good
repeatability, has been established for the analysis of FOS in small cakes and
dairy products. The methodology involves the analysis of the original product
with the Dionex Ion Chromatograph, followed by analysis of the product after
hydrolysis with invertase.
It should be a complementary method to the AOAC procedure for the deter-
mination of total dietary fibers, which does not take into account the water/etha-
nol soluble fibers such as short chain FOS.
REFERENCES
1. Lee S. S. & Prosky L. (1995) J. of AOAC, Vol. 78, 22–36.
2. Cairns A. J. (1992) New Phytol., 120, 463–473.
3. Fishbein L., Kaplan M. & Gough M. (1988) Vet. Mum Toxicol., 30(2), April, 105–
107.
4. Shiomi N. (1978) Jour. Facul. Agri., Hokkaido Univ., Sapporo, 58, pt 4.
5. Oku T., Tokunaga T. & Hosoya N. (1984) J. Nut., 114, 1574–1581.
16
Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary
Fiber: Analytical, Nutritional and
Legal Aspects
PAUL COUSSEMENT
ORAFTI, Tienen, Belgium
INTRODUCTION
Inulin is a mixture of molecules with general structure GFn, in which G ⫽ glu-
cose, F ⫽ fructose and n ⫽ number of fructosyl moieties linked by a β(2-1)
bond. Oligofructose may contain both Fn-type and GFn-type molecules with a
DP lower than 10. Both inulin and oligofructose are fructans.
Both inulin and oligofructose occur naturally in significant amounts in com-
mon vegetables and cereals. Inulin (Raftiline) and oligofructose (Raftilose)
are used as food ingredients by the food industry for a variety of applications.
Both ingredients are metabolized in the same way as dietary fibers are and
show significant ‘dietary fiber’ effects. Inulin and oligofructose have already been
confirmed by the legal authorities in many countries as ‘dietary fibers’ for food
labeling purposes.
The classical methods of analysis for dietary fibre cannot determine inulin
or oligofructose accurately or reliably. Therefore, a modification of the AOAC
203
204 Coussement
method was elaborated. This was based on the use of a specific inulinase enzyme,
resulting in the total elimination of all fructans from the AOAC TDF determina-
tion.
An overview of analytical methods that can be used for the determination
of fructans is presented. The general method which can be used in all circum-
stances can be called the ‘inulinase method for fructan determination’.
INULIN AND OLIGOFRUCTOSE

Inulin is a natural constituent of many common vegetables and cereals: for exam-
ple onions, garlic, artichokes, leek, asparagus and wheat all contain significant
amounts of inulin (Table 1). As a consequence, the daily consumption of inulin
has been estimated to be a few grams per day (1).
Chemically speaking, inulin is a mixture of poly- and oligosaccharides
which almost all have the chemical structure GFn (G ⫽ glucose, F ⫽ fructose
and n ⫽ number of fructose units linked to one another). The links between the
molecules are of a very special type: the β(2-1) form (2), which makes these
molecules indigestible for all higher animals.
The degree of polymerization (DP) of inulin is variable: it is a function of
many factors such as the source from which it was extracted, the climate and
growing conditions, the harvesting time and storage conditions (1). Table 2 gives
an overview of a number of inulin compositions. This makes clear that the DP
range and distribution of inulin can be variable, which makes its analytical deter-
mination more complicated.
The commercial inulin is obtained by hot water extraction from chicory
TABLE 1 Natural Occurrence of Inulin and Oligofructose

Source Inulin (%) Oligofructose (%)
Wheat 1–6 1–4

Onion 2–10 2–6
Leek 3–16 2–5
Garlic 9–11 3–6
Salsify 4–10 2–5
Artichoke 2–9 ⬍1
Asparagus shoot 1–4 2–3
Banana 0.3–0.7 0.3–0.7
Jerusalem artichoke 16–20 16–20
Murnong 8–13
Yacon 3–19
Chicory 15–20 5–10
Inulin and Oligofructose 205
TABLE 2 Overview of a Number of Inulin Compositions

Basic DP DP ⬍ 10 DP ⬍ 20 F/G
Substance structure range DP (%) (%) ratio
Oligofructose GFn 3–10 ⬃4 100 100 3–40

Fn 2–10 100 100
Inulin
Chicory GFn 3–60 ⬃10 ⬃30 55 ⬃9
Topinambour 3–50 ⬃6* 50 75 ⬃5*
Onion 3–12 ⬃4* 100 100* ⬃3*
Artichoke 3–200 ⬃40* 0* 0* ⬃40*
As in RaftilineST 3–60 ⬃10 30 55 ⬃9
As in RaftilineHP 6–60 ⬃25 ⬃10 ⬃45 ⬃25
*Estimations
roots. It exists in five different forms. Each of these forms was specifically devel-
oped to suit a particular end use.
Oligofructose is the common (labeling) name for fructooligosaccharides.
Their chemical composition is noted as Fn, indicating n fructose units linked by
β(2-1) linkages. Molecules with the structure GFn are also commonly considered
as fructooligosaccharides or oligofructose. Depending on the definition of ‘oligo-
saccharides’ that one accepts, their DP can go up to 10 or 20.
Oligofructose obtained commercially by enzymatic hydrolysis from inulin
(Raftilose) has a DP range as indicated in Table 2. It is a mixture of GFn and
Fn molecules where the F/G ratio may vary between 3 and 40. Oligofructose
obtained by enzymatic synthesis from sucrose contains mainly GFn molecules
within the same DP range and with low F/G ratios. Both inulin and oligofructose
are ‘fructans’, which are defined as β(2-1) linked fructose polymers and oligo-
mers (1).
Raftiline and Raftilose are recognized, confirmed and used as ‘food
ingredients’ (not as food additives) in most industrialized countries in a variety of
food products, with the dairy sector as their most successful field of application.
INULIN AND OLIGOFRUCTOSE: DIETARY FIBERS

In this chapter, I would summarize that both inulin and oligofructose are indigest-
ible, have significant ‘dietary fiber effects’ often comparable to pectins, are carbo-
hydrates of plant origin, naturally occurring in significant amounts and show
beneficial effects on the gut flora. For these properties, no significant differences
have been found between inulin and oligofructose.
Consequently it cannot be considered ‘misleading’ to the consumer to pres-
206 Coussement
ent inulin and oligofructose as dietary fiber for labeling purposes from a nutri-
tional viewpoint. This classification has been proposed by many authors (3–9).
Often it is questioned whether indigestible oligosaccharides should not be
excluded from the dietary fiber group. The ‘cutting point’ could lie at DP ⫽ 10.
However such a distinction would be very artificial. There are no nutritional
grounds which would allow one to state that oligosaccharides with a DP of 9
would not be fibers, while those with the same structure but a DP of 11 would.
Dietary fiber effects are not limited by the DP of the molecules.
It is hard to sustain that oligosaccharides should be excluded for historical
reasons. Nutritional knowledge and progress should never be fixed by historical
findings. Also, the first scientists who identified a food fraction which they called
‘dietary fiber’ characterized it as ‘polysaccharides’ indeed. This characterization
was probably meant to describe the fraction, and not to exclude the oligosaccha-
ride fraction which they most probably were not aware of. Moreover, even Trow-
ell and Burkitt included oligosaccharides in the DF definition (10).
Some people believe oligosaccharides should be excluded from the dietary
fiber fraction because of an assumed laxative effect. It is obvious that the bor-
derline DP of 10 is not determining a laxative potential. Normal doses of non-
digestible oligosaccharides cause no laxative effects, as is witnessed by already
more than 150 commercial products containing inulin and oligofructose on the
market. And after all, is the laxative effect not an inherent property of dietary
fiber?
LEGAL STATUS
Inulin (Raftiline) and oligofructose (Raftilose) are confirmed as food ingredi-
ents, not food additives, in most industrialized countries. In the U.S.A., they were
determined generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by a panel of experts. In Europe,
the nutrition labeling system is not clear at all for dietary fibre. The absence of
a definition for dietary fibre has created a legal grey zone.
By the end of 1994, the Scientific Committee for Foods of the European
Commission rejected a report that proposed dietary fibre to be defined as ‘Non-
Starch Polysaccharides of the Cell Wall’, and admitted it could not come to a
consensus on the matter. As a consequence, the Standing Committee for Food-
stuffs decided that AOAC methods 985.29 (Prosky) and 991.43 (Lee) and Englyst
methods could be used for food labeling purposes, at there may be also other
substances that can be considered as dietary fiber which have to be measured by
other methods (11). This position is not final and not even very useful directly,
but it allows the European member states to create their own guidelines for the
food industry.
Some EU member states (Belgium, Germany, Italy) have legal definitions
which include inulin and oligofructose. In the United Kingdom, inulin was al-
TABLE 3 Recovery by Dietary Fiber (DF) Methods

AOAC 991.43 Englyst
Range Average Range Average

Sample (%) (%) (%) (%)
Oligofructose, all concntrt. 0 0 0 0
RaftilinST, pure 7–17 14 1.6–1.8 1.7
RaftilinHP, pure 48–74 54 22.8–23.2 24
RaftilinST, 10% in foods 2–15 10 NA NA
RaftilinHP, 10% in foods 10–45 30 NA NA
ready classified as a non-starch polysaccharide, thus accepting it as dietary fiber

(3). Other countries are preparing new definitions which will include these fruc-
tans (the Netherlands). Denmark has confirmed that inulin and oligofructose are
DF after evaluation. In France, the Superior Health Counsel has done the same.
Similar evaluation processes are now going on in Spain, Ireland, the United
States, Canada, Australia and other countries. We believe we are slowly growing
towards a large legal acceptance of inulin and oligofructose as dietary fibers for
labeling purposes.
FRUCTANS: RECOVERY BY DF METHODS

Using the classical AOAC or Englyst methods for analysis of dietary fiber (DF),
it is impossible to detect oligofructose (12) (Table 3). For inulin, the results can
vary considerably in function of the food sample composition and the lab. Figure
1 illustrates the range of results obtained for the same sample by a small number
FIGURE 1 Recovery by dietary fiber (DF) methods

208 Coussement
of labs in a short test (unpublished results). It is clear from these results that, for
the pure standard inulin, both methods do detect some inulin. However these
results are very unreliable and the fraction recovered is too low.
For pure inulin, in which part of the smaller molecules are removed, the
recovery can be significantly higher but is never complete. These results are even
worse when concentrations of 10% or lower in real foodstuffs are measured.
Consequently, it is clear that the existing methods for DF analysis do not
determine inulin or oligofructose. Also, it can be concluded that these methods
will give unreliable results for the total DF fraction when used for foodstuffs
which contain significant amounts of inulin (1).
MODIFIED AOAC METHOD

We have tested several modifications to the existing AOAC methods for DF in
order to increase the recovery of inulin and oligofructose. Although it is possible
to increase the inulin recovery by small modifications, it was not possible to us
to improve the oligofructose recovery. Moreover, we assumed that any modifica-
tion of the AOAC method would have negative influences on the accuracy of
the method as a whole.
Therefore, another approach was necessary. We found that it was possible
to modify the AOAC method 991.43 (Lee et al., Ref. 12) in such a way that no
more inulin or oligofructose was recovered, without affecting the recovery of the
‘other fibers’. The remaining problem is then only, to have an accurate method
for the fructans (Figure 2).
The modification consists of the addition of an inulinase enzyme to the
amyloglucosidase treatment (13). This inulinase removes the fructans from the
sample right from the start. A slight pectinase side-activity of the inulinase can
FIGURE 2 Fructose determination method

be depressed by a temperature treatment of the inulinase enzyme (INRA Nantes,

unpublished results).
Different methods can be used to measure fructans, as will be summarized
in the next chapter. The final method was optimized both by INRA Nantes (F)
and Institut Meurice (B) and is presented by Dr. Dysseler.
ANALYTICAL METHODS: AN OVERVIEW

In this chapter, we will shortly list available methods with their advantages and
disadvantages.
Direct HPLC
Direct HPLC (2) can be used reliably for quantitative determination of oligofruc-
tose, but not for inulin except for pure samples. The procedures are relatively
simple and straightforward. The DP information is not very reliable: peaks do
not represent one single DP fraction (example: the F4 fraction mixes with the
GF2 fraction) and from DP 4 the accuracy and separation are low. There can be
significant interferences with other oligosaccharides (maltodextrins, galactooligo-
saccharides, others) and other organic components.
Direct GC
Although these methods are more complicated, they provide the most accurate
information on the oligosaccharide fraction (2). They cannot be used for inulin.
These methods provide well separated chromatographic peaks for the GFn and
Fn fractions, thus allowing their accurate measurement up to about DP 10. There
are almost no interferences with other oligosaccharides, allowing the differentia-
tion of different types of oligosaccharides in the same mixture. The sample prepa-
ration can be standardized to such an extent that very accurate and reliable mea-
surement is possible.
HPAEC/PAD Methods
These methods, although providing interesting qualitative results, are difficult to
use for quantitative determinations. However, also here significant progress has
been achieved recently (non-published results).
Fructose Determination Method

This method (Fig. 2) is based on the hydrolysis of fructans. Since this gives
mainly fructose, the measurement of fructose before and after hydrolysis allows
the calculation of the fructan content. However, accuracy can only be achieved
when the hydrolysis is complete and the average DP and F/G ratio of the fructan
210 Coussement
are known, which is not often the case in foodstuffs. Therefore, these methods
are mainly used for production control reasons.
Inulinase Method
This method (Fig. 3) allows the accurate determination of the total fructan content
of any nature in foodstuffs (12). The principle of the method is the specific hydro-
lysis of fructans using an inulinase enzyme. The calculation is done based on a
comparison of the glucose, fructose and sucrose determinations before and after
hydrolysis. The analysis of these mono- and disaccharides can be done by any
reliable method (not with enzymatic methods). To avoid interference with, e.g.,
lactoses, maltitol and isomalt a GC method is preferred.
The method has been used in many laboratories for quite some time, and
has been perfected. In our experience, it has proven to be reliable and accurate
in practice. A more thorough inter-laboratory comparison is being prepared now.
The inulinase method does not allow one to distinguish between inulin and
oligofructose, and does not give information on DP fractions. The method is
accurate in all food samples and requires no significant sample pretreatment.
There are almost no interferences with other substances.
The method can be combined with the modified AOAC method as de-
scribed in Chapter 5 (Figures 4 and 5). It can also be combined with any of the
other methods described above to allow the differentiation between inulin and
oligofructose.
FIGURE 3 Inulinase method (fructan method)

FIGURE 4 Inulin method combined with the modified AOAC method
FIGURE 5 Combination with AOAC method for total dietary fiber

212 Coussement
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

There are no nutritional grounds to exclude inulin and oligofructose from the
dietary fraction for nutrition labeling. Both substances cannot be measured using
the existing methods for dietary fiber determination, but accurate methods do
exist which allow their analytical determination in foodstuffs. Many legal authori-
ties have already confirmed that inulin and oligofructose can be labeled as dietary
fiber. In some countries, this will require modifications of the food labeling laws.
Both inulin and oligofructose are gaining wide acceptance as dietary fibers for
use in industrial food preparation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special thanks to L. De Leenheer and H. Hoebregs for their assistance in writing
this manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Van Loo J., Coussement P., De Leenheer L., Hoebregs H., Smits G. (1995) Critical
Reviews for Food Science and Nutrition 35, 525–552.
2. De Leenheer L. and Hoebregs H. (1994) StŠrke, May 1994.
3. COMA Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medi-
cal Aspects of Food Policy, nr. 41, Chapter 4, 1991.
4. COST 92 Group, 1994, Letter to the EC Commission.
5. Delzenne N. and Roberfroid M. (1994) Lebensm.-Wiss. u. Technol. Vol. 27, 1–6.
6. Nilsson and Bjšrck (1988) J. Nutr. 118, pp. 1482–1486.
7. Remesy C., Demigne C., Levrat M. A. (1994) Md. et Nut.–T. 30(4), 189–198.
8. Roberfroid M. (1993) Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 32(2), 103–
148.
9. Lee, Sungsoo C. and Prosky, Leon (1994) Cereal Foods World, Vol. 39, No. 10,
pp. 767–768.
10. Trowell H. and Burkitt D. (1986) Bol. Asoc. Med. P. Rico, pp 541–544.
11. EU Standing Committee for Foodstuffs, Report of the Meeting on 19–20/12/94.
12. Lee, S. C., Prosky, L, DeVries, J. W. (1992) JAOAC Int. 75, 396–416.
13. Quemener B., Thibault J. F. and Coussement P. (1994) Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol.,
27, 125–132.
17
Determination of Inulin and
Oligofructose in Food Products
(Modified AOAC Dietary
Fiber Method)
P. DYSSELER AND D. HOFFEM

Institut Meurice, Brussels, Belgium
J. FOCKEDEY
Sucrerie de Warcoing, Pecq-Warcoing, Belgium
B. QUEMENER AND J.-F. THIBAULT
INRA, Nantes, France
PAUL COUSSEMENT
ORAFTI, Tienen, Belgium
INTRODUCTION
Inulin is a polymer of fructans with a degree of polymerization of 2 to 60. It
consists principally of linear chains of fructosyl units linked by β(2-1) bonds
ended by a glucosyl unit. Due to this structure, both inulin and oligofructose resist
hydrolysis by human digestive enzymes but are fermented by the caecocolonic
213
214 Dysseler et al.
microflora. Thus, they have quite the same physiological action as dietary fiber.
Finally, as the term dietary fiber doesn’t cover a single entity, in the point of
view of food analysis, it is more practical to analyze inulin or oligofructose
with a specific method which involves enzymic hydrolysis followed by high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (done by CERIA, Belgium) or by
high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) (done by INRA,
France). In conclusion, a modification of the AOAC method is proposed to in-
clude these fructans in the determination of the soluble dietary fiber fraction.
The concept of dietary fiber, first described in the context of the hypothesis
developed by Burkitt and Trowell in 1975, covers actually a series of complex
compounds which are, according to the current most widely accepted physiologi-
cal definition, ‘‘The sum of polysaccharides and lignins that are not hydrolyzed
by the endogenous secretion of the human digestive tract’’ (1).
Within the last 5 years attention is increasingly drawn towards fiber isolates
to be used as dietary fiber-enriched ingredients, and more specifically towards
the group of indigestible poly- or oligosaccharides. This group of products, which
cannot be assessed as dietary fiber by means of any currently available method,
includes mainly polydextrose and inulin. These products are not absorbed by the
small intestine of the human digestive tract and therefore show such physiological
properties as are generally attributed to dietary fiber (2).
Chemically speaking, the inulin molecule is represented by the simple for-
mula G-F-(F)n (where G-F denotes a sucrosyl group and n the number of fructose
units present in the molecule) is a linear β(2-1) linked fructose polymer termi-
nated by a sucrose unit residue; n varies from 2 to 60 or more. The hydrolysis
of inulin by endoglycosidase produces linear oligomers. They are called GFn, in
which n represents the number of fructosyl moieties.
This hydrolysis of inulin produces linear oligomers both of GFn and Fm
types. This last type is composed of homopolymers of fructose bound by a
β(2-1) linkage. m represents the number of fructosyl moieties in the homopoly-
mers. These products of the hydrolysis of inulin are a mixture of oligomers in
which n or m varies from 2 to 9.
Because of their relatively smaller molecular weight, as compared to the
compounds conventionally accepted as dietary fiber, they are not completely pre-
cipitated by 95% ethanol. This is the reason why they cannot be assessed by the
A.O.A.C. method used for dietary fiber analysis. We have therefore developed a
reliable method to be used in routine analysis of inulin and oligofructose (3, 4).
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF INULIN

AND OLIGOFRUCTOSE
Though the general properties of inulin are in line with those of the traditional
dietary fiber, it cannot be assessed by the standard AOAC dietary fiber method
Inulin and Oligofructose Determination 215
(5) wherein the soluble fibers precipitate at 60°C in ethanol. Because inulin has
a relatively low average molecular weight (MW 6,000) as compared to the tradi-
tional soluble fiber (MW 10,000 to 50,000) it does not precipitate completely
under these conditions.
HPLC Method for Inulin (CERIA-BELGIUM)

To supply the manufacturers with an appropriate means for production, food
labeling, and quality control of inulin and inulin-containing products, the merits
of an enzymatic digestion method followed by HPLC have been tested for the
quantitative assessment of inulin. Moreover, if total soluble dietary fiber is
wanted, the standard AOAC method has to be modified by including an enzy-
matic treatment with inulinase in addition to the amyloglucosidase incubation
step in order to remove the residual β-fructans from the soluble fiber fraction
(Figures 1 and 2). In these conditions these β-fructans directly determined have
to be added to the ‘‘soluble fiber fraction’’ obtained with the AOAC modified
method.
Enzymatic Digestion
Inulin can be hydrolyzed chemically or enzymatically to yield fructose and glu-
cose (7). In the enzymatic digestion step, Novozym SP 230 Novo Nordisk
enzyme hydrolyzes inulin totally. As shown in Figure 1, the enzymatic digestion
yields the total amount of fructose, which is then quantified by HPLC (R1).
A blank test is run to account for any free fructose (R2) and the result is
substracted from the value of the assay. To compute the inulin equivalent, (R1-
R2) is multiplied by the correction factor 1.1 (assuming that the ratio of fructose/
glucose is 85/15 in inulin). Since inulin is a natural product, this ratio fluctuates
somewhat in practice according to the origin of the raw product from which inulin
is obtained.
For samples containing sugar (sucrose), a correction has to be made since
the Novozym SP 230 enzyme also totally splits sucrose, producing 50% glucose
and 50% fructose. This problem can be alleviated by analyzing a duplicate sample
of identical weight and followed likewise by HPLC analysis, the fructose origi-
nating from sucrose (R3) can thus be assessed and substracted also from the
amount of fructose (R1) obtained by the Novozym SP 230 digestion. This
method gives the β-fructan dietary fiber (see Equations (1) and (2)).
Removal of β-Fructans
This is usually achieved with Novozym SP 230 inulinase after the treatment
with amyloglucosidase. This procedure yields the total dietary fiber content ex-
cept for β-fructan dietary fiber.
216 Dysseler et al.
FIGURE 1 β-Fructan determination
Materials and Methods: β-Fructan Dietary Fiber Method

Apparatus
HPLC
High pressure pump, Millipore Waters (type 510)
Automatic sample injection device, Waters (type 712)
Oven with temperature control, Millipore Waters TCM
Refractometer detector, Millipore WATERS (type R401) with thermostatic
water bath (30°C) for the refractometer cell
Integrator, Millipore WATERS (type 740)
HPLC column Hypersil APS NH2 (Chrompack), 20 cm
HPLC working parameters
Mobile phase: Water-acetonitrile: 15%–85% (V/V)
FIGURE 2 Flow diagram of the AOAC dietary fiber method (991.43: Lee et al.,
Ref. 5) modified for total dietary fiber to assure total removal of β-fructans
Flow rate: 0.4 ml/min.

Column temperature: 30°C
Test Samples
1. Standards: fructose, glucose, saccharose and sorbitol MERCK GLC
grade (calibration samples)
2. Inulin
3. Inulin (for biochemical use, Merck n°4733)
4. Fibrulin (Cosucra company) batch 1
218 Dysseler et al.
5. Fibrulin (Cosucra company) batch 2

6. Raftiline (Raffinerie Tirlemontoise)
7. Raftilose (Raffinerie Tirlemontoise)
8. Yogurt
9. Commercial samples, dosed with known amounts of inulin
10. Plain yogurt from skimmed milk and yogurt from skimmed milk with
fruit ingredients
Method
Duplicate samples are required for this analysis:
1. Sample to be digested by Novozym SP 230

2. Blank sample
Hydrolysis of fructans by Novozym SP 230 enzyme
1. Weigh accurately a sample of ca 10 g containing ca 1 g ‘‘Fructan’’

into 400 ml beaker
2. Add 150 ml acetate buffer solution 0.1 M, pH ⫽ 4.5
3. After homogenizing, cover beaker with aluminium foil. Place the
beaker in the shaking water bath at 85°C for 20 minutes, to dissolve
the sample
4. Remove the beakers from the bath and cool down to 60°C
5. Add 100 µl Novozym SP 230 enzyme and incubate in shaking water
bath at 60°C for 30 minutes for total digestion of the inulin
6. Cool to room temperature and transfer quantitatively to 200 ml volu-
metric flask
7. Add 3 ml of lead hydroxy acetate to precipitate the protein and make
up to
8. 200 ml with water
9. After homogenizing, filter through filter paper
10. Transfer a small amount of the solution into a capped vial
11. Carry out the HPLC assay with this solution.
12. The quantity of fructose obtained by HPLC (R1) represents the total
amount of fructose in the sample.
13. Weigh accurately (within 20 mg) a duplicate sample of ca 10 g of
the sample used for enzyme digestion; proceed exactly in the same
manner as for the test sample, but without addition of Novozym SP
230.
The quantity of fructose obtained by HPLC (R2) represents the amount of free
fructose in the sample. (R3) represents the amount of fructose obtained in the
sample by HPLC.
Calculation and Expression of Results

The amount of ‘‘fructan dietary fiber’’ (FDF) is given by:
1.1 (R1 ⫺ R2) 100

% β-FDF ⫽ (1) for samples containing no sucrose, and
P
1.1 [R1 ⫺ (R2 ⫹ R3)] 100

% β-FDF ⫽ (2) for samples containing sucrose,
P
where:
R1 ⫽ concentration of the total fructose (g/l)

R2 ⫽ concentration of the free fructose (g/l)
R3 ⫽ concentration of the fructose (g/l) from sucrose
P ⫽ mean mass (g/l) of the duplicate test samples,where P ⫽ 5 times the
mean dry mass of the test sample taken
Empirical conversion factor for fructose to fructan, assuming a ratio of 80 to

85% fructose and 15% glucose in the fructan polymer.
Modified A.O.A.C. Dietary Fiber Method 991.43 Without ␤-Fructan

Dietary Fiber
As shown in Figure 2, we apply A.O.A.C. TDF method 991.43 (Lee et al., Ref.
5), but with some modification. This minor modification includes only a stage
of inulinase digestion performed, after the amyloglucosidase digestion. It aims
to eliminate the fructans, under the following conditions:
inulinase: Novozym SP 230 1800 inu/g, 100 ml

temperature: 60°C; pH: 4.5
The pH adjustment step for the inulinase is the same as for amyloglucosidase.
Results
Inulin Assay—Samples Without Sugar
Inulin samples were digested with Novozym SP 230 to check the performance
of the hydrolysis according to the HPLC procedure for samples without sugar.
As shown in Table 1, the enzymatic digestion recovery is higher than 95%.
The moisture contents of all the samples, as determined separately, were
ca 5%. The correction factor applied to compute the amount of inulin in the
sample varies between 1.0 and 1.2 for the different fructans. However, in practice,
a correction factor 1.1 for routine analyses should procure fairly accurate results.
220 Dysseler et al.
TABLE 1 Analysis of Inulin and Oligofructose Samples With and Without

Added Sugar
P R1 R2 R3 Concentration %
Sample (g/l) (g/l) (g/l) (g/l) fructans (g/l) recovery
Samples without sugar
Inulin (Merck) 4.82 4.72 0.00 5.19 (0.29) 107.7
Fibrulin–1* 4.84 4.43 0.04 4.83 (0.35) 99.7
Fibrulin–2* 4.82 4.45 0.07 4.82 (0.38) 99.9
Raftiline* 4.83 4.57 0.04 4.98 (0.31) 103.2
Raftilose* 4.85 4.29 0.01 4.71 (0.28) 97.1
Sugar-dosed samples
Fibrulin–1 ⫹ sugar 3.24 4.08 0.05 0.98 3.35 (0.14) 103.5
*Indicates industrial product
The analytical data are mean values of four series of analyses each, the confidence
limits are computed for a probability 0.05.
Inulin Samples Containing Sugar

The influence of the presence of sugar has been checked on one of the industrial
inulin samples. To this effect, 60% Fibrulin-1 was dosed with 40% sucrose,
weighed accurately.
The digestion procedure was carried out with Novozym SP 230 according
to the given procedure. The recovery is close to 100% (as in Table 1). Thus, the
interference of sugar can be considered as negligible for practical purposes.
Inulin Assay with Yogurt
After having ascertained the suitability of the Novozym SP 230 for the assess-
ment of fructans, inulin was assessed on commercial yogurt samples dosed with
known amounts of inulin.
Two commercial yogurt samples, (ca 150 g) plain yogurt and yogurt, which
contains sugar sweetened fruit, were each blended homogeneously with 6.6% of
accurately measured inulin (ca 10 g). This represents ca 40% inulin on dry matter
basis. The yogurt with fruit contains ca 4% sugar. The data shown in Table 2
TABLE 2 Analysis of Inulin in Yogurt

P R1 R2 R3 Concentration %
Sample (g/l) (g/l) (g/l) (g/l) fructans (g/l) recovery
Plain yogurt 3.00 2.80 0.03 0.01 3.03 (0.09) 101.2
Fruit yogurt 3.00 5.81 0.35 2.84 2.88 (0.12) 96.1
are mean values of 4 analyses. The results show that for plain yogurt (which
contains only very small amounts of sucrose) the recovery is 101%, a very good
result for practical purposes. For fruit yogurt (where the sucrose content is sig-
nificantly higher) the 96% recovery value is also quite acceptable.
HPAEC-PAD Analysis (INRA-Nantes) for Inulin and

Oligofructose
High performance anion exchange chromatography was performed on a Dionex
(Sunnyvale, CA, USA) 4500i LC gradient pump equiped with a pulsed electro-
chemical detector working in pulsed amperometric detection mode (PAD). The
column was thermostated to 20°C excepted for the analysis of chocolate bar
(15°C). The eluent was NaOH, 0.16 mol/l, at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. Detection
was by triplepulsed amperometry with a goldworking electrode. The working
pulse potentials and duration were as followed: E1 ⫽ 0.40 V (t1 ⫽ 500 ms), E2
⫽ 0.90 V (t2 ⫽ 90 ms), E3 ⫽ ⫺0.3 V (t3 ⫽ 50 ms).The sensitivity range used
was 0.3 mC or 1 mC. The output was recorded by a CR4AX chromatopac (Shi-
madzu, Kyoto, Japan) with attenuation 10 (1024 mV/full scale).
Materials and Methods

Reference sugars (glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose and rhamnose) were from
Fluka AG (Buchs, Switzerland). Raffinose (5H2O) was from Merck (West Ger-
many) and stachyose (4H2O) from Koch-Light Laboratories Ltd (England). Com-
mercial inulin (Raftiline ST) and oligofructose (Raftilose) from chicory root
were products of Raffinerie Tirlemontoise (Belgium). The tested food products
were a Bifidus yogurt (oligofructose content of 1.5 g/100 g wet weight basis, dry
matter 17.4 g/100 g), an orange-based jam filling for confectionery (oligofructose
content 31.1 g/100 g wet weight basis); a ‘‘cruesli bar’’ (oligofructose content
11.9 g/100 g wet weight basis) and a chocolate bar (inulin content 16.8 g/100 g
wet weight basis).
Pectibran (Institut de Recherche Biologique Yves Ponroy, Bailly,
France), All-Bran (Kelloggs, Manchester, Great Britain), and Jacotte (Pain
Jacquet S.A., Bezons, France) were purchased from a local market.
Proposed Method for Determination of Inulin

and Oligofructose
The samples (1 g) were extracted with 100 ml of hot water (85°C, 15 min). The
chocolate sample (5 g) was preliminarily dispersed at about 40°C by hand using
a glass rod and then extracted with 200 ml of water at 85°C. The extracts were
222 Dysseler et al.
cooled and made up to 100 ml. After homogenization and centrifugation (20,000
g, 10 min), an aliquot of 5 ml was incubated with about 100 µg of amyloglucosi-
dase (100 U/mg of enzyme) for 30 min at 60°C. After dilution with an aqueous
solution of rhamnose used as internal standard (final concentration of about 5-
10 ppm), 25 ml were injected on the Carbopac PA1 column. This analysis gives
the amount of the free sugars as fructose (Ff), sucrose (S) and glucose as the
sum of free glucose (Gf) and glucose from maltodextrins (Gn). Another aliquot
of 5 ml was treated with Novozym SP 230 (protein/substrate ratio of about
0,01) and amyloglucosidase (100 µg) at 60°C. This analysis leads to the amount
of total glucose (Gt): Gt ⫽ Gi ⫹ Gs ⫹ Gf ⫹ Gm, with Gi ⫽ glucose from inulin
or oligofructose and Gs ⫽ glucose released from sucrose (⫽ S/1.9) and to the
amount of total fructose (Ft): Ft ⫽ Fi ⫹ Fs ⫹ Ff with Fi ⫽ fructose released
from inulin or oligofructose and Fs ⫽ fructose from sucrose (S/1.9).
The inulin or oligofructose content (I) is obtained by: I ⫽ k (Gi ⫹ Fi),
with k ⫽ [180 ⫹ 162 (n-1)]/180 n, n being the sum of fructose and glucose
residues per molecule of inulin or oligofructose. As the general formula of inulin
is GFn and fructose and glucose have the same molecular weight, the number n
may be calculated from the ratio of fructose/glucose amount measured after com-
plete hydrolysis. The value for ‘‘n’’ of commercial inulin from chicory is around
10. For oligofructose, where the general formulae can be GFm and Fm, a value
for ‘‘n’’ of about 4 can be safely used.
Results
Tentative determination of oligofructose and inulin in the soluble fiber frac-
tion obtained by the AOAC method: Soluble and insoluble dietary fiber contents
of two foods enriched in oligofructose (filling and yogurt) and of a food enriched
in Raftiline (chocolate bar) were measured by the AOAC method. Table 3
shows that very low values of fibers were obtained for filling and yogurt. The
soluble dietary fiber amount of chocolate bar was higher (9.1 g/100 g wet matter).
The respective amounts of oligofructose and inulin were measured in the soluble
dietary fiber fraction. The recoveries of oligofructose in the case of filling and
yogurt were extremely low. An average degree of polymerization n of 20 was
calculated leading to a value of 0.905 for the factor k used for calculations of
inulin content in the soluble dietary fiber fraction of the chocolate bar. The recov-
ery of inulin, though more important, was less than 32 g/100 g demonstrating
that the conditions used to eliminate starch and proteins and/or to extract the
soluble fiber are too harsh for a quantitative recovery of inulin in the soluble
fraction.
These results show that the AOAC method, in the case of inulin-rich prod-
ucts, seriously underestimates soluble dietary fiber amounts due to the loss of
virtually all oligofructose and an important fraction of inulin.
TABLE 3 Determination of Dietary Fiber with AOAC Method and Recovery

of Oligofructose and Inulin (% of theoretical amount) in the Soluble Dietary
Fiber Fraction of Commercial Foodsa,b
Product
Chocolate
Commercial foods Filling Yogurt bar
Insoluble dietary fiber (g/100 g DM) 0.1 (0.0) 0.7 (0.0) 0.4 (0.0)
Soluble dietary fiber (g/100 g DM) 2.0 (0.0) 4.4 (0.3) 9.1 (0.7)
Theoretical oligofructose amount (g/100 g DM) 44.5 8.6
Oligofructose content (% soluble fraction) 0.5 (0.1) 0.2 (0.0)
Oligofructose recovery (% theoretical) 0.0
Theoretical inulin amount (%WM) 16.8
Inulin content (% soluble fraction) 58.5 (1.3)
Inulin recovery (% theoretical) 31.7
a
Values in parentheses are standard deviation (n ⫽ 5)
b
Content expressed in g/100 g wet matter
DIRECT DETERMINATION OF OLIGOFRUCTOSE AND

INULIN IN COMMERCIAL FOOD PRODUCTS
In Table 4 are shown the results of the determination of oligofructose in different
commercial food products with Dionex system. The recovery values obtained are
in most cases superior to 95%. Furthermore, the relative standard deviation values
(4.4, 6.0, 4.1 and 2.4 for filling, yogurt, cruesli and chocolate bars respectively)
give evidence of the acceptable accuracy of the proposed method using this HPLC
system.
TABLE 4 Analysis of Oligofructose Content (g/100 g DM) in Industrial

Food Products (HPAEC-PAD)a,b
Product
Filling Yogurt Cruesli bar Chocolate bar

Oligofructose 40.05 (1.8) 8.4 (0.5) 12.3 (0.5) 16.4 (0.4)
% Recovery 90.4 97.7 94.3 97.6
a
Values in parenthesis are standard deviations (n ⫽3)
b
Content expressed in g/100 g wet matter
224 Dysseler et al.
TABLE 5 Determination of Dietary Fiber (g/100 g DM) in Commercial

Foods with the Modified and Non-modified AOAC Method a
Product
Fiber All Bran Pectibran

AOAC method Insoluble dietary fiber 26.6 (2.5) 28.7 (0.5)
Soluble dietary fiber 5.3 (0.8) 17.2 (0.3)
Total dietary fiber 31.9 (3.1) 45.9 (0.8)
Modified AOAC method Insoluble dietary fiber 30.3 (1.1) 28.9 (1.3)
Soluble dietary fiber 8.5 (0.5) 14.2 (0.6)
Total dietary fiber 38.8 (1.6) 43.1 (1.7)
a
Values in parentheses are standard deviations
FIBER CONTAINING COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Additional assays were finally carried out on Pectibran and All-Bran by the
modified AOAC method proposed in order to evaluate the potential losses (espe-
cially pectic substances) of the soluble dietary fiber fraction due to the combina-
tion of Novozym SP 230 with amyloglucosidase. The results obtained for these
two commercial food products are compared to those obtained with the non-
modified standard AOAC method 991.43 in Table 5. The losses of the soluble
dietary fiber fraction were substantial in the case of Pectibran (⬃50%) as a
consequence of the contaminating pectolytic activities of Novozym SP 230.
There were no significative differences for All-Bran which is devoid of pectic
substances.
ELIMINATION OF THE PECTOLYTIC ACTIVITIES OF

NOVOZYM SP 230 BY THERMIC TREATMENT
The commercial inulase used (Novozym SP 230) contains some pectolytic ac-
tivity (4). It is demonstrated that a thermic pretreatment of Novozym SP 230
at 60°C for 2 hours is sufficient to destroy this pectolytic activity (Table 6), while
keeping sufficient inulinasic activity to hydrolyze residual inulin in the ‘‘soluble
fiber fraction’’ (Table 7).
Preheated Novozym SP 230 (60°C, 2h) allows complete hydrolysis of
pure Raftiline with a 1.6% of enzyme/substrate ratio. This result was obtained
by HPLC according to Quemener et al. (4). The amount quantified was equal to
101.8% (CV:0.5%) of that measured by active (non-treated) enzyme in the same
conditions. In the same manner, the addition of preheated Novozym SP 230 in
AOAC method for dietary fiber determination completely eliminates the residual
TABLE 6 Relative Activities* of Novozym SP 230 on

Apple Pectin after Thermic Pretreatment
Inactivation
time (min) 60°C 65°C 70°C 75°C
0 100 100 100 100
10 23 31 29 31
20 18 25 18 20
30 22 16 13 13
45 7 11 7 0
60 10 11 7 0
90 10 11 5 0
120 1 2 0 0
*Activities measured by the determination of reducing sugars
according to the method of Nelson (9)
inulin amount of soluble fraction of a pudding containing 7% of Raftiline. The

Raftiline content of this soluble fraction was 12.1% (of SDF) without addition
of inulase as in standard AOAC method.
Determination of dietary fiber in Pectibran, a product particularly rich in
pectins, with non-modified and modified AOAC method using active Novozym
SP 230 and partially inactivated Novozym SP 230 by preheating demon-
strates that 1) with active Novozym SP 230, losses in the soluble fraction
are substantial as a consequence of the contaminating pectolytic activities and
TABLE 7 Relative Activities* of Novozym SP 230 on Raftiline After

Thermic Pretreatment
Inactivation
time (min) 60°C 65°C 70°C 75°C
0 100 100 100 100

10 92.4 70.2 30.4 0.5
20 87.2 70.2 23.0 0
30 82.5 56.3 12.1 0.9
45 82.9 47.3 8.2 1
60 73.5 45.3 8.9 4
90 73.5 33.1 1.9 0
120 59.3 33.1 0 0
*Activities measured by the determination of reducing sugars according to the method

of Nelson (9)
226 Dysseler et al.
TABLE 8 Determination of Dietary Fiber (g/100 g DM) in Commercial

Foods (Pectibran) with the Modified and Non-modified AOAC Method a
Method Pectibran
AOAC Insoluble dietary fiber 28.7 (0.5)

Soluble dietary fiber 17.2 (0.3)
Total dietary fiber 45.9 (0.8)
AOAC modified with active Novozym SP Insoluble dietary fiber 28.9 (1.3)
230 Soluble dietary fiber 14.2 (0.6)
AOAC modified with preheated Novozym SP Insoluble dietary fiber 28.7 (0.2)
230 Soluble dietary fiber 18.2 (0.6)
a
Numbers in parentheses are standard deviation (n ⫽ 3)
2) there is no significative decrease in this soluble fraction with preheated Novo-

zym SP 230 (Table 8).
CONCLUSION
Because of the diversity of dietary fiber like products, it would be difficult to
elaborate a single analytical method capable of quantifying each type of dietary
fiber, and more especially in case of mixed fiber components. It must be pointed
out that inulin or oligofructose cannot be quantitatively measured in the soluble
fiber fraction of food as obtained by the standard AOAC Dietary Fiber Method.
This indicates that inulin and oligofructose (fructans) have to be directly deter-
mined on the food products. This method gives good accuracy and repeatability
of the results and is easily applicable for routine analysis. The analysis takes
three hours, but it can be serialized and requires only minimum handling. The
method has been tested on pure samples as well as on industrial food products,
such as yogurt, chocolate bar, and Cruesli bar.
Furthermore, in case of inulin or oligofructose enriched fiber ingredients
the addition of an inulinase hydrolysis step to the standard AOAC method for
the determination of total dietary fiber eliminates successfully the interference
of the β-fructans, without unduly prolonging this analysis. For the experiments
done by INRA-NANTES, the method developed for the determination of inulin
or oligofructose in complex food products was efficient. Evidence is presented
that the inulinase used (Novozym SP 230) was strongly active on α-galactoside
as raffinose and stachyose and slightly active on α-(1-4)-glucans as maltodextrins
and on some polysaccharides such as pectins. The interference with glucose from
starchy compounds can be eliminated by adding amyloglucosidase to the ex-

tracted sample.
Finally, a pretreatment of Novozym SP 230 by heating at 60°C for 2h
is sufficient to eliminate the pectolytic activities of this enzyme and allows its
utilisation in AOAC dietary fiber modified method for products rich in pectins.
REFERENCES
1. Asp, N. G., In: Dietary Fibre: Chemical and Biological Aspects. Ed. by Southgate
D. A. T., Waldron K, Johnson L. T. and Fenwick G. R., Royal Soc. Chem. Special
Publicat. 83, Cambridge, 1990, 327–336.
2. Roberfroid, M., Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 1993, 33, 103.
3. Dyssler, P, Hoffem, D., In: Symposium COST 92: Topics in Dietary Fibre Research,
Roma, May 1992.
4. Quemener, B., Thibault, J.-F. and Coussement, P., Lebensm.-Wiss. u. Technol., 1994,
27, 125–132.
5. Lee, S., Method 991-43, TDF, SDF and IDF method–Mes-Tris buffer. In: 3d supple-
ment Official Methods of Analysis, 15th Edition, Arlington, Virginia.
6. Prosky, L., Asp, N.-G., Schweitzer, T. F., Devries, J. W., Furda, I. and Lee, S. C.,
J. AOAC Int., 1994, 77, 690–694.
7. Guiraud, J.-P. and GALZY, P., Ind. Alim. et Agric., 1981, 98, 45.
8. Asp, N.-G., In: Dietary Fibre. New developments in physiological effects and physico-
chemical properties, Furda, I. and Brine, C (Eds), New York, Plenum Publ. Corp.,
1991, 227–236.
9. Nelson, N., Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1944, 153, 375–379.
18
Polydextrose as Soluble Fiber and
Complex Carbohydrate
S.A.S. CRAIG, J.F. HOLDEN, J.P. TROUP,

M.H. AUERBACH, AND H. FRIER
H.I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut
INTRODUCTION
Foods containing resistant oligosaccharides (RO) are growing in popularity with
health-conscious consumers. RO are resistant to hydrolysis by human alimentary
enzymes and reach the lower intestine. Recent literature is focusing attention
on the positive physiological effects of RO (1–6) as both fiber and complex
carbohydrate.
Polydextrose is regarded as either a resistant polysaccharide (RP) or a RO,
and is recognized in a number of countries as a soluble fiber. Physiological bene-
fits of polydextrose as a soluble fiber and complex carbohydrate have been deter-
mined, including effects on lower gastrointestinal fermentation, production of
short chain fatty acids (SCFA), fecal bulking, reduced transit time and glucose
homeostasis (7). Additional studies are currently underway.
A recent international survey (8) on dietary fiber (DF) showed strong sup-
port for expansion of the definition of DF to include RO in all countries. The
most appropriate basis for the definition of DF is from both the physiological
229
230 Craig et al.
and chemical perspectives (8,9). The Association of Official Analytical Chemists

(AOAC) method of analysis for fiber (10,11) is the most widely accepted mea-
surement of total dietary fiber (TDF). However, this procedure does not include
RO (including polydextrose) as fiber. A number of HPLC-based analytical meth-
ods have been developed for quantifying polydextrose in foods (12–15). One
method (12) has been applied to the determination of polydextrose as fiber, pri-
marily in beverages. This chapter discusses issues surrounding these methods,
including a study of the AOAC precipitation step on polydextrose.
POLYDEXTROSE STRUCTURE
Polydextrose is prepared by vacuum thermal polymerization of glucose, using
sorbitol as plasticizer and citric acid as catalyst (89 : 10:1 ratio). This random
polymerization and branching yields various types of glucosidic bonds in the
structure (α-1,6 bonds predominate) (16,17). The R-groups may be hydrogen,
glucose, sorbitol, citric acid or a continuation of the polydextrose polymer.
The representative structure is derived from characterizations that include
methylation and periodate oxidation for degree of branching; Smith periodate
degradation, methylation and acetolysis for linkage positions; Smith degradation
and acetolysis for anomeric linkage configuration and 13C-NMR (17). Polydex-
trose is more highly branched than other carbohydrates, such as the amylopectin
component of starch, which contains mainly α-1,4 linkages with about 4–5% of
α-1,6 linkages as branch points. The structural compactness and complexity of
FIGURE 1 Representative structure for polydextrose.

Polydextrose 231
polydextrose prevents mammalian digestive enzymes from readily hydrolyzing

the molecule, imparting reduced caloric content. Thus, radiotracer studies in both
rats and humans found that polydextrose was utilized at about one-fourth of that
of sucrose (i.e., 1 kcal/g) (18,19). Recent studies have confirmed this value
(20,21).
The average degree of polymerization (DP) of polydextrose is ⬃12 (weight
average molecular weight of ⬃2000), although the range of molecular weight is
162 to about 20,000 (Figure 2). The calculation of an average DP of 12 is derived
from three different techniques (Craig, S.A.S. and Auerbach, M.H., unpublished
results). First, polydextrose was chromatographed by HPLC on a Synchropak
GPC 100 column, calibrated with dextran standards. The average DP was 11.6
⫾ 0.5. Second, polydextrose was chromatographed by HPLC on 3 Shodex OHpak
columns in series (802.5, 804, 806). The absolute average molecular weight by
multiangle laser light scattering gave a DP of 12.3 ⫾ 0.6 (data courtesy of Wyatt
Technology Corp). Third, polydextrose was chromatographed by HPLC on a
TSK PW 2000A column. The average DP by viscometry/light scattering detec-
tion was 14.2 (data courtesy of Viscotek Corp).
The DP range for RO is usually defined as 3-9, with polysaccharides ⬎10
FIGURE 2 Differential molecular weight distribution of polydextrose. (Cour-

tesy of Wyatt Technology.)
232 Craig et al.
(5). Polydextrose is often regarded as an RO, although the majority of molecular

species are of DP ⬎ 10 and the average DP is 12. In Japan, RO are considered
resistant to hydrolysis and mostly fermented in the large intestine (i.e. do not
appear in feces). Resistant polysaccharides (RP) are also resistant to hydrolysis,
but only partially fermented. In addition, RO tend to have lower laxation thresh-
olds than RP. On this basis, polydextrose better fits the description, used in Japan,
of RP (see later section on laxation thresholds and on fermentation). On the other
hand, the RO classification fits the behavior of polydextrose in the current AOAC
assay for TDF. Less than 10% of polydextrose is measured as TDF by this method
(see analytical section for details). The highly branched structure of polydextrose
prevents significant precipitation in the 80% ethanol step of the AOAC assay.
Overall, polydextrose is more accurately classified as a RP.
REGULATORY STATUS AROUND THE WORLD

Polydextrose is an approved food additive in forty-six countries around the world,
and is commercially accepted and sold in two others without requirement of for-
mal approval. Both the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
(JECFA) and the European Commission Scientific Committee for Foods (EC/
SCF) have reviewed the safety of polydextrose and given it an ADI ‘‘not speci-
fied,’’ meaning they have no concerns about daily intake levels. The 1 kcal/g
energy content of polydextrose is generally accepted for labeling purposes in all
countries where it is approved.
In Japan, polydextrose is considered a food, not a food additive, and is
widely used there in fiberfortified health beverages. It is also approved under the
Japanese Foods for Specified Health Use (FSHU) law as an ingredient for which
the label claim ‘‘provides improved intestinal function’’ may be made. Polydex-
trose can be labeled as fiber in seven countries (Japan, Korea, Taiwan, PR China,
Argentina, Egypt and Poland). Because it is fermented in the colon like many
other fiber sources, excessive consumption of polydextrose may cause symptoms
of laxation in sensitive individuals. The mean laxation intake is 90 g/day, which
is significantly greater than that of most other RO and sugar alcohols. Because
of this effect, five countries require a laxation statement in the label of foods
containing polydextrose when a single serving of the food contains more than
15 g of polydextrose (United States, Argentina, Brazil, PR China and Taiwan).
DIETARY FIBER DEFINITION

‘‘Fiber’’ or ‘‘dietary fiber’’ (DF) is a variety of complex organic substances each
having unique physical and chemical properties which in turn determine their
physiological effect. Plant cell wall material containing cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectin substances and lignin are major sources of DF. Additionally, mucilages,
Polydextrose 233
gums, algal and synthetic polysaccharides behave as DF. With the exception of
lignin, dietary fibers are carbohydrates, and it has been suggested that the mea-
surement of nonstarch polysaccharides is more accurate than determination of
DF (22). On the other hand, it has been proposed that starch not digested in the
small intestine and reaching the colon (i.e., resistant starch (RS)) is chemically
and physically similar to other nondigestible polysaccharides and should there-
fore be included in the definition of DF (23). This definition describes polysaccha-
rides and RS as a fiber by the AOAC assay (see later section).
There are a number of definitions for ‘‘fiber’’ or ‘‘DF’’ in countries around
the world. In 1972 Trowell described DF as ‘‘the remnants of the plant cell walls
that are not hydrolyzed by the alimentary enzymes of man’’ (24). In 1976 this
definition was modified to include all ‘‘. . . plant polysaccharides and lignin which
are resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes of man’’(25). These definitions
were physiologically based, moving beyond the simple analytical definition of
‘‘crude fiber.’’ In 1978 Trowell proposed that indigestible polysaccharides that
had been added to foods should be excluded from ‘‘dietary fiber’’ (26). However,
this proposal was not pursued because of the impossibility of differentiating, by
analytical means, between ‘‘extrinsic’’ and ‘‘intrinsic’’ dietary fiber. In 1981 the
term ‘‘non-starch polysaccharides’’ (NSP) was coined in a proposal to define DF
as the sum of NSP and lignin (27). An expert panel of the Life Sciences Research
Office (LSRO) for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used the following
definition in 1987: ‘‘DF is the endogenous components of plant materials in the
diet which are resistant to digestion by enzymes produced by man . . . predomi-
nantly NSP and lignin’’ (28). To include RS, which passes the small intestine
undigested, the term ‘‘unavailable complex carbohydrate’’ (UCC) was devel-
oped. UCC comprises NSP and RS (29). A restriction to plant or plant cell wall
origin was not made. This was to account for some compounds which behave
as DF physiologically, but were not considered DF (e.g., polydextrose, inulin,
chemically modified celluloses, isolated plant gums, etc.)
Debate regarding fiber definitions continues today. In Europe, the Scientific
Committee for Food (SCF) could not agree on an EC definition of dietary fiber
in 1994. Two views are held; one includes only cell-wall-NSP (i.e., not RS or
RO). The other was proposed as: ‘‘‘Fibre’ is the part of oligo and polysaccharides
and their (hydrophilic) derivatives which by human digestive enzymes cannot be
decomposed to absorbable components in the upper alimentary tract. It includes
lignin’’ (30). Until agreement can be reached, EC member countries are pursuing
individual definitions. Worldwide, definitions can be described as based either
on analysis (e.g., AOAC, Englyst assays, etc.) or non-digestibility. This leads to
inconsistencies regarding the inclusion of certain food fractions.
Recent papers (8,9) have discussed a change in the definition of DF. An
international survey (8) found that the most accepted definition for DF is ‘‘poly-
saccharides and lignin that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes’’
234 Craig et al.
(i.e., DF is the sum of RS, nonstarch polysaccharides, and lignin, not requiring
plant origin). Oligosaccharides that escape the human small intestine (RO) are
considered DF by a majority of the survey participants. Therefore it was recom-
mended to revise the definition of DF to ‘‘. . . oligo- and polysaccharides and
lignin that are resistant to hydrolysis by human alimentary enzymes.’’
In conclusion, there is considerable interest and debate surrounding RS,
RO and RP (including polydextrose as fiber/DF). Later sections will address
physiological and analytical performance of polydextrose in this context.
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE DEFINITION

The term ‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ was proposed as a mandatory item on the
U.S. food nutrition label in 1991. However, the final regulations in 1993 do not
allow the use of the term on the nutrition label because of a lack of clear definition
and methodology. At the end of 1994, ILSI North America’s Technical Commit-
tee on Carbohydrates sponsored a workshop entitled ‘‘Complex Carbohydrates:
The Science and the Label.’’ The following resulted:
1. Complex carbohydrates is a familiar term to consumers who are aware

of the need to increase their consumption. However, consumers are
unable to readily determine this information from the nutrition label.
2. Based on a recent AOAC International survey, complex carbohydrates
definition includes both DF and digestible complex carbohydrates (e.g.,
starch). Since RO is generally considered part of DF, it is also a com-
plex carbohydrate.
3. An AOAC assay for complex carbohydrates under development will
measure both DF and digestible complex carbohydrates. However, an
80% ethanol precipitation step to remove sugars will discard RO. This
is the same problem that occurs during the AOAC assay for DF (see
later section).
Therefore an analytical method is required to measure polydextrose as complex

carbohydrate.
DIETARY FIBER: PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Disease Prevention/Intervention
In an attempt to clarify the concept of DF, individual fiber sources can be defined
by their physical properties. A widely used classification is that of 1) water solu-
ble or gelforming viscous fibers and 2) water insoluble fibers. This distinction is
convenient since many of the physiological effects of fiber seem to be based on
Polydextrose 235
this property. Clearly, polydextrose would be referred to as a soluble fiber having

similar physiological effects.
Soluble fibers are highly fermentable and are associated with carbohydrate
and lipid metabolism, while insoluble fibers contribute to fecal bulk and reduced
transit times (31). Particle size, water holding capacity, viscosity, cation exchange
capability and binding potential are specific for every fiber source. These proper-
ties can change when a food undergoes cooking and digestion.
DF has been shown to play a role in the prevention and/or management
of a wide variety of disease states and metabolic conditions (Table 1). Fiber has
been implicated as important in various aspects of bowel function and can exert
TABLE 1 The Role of Dietary Fiber in the Prevention and Management of

Disease States and Metabolic Conditions
Physicochemical Physiological Clinical
property Type of fiber effect significance
Viscosity Gums, mucilages, ↓ Gastric emptying Diabetes
pectins ↓ Rate of small in- Hypercholesterol
testine absorp-
tion
Particle size and Wheat bran, pento- ↑ Gastric emptying Constipation
water-holding san content, ↓ G.I. tract transit Peptic ulcer
capacity polysaccharide- time Diverticular dis-
lignan mixtures ↓ Colonic intra- ease
luminal pressure Dilute potential car-
↑ Fecal bulk cinogens
Adsorption and Lignin, pectin- ↑ Fecal steroid Hypercholesterol
non-specific mixed fibers output
effects ↑ Fecal fat and ni-
trogen loss
Cation exchange Acidic polysaccha- ↑ Small intestine Negative mineral
rides (i.e., pec- losses of miner- balance
tins) als, trace ele- Antitoxic effect
ments, heavy
metals
Antioxidant Lignin (reducing ↓ Free radicals in Anticarcinogenesis
phenolic groups) digestive tract
Degradability (co- Polysaccharides ↑ Production of Flatus
lonic bacteria) (free of lignan) gas and volatile Energy production
fatty acids Serum cholesterol
↓ Cecal pH Carbohydrate/
lipid metabolism
236 Craig et al.
influence on several metabolic (e.g., diabetes) and inflammatory bowel diseases

(e.g., diverticulitis). The control and/or prevention of a variety of carcinomas as
well as certain diseases affecting the cardiovascular system have also been sug-
gested to be influenced by DF intake.
Fermentation to Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA)

Studies in rats and man have shown that polydextrose is partially fermented in
the large intestine (18–21, 32). Because not all fibers are degraded equally by
bacteria, a range of 0 (nonfermentable, insoluble) to 4.0 (fermentable, soluble)
kcal/g have been used for these fibers unless proven otherwise. As previously
described, polydextrose has been determined to be 1 kcal/g. Many fibers can be
fermented by bacteria in the large intestine to produce hydrogen, methane, carbon
dioxide and SCFA (also referred to as volatile fatty acids, VFA). The SCFA are
rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract through the hepatic portal vein
and contribute to the energy balance of the body. These contributions include
inhibition of hepatic cholesterol synthesis by propionate (33) and aptosis of can-
cer cells by butyrate (34,35). Qualitative measurement of SCFA was conducted
in PDX studies (7) and revealed typical profiles of acetic, butyric and propionic
acids. Of the total radioactivity recovered, 17% was from volatile fatty acids. A
recent study (36) measured SCFA production from fermentation of 17 carbohy-
drates by slurries of mixed fecal bacteria. Polydextrose was found to have a molar
ratio of acetate: propionate :butyrate of 61: 25:14. Only 2 carbohydrates provided
a higher proportion of propionate and only 3 provided a higher proportion of
butyrate. Harada et al. (37) showed, in rats, that SCFA production from polydex-
trose increased epithelial cell turnover. This positive effect was more pronounced
with polydextrose than with pectin.
Polydextrose causes a significant decrease in the pH of duodenal juices.
Intestinal infusion of polydextrose (7) resulted in a drop of pH from 7.24 ⫾ 0.45
to 6.44 ⫾ 0.35 after 150 minutes (p ⬍ .05). Endo et al. (32) found a similar pH
drop. This change can improve the composition of gut microflora by promoting
growth of specific beneficial bacterial strains such as Bacteroides sp. (personal
communication, Carmen, R.J., Techlabs, Virginia) or diminishing detrimental
bacteria such as Clostridium perfringens. Polydextrose was found in one study
to significantly increase Bacteroides sp. (36), and in another study to diminish
Clostridium perfringens (32). The latter study also found that polydextrose re-
duced the levels of certain putrefactive/carcinogenic substances (indole and p-
cresol) produced by bacterial fermentation.
These studies show that polydextrose is fermented in a similar way to other
fibers, and even has advantages over some (e.g., butyrate/propionate production,
beneficial bacteria).
Polydextrose 237
Gastrointestinal Function
Changes in gastrointestinal function are most pronounced for insoluble fibers.
However, Oku et al. (38) found that polydextrose fed to rats at a dose of 3% of
the diet partially demonstrated the DF actions of increased fecal volume and
weight, decreased transit time and increased moisture of fecal samples. Tomlin
and Read (39) found that polydextrose increased fecal mass and softened stools.
Nakagawa et al. (40) found that polydextrose ingestion led to softer stools. Also,
Wang and Gibson (36) measured growth of colonic bacteria in batch fermenters
with various carbohydrates added. Over 12 h, polydextrose caused an increase
in total bacteria similar to the other carbohydrates (pectin, starch, inulin, oligo-
fructose, fructose). This is important because bacteria form a significant portion
of fecal bulk.
Glycemic Index
Although insoluble fiber has little to no effect on carbohydrate metabolism, water
soluble fiber and foods rich in viscous fiber have been found to reduce and control
postprandial glucose response and improve insulin profiles. The rate of glucose
absorption and uptake in the body is dependent on the composition and structure
of the food eaten. Jenkins et al. (41) proposed the concept of glycemic index
which compares carbohydrate-containing foods on the basis of postprandial glu-
cose profiles in relation to a standard glucose load or white bread. A combination
of slowing of gastric emptying and reduced intestinal absorption appears to be
responsible for the reductions in postprandial glucose concentrations. Although
the specific design for measurement of glycemic index was not used, a measure-
ment of the postprandial glucose response for polydextrose was determined in a
diabetic patient group following a 50 gram intake level (7). The glucose response
following polydextrose intake was modulated compared to the response of a stan-
dard glucose tolerance test, suggesting that the glycemic index would be lower
for polydextrose.
Nutrient Interference
The small intestine is the site of the digestion and absorption of large quantities
of food. DF has a significant influence on the rate and effectiveness of nutrient
absorption. By binding and adsorbing water, enzymes, cations and inorganic mi-
cronutrients, fiber can make these dietary components unavailable for digestion
and absorption. Binding of bile salts may interfere with intestinal lipid absorption.
Nutritional interaction studies (7) show that intake of polydextrose does not inter-
fere with nutrients (i.e., amino acids, potassium and calcium).
238 Craig et al.
Overall, ingestion of polydextrose delivers a number of physiological ef-

fects consistent with other DFs. Additional studies are underway.
ANALYTICAL MEASUREMENT OF DF
AOAC Method
The AOAC assay for TDF is a widely accepted protocol in many countries
(10,11). However, this enzyme-gravimetric procedure does not include RO (in-
cluding polydextrose and inulin) as DF. A schematic of the critical steps in the
AOAC assay is shown in Figure 3. Petroleum ether removes fat, enzymes remove
starch, starch dextrins and protein. The ethanol step is designed to precipitate
polysaccharides, leaving behind sugars and other small molecules. However, the
ethanol precipitation step leaves most RO in the discarded supernatant, along
with sugars. As RO is increasingly used in foods, this step becomes more prob-
lematical. In addition, studies (42–44) have indicated that a number of polysac-
charides (pectin, arabinan and arabinogalactan) are not quantitatively precipitated
by 80% ethanol.
Ethanol Precipitation Step of AOAC Method

An HPLC system was assembled to profile oligo- and polysaccharides. It con-
sisted of an isocratic pump, injector, 2 columns (Biorad Aminex 42A and Supelco
G2000 PW) and guards, detector (refractive index) and integrator.
An HPLC profile of Litesse polydextrose is shown in Figure 4a. Four
volumes of 95% ethanol were added to a polydextrose solution at 60°C, as de-
scribed in the AOAC assay. Only 8% precipitated, and the HPLC profile of this
material is shown in Figure 4b. The remaining polydextrose (92%) gave an HPLC
profile shown in Figure 4b. As expected, only the high molecular weight compo-
nent of polydextrose precipitated. Note the overlap of molecular profiles. This
is typical of solvent precipitations.
Other solvents were evaluated in place of ethanol. Figure 5 shows a plot
of dielectric constant vs. TDF (%) for 6 solvents. Isopropanol and acetone showed
promise, by precipitating more polydextrose. HPLC profiles are shown in Figs.
6 (isopropanol) and 7 (acetone). Acetone was subsequently shown to precipitate
sugars (10% of lactose and sucrose), so 80% acetone was tried. However, the
precipitate from 80% acetone was extremely sticky, and proved impossible to
transfer quantitatively. The precipitate from isopropanol was also somewhat
sticky. Ultimately, solvents cannot be used to quantitatively precipitate polydex-
trose (90%⫹), without contamination from sugars.
For comparison, we evaluated the effect of the ethanol step on inulin (a
RO or RP). Figure 8a shows a profile of Raftiline (sample courtesy of Orafti).
Polydextrose 239
FIGURE 3 Schematic of some steps in the AOAC assay for TDF.

240 Craig et al.
FIGURE 4 HPLC profile of litesse polydextrose (before and after ethanol frac-
tionation).
About 35% precipitated (Fig 8b), leaving 65% in solution (Figure 8b). Fig. 9
compares Raftiline to inulin (from chicory root, Sigma) and to Raftilose (oligo-
fructose). Orafti and INRA have published an HPLC method (45) to specifically
measure β-fructans (inulin and oligofructose) in food. They propose that this
value then be incorporated into the DF value.
HPLC Methods
An assay used currently in Japan to quantify polydextrose as fiber utilizes HPLC
(12). Enzymes (α-amylase and amyloglucosidase) break down starch/maltodex-
trins in the sample, similar to the AOAC assay. The sample is then membrane
Polydextrose 241
FIGURE 5 TDF of polydextrose using different precipitating solvents.
filtered, deionized and injected into the HPLC (Ultron PS-80 N column and re-
fractive index (RI) detection). This assay works well in relatively simple food
systems (e.g., clear beverages). However, contaminating substances (e.g., gums)
might confound the chromatogram in other foods.
Other HPLC-based methods have been published that measure polydex-
trose in foods (13–15). Noffsinger et al. (14) used a polystyrene divinylbenzene
(calcium form) column (Biorad Aminex HPX-87C) and RI. This method is useful
for simple foods. Arrigoni and Amado (15) used a polystyrene divinylbenzene
(lead form) column (Biorad Aminex HPX-87P) and RI. By using RI, both meth-
ods are relatively nonspecific for polydextrose. Stumm and Baltes (13) used an
anion-exchange column (Dionex CarboPac PA1), mobile phase gradient and
pulsed amperometric (PAD) detection. This provides greater selectivity, but is a
more complex system. We have worked with the Stumm and Baltes method to
improve the sample preparation step. Enzymes remove polysaccharides which
might interfere with quantitation (e.g., α-amylase, amyloglucosidase, cellulase,
mannanase, pectinase, etc.). Early results (Khaled, M., Craig, S.A.S., unpublished
results) indicate good consistency of 1.6–2.7% RSD. Therefore, polydextrose
can be accurately measured in foods and added to the TDF value. We are cur-
rently working towards an AOAC-approved procedure utilizing HPLC.
242 Craig et al.
FIGURE 6 HPLC profile of litesse polydextrose (before and after isoproprano-

lol fractionation).
Polydextrose 243
FIGURE 7 HPLC profile of litesse polydextrose (before and after acetone frac-
tionation).
244 Craig et al.
FIGURE 8 HPLC profile of raftiline inulin (before and after ethanol fraction-
ation).
CONCLUSIONS
Polydextrose is an carbohydrate with a complex structure, resistant to mammalian
digestive enzymes and partially fermented by intestinal microflora. It is widely
used as a 1 kcal/g bulking agent in reduced-calorie and reduced-fat foods. In a
Polydextrose 245
FIGURE 9 HPLC profile of β-fructans.
number of countries, polydextrose can be labeled as fiber. Studies demonstrate

that some of the physiological effects of polydextrose are consistent with those
expected of fiber. Recent surveys have shown that RO (including polydextrose
and inulin) should be part of the definition of DF. However, the AOAC assay
for DF does not account for RO due to the 80% ethanol step. Similarly, RO
246 Craig et al.
would be complex carbohydrate, but analytical methods might not account for it.
Substituting other solvents for ethanol did not account for all of the polydextrose
(without precipitating sugars). A number of HPLC methods are available to reli-
ably quantify polydextrose in food. However, further work is required to develop
an AOAC-approved method for addition of polydextrose and all RO to the TDF
value. This method will probably utilize HPLC.
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V
DIETARY FIBER—ANALYTICAL
METHODOLOGY
19
Progress in the Certification of Five
New Food Reference Materials by
AOAC, Englyst and Uppsala Methods
of Dietary Fiber Analysis
ALAN W. PENDLINGTON
RHM Technology Ltd., High Wycombe, Bucks, England
The paper outlines progress on a project within the Third Framework Programme
of the European Commission, Measurements and Testing (M&T) Programme
(formerly Community Bureau of Reference–BCR). The aim of the work was to
produce five new food reference materials from a range of food sources with
different levels of dietary fiber and other components, and to certify them simulta-
neously by Englyst, Uppsala and AOAC methods of analysis. The use of several
methods of analysis is desirable because no single method is universally used,
and there is a lack of reference materials certified by methods other than AOAC.
The new materials are dried haricot bean, dried carrot, dried apple, dried full fat
soya flour and dried bran breakfast cereal. The paper includes a brief description
of the preparation and packing of these materials and the steps taken to ensure
their homogeneity and stability when tested by Englyst and AOAC methods. A
preliminary intercomparison study was carried out among thirty-two European
251
252 Pendlington
laboratories to ensure that the protocols for the methods gave accurate, repeatable
and reproducible results that would be acceptable for certification. The materials
used for intercomparison were four existing cereal based reference materials, and
the methods which were examined were Prosky AOAC 985.29, Lee AOAC
991.43, the Englyst GC procedure, the Englyst Colorimetric procedure and the
Uppsala procedure. As a result of this study, it was decided to attempt to certify
the new materials using all five methods. The analysis for certification is complete
but the results have not yet been evaluated in detail since the participants met
to discuss them. The results in this paper are presented provisionally. The materi-
als will not be certified and available until the certification report and the corre-
sponding certificate have been accepted by the certification committee. An addi-
tional study was supported within this project to carry out further characterization
analysis on the residues obtained from the AOAC and Englyst procedures. The
main project is not intended to recommend which method should be used for
dietary fiber analysis, nor to compare the merits of the methods. However, the
work provides a unique opportunity to study the dietary fiber values of the five
new reference materials and of four cereal based materials using five different
methods of analysis.
INTRODUCTION
In the European Union it is difficult to compare the dietary fiber content of food-
stuffs because of the use of different methods of analysis. The main problem is
that the Directive on Nutrition Labelling of Foodstuffs (1) issued by the European
Union requires quantitative information on the level of dietary fiber. The directive
does not give a definition of dietary fiber and it does not specify a method of
analysis so European laboratories use a range of methods, and this is worrying
in the European Union where harmonization is an important aim. One conse-
quence is a lack of certified reference materials for dietary fiber analysis The
M&T Programme only has reference materials for dietary fiber certified by the
Prosky (AOAC 985.29) method (2). These are available via the Institute for Ref-
erence Materials and Measurements, Geel, Belgium. Another general concern is
that many laboratories do not use reference materials. A recent survey by Lee
and Prosky (3) found that less than 30 out of 147 laboratories used them for
dietary fiber analysis. This may be due to a lack of appropriate certified reference
materials (CRMs).
The M&T Programme exists to enhance measurement and testing methods
throughout the European Union, and provide CRMs for a wide range of purposes.
The project described in this paper was funded by the M&T Programme, and
coordinated by the author under contract to the Commission. It recognizes the
problems caused by using several methods of dietary fiber analysis. A major aim
of the project is to provide certified food reference materials from a range of
New Food Reference Materials 253
food types for the main analytical methods that are in use. These certified materi-
als, with supporting detailed documentation, can then be used by any laboratory
for quality control and validation purposes. An important innovation is that a
range of analytical methods has been used within the certification exercise. The
work is not intended to recommend which method should be used for dietary
fiber analysis, and it is not intended to compare the merits of the methods. It is
simply intended to report the values for dietary fiber obtained by using the best
technique for each method, and to certify the values on the basis of every method.
The design of the project included a management team with expertise in
each of the major methods. They were from the Ministére des Affaires Econo-
mique, Brussels; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala and
RHM Technology Ltd. Up to thirty-two European laboratories participated in the
project from fifteen countries. They represented universities, public analysts and
industrial laboratories. The background to the project was that in 1991, experts
who had participated in earlier MAFF/EC collaborative trials on Englyst and
AOAC methods recommended that more work should be done to improve the
methods, and a wider range of reference materials should be studied with varying
levels of fiber and other components. They said that it would be desirable to
have more information on the polysaccharide constituents of the cell walls of the
reference materials. Following these recommendations, the European Commis-
sion, M&T Programme supported a detailed study of the three main analytical
methods (4). In another study (5), three reference materials based on rye flour,
wheat flour and haricots verts beans were prepared and analyzed for certification
purposes. Only the results by the Prosky (AOAC 985.29) method were accepted
for certification, because the uncertainty of the results by the Englyst method
was considered by the participants to be too high. The current project followed
and built on the experience of the preceding studies. It had two parts, first, a
short study of cell wall components, and second the main part of the project
which was the preparation and certification of five new food reference materials.
CELL WALL STUDY

This was a qualitative study to analyze the residues from the AOAC and Englyst
procedures to gather further information about their composition. The materials
used were the five new food reference materials–haricot, apple, carrot, full fat
soya and bran breakfast cereal. The residue was the dried material remaining
after enzymic starch and protein removal steps in the two procedures, including
the dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) dispersion step in the Englyst procedure. The
AOAC residue was recovered by centrifugation to avoid contamination by the
filter aid. At the TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Zeist, Netherlands,
the residues were analyzed directly by pyrolysis with direct chemical ionization
mass spectrometry. They were also analyzed after stepwise acid hydrolysis by
254 Pendlington
high performance ion exchange chromatography and by proton NMR analysis

with pattern recognition. At the University of Saarlandes, Dept of Applied Physi-
cal Chemistry, the residues were analyzed after stepwise acid hydrolysis by anion
exchange chromatography of the sugars followed by pulsed amperometric detec-
tion, and by capillary electrophoresis.
The results of these studies are still being analyzed. However, preliminary
conclusions are that the residues can be distinguished by their pyrolysis spectra,
and that residues isolated by Englyst and AOAC procedures can be differentiated.
The differential rates of hydrolysis of the polysaccharides in 2M and 12M sulfuric
acid can be demonstrated. The results should give some information about what
the AOAC and Englyst techniques are measuring. It is anticipated that this infor-
mation will become more useful as the physiologists learn more about the action
of different fiber components.
MAIN STUDY
The main study was in three parts. The first was the preparation and packing of
the materials and a check for homogeneity and stability. The second was the
intercomparison study—optimizing the analytical methods in several labora-
tories, and assessing and selecting laboratories to take part in the certification
study. The third part was the certification study—analyzing the new reference
materials according to strict protocols in selected different laboratories, evaluat-
ing the submitted results technically and statistically, and submitting the certifi-
cation report and the corresponding certificate to the advisory committee for certi-
fication of the European Commission Standards, Measurements and Testing
(SM&T) Programme (formerly the Measurements and Testing, M&T, Pro-
gramme).
Preparation, Packing, Homogeneity and

Stability Check
The five materials were apple, bran breakfast cereal, carrot, haricot beans and
full fat soya. These materials had been recommended by a previous EC/BCR
meeting in 1991. They were chosen to represent a range of foods, cereal, fruit,
root vegetables and legumes, and to cover a range of dietary fiber levels from
approximately 10% to 30% on a dry basis. They also had different levels of other
components. For instance full fat soya has a high level of fat, apple and carrot
have a high level of free sugars, and bran and haricot have higher levels of starch.
It was anticipated that these would be good models for a range of foods for which
the materials would be used as reference materials.
In order to ensure stability and homogeneity, the foods were carefully
freeze-dried to below 3 g/100 g moisture, reduced to fine powders, less than 500
µm, to ensure that there were no concentrated lumps of fiber that could cause
inhomogeneity at the lowest sample mass that would be used, and they were
sealed under vacuum in glass bottles with flexible seals and tamperproof screw
caps. The homogeneity of the materials was checked by the Englyst 1992 proce-
dure (6), and by the Prosky (AOAC 985.29) procedure (2). There was no signifi-
cant between-bottle inhomogeneity and no significant within-bottle inhomogene-
ity at the 5% level using the F test. There was no significant trend due to the
filling sequence and no significant trend due to the order of sampling at the 5%
level using the t test. This met the European Commission M&T Programme re-
quirements for homogeneity.
M&T Programme Requirements for Homogeneity

The coefficients of variation (CV) were all less than or equal to 4% (Table 1).
These results, and particularly those using the Englyst procedure, were encourag-
ing although they were only from single laboratories.
The values of dietary fiber measured by Englyst GC were lower than those
by AOAC 985.29, except the results for full fat soya, which were similar by both
procedures. This difference is in line with the findings of the COST 92 survey
on dietary fiber intakes in Europe (7), where enzymatic chemical methods gave
results that were approximately 18% lower than gravimetric methods. This is not
surprising, because the methods measure different things. The AOAC and Upp-
sala methods include residual starch and lignin which are excluded in the Englyst
method.
During the homogeneity tests, considerable variations in the Englyst GC
results for the bran breakfast cereal were noted. The main variation was in the
xylose levels. It was found that increasing the quantity of ammonia used to neu-
TABLE 1 Results of the Bottle Homogeneity Study—Dietary Fiber Levels

and Coefficients of Variation of the Five New Reference Materials by the
AOAC 985.29 and Englyst GC Methods
Dietary fiber Dietary fiber
by AOAC by Englyst % Difference CV % by
985.29 GC between CV % Englyst
Method (g/100 g db) (g/100 g db) methods by AOAC GC
Haricot RM 514 26.1 20.7 20.6 1 2
Carrot RM 515 31.6 26.9 14.9 1 4
Apple RM 516 17.1 14.1 17.9 2 3
Soya RM 517 12.5 12.3 1.7 4 3
Bran RM 518 30.3 24.5 19.4 1 2
256 Pendlington
tralize sulfuric acid early in the derivatization step significantly increased the
recovery of xylose and arabinose. The problem was probably caused by variations
in the concentration of ammonia solutions. This drops when the bottles are
opened frequently. The quantity of ammonia recommended in the procedure (6)
was only sufficient if the solutions were the correct concentration. In the latest
Englyst procedure published in 1994 (8), and subsequently used for certification
analysis, the quantity of ammonia was increased. The higher level of ammonia
adds tolerance to the method but it is still important to use correct concentration
of ammonia.
An additional test was carried out in which extra 100% ethanol was added
to the supernatant remaining after precipitation and centrifugation of the polysac-
charides. This produced a further precipitate, which was analyzed by GC and
found to contain significant amounts of sugars. The composition of the precipitate
was not checked further. It may contain oligosaccharides. This observation has
not yet been followed up.
The long term stability and possible transportation requirements of the new
reference materials were checked by storage at various temperatures and analysis
at intervals up to two years by Englyst GC and AOAC 985.29 methods The final
analysis at two years was not complete at the time this paper was written. So far
there has been no deterioration of any of the new reference materials in any
storage condition.
Intercomparison Study
The aims of the intercomparison study were to optimize the methods in a wide
range of laboratories, and assess the laboratories, before carrying out the certifi-
cation analysis. A meeting of all the participants was held to agree the methods
that should be investigated, to identify sources of error for each method and to
provide suggestions for their avoidance and control. The participants in the study
agreed that five methods should be used for the assessment. These were the Upp-
sala method (9), the AOAC Prosky method 985.29 (2), both versions of the En-
glyst method (gas chromatographic and colorimetric) (8) and a recent version of
the AOAC method 991.43 by Lee, with MES-TRIS buffer (10).
The participants agreed that some changes or recommendations should be
incorporated into the protocol of each method to optimise their performance.
These were a combination of the participants’ experience, some recent improve-
ments to methods and some results from previous studies.
The changes in the Englyst procedure were all subsequently published by
Englyst, Quigley and Hudson (8). They were presented to the meeting in advance
of publication. The recommendations for the AOAC procedures were mainly to
highlight points in the existing method that needed standardizing to avoid sources
of variability. The only change to the Uppsala method was the inclusion of a
factor to compensate for the difference in degradation during the hydrolysis pro-
cedure between free galacturonic acid in the standard solution and polymeric
galacturonic acid in the sample. The use of this factor resulted in better agreement
with other similar methods. It is now included in the published method (9).
The intercomparison study was designed to eliminate as many potential
variables as possible, and some materials were supplied by the coordinator. It
had originally been intended to supply the Uppsala participants with the same
enzymes as the AOAC participants. However, it was found that the amyloglucosi-
dase issued to the AOAC participants contained some unwanted hemicellulase
activity. This caused losses in the Uppsala procedure, which has longer incuba-
tion stages. The Uppsala participants were therefore supplied from a purer source.
This illustrates the importance of checking the activity of the enzymes in the
method to be used.
Preliminary Intercomparison Analyses

Before starting the main intercomparison analysis, the participants were asked to
analyze a mixture of four polysaccharide materials arabinogalactan (larch gum),
fibrous cellulose, sugar free citrus pectin, and galactomannan (alcohol washed
guar gum), and to obtain results within the known value ⫾2 SD (based on the
performance in the intercomparison study). Participants who were using gas chro-
matography were asked, in addition, to carry out a similar exercise on a mixture of
sugars. These two preliminary tests proved to be very useful, as they highlighted
problems in some laboratories with the filtration step of the AOAC procedures,
miscalculations, misunderstandings of the role of blanks, problems with response
factors in GC, a problem with the makeup of a sugar standard and of the unknown
sugar mixture, and uncovered minor errors in the protocol.
Because of this exercise, many laboratories subsequently produced very
good data for the main intercomparison study by all the methods.
Table 2 shows the very low coefficients of variation between laboratories
achieved with all the methods, and the good agreement between the mean values
for dietary fiber. This agreement using the polysaccharide mix contrasts with the
large difference in dietary fiber values found between the Englyst method and
AOAC methods for many food materials and underlines its applicability for initial
quality control purposes.
Main Intercomparison Analyses

The choice of suitable test materials for the study was limited. The five new
reference materials could not be used because the participants must eventually
carry out the analysis for certification without knowing the expected results. Al-
ternate materials had to be found. Four dried reference materials that had already
been tested for homogeneity and stability were kindly supplied by the Food Re-
258 Pendlington
TABLE 2 The Dietary Fiber Levels and Coefficients of

Variation Between Laboratories Found in the
Preliminary Intercomparison Test with a Mixture of
Polysaccharides
Mean TDF CV(R)%
Method # of Labs g/100 g db (between labs)
AOAC 985.29 19 91.4 2.5

AOAC 991.43 10 92.8 1.5
Englyst GC 7 92.5 3.7
Englyst Color 9 91.0 4.0
Uppsala 5 91.2 3.3
search Institute at Norwich. They were white bread (RM 416), wholemeal bread
(RM 417), a mixture of wholemeal and white bread (RM 418) and cornflakes
(RM 419). These materials were analyzed by all five methods (Table 3).
The dietary fiber levels given by methods which do not exclude residual
starch and lignin (Uppsala and AOAC) were higher than the values by the Englyst
methods that only measure non-starch polysaccharides.
The standard deviation between laboratories was low for all methods, ex-
cept the Uppsala method. This is an improvement with respect to the Englyst
methods, because the uncertainty of past results was too high to permit certifica-
tion. This fulfilled a major purpose of the intercomparison study which was to
check that the methods, when applied by the participating laboratories, were suf-
ficiently repeatable and reproducible to be used for certification.
The results by the AOAC 985.29 Prosky method and the AOAC 991.43
TABLE 3 Dietary Fiber Values of Four Cereal Based Reference Materials

Analyzed by Five Methods During the Intercomparison Study
Reference
material # of labs White bread Wholemeal Mixture Cornflakes
AOAC 985.29 19 4.5 ⫾ 0.7 11.8 ⫾ 0.7 8.0 ⫾ 0.6 3.1 ⫾ 0.7
Englyst GC 7 3.3 ⫾ 0.3 9.1 ⫾ 0.7 6.3 ⫾ 0.5 1.0 ⫾ 0.3
Uppsala 5 5.1 ⫾ 0.5 11.5 ⫾ 1.7 8.2 ⫾ 0.6 3.0 ⫾ 1.2
AOAC 991.43 10 4.6 ⫾ 0.4 12.1 ⫾ 0.8 8.1 ⫾ 0.5 3.3 ⫾ 0.7
Englyst Color 9 3.4 ⫾ 0.4 9.6 ⫾ 0.6 6.8 ⫾ 0.4 1.2 ⫾ 0.5
Dietary fiber values, g/100 g dry basis

Mean ⫾1 SD
Lee method were compared statistically. The mean results for each reference
material by the two methods were not significantly different (p ⬎ 0.05 t-test).
The participants met to discuss the results of the intercomparison study and
to agree upon the criteria which would be applied to the results of each laboratory
to decide which laboratories should take part in the final certification study. They
also agreed upon limits that would be applied to the results of the certification
study to decide whether the data was sufficiently repeatable and reproducible to
be submitted for certification. They agreed upon the details to be incorporated
in the instructions for the certification study to give the maximum chance of
success. The project was funded on the basis of using three methods for certifica-
tion and the participants agreed on the AOAC 985.29 Prosky method, the Englyst
GC method and the Uppsala method. However, several laboratories had obtained
very good results with the AOAC 991.43 method of Lee with MES-TRIS buffer
and with the Englyst colorimetric method and they volunteered to undertake the
certification analyzes without payment.
Certification Study
Structure
The certification study followed the new guidelines for the production and certi-
fication of BCR reference materials (11). The core of the study was the analysis
of each of the new reference materials by each of five methods. To ensure that
the methods were in control, materials with known values were tested before and
at intervals during the analyzes. Certified rye flour, CRM 381 was supplied free
of charge by the European Commission M&T Programme as a control for the
laboratories using the AOAC 985.29 method. It was more difficult to find a suit-
able material for the other methods because no certified reference materials are
available. The mixture of four polysaccharides was used.
For laboratories using gas chromatography, a new unknown sugar solution
was prepared, and participants were required to obtain results within specified
limits, for individual sugars, before continuing.
For the main analysis, three bottles of each new reference material were
supplied to each laboratory, and they were analyzed in duplicate in at least two
separate runs.
All the new materials, apple, bran, carrot, haricot and soya, have been ana-
lyzed by all five dietary fiber methods. Between five and nine laboratories carried
out the analysis with each method. At the time of writing this paper, the certifica-
tion study is almost complete. At a recent meeting of all the participants, all the
data and supplementary information was discussed and evaluated to ensure that
it met the Commission’s rigorous standards. The data from any non-conforming
laboratories is not accepted. Any results that were unusual were investigated, and
260 Pendlington
discussed among the experts, to ensure that there were no technical problems or
calculation errors that might explain the problem. Finally the data was technically
and statistically assessed to see whether any values or data sets should be ex-
cluded. The guidelines (11) emphasize that statistically outlying data can only
be excluded if there is a technical explanation because the BCR has encountered
previous examples when the outlier was subsequently discovered to be the correct
value. The recalculation of the data resulting from the decisions taken at the
meeting, is still in progress.
During the many analyzes for intercomparison and certification, the partici-
pants have encountered and overcome several problems in carrying out the vari-
ous methods. This information was collected at the meeting, and it will be added
as a set of recommendations in the certification report which is sent out with the
certificate and the CRM to eventual purchasers.
Results—Control Materials
The results in this paper are provisional because they have not yet been amended
after evaluation at the meeting of participants. They are offered because they
provided useful information for discussion at the workshop. It is anticipated that
there will be few amendments, and they will tend to improve the reliability of
the results. However it must be emphasized that definitive results will only be
available in the final certification report.
The following results obtained with the control materials demonstrate that
the methods were in control (Table 4).
The participants using the AOAC 985.29 procedure achieved excellent
agreement with the certified value for the certified rye flour, CRM 381. The par-
TABLE 4 Dietary Fiber Values Obtained with the Control Standards During
the Certification Analysis
Reference Control Certified Submitted Expected Submitted
material material value data (mean) value 1 data (mean)
AOAC 985.29 CRM 381 8.22 ⫾ 0.18 8.15 ⫾ 0.18

AOAC 991.43 P/S mixture 8.22 ⫾ 0.18 8.15 ⫾ 0.18 94.5 ⫾ 2.7 93.0 ⫾ 1.4
Englyst GC P/S mixture 8.22 ⫾ 0.18 8.15 ⫾ 0.18 93.5 ⫾ 4.6 92.9 ⫾ 2.6
Englyst Color P/S mixture 8.22 ⫾ 0.18 8.15 ⫾ 0.18 93.5 ⫾ 4.8 93.3 ⫾ 1.3
Uppsala P/S mixture 8.22 ⫾ 0.18 8.15 ⫾ 0.18 93.5 ⫾ 6.0 91.7 ⫾ 3.8
Dietary fiber values g/100 g dry weight (d.w.) basis
Mean ⫾1 SD
Note: The expected values for the Englyst and Uppsala procedures are lower to allow
for the losses of methoxyl groups during acid hydrolysis
ticipants using the other methods achieved good agreement with the expected
values for the polysaccharide mix. The agreement between methods for the poly-
saccharide mixture was closer than in the intercomparison study—the mean val-
ues range between 91.7 and 93.3 g/100 g d.w. basis.
Results—Enzyme Testing
The enzymes used by the participants were not supplied by the coordinator, to
avoid systematic bias. The enzymes were tested for activity and purity. Some
participants using the AOAC methods obtained low recoveries from the sub-
strates arabinogalactan, pectin and β-glucan when following the enzyme testing
method in the AOAC procedures (985.29 and 991.43). In some cases the labora-
tory had not dried the substrate or allowed for the substrate’s moisture content.
This requirement is not clear in the AOAC methods. When allowance was made
for moisture, the recovery was acceptable. However in other cases, recovery was
still low after allowing for moisture, although other participants using the identi-
cal batch of enzyme obtained acceptable recoveries. One possible reason could
be a loss of precipitated material through the Celite bed due to the physical nature
of the precipitate and the preparation of the Celite bed. With a small quantity of
pure substrate the risk of losses is probably greater. One participant commented
that it was necessary to allow two hours standing time for the precipitate to de-
velop before filtration to obtain good recoveries, rather than one hour as stated
in the procedure.
Results—New Reference Material
Dietary fiber values for the five new reference materials are shown in Tables 5–
8. These results are preliminary. They have yet to be amended after discussion
and evaluation at the meeting of participants.
The standard deviation of the mean of means was low, enhancing the possi-
bility of certification. The agreement with the results obtained in the previous
homogeneity study was mostly good, within one standard deviation, with the
exception of apple. In making this comparison, it must be remembered that the
homogeneity analysis was only carried out by one laboratory per method. Agree-
ment between the AOAC Prosky method 985.29 and the AOAC Lee method
991.43 was good for haricot, soya and Bran breakfast cereal, but outside two
standard deviations for carrot and apple (Table 5).
The standard deviation of the mean of means was again low, which is
an improvement on previous studies using the Englyst methods (Table 6). It is
anticipated that it will be possible to certify on the basis of these results. The
agreement with the homogeneity study is very good; all the results are within
one standard deviation. The agreement between the gas chromatographic and
colorimetric methods is good (within 1 SD), except for carrot. This may suggest
that the two methods should be certified separately.
262 Pendlington
TABLE 5 Provisional Dietary Fiber Values of the Five New Reference

Materials Submitted by the Participants Using the AOAC 985.29 and 991.43
Procedures
RM 517 RM 518
Reference RM 514 RM 515 RM 516 Full fat Bran b’fast
material Haricot Carrot Apple soya cereal
AOAC 985.29 25.9 ⫾ 0.5 31.0 ⫾ 0.6 16.4 ⫾ 0.5 12.4 ⫾ 0.5 30.5 ⫾ 0.9
7 labs (26.0 ⫾ 0.4) (31.6 ⫾ 0.3) (17.1 ⫾ 0.3) (12.5 ⫾ 0.4) (30.3 ⫾ 0.3)
AOAC 991.43 26.1 ⫾ 1.0 29.5 ⫾ 0.1 14.9 ⫾ 0.8 12.6 ⫾ 1.0 30.5 ⫾ 0.4
7 labs
Dietary fiber values g/100 g dry basis
Mean of means ⫽ 1 SD (Mean ⫾1 SD)
Values in parentheses are from the homogeneity study

Materials Submitted by the Participants Using the Englyst Gas
Chromatographic and Colorimetric Procedures
RM 518
Reference RM 514 RM 515 RM 516 RM 517 Bran b’fast
material Haricot Carrot Apple Full fat soya cereal
Englyst GC
6 labs 19.8 ⫾ 0.9 27.1 ⫾ 0.5 13.7 ⫾ 0.5 11.9 ⫾ 0.4 24.3 ⫾ 0.8
Englyst Col (20.7 ⫾ 0.4) (26.9 ⫾ 1.0) (14.1 ⫾ 0.4) (12.3 ⫾ 0.3) (24.5 ⫾ 0.4)
6 labs 20.1 ⫾ 0.5 25.2 ⫾ 1.1 13.4 ⫾ 0.4 12.3 ⫾ 0.7 25.0 ⫾ 1.0
Values in parentheses are from the homogeneity study

Materials Submitted by the Participants Using the Uppsala Procedure
RM 517 RM 518
Reference RM 514 RM 515 RM 516 Full fat Bran b’fast
material Haricot Carrot Apple soya cereal
Uppsala method 23.5 ⫾ 0.5 29.5 ⫾ 0.4 15.9 ⫾ 0.5 12.8 ⫾ 0.5 27.9 ⫾ 1.1
4 labs

TABLE 8 Dietary Fiber Values Obtained on the New Reference Materials

by a Variety of Analytical Methods*
AOAC AOAC AOAC
Analytical 985.29 991.43 991.43 Englyst GC Mongeau
method (Prosky) (Lee) ⫹ APP** 1988 992.16
RM 514 23.9 ⫾ 0.8 24.9 ⫾ 0.3 24.6 ⫾ 0.2 22.6 ⫾ 0.4 20.6 ⫾ 0.8
Haricot (25.9) (26.1) (19.8)
RM 515 30.3 ⫾ 0.2 29.5 ⫾ 0.2 29.4 ⫾ 0.1 27.2 ⫾ 0.5 25.1 ⫾ 0.1
Carrot (31.0) (29.5) (27.1)
RM 516 16.2 ⫾ 0.1 16.2 ⫾ 0.2 16.2 ⫾ 0.3 15.5 ⫾ 0.6 14.6 ⫾ 0.4
Apple (16.4) (14.9) (13.7)
RM 517 12.5 ⫾ 0.1 12.8 ⫾ 0.6 13.2 ⫾ 0.1 14.8 ⫾ 0.2 14.2 ⫾ 0.2
FF Soya (12.4) (12.6) (11.9)
RM 518 30.2 ⫾ 0.1 29.7 ⫾ 0.2 31.0 ⫾ 0.3 27.3 ⫾ 0.7 29.5 ⫾ 0.2
Bran B/C (30.5) (30.5) (24.3)
Mean of means ⫽ 1 SD (Mean ⫾ 1 SD)
( ) Figures in parentheses are the results from the certification study
*Results were submitted on as-is basis. To allow comparison a dry basis figure was
calculated using the mean of certification participants moisture results (max 3 g/100 g)
**APP ⫽ α-amylase from porcine pancreas
The standard deviation of the means was low. There are some differences
from the values with the AOAC methods, particularly with haricot beans. The
AOAC methods gave approximately 26 g/100 g and the Uppsala methods gave
23.5 g/100 g (Table 7).
Overall, the results show the expected difference between methods based
on the knowledge that they measure different things.
SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY
Additional analyzes were carried out on the new reference materials by Dr.
Mongeau of the Bureau of Nutritional Sciences, Ottawa, using a range of methods
in his laboratory.
The following methods were used. The traditional Prosky method, AOAC
985.29 (2); the AOAC 991.43 method of Lee using MES-TRIS buffer (10) and
a modification using a porcine pancreas enzyme preparation (12); the 1988 ver-
sion of the Englyst gas chromatographic method (13); and the Mongeau/Brassard
rapid enzymatic-gravimetric method (AOAC 992.16) that includes an initial auto-
claving step (14).
The AOAC methods gave very similar values. For carrot, this contrasts
264 Pendlington
with the results found by the participants in the certification study. The results
by the 1988 Englyst GC method (13) are lower than the results by AOAC as
expected. However they are higher than the results obtained by the participants
in the certification study (shown in brackets in the table) who were using a later
(1994) Englyst method (8). It is interesting to compare the Englyst GC values
with the Mongeau rapid method values. Except for bran breakfast cereal, the
Englyst values are higher than those obtained by the Mongeau method.
In previous studies (12) Mongeau has demonstrated that the use of porcine
pancreas enzyme to replace purified enzymes in the AOAC 991.43 method with
MES-TRIS buffer resulted in lower dietary fiber values with boiled legumes.
This effect was not seen with the new haricot bean preparation, possibly because
the material had not been boiled.
It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the merits of the various meth-
ods or to attempt to investigate the reasons for the differences in the results ob-
tained. What is clear is that using carefully prepared, stable, homogeneous materi-
als, different methods of dietary fiber analysis which are under control give
different results. The direction of the differences depends on the nature of the
materials, and slightly different versions of the same technique can give different
results depending on the nature of the reference material.
Laboratories wishing to improve and validate their dietary fiber analytical
techniques must be clear about the nature of the samples they are using and the
importance of following very strict protocols for carrying out the analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
The primary purpose of this study was to certify five new reference materials by
a range of methods, to provide certified reference materials for laboratories that
are using methods besides the AOAC 985.29 method. The work is not intended
to recommend which method should be used for dietary fiber analysis, nor to
compare the merits of the methods. The purpose is to report the values for dietary
fiber obtained with the best technique for each method, and to certify the values
on that basis. However, the results raise several interesting issues.
First, the results of dietary fiber analysis are very method dependent. This
is not surprising as the methods aim to measure different things. In cereal based
materials it is probable that the major differences between the Englyst and AOAC
values are due to the exclusion of all residual starch and lignin in the Englyst
method. However, this cannot be the explanation for the differences in carrot
and apple, which contain very little starch.
The method dependency is also related to the food material being measured.
The AOAC 991.43 method with MES-TRIS buffer, and the Englyst colorimetric
method both give very similar results to those of their parent methods, for some
materials. For other materials, there are apparent differences. This suggests that
there are factors in the materials being measured which influence the results of
methods apparently measuring the same components, but by different procedures.
However, for a mixture of pure polysaccharides all the methods gave re-
markably similar results. This suggests that with no interfering substances, all
the methods can accurately measure non-starch polysaccharides and that such
materials could be used for initial quality control tests.
Some general points arose from the study. First, the laboratories in the
study were all expert and competent, yet it was surprising how many minor math-
ematical errors crept into some calculations. Some of these significantly affected
the results but were very difficult to detect. They were identified because all the
submitted data was entered into computer spreadsheets which automatically car-
ried out all the calculations in an identical way. It would appear that for this type
of collaborative study, the use of spreadsheets would improve the reliability of
the data. Second, moisture is a factor whose importance is often underestimated
in fiber analysis. This study needed particular care because to ensure stability,
the materials were dried down to below 3 g/100 g moisture, and were therefore
very likely to pick up moisture from the atmosphere. The participants had to
ensure that they weighed out samples for analysis at the same time as they
weighed out the samples for moisture determination, so that any subsequent mois-
ture uptake would not affect the experimental results. Precise knowledge of the
moisture content of standard reagents is also vital.
Lastly, the apparently variable performance of some enzymes and the dif-
ficulties with the testing procedures suggest that further work is required in this
area. It is important to carry out enzyme tests in each method that is to be used.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the European Commission Measurements and Testing
Programme for funding the project, the management team for their valuable assis-
tance, and all the laboratories throughout Europe who have given their consider-
able skills and enthusiasm to the project.
REFERENCES
1. Council Directive on Nutrition Labelling for Foodstuffs (1990), OJ No L 276/40,
European Commission, Luxembourg.
2. Official Methods of Analysis (1990) 15th Ed., AOAC, Arlington, VA, 1105–1106.
3. Lee, S. C., Prosky, L., (1995) J. AOAC Int. 78, 22–36.
4. Faulks, R. M., & Boenke, A., (1994) Dietary Fiber in Complex Food Materials,
Detailed Method Study, EUR 15728 EN, European Commission, Luxembourg.
5. Hollman, P., Boenke, A., Finglas, P., & Wagstaffe, P. J. (1992) The certification of
the mass fraction of major components and essential elements in rye flour, wheat
266 Pendlington
flour and lyophilized haricots verts (beans) reference materials, EUR 14553 EN,
Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
6. Englyst, H. N., Quigley, M. E., Hudson, G. J., & Cummings, J. H. (1992) Analyst
117, 1707–1714.
7. Dietary Fiber Intakes in Europe (1993), Cummings, J. H., & Frølich, W. (Eds),
Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
8. Englyst, H. N., Quigley, M. E., & Hudson, G. J. (1994) Analyst 119, 1497–1509.
9. Theander, O., Åman, P., Westerlund, E., Andersson, R., & Pettersson, D. (1995) J.
AOAC Int. 78, 1030–1044.
10. Lee, S. C., Prosky, L., & DeVries, J. W. (1992) J. AOAC Int. 75, 395–416.
11. Guidelines for the production and certification of BCR Reference materials (1994),
BCR/48/93, European Commission, Luxembourg.
12. Mongeau, R., & Brassard, R. (1994) J. AOAC Int. 77, 1197–1202.
13. Englyst, H. N., & Cummings, J. H. (1988) J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71, 808–
814.
14. Official Methods of Analysis (1995) 16th Ed., AOAC, Arlington, VA, sec 32.1.18.
20
High Performance Anion Exchange
Chromatography with Pulsed
Amperometric Detection
(HPAE-PAD): A Powerful Tool for the
Analysis of Dietary Fiber and
Complex Carbohydrates
ALAN HENSHALL
Dionex Corporation, Sunnyvale, California
INTRODUCTION
The quantitation of mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides from hydrolysis of non-
starch polysaccharides is receiving increasing recognition as an accurate measure-
ment of the non-lignin portion of dietary fiber. High performance liquid chroma-
tography (HPLC) techniques based on silica bonded phase or metal-loaded cation
exchange columns with RI detection have been widely used for the determination
of mono-, di-, and small oligosaccharides for more than a decade. However, these
techniques have proved inadequate for separating the complex mixtures of carbo-
hydrates resulting from the hydrolysis of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and
267
268 Henshall
for separation of polysaccharides with DP ⬎9. The more recently developed

HPAE-PAD technique shows great promise for the determination of neutral sug-
ars and uronic acid constituents derived from NSP since near-baseline separations
are obtained allowing direct quantitation. The HPAE-PAD technique has also
been successfully applied to the determination of sugar alcohols and the separa-
tion of polysaccharides up to DP 60. In this chapter, the basis of the HPAE-
PAD technique will be reviewed along with examples of its application to the
determination of dietary fiber and complex carbohydrate constituents.
The impetus to develop pulsed amperometric detection stemmed from the
need for a better detection method for carbohydrates (1-3). HPLC with refractive
index (RI) detection has been widely used for the detection of simple sugars in
foods, however RI suffers from lack of specificity, low sensitivity, and incompati-
bility with gradient elution. For these reasons, conventional HPLC with RI is of
limited utility for some applications due to interference resulting from inadequate
resolution of sugars from sugar alcohols and organic acids coupled with the lack
of detector specificity (4-8). Similarly, UV absorbance detection can only be used
for detection of carbohydrates at low wavelengths (180-220 nm) where it is also
nonspecific and insensitive, and interference from compounds other than the car-
bohydrates of interest commonly occur (8). Sodium chloride interference and the
toxicity and disposal problems associated with the use of acetonitrile have also
been cited as additional problems when determining carbohydrates by traditional
HPLC methods (9,10).
In the case of dietary fiber analysis, traditional HPLC methods have proved
inadequate for separation of the mixture of sugars released by hydrolysis of non-
starch polysaccharides (11). High performance anion exchange chromatography
(also referred to as high pH anion exchange chromatography) with pulsed am-
perometric detection (HPAE-PAD or HPAEC-PAD) is a relatively new liquid
chromatographic technique that overcomes these problems and has been success-
fully applied to dietary fiber and complex carbohydrate analysis. This technique
is direct (no derivatization required), highly sensitive and specific, and compatible
with gradient elution techniques. Sugars, sugar alcohols, oligo- and polysaccha-
rides can be separated with high resolution in a single run and quantitated at the
picomole level if necessary. HPAE-PAD is in wide use for glycoprotein research,
and increasingly is being applied to a variety of routine monitoring and research
applications. Recently, official methods have also been approved (12,13).
USE OF HPAE-PAD FOR DETERMINATION OF

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES AND DIETARY FIBER
The increasing utilization of HPAE-PAD for determination of complex carbohy-
drates and dietary fiber constituents is illustrated by the number of publications
on these topics in the last few years (11,14-23).
HPAE-PAD 269
Englyst et al. (11,14,15) have used HPAE-PAD to determine neutral sugars,

uronic acids, and hexosamines from non-starch polysaccharides. Corradini et al.,
have developed methods for the determination of nutritionally significant carbo-
hydrates (16). Jane et al. have applied the technique to study debranched amylo-
pectins (17). Coussement et al. have developed methodology for the determina-
tion of inulin and oligofructose in food products (18). Koizumi et al. have studied
chain length distribution of amylopectins and oligo- and polysaccharides with
DP⬎ 50 (19,20). Fahey et al. have used HPAE-PAD to determine the neutral
monosaccharide composition of various fibrous substances and have compared
the HPAE-PAD method with the standard colorimetric procedure for the determi-
nation of pectic substances in fruit and vegetables (21,22). Hotchkiss et al. have
applied HPAE-PAD to the analysis of pectin-derived oligogalacturonic acids with
50 or fewer residues (23).
PRINCIPLE OF PULSED AMPEROMETRIC DETECTION

Amperometric detection is based on the measurement of a change in current due
to oxidation, reduction, or complex formation of an analyte at the surface of an
electrode (Figure 1).
In DC amperometry the electrode is maintained at a constant potential dur-
ing the determination. This technique has been applied to the determination of
a number of compounds and ions e.g., catecholamines, thiols, phenols, sulfite,
FIGURE 1 Amperometric detection is contingent on a change in current due to

oxidation, reduction or complex formation at the applied potential on specific
electrode material.
270 Henshall
iodide, cyanide (24). Carbohydrates are easily oxidized on gold or platinum elec-
trodes at high pH and are therefore good candidates for electrochemical detection.
However, DC amperometry is not useful for carbohydrates since the carbohydrate
oxidation products foul the electrode causing a rapidly decreasing response on
subsequent determinations (Figure 2). This problem is solved by pulsed ampero-
metry which utilizes a triple pulse sequence rather than a constant potential on
the working electrode (1-3). Figure 3 illustrates the basic principle of PAD. By
using a repeating sequence of high positive (E2) and negative potentials (E3) fol-
lowing each measurement, a clean electrode surface is maintained which ensures
consistency in response. The detector signal for a particular analyte is measured
at a potential which is appropriate for the particular analyte (E1) by integrating
the current for a fixed length of time (typically 200 ms) and storing the resulting
charge in a sample-and-hold amplifier until the next measurement.
The potential settings for a particular analyte are best determined by using
cyclic voltammetry or pulsed voltammetry (25). Cyclic voltammetry plots such
as the one shown in Figure 4 for glucose on a gold electrode also throw light on
the mechanism of the electrochemical processes in pulsed amperometry, and the
reason for the high specificity of the technique. The solid line shows the variation
in current as the potential is swept from ⫺0.8V to ⫹0.6V and back to 0.8V for
glucose in 100 mM NaOH. The dashed line shows the current as a function of
FIGURE 2 Decrease in detector response for repeat injections of a carbohy-

drate and an amino acid (concentration 10 µg/L in both cases) using DC amp-
erometric detection. Peaks: (1) leucine. (2) lactose. Column: CarboPac PA1 (10
* M, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard, Eluent: gradient, 15 to 150 mM NaOH in 5
min. Detection: DC amperometry, Au electrode, range 1*A, applied potential
0.15V vs. Ag/AgCL.
HPAE-PAD 271
FIGURE 3 Triple potential sequence used in pulsed amperometry. A clean

electrode surface is maintained by using a repeating sequence of a high posi-
tive followed by a negative potential after each measurement.
FIGURE 4 Cyclic voltammetry of glucose on a gold electrode. Dashed line is

for 0.10 M NaOH supporting electrolyte. Solid line is for glucose ⫹ 0.10 M
NaOH supporting electrolyte.
272 Henshall
potential for the 100 mM NaOH background electrolyte in the absence of glucose.
For the background electrolyte alone, the current stays fairly low and constant
until a potential of approximately 0.25V is reached. At this point, onset of oxida-
tion of the gold electrode to gold oxide occurs. The current continues to rise with
further electrode oxidation until the potential sweep is reversed at 0.6V (E2).
During the reverse sweep (to E3) the gold oxide on the electrode surface is re-
duced back to gold.
With glucose present (solid line), the current rise during the positive sweep
occurs at a lower potential (⫺600 to -200 mV) due mainly to oxidation of the
aldehyde group, and peaks at ⬃⫹0.26V due to oxidation of both the aldehyde
and alcohol groups on the glucose. The current then decreases with a further
increase in the potential due to the formation of gold oxide on the electrode
surface which inhibits glucose oxidation. The potential at which the oxidation
peak occurs is typical for carbohydrates as shown by the current vs. potential
plots for several different types of carbohydrates (Figure 5) determined by pulsed
voltammetry (25). The practical implication is that a single potential setting (E1)
FIGURE 5 Pulsed voltammetry response for five (5) carbohydrates in 0.1 M

NaOH Concentration 0.1 mM: (……) sorbitol; ( — ) glucose; ( — — ) fructose;
( —•— ) sucrose; (• • •) maltose. Reprinted with permission from LaCourse,
W.R. and Johnson, D.C. ‘‘Optimization of waveforms for pulsed amperome-
tric detection of carbohydrates based on pulsed voltammetry,’’ analytical
chemistry (1993) 65, 50–55. Copyright 1993 American Chemical Society.
HPAE-PAD 273
can be used for detection of carbohydrates. In practice, a setting of 0.05V is used

rather than 0.26V since this provides the best signal to noise (26). Operation at
this low setting also provides higher specificity and thus freedom from interfer-
ence since very few classes of organic compounds can be oxidized at this low
potential. The technique of HPAE-PAD is now well established for direct detec-
tion of carbohydrates, and provides high sensitivity and specificity without the
need for derivatization.
HIGH PERFORMANCE ANION EXCHANGE

CHROMATOGRAPHY OF CARBOHYDRATES
In order for pulsed amperometry to have utility for the chromatographic determi-
nation of carbohydrates, a high resolution separation method is required that is
also compatible with high pH. This requirement has been met by the development
of column technology which allows high resolution separations of carbohydrates
by anion exchange chromatography at high pH.
Carbohydrates are often thought of as neutral compounds, but in actuality
they are weak acids with pKa’s in the range of 12–14 (Table 1). At these pH
levels, oxyanion formation occurs (Figure 6) allowing separation by ion ex-
change. Ion exchange separations are based on the relative affinity of the analyte
ion in competition with the eluent ion for the same exchange sites (Figure 7).
The greater the affinity of the ion, the longer the retention time. For carbohy-
drates, subtle structural differences and small differences in pKa can cause sig-
nificant differences in retention characteristics.
TABLE 1 Dissociation constants of some

common carbohydrates in water at 25°C
Sugar PKa
Fructose 12.03
Mannose 12.08
Xyolse 12.15
Glucose 12.28
Galactose 12.39
Dulcitol 13.43
Sorbitol 13.60
α-Methyl glucoside 13.71
274 Henshall
FIGURE 6 Carbohydrate oxyanion formation at high pH.
FIGURE 7 Ion exchange separations are based on the relative affinites of the
analyte ions in competition with the eluent ion for the same exchange sites.
HPAE-PAD 275
COLUMN PACKINGS FOR HIGH PH ANION

EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
The CarboPac series ion exchange columns developed specifically for carbo-
hydrate separations incorporate both high selectivity characteristics with high
efficiency. The basic structure of these column packings is shown in Figure 8.
The core of the packing is a sulfonated, highly cross-linked and impermeable
polystyrene divinylbenzene resin bead with a diameter of 10 micrometers. The
core particle is covered with a pellicular layer of quaternary amine functionalized
porous latex beads with a diameter of ⬃0.1 micrometers. This structure allows
ion exchange chromatography to be carried out on a stationary phase with ex-
tremely small particle diameter yet still retaining the flow and back pressure char-
acteristics of a conventional column packing with 10 micrometer diameter parti-
FIGURE 8 Structure of pellicular ion exchange packings for high resolution

carbohydrate separations.
276 Henshall
cles. The extremely small diameter of the pellicular beads results in excellent
mass transfer characteristics and highly efficient separations. This structure also
permits easy scale up from analytical columns (4 mm) to the semi-preparative
scale CarboPac columns (9 mm, and 22 mm).
DETERMINATION OF SUGARS AND

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
A typical isocratic separation of simple sugars is shown in Figure 9. This method
was adopted in 1994 as the official method for the determination of sugars present
in sugar cane molasses by the International Commission for Uniform Methods
of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA). Among the advantages cited for the new method
were 1) lack of co-elution with non-sugar impurities, 2) greatly reduced possibil-
ity of overestimation of sugars due to co-eluting impurities, 3) no column heater
is required. Figure 10 illustrates the use of HPAE-PAD with gradient elution to
separate maltose oligomers up to DP10.
FIGURE 9 Determination of sugars in sugar cane molasses by HPAE-PAD.

Column: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent:
150 mM NaOH. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min. Detection: pulsed amperometry, Au
electrode. Peaks. 1 ⫽ glucose, 2 ⫽ fructose, 3 ⫽ lactose (internal standard),
4 ⫽ sucrose.
HPAE-PAD 277
FIGURE 10 Separation of maltose oligomers by HPAE-PAD. Peak labels indi-

cate degree of polymerization (DP). Column: CarboPac PA100 (8.5 µM, 250
⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent: NaOH/sodium acetate gradient. Flowrate:
1.0 mL/min. Detection: pulsed amperometry, Au electrode.
ANALYSIS OF STARCH AND NON-STARCH

POLYSACCHARIDES
Another application of HPAE-PAD with gradient elution which is particularly
relevant to the analysis of starch and dietary fiber constituents is the separation
of polysaccharide mixtures. Figure 11 shows the separation of a hydrolyzed corn
syrup by ion moderated partition chromatography using a typical cation exchange
column. The limitation of this approach is apparent since the oligosaccharides
with DP ⬎2 are only weakly retained and the elution order is from high to low
DP. Only the monosaccharide is baseline resolved from the oligosaccharides
which elute as a poorly resolved envelope of peaks with the larger DP chains
crowding to the front of the chromatogram, and virtually no resolution at DP
⬎5. Figure 12 shows a separation using HPAE-PAD with sodium hydroxide
gradient elution of the same hydrolyzed corn syrup. In this case the elution order
is reversed as compared with the cation exchange separation, i.e. retention time
increases with increase in DP. Resolution is achieved out to a DP ⬎ 20.
FIGURE 11 Separation of a hydrolyzed corn syrup by ion moderated partition
chromatography on a cation exchange resin (calcium form). Eluent: water.
Flowrate: 0.6 mL/min. Temp.: 80°C. Detector: refractive index. Peaks: 1 ⫽ DP
5, 2 ⫽ DP 4, 3 ⫽ DP 3, 4 ⫽ DP 2, 5 ⫽ glucose.
FIGURE 12 Separation of a hydrolyzed corn syrup by HPAE-PAD using gradi-

ent elution. Column: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard.
Eluent: 150 mM sodium hydroxide with sodium acetate gradient. Flowrate:
1.0 mL min. Temp: ambient. Detector: pulsed amperometric, Au electrode.
Peaks: 1 ⫽ glucose, 2 ⫽ DP 2, 3 ⫽ DP 3, 4 ⫽ DP 4, 5 ⫽ DP 5.
HPAE-PAD 279
FIGURE 13 Chain length distribution of debranched amylopections from vari-

ous sources determined by HPAE-PAD. column: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM, 250
⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent: A, 150 mM NaOH; B, 150 mM NaOH/500 mM
sodium acetate. Gradient program: 40% B at 0 min, 50% at 2 min, 60% at 10
min, 80% at 40 min. Temp: ambient. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min. Detector: pulsed
amperometric, Au electrode, range 10 µA. Adapted with permission from
Koizumi, K., Fukuda, M., Hizukuri, S., (1991), J. chrom. 585, 233–238.
STRUCTURAL STUDIES ON AMYLOPECTINS

HPAE-PAD with gradient elution has proved to be a powerful tool for structural
studies on other starch-derived materials such as amylopectins since the chain
length distribution is an important parameter for characterizing the molecular
structure (18,19). Figure 13 shows the chain length distribution up to a DP of
55 for debranched amylopectins from various sources (19). These distributions
can be used as fingerprints for the source of the amylopectin.
QUANTITATION OF POLYSACCHARIDES
For exact quantitation of each polysaccharide, the variation in PAD response
over the DP range of interest is required. Relative detector response for maltose
oligomers in the range DP 2 to DP 7 determined by Koizumi et al. are shown
in Table 2 (20). For the maltooligomers in the range of DP 6-17, the relative
280 Henshall
TABLE 2 Relative PAD responses of D-glucooligomers (DP 2 to DP 7)*

Relative detector response
DP # of HCOH (1 → 4)-α- (1 → 2)-β- (1 → 3)-β- (1 → 6)-β-

2 8 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
3 11 1.39 1.36 1.38 1.21
4 14 1.72 1.70 1.63 1.51
5 17 2.06 2.04 2.03 1.78
6 20 2.33 2.03 1.78
7 23 2.59
* Adapted with permission from Table II, Koizumi, K., Kubota, Y.,Tanomoto, T., Okada,
Y., (1989), J. Chrom., 464, 365-373.
response factors were determined after first isolating quantities of the individual
maltosaccharides (19). The data in Table 3 show that the relative response on a
molar basis increases linearly for chain lengths from DP 6 to DP 15 and incre-
ments more slowly for the DP 16 and DP 17 maltosaccharides. This suggests
that the differences in relative response for higher oligomers becomes smaller
with increasing chain length. With the availability of semi-preparative scale (9
TABLE 3 Relative PAD responses of

maltosaccharides (DP 6 to DP 17)*
# of RDR per
DP HCOH RDR HCOH unit
6 20 0.74 1.08
7 23 0.82 1.03
8 26 0.89 0.99
9 29 1.00 1.00
10 32 1.10 1.00
11 35 1.20 1.00
12 38 1.31 1.00
13 41 1.38 0.99
14 44 1.46 0.97
15 47 1.55 0.96
16 50 1.59 0.92
17 53 1.65 0.90
* Adapted with permission from Table I, Koizumi, K.,

Fukuda, M., Hizukuri, S., (1991), J. Chrom. 585, 233-238
HPAE-PAD 281
mm and 22 mm i.d.) CarboPac columns, isolation of milligram quantities of indi-

vidual polysaccharides in a single injection becomes feasible for any polysaccha-
ride mixture allowing pure standards to be prepared and the relationship between
DP and response factor to be accurately determined.
ANALYSIS OF PHYSIOLOGICALLY FUNCTIONAL

FOOD ADDITIVES
Another class of complex carbohydrates which has been an important topic at
this workshop are physiologically functional food additives such as inulin and
oligosaccharide-based products. These materials are increasingly being used as
fat substitutes, and for their beneficial health effects which are similar to those
of dietary fiber, i.e. they are not digestible by human digestive juices, and cause
an increase in the bifidobacteria population in the colon which in turn suppresses
FIGURE 14 Examples of physiologically functional oligosaccharides.

282 Henshall
FIGURE 15 determination of ketose and related sugars by HPAE-PAD. Col-

umn: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM. 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent 100 mM
NaOH/20 mM sodium acetate. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min. Temp; ambient. Detec-
tor: pulsed amperometric, Au electrode, range 1 µA. Peaks: 1 ⫽ galactinose,
2 ⫽ sucrose, 3 ⫽ 1-ketose, 4 ⫽ 6-ketose, 5 ⫽ neo-ketose, 6 ⫽ nystose.
the activity of putrefactive bacteria and reduces the formation of toxic fermenta-
tion products. In Japan, oligosaccharide additives are used in over 450 food prod-
ucts (27) primarily for their beneficial health effects. These products are typically
mixtures of small oligosaccharides such as the fructooligosaccharides shown in
Figure 14. Analysis of these types of products is straightforward using HPAE-
PAD as shown in Figure 15. Oligofructose products derived from chicory inulin
having DP values up to 60 can also be determined by HPAE-PAD using gradient
elution as shown in Figure 16. Figure 17 shows the separation of Raftiline, a
commercial inulin product from a European manufacturer in which the smaller
oligofructose (Fn) chains are distinguished from the inulin (GFn) chains. Re-
sponse factors have also been determined for the Fn and GFn oligomers up to
DP 8. Determination of response factors for higher DP oligomers is in progress
(H. Hoebregs, private communication).
HPAE-PAD 283
FIGURE 16 HPLC analysis of purified inulin. Column: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM,
250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent A, 0.1M NaOH, eluent B 0.1M NaOH/
1.0M sodium acetate. Gradient 20–60% B in 40 min. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min.
Detection: pulsed amperometry, Au electrode, range 3 µA. Sample courtesy
of Dr. C. Mitchell, California Natural Products, Manteca, CA.
NON-STARCH POLYSACCHARIDE ANALYSIS

The determination of non-starch polysaccharides for nutritional labeling purposes
typically involves determination of the neutral sugars and uronic acid components
by GC or colorimetry following hydrolysis (28). More recently, Englyst et al.
have used HPAE-PAD to determine neutral sugars and uronic acids, and have
demonstrated good agreement with GC and colorimetric methods (11). Uronic
acids by virtue of the carboxyl group are much more strongly retained on Carbo-
Pac columns than the neutral sugars and therefore require a stronger eluent. In
the Englyst procedure, uronic acids are determined separately from neutral sugars
under isocratic conditions. Baseline resolution of the uronic acids is achieved
284 Henshall
FIGURE 17 Analysis of Raftiline, a commercial inulin-based product using

HPAE-PAD on a CarboPac PA1 column showing resolution of oligofructose
(Fn) chains from (GFn) chains. Chromatogram and peak assignments kindly
provided by H. Hoebregs, Raffinerie Tirlmontosie S.A., Tienen, Belgium.
Peaks: 1 ⫽ glucose, 2 ⫽ fructose, 3 ⫽ sucrose, 4 ⫽ GF2, 5 ⫽ F3, 6 ⫽ GF3,
7 ⫽ F4, 8 ⫽ GF4, 9 ⫽ F5, 10 ⫽ GF5, 11 ⫽ F6, 12 ⫽ GF6, 13 ⫽ DP7, 14 ⫽ DP8,
15 ⫽ DP9, 16 ⫽ DP10, 17–22 ⫽ DP15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 respectively.
with a run time of less than 13 min. Figure 18 shows results obtained for a citrus
pectin hydrolysate and a beet hydrolysate (11).
It is also possible to determine neutral sugars and uronic acids in a single
run by using gradient elution (J. Prodolliet, Nestlé, Lausanne, personal communi-
cation). The determination of neutral sugars and uronic acid constituents by
HPAE-PAD is now accepted as an alternative method for nutritional labeling
purposes in the UK (H. Englyst, personal communication).
HPAE-PAD 285
FIGURE 18 Chromatogram of (a) a standard uronic acid mixture, (b) a pectin

(citrus) hydrolysate and (c) a sugar beet hydrolysate. Column: CarboPac PA1
(10 µM, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent: 25 mM NaOH/150 mM sodium
acetate. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min. Detection: pulsed amperometry, Au electrode,
range 300 nA. Peaks: 1 ⫽ galacturonic acid, 2 ⫽ glucuronic acid, 3 ⫽ mannuro-
nic acid (internal standard). The largest peak N represents the neutral sugars
and the peak labeled *GlcA unidentified peak which appears to convert to
glucuronic acid on further hydrolysis. Adapted with permission from Figure
1, Quigley, M. E., Englyst, H. N., (1994) Analyst, 119, 1511–1518.
286 Henshall
FIGURE 19 Chromatogram of a pectin hydrolysate showing incomplete con-

version to free uronic acids by the hydrolysis treatment. Column: CarboPac
PA1 (10 µM, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard. Eluent: gradient, 100 mM NaOH/
240 mM sodium acetate to 100 mM NaOH/480 mM sodium acetate in 15 min.
Temp: ambient. Detection: pulsed amperometric, Au electrode, range 300 nA.
Adapted with permission from Figure 1, Quigley, M. E., Englyst, H. N., (1994)
Analyst, 119, 1511–1518.
USE OF HPAE-PAD IN METHOD DEVELOPMENT FOR

DIETARY FIBER DETERMINATION
HPAE-PAD is proving to be valuable not only for the final determination of neu-
tral sugars and uronic acids for nutritional labeling, but also in development of
the methodology. The accuracy of dietary fiber determinations depends on the
efficacy of the hydrolysis procedures used whether they be enzymatic or chemi-
cal. Fahey et al. have used HPAE-PAD to compare hydrolysis procedures for
dietary fiber (21). Englyst et al. have also used HPAE-PAD to compare the rela-
tive merits of chemical and enzymatic procedures for hydrolysis of pectins
(11,15). The results for a 2M sulfuric acid hydrolysis of a pectin (15) are shown
in Figure 19. In addition to neutral sugars and galacturonic acid, significant peaks
corresponding to uronic acid oligomers are also present indicating incomplete
conversion to the free acid under these conditions.
APPLICATION OF HPAE-PAD IN PECTIN RESEARCH

Pectin is an important carbohydrate component of dietary fiber which as yet has
not been fully characterized. Structural studies aimed at characterizing the com-
plex mixture of acidic and neutral polysaccharides following partial hydrolysis
of pectin have been hampered in the past due to the limitations of the chroma-
HPAE-PAD 287
FIGURE 20 Separation of oligouronic acids in a citrus pectin hydrolysate us-

ing HPAE-PAD. Column: CarboPac PA1 (10 µM, 250 ⫻ 4 mm i.d.) with guard.
Eluent: gradient from 100 mM NaOH/400 mM sodium acetate to 100 mM
NaOH/900 mM sodium acetate in 45 min. Flowrate: 1.0 mL/min. Detection:
pulsed amperometric, Au electrode, range 10 * A.
tographic techniques (23). Prior to the development of HPAE-PAD, the largest

underivatized oligogalacturonic acid that could be separated was DP 11. Figure
20 shows a typical chromatogram of underivatized oligogalacturonic acids from
a pectin hydrolysate using HPAE-PAD. Separation of oligogalacturonic acids in
the range DP 2 to DP 50 have been reported by Hotchkiss et al. (23).
CONCLUSIONS
HPAE-PAD is a powerful tool both for nutritional labeling analysis and research
on dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates. Accurate determination of each of
the neutral sugars present in hydrolysates of complex carbohydrates and dietary
fiber can be made directly without requiring derivatization. Similarly, uronic
acids and oligouronic acids derived from complete or partial hydrolysis of pectin
can also be determined either separately, or concurrently with the neutral sugars
by using gradient elution. The compatibility of the technique with gradient elution
allows chain-length distribution profiles of starch and non-starch derived oligo-
and polysaccharides to be determined up to DP 60 with high resolution.
288 Henshall
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowlege the contribution of the applications and research
staff of Dionex Corporation who carried out the chromatographic separations
shown in Figures 2, 9–12, 15,16, and 20.
REFERENCES
1. Johnson, D.C., and Polta, T.Z., (1986) Chromatogr. Forum, 1, 37.
2. Rocklin, R.D., and Pohl, C.A., (1983) J. Liquid Chromatogr., 6, 1577.
3. Johnson, D.C., LaCourse, W.R., (1990), Anal. Chem. 62(10), 589A-596A.
4. Nollet, Leo M.L. ed.; (1992) ‘‘Food Analysis by HPLC’’, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
York, p. 262.
5. Martens, D.A., Frankenberger, W.T. Jr., (1990), Chromatographia, 29, 7-12.
6. White, D.R. Jr., Widmer, W., (1990), J. Ag and Food Chem., 38 (10), 1918-1921.
7. Scott, F.W. (1992), ‘‘Food Analysis by HPLC’’, Leo M. L. Nollet ed., Marcel Dek-
ker, Inc., New York, (a) p. 262, (b) p. 271.
8. Togami, D.W., Treat-Clemons, L.G.; Hometchko, D.J.; (1990) (June), American
Lab., 15-21.
9. DeVries, J.W., and Nelson, A.L. (1994) Food Technol. 48 (7), 77.
10. Lee, S.C., DeVries, J.W., Sullivan, D.M., (1993) in Methods of Analysis for Nutri-
tion Labeling, ADAC Int’l, Arlington, VA, p. 74.
11. Quigley, M.E., Englyst, H.N., (1992) Analyst, 117, 1715-1718.
12. Method for the Analysis of Sucrose, Glucose, and Fructose in Cane Molasses (1994)
officially adopted at the 21st session of the International Commission for Uniform
Methods of Sugar Analysis, Havana, Cuba. Also adopted (1995) 1st Action approval
AOAC Method 996.04.
13. ISO Method 11292 :1995, Instant Coffee: Determination of Free and Total Carbohy-
drate-Method by High Performance Anion-Exchange Chromatography Also adopted
(1995) 1st Action Approval AOAC Method 995.13.
14. Englyst, H.N., Quigley, M.E., Hudson, G.F., (1994) Analyst, 119, 1497-1509.
15. Quigley, M.E., Englyst, H.N., (1994) Analyst, 119, 1511-1518.
16. Corradini, C., Cristalli, A., Corradini, D. (1993) J. Chrom. 16(16), 3471-3485.
17. Quemener, B., Thibault, J.F., Coussement, P., (1994), Lebensm.-Wiss. u. Technol.,
27, 125-132.
18. Wong, K.S., and Jane, J., (1995), J. Chrom., 18(1), 63-80.
19. Koizumi, K, Fukuda, M., Hizukuri, S. (1991), J. Chrom., 585, 233-238.
20. Koizumi, K., Kubota, Y.,Tanomoto, T., Okada, Y., (1989), J. Chrom., 464, 365-373.
21. Garleb, K.A., Bourquin, L.D., Fahey, Jr., G.C., (1991), J. Food Sci., 56(2), 423
426.
22. Garleb, K.A., Bourquin, L.D., Fahey, Jr., G.C., (1989), J. Ag. Food Chem., 37, 1287-
1293.
23. Hotchkiss, Jr., A.T., Hicks, K.B., (1990), Anal. Biochem., 184, 200-206.
24. Rocklin, R.D., (1993) in A Practical Guide to HPLC Detection, Academic Press
Inc., New York, NY, p. 149.
HPAE-PAD 289
25. LaCourse, W.R., Johnson, D.C. , (1993), Anal. Chem. 65(10), 50-55.
26. Technical Note 21, Dionex Corporation, 1228 Titan Way, Sunnyvale, CA 94088
27. Tomomatsu, H., (1994) Food Technol., 48(10), 61-65.
28. Theander, O., Åman, P., Westerlund, E., Andersson, R., Petterson, D., (1995), J.
AOAC, 78(4), 1030-1044.
21
NIR Analysis of Dietary Fiber
SANDRA E. KAYS, FRANKLIN E. BARTON II, AND

WILLIAM R. WINDHAM
Richard B. Russell Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia
INTRODUCTION
Food labeling legislation has increased the need for rapid, more efficient, and
environmentally benign methods of determining the constituents of foods, partic-
ularly dietary fiber. For many agricultural products near-infrared technology has
provided valuable alternatives to conventional, chemical methods of analysis.
Near-infrared spectroscopy appears to provide an attractive alternative to current
laboratory methods of dietary fiber determination. In this chapter, the current
status of the use of near-infrared spectroscopy for the analysis of fiber in foods
is reviewed. Likewise, the instrumentation and chemometrics involved in near-
infrared analysis and the current applications of near-infrared spectroscopy in the
food industry are critiqued. Near-infrared analysis is very rapid, requires little or
no sample preparation, does not create chemical waste, and thus, has the potential
to be a significant force in dietary fiber analysis in the future.
Recent United States legislation has made it necessary to seek alternative
methods for the analysis of certain nutrients. The Nutrition Labeling and Educa-
291
292 Kays et al.
tion Act of 1990 requires that the amount of specific nutrients in processed and
packaged foods is included on the nutrition label (1). As a result of this legislation
there will be a substantial increase in the total number of analyses performed,
not only in the food industry but also by monitoring agencies. Furthermore, the
1988 Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (2) advocates reduction of chem-
ical waste generated by laboratories. Consequently there is a need for more rapid,
economical methods of food analysis that do not generate chemical waste yet
maintain the accuracy and repeatability of existing methods. This is particularly
so for dietary fiber as the current methods of analysis (3, 4, 5, 6), although precise
and repeatable for a wide variety of foods, are very time consuming, expensive,
and generate waste products.
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been used in agriculture for many
years as a rapid, accurate, non-destructive method of measuring specific constit-
uents of grains and forages (7, 8). The technology involves measurement of sam-
ple absorptions in the electromagnetic regions of the spectrum from 750-2500
nm. Absorptions are calibrated to an analyzed component of the sample, allowing
subsequent prediction of the component in new samples. Thus, NIR analysis is
dependent on 1) an instrument capable of making spectral measurements with
sufficient precision, 2) a reliable and accurate reference laboratory method that
measures the desired quality, and 3) a mathematical model to relate the spectral
data to the reference measurements. NIRS is very rapid, requiring only seconds
to make a determination, needs little or no sample preparation, and does not
create chemical waste. In addition to its use for agricultural crops, NIRS has been
used to determine the quantity of certain constituents of foods. A small number
of studies has addressed the use of NIRS to predict total dietary fiber and its
constituents, soluble and insoluble fiber, in a variety of foods. The following
review describes the instrumentation and model building involved in NIR analy-
sis, gives an overview of the existing applications of NIRS for food analysis,
and reviews the literature dealing with the use of NIRS for the analysis of dietary
fiber in foods.
INSTRUMENTATION
The publication ‘‘Near Infrared Technology in the Agricultural and Food Indus-
tries’’ by Williams and Norris (1987, 7) described NIR technology as it existed
in the mid-1980s. At that time there were three types of instruments in use: 1)
a fixed filter instrument, which gives one data point per wavelength per filter; 2)
a tilting filter instrument, which produces a segmented scan for each filter; and
3) scanning monochromators, which produce the entire spectrum. Sample presen-
tation for these instruments consisted of a spinning cup for use with a ground
product. The instruments, used to measure protein, fat, and moisture in forages,
feeds, and foods (8, 9, 10), were connected to mini-computers which ran small
NIR Analysis 293
statistical programs to develop multiple linear regression models. While adequate

for simple matrices, considerable updating was required for complex systems and
for use in predicting open populations. Although these systems lacked flexibility
and computing power, the instruments themselves had adequate signal to noise
ratios and wavelength precision.
In the late 1980s instrumentation displayed at the Pittsburgh Conferences
and Eastern Analytical Symposia represented a new generation of NIR equip-
ment. Several major analytical instrumentation manufacturers began to see NIRS
as a part of their marketing scheme. Companies such as Perkin-Elmer, Boem,
Nicolet, and Beckman began modifying existing optical instruments to cover the
NIR. This was followed by the first dedicated FT-NIR insruments from Bran-
Leubbe and Boem. In the early 1990s, sample presentation cells for unground
products appeared on the market as did cells for high moisture materials and
liquids, simplifying and facilitating analysis. NIRS sample presentation devices
now approached those already available for mid-infrared and visible methods
and could be used for finished product process control of certain products in the
food industry. Over the next 2 years, instruments utilizing optic probes became
available; a distinct advantage as fiber optics can be used in transmittance as well
as reflectance modes. Several instruments utilized short optical fiber bundles (1–
3 meters) which give excellent signal to noise ratios, while others utilized single
fiber probes which could monitor samples 2–3 kilometers from the instrument.
Such instruments are of use in food industries to ascertain ingredient purity and
in a wide range of other industries for process control.
Coupled to advances in NIR instrumentation, there have been rapid ad-
vances in personal computers. The increased power of the personal computer and
the many chemometric software packages available has been a driving force in
the advancement of NIR technology. One major advance has been the ability to
move data from one spectral platform and package to another. This was made
possible by the hierarchy developed by instrument and software companies and
by the Joint Committee on Atomic and Molecular Physical Data Protocol
(JCAMP) of the American Society for Testing and Materials (11). Spectra can
now be put into JCAMP format and imported into other chemometric packages,
such as spread-sheets or general statistical packages, greatly expanding data anal-
ysis potential.
CHEMOMETRICS
Calibration of a NIR instrument involves: sample selection, development of a
mathematical relationship between sample spectra generated by the instrument
and sample values obtained from a laboratory reference method, and validation
of the mathematical model developed. The choice of calibration samples deter-
mines the type of unknown samples that can be analyzed. Two important criteria
294 Kays et al.
in sample selection are: the calibration sample set 1) must span all significant
dimensions of spectral variation, and 2) must show representative statistical dis-
tribution. Major phenomena expected to affect the spectral data of future un-
known samples, (e.g. the constituent to be determined and known types of inter-
ferences) must vary independently of each other. Typical interferences include
sample physical and chemical characteristics, method of sample preservation and
processing, and instrument and sample environment (e.g. temperature and hu-
midity).
If calibration samples are easily obtained and analyzed, a large number of
samples can be selected, randomly, to ensure that all relevant interference phe-
nomena are modeled. If calibration samples are difficult to obtain or expensive to
analyze, then samples can be selected based on known differences. Alternatively,
samples may be selected based on spectral characteristics using an algorithm
(12). The algorithm identifies samples which are spectrally similar and, therefore,
can be represented by one sample for the calibration.
Following sample selection, spectral data are collected for either sample
reflectance or transmittance. During calibration, the spectral data pass through
three conceptually different stages. The first stage is an optical correction to math-
ematically remove certain physical interferences (e.g. light scatter and specular
reflectance). The second stage, data compression, concentrates all information in
the spectra and reduces the number of NIR data points to the most important
phenomena or factors that affect the spectral data. In the final stage, calibration
regression, the data from data compression and the reference method values are
used to build a mathematical model that predicts the constituent in question.
Currently, the regression method of choice is partial least squares (PLS) regres-
sion, as it is more robust (13) and generally has lower prediction error (14) than
the more classical stepwise multiple linear regression.
Multivariate calibration methods have one problem in common—determi-
nation of the optimal number of regression factors to be used for subsequent
predictions. The method of predictive cross-validation is commonly used to deter-
mine the optimal number of factors and protects against overfitting. This involves
temporarily removing different subsets of the calibration samples for use as vali-
dation samples. Performance statistics are accumulated for each group of re-
moved samples. The optimal number of factors employed in the model is that
which produces the minimum error between modeled and reference values (stan-
dard error of cross-validation). Two kinds of outliers may be recognized during
calibration regression: 1) H statistic outliers in which the spectrum of the sample
is atypical of others in the calibration set, and 2) t statistic outliers in which the
reference value is significantly different from the modeled value. Outlier samples
should be reanalyzed by both NIRS and the reference method.
The final step in instrument calibration is validation of the mathematical
model using samples not included in the original calibration sample set but of a
NIR Analysis 295
similar type. This step is necessary to obtain an independent measure of model

accuracy, expressed as the standard error of performance (SEP). A SEP that is
within 2 times the standard error of the replicated reference method is considered
to be satisfactory. The slope of the modeled values plotted versus the reference
method values should be close to 1, and intercept close to 0, with low scatter
about the linear regression line. Unacceptable relationships between modeled and
reference values are those which exhibit a bias, a change in slope, or high scat-
ter about the linear regression line, although the intercept remains 0 and the
slope 1.
After a model has been developed and validated, continual monitoring is
necessary to ensure accurate results. NIR analysis can disagree with reference
method values when: 1) the instrument is not working properly, 2) the sample
population changes and is no longer represented by the calibration set, or 3) some
aspect of the reference method changes. None of these events must take place
if NIR analysis is to be accurate. A monitoring procedure has been described to
distinguish between these sources of errror (15).
APPLICATIONS OF NIRS TO FOODS

Initial research in the 1960s on the application of NIRS to agricultural products
was concentrated on the determination of moisture and NIR models were devel-
oped to determine moisture in a variety of ground seeds and grains (16, 17).
During this time, studies were also reported on the direct determination of mois-
ture and fat in several types of meats using their spectroscopic properties (18).
In the early 1970s the technology advanced rapidly with development of several
instruments for the analysis of moisture and protein in wheat (19). The Canadian
Grain Commission adopted NIRS as an official method of analyzing wheat in
1975 and the United States Federal Grain Inspection Service recognized NIR
analysis as an official method in 1980. The use of NIRS in the analysis of protein
in wheat is, to date, one of the most important advances of NIR technology in
agriculture. NIRS circumvents other time consuming methods of protein analysis
and allows on-site, non-destructive determination of protein content. Currently,
transmission instruments are available (such as the Infratec Whole Grain Ana-
lyzer) which allow analysis of moisture, protein, and oil in whole grains (e.g.
wheat, soybeans, corn) at the elevator site. Similarly, the Infratec Meat Analyzer
can be used in slaughterhouses or meat packing plants for fat monitoring and
process control. In recent years the majority of food applications for NIRS have
been for the determination of moisture, protein, and fat in a wide variety of prod-
ucts (e.g. wheat, pulses, various baked products, dough, cocoa, milk, cheese,
eggs, oilseed, meat, fish, and hops) (see reviews 20, 21). Substantially fewer
applications have been reported for other constituents, examples of which are:
dietary fiber in cereal products (22, 23); neutral detergent fiber in breakfast cereals
296 Kays et al.
and snack foods (24, 25); beta-glucan in barley (26); starch in grains (27), pulses
(28), and snack foods (25); starch damage in flour (29); amylose in rice (30);
sucrose in chocolate (31) and wine (32); soluble solids in vegetables (33); and
alcohol in beer (34) and wine (32).
MEASUREMENT OF DIETARY FIBER BY NIRS

While NIRS has been used to predict fiber in forages and grains (10, 35, 36, 37),
its potential for the prediction of dietary fiber in foods has only begun to be
explored. Table 1 lists the existing NIR/dietary fiber studies with calibration and
validation statistics. In 1983, Baker reported the prediction of neutral detergent
fiber (NDF) in a variety of ground breakfast cereals using NIR reflectance data
(24). NDF (38) includes insoluble polysaccharides plus lignin and approximates
insoluble dietary fiber. Using a first derivative transformation of the data and
stepwise multiple linear regression, an equation was obtained utilizing 4 wave-
lengths for determination of NDF. The equation was used to determine NDF
content of samples in the sample prediction set. The resulting standard error of
prediction was 1.8% NDF and γ 2 was 0.96 (Table 1). Several samples with high
fat and sugar had increased absorbance at wavelengths characteristic for fat and
sugar absorbance. However, these wavelengths were avoided by the regression
method, therefore, any possible interference by fat and sugar was minimized.
Examples of typical reflectance spectra for dried, ground cereal products are pre-
sented in Figure 1.
Neutral detergent fiber was predicted, though less successfully, in snack
TABLE 1 Published statistics for NIR calibration and prediction of fiber

foods a,b
Calibration Prediction
Fiber
Product fraction n R2 SE n γ2 SE
Breakfast cereals (24) NDF 40 0.98 1.5 50 0.96 1.8
Snack food (25) NDF 40 0.82 1.8 49 0.83 1.4
Oat bran products (22) IDF 45 — — 24 0.92 1.0
SDF 45 — — 24 0.92 0.34
TDF 45 — — 24 0.97 0.85
Cereal Products (23) TDF 90 0.99 1.6 29 0.99 1.5
a
NDF, neutral detergent fiber; IDF, insoluble dietary fiber; SDF, soluble dietary fiber;
TDF, total dietary fiber
b
n, number of samples; R 2 and γ 2, coefficients of determination for calibration and pre-
diction, respectively; SE, standard error
NIR Analysis 297
FIGURE 1 Typical NIR reflectance spectra of five cereal samples. One sample
has higher fat content (Cracklin’ Oat Bran) and one contains crystalline sugar
(Frosted Flakes)
foods such as potato chips, pretzels, and popcorn (25). A two term, first derivative
equation using 4 wavelengths was developed relating NDF to NIR reflectance
spectra. The wavelengths chosen, via stepwise multiple regression analysis, were
2364, 2088, 1936, and 2342 nm and are indicative of fiber, starch, water and fat
and/or protein absorbance, respectively. The poorer correlation (Table 1) was
partly attributed to a skewed distribution of NDF values (62% of samples had
NDF values below 2%) and partly to the inclusion of cornmeal products which,
as a group, did not predict well. The authors suggested that cornmeal based prod-
ucts may require a separate calibration. If cornmeal samples were omitted, the
standard errors for calibration and prediction are reduced to 1.4% and 1.3%, and
the correlations improved to 0.91 and 0.89, respectively. Collectively the data
indicate a potential relationship between insoluble fiber, as measured using the
NDF method, and NIR spectra in snack foods and reiterate the importance of
sample selection and a relatively normal distribution of sample values.
Williams et al. assessed the potential of analyzing total, soluble, and insolu-
ble dietary fiber in oat bran products using NIR reflectance spectroscopy (22).
Oat bran is an excellent source of soluble dietary fiber which has been associated
with several health benefits. As a consequence there is interest, among manufac-
turers of oat based foods, in the rapid measurement of components of dietary
fiber for composition assurance. Total dietary fiber and its constituents, soluble
298 Kays et al.
and insoluble fiber, were determined in the laboratory by the method of Mongeau
and Brassard (4). Using an NIRSystems scanning monochromator for the collec-
tion of spectral data and NSAS NIR software, models were developed to predict
soluble, insoluble, and total dietary fiber content of oat bran products. The accu-
racy of NIR prediction of the components of oat bran fiber, using PLS regression
analysis, was deemed adequate for quality assurance (Table 1). A comparison
between stepwise/multiple linear regression, in which specific wavelengths were
selected, and PLS regression, which uses the entire NIR spectrum, indicated that
the two regression methods gave very similar calibrations for soluble and insolu-
ble dietary fiber (22). However, in the case of total dietary fiber PLS regression
was the better method, having a higher γ 2 value and lower standard error of
performance during verification.
Using wheat bran products only, Horvath et al. investigated relationships
between NIR spectra and dietary fiber constituents (39). An enzymatic method
(40) was used for water soluble and insoluble dietary fiber determination and
constituents such as lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin were determined
chemically within the dietary fiber fractions. Linear regression of a second deriva-
tive transformation of log10 1/R spectra was used to identify optimum wave-
lengths for predicting the soluble and insoluble dietary fiber and total dietary
fiber. Correlation coefficients obtained for all constituents in this narrow popula-
tion were 0.95 or greater with standard errors of calibration that were adequate
for the state of the art at that time. Validation statistics were not reported.
The cereal and baking industries market products with a wide range of
cereals often with multiple grains in a single product. Furthermore, regulatory
agencies obtain samples from many sources, therefore, any method used in moni-
toring the products must be capable of assessing a broad range of samples and
values. Kays et al. developed a calibration for predicting total dietary fiber in a
variety of cereal products with a broad range of dietary fiber values (23). Both
processed and unprocessed wheat, oats, rye, barley, amaranth, corn, and rice were
included with an overall range in total dietary fiber values from ⬍1 to 52% (n
⫽ 90). The samples contained ⬍10% fat and/or ⬍20% sugar. Higher fat/sugar
samples were avoided due to difficulty in grinding and interference with the refer-
ence method. The reference method used to measure total dietary fiber was the
AOAC procedure 991.43 (41), recommended for food labeling in the United
States. The method includes non-starch polysaccharides, lignin, resistant starch,
cutins, and plant waxes in the dietary fiber measurement. Spectral reflectance data
were collected from 90 ground samples using an NIRSystems scanning mono-
chromator and Infrasoft International software. The spectral data were trans-
formed with standard normal variate and detrending to remove multiplicative
interferences of scatter (42), and then transformed with second derivative pro-
cessing. PLS was the regression method selected to relate spectral data to labora-
tory reference values and cross-validation was used to determine the optimal
NIR Analysis 299
number of PLS factors for dietary fiber prediction. A NIR calibration equation
was obtained for the prediction of total dietary fiber and used to determine the
total dietary fiber content of samples in an independent set (Table 1, Figure 2).
Linear regression of AOAC determined dietary fiber against NIRS predicted di-
etary fiber gave an intercept and slope not significantly different from 0.0 and
1.0, respectively.
The number of factors (nine) in the calibration developed was partly a
function of the diversity of the data set. The calibration developed has broad
utility for manufacturers using multiple grains and multiple grain products and for
regulatory agencies monitoring products from many sources. Many companies,
however, market products that contain only one or two types of grains and for
these industries a simpler model may suffice. When samples containing oat and
wheat only were utilized, a new calibration was obtained (n ⫽ 42) with only
four factors and similar standard error of cross validation, coefficient of determi-
nation and accuracy of prediction as the model derived from the broader data set
(23). Thus, calibration development and sample prediction were achieved for
determination of total dietary fiber in a heterogeneous group of products and in
a more homogeneous group.
Loadings express the spectral variation that corresponds to each factor of
the PLS model and can provide information on the constituents exerting the great-
est influence for each factor. Intensity of absorption peaks in the loading spectra
FIGURE 2 AOAC determined total dietary fiber versus NIRS predicted total
dietary fiber for cereal products in the calibration (A) and validation (B) data
sets (adapted from Ref. 23)
300 Kays et al.
are an indication of the relative contribution of that wavelength to the model.

Most software available for PLS calibrations provides a display of the loadings
involved in development of the calibration model. Williams et al. found that for
soluble dietary fiber in oat bran products, there were strong influences in oil and
protein wavelength bands of loadings for factor one and factor two (22). This
was attributed to the presence of similar amounts of soluble dietary fiber and oil
in the samples and a greater concentration of protein. The third loading had strong
influences from the carbohydrate wavelengths in addition to large influences in
the protein wavelength bands. The loadings for NDF and total dietary fiber were
similar to those for soluble dietary fiber for factors one, two, and three with the
loading for factor three again having strong influences in the carbohydrate band.
The influence of water on the loadings was apparent in the loadings for factor
4 for all three fiber fractions. Thus, several constituents appear to play a role in
the model developed to predict dietary fiber in oat bran products.
The calibration equation developed by Kays et al. (23) for total dietary
fiber prediction contained 9 factors with scores from factors 2, 3, and 4 having
the highest correlation with total dietary fiber. The loading for factor 3, which
was the most highly correlated to dietary fiber, showed significant intensities
related to C-H absorption in the carbohydrate bands at 2262 and 2328 nm and
the aliphatic C-H bands at 1722 and 2404 nm (Figure 3). Loading 3 also had
FIGURE 3 PLS loading specta for factor 3 in the total dietary fiber (reprinted
in part from Ref. 23)
NIR Analysis 301
significant intensities related to O-H absorption in the carbohydrate band at 2082

and the water band at 1416. Factor 2 had the second highest correlation with
dietary fiber and its loading was dominated by O-H absorption in the water bands
at 1413 and 1920 nm. Loading 2 also had significant intensity related to C-H
absorption in the carbohy-drate band at 2262 nm, the aliphatic C-H band at 2304
nm, and due to C⫽O absorption in the protein band at 2052. Factor 4 had the
third highest correlation with dietary fiber with intensities due to C-H absorption
in the carbohydrate bands at 2262 and 2328 nm and the aliphatic C-H band at
2310. Thus, for the three important loadings in the total dietary fiber prediction
model, absorbance was dominated by effects due to C-H and O-H groups in the
carbohydrate and water bands (23). Overall, as in the study by Williams et al.
(22), absorptions by functional groups associated with several constituents (car-
bohydrate, water, oil, and protein) appear to contribute to the prediction model
for total dietary fiber.
SUMMARY
NIR procedures have been used successfully in agriculture and on-line food pro-
cessing for many years. NIR analysis has advantages over conventional labora-
tory techniques in that it is very rapid, requires little or no sample preparation,
can be non-destructive, and does not produce chemical waste. Because of food
labeling legislation, there is a need for rapid methods of dietary fiber analysis.
The studies detailed in this review have demonstrated the potential of NIRS for
rapid, accurate measurement of dietary fiber in processed and unprocessed cereal
and snack foods. Relationships have been established between NIR spectra and
total, soluble, and insoluble dietary fiber, and models developed to predict the
amounts of these fiber fractions in specific data sets. Thus, NIR analysis presents
an attractive alternative to current laboratory methods for dietary fiber measure-
ment. Traditional methods, however, are still necessary to provide reference data
for spectral/chemometric models. Use of the NIR and the other spectral regions
is antici-pated to be a significant force in dietary fiber analysis in the future.
Reference to specific products is made for identification purposes only and
does not imply endorsement by the United States Government.
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22
Definition and Analysis of Dietary
Fiber
R. MONGEAU, F.W. SCOTT, AND R. BRASSARD

Food Directorate, Nutrition Research Division, Banting Research Centre,
INTRODUCTION
There is new evidence that the macrostructure of plant foods participates in the
physiological effects of dietary fiber and this needs to be incorporated in a revised
definition of dietary fiber. The first definition implied that dietary fiber is derived
primarily from edible plant cell walls. The cell wall material of edible plant tis-
sues in the diet constitutes the botanical structure of the plant foods and it is rich
in micronutrients. The subsequent definitions have been either based on plant
cell walls and/or on resistance to digestion, and the reference to the edible plant
tissues as the origin of dietary fiber was not always mentioned. It has been shown
for various edible plant tissues that the loss of structural integrity of the cell walls
is associated with a significant reduction of physiological effects (regularizing
colonic function, lowering peak blood glucose and insulin levels, and reducing
the rate and extent of fat absorption). Relying on dietary fiber analyses alone to
determine the presence of dietary fiber is problematic because (a) they cannot
measure the degree of retention of the structural integrity of the cell walls and
305
306 Mongeau et al.
(b) these methods cannot distinguish between dietary fiber and materials such as
ruminant fiber, non-edible tissues and non-food material. Therefore, to be consid-
ered dietary fiber, a food material should meet the three following conditions:
1) originates from ‘‘the cell walls of edible plant tissues in the traditional human
diet,’’ 2) retains an intact botanical structure, and 3) is measurable by current
dietary fiber methods.
The term ‘‘dietary fiber’’ first appeared in 1953 and referred to hemicellu-
loses, cellulose and lignin (1). After observations in Africa and comparisons of
dietary intakes and disease incidence with those in the United Kingdom, Burkitt
and Trowell hypothesized that several western diseases were attributable to the
lack of dietary fiber in the western diet. In 1972, they recommended that individu-
als increase dietary fiber intake to increase stool volume and softness. Trowell
defined dietary fiber as that portion of food which is derived from the cell walls
of plants and is digested very poorly by human beings (2–4). ‘‘Digested very
poorly’’ was assumed because dietary fiber intake increases fecal volume. In the
context of the 1972 definition, dietary fiber corresponds mostly to the intact or
minimally processed cell wall material in edible plant tissues. The message was
to avoid excessive peeling, grinding and other preparation. According to Trowell
(5), dietary fiber largely corresponds to the ‘‘skeletal framework’’ of the plant
as described by McCance and Lawrence (6) and refers to the structural material
of the whole food.
The principal components of dietary fiber are non-starch polysaccharides
(NSP). In edible cell walls, NSP is often associated with polyphenolics (e.g.,
lignin) and proteins. NSP is largely made up of hemicelluloses, cellulose and
pectic substances. The non-carbohydrate components of cell walls are quantita-
tively minor constituents of most edible plant tissues but lignin and phenolic
esters in lignified tissues of wheat bran, cutin and waxes in leafy vegetables, and
suberin in roots and tubers have significant physiological effects (7).
The definition of 1972 (2) excluded non-cell wall material that is measured
by dietary fiber methods. Although this represented a minor component of dietary
fiber (7), a definition proposed in 1976 included material such as gums and some
pectin (8). The latter definition was based on resistance to digestion in the upper
gastrointestinal tract. For the purpose of labeling, Englyst and collaborators later
proposed that dietary fiber be defined as ‘‘nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) and
lignin in the diet that are not digested by the endogenous secretions of the human
digestive tract’’ in order to refer to plant cell wall and related material in the diet
(9,10). In 1981, the AOAC consensus definition referred primarily to the rem-
nants of plant cells resistant to hydrolysis by alimentary enzymes of man.
The problems with defining dietary fiber by resistance to digestion are as
follows: 1) digestion by fiber methods cannot be assumed to be as efficient as by
the intact gastrointestinal system (11). Resistance to digestion means resistance to
acid, bile secretions, and to various enzymes with complementary simultaneous
Definition and Analysis of Dietary Fiber 307
actions (e.g., amylase and protease activities). Continuous enzyme secretion and
removal of the products of the reactions are characteristics of vigorous digestion
in vivo that are not reproduced in vitro (12). 2) All dietary fiber fractions are
assumed to reach the end of the small intestine without significant degradation
but this is not necessarily the case (11,13). 3) Different materials such as ruminant
fibers are resistant to digestion but are not dietary fiber. Ruminants are specially
equipped to retain, grind and ferment material such as wheat straw before intesti-
nal absorption.
Over the years, several definitions of dietary fiber have been used in various
publications, with variable wording based on the concepts mentioned above.
These variations in the definition were due partly to the multiplicity of concepts
involved in ‘‘dietary fiber,’’ and partly to the difficulties associated with its mea-
surement and labeling. The Canadian definition made clear that the only origin
of dietary fiber is the edible part of plants in the human diet (14). It was empha-
sized that this definition excluded polymers made undigestible upon food
processing. The Pilch definition (15) was similar and specifically excluded oligo-
saccharides and carbohydrate polymers of less than 50 or 60 degrees of polymer-
ization. The latter are not recovered by dietary fiber methods.
The 1976 definition (8) did not specifically refer to the ‘‘cell wall,’’ but
the notion of botanical structure has remained present since most dietary fibers
have been considered to be structural cell wall components (16). Since then,
evidence has accumulated on the relationship between the structural integrity of
dietary fiber and its physiological effects (17).
BOTANICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

EFFECTS
The Canadian Expert Advisory Committee on Dietary Fibre agreed that there
are three specific physiological effects for different types of dietary fiber: 1) reg-
ularizing colonic function, 2) normalizing serum lipid levels, and 3) attenuat-
ing postprandial glucose response. Suppressing appetite was mentioned as a
possible fourth specific effect (14). Some of the evidence supporting the pos-
ition that botanical structure influences these physiological effects is reviewed
below.
Colonic Function
The geometric mean particle size (MPS) affects other properties of particulate
dietary fibers. Coarse wheat bran normalizes transit time (18), prevents hardening
of fecal material and retains free water (19). Observations in human subjects
suggested that coarse wheat bran prevents the formation of a gas phase in the
colon and retains finely dispersed gas in the fiber matrix, along with free water,
308 Mongeau et al.
bacteria and other components (20). The colon has a threshold limit for the vol-
ume of gas to be absorbed and the high rates of gas production with a rapid
fermentation will exceed the capacity of absorption. Effects of dietary fiber on
fecal weight are apparently dependent on the type of polysaccharides and associ-
ated constituents that contribute to the architecture of the plant cell wall. Isolated
polysaccharides often differ in their effects from the respective carbohydrates
occurring in whole foods, probably due to a lack of intact cell wall structure (21).
Although it has been recommended that volume be used rather than weight to
express the concentration of colonic contents (22), few data have been generated
in humans. The rat, however, is a useful model to study colonic function: rat
data show that reducing the particle size of hard wheat bran affects fecal wet
volume more extensively than wet weight, and they suggest that coarse bran at
the 15% level in the diet has a better fecal-density lowering effect than fine bran
at the 25% level (23). Rat data confirm that the coarse bran particles entrap finely
dispersed gas, supporting Cummings’ mechanisms of action of dietary fiber on
fecal output in human (gas trapped within gut contents) (24).
Can the beneficial effect of coarse wheat bran on fecal density be obtained
by a larger amount of fine bran? To answer this question, 144 rats were housed
individually in Nalgene metabolic cages to permit the collection of clean feces
with minimal contact with urine. They were fed one of 12 modified AIN-76
(American Institute of Nutrition) diets. With 10% oil in the diets, the nutrients
in the mixed diets stuck to all bran particles and assured comparable nutrient
intakes among groups. All diets except the fiber-free diet contained the same
hard red wheat bran but in different amounts (0–20%) and at three MPS. Coarse
bran (850 µm MPS) was provided at 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20% levels and the medium
(513 µm MPS) and fine (308 µm MPS) brans were provided at the 4, 12 and
20% levels. The hard bran contained 50% dietary fiber. After 42 days on diets,
fresh fecal weight, expressed per 100 g of food ingested, increased linearly (R 2
⫽ 0.85) with the dietary fiber level but it was not significantly influenced by
particle size. The fresh fecal volume increased with a steeper slope than the
weight resulting in a reduction of density (weight/volume) well beyond that
which could have been attributed to an increase in fat content. Only entrapment
of finely dispersed gas could explain observed density values of £0.8. Reducing
particle size affected (P ⬍ 0.05) the capacity of the bran to reduce fecal density,
and significantly reduced the volume response. This is important considering that
volume is involved in the triggering of the bowel movement. In regard to the
capacity to reduce density, 20% fine bran in the diet was not as efficient as 12%
medium bran or 8% coarse bran. The reduction of particle size also decreased
(P ⬍ 0.05) the beneficial effects of wheat bran on colonic pH and fecal consis-
tency. The reduction of particle size tended to reduce the trophic effect of wheat
bran on the gastrointestinal tract, and to increase intestinal transit time, but these
effects were not statistically significant.
These results show that the effect of coarse hard wheat bran on colonic
function cannot be fully compensated for by larger amounts of fine hard wheat
bran (same composition).
Postprandial Glucose Response

After a meal, the extent of rise of blood glucose depends on several interacting
factors. At the beginning of this century, scientists assumed that the molecular
size of the carbohydrate was an important determinant of its rate of digestion.
Starch was thus considered to be digested and absorbed slowly whereas low-
molecular-weight carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed rapidly, hence pro-
moting high responses of plasma glucose. Studies have since shown that food
properties other than molecular size influence the postprandial response and that
starchy foods can have glycemic indices ranging from low to high (25–27). Any
process that disrupts the physical or botanical structure of food ingredients will
increase the plasma glucose and insulin responses (28).
Consumption of foods with a high glycemic index and a low dietary fiber
content has been listed among the causes of insulin resistance (29). Insulin resis-
tance occurs when high blood concentrations of insulin do not decrease hypergly-
cemia efficiently. The extended hyperglycemic periods continue to stimulate
insulin secretion. These conditions may lead to NIDDM (non-insulin-dependent-
diabetes-melitus, or type II diabetes) (29).
According to Heaton (30), dietary fiber is generally resistant to digestion
but its most important characteristic is that it constitutes the physical form and
texture of whole foods. This structure affects several physiological phenomena:
eating time, degree of satiety, rate of digestion, and extent of digestion. The
presence of dietary fiber with an intact botanical structure prevents the high insuli-
nemic peak following mastication and ingestion of an apple, and it also prevents
the resulting hypoglycemia 2h after. The homogenization of the apple in apple
puree destroys its botanical structure and largely reduces the beneficial physiolog-
ical effects of the whole apple, even if its composition is not affected. The food
macrostructure modulates the rate of digestion by digestive enzymes; it influences
the metabolic response to starchy foods (cereals, legumes) and to foods con-
taining low-molecular-weight carbohydrates (apple, orange, carrot) (31-40).
Food structure is so important that the use of products with ‘‘as fed’’ food
structure has been recommended when measuring their glycemic index by en-
zymic digestion to ensure a realistic result. Food structure must not be destroyed
more than it would be by chewing (28).
Non-carbohydrate components significantly contribute to the cohesiveness
of the botanical structure. Although the plant cell walls are largely made of carbo-
hydrates, the structure has physiological effects unrelated to the carbohydrate
components per se.
310 Mongeau et al.
Fat Absorption
To alleviate the increase in fasting plasma triglyceride concentration and to im-
prove insulin sensitivity, the diet should probably contain foods with a low gly-
cemic index and be high in fiber (29). Few data are available on the effect of
structural integrity on blood lipids. However, the amount of fat absorbed from
whole (masticated) peanuts and finely ground peanuts (peanut butter) has been
measured indirectly and compared to peanut oil (41). The amounts of triglycer-
ides excreted in feces were as follows (percentage of total fat ingested): 18% for
whole peanuts, 7% for creamy peanut butter, and 4.5 % for peanut oil. The whole
peanut and the peanut butter had exactly the same composition. The presence of
dietary fiber with an intact structure in whole, masticated peanuts limits the
amount of fat that can be absorbed. By contrast, the presence of the dietary fiber
components in peanut butter had little effect compared with whole peanuts and
differed little from peanut oil.
DEFINITION OF DIETARY FIBER

The above examples show that we need to take into account the botanical struc-
ture of the cell walls in our foods: This structure plays an essential role in the
physiological effects of dietary fiber. At this time, the notion of integrity of the
botanical structure is not accounted for in the term ‘‘complex carbohydrates’’ and
also, by present definitions, the term ‘‘dietary fiber’’ fails to fully acknowledge its
importance. Because analysis of dietary fiber tells nothing about the origin of a
sample or the integrity of its structure, clearly the methods alone cannot be used
to define dietary fiber. It appears that the way to take structural integrity into
account is to refer to it specifically in the definition of dietary fiber.
Therefore, in order to be included in the definition of dietary fiber, a food
material should be required to meet the three following conditions:
1. It should originate from the cell walls of the edible plant tissues in the
traditional human diet,
2. It should have an intact botanical structure, and
3. It should be measurable by current official dietary fiber methods (with
corrections, when needed).
This definition would exclude, for example, non-edible plant tissues or or-
gans such as apple and grape seeds that are sometimes ingested with foods, edible
plant foods that have been significantly chemically or physically modified with
respect to their botanical or molecular structure, non-plant sources of polysaccha-
ride polymers such as chitin, short chain undigestible material comprising that
resulting from either the breakdown of longchain nonstarch polysaccharides or
synthesized from monosaccharides, and plant material available to ruminants but

derived from non-edible parts of plants such as wood and straw.
Material complying with conditions 1 and 2 above would be adequately
measured by the current official dietary fiber methods provided appropriate cor-
rections are made when needed (see below). New methods would have to be
evaluated according to their ability to measure such material. The material not
complying with the first condition above (edible cell wall origin) but retained by
current official dietary fiber methods could be classified under resistant carbohy-
drates.
Structural integrity (condition no. 2) of foods complying with condition
no. 1 can be evaluated by such measures as particle size, and an integrity factor
with an arbitrary scale based on the fact that when we cut a food into gradually
smaller pieces, the surface: weight ratio increases exponentially. For example,
the sugars from pieces of apple are readily released from the broken cells at
their surface. This would provide a guidance to consumers for selecting foods
(including processed) that comply the most with nutrient recommendations.
METHODS
An important criterion of the total dietary fiber (TDF) value determined by any
method is that it should not be influenced by processing in order to be used for
food labelling. If not, processing conditions favoring high values may be pre-
ferred, but this may not correspond to beneficial physiological effects.
The complete removal of starch from the dietary fiber residue has been a
challenge for all dietary fiber methods (12,42–44). When present, residual starch
is measured mostly as part of the insoluble fiber in gravimetric analyses and as
glucose in GC analyses. In boiled legumes, the amount of starch in the residue
using certain official methods can outweigh that of dietary fiber (12,43). This
situation is partly due to the choice of enzymes and to the sequence of enzyme
treatments. Non-mammalian (e.g., bacterial) sources of enzymes need to be puri-
fied to prevent the degradation of dietary fiber by contaminating enzymes. How-
ever, purified enzymes may have more limited activities due to loss of cofactors.
A less pure mammalian enzyme has more diverse bond-breaking capacities, and
multiple attacks by amylase and protease are critical (12,43). Two sequential
short treatments are better than a very long one. Ideally, the fiber residue should
contain only the cell wall structural protein and no other protein. Larger amounts
indicate the presence of residual digestible protein and possibly an incomplete
starch digestion. Starch-protein interactions are present in certain food products
and the absence of a protease treatment may reduce the rate of in vitro starch
hydrolysis (45). It is therefore important that proteolytic enzymes are included in
the in vitro assay (28) either as a separate treatment or included with an unpurified
mammalian alpha-amylase preparation (43).
312 Mongeau et al.
Structural protein (46–47) and lignin are non-carbohydrate components of

dietary fiber. One method (Englyst) overlooks lignin and only one method
(Mongeau) measures the small amount of undigestible protein. Permanganate
lignin and Klason lignin values are not always in agreement (43–44). Klason
lignin is generally higher and more variable than permanganate lignin. Lignin is
difficult to separate from some hemicelluloses and can react with protein during
food processing (48). The rapid Mongeau method includes treatments that repre-
sent an appropriate preparation for measuring permanganate lignin in foods, and
values are little influenced by food processing. According to Selvendran (7), the
acetyl bromide method needs only a 5–10 mg sample but comparison of values
has not been made. Lignin is regarded as a minor component of most plant foods
but the total polyphenolic material (including lignin) represents 5–20% of the
dry cell wall (7).
Food processing can solubilize some of the insoluble fiber (49). The re-
sulting higher soluble: insoluble fiber ratio should not be interpreted as having
oat-gum like physiological effects. The measurement of soluble dietary fiber in-
creases the time and cost of analysis with some methods, and the soluble fiber
values are highly method-dependent. Only the total dietary fiber values can be
compared among methods, but still with certain limitations.
The Mongeau (AOAC #992.16) TDF method (42) was developed over 11
years by testing various combinations of treatments taking into account rapidity,
precision and accuracy. The method uses neutral detergent but the total dietary
fiber values are different from neutral detergent values. The neutral detergent
method is not appropriate for measuring insoluble fiber in human foods unless it
incorporates a specific preparation of alpha-amylase. The combination of neutral
detergent and unpurified pancreatic amylase has a unique efficiency for digesting
protein and it ensures extensive and reproducible digestion of starch. The best
results with the above-mentioned TDF method are obtained when the soluble and
insoluble fractions are determined sequentially in the same sample. The method
provides a soluble : insoluble ratio among the highest. The solubility of dietary
fiber in vivo is not well documented but it is thought to be high.
In various food samples collected throughout Canada over several years
and prepared as they would have been at home, the rapid Mongeau method (y)
was shown to correlate well with the integral Prosky method (x) for total dietary
fiber (y ⫽ 1.02x ⫺ 0.04, r ⫽ 0.993, n ⫽ 38). These methods gave higher values
than Englyst NSP (non-starch polysaccharides) values but the difference was
partly due to the fact that lignin is not measured by the Englyst method. In a
method comparison including 65 foods, the TDF values by the Mongeau method
were about 1.3 times higher than Englyst NSP values. The factor remained the
same when processed foods and legumes were included or excluded since both
methods are not affected by processing. By contrast, when the Prosky TDF and
Englyst NSP methods were compared, the factor was 1.3 when processed food
and cooked dried legumes were excluded, but it reached 1.6 when they were
included in the comparison (NSP ⫻ 1.6 ⫽ Prosky) (44). Thus, in spite of the
close correlation mentioned above, discrepancies among dietary fiber methods
can be substantial for some foods. TDF differences even between the Prosky and
Lee-modified version were noticed for cooked dried legumes, but these discrepan-
cies were attenuated when an unpurified pancreatic alpha-amylase was used in
both versions of the Prosky method (12,43). On the other hand, dietary fiber
values for 45 foods (fruits, vegetables, cereals and canned legumes) analyzed by
the Mongeau method (y) correlate well with those published by Marlett (50) for
the corresponding foods analyzed by a modified Theander method (x): y ⫽ 0.99x
⫹ 0.06, r ⫽ 0.96. Overall, the comparison of the dietary fiber value for various
(⬎60) foods suggests a general agreement among several dietary fiber methods,
and a slight modification of the Prosky and Lee methods would permit an even
better agreement.
CONCLUSION
An improved definition of dietary fiber should first clarify the origin of the plant
cell wall material to discriminate between human dietary fiber and ruminant fiber
and other material extraneous to the human diet. Second, the relatively new infor-
mation on the botanical structure should be taken into account because a signifi-
cant portion of the physiological effects of dietary fiber is dependent on the struc-
tural integrity of the edible cell walls. Third, the material defined as dietary fiber
should be measurable by the current dietary fiber methods. Most of these methods
should be adequate, some may need corrrections.
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23
Estimation of Psyllium Content in
Ready-to-Eat Cereals
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO AND MIKE BUSSEY

INTRODUCTION
Psyllium, an acidic arabinoxylan obtained from Ispaghula husk (Plantago ovata
Forsk), is used as a cathartic and dietary fiber ingredient to lower serum choles-
terol and glycemic index. A component of the soluble dietary fiber (SDF) fraction,
psyllium is determined indirectly as the xylitol acetate of the neutral polysaccha-
ride residue by a modified capillary gas chromatographic (GC) method (994.13).
Since most grains (oat, wheat, corn, and rice) utilized in cereal mixtures contain
negligible amounts of xylose, its determination serves as a convenient tool for
quantifying the psyllium ingredient added to ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Based
on xylose analysis, excellent recoveries of the psyllium ingredient were obtained
(76 to 109%). Repeatability (RSDs) ranging in value from 3.12 to 24.59 was
consistent with the precision obtained by the official method (994.13) on which
the present procedure is based.
Total dietary fiber (TDF) is composed of a diverse combination of non-
starch polysaccharides (NSP) and of lignin that resist attack by digestive enzymes
(1). Physiological effects of dietary fiber components seem to depend, at least
317
318 Cho and Bussey
in part, on their ability to form stable dispersions with water. Current official
methodology (2) resolves TDF into two fractions (991.43): insoluble (IDF) and
soluble (SDF). Both IDF and SDF fractions absorb water increasing fecal volume
and motility (3). SDF increases satiety by retarding gastric emptying, moderates
glucose absorption which reduces insulin dependence, and binds bile acids and
steroids reducing serum cholesterol levels. Thus, physiological function seems
to be dependent on characteristics of those constituents that compose the total
dietary fiber residue.
Chemical diversity of edible plant constituents resistant to digestive en-
zymes remains a confounding factor in the development of inclusive analytical
methodologies for dietary fiber. As Theander et al. (1) have suggested, part of
the problem related to understanding the nutritional effects of dietary fiber is lack
of an adequate definition upon which appropriate analytical methods depend.
Present gravimetric fiber methodologies (2) involve the separation of non-fiber
matrix components (primarily starches and proteins) from fiber analytes by: a)
strong acid and alkali (962.09, crude fiber), b) acid detergent (973.18), or neutral
detergent (4), and c) enzymatic removal (991.43, 985.29, etc., total dietary
fiber).
Capillary gas chromatographic analysis (GC) has been used to quantify
neutral nonstarch polysaccharides of the total dietary fiber residue as alditol ace-
tate derivatives (5). Other residue components, uronic acids, and lignin, are deter-
mined by colorimetric and gravimetric analysis, respectively. Recently a joint
AOAC/American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) collaborative study
was completed (1) which resulted in a method for total dietary fiber (AOAC
Method 994.13) based upon the Uppsala method (5).
Numerous composition tables (2,7–11) present fiber content of various
fruits, vegetables and cereal products determined by methods or modifications
of methods previously mentioned (2,5). With ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals that con-
tain a variety of grains and other ingredients of plant origin, identifying and
quantifying each fiber source within the mixture is often desirable.
Psyllium, an annual herb (Plantago ovata Forsk) grown primarily in India,
southern Europe and the U.S., is cultivated principally for use as a laxative or
dietary fiber ingredient (6). Recently, several clinical studies have also demon-
strated the efficacy of psyllium in the reduction of serum cholesterol (12,13),
glycemic index (14), and synergism with wheat bran in colon cancer prevention
(15). Although the seed alone contains ample quantities of mucilage polysaccha-
rides, the refined psyllium seed husk (PSH), commonly called Ispaghula husk,
is the component most often used as a fiber source for laxatives and as a potential
fiber ingredient in ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals.
Composition studies conducted by Kennedy et al. (16) demonstrated that
under mild alkaline hydrolysis PSH yielded a mucilage polysaccharide fraction
(85%) that contained an acidic arabinoxylan polymer with (1,4) and (1,3) link-
Estimation of Psyllium Content 319
ages, as well as a non-polysaccharide (15%) component. Since PSH is composed

primarily of a xylan polymer, its addition to RTE cereals increases the xylose
content of the neutral polysaccharide residue substantially. With most grains
(oats, wheat, corn or rice) incorporated into RTE cereals, xylose content is either
negligible (oats and wheat) or absent (corn and rice). Therefore, xylose content
may serve as an excellent indicator for identifying and quantifying the psyllium
ingredient of the cereal mixture.
For psyllium determination, a crude SDF fraction was prepared using a
modification of a TDF method (AOAC 991.43), and then subjected to acid hydro-
lysis. The sugars of the acid hydrolysate were neutralized, then derivatized to
alditol acetates for quantification by capillary GC (1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Apparatus
(a) Gas chromatograph (GC).—Equipped with wide bore capillary column, [SP-
2330, 30m ⫻ 0.75mm (id), 1.0m (film thickness), Supelco, Inc., Bellefonte, PA,
16823-0048, or equivalent] flame ionization detector, and integrator. Operating
conditions: injector, 275°C; detector, 275°C; helium carrier gas, flow rate, 8
mL/min.
(b) Autoclave.—Capable of maintaining temperature of 121°C.
(c) Balance.—Capable of weighing to 0.1 mg.
(d) Centrifuge.—To hold 35 mL tubes; capable of operating at 1000 ⫻ g.
(e) Magnetic stirrer/hot plate.
(f) Mill.—Wiley type, or equivalent, capable of grinding samples to pass a 1.0
mm screen.
(g) pH meter.
(h) Pipetters.—Digital, with disposable tips, 100–300 mL and 5 mL capacity
(i) Sonicator
(j) Syringe, microliter.—Capable of delivering 1 uL
(k) Usual laboratory glassware.
(l) Vortex mixer.
(m) Water bath shakers.—(1) Capable of maintaining 100°C with automatic on-
and-off timer. (2) Constant temperature, adjustable to 60°C.
Reagents
Note: Use deionized water throughout.
(a) Acetic acid, glacial.
(b) Acetic acid anhydride.
(c) Ammonium hydroxide, 12.5 M.
320 Cho and Bussey
(d) Ammonium hydroxide/sodium borohydride solution.—Prepare by dissolving

100 g NaBH 4 in 1 L of 3 M NH 4 OH.
(e) Amyloglucosidase solution.—Enzyme available from Sigma, St. Louis, MO,
63187, Cat. No. A9913, or equivalent. Dissolve in acetate buffer to obtain 140
u/mL. Prepare just before analysis.
(f) α-Amylase solution.—Heat-stable Termamyl, Sigma, Cat. No. A0164, or
equivalent
(g) Protease solution.—Sigma, Cat. No. P3910. Prepare 50 mg/mL enzyme solu-
tion in MES-TRIS buffer fresh daily.
(h) Benzoic acid solution, saturated.—Dissolve 50 g benzoic acid in 100 mL of
water (w/v).
(i) Calibration standard monosaccharide solution.—Dry monosaccharides under
vacuum over SiO 2 to constant weight. Weigh 5 g each of rhamnose and xylose,
and dilute to volume with H 2 O in separate 100 mL volumetric flasks.
(j) Internal standard sorbitol solution.—Dissolve 10 g of sorbitol in 100 mL of
water.
(k) Standard sugar mixture for derivatization.—Mix 1 mL xylose and rhamnose
standard solutions [B(I)] with 0.3 mL internal standard solution [B(j)] in 10
mL 2.4N sulfuric acid.
(l) Ethanol—95% (v/v).
(m) Hydrochloric acid solution.—0.561N. Add 93.5 mL 6N HCL to ca 700 mL
H 2 O, mix, allow to cool and dilute to 1L with H 2 O.
(n) MES.—2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (No. M-8250, Sigma Chemical
Co., or equivalent).
(o) TRIS.—Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (No. T-1503, Sigma Chemical
Co., or equivalent).
(p) EDTA.—Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, anhydrous (No. E-9884, Sigma
Chemical Co., or equivalent).
(q) MES-TRIS buffer solution with EDTA.—pH 8.2 at 24°C, MES-0.05M, TRIS-
0.05M, EDTA-0.01M. pH of buffer should be 8.2 at 24°C, 8.3 at 20°C, and
⬃8.1 at 27–28°C. Dissolve 19.52 g MES, 12.2 g TRIS and 5.84 EDTA, g in
1.7 L H 2 O. Adjust pH to 8.2 with 6N NaOH, and dilute to 2 L with H 2 O.
(r) 1-Methyimidazole.
(s) pH Standards.—Buffer solutions of pH 4.0,7.0, and 10.0.
(t) Solvents.—Acetone and methylene chloride
(u) Antifoam reagent.—2-Octanol
(v) Sulfuric acid.—2.4 and 24 M.
Sample Preparation
Processed psyllium seed husks were added to ground oat, wheat, corn or rice-
based RTE cereals in quantities of 0, 5, 10, and 20%. Each of the samples was
mixed to achieve homogeneity. Prepared samples were stored in moisture proof

containers at 4°C.
Psyllium Determination
Preparation of Soluble Dietary Fiber Residue
Weigh duplicate 0.35–0.7 g ground cereal samples into 200 mL beakers and add
magnetic stirrer bar to each. Add 28 mL of MES-TRIS buffer solution with EDTA
[B(o)]. Stir buffer solution at low speed while adding 140 µL Termamyl [B(f)].
Incubate in 100°C waterbath for 30 min. Cool to ca 60°C.
Insure that all materials including ring that may form above buffer solution
and gelation that may occur during enzymatic hydrolysis of starches are dis-
persed. Add 70 µL protease solution, and continue incubation at 60°C with con-
stant agitation for 30 min.
Adjust pH of buffer to 4.5 with 3.5 mL 0.561N HCL. Add 210 µL amylo-
glucosidase solution [B(e)] and incubate in waterbath at 60°C with constant agita-
tion. Sonicate reaction mixture for 2–3 min and transfer to 50–60 mL screw-top
glass tubes. Centrifuge at 1000 ⫻ g for 10 min to obtain supernatant containing
SDF fraction. Using aspiration remove supernatant without disturbing insoluble
fiber residue. Precipitate SDF by adding 4 volumes of preheated 95% ethanol
(60°C) and allow to stand at ambient temperature for 1 h. Centrifuge at 2500 ⫻
g for 20 min; remove and discard supernatant without disturbing residue. Add
20 mL 95% ethanol to SDF residue and vortex for 5 sec. Centrifuge and remove
supernatant as above. Quantitatively transfer SDF residue with 20 mL acetone
to small vial and dry in oven equilibrated to ⬍40°C.
Weigh 50 mg of residue into a 25 mL screw-cap culture tube. (Sample size
may vary depending on expected xylose content.) Add 1 mL of 24N sulfuric acid
and hydrolyze SDF residue at ambient temperature for 1 h; vortex for 5 sec at
15 min intervals. Adjust SDF hydrolysate to 2N sulfuric acid by adding 11 mL
deionized water. Cap tube loosely with screw-cap and place in preheated auto-
clave at 121°C for 1 h. Remove; add 0.3 mL of internal standard sorbitol solution
[B(j)] to cooled hydrolysates.
Derivatization of Psyllium-containing Sugars from SDF Fraction

(a) Reduction.—Pipet 1 mL hydrolysate or standard sugar mixture [B(k)] into
glass tube. Add 256 µL 12.5M NH 4 OH and vortex for 5 sec. Confirm solution
alkalinity; add ca 5 µL 2-octanol and 0.1 mL of NH 4 OH-NaBH 4 [B(d)]; vortex
for 5 sec. Place tubes in 40°C water bath and incubate 1 h; remove.
(b) Acetylation.—Add 0.1 mL glacial acetic acid; vortex for 5 sec. Transfer
0.8 mL to 50 mL centrifuge tube; add 1.2 mL 1-methylimidazole [B(p)] and 8
mL acetic acid anhydride. Vortex for 5 sec and let stand at ambient temperature
for 10 min. Add 15 mL deionized H 2 O and vortex for 5 sec. Allow to cool; add
322 Cho and Bussey
3 mL methylene chloride; vortex for 30–45 sec. Centrifuge at 1000 ⫻ g for 10

min. Transfer lower phase with Pasteur pipet to 50 mL tube. Rinsing methylene
chloride phase containing alditol acetates with 15 mL of deionized H 2 O; vor-
texing for 5 sec. Centrifuge at 1000 ⫻ g for 10 min. Remove upper aqueous
phase by aspiration. Repeat. Evaporate lower phase containing alditol acetates
to dryness under nitrogen. Redissolve dried alditol acetates in 1 mL methylene
chloride; vortex for 5 sec and store in vial at ⫺20°C, if necessary.
Determination of Xylitol and Rhamnitol Acetates
For identification and quantitation inject 1.0 µL of the alditol acetates standard
solution [derivatized B(c)] onto GC widebore capillary column. Alditol acetates
of the neutral sugars elute in the following order: rhamnose, xylose and sorbitol
(internal standard).
Calculation
Calculate xylose content based on mean of duplicate samples. Incorporate correc-
tion factor into equation that accounts for losses sustained during hydrolysis and
derivatization and that also accounts for response factor that is GC dependent:
Pspl ⫻ Pistd ⫻ M ⫻ R ⫻ S
% Xylose ⫽ ⫻ 100
Pispl ⫻ Pstd ⫻ G ⫻ T
where Pspl ⫽ peak area of xylose sample chromatogram; Pistd ⫽ Peak area of
sorbitol internal standard; Pispl ⫽ peak area of internal sorbitol standard from
sample chromatogram; Pstd ⫽ Peak area of xylose from standard chromatogram;
M ⫽ mg internal standard added to sample (30); G ⫽ original sample weight in
mg; S ⫽ SDF residue weight in mg; T ⫽ weight (mg) of residue used for acid
hydrolysis step; 100 ⫽ conversion factor for percent; and R ⫽ ratio of xylose
to sorbitol in calibration standard (5/3).
Compute % psyllium in product as follows:
% total xylose in product

% Psyllium ⫽ ⫻ 100
% xylose in pure psyllium
or, if substantial xylose expected in product with psyllium:
% total xylose ⫺ % xylose in product blank
% Psyllium ⫽ ⫻ 100
% xylose in pure psyllium

Grain products furnish about one-third of the total dietary fiber intake of the
average North American diet (10). Thus, the addition of compatible fiber ingredi-
ents such as psyllium to cereal mixtures may provide a convenient way of increas-
ing dietary fiber content substantially. Since most grains that are used in the
manufacture of RTE cereals contain negligible quantities of xylose in their neutral
sugar residues, xylose content serves as a convenient indicator of the presence
and amount of psyllium ingredient added. As presented in Table 1, the SDF
fractions of RTE cereals that contained no psyllium (blank values) yielded very
low levels of xylose in the oat and wheat based RTE cereals (0.06 and 0.32%,
respectively), whereas xylose was absent (0%) from corn and rice based products.
Conversely, xylose content of the pure psyllium seed husk alone produced a mean
percent of 27.86 ⫹ 4.05. Generally, as more psyllium ingredient was added to
the cereal base, psyllium recoveries increased. Recoveries ranged from 76.2%
for psyllium ingredient added at the 5% level in the oat-based product to 109.0%
TABLE 1 Psyllium (%) Added to RTE Cereals as Determined By GC

Analysis of Xylose
Xylose (%) Psyllium (%)
Psyllium added Recovery
% (N) Mean SD Mean SD RSD (%)
RTE Cereal Base

Oat
Blank (4) 0.06 0.06 0 0 — 0
5 (5) 1.06 0.08 3.81 0.27 7.09 76.2
10 (7) 2.25 0.14 8.06 0.49 5.70 80.6
20 (8) 4.82 0.55 17.30 1.97 11.39 86.5
Wheat
Blank (4) 0.32 0.12 0 0 — 0
5 (5) 1.27 0.24 4.55 0.86 18.90 91.0
10 (6) 2.33 0.30 8.38 1.08 12.89 83.8
15 (6) 4.28 0.64 15.35 2.30 14.98 102.3
20 (5) 5.80 0.18 20.82 0.65 3.12 104.1
Corn
Blank (2) 0 0 0 0 — 0
5 (6) 1.10 0.21 3.93 0.76 19.34 78.6
10 (5) 2.47 0.34 8.86 1.21 13.66 88.6
20 (7) 5.35 0.67 19.00 2.27 11.95 95.0
Rice
Blank (2) 0 0 0 0 — 0
5 (3) 1.20 0.30 4.31 1.06 24.59 86.2
10 (2) 3.04 0.22 10.90 0.87 7.98 109.0
20 (2) 4.64 0.67 16.64 2.41 14.48 83.2
Psyllium Ingredient
100 (6) 27.86 4.05
324 Cho and Bussey
for 10% psyllium ingredient added to the rice-based product. As indicated by

relative standard deviations (RSDs), variability of psyllium values with respect
to amounts added did not seem to increase with increasing concentration of the
psyllium ingredient. Values for RSDs ranged as low as 3.12% in the case of the
wheat-based cereal containing 20% psyllium ingredient to as high as 24.59% for
the rice-based cereal containing 5% added psyllium ingredient. Overall, the RSDs
for most cereals varied between 6 and 19% which is consistent with the range
of RSDr values obtained by Theander et al. (1) for xylose content of various
plant tissues. Psyllium content of oat, wheat, corn, or rice-based RTE cereals
may be determined successfully by xylose analysis of the SDF residue from the
modified TDF method (994.13)
REFERENCES
1. Theander, O., Aman, P., Westerlund, E., Andersson, R. & Pettersson, D. (1995)
JAOAC Int. 78, 1030–1043.
2. Official Methods of Analysis, 16th ed., AOAC International, Arlington, VA, Meth-
ods 962.09, 973.18, 985.29, & 991.43.
3. Robinson, C.H, Lawler, M.R., Chenoweth, W.L. (1990) Normal and Therapeutic
Nutrition, 17th ed., Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, NY, pp 76–77.
4. Van Soest, P.J. & Wine, R.H. (1967) JAOAC 50, 50–55.
5. Theander, O. & Aman, P. (1979) Swed. J. Agric. Res. 9, 97–106.
6. The Evaluation of the Safety of Using Psyllium Seed Husk As A Food Ingredient,
(1993) Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. Bethesda, MD,
pp 3–15.
7. Pennington, J.A.T. & Church, H.N. (1989) Bowes and Church’s Food Values of
Portions Commonly Used, 14th ed., J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, PA.
8. Adams, C.R. (1975) Nutritive Value of American Foods. US Dept. of Agriculture
Handbook No. 456.
9. Prosky, L. Asp, N.G., Schweizer, T.F., DeVries, J.W., & Furda, I.D. JAOAC (1988)
71, 1017–1023.
10. Marlatt, J.A. (1992) J. Am. Dietetic Assn. 92, 175–186.
11. Englyst, H.N. & Cummings, J.H. (1990) in CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in
Human Nutrition, 2nd Ed., G.A. Spiller (Ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 53–
71.
12. Wolever, T.M., Jenkins, D.J., Mueller, S., Boctor, D.L., Ransom, T.P., Patten. R.,
Chao, E.S., McMillan, K., Fulgoni, V., 3rd (1994). Method of administration influ-
ences the serum cholesterol-lowering effect of psyllium. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59 (5),
1055–1059.
13. Wolever, T.M., Jenkins, D.J., Mueller, S., Patten, R., Relle, L.K., Boctor, D., Ran-
som, T.P., Chao, E.S, McMillan, K., Fulgoni, V., 3rd (1994). Psyllium reduces blood
lipids in men and women with hyperlipidemia. Am. J. Med. Sci. Apr 307 (4) 269–
273.
14. Wolever, T.M., Vuksan, V., Eshuis, H., Spadafora, P., Peterson, R.D., Chao, E.S.,
Storey, M.L., Jenkins, D.J. (1991) Effect of method of administration of psyllium

on glycemic response and carbohydrate digestibility. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 10 (4) 364–
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15. Alabaster, O; Tang, ZC; Shivapurkar, N. Dietary Fiber and the Chemopreventive
Modulation of Colon Carcinogenesis. Fundamental & Molecular Mechanisms of
Mutagenesis. 350:185–197.
24
Food Sources and Uses of Dietary
Fiber
MARK DREHER
Nabisco, Inc., East Hanover, New Jersey
INTRODUCTION
Dietary fiber has played an important and healthful role in the history of the
human food supply. Hypocrites recognized the laxative benefits of whole wheat
flour over that of refined wheat flour. In the 19th century, Graham, of graham
cracker fame, denounced the ‘‘unhealthful’’ effects of refined carbohydrate, and
the Kellogg and Post cereals owe their start to increase in wheat bran con-
sumption. The modern era of research into the health benefits of fiber began in
the middle of the 20th century with the development of the ‘‘dietary fiber hypoth-
esis’’ based on observations in Africa of distinct differences in incidence of
certain chronic diseases between blacks who consumed diets rich in dietary fiber
in their rural homelands and urbanized blacks and whites with low fiber diets. The
people with low fiber diets had significantly more incidence of colorectal cancer,
coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and diverticular disease which
327
328 Dreher
are common in Western countries. Since the 1970s dietary fiber has become one
of the most widely researched food components for both health and food technol-
ogy purposes.
Today, there is strong evidence to support the positive health effects of
foods rich in cereal, fruit and vegetable fiber and expanding opportunities for
fiber claims in labeling. Consumer interest in fiber rich foods has had its ups and
downs since the late 1980s when overexposure of oat bran claims and excessive
media coverage of a contrary oat bran study confused the consumer. Despite
decades of public education programs Americans still consume about half the
recommended daily intake of 25–35 grams of fiber. This is in part due to chal-
lenges in developing good tasting high fiber products. However, the opportunities
for fiber rich foods has growth potential because of:
1. Demographic changes with growing aging populations which can ben-

efit from increased dietary fiber consumption
2. Changing consumer behavior towards more self-treatment to improve
health
3. Economic forces focusing more attention on prevention
4. Expanded biomedical understanding and media coverage of the health
benefits of dietary fiber
5. Modification of food labeling regulations giving dietary fiber more
focus
6. Introduction of new grassroots avenues to communicate the health ben-
efits of dietary fiber by the internet
7. Improved understanding of fiber food functionality which has in-
creased the organoleptic quality of fiber rich foods
The objective of this chapter is to review the food sources and uses of
dietary fiber. Dietary fiber comes from a wide variety of foods such as whole
grain cereals, legumes, fruits, and vegetables or fiber-rich processed foods that
are either much higher in dietary fiber, more available/convenient, or different
in form than the natural sources. Organoleptic and processing challenges are fre-
quently encountered when formulating food products high in dietary fiber. This
has resulted in considerable resources devoted to better understanding dietary
fiber’s food functionality characteristics. Food functionality includes organolep-
tic, microstructural, mechanical/physical, and chemical properties. Usually the
addition of high levels of dietary fiber to foods has an adverse effect on food
texture and flavor, but when the functionality of fiber is understood or improved
the chances of it being successfully incorporated into foods is greatly enhanced.
Thus, a better awareness of food sources and uses is a good way to develop
strategies that can lead to increased dietary fiber intake.
Sources and Uses of Fiber 329
FOOD SOURCES OF DIETARY FIBER

Dietary fiber comes from a variety of sources such as vegetables, fruits, and
cereal grain products. Even foods that contain small amounts of dietary fiber can
make an important contribution to an individual’s diet if these foods are eaten
often or in large amounts.
Soluble and Insoluble Fiber

Total dietary fiber (TDF) is the analytical term for dietary fiber. It includes both
insoluble dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber. Insoluble fiber consists mainly
of cell wall components such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. Soluble fiber
consists of noncellulosic polysaccharides such as pectin, gums, and mucilage.
About 75 percent of the dietary fiber in foods is in the form of insoluble fiber.
Most fiber sources are actually mixtures of both soluble or insoluble fibers.
Insoluble Fiber
The most common form of dietary fiber is insoluble fiber which is composed of
cellulose, lignin, and some hemicellulose. It promotes regularity and is being
studied for its potential for reduce risk of colon/rectal cancers. Although cereal
brans and whole-grain cereals are the most commonly recognized source, other
good sources of insoluble fiber are dried beans, peas, vegetables, and nuts.
Soluble Fiber
Soluble fiber comprises about 25% of the dietary fiber consumed but strong evi-
dence shows that soluble fiber as part of a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet may help
lower blood cholesterol in those individuals with elevated blood cholesterol lev-
els. It has also been shown to help control blood glucose levels in individuals
with diabetes mellitus. Good sources of soluble fiber are whole-grain oats and
barley, oat bran, some fruits, dried beans, and other legumes. According to current
nutrition labeling regulations dietary fiber–containing food must have at least 2.5
grams fiber per reference serving to make a ‘‘good’’ source claims and at least
5.0 grams of fiber to make an ‘‘excellent’’ source claim.
Specific Food Sources

Fiber can come from a wide range of products including fresh fruits and vegetables,
breakfast cereals, breads and rolls, and crackers. Recently, Rimm and coworkers
(1996) demonstrated an association between doubling fiber intake from vegetables,
fruit, and cereals and reduced risk of heart attacks. Table 1 lists the estimated total,
insoluble, and soluble dietary fiber content of a wide variety of foods.
330 Dreher
TABLE 1 Dietary fiber content of foods

Dietary fiber
(g/100 g edible portion)
Food Moisture Total Insoluble Soluble

Baked products
Bagels, plain 31.6 2.1 1.5 0.6
Biscuits, baking powder 16.7 2.1 1.6 0.6
Breads:
Boston brown 47.2 4.7 — —
Bran 39.1 5.4 4.6 0.8
Corn 36.1 3.0 2.8 0.2
Cracked wheat 35.9 5.3 4.5 0.8
French 29.2 2.7 1.9 0.8
Italian:
Plain 26.9 3.8 2.9 0.9
Sesame seeds 34.6 3.4 2.5 0.9
Multi-grain 38.6 5.6 4.6 1.0
Oatmeal 37.8 4.3 3.3 1.0
Pita:
White 32.1 1.6 0.8 0.8
Whole-wheat 30.6 7.4 6.6 0.8
Pumpernickel 38.3 5.9 4.3 1.6
Reduced-calorie, high-fiber:
Multi-grain 39.3 13.6 12.7 0.9
White 44.3 12.8 12.3 0.5
Rye (German) 36.8 8.3 6.8 1.5
Sourdough 36.4 3.0 2.0 1.0
White: 37.1 1.9 1.3 0.6
Toasted — 2.5 — —
Whole wheat: 39.7 8.1 7.0 1.1
Toasted — 8.9 — —
Bread crumbs, plain or seasoned 5.7 4.2 3.0 1.2
Bread sticks 4.6 3.0 1.8 1.2
Bread stuffing, flavored from dry mix 65.1 2.9 2.0 0.9
Cakes (prepared):
Angel food 35.5 0.8 0.5 0.3
Chocolate 33.3 2.4 1.8 0.6
Coffee cake:
Crumb topping 22.3 3.3 2.6 0.7
Fruit 31.7 2.5 1.5 1.0
Devil’s food 30.4 2.5 1.8 0.7
Fruitcake 22.0 3.7 2.5 1.2
Yellow 26.9 1.4 1.1 0.3
Cheesecake 44.6 2.1 1.5 0.6
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Cookies:
Brownies 12.8 2.5 1.7 0.8
Butter 4.7 2.4 1.6 0.8
Chocolate chip 4.1 2.6 1.9 0.7
Chocolate sandwich 2.2 2.9 2.2 0.7
Fig bar 16.7 4.6 4.0 0.6
Fortune 8.0 1.6 1.2 0.4
Ginger snaps 4.8 1.8 1.2 0.6
Oatmeal 4.9 2.6 1.5 1.1
Peanut butter 6.7 1.8 1.3 0.5
Shortbread 3.3 1.8 0.9 0.9
Sugar 3.3 1.1 0.7 0.4
Vanilla wafers 5.5 1.5 0.7 0.8
Croissants 20.4 2.3 1.4 0.9
Croutons 5.6 4.7 4.0 0.7
Doughnuts:
Cake 19.7 1.7 1.1 0.6
Yeast, glazed 26.7 1.2 0.7 0.5
Hamburger buns 35.0 2.6 1.7 0.9
Ice cream cones: 3.0 4.6 3.4 1.2
Sugar 3.0 4.6 3.4 1.2
Wafer 5.3 4.1 3.0 1.1
Muffins:
Blueberry 37.3 3.6 3.1 0.5
Bran-raisin 26.7 6.3 4.9 1.4
English 38.9 3.0 2.4 0.6
Oat bran 35.0 7.5 5.0 2.5
Plain 27.1 1.5 1.0 1.5
Wheat bran 23.3 3.3 2.5 0.8
Pastries:
Plain 19.3 1.3 0.9 0.4
Fruit 27.6 1.9 1.0 0.9
Pie crust 14.9 2.3 1.8 0.5
Pies:
Apple 44.9 1.6 1.0 0.6
Cherry 46.2 0.8 0.5 0.3
Pecan 19.8 3.5 3.0 0.5
Pumpkin 58.1 2.7 2.1 0.6
332 Dreher
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Rolls:
Brown and serve 23.5 3.0 1.9 1.1
Cinnamon 26.4 2.2 1.6 0.6
Dinner 30.4 3.8 3.0 0.8
French 30.8 3.2 2.2 1.0
Taco shells 4.2 6.3 5.4 0.9
Toaster pastries 8.9 1.0 0.6 0.4
Tortillas:
Corn 49.0 5.1 4.4 0.7
Wheat 29.3 2.3 1.3 1.0
Waffles, frozen 45.0 2.4 1.6 0.8
Breakfast Cerals
Bran 2.9 35.3 32.8 2.5
Bran flakes
Plain 3.2 19.5 17.5 2.0
Raisins 7.6 13.5 15.1 2.4
Cornflakes:
Plain 2.8 2.0 1.7 0.3
Sugar frosted 1.9 2.2 1.8 0.4
Cream of Wheat, cooked 87.9 0.7 0.6 0.1
Crispy rice 2.4 1.9 1.4 0.5
Fruit & bran 3.0 14.8 12.0 2.8
Granola 3.3 10.5 — —
Grapenuts 3.1 10.4 7.3 3.1
Hominy, cooked 85.0 0.6 0.6 0.0
Muesli 5.0 12.0 — —
Oat bran, uncooked 7.4 17.0 10.5 6.5
Oatmeal, cooked 84.2 1.9 1.2 0.7
Puffed wheat 6.9 7.5 5.1 2.4
Puffed rice 6.5 1.4 1.0 0.4
Shredded wheat 7.1 12.5 9.9 2.6
Toasted oats 3.5 7.0 4.2 2.8
Wheat flakes 2.4 11.4 9.6 1.8
Cereal Grains
Amaranth 9.8 15.2 — —
Amaranth flour, whole grain 10.4 10.2 — —
Arrowroot flour 11.4 3.4 — —
Barley 9.4 17.3 — —
Barley, bran 3.5 70.0 67.0 3.0
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Barley, pearled 10.1 15.6 — —
Bulgur, dry 8.0 18.3 — —
Corn, bran 6.5 82.4 80.4 2.0
Corn, flour, whole-grain 10.9 13.4 — —
Cornmeal:
Whole grain 11.0 11.0 — —
Degermed 10.3 5.3 — —
Cornstarch 12.0 0.9 — —
Millet, hulled 8.2 0.9 — —
Oat, bran 10.0 22.2 11.7 10.5
Oat, flour 7.8 9.6 — —
Oats, rolled, or oatmeal, dry 8.8 10.3 6.5 3.8
Rice:
Wild 8.4 5.2 — —
Brown, long-grain:
Raw 11.7 3.9 — —
Cooked 73.1 1.7 — —
Long-grain
Dry 8.7 1.3 1.0 0.3
Cooked 77.5 0.7 0.7 0.0
Short grain 11.0 2.8 — —
Medium grain 11.7 1.7 — —
Parboiled rice:
Dry 10.4 2.2 — —
Cooked 77.0 0.5 — —
Rice-a-roni 71.5 2.5 — —
Rice bran 6.1 21.7 — —
Rice flour:
Brown 12.0 4.6 — —
White 11.9 2.4 — —
Semolina 12.7 3.7 — —
Triticale 11.2 18.1 — —
Whole grain 9.4 14.6 — —
Wheat, bran 11.6 42.4 40.3 2.1
Wheat flour:
White, all-purpose 11.2 2.7 1.7 1.0
Whole-grain 11.5 12.6 10.2 1.3
Wheat germ 2.9 14.0 12.9 1.1
334 Dreher
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Fruit and Fruit Products
Apples, Red Delicious:
Unpeeled 83.6 2.0 1.8 0.2
Peeled 84.6 1.5 1.3 0.2
Granny Smith, unpeeled 83.8 2.7 2.4 0.3
Apple juice, unsweetened 87.9 0.1 0.1 0.0
Applesauce:
Sweetened 79.6 1.2 1.0 0.2
Unsweetened 88.4 1.5 1.3 0.2
Apricots, dried 31.1 7.8 6.0 1.8
Apricot nectar 84.9 0.6 0.5 0.1
Bananas 75.7 1.7 1.2 0.5
Blueberries:
Fresh 85.4 2.7 2.4 0.3
Frozen 83.5 3.2 2.5 0.7
Cherries, canned 78.8 1.0 0.4 0.6
Figs, dried 28.4 9.3 — —
Fruit cocktail — 1.5 — —
Grapefruit:
Fresh 87.8 1.8 0.7 1.1
Juice 90.1 0.5 0.0 0.5
Grapes 80.6 1.2 0.7 0.5
Kiwifruit 83.0 3.4 — —
Melons 90.1 0.7 0.4 0.3
Nectarine 89.7 1.2 0.8 0.4
Oranges:
Fresh 86.0 1.8 0.7 1.1
Juice 89.4 0.4 0.1 0.3
Peaches:
Fresh 87.1 1.9 1.0 0.9
Canned 83.0 1.2 0.7 0.5
Pears:
Fresh 84.5 3.0 2.0 1.0
Canned 84.1 2.3 1.5 0.8
Pineapple, canned 84.2 0.9 0.7 0.2
Plums:
Fresh 85.4 1.6 0.7 0.9
Canned 75.8 2.4 1.1 1.3
Prunes, dried 26.2 7.3 3.1 4.2
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Prune jucie 81.2 1.0 — —
Raisins, seedless 12.6 3.7 2.4 1.3
Strawberries:
Fresh 90.5 2.2 1.3 0.9
Frozen 75.0 1.6 0.9 0.7
Jam 31.8 0.9 0.7 0.2
Tangerine:
Fresh 85.1 1.8 1.4 0.4
Canned 84.5 0.4 0.1 0.3
Watermelon 90.1 0.4 0.3 0.1
Legumes and Pulses
Baked beans, canned:
BBQ — 5.8 — —
Sweet or tomato sauce
Plain 72.6 7.7 — —
With franks 69.3 6.9 — —
Black-eyed peas, canned 65.0 3.9 3.5 0.4
Lentils:
Dried, raw 9.9 11.4 10.3 1.1
Dried, cooked 66.5 5.3 4.7 0.6
Garbanzo beans, canned 65.6 3.5 3.1 0.4
Lima beans, canned 74.5 4.2 3.8 0.4
Kidney, beans, canned 70.4 6.3 4.7 1.6
Peas, black-eyed, canned 78.6 3.1 2.7 0.4
Pinto beans:
Dried, raw 8.2 19.5 12.1 7.4
Dried, cooked 71.2 7.0 5.8 2.2
Canned 73.3 5.2 4.0 1.2
Soybeans:
Dry 8.0 15.0 — —
Tofu 84.6 1.2 — —
Nuts and seeds
Almonds, roasted 3.3 11.2 — —
Cashews, oil-roasted 5.4 6.0 — —
Coconut:
Raw 47.0 9.0 8.5 0.5
Shredded 18.5 6.6 6.2 0.4
Hazelnuts oil-roasted 1.2 6.4 — —
336 Dreher
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Peanuts:
Dry-roasted 1.6 8.0 7.5 0.5
Oil-roasted 2.0 8.8 8.0 0.8
Peanut butter:
Chunky 1.1 6.6 6.0 0.6
Smooth 1.4 6.0 5.5 0.5
Pecans 4.8 6.5 — —
Pistachio nuts 3.9 10.8 — —
Sesame seeds:
Dry 24.6 15.4 — —
Roasted 5.8 11.6 — —
Walnuts 3.5 3.8 3.7 0.1
Miscellaneous
Avocado 77.3 3.9 2.6 1.3
Beer 92.3 0.5 — —
Candy (caramels, vanilla) 7.6 1.2 — —
Milk chocolate 0.8 2.8 — —
Carob powder 1.2 32.8 — —
Chile powder 9.1 34.2 — —
Chocolate, baking 0.7 15.4 — —
Cocoa, baking 1.3 29.8 — —
Curry powder 8.7 33.2 — —
Jelly, apple 32.3 0.6 — —
Pancake mix 8.3 4.5 3.5 1.0
Pepper, black 9.4 25.0 — —
Pickles 93.4 1.1 0.7 0.4
Preserves:
Peach 32.4 0.7 — —
Strawberry 31.7 1.2 — —
Yeast, active, dry 6.8 31.6 — —
Pasta
Macaroni:
Dry 8.5 4.3 4.1 0.2
Cooked 69.6 2.0 1.7 0.3
Noodles:
Dry
Spinach 8.5 6.8 — —
Chow-mein 0.7 3.9 — —
Egg 9.5 4.0 — —
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Cooked 67.3 1.8 1.3 0.5
Spaghetti:
Dry:
Regular 9.2 3.6 2.1 1.5
Whole-wheat 7.1 11.8 — —
Spinach 8.7 10.6 — —
Cooked 60.7 1.5 1.1 0.4
Corn chips 1.1 4.3 3.9 0.4
Corn puffs 1.5 1.0 — —
Granola bars, crunchy:
Chocolate chip — 4.4 — —
Cinnamon — 5.0 — —
Popcorn:
Air-popped — 15.1 — —
Oil-popped — 10.0 — —
Potato chips 2.4 3.8 1.9 1.9
Pretzels:
Hard 3.5 3.7 2.8 0.9
Soft 32.7 2.5 1.6 0.9
Tortilla chips 2.0 6.5 — —
Vegetables and Vegetables Products
Artichoke 84.4 7.6 4.4 3.2
Artichoke, globe 82.5 7.9 4.7 3.2
Asparagus:
Fresh, cooked 90.5 2.1 1.6 0.5
Canned 93.3 1.6 1.2 0.4
Beans, green:
Canned 2.1 1.4 0.7
Boiled 2.5 1.5 1.0
Bamboo shoots, canned 97.4 1.5 1.4 0.1
Beans sprouts 96.2 1.2 1.1 0.1
Beets, canned 92.4 1.7 1.3 0.4
Broccoli:
Raw 88.5 3.3 3.0 0.3
Cooked 90.2 3.5 3.1 0.4
Brussels sprouts 87.2 4.1 3.6 0.6
Cabbage:
Raw 90.9 1.8 1.1 0.7
Boiled 94.0 1.7 1.1 0.6
338 Dreher
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

Carrots:
Raw 88.5 2.4 1.1 1.3
Cooked 90.5 2.7 1.2 1.5
Cauliflower:
Raw 92.6 1.8 1.1 0.7
Cooked 93.3 1.8 1.1 0.7
Celery:
Raw 94.6 1.5 1.0 0.5
Cooked 95.2 1.4 0.9 0.5
Chives 92.0 3.2 — —
Corn, sweet:
Canned:
Whole 76.7 2.1 1.8 0.3
Cream style 75.6 1.3 1.1 0.2
Fresh:
Raw 76.0 3.2 3.0 0.2
Cooked 69.6 3.7 3.5 0.2
Frozen, whole 75.8 2.1 2.0 0.1
Cucumbers:
Peeled 96.2 0.6 0.5 0.1
Unpeeled 95.8 0.9 0.8 0.1
Eggplant — 6.6 5.3 1.3
Leek 90.3 2.9 2.0 0.9
Lettuce:
Iceberg 96.0 0.7 0.5 0.2
Romaine 94.9 1.7 — —
Mushrooms, canned 90.9 2.8 2.6 0.2
Onions, raw:
Green 92.7 2.2 2.2 0.0
Yellow 90.3 1.7 1.6 0.1
Parsley 88.3 4.4 — —
Peas, green:
Canned 80.7 4.5 3.6 0.9
Boiled 76.9 6.7 5.0 1.7
Frozen, boiled 81.6 4.4 3.2 1.2
Peppers, green, raw 93.5 1.9 1.2 0.7
Potatoes:
Baked, skin 73.3 2.5 1.9 0.6
Boiled, without skin 79.5 1.3 1.0 0.3
TABLE 1 Continued
Dietary fiber

French fried 48.6 3.0 1.5 1.5
Pumpkin, canned 90.2 2.9 2.4 0.5
Radish, red 94.2 1.4 1.3 0.1
Rutabagas:
Raw 89.0 2.4 1.2 1.2
Boiled 92.3 2.1 1.2 0.9
Spinach:
Raw 91.6 2.6 2.1 0.5
Cooked 93.7 2.2 1.8 0.4
Squash:
Summer:
Raw 93.7 1.2 — —
Cooked 93.7 1.4 — —
Winter:
Raw 88.7 1.8 — —
Cooked 89.0 2.8 — —
Zucchini, raw 94.5 0.9 0.8 0.1
Sweet potatoes:
Cooked 72.8 3.0 2.5 0.5
Canned 75.6 1.7 1.3 0.4
Tomatoes:
Raw 94.5 1.2 0.8 0.4
Boiled 93.2 1.5 1.0 0.5
Canned 93.3 1.0 0.7 0.3
Sauce 90.9 1.4 0.8 0.7
Paste 74.1 4.3 — —
Catsup 66.7 1.2 0.9 0.3
Juice 94.1 0.7 0.4 0.3
Turnip greens:
Frozen 92.9 2.5 2.4 0.1
Cooked 93.2 3.1 2.9 0.2
Turnips 94.7 2.0 1.5 0.5
Water chestnuts 87.9 2.2 — —
The dietary fiber contents are based on published values form the following references:
American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1987; Dreher, 1987; Anderson and Bridges,
1988; Cardozo and Ettenmiller, 1988; Del Toma et al., 1988; Mongeau et al., 1989; De-
partment of Agriculture, 1989; Toma and curtis, 1989; Ranhotra et al., 1990; Prosky and
DeVries, 1992; U.S. Marlett, 1992.
340 Dreher
TABLE 2 Parameters related to food

functionality a
Parameter Examples
Sensory Cohesiveness
Hardness
Brittleness
Gumminess
Mechanical/Physical Density
Expansion
Shear
Viscosity
Microstructural Cellularity
Crystallinity
Porosity
Uniformity
Functional Water binding
Emulsification
Spreadability
Whippability
a
Adapted from Stanley (1986).
DIETARY FIBER SOURCES AND PROPERTIES

Composition of Dietary Fiber
The factors affecting fiber functionality are complex (Table 2). Dietary fiber is
a heterogeneous mixture of materials that are the structural and some of the non-
structural components of all plants. These components are resistant to digestion
by enzymes produced by humans. The components of dietary fiber include: cellu-
lose, hemicellulose, lignins, pectins, and a variety of gums and mucilages. All
except lignins are polysaccharides. The composition of dietary fiber components
varies with the type and maturity of plant tissue. Effects of isolated dietary fibers
are likely to be different than their effects in native foods. The heterogeneity of
dietary fiber is the primary reason for the diversity of its functional properties
in food systems. They include composition (e.g., hexoses, pentoses, and uronic
acid), cell wall matrix characteristics, functional groups, surface area, cellulose
crystallinity, surface characteristics, ionic linkages, noncovalent bonds, and struc-
ture (e.g., glycosidic linkages and degree of branching). Food uses of dietary
fiber range from bulking agents to fat substitutes (Table 3).
Industry Availability
A wide variety of dietary fiber sources are available to the food industry. Since
the early 1980s, the number and availability of dietary fiber sources has increased
TABLE 3 Gerneral food uses for dietary fiber

Dietary Fiber Supplements
Labeling
Calorie Control
Health Benefits
Bulking Agent
Fat Replacer
Reduced Oil Uptake during Frying
Hydrocolloid Properties
Anticaking/Antisticking
Adhesiveness
dramatically. Almost every conceivable fiber source has been considered as a

potential ingredient for fiber-enriched foods. These fiber sources range from puri-
fied cellulose to sugar beet fiber, cereal brans to sunflower hulls, and guar gum
to konjac flour. Not all of these sources of dietary fiber, however, have made it to
the marketplace as mainstream commercial ingredients; there has been a gradual
shifting out of these materials based on functionality, economics, or other reasons
(Vetter, 1988).
Variations in Source Composition

Dietary fiber sources can vary widely in their composition and physicochemical
properties. The TDF content is highly variable; for example, oat bran and pow-
dered cellulose have 16 and 99 percent, respectively. The gums are completely
dispersible in water, whereas powdered cellulose is completely insoluble in water
and oat bran fiber is only about 50 percent water-soluble. The calorie content of
dietary fiber sources reflects the TDF level; powdered cellulose is non-caloric
whereas wheat bran is about 2 kilocalories per gram. Fiber comes in a wide
variety of colors such as white from cellulose, cream from soy fiber and corn
bran, tan/brown from apple fiber and wheat bran and off-white from guar gum.
The flavor of fiber can range from bland to fruity, nutty, malty, or mild. The
bulk density of fiber can range from about 12 lbs./cu. ft. to over 45 lbs./cu. ft.
Additionally, particle size and water binding capacity (WBC) vary widely within
sources. Fiber functionality is greatly effected by its composition and physico-
chemical properties.
Component Classification
Dietary fiber components are classified as either soluble or insoluble. The most
common class of soluble fibers is gums (hydrocolloids). Gums have the basic
properties of thickening or adding viscosity and gelling foods. They are used
342 Dreher
extensively in foods at low levels (less than 2 percent) to suspend particles, emul-
sify fat, inhibit ice crystallization, inhibit syneresis, form films, and mimic the
properties of fat; their usage at high levels (greater than 10 percent) tends to be
limited with only a few exceptions. Insoluble fibers consist of fiber sources that
are rich in cell wall content such as most cereal brans (e.g., wheat and corn bran),
oilseed hulls (e.g., sunflower seed and soybean hulls), and purified cellulose.
Their usage in food systems is often improved by pretreatments which improve
functionality. Insoluble fibers are most often used to control calories, add bulk,
or provide a health benefit. Other fiber sources are a mixture of both soluble and
insoluble fibers such as oat bran, legumes, and fruit fibers. The functionality of
these fibers is a function of the type and level of soluble and insoluble fiber.
HYDROCOLLOIDS AS FUNCTIONAL SOLUBLE

DIETARY FIBER
Basic Properties
A major class of soluble fiber ingredients are the hydrocolloids, frequently re-
ferred to as gums (Dziezak, 1991). These compounds are long-chain polymers
that dissolve or disperse in water to give a thickening, gel, or viscosity. Hydrocol-
loids are also used for secondary effects that include stabilization of emulsions,
suspensions of particulate, control of crystallization, inhibition of syneresis, en-
capsulation, and the formation of a film. They are classified as either food addi-
tives or ‘‘generally recognized as safe’’ (GRAS) substances by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration. Regulations of specific hydrocolloids are outlined in
Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations in Parts 172.580-172.874 and Parts
182.1480–184.1724, respectively. Hydrocolloids are generally used at levels of
less than 2 percent to achieve desired properties in food systems. They are typi-
cally used to enhance food properties rather than provide the health benefits asso-
ciated with dietary fiber. Nonetheless, even at this low usage level hydrocolloids
have become a large and growing business with an estimated market for nonstarch
hydrocolloids approaching $1 billion.
Although using gums can sometimes be difficult, understanding several
critical factors will help in their selection (Dziezak, 1991). For example, while
some gums go readily into solution, others require extra care to prevent clumping
such as by mixing the gum with sugar, then gradually pouring the blend into a
vigorously stirred solution. In addition, there are other criteria to consider when
choosing a gum that will help safeguard against making a wrong choice. Such
criteria include: (a) effects of temperature, pH, and mechanical stress on solubility
and dispersability, rheological characteristics, and emulsification and product sta-
bility, (b) synergism with other gums, (c) effect of the color, odor, and taste of
the finished product; (d) microbiological stability, (e) regulatory status for the
targeted application, and (f) cost effectiveness.
Commercial Products
Hydrocolloids usually come from: (1) plant materials such as seaweed, seeds,
roots, and tree exudates, (2) microbial biosynthesis, and (3) chemical modification
of natural polysaccharides. The following is a review of the important attributes
of commonly used gums (Tye, 1991; Dziezak, 1991).
SEAWEED EXTRACTS
Alginates
Alginates are extracted from the class of brown seaweed known as Phaeophyceae.
The principal seaweed for commercial production include Macrocystis pyrifera,
Laminaria hyperborea, Laminaria digitata, and Ascophyllum nodosum which
are found primarily in California, the United Kingdom, Japan, Norway, Canada,
France, and Spain. They include a variety of products made up of D-mannuronic
(M) acid and L-guluronic (G) acid which are arranged in regions composed solely
of one unit or the other, referred to as M-blocks and G-blocks, and regions where
the two units alternate. Both the ratio of mannuronic acid to guluronic acid and
the structure of the polymer determine the solution properties of the alginate.
Alginates are best known for their ability to form irreversible gels in cold
water when calcium ions are present. This property of gelling in cold systems
distinguishes alginates from the hydrocolloids that are derived from red algae.
It is possible to control both the firmness of the gel obtained and the amount of
time required for gelation to occur by varying the alginate and ion system.
Alginates are used in food products for thickening, emulsion stabilization,
gelation, and syneresis inhibition. For example, propylene glycol alginates incor-
porated into salad dressings function as emulsification and suspension of solids.
Sodium alginate has been used in a cold-processed lemon pie filling to provide
freeze-thaw stability. Other applications that utilize the heat stability of alginate
gels include reformed red pepper strips which are stuffed into olives, structured
fruit pieces that do not break down during baking, frozen jelly doughnuts, me-
ringues, structured jelly in cake rolls, and fabricated onion rings. Some brands
of fish are coated with alginates to prevent freezer burn.
Carrageenan
Carrageenans are extracted from red seaweeds (Huffman and Shah, 1995). The
best known and most widely used source of carrageenan is Chondrus crispus,
also known as Irish moss, which is typically found along the North Atlantic
coasts. Carrageenans are sulfated polymers that consist of galactose and anhy-
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drogalactose units. Three main fractions, which differ primarily in the content
and distribution of sulfated ester groups, have been identified as iota-, kappa-,
and lambda-carrageenan. The structure and molecular weight of the fractions
determines their functional properties. Iota- and kappa-carrageenans act as gelling
agents; lambda-carrageenan is non-gelling, but acts as a thickener. Iota-carra-
geenan gels most strongly with calcium ions to form a clear, elastic, syneresis-
free gel that resets after shear. A stronger gelling agent, kappa-carrageenan forms
gels in the presence of potassium ions producing a strong, rigid gel that tends
toward syneresis. Both gels are thermoreversible.
Carrageenan has been used in foods because of its gelling, thickening, stabi-
lizing, emulsifying, and suspending properties. Unique protein reactivity proper-
ties are exhibited by carrageenans useful at low levels in a number of milk-based
products such as chocolate milk, ice cream, puddings, and cheese analogs. In
bakery products such as pie fillings and cake icings, carrageenan has been used
to replace the more expensive agar. Its reactivity with protein is useful in ham-
pumping operations where kappa-carrageenan helps retain water-soluble proteins
within the ham during cooking. Lambda-carrageenan can be incorporated into
low-fat or fat-free salad dressings for good suspension of seasonings while pro-
viding the sensory properties of an oil-based dressing. Low sugar jams, jellies,
and confections also benefit from the gelling properties of carrageenan.
SEED EXTRACTS
Locust Bean Gum
Locust bean gum is found in the endosperm of seeds from the evergreen tree,
Ceratonia siliqua, which is native to Mediterranean countries. It has also been
called carob seed gum. This hydrocolloid is a neutral polysaccharide made up
of mannose and galactose in a ratio of 4 :1. Locust bean gum is insoluble in cold
water and must be heated to be dissolved. Maximal viscosity is obtained when
the gum is heated to about 95°C, then cooled. Alone, locust bean gum will not
form a gel, but it will gel when combined with xanthan gum. It interacts with
kappa-carrageenan to increase gel strength, modify texture, and reduce syneresis.
Further, since locust bean gum is non-ionic, it is stable over the pH range of 3.5
to 11.0.
The primary functions of locust bean gum are thickening, stabilization of
emulsions, and inhibition of syneresis. This hydrocolloid is used in a number
of products: canned foods, sauces, desserts, beverages, cheeses, ice cream, and
processed meats. In cheese, it acts to speed up coagulation, increasing the yield
of curd solids. In ice cream, locust bean gum stabilizes and binds water, which
helps the ice cream withstand heat shock and melt smoothly. In meat products
such as bologna and sausage, it helps to facilitate extrusion and stuffing.
Guar Gum
Guar gum is obtained from the ground endosperm of the guar plant, Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus, an annual that is native to the arid climates of India and Pakistan.
Guar has also been cultivated in Texas and Arkansas. Forming the backbone of
the gum is a linear chain of mannose units with single galactose units attached
as side chains in the ration of one galactose unit per every two mannose units.
Since guar gum is more highly substituted than locust bean gum, it is more soluble
and hydrates fully in cold water, producing high viscosity. The viscosity of guar
depends on the temperature, pH, time, concentrations, degree of agitation, and
particle size of the gum. Since guar gum is nonionic, it is stable from pH 4 to
10. It interacts synergistically with xanthan gum to increase solution viscosity.
When mixed with either agar or kappa-carrageenan, it can increase gel strength
and improve gel structure. Guar gum tends to be slightly slimy in the mouth,
and is often used at low concentrations to add creaminess to foods.
Guar gum is nongelling, and it functions primarily as a viscosity builder,
stabilizer, and water binder. Examples of product applications include canned
foods, desserts, ice cream, soups, sauces, dressings, bakery products, and dry
mixes.
ROOT FLOUR
Konjac powder from the konjac root has been traditionally used in the Far East
as a food component (Tye, 1991). For over a thousand years, the Japanese have
been making gels and noodles that are stable in boiling water with konjac powder.
Because of its gel-forming properties and strong functional synergism with
kappa-carrageenan and starches, konjac powder has been used to maintain the
shape and integrity of formed foods during cooking.
Konjac powder is the dried and pulverized tuber of the perennial herb
Amorphophallus konjac (Tye, 1991). The flour consists of fine oval whitish sacs,
100 to 500 microns in size, which swell in contact with water and rupture to
release high molecular weight water-soluble aggregated glucomannans. Its mo-
lecular weight is greater than 300,000 daltons. Acetyl groups are scattered ran-
domly along the linear glucomannan and they help promote water solubility.
Konjac powder has many properties that can be useful in food formulations. Its
water thickening properties are unique; when mixed with water its viscosity is
a function of sac swelling which is dependent on temperature and time. Konjac
sols are pseudoplastic (thin with shear and recover viscosity when the shearing
stops). Konjac gels formed in the presence of mild alkali (potassium carbonate)
are thermally stable. Konjac has synergism with both kappa-carrageenan and xan-
than gum. Kappa-carrageenan and konjac powder solutions form an elastic, ther-
mally reversible gel after heating and cooling. Xanthan gum and konjac flour
346 Dreher
interact to form a gel with unique viscoelastic properties. Dehydrated konjac

powder dispersions can form a cohesive, tough film. Konjac powder functionally
interacts with most starches to give significant increases in viscosity and gel
strength.
PLANT EXUDATES
Gum Arabic
Gum arabic is the sap that is exuded from various species of acacia trees when
wounded to prevent desiccation and insect infestation of the tissue beneath. Ara-
bic is considered the oldest gum because its use can be tracked back to 2650
BC. Chemically, gum arabic is a neutral or slightly acidic salt of a complex
polysaccharide containing calcium, magnesium, and potassium ions. The gum
consists of six carbohydrate moieties: galactose, rhamnose, arabinopyranose, ara-
binofuranose, glucuronic acid, and 4-o-methylglucuronic acid. Also present in
the gum is a small amount of protein. Gum arabic dissolves readily in both hot
or cold water. It is the least viscous and most soluble of the hydrocolloids with
possible solutions approaching a 55 percent concentration possible compared
with other common hydrocolloids which are limited to levels of less than 5 per-
cent because of their high viscosities.
Gum arabic is primarily used in the confection and soft drink industry.
More than one-half of the gum arabic is used in confections where it acts to
retard sugar crystallization and to promote emulsification. About one-third is in-
corporated in soft drinks because of its emulsifier and stabilizer properties. The
remainder of the gum arabic is utilized in a variety of applications such as in the
flavor industry as a fixative in spray drying applications where the gum encapsu-
lates the flavor compound and in the beer industry where the gum promotes stabi-
lization of foam.
Gum Karaya
Gum karaya is the dried exudate of the sterculia tree that grows in central and
northern India. It consists of a main chain comprised of D-galacturonic acid,
L-rhamnose, and D-galactose units with some side chains containing D-glucu-
ronic acid. Karaya has low solubility in water and strong adhesive properties at
high concentrations. It does not dissolve in water, but absorbs water and swells,
producing a viscous colloidal sol. Dispersions have a greater viscosity when pre-
pared with cold water. Boiling the dispersion increases the solubility of the gum,
but it also permanently reduces its viscosity. Correspondingly, viscosity is re-
duced by addition of certain strong electrolytes or extremes in pH.
Gum karaya has been used in a variety of food applications. In French
dressing, it functions as a stabilizer. Because of its water-binding properties, kar-
aya has been used at low levels in ice pops and sherbets to prevent the formation
of ice crystals and loss of free water. In ground meat products, such as bologna,
karaya binds water and provides adhesiveness, while producing a smooth appear-
ance.
Gum Tragacanth
Gum tragacanth is the exudate produced by certain species of the astragalus bush,
a leguminous perennial that is native to Asia Minor and to the semi-desert and
mountainous regions of Iran. Tragacanth is composed of a mixture of polysaccha-
rides: tragacanthic acid, a water-insoluble component, which confers water-swell-
ing properties to the gum; and arabinogalactan, a water-soluble polymer that gives
the gum solubility. It has very high viscosity and produces viscous colloidal sols
which have a texture similar to that of a soft gel. At a 1 percent concentration
it can produce a viscosity of 3,600 cps. Tragacanth is cold water soluble. It is
stable to heat and acid. Also, it is a good emulsifier. Despite its many functional
attributes, tragacanth has not been used to its potential in the United States be-
cause of the political problems encountered with Iran, its chief exporter.
Gum tragacanth has diverse functionality in foods. It has been used in salad
dressings and sauces because it imparts a creamy texture. Milk shakes made with
tragacanth can contain lower levels of fat without sacrificing viscosity. In bakery
fruit-based toppings and fillings, it gives the fruit a shiny, natural appearance
while providing stabilization of suspended fruit pieces.
MICROBIAL GUMS
Xanthan Gum
Xanthan gum was the first gum manufactured by microbial fermentation; it is
produced by culturing on a carbohydrate medium the organism Xanthomonas
campestral. Xanthan is a high-molecular-weight polysaccharide with a cellulosic
backbone that has trisaccharide branches attached to every other glucose unit in
the main chain. Although xanthan is non-gelling, it can form elastic, thermore-
versible gels when combined with locust bean gum. It is completely soluble in
cold or hot water, and produces high viscosities at low concentrations. Xanthan
gum in unaffected by enzymes and it has excellent stability to heat and pH. The
viscosities of xanthan gum solutions remain unchanged across the temperature
range of 0° to 100°C and over the pH range of 1 to 13. Xanthan gum solutions
are pseudoplastic which helps to impart good flavor release, mouthfeel, and visual
aesthetics of a food product; it also is important to the pourability of emulsions.
Xanthan is used in many food products for its thickening, suspending, and
stabilizing attributes. It provides freeze-thaw stability in frozen doughs. Xan-
than functions as a stabilizer in egg white substitutes made up of whey protein
348 Dreher
and gelatin. The gum is used as a stabilizer in ice cream, and it adds body to
and prevents sticking in fruit gels. Tomato sauces for pizza are made with xanthan
gum to attain high viscosity that keeps the sauce on the surface and inhibits
absorption by the dough.
Gellan Gum
Culturing Pseudomonas elodea on a carbohydrate medium produces gellan gum.
Its linear backbone is comprised of four saccharide units: 1,3-beta-D-glucose,
1,4-beta-D-glucuronic acid, 1,4-beta-D-glucose, and 1,4-alpha-D-rhamnose. Gel-
lan gum is functional at very low levels with excellent gel formation at con-
centrations as low as 0.05 percent. Gellan needs to be heated to dissolve and
requires actions to bring about gelation as the solution cools. By controlling the
concentration of cations, the gel obtained can be designed to be thermorevers-
ible or stable to retort temperatures from 65° to 120°C. Gellan gums are also
stable in acid and to heat. It is approved for food use as a stabilizer and thickener
in frostings, icings, glazes, non-standardized jams and jellies, and other applica-
tions.
MODIFIED CELLULOSE AND PECTIN

Cellulose Gums
Cellulose gums, which are produced by chemically modifying cellulose so that
it becomes water soluble, are among the most widely used hydrocolloids. Each
cellobiose unit that makes up the backbone of cellulose consists of two anhy-
droglucanose units, which in turn have three hydroxyl groups each. Alkaline
treatment carried out under controlled conditions transforms cellulose into an
ether by substituting the hydrogen on some of the hydroxyl groups with a carboxy
group. The length of the cellulose ethers coupled with the nature and the number
of the ether groups influence the solubility, gelling, and thickening properties of
the derivative. Chemically modified celluloses include carboxymethylcellulose,
methylcellulose, and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose, which is commonly called cellulose gum,
is available in a variety of types based on particle size, degree of substitution, viscos-
ity, and hydration abilities. Solutions of these gums are pseudoplastic. Their viscosi-
ties decrease with an increase in temperature and they are stable over the pH range
of 4 to 10. Cellulose gum is used to thicken, suspend, stabilize, gel, and modify
flow characteristics of aqueous solutions or suspensions. It is used in a wide range
of food products as a bulking agent in low-calorie foods, as a water binder in starch-
based pie fillings, and in association with soybean protein and caseinate it acts as
a stabilizer to prevent precipitation at their isoelectric points.
Methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose come in a range of vis-
cosities. They are the only gums that gel when heated and return to their original
liquid state when cooled. This attribute makes these gums well suited for use in
fried foods in which they improve the adhesion of batter and create a barrier to
oil absorption. It is important that these gums be solubilized at cool temperatures
in order to thermally gel. In bakery products, these gums improve batter consis-
tency via emulsification and strengthen cell walls of gas bubbles formed during
baking. They can also improve the viscosity of creamed soups and sauces and
pie and pastry fillings.
Pectin
Pectins are commercially extracted from citrus peels or apple pomace. Pectin
functions as a gelling agent, thickener, and suspending agent in a number of
products. It consists of repeated D-galacturonic acid units which have side chains
made up of L-arabinose and D-galactose. Methyl groups esterified to a portion
of the carboxyl group on the main chain determine the gelling time, setting condi-
tions, and gel strength of the pectin. The degree of methylation (DM) is the
criterion which classifies pectins into low-methoxyl (LM) or high-methoxyl
(HM) types, depending on whether the DM is less than or greater than 50 percent.
The selection of the pectin type depends on the requirements of the particu-
lar application. LM pectin requires only a controlled amount of calcium ions to
form gels. Gelation can take place across the pH range of 2.9 to 5.5 and soluble
solids content from 10 to 80 percent. The resulting gels are thermoreversible and
are softer and more elastic than those from HM pectins. Alternatively, HM pectins
are dependent upon acidic conditions (pH 2.0 to 3.5) and a soluble solid level
of 55 percent or greater for gelation. Commercially, HM pectins are further classi-
fied as slow-, medium-, or rapid-set, referring to the relative speed of gelation.
Rapid-set pectins have a DM of around 75 percent while slow-set pectins have
a DM of about 60 percent. Generally, slow-set pectins are used in confections,
and rapid-set pectins in specialized applications such as in ensuring a uniform
distribution of fruit particles in jams.
Pectins are used in a variety of food applications. Pectins are frequently
used in jams, preserves, confections, barbecue sauces, processed tomato products,
carbonated beverages, and fruit toppings. Small amounts of LM pectin improve
the texture of yogurt. HM pectins are used in fruit drink concentrates and powder
to stabilize oil emulsions, suspend fruit particles, and to provide a natural mouth-
feel.
SELECTED HYDROCOLLOID APPLICATIONS

Dietary Fiber Supplements in Beverages
Hydrocolloids with relatively low viscosities such as gum arabic and low viscos-
ity grades of methylcellulose have application as dietary fiber supplements in
beverages and soups. In contrast, moderate to high viscosity gums, which in
350 Dreher
cludes most gums, will thicken or gel and insoluble fibers such as brans will
settle out or, if suspended, add an undesirable grittiness. Low viscosity hydrocol-
loids can become fully integrated into beverage or soup formulations in signifi-
cant levels with only a small increase in viscosity. Gum arabic is especially suited
for use as a direct fiber additive to liquid foods. Even at a 10 percent level, gum
arabic does not increase viscosity above 20 cps. Beverages containing up to 3
grams gum arabic per 8 fluid ounce serving were equivalent to control beverages
in taste and texture (Andon, 1987).
Reduced-Fat Foods
Today’s consumers are more aware of the nutritional value of the foods they eat.
Although Americans have a growing preference for less fat in their food, they
do not want to compromise organoleptic properties such as mouthfeel or taste.
Hydrocolloids are ideally suited for the production of fine emulsions and fat-like
systems. Moderate levels of hydrocolloids sequester larger amounts of water
while maintaining fat-like texture in some fat-containing foods such as salad
dressings, ground meat, processed cheese, and frozen desserts. For example, the
use of gums to reduce the fat content in processed cheese spreads has been exten-
sively studied (Brummel and Lee, 1990). Aqueous dispersions of gums have been
shown to replace up to 50 percent of the fat, relative to the control cheese spread
containing 25 percent fat, by increasing the moisture proportionally. Additionally,
the addition of hydrocolloids to the formulation of fried snacks may help repel
oil uptake during frying.
BAKERY PRODUCT APPLICATIONS

Structure Enhancer in Bread Products
Methylcellulose has an ability to improve the structure of bakery products which
makes it a gluten replacer or enhancer (Bell, 1990). Methylcellulose results in
improved dough strength and loaf volume, softness, and exterior and interior
appearance scores of whole wheat bread and roll formulations. It gives bread
formulations several unique properties including enhanced interfacial activity
within the dough system and increased dough viscosity during baking. During
dough proofing, the improved interfacial activity provides stability to the gas
cells during expansion during fermentation. This translates into dough better able
to sustain mechanical abuses caused by conveyors and more able to resist other
stresses, like changing temperatures and humidity, caused by the dynamic envi-
ronmental conditions of automated baking processing lines. During baking, as
the temperature of the dough rises in the oven, a point is reached where the
polymer molecules no longer bond directly to water and instead interact with
one another to form a temporary network (thermal gelation). This network serves
to increase viscosity and strengthens the boundaries of the expanding cells in the
dough, reducing gas loss, and protecting the dough from losing volume. This
thermal gel reverts to its previous form upon cooling after baking. The optimal
results in whole wheat bread are obtained with at least 2 percent methylcellulose
(based on flour weight).
Bread Staling
Wheat bread supplemented with soluble pentosans has a reduced rate of staling.
Bread slices containing 1.5 to 3.0 percent soluble pentosans isolated from rye
and stored for 6 days at 20°C have less staling than controls as measured by
compression analysis. Bread staling is correlated with increasing force necessary
to reach crumb depression; breads supplemented with 1.5 to 3.0 percent soluble
pentosans have reduced crumb depression. The soluble pentosans appear to re-
duce the rate of starch retrogradation (staling). Breads with soluble pentosans
maintain their freshness and good sensory properties much better than breads
without these pentosans.
COMMON DIETARY FIBER COMPONENTS AND

SOURCES
Numerous sources of dietary fibers are commercially available as supplements
for use in foods such as bakery goods. Unfortunately, many of these sources
result in gritty textures and degradation in functional properties when they are
added to foods. One of the reasons for these functional problems is that these
fiber sources tend to hydrate more completely on the particle surface than the
particle interior, reducing the extent to which the particle can soften and swell in
food systems such as dough and cake mixes. However, many of these functional
problems can be overcome by modifying the source with chemical or physical
treatments, selecting the appropriate source for a specific application, using the
isolated fiber components, or blending different sources. Care must be taken to
balance product functionality with potential health benefit. For example, oat hulls
can be added to foods at high levels to add bulk and reduce calories but oat hulls
contain no soluble beta-glucan that is needed to reduce the risk of coronary heart
disease.
Cellulose
Powdered Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant source of complex carbohydrate in the world.
Powdered cellulose is a beta-1,4-glucan (not to be confused with alpha-1,4-glu-
can, which is common starch) (Ang and Miller, 1991). Where starch is digestible
352 Dreher
in the human digestive tract, powdered cellulose, which is over 99 percent total
dietary fiber, is considered to be non-caloric. Powdered cellulose is ‘‘generally
recognized as safe’’ (GRAS) by the FDA. Since cellulose is a fiber, its physical
dimensions are commonly expressed as fiber lengths. Although it has an approxi-
mate diameter of 17 microns its length is dependent upon the manufacturing
process. Commercial forms of powdered cellulose for food applications are
readily available in a variety of fiber lengths, ranging from about 22 to 290 mi-
crons. The bulk volumes for this ingredient vary from about 2 to 6 cm 3 /gram.
Powdered cellulose is widely used as a non-caloric bulking agent in reduced
calorie foods (Ang and Miller, 1991). Since water and oil also play important
roles in these products, the physicochemical properties of powdered cellulose
and their relationship to these components have been extensively studied. The
water binding capacity (WBC) of powdered cellulose is directly related to its
average fiber length: WBC increases as the fiber length increases. Depending on
fiber length powdered cellulose can retain about 3.5 to 10 times its weight in
water. The WBC of cellulose with fiber lengths greater than 100 microns does
not vary as much as those with fiber lengths between 35 and 100 microns. Below
35 microns WBC is found to be less dependent on fiber length. The WBC of
powdered cellulose is similar to that of wheat bran. For most practical purposes
pH and temperature do not significantly alter the WBC of powdered cellulose.
A similar pattern is obtained when vegetable oil is substituted for water. However,
the retention capacities for the oil are generally slightly lower than that of water.
Powdered cellulose with fiber lengths between 22 to 290 microns retained 2.5
to 85 times its weight of vegetable oil. With the exception of cellulose fibers
greater in length than 110 microns, powdered cellulose does not possess thick-
ening properties when suspended in water. It is generally observed that upon
sitting without agitation, powdered cellulose fibers settle out of suspension. It is
also observed that the use of other stabilizers is needed to hold these fibers in
suspension for any length of time. The average cellulose fiber length has a sig-
nificant impact on food application. Cellulose fibers with relatively short lengths
of about 50 microns or less have good functionality as bulking agents or dietary
fiber supplements. The smallest cellulose fibers with a length of 22 microns are
used as anti-caking agents. Larger cellulose fibers of 120 microns or more are
used to prevent the separation of fat and water in canned meat products.
Powdered cellulose has been shown to improve the functionality of cakes
(Ang and Miller, 1991). One use of powdered cellulose has been to improve
specific cake volume. In most cake batters, foams are formed by dispersion of
air by mixing. However, the foams are thermodynamically unstable. Foam stabil-
ity can be enhanced by increasing the viscosity of the batter or by introducing
fine particulate mater. Cellulose fibers of 110 microns can function in both these
ways. The addition of cellulose fiber to yellow layer, devil’s food and angel food
cakes has been shown to increase cake volume. Although 1 percent cellulose did
not affect the volume of devil’s food cake, additions of higher levels up to 4
percent increased cake volume significantly. It has been demonstrated that the
shrinkage commonly experienced when cakes cool after the baking process is
minimized in cakes with cellulose, suggesting that powdered cellulose may im-
part dimensional stability to baked products. Another use for powdered cellulose,
particularly the 110 micron material, has been to improve cake texture. Compres-
sion force, a measure of firmness, increases with the addition of cellulose. Cellu-
lose supplemented cakes (at the 2 to 4 percent level) tend to be stronger structur-
ally, making them spongier and more highly rated by taste testers compared to
controls. A possible explanation of the increased strength is possibly related to
the formation of a network of cellulose fibers within the cake interior. This may
be advantageous to the baking industry because of better handling properties,
less loss from breakage, and improved product appearance.
Powdered cellulose can help reduce the fat absorption of some fried foods
(Ang and Miller, 1991). When powdered cellulose is added to batter or breading
coatings at the 1 percent level, the fat content of these batters is significantly
(P ⬍ 0.05) lower after frying compared to controls. At the same time their mois-
ture contents are increased. These observations are independent of the frying
medium used, the batter formulation, or the type of food. Additionally, powdered
cellulose has been shown to reduce the fat content of cake-type doughnuts. The
data indicates that the level of cellulose added to the doughnut formulation is
inversely related to the fat content. For example, 1 to 3 percent cellulose added
to doughnuts results in a 10 to 21 percent decrease in fat content. As with the
batters, the moisture content of the doughnuts is increased by 3 to 12 percent.
Doughnuts with cellulose also appear to have improvement in appearance, more
volume, and better pliability (less breakage during handling) than those without
cellulose. The color is more uniform and lighter because powdered cellulose does
not undergo nonenzymic browning. Sensory evaluations with untrained taste pan-
els could not detect any significant differences from the control in the eating
qualities of doughnuts containing 1 and 2 percent cellulose; the panelists tended to
prefer the cellulose doughnuts because of their lighter color and reduced oiliness.
Microcrystalline Cellulose
Microcrystalline cellulose is acid hydrolyzed cellulose (Dreher, 1987; McGinley,
1991). It is purified, partially depolymerized cellulose prepared by treating alpha-
cellulose, obtained as a pulp from fibrous plant materials, with mineral acids.
Microcrystalline cellulose occurs as a fine, white, odorless, soft, crystalline pow-
der which is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. It is the nonfibrous
form of cellulose with particles typically ranging in size from 0.2 to 25 microns.
354 Dreher
Microcrystalline cellulose is ‘‘generally recognized as safe’’ (GRAS) by experts

in accordance with Food and Drug regulations and it can be labeled as cellulose
gel.
The powdered microcrystalline cellulose products are usually spray-dried
to create particles that are aggregates of microcrystals with unique physical prop-
erties (FMC Corporation, 1985; Dreher, 1987). The spray-dried particles tend to
be very porous, deformable, and compressible. Cellulose gels have smaller fiber
particle size (100 microns or less) than most powdered celluloses (300 microns
or less). Particle size appears to have little effect on the density, specific volume,
or WBC within the range of 20 to 50 microns. Some cellulose gels are spherical
in shape that may provide better organoleptic acceptance when added to products
at high levels compared to powered cellulose. The customary applications of
powdered MCC is foods are as anti-caking agents, extrusion aids, bulking agents,
non-nutritive sources of dietary fiber, and flavor carriers. They have a wide range
of food applications (Brys and Zabik, 1976; Ferguson and Malick, 1983; Dreher,
1987).
Colloidal microcrystalline cellulose is a mixture of powdered microcrystal-
line cellulose (cellulose gel) and sodium carboxymethylcellulose (cellulose gum)
(FMC Corporation, 1985). Cellulose gum is usually between 8.5 to 15 percent
(w/w) of the colloidal microcrystalline cellulose. The colloidal material can be
dispersed in water to form a suspendable, insoluble network of cellulose crystalli-
tes with highly functional properties. The bulk-dried grades required homogeni-
zation to disperse the microcrystals and, therefore, are generally used in whipped
toppings and frozen desserts. The spray-dried grades require shear from a high-
speed mixer for proper dispersion. These grades of cellulose are useful in a variety
of food systems such as: fat-reduced foods, calorie-controlled foods, microwaved
foods, bakery products, batters, breadings, beverages, canned foods, confections,
dairy products, dry mixes, formed foods, frozen desserts, salad dressings, sauces,
and whipped toppings.
When colloidal cellulose gel products are properly dispersed, the cellulose
crystallites set up a network with particles less than 0.2 microns. These cellulose
networks are responsible for the unique functional properties because they can
be dispersed in water to form an aqueous hydrocolloid. The network is held
together by weak hydrogen bonds which continue to form over time. Viscosity
continues to increase over a 24-hour period. An aqueous hydrocolloid of cellulose
gel differs from a gum solution because it binds water to a much lesser extent;
the primary mechanism for controlling moisture flow is the cellulose network
acting as a physical barrier. The gel network has a variety of important functional
properties: (1) its thixotropic, viscosity decreases with shear and once the shear
is removed the gel reforms with minimal loss in viscosity; (2) it is stable over
a wide range of temperatures and pH—temperature and pH changes have little
effect on functionality and viscosity of dispersions; (3) it thickens with clean
mouthfeel that is non-greasy, non-stringy with some lubricity, and it does not
mask flavors; and (4) it is noncaloric and provides dietary fiber.
Colloidal cellulose gel products have many functions in foods (FMC Cor-
poration, 1985). First, they are premier foam stabilizers because the gel network
acts as a physical barrier to hold air cells in suspension and thicken the water
phase between air bubbles. This is effective in frozen desserts and whipped top-
pings to stabilize foam and improve overrun control. Second, they increase the
viscosity of sugar solutions at concentrations of less than 1 percent. Reduced
calorie, pourable syrups are developed by the use of this property. Third, they
are used to extend and improve the properties of starch. A blend of 3 to 4 parts
starch to 1 part colloidal cellulose can reduce the amount of starch thickener
required by up to 25 percent. Fourth, they control ice crystal growth in frozen
foods because the gel network provides a flexible stabilizing system that allows
for the reabsorption of water and redispersion of components during the thaw
cycle. Finally, they have the ability to improve the clingability (flow control) of
starch sauces.
Colloidal cellulose gel products can be used as fat mimetics (McGinley,
1991; Penichter and McGinley, 1991). Cellulose gels simulate many of the rheo-
logical properties of oil-in-water emulsions without contributing calories. Typical
use levels are from 0.75 to 2.5 percent in ice cream/frozen desserts, salad dress-
ings, whipped toppings, icings, and puddings. A basic emulsion containing 60
percent soybean oil has similar rheological properties and stability characteristics
as a 20 percent soybean oil emulsion containing 1 percent colloidal gel. They
can reduce the fat and calorie content of extruded snacks such as cheese flavored
puffed corn (Mottur and Glass, 1985).
Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose (sometimes called pentosans) consists of a diverse variety of poly-
mers, varying in composition from a simple sugar such as is found in beta-glucans
to polymers that may contain pentoses, hexoses, side chains, proteins, and pheno-
lics (Hoseney, 1986; Dreher, 1987). Sugars that are often reported to be constit-
uents of hemicelluloses include D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, D-glucose,
D-glucuronic acid, and 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acids. Taken together they en-
compass the noncellulosic polysaccharides. They are widely distributed in plants
and are generally thought to make up part of the cell wall and the cementing
materials that holds cells together. Hemicelluloses are usually insoluble, but they
can also be soluble. Purified hemicelluloses are not presently readily available
for commercial food uses. Refined dry milled corn bran is, however, a very con-
centrated source of hemicellulose; this bran contains about 90 percent total di-
etary fiber and as much as 70 percent of that can be hemicellulose.
Insoluble hemicellulose is associated with a positive effect on cake and
cookie functional properties. Jeltema and Zabik (1979) used fiber components to
356 Dreher
partially predict the following parameters of cake quality: tenderness, volume,

cell size, cell wall thickness, and grain. Hemicelluloses have the largest effect
on cake quality; insoluble hemicellulose is directly related to good cake quality
whereas soluble hemicellulose is associated with poor cake quality. Jeltema and
coworkers (1983) used fiber components to partially predict the following param-
eters of cookie quality: toughness, top grain, moisture, shape, cell distribution,
cell size and spread. Insoluble hemicellulose is associated with improvements in
cookie quality attributes such as reduced toughness and increased moistness. Fur-
ther, insoluble hemicelluloses restrict cookie spread whereas soluble hemicellu-
lose enhances cookie spread.
The role of pentosans in the formation and properties of dough has been
the subject of many investigations (D’Appolonia and Gilles, 1971; Kim and
D’Appolonia, 1977; Hoseney, 1984; Amado and Neukom, 1985; Meuser and
Suckow, 1986; Kuhn and Grosch, 1989; Michniewicz et al., 1991). Because of
their high water binding capacity, pentosans strongly influence the breadmaking
properties of cereal flours. The water-insoluble pentosans make up about 2.4
percent of the wheat endosperm. The functional effect of pentosans on wheat
dough and bread seems to depend on the properties of the base flour (Jelaca and
Hlynka, 1972; and Michniewicz et al., 1991). One study shows that the addition
of 2% insoluble endosperm pentosans to relatively weak Belgian wheat bread
formulations can increase the loaf volume by 30 to 45 percent. However, the
additions of insoluble pentosans to flours typically used in the United States do
not tend to be as effective. Insoluble pentosans may also improve bread shelf
life (Kim and D’Appolonia, 1977). Pentosans have been shown to reduce bread
staling rate; insoluble pentosans are more effective than soluble pentosans.
Beta-Glucan
Beta-glucan is a cell wall polysaccharide which is present in oats and barley in
much greater concentration than in other grains (Marlett, 1993). The typical range
of beta-glucan in oat bran is from 5.5 to 9.0 percent and in barley bran from 4.0
to 8.5 percent; however, cultivars with higher beta-glucan are in development.
Newman and coworkers (1990) found that up to about two-thirds of the barley
beta-glucan is water-soluble. Marlett (1991) found that processing barley bran
flour into cereal increased beta-glucan solubility to 90 percent. Beta-glucans con-
sist of linear, unbranched polysaccharides composed of 1,4-beta-glucan units and
1,3-beta-glucan units found in endosperm cell walls. The beta-glucan molecule
consists of 1,4 linkages occurring in groups of 2 to 4 units linked by single 1,3
linkages. The resulting structure consists mainly of beta-1,3-linked cellotriosyl
and cellotetraosyl units. Oat and barley beta-glucans are generally categorized
as structurally similar (Wood, 1991; Wood, 1993). Thus, oat and barley beta-
glucan tend to produce similar high viscous aqueous solution.
Fibercel was developed by Alpha-Beta Technology, Inc., in Worcester,

Massachusetts as a concentrated source of beta-glucan (Ostroff et al., 1990). Fi-
bercel is a highly purified, beta-glucan fiber prepared from food-grade yeast,
such as brewer’s or baker’s yeast. Beta-glucan is a major structural component
of the yeast cell wall. Fibercel consists of 86 percent beta-glucan, which is over
10 times more beta-glucan than is found in oat bran. Fibercel is formulated by
a patented process (US patent number 4,962,094) as discrete, 2–5 micron beta-
glucan microspheres which readily disperse in liquids and do not gel. Due to
their size and spherical morphology, they impart a smooth, creamy mouthfeel
normally associated with fat. Fibercel can be manufactured with a range of
hydrodynamic properties to optimize its functionality for specific food uses. In
low viscosity liquid systems, such as beverages, 10 grams of Fibercel-M, with
a low hydrodynamic volume (4 g/dl), can be added without any significant
changes in viscosity. Fibercel-B, however, with its higher hydrodynamic vol-
ume, is recommended for semi-liquid formulations such as ice cream, frostings,
and puddings. Fibercel is stable over a wide range of temperatures (⫺80°C to
120°C), unlike microparticulate protein preparations.
Lignin
Lignin is an amorphous, high molecular weight, aromatic polymer composed
of phenylpropane residues which are formed in a matrix type arrangement by
the condensation of three primary phenolic alcohols—coniferyl, sinapyl, and
p-coumaryl alcohols (Dreher, 1987). Lignin is usually associated with mature
plant cells or it is concentrated in plant tissues that have specialized support
functions. Dietary fiber sources vary widely in lignin content; for example, cereal
and oilseed fibers usually have only a few percent lignin, but rice and sunflower
hulls may contain as high as 25 percent lignin.
Lignin is usually not considered to be a functional ingredient. However, it
has been shown to exhibit antioxidant properties in the presence of vegetable oil
(Catignani and Carter, 1982). Experimental evidence indicates that both lignin and
tocopherol have a similar ability to reduce the rate of oxidation as measured by
peroxide value. The chemical structure of lignin precursors is similar to that of many
commonly used antioxidants. The phenolic moiety is believed to interrupt the free-
radical chain of oxidative reactions by contributing hydrogen from the phenolic
hydroxyl groups, themselves forming stable free radicals which do not initiate or
propagate further oxidation of lipids (free-radical terminators) (IFT, 1986).
Resistant Starch
Resistant starch (RS) is known to develop in starchy foods after heating and
during the cooling period. The amount depends mainly on the content of amylose
and water (Rabe, 1994). Cooking and cooling of high amylose corn starch several
358 Dreher
times can result in as much as 60 percent RS. Since bakery products cannot
undergo repeated heating and cooling in a high moisture environment without
excessive texture and flavor problems, the best way to increase RS in bread and
other baked goods is to enrich them with preprocessed high amylose starch. The
RS amount for pasta has been shown to increase from 1.8 percent to 5.0 percent
for cooked pasta (Rabe, 1994). The physiological properties of RS tend to act
like dietary fiber. Commercial concentrated sources of resistant starch are avail-
able with 30 percent total dietary fiber (National Starch and Chemical Company).
Cereal Brans
Cereal brans are one of the most commonly used ingredients for increasing the
dietary fiber content of processed foods. The main reasons for their widespread
usage is: (1) low cost, (2) availability, (3) familiarity, (4) functionality, and (5)
acceptable organoleptic characteristics. The dietary fiber content ranges from
about 16 percent for oat bran to 90 percent for corn bran.
Cereals are the fruits of cultivated grasses belonging to the genus Grami-
neae (Fisher, 1985). The main cereals grown for human food are wheat, corn,
rice, barley, oats, rye, sorghum, and millet. Cereal grains have similar structures
which include a hull (husks) and a kernel (caryopsis). Grains of wheat, rye, corn,
and sorghum are without hulls because the kernel and the hull separate readily
during threshing whereas the grains of oats, rice, and mulch barley retain hulls
after threshing (Fincher and Stone, 1986). The kernel consists of three basic com-
ponents—bran, germ, and endosperm.
Wheat Bran
Wheat bran is the coarse outer layer of the wheat kernel (Vetter and Ranhotra,
1990). It is separated from cleaned and scoured wheat during milling. All wheat
brans are not alike. Bran can be processed from red or white, hard or soft, and
durum wheat. Besides the obvious color difference the bran from white wheat
has a milder flavor than the bran from red wheat. The bran to be used in a specific
application depends on the flavor, color, and appearance desired. The breakfast
cereal industry uses both red and white wheat brans, but the bakery industry
primarily uses red wheat bran. White bran has excellent potential for use in flour
tortillas and pizza doughs.
Saunders (1980) and Posner (1991) have reviewed the morphology and
composition of wheat bran and its milling fractions. The commercial end products
of milling are not pure anatomical parts of the wheat kernel. Each consists of a
mixture of endosperm and the outer fibrous layers of the kernel because when
wheat is milled a break occurs in the endosperm. There are three main bran-
containing fractions: bran, shorts, and red dog. The bran consists mostly of the
nuclear epidermis, seed coat, pericarp, and a small amount of endosperm. It con-
tains about 11 percent of the wheat kernel with an average particle size of over
900 microns. The shorts include the fibrous parts of the bran, endosperm, and
germ. About 12 percent of the wheat kernels end up in the short fraction, with
an average particle size of 500-900 microns. Red dog is actually low-grade flour,
a mixture of endosperm and bran powder taken from the tail of the mill. It ac-
counts for about 3 percent of the kernel with a particle size of 100–300 microns.
The compositions of white and red wheat bran are summarized in Table 4. The
wheat bran dietary fiber content may also be concentrated by further processing.
A concentrated wheat bran between 60 and 80% dietary fiber can be produced
by air classification (Posner, 1991) and/or enzyme-hydrolysis.
Grinding of wheat bran reduced the average particle size and increases the
surface area which has a significant impact on its food functionality and its use-
fulness as a laxative. The main property affected is water binding capacity
(WBC). Particle reduction causes the collapse of the fiber matrix of wheat bran
which changes the WBC of wheat bran. In coarse wheat bran, water entrapped
in the fiber matrix has an important influence on WBC. The finely ground wheat
bran is less porous and unable to absorb as much water as the course bran which
results in a lower WBC (Mongeau and Brassard, 1982).
Wheat bran has been shown to be detrimental to bread loaf volume (Pomer-
anz, 1977; Pomeranz et al., 1977; Shogren et al., 1981; Rogers and Hoseney,
1982; Finney et al., 1985; Lai et al., 1989). There are reports that wheat bran
particle size affects bread quality. Finer wheat bran tends to be associated with
better loaf volume and this appears to be related to dough water absorption prop-
erties. The detrimental effects of wheat bran on bread volume can be partially
overcome by the addition of water and certain ingredients (Lai et al., 1989). The
reduction in loaf volume due to the addition of wheat bran can be partially re-
versed by adding more water to the formulation or by soaking the bran in water
TABLE 4 AACC Certified Wheat Bran

Soft White Hard Red
Moisture 6.4% 9.7%
Protein (N ⫻ 6.31) 16.4% 16.0%
Fat 6.8% 5.9%
Ash 6.5% 6.1%
Total Dietary Fiber 44.5% 42.7%
Lignin — 2.0%
Pectin 2.3% 1.6%
Pentosans — 23.9%
Cellulose — 15.2%
Starch 11.1% 16.2%
Water Binding Capacity 1.1 g/g 4.5 g/g
360 Dreher
prior to use. Other ingredients are also useful in improving loaf volume. The
addition of shortening and/or surfactants (e.g., sodium stearoyl lactylate) helps
to increase the loaf volume of bran supplemented breads.
Corn Bran
There are two types of corn milling processes (Hoseney, 1986). Dry milling pri-
marily separates the anatomical parts of the corn: bran, germ, and endosperm.
Wet milling separates corn into its chemical constituents: starch, protein, oil, and
fiber. Although most corn is processed by wet milling, dry milling is typically
used for the production of corn bran for human consumption (Burge and Duen-
sing, 1989). Because of density differences between germ and bran, raw corn
bran can be aspirated from the bran/germ stream for further refining, concentrat-
ing, and sizing. This results in a very high fiber corn bran product with about 85
percent or more dietary fiber which is about 65 percent hemicellulose and 20
percent cellulose. Its calorie content is low at about 0.5 kcal/g. Corn bran exhibits
a water binding capacity of about 2.4 to 3.7 g/g depending on the particle size
and dietary fiber content. This product comes in various particle sizes, from fine
to coarse, as needed for a variety of specific food applications.
Rice Bran
Rice is in the form of paddy (where the kernel is fully enveloped by the rice
hull) when harvested from the field (Saunders, 1990). After being dried, the first
stage in milling is removal of the hull, yielding brown rice. In the second state,
the outer brown layer is removed from the brown rice kernel by abrasive milling
operation to yield the familiar white rice. The separated brown layer is designated
rice bran, which includes the germ in the United States. Under normal milling
conditions, when brown rice is milled to white rice, the oil in the bran and a
potent lipase also in the bran come into contact, resulting in rapid degradation
of the oil. The bran thus produced is unpalatable and only fit as a feedstuff.
However, if the bran is subjected to a short-term high temperature heat treatment
the lipase activity is destroyed and a stabilized bran is produced. The composi-
tions of rice brans are summarized in Table 5.
Rice bran has a number of unique properties (Saunders, 1990). Rice bran
protein is of relatively high nutritional value. Protein efficiency ratio values re-
ported for bran generally range from 1.6 to 1.9 compared to casein value of 2.5.
Digestibility of protein in rice bran is about 75 percent. The bran usually contains
16–22 percent oil, although this value is higher in parboiled bran due to the
absence of broken starch fragments. The three major fatty acids in rice bran are
palmitic, oleic, and linoleic and they make up more than 90 percent of the total
fatty acids. Rice bran oils contain 3–4 percent waxes and about 4 percent unsa-
ponifiable lipids. Rice bran oil has a higher content of unsaponifiable material
TABLE 5 Typical composition of rice bran

Stabilized Parboiled
Rice Rice
Atribute Bran Bran
Moisture 8–12% 7–9%
Protein 12–16% 14–20%
Fat 16–22% 23–32%
Ash 7–10% 8–13%
Total Dietary Fiber 20–25% 31–33%
Soluble Dietary Fiber 2–3% 2–3%
Calories/g 3.2 3.5
From Saunders (1990).
than other vegetable oils. The unsaponifiable fraction consists of compounds such
as oryzanols, beta-sitosterol, and tocopherols, which may have cholesterol-low-
ering activity. The major carbohydrates in commercial rice bran are cellulose,
hemicellulose, and starch. Starch is not present in the outer pericarp layers, but
because of endosperm breakage during milling it appears in the bran. The quantity
varies according to the amount of breakage and degree of milling, but values of
10–20 percent are typical. Hemicellulose and cellulose have been reported to
comprise 8.7–11.4 percent and 9.6–12.8 percent of the bran. Beta-glucans in the
bran are present at levels of less than 1 percent.
The functional properties of rice bran are compatible with a wide variety
of food uses (Barber and Benedito de Barber, 1980; Saunders, 1990). The water
and oil absorption capacities are 2.0 and 1.5 g/g, respectively. Bran from par-
boiled food-grade rice bran is normally finely granulated, light tan in color, and
possesses a relatively bland flavor with a nutty, toasted overtone. Its applications
include use in baked goods, breads, cookies, breakfast cereals, granola-type bars,
snacks, muffins, many other product. Parboiled rice bran appears to be a good
dietary fiber supplement for bakery products (Skurray et al., 1986).
Barley Bran
Most barley, like rice and oats, is usually harvested with the hull intact, but some
hull-less varieties are also available. Barley bran from hull varieties is obtained
by pearling, which is the process of cutting away the outer layers of the barley
with an abrasive surface. Barley bran from hull-less varieties is obtained by tradi-
tional milling techniques. Most commercially available barley bran flour is pro-
duced from brewers’ grain by drying, milling, and fractionation procedures to
produce flours that are tan, bland, and have a mild roasted grain flavor. The
physical properties of barley bran are suitable for a number of food uses. Breads
with barley bran flour have significantly increased dietary fiber and reduced calo-
362 Dreher
ries with little change in loaf volume, texture and flavor according to Chaudhary
and Weber (1990).
Barley, like oats, has much greater concentrations of betaglucan in the cell
wall than other cereal grains (Marlett, 1993). Barley flour contains between 3.7
and 8.2 percent beta-glucan. Newman and coworkers (1990) found that 55 to 63
percent of the beta-glucan in typical barley cultivars is soluble. Henry (1985)
shows that barley contains more soluble beta-glucan than oats. Hull-less barley
cultivars can have up to 16 percent beta-glucan (Newman et al., 1989).
Oat Bran
Oat bran is produced by grinding clean oat groats or rolled oats and separating
the resulting oat flour by sieving, bolting, and/or other suitable means into frac-
tions such as the oat bran fraction, which should not be more than 50 percent of
the starting material (Committee on Oat Bran, 1989). Oat bran has a total dietary
fiber content of at least 16.0 percent and at least one-third of the fiber consists
of the soluble fiber beta-glucan. Oat bran must contain at least 5.5 percent total
beta-glucan. Beta-glucans of the oat cell walls are composed of linear polysaccha-
rides chains (Inglett, 1991). Their structural components are glucose units con-
nected with beta-(1-3) and beta-(1-4) linkages. It has been reported that the oat
beta-glucan consists of about 70 percent of (1-4)-linked and about 30 percent of
the (1-3)-linked beta-D-glucosyl residues.
Water binding capacity (WBC) of oat bran is an important determinant of
its functionality in foods. The processing of oat groats differs from the processing
of other cereals (Cadden, 1987). Oat groats must first be steam-treated and kiln-
dried to inactivate the lipase enzymes present in the bran layers of the groat.
Layers of the plant cell wall matrix of commercial oat brans are usually collapsed
making absorption (taking water through pores) ineffective. This makes adsorp-
tion (surface binding of water) more important. The effect of oat bran particle
size on WBC is demonstrated in Table 6. Since oat bran has a collapsed fiber
TABLE 6 Effect of bran particle size on physical properties and water

binding capacity (WBC) a
Particle Specific
Size Volume WBC
Bran Source (microns) (cc/g) (ml/g)
Oat Bran Coarse 624 0.77 2.1
Fine 256 0.77 3.3
Wheat Bran Coarse 804 0.70 4.0
Fine 308 0.66 2.4
a
Adapted from Cadden (1987)
matrix, the grinding of oat bran, which increases surface area, has a major impact
on increasing WBC. The effect of oat bran particle size on bread loaf volume
has been studied by Krishnan et al. (1987). The finer the oat bran particle size
the lower the bread volume. This effect appears to be related to WBC.
Krishnan and coworkers (1987) studied the impact of oat bran on bread
properties. The effect of oat bran (at 10–15 percent and several granulations) on
dough properties and bread quality were examined. The oat bran doughs had
increased absorption as bran levels were increased and particle size was reduced.
Breads with 10 percent substitution of the bran had better loaf volume, grain,
and texture than the 15 percent bran bread. Other baked products such as cookies
and muffins also show excellent potential for inclusion of oat bran as an ingredi-
ent (Seibert, 1987). Further, finely grounded oat bran shows potential as a carrier
and dispersant, such as in seasoning mixes.
Oatrim is produced by a process that involves the conversion of starch in
oat flour or bran to maltodextrins using alpha-amylase for starch liquefaction
(Inglett, 1991). After starch liquefaction is complete, the enzyme is inactivated
and the soluble materials containing the maltodextrin and beta-glucan are sepa-
rated from the insoluble components by centrifugation. Oatrim has functional
properties that make it uniquely suitable as a fat substitute. Oatrim containing
maltodextrins with a low dextrose equivalent has the most suitable fat substitute
properties. Oatrim can be made with various beta-glucan contents from 1 to 15
percent depending upon the functional and nutritional requirements. Oatrim
comes in three forms: Oatrim-1, -5, and -10. The number after the Oatrim refers
to the percent of beta-glucan present on a dry weight basis (Oatrim-1, Oatrim-
5, Oatrim-10 are prepared from debranned oat flour, whole oat flour, and oat
bran, respectively). Dr. George Inglett, USDA Agricultural Research Service,
developed Oatrim. This technology was licensed by two corporations, ConAgra
and Rhone-Poulene, in 1990.
TREATMENTS TO IMPROVE FIBER FUNCTIONALITY

AND UNIQUE FIBER SOURCES
Alkaline Hydrogen Peroxide (AHP) Treatment
Partial delignification of lignocellulose by alkaline hydrogen peroxide treatment
produces highly water absorbent, swellable, cellulosic products that can be used
at high levels in food products such as bakery goods (Gould, 1987; Gould and
Dexter, 1988). This treatment solubilizes a portion of the lignin present in the
lignocellulosic matrix, leaving a cell wall material with higher water absorbency
and improved softening and swelling characteristics.
Lignocellulosic materials suspended in an alkaline hydrogen peroxide
aqueous solution have a special ability to solubilize lignin and conserve other
364 Dreher
fiber components such as hemicellulose. Typically between 40 and 60 percent

of the original lignin content of the fiber is removed and solubilized. Upon com-
pletion of the reaction, the partially delignified fiber can be recovered by certrifu-
gation, washed, and dried. As compared with the original substrate, the processed
material exhibits a significant increase in water absorbency. The degree of water
absorbency depends on the processing conditions. This suggests two possible
mechanisms.
1. The selective removal of only a portion of the lignin by this process

produces a highly porous cell wall matrix that allows increased hydra-
tion of the polysaccharides normally shielded by lignin. Complete de-
lignification, which occurs in the production of cellulose, allows for
the increased association of cellulose chains into highly crystalline
structures that are resistant to internal hydration. In other words, if a
little delignification is good, more is not better.
2. In the AHP-treated material, there is a decreased in the proportion of
total crystalline cellulose. It is interesting to note that this reduction in
cellulose crystallinity is irreversible and does not change after drying.
This process appears to disrupt the hydrogen bonding pattern between
the chains which maintains a highly open structure and allows the free
hydroxyl groups to become moe available for binding to water mole-
cules.
Regardless of the mechanism or combination of mechanisms, the increased inter-

nal hydration of these fibers produces a less gritty particle with enhanced interac-
tions between the fiber polysaccharides and starch/gluten.
These AHP-treated fibers have been used as a high-fiber non-caloric flour
substitute for use in baked goods (Jasberg et al., 1987). Mixograph peak heights
for bread doughs increased when AHP-treated fibers replaced up to 30 percent
of the flour, whereas untreated materials and purified cellulose decreased peak
height. Loaf volumes at the 30 percent replacement level, without added gluten,
were comparable to the controls. AHP-treated fibers could replace up to 40 per-
cent of the flour in cakes without reducing baked volume or introducing gritty
texture or off-flavors.
Extrusion Modification
Bran is subjected to a high temperature, high shear extrusion in a counter-rotating
twin screw extruder, which modifies the structure of the bran ot make it more
readily millable (Fulgar and Bradbury, 1985). additionally, the invention allows
the naturally present starch to coat the lignocellulosic bran material during the
extrusion process. After milling, the modified bran has an acceptable mouthfeel
with an absence of grittiness, higher water binding capacity, and textural proper-
ties that are compatible with a wide variety of food products.
Encapsulation
Hutchinson and Swanson (1985) coated cellulose powder with soluble fiber to
produce a low calorie base foold ingredient. The gum coating imparts to the
fibrous cellulose particles a smooth texture that is more pleasant to the mouth
and easier to chew and swallow than the unmodified cellulose. The gum coating
greatly reduces the dry and gritty surface testure usually associated with pow-
dered cellulose. Specifically, the powdered cellulose, wwith an average particle
lenght of less than 75 microns, needs to be coated with between 2 and 15 percent
soluble fiber for this to be effective (4 percent glycerol is required for optimal
fiber characteristics).
Morley and Sharma (1986) coated ceral bran with soluble fiber to produce
an improved low calorie food ingredient. The process works best with refined
bran that has been chemically and/or enzymatically purified to provide a concen-
trated source of insoluble fiber. This refined fiber is then coated with 1.5 to 8.0
percent soluble fiber (dry weight basis) to provide a smooth, non-fibrous texture
and mouthfeel.
Enzymatic Modification
Enzymatic modification of dietary fiber may improve sensory properites due to
a change in chemical composition and physical properties (Caprez et al., 1987).
Enzymatic treatments lead to an increase in soluble fiber content. The modified
fiber sources show reduced wter binding capacity, which is advantageous for
technology purposes. Also, the enzymatically treated fibers have a softer texture,
which facilitates their use in food products.
Extrusion processing conditions have been shown to increase the dietary
fiber content of wheat flour (Theander, 1987). During the extrusion process there
tends to be an increse in both soluble and insoluble glucans and soluble pentosans.
A portion of the insoluble glucans might be ‘‘resistant starch,’’ but the soluble
glucans probably represent chemically modified starch. klason lignin increased
directly with increased extrusion temperature.
CONCLUSIONS
The comsumer interest in fiber rich foods is expected to grow because of its
increased visibility on food labels an s association with reduced chronic disease
risk and enhanced weight maintenance. Dietary fiber is found in a wide array of
foods such as vegetables, fruits, and cereal grains which should help increase the
366 Dreher
level of American comsumption which is about half the recommended intake for
optimal health.
REFERENCES
Amado, R., and Neukom, H. 1985. Minor constituents of wheat flour: the pentosans.
American Association of Cereal Cheimists. 1987. Dietary fiber guide. Cereal Foods World.
32(8): 555–570.
Anderson, J. W. and Bridges, S. R. 1988. Dietary fiber content of selected foods. Am. J.
Clinl. Nutr. 47:440–447.
Andon, S. A. 1987. Application of soluble fiber. Food Technology. 41(1);74–75.
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25
Chemical and Physical Modifications
of Dietary Fiber
MARY ELLEN CAMIRE

University of Maine, Orono, Maine
INTRODUCTION
The importance of dietary fiber to human nutrition and food processing is well-
known, but less is understood of the effects of common food processing tech-
niques on the properties of fiber molecules. Removal of native lipids, proteins
and starches from a fiber-rich food changes hydration characteristics. Milling
modifies surface properties, with important nutritional implications. Processes
involving moist heat may leach soluble fiber; canning produces the most severe
changes. Extrusion cooking fragments carbohydrates into smaller molecules that
may recombine in unique ways. New food processing methods may have yet
other effects on dietary fiber molecules.
For many years the complex of compounds known as dietary fiber was
considered to be roughage: of little importance to humans except for laxative
effects. Since the 1970s the value of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums and
lignin to human health has become apparent. Numerous studies have examined
the effects of fiber on the prevention of cancer (1,2), heart disease (3,4), and
other disorders. Some studies have had contradictory findings. While some of
373
374 Camire
the disagreement may be attributable to differences in definitions of dietary fiber,

changes in the chemical and physical structure of fiber constituents due to pro-
cessing may have had profound influences on nutritional properties (5). Epidemi-
ological studies often fail to consider food preparation techniques in the analysis
of data. Stir-frying used in Asia should have less severe effects on the fiber in
vegetables than would boiling, which is used extensively in Europe and the
United States to cook vegetables. Nutrient content data such as the United States
Department of Agriculture’s Handbook 8 contain limited information on the dif-
ferences in fiber due to common food preparation techniques. This chapter will
summarize information on reported changes to the molecular structure of fiber
and subsequent nutritional and functional changes.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING
Manufacturers process fiber-rich materials into concentrated forms of fiber often
as a by-product of some other food operation. Cereal brans, soy fiber (bran and
cotyledon), apple fiber, and many other products were once part of the
wastestream from food processing operations. Isolated, concentrated fiber has
different physical and nutritional properties from the parent material. Vitamins,
minerals and phytochemicals are removed along with protein, lipid, and starch,
depending upon the process used. Rice bran, for example, may contain tocotrie-
nols that are beneficial for cardiovascular health. Defatted rice bran may have
substantial amounts of these compounds removed, thereby altering potential
health benefits. Removal of other macromolecules could alter water-binding
properties. Psyllium gum supplements proved hazardous when not ingested with
sufficient liquid, since an insoluble mass formed, preventing passage through the
gastrointestinal tract. Purified fiber supplements also exhibited different in vitro
fermentabilities (6). Fermentation of pectin, tragacanth gum, psyllium, guar gum,
soy fiber (type not available) produced significantly greater amounts of short-
chain fatty acids and methane than did cellulose fermentation. Hydrogen produc-
tion in the study was variable.
Fiber Separation Techniques

Removal of the fiber-rich component from the rest of the food material signifi-
cantly changes the dietary fiber content of the materials. Brans typically are richer
in cellulose and lignin, while cereal endosperm and legume cotyledon tissue con-
tain a greater proportion of water-soluble molecules, principally hemicelluloses.
Milling grain removes bran from endosperm, resulting in a product with less
insoluble fiber and possibly total fiber. This physical treatment is not expected
Modification of Dietary Fiber 375
to modify the fiber molecules in each co-product (bran and flour). Table 1 shows
the dietary fiber composition of common wheat products. All-purpose and cake
flours have substantial amounts of fiber removed during milling.
Oat gum extracted from oat bran with aqueous sodium carbonate (pH 10)
at 40°C had different properties depending upon the concentration procedure used
(7). Dialysis of the extract produced gums with greater viscosity than did ultrafil-
tration or ethanol precipitation methods. Alcohol precipitation had the highest
yields, however. Inactivation of enzymes by 75% ethanol at 80°C also resulted
in gums of higher viscosity but much of the β-glucanase present in the original
bran had been reduced by a prior steaming by the supplier.
Alkali extractions were also effective in removing soluble fiber from defat-
ted rice bran. Extracts obtained with either sodium hydroxide or calcium hydrox-
ide at pH 12 significantly lowered serum cholesterol in rats fed a cholesterol-
enriched diet (8). The Ca(OH) 2 method was preferred because it produced a
lighter colored-product. NaOH had a better yield, however, of 8 g per 100 g rice
bran versus 5 g for the calcium salt.
Removal of starch, protein and other water-soluble compounds by various
treatments affected wheat bran composition, water-holding capacity, and bread-
baking properties (9) (Figure 1). Amylase treatments produced the highest neutral
fiber contents; protease with amylase yielded more fiber, but that fiber was not
suitable for baking. Rinsing following chemical or enzyme treatment may have
removed too much soluble material.
Microwave heating has been proposed as a pretreatment for fruit waste to
enhance pectin extraction. A ten-minute treatment at 2450 MHz and 0.5 kW
improved pectin yields from orange and lemon peels and apple pressings without
affecting the amount of anhydrouronic acid content or degree of esterification
(10). Microwave heating, whether or not followed by drying, increased pectin
gel strength compared to pectin extracted directly from fresh fruit or from dried
TABLE 1 Total dietary fiber content of

wheat milling products
Wheat Product TDF (%) a
Whole wheat flour 12.2

All-purpose flour 2.7
Cake flour 1.7
Wheat bran 42.8
Wheat germ 13.2
a
Percent total dietary fiber, as is basis.
Adapted from the USDA Nutrient Database.
376 Camire
FIGURE 1 Neutral detergent fiber of treated wheat bran.
material. The beneficial effects of microwave pretreatment may be due to inacti-

vation of pectin enzymes and simultaneous collapse of cell structure.
Particle Size Reduction

Milling may be taken for granted since most consumers are familiar with foods
containing flour or bran. Intact foods such as kernel corn and sesame seeds can
pass completely through the gut with little apparent change; clearly particle size
determines many factors in vivo. Particle size reduction increases surface area,
and presumably accessibility to enzymes and water. The water holding capacity
(WHC) of a fiber source is believed to be especially important for stool bulk,
but in vitro measurements of WHC cannot predict in vivo effects (11). Grinding
or milling influences water binding properties according to the composition and
prior processing history of the fiber. Grinding reduced water binding by wheat
bran because the cell matrix was disrupted, yet ground oat bran exhibited higher
binding (12). Since the oats were subjected to steam, then dried to inactivate
enzymes, the cell structure was modified prior to grinding.
‘‘Harder’’ portions of a food, probably rich in lignin and cellulose, are
more resistant to grinding, while softer portions may contain more starch and
water-soluble nonstarch polysaccharides. These fractions have different hydra-
tion properties, thus fractions collected according to particle size after milling
are expected to have different hydration properties. Smaller particles of hammer-
milled wheat bran, sugar beet fiber, and citrus fiber had reduced water holding
and swelling capacities, while water holding capacity was higher for smaller pea
hull particles (13). Grinding may have increased pore size for the pea hulls. In
that same study, magnetic stirring increased the water binding capacity of sugar
beet fiber over time.
The type of mill used also influences particle size. A Wiley mill produced
a greater percentage of coarse food particles than did a Cyclotec mill (14). Wheat
and potato samples ground in the Cyclotec mill had higher soluble fiber recover-
ies, suggesting the some previously insoluble material was made more soluble
by reducing particle size.
Chemical Treatments
Chemical Modifications
Carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose and hydroxymethylcellulose products
are available for controlling viscosity and oil use or absorption in foods (5,15).
Although these cellulose derivatives are considered fiber molecules, they have
some solubility in aqueous ethanol solutions, thus they may not be detected by
analytical procedures that employ an ethanol precipitation step.
Bleaching
Brans, fruits, and other dark or highly colored products may be difficult to use
in those foods where lightness in color is important. Bleaching may be used to
lighten fiber materials, but chlorine-based bleaching agents should be avoided.
Hydrogen peroxide treatment of wheat bran resulted in lighter, less red, and more
yellow product (9). Wheat straw bleached with hydrogen peroxide could be incor-
porated into cakes without affecting flavor or producing gritty mouthfeel (16).
Rats fed bleached oat hulls showed no abnormalities (17).
Peroxide bleaching frees carbohydrates bound to lignin. Bleaching in-
creased soluble fiber neutral sugars in oat hulls by over 3%, while lignin de-
creased over 6% compared to non-bleached hulls (18). Health benefits due to
phenolic compounds and other phytochemicals associated with fiber in foods may
be lost during bleaching (19). As more consumers appreciate the importance of
fiber in their diets, there may be less need to bleach fiber-rich materials to enhance
marketability.
Enzymes
Oat beta-glucans and guar gum have been enzymatically hydrolyzed to improve
functionality. The primary change after enzyme treatment is a reduction in molec-
ular weight, which in turn leads to lower viscosities when the gums are dispersed
in water. While a fiber-enriched mineral water may appeal to some consumers,
there may not be a nutritional advantage to such supplementation. Bile acid bind-
ing and delayed glycemic response (20) are two health benefits that are dependent
upon the viscous gels formed in the intestine. Further study is needed on the
changes this procedure has on physiological effects.
Enzymes naturally present in fiber-rich materials can reduce food quality.
Lipase inactivation is necessary for rice bran use. Although most processors em-
ploy some type of thermal treatment to destroy the enzyme, USDA researchers
have found solvent extractions to be effective as well. Ethanol at room tempera-
378 Camire
ture and hexane at 68°C inhibited lipid hydrolysis in rice kernels and flour during
storage while producing slightly higher total dietary fiber contents (21).
Food Processing
Food processors utilize a variety of methods. Foods in microwavable frozen din-
ners may have been subjected to boiling, steaming, chemical peeling, baking,
dehydration, or extrusion in addition to freezing and microwaving. Knowledge
of the effects of these methods on fiber composition and properties is limited.
Changes in fiber analytical methodology have made older reports less useful since
many reported only total fiber or soluble plus insoluble fiber.
Wet Heat Treatments

Autoclaving
Solubilization of sugarbeet fiber was temperature- and pressure-dependent (22).
No changes were observed at 10-minute intervals when sugarbeet pulp was auto-
claved at 50° or 100°C and atmospheric pressure; soluble fiber content doubled
after 10 minutes at 121°C and 1.2 bar.
Boiling
Cooking foods in an excess volume of water leads to loss of water-soluble materi-
als into the cooking water. Despite the potential nutrition impairment, this method
of cooking remains common in households and institutions. Seaweed boiled for
one hour lost up to 40% of insoluble fiber (23). Soaked and boiled chickpeas
and kidney beans retained more dietary fiber than when soaked and pressure-
cooked, presumably due to losses of soluble fiber into the cooking water (24).
Canning
The combination of time and temperature required to produce commercially ster-
ile foods can severely affect fiber composition. Retorted (121°C, 60 minutes)
green bean and carrot purees lost significant amounts of pectic material (25). No
changes were found in the neutral sugar fractions of the vegetables. Since this
type of processing is used to prepare fruits and vegetables for infants and elderly
persons, the health implications of such changes warrant further study. However,
the vegetables in this study were subjected to many processes (freezing, freeze-
drying, milling) prior to analysis. Fiber changes at each step were not evaluated.
Although blanching produced minor changes in carrot fiber compared to
a frozen standard, boiling, microwaving and canning carrots caused increases in
soluble fiber molecules (26). Canning also resulted in larger changes in molecular
weight distribution of nonstarch polysaccharides in green beans, Brussels sprouts,
and green peas compared with boiling and microwaving (27).
Steaming
More fiber should be retained in steamed vegetables since the food is not im-
mersed in the cooking medium and leaching is minimized. Steam-cooking wheat
bran increased IDF, but boiling and autoclaving increased SDF (28). Oil absorp-
tion, but not water-binding capacity, was increased by steaming and autoclaving;
boiling significantly increased both properties. The processed brans also exhibited
different farinogram effects when mixed with flour. These changes were attrib-
uted to physical, not chemical, modifications of fiber during processing.
Microwaving
Vegetables vary in their changes due to microwave cooking. Green beans and
Brussels sprouts showed little change in molecular weight of fiber molecules,
but green peas showed significant loss of higher molecular weight compounds
(MW ⬎ 40000) with increased recovery of middle-sized polymers (MW 10000–
40000) (27). Microwaved (previously blanched and frozen) carrots elicited higher
postprandial glucose values in volunteers fed a mixed meal than did raw carrots
(29). Total dietary fiber was lower in raw carrots during the first year of the study,
and a significantly higher satiety score was obtained for raw carrots that year.
Dry Heat Treatments
Baking
Breads and other baked grain products are popular world-wide, yet relatively
little is known about the effects of baking on dietary fiber composition. Baking
for one hour at 135°C had no effect on the dietary fiber composition or hydration
capacity of cornmeal or oatmeal, but for baked potato peels, insoluble nonstarch
polysaccharides increased and hydration capacity decreased (30). Baking bread
transforms wheat starch into resistant starch that is digested and fermented like
dietary fiber (31). More resistant starch was formed in the crumb than in the
crust. These chemical changes are difficult to predict. Estimation of fiber content
after baking from the total dietary fiber content of ingredients was inadequate
(32). Formation of Klason lignin during baking cannot be predicted reliably, but
content of other fiber components correlated well with predicted values. Some
baked foods have increased soluble fiber and prediction of this change in solubil-
ity was also limited.
Roasting
Several commodities such as nuts are heated at high temperatures (⬎170°C) to
produce characteristic colors and flavors via Maillard reactions. Roasting/toasting
significantly increased the lignin content of wheat bran (25) and cocoa beans
(33). Although total fiber values were unaffected, both neutral sugars and uronic
acids decreased in the insoluble fiber fraction of cocoa beans after roasting. The
380 Camire
involvement of these carbohydrates in the formation of Maillard polymers is most

likely responsible for the higher apparent lignin formation.
Extrusion
Many foods and feeds are now processed by extrusion cooking. This unique
process performs several unit operations simultaneously. Foods are subjected to
heat and shear during transportation along the extruder barrel. Fiber-rich materials
may be extrusion-cooked to modify functional properties. Extruded bran mills
into smaller pieces with reduced grittiness and improved water absorption (34).
Increased screw speed during extrusion increased soluble fiber and enzyme-sus-
ceptible starch contents for whole wheat and wheat bran (35).
Branched molecules are more susceptible to shear during extrusion than is
cellulose. Extrusion significantly increased the water solubility of sugar beet pulp
fiber by decreasing the molecular weight of pectin and hemicelluloses molecules
(36). No difference in X-ray diffraction patterns was found after extrusion of
corn fiber–corn starch blends, suggesting than semi-crystalline cellulose is more
resistant to degradation under typical extrusion conditions (37).
Prior processing can influence fiber changes during extrusion. Both acid
and alkaline treatments increased soluble fiber somewhat in corn bran (38). Al-
though grinding doubled the soluble fiber of pea hulls to 8% (dry basis), all
extruded hulls contained over 10% soluble fiber (39). Total fiber content after
extrusion was lower, perhaps due to losses of smaller molecular weight com-
pounds formed from fiber during the process.
Soluble fiber created during extrusion is chemically different from naturally
soluble fiber compounds such as pectin and gums, and thus should be expected
to have different nutritional properties. The soluble fiber content of potato peels
was about doubled by extrusion, and barrel temperature significantly increased
in vitro binding of cholic acid and deoxycholic acid (40). Those findings agreed
with a rat feeding study. Total serum and liver cholesterol levels were lower in
young rats fed extruded oats, barley or wheat than in rats fed a control diet or
feeds containing unextruded grains (41). Soluble fiber was higher in all extruded
feeds, and soluble β-glucans increased slightly in extruded oats and barley.
Higher viscosities of aqueous suspensions of extruded grains were also found.
Extruded citrus peels had higher levels of soluble fiber and increased in
vitro viscosity (42). Starch digestion and glucose diffusion were not different
from those of non-extruded products, however. Additional research could lead
to extruded products with improved glycemic properties designed for diabetic
consumers.
Extrusion-induced molecular changes could influence the ability of fiber
to bind carcinogens. Few studies have been published on this subject. Extrusion
conditions, with one exception (110°C, 30% feed moisture), did not affect the
ability of potato peels to bind benzo[a]pyrene, a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

(43). Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are often produced by extrusion. Sixteen
commercial cereals bound at least 40% of the benzo[a]pyrene added during in
vitro digestion, but carcinogen binding was not correlated with a specific dietary
fiber fraction (44).
Non-Thermal Treatments
Freezing
Many vegetables are blanched prior to freezing to inactivate enzymes, and this
brief treatment may produce slight fiber solubilization (45). Fruits are generally
not blanched to maintain texture and prevent juice loss. Pectinase activity is only
slowed at freezer temperatures. Pectin solubilization and degradation may occur
during frozen storage since consumers may keep frozen items for a year or more.
Starch retrogradation may also occur in frozen foods; the formation of resistant
starch by this mechanism is possible.
Fermentation
Insoluble dietary fiber increased after fermentation in three legumes (Bengal
gram, cow pea, and green gram) (46). Since many microorganisms can use solu-
ble fiber as an energy source, the increase in insoluble fiber was probably due
to removal of soluble molecules.
Malting/Sprouting
Germination produced slight increases in legume IDF (46). Rolled flakes made
from malted barley contained only 1.2% soluble beta-glucans, compared with
2.9% in flakes made from untreated barley (47). Total dietary fiber was also lower
in the malted flakes.
SUMMARY
Common processing methods can produce important changes in food dietary fiber
composition. These changes are summarized in Table 2. Although calculation of
nutrient content of processed foods from ingredient content is an accepted proce-
dure in the United States, dietary fiber composition will most likely be incorrect.
New sterilization methods such as ohmic heating and magnetic field processing
may also affect fiber. As new methods are developed, care should be taken to
analyze the fractions of fiber, not simply total fiber. Processing-induced changes
in fiber molecules may significantly alter health benefits, leading to public health
and food labeling issues.
382 Camire
TABLE 2 Changes in dietary fiber composition due to processing

↑ Soluble Fiber ↑ Insoluble Fiber
↓ Soluble Fiber
Food Insoluble ↑ ↑
Processing Cooking Soluble Cell Wall Fiber Resistant Klason
Method Losses Fiber Release Splitting Starch Lignin
Boiling *
Canning * *
Microwaving * * *
Baking * *
Roasting *
Extrusion * * *
Freezing * * *
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Maine Agricultural and Forest Experiment Station publication #2068. The author
appreciates the assistance of Michael Dougherty in the preparation of this manu-
script.
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26
Production of Resistant Starch
PIERRE WÜRSCH
Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Switzerland
INTRODUCTION
Resistant starch (RS) is defined as the sum of starch and of the product of starch
degradation not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy individuals. Most of
the RS is formed in food during normal processing and much is known about
how to promote its formation. Highest yields are achieved with potato and le-
gumes (7% and 11% of total starch, respectively) due to the special nature of
their starch. The main source of starch in the diet is cereal, in which only limited
amounts of RS are produced by the usual processing, namely baking and extru-
sion cooking (2–6% of total starch). RS is constituted mainly of retrograded
amylose, which consists of an association of the linear chains. Yields as high as
45% RS have been obtained with 70% amylose which is gelatinized and cooled
under controlled conditions (concentration, temperature, storage time). The yield
can be increased by subsequent hydrolysis of the unretrograded starch with en-
zymes. RS can be easily incorporated in food without altering the texture and
appearance, partly due to its white color, bland taste, and microparticulate struc-
ture. It can thus be used as fat mimetic or to increase the dietary fiber content
of food.
Resistant starch was identified in the early 1980s and for years remained
385
386 Würsch
just an analytical curiosity: Was it a starch or a fiber? How does one analyze it?
How was it produced, and had it any physiological role? All these questions were
systematically studied by a few groups (1–4) and in the early 1990s by Euresta
(5). The first task was to define resistant starch (RS): ‘‘the sum of starch and
products of starch degradation not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy indi-
viduals’’ (6). The RS population has been identified and quantified in vivo in a
few studies. It appears to be composed of roughly two physically and/or chemi-
cally different groups of glucosidic polymers: digestible starch and dextrins, and
retrograded starch (7–10). However, retrograded starch itself is composed of or-
dered structures of portions of double helical amylose chains which crystallize
generally in B-type and amorphous portions which are not accessible to the pan-
creatic α-amylase (11,12). This is the fraction that has been defined as RS using
the pancreatic α-amylase digestion method (13–15). The amorphous portion of
RS seems to be hydrolyzed by thermally stable enzymes such as α-amylase from
Bacillus licheniformis (Termamyl L) used in the analysis of the dietary fiber by
the AOAC method (16,17), and in part by amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus
niger (personal communication). Resistant starch recovered from extensive pan-
creatic α-amylase digestion had a chain length distribution between 15 and 80
glucose units (12,17), but this decreased to 15–65 glucose units when subse-
quently digested by Termamyl at 80°C. The fraction digested represented 35% of
the RS (17). Consequently, the residual starch found in the dietary fiber fraction,
sometimes defined as RS (4,9), represents only part of the starch resistant to
digestive enzymes, which in turn is a significant fraction of the RS as defined
above.
The RS measured in food using the simulation of digestion gives generally
similar RS values as the in vivo measurements using ileostomy subjects (14,18–
20). However, in some cases underestimation was found due to residual starch,
dextrin, and sugars that are not accounted for in the in vitro method. In the case
of white bean flakes, 3.4% of total starch was recovered in the dietary fiber residue
(9), 11.5% was measured using pancreatic α-amylase (⫽ RS) (5), and 16.5%
was recovered in ileostomy effluents (9). Recovery of starch (including RS, resid-
ual starch, dextrin, and sugars) in ileostomy effluent, from cooked and cooled
potato was as high as 12.2%, although the RS part of starch was 3.4% (8).
A simpler classification of RS has been proposed based on its physical
nature: RS1, physically inaccessible starch; RS2, resistant native starch granules;
and RS3, retrograded starch (13). These classes are described in more detail by
Champ et al. (21). The measurement of RS following various methods creates
a lot of confusion especially when the method applied is not stated. The data
collected in this review are based on various methods; to avoid any misunder-
standing, the method using pancreatic α-amylase will be referred to as method
A and the one measuring starch in the dietary fiber residue as method B.
Production of Resistant Starch 387
RESISTANT STARCH IN FOODS

Resistant starch is found in a few raw starchy foods, namely raw potato starch,
green banana starch, and amylomaize starch (RS2). However, they become par-
tially to totally digestible by hydrothermal treatment (cooking). Analysis of many
processed food products indicates RS content is generally below 5% of the dry
matter (Table 1), but a high amount of RS1 can be found in cereals which are
cooked and eaten and in grains such as pearled barley, buckwheat or puffed
wheat. RS in legumes is generally very high due to encapsulation of starch in
the cells and its rather high amylose content (23).
Resistant starch in common foods can be increased by storing the wet
cooked food in the cold, by heating and cooling, or by freezing. This is especially
the case for potato and beans. Although instant mashed potato has negligible
amounts of RS, deep-fat frying or storing cooked potato in the cold converts up
to 12.2% of its starch into RS (7,24).
In the case of cooked cereal products (rice, pasta, bread), RS content does
not seem to increase during storage or freezing. The best example is bread that
has a rather stable resistant starch content, although amylopectin retrogradation
occurs during storage (2,25). Retrogradation of amylopectin consists in the reas-
sociation of external chains of the macromolecules, which have an average chain
length of 13–16 glucose units in cereal starch. They are completely digested, but
at a slower rate (26). Some endogenous or added lipids, although present in low
quantity, reduce the RS yield. These lipids (monoglycerides, phospholipids) form
enzyme-digestible inclusion complexes with amylose; less amylose is then avail-
able to form RS (27–29). The RS yield of autoclaved, non-defatted starch is 5.6%,
and increased to 7.3% after lipid extraction, but was almost nil after addition of
3% SDS (28).
TABLE 1 Resistant Starch (Method A)

Content in Common Foods
Food % of total starch
Bread 2.2–4.3
Special breads 7.2–9.5
Breakfast cereals 0.0–9.0
Wholegrain cereals 1.7–12.3
Potato 0.6–9.0
Pasta 1.3–4.2
Pulses 12–20
388 Würsch
PRODUCTION OF RESISTANT STARCH
Resistant starch is produced during processing and storage of starchy food, al-
though the amount formed is quite limited. Processing involves the application
of heat (cooking) and cooling. The starch is gelatinized in an excess of water,
which leads to melting of the A- and B-crystalline forms and swelling by absorp-
tion of water at 50–80°C. Amylose re-adopts a helical structure upon cooling,
reassociates, and progressively crystallizes into B-type crystals. However,
RS also includes an amorphous portion of amylose, which is not hydrolyzed by
α-amylase (12).
Crystallization derives from an amorphous matrix. It consists of three steps:
1. nucleation (i.e. formation of critical nuclei); 2. propagation (i.e. growth of
crystals from the nuclei formed); 3. maturation (i.e. crystal perfection and/or
continuing slow growth). The extent to which these processes occur is clearly
dependent on the temperature and time. The nucleation rate is nil at the melting
temperature of the crystal (130–150°) and increases with decreasing temperature.
At the temperature below the glass transition temperature (ca. ⫺5°) the nucleation
rate is negligible and the system is frozen (30). The propagation rate is reversed.
It increases with increased temperature. Thus, the conditions for fastest rate of
RS formation must be found between these two temperatures. A compromise can
be found by inducing nucleation at low temperature followed by propagation at
a higher temperature.
Yield and quality of RS in a mixture of amylose and amylopectin thus
greatly depends on the storage temperature. At 100°C for several days, 10% RS
with an A-type crystalline structure is produced, and at between 0 and 70°C, 3–
4% RS (method A) with a B-type structure (31).
Sievert and Würsch (29) studied the effect of heating and cooling of differ-
ent starches in water. Melting transitions occurred at 140–160°C. On cooling, the
chains of amylose reassociated between 60 and 40°C. Reassociation is, however,
inhibited by fast cooling rates (⬎10°C/min), but when the linear chains were
small, e.g. DP 65, reassociation occurred even at a very fast cooling rate, due to
a much higher mobility of the chains.
The highest yield of RS is obtained by controlled retrogradation of amylose,
high amylose starch, or debranched amylopectin and amylose after autoclaving.
For pure pea amylose the optimum concentration is equal or higher than 10%
and yields of up to 50% RS (method A) were obtained after one day of storage
at room temperature (12). In starch, reassociation of amylose chains during retro-
gradation is lower since amylopectin apparently restricts the extent of conforma-
tional ordering of amylose chain (32). However, the RS content after extended
storage time at subzero temperature was proportional to the amylose content (Fig-
ure 1). Furthermore, RS can be purified by enzymatic or acid hydrolysis to re-
move the amorphous regions of the starch molecule.
FIGURE 1 RS yield obtained after autoclaving and retrogradation of mixtures

of amylose and amylopectin (method A).
Several patents have been filed over the last six years for the production
of RS for use in food as bulking agent, dietary fiber, or fat mimetic (34–40).
Generally starch is heated in water at more than 100°C to hydrate and gelatinize
starch and then cooled for a sufficient time to cause starch retrogradation and
formation of RS fractions. The yield of RS depends on the amylose content, and
consequently the preferred sources are starches having 70% or more amylose
content (amylomaize with 70 or 85% amylose, high amylose pea starch and high
amylose barley starch). Starch is mixed in 3 to 10 volumes of water, but the
highest RS yield is achieved with greater starch concentration (4,34–37). The
suspension is heated in an autoclave at a temperature above 100°C to ensure
starch gelatinization and complete disruption of the granules. High temperatures
are particularly necessary for the high amylose starches (120–150°C). In one of
the proposed processes (4,34), the mixture is then cooled to below room tem-
perature to allow amylose retro-gradation to take place and the heating-cooling
process is repeated up to three times (Table 2). The yield of RS is systemati-
cally much lower with method B used for RS determination compared with the
milder pancreatic α-amylase assay shown in the last column. Storage at 4°C for
periods of 2–24 hours is recommended to complete amylose reordering. RS
contents increased when heating from 121 to 134°C, and decreased again at
148°C (4). The yield of RS shown in Figure 1 is inversely related to the amy-
lose content.
RS3 has been produced by extrusion cooking of amylomaize starch in a
double screw extruder with one volume of water added, followed by two days
storage at 4°C, oven-dried and milled. The in vitro RS content was 30% (Table
3), but reached 49% in ileostomy subjects (19). This partially retrograded starch
was used as the reference sample in the Euresta project. By autoclaving at 145°C
390 Würsch
TABLE 2 Yield of RS after retrogradation and enrichment by

enzymatic treatment with termamyl at 70–100°C
RS-enriched RS
Amylose RS (%) (%) Method (%) Method
Starch (%) Method B (4) B (34) A (3)
Amylomaize VII 70% 21.3 70.8 28.5

Amylomaize V 53 17.8 26.2
Pea starch 33 10.5 66
Wheat starch 25 7.8 63.1 4.0
Maize 26 7 59.6
Potato 20 4.4 48.6
Waxy maize ⬍1 2.5 0.5
Starch : water ratio 1 :3.5 for amylomaize VII and 1 :2 for the others. Autoclaving
temp. 134°C. Autoclaving time: 1h.
for 45 minutes, followed by freeze-drying, the in vitro and in vivo RS were

comparable at 40% (40).
Alternatively 70% amylose starch was autoclaved at 150°C and retrograda-
tion took place at room temperature for 20 hours (35). The retrograded amylose
was then treated with acid for several hours at 70°C. The insoluble fraction was
isolated by microfiltration of the slurry at around 95°C, and consists in a single
domain that peaked at 120°C (RS3).
After autoclaving at ⬎120°C for 8 hours, the slurry was maintained at
120°C for 8 hours, then 24°C for 16 hours and 8°C for 48 hours and hydrolyzed
with a thermostable α-amylase. High yields were obtained with the enzyme from
TABLE 3 In vitro and in vivo RS content in starches (% starch)

In vitro RS
Method A In vivo RS
Food Source (Ref.) (Ref.)
Raw potato starch 65 (13) 84 (19)

Raw green banana starch 74 (13) 76 (19)
Amylomaize 85% amylose (in bread) 26 (46) 33 (46)
Raw amylomaize 70% amylose 69 (13) 51 (19)
Amylomaize 70% amylose (in bread) 38 (45) ND
Autoclaved, retrograded high amylose starch 40 (40) 43 (40)
Extruded retrograded high amylose starch 30 (13) 49 (19)
Bacillus licheniformis at 70–100°C for about one hour. Up to 70% RS was found
in the recovered residue (method B) (34,36). These ingredients have very
low water holding capacity and a small particle size (⬍50 mm), making them
advantageous as an insoluble bulking agent in extruded products and baked
products (37).
The yield of RS thus can be increased by varying various processing steps
and conditions as shown in Figure 2 (37). High amylose starch, after high temper-
ature gelatinization (⬎150°C), contained 9.4% RS (method B), and 14.3% RS
when followed by extrusion cooking. The RS was increased to 27% by enzymatic
debranching of the gelatinized starch and fractionation. Extrusion cooking of the
debranched high amylose starch yielded 30% RS. The highest yield was achieved
by holding the debranched amylomaize slurry in a high salt solution at 95°C for
24 hours. The ethanol-water 1 :1 insoluble fraction contained 44% RS.
RS has also been produced by mild heat-moisture treatment of amylomaize,
but in this process no granule disruption occurred. A 15% aqueous slurry of
maize starch containing 70% amylose was heated at 95°C and maintained at
that temperature for 15–30 minutes under gentle mixing, cooled slowly to 30°C,
reheated to 60°C, then finally cooled and spray-dried. The RS yield reached 42%
(method A) (42). In a similar approach, 85% amylose starch was heated at 85°C
for one hour followed by debranching with pullulanase. The RS content in the
insoluble starch was 30% (method B)(43). The enzymatic hydrolysis with Terma-
myl during the heat treatment increased the concentration of RS. The enzyme
produced only exoerosion and pits.
Up to 60% RS yield (method A) has been obtained by debranching with
isoamylase, an aqueous slurry of at least 20% of a partially hydrolyzed starch
(dextrose equivalent of 2–3) containing less than 40% amylose (44). However,
native high amylose starch, which contains a very high amount of RS2, is a
FIGURE 2 Yield in RS (method B) from amylomaize treated in different ways

(method B).
392 Würsch
readily available source of RS, or dietary fiber. Breads and breakfast cereals en-
riched with Hi-maize are already on the market in Australia (39,40). Bread has
been enriched up to 11% RS (based on DM, method A) by replacing part of the
flour by retrograded amylomaize (70% amylose) or native amylomaize and gluten
without altering the texture and taste of the product (45). These application stud-
ies show that RS content in amylomaize is markedly lower, around 30–40%,
after the processing of the food (Table 3).
Chemical modification of starch (CMS) can be another way to significantly
reduce its digestibility. Chemically modified starches are widely used in the food
industry as texture agent. Chemical modification such as substitution and cross-
linking confers to the starch heat and shear resistance, and/or improved pH and
freeze-thaw stability. The in vitro digestibility of acetylated and cross-linked ge-
latinized starches was nearly equal to native gelatinized starches (47), whereas
etherification with hydroxypropyl groups significantly reduced the digestibility
(47, 48). Increasing molar substitution (MS) decreased the in vitro and in vivo
digestibility to around 42% for a MS of 0.16 (49). The undigested fraction was
metabolized in rats only to a very limited extent due to the very high MS of this
residue (DS ⫽ 0.6) (49). These studies and others indicate that only substitution
with ether groups decreases the digestibility of gelatinized starch, but the resulting
resistant starch is not metabolized by the intestinal microflora.
CONCLUSIONS
Resistant starch has been known for 15 years, and its chemical and physical
natures have been well defined. The increase in RS in everyday food by pro-
cessing adaptation is quite limited, thus the attention has been concentrated on
high-amylose starch, particularly from corn, which is itself in great part resistant
to digestion. Starches with 50% RS or more when the starch was purified can
be produced, and they withstand heat treatment. These starches can be easily
incorporated in food to increase the fermentable polysaccharide content without
altering the sensory properties. RS is slowly fermented in the large intestine by
the colonic flora. The metabolites formed include volatile fatty acids (acetic, pro-
pionic and butyric acids), resulting in a decrease in the pH of the feces (49,50).
RS seems to yield more butyrate than some highly fermentable soluble fibers,
which is of special interest regarding the prevention of colonic cancer (51).
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27
Effect of Processing on Dietary Fiber
in Foods
ECKHARD RABE
Federal Center for Cereal, Potato and Lipid Research, Detmold, Germany
INTRODUCTION
Thermal treatments such as baking, roasting, drying, microwaving, and extrusion-
cooking can affect the amount and composition of dietary fiber. The making of
bread is not accompanied by great changes in TDF during the different stages
of preparation such as dough processing or baking. The content of insoluble hemi-
celluloses decreases as the content of the soluble hemicellulose increases. The
RS content starting from the dough-making step results in higher dietary fiber
values at the time of cooling. There is an elevated lignin content, especially in
the crust, which increases with baking time. Baking of rye bread with sour dough
or with lactic and acetic acid enhances the DF content by formation of RS and
diminishes the non-starch polysaccharide fraction; the loss in the insoluble hemi-
celluloses starts with dough making. The cellulose is not degraded. The repeated
heating of starch-rich foods like pasta, potatoes or rice shows the possibility of
accumulation of RS. Cooking increases the DF content of potato by formation
of RS. In vegetables and fruit the amount of pectic substances decreases with
boiling. The greatest changes in the DF content is with extrusion cooking. The
395
396 Rabe
total amount of DF is nearly the same, as with most products. The content of
soluble fiber increases with increased severity of treatment.
POSSIBLE CHANGES BY PROCESSING

Dietary fiber (DF) is defined as the material surviving digestion with human en-
zymes, but the different components, which form the DF complex, can be de-
graded or modified by other enzymes, e.g. microbial, by acids and bases or by
temperature and pressure. While this either reduces the DF content or modifies
it, new components, determined as DF, can be increased, too. During production
of cereal foods and baked products, different treatments such as grinding, fermen-
tation, cooking, baking, deep-fat frying, extrusion cooking, popping, or steam
flaking are possible. This means conditions of temperature, pressure, heat treat-
ment and shear force, electrolytes, and pH can change or be extreme and, there-
fore, alter DF values.
Heat treatment of starch-containing food may result in chemical modifica-
tion and fragmentation of the starch. Changes in chemical characteristics may
also alter physiological properties of the fiber. In this chapter, alterations in the
DF content by physical adjustment or by making a product edible will not be
considered. (Milling reduces the particle size, changing the DF content drasti-
cally. This reduction is due to the removal of the outer layer of the cereal grain,
which contains the highest concentrations of DF. The peeling of fruit and tubers
has the same effect.) Most plant food is consumed only after a mechanical and/
or thermal treatment. Most fruits rich in pectins are consumed raw, while DF
from cereals contain high amounts of hemicelluloses. Vegetables, on the other
hand, are normally eaten after cooking in water. During cooking, hemicelluloses
and pectins are leached into the water. These polymers can partly be disintegrated.
Pectins are depolymerized by heat and cannot be found in the cooking water.
It is worth mentioning that even the preparation of samples for the analyses
can partly enhance the DF content: drying and grinding of bread crumb, made
only from wheat starch, was accompanied by an increase in the insoluble DF
(IDF) content from 2.5 to 3.6% d.m. This was found with bread from normal
flour, too. The reason is the building of enzyme-resistant starch (1).
The effect of fiber particle size on functionality has been addressed, and
evidence was found that particle size is highly influential on the functionality
and nutritional value of dietary fiber containing raw material. For instance, the
bile salt-binding capacity decreases with decreased particle size (2). The suscepti-
bility to fermentation in the colon of human subjects is inversely proportional to
the size of bran particles (3). The moisture content in feces is significantly higher
in humans given a coarse bran diet than in humans given a fine bran diet (4,5).
The Englyst definition (6) of DF as non-starch polysaccharidic (NSP) cell-wall
material has the benefit of not being effected by processing. So the NSP values
Effect of Processing 397
for white, brown and wholemeal bread are very similar to the values for the
corresponding flours from which they are made; total NSP in the crumb is also
similar to NSP values for the breads. Arabinose content in the crust is slightly
lower with a higher proportion of xylose residues being measured in the soluble
fraction than in the crumb (7). On the other hand, if enzyme-resistant starch (RS)
is unfermentable by human enzymes and only is degraded by the colonic micro-
flora in the large intestine, it should be included in the DF value. This part of
DF is not accounted for in the Englyst method.
There are different possibilities of changing the DF content by processing
(Table 1). These may lead to increased solubility of the fiber, decreased dietary
fiber content (if low molecular fragments are formed), and loss of physiological
properties of the fiber.
Resistant starch (RS), which is retrograded amylose, is known to develop
in starchy food after heating during the cooling period, the amount depending
mainly on the content of amylose or the amylose/amylopectin ratio, respectively,
and water. However, other important factors are the processing temperature, the
physical form, degree of gelatinization, and cooling and storage conditions (1,
8–11). Raw and processed foods contain appreciable amounts of RS, depending
on the botanical source of the starch and the type of processing. In the case of
waxy maize starch (normally zero amylose content), yields of RS were extremely
low at all temperatures in contrast to Hylon VII (nominal 70% amylose), for
which yields were high (approximately 34%) (11). By autoclaving and cooling
high-amylose corn starch several times, the amount of RS can be increased up
to about 60%. DF determined by the AOAC method is known to contain the RS
as part of the complex. Today RS is accepted as part of the DF complex (9,10).
Discrepancies in the declaration of the RS content of foods occur because
RS was initially defined as that starch which was determined after solubilization
TABLE 1 Possible changes in DF content by processing

Leaching of SDF, like pectins or fragments of hemicelluloses, into the
process water
Decomposition of SDF or IDF into fragments, not determined as DF
Decomposition of insoluble to soluble DF (accompanied with a
relatively constant DF content)
Decrease of degradable products like starch or protein, which means
an indirect DF enrichment
Formation of enzyme-resistant starch
Formation of acid-insoluble material Maillard products (‘‘lignins’’)
Increase of enzyme-resistant compounds such as Maillard products
(‘‘lignins’’) and RS
398 Rabe
with 2 M KOH or DMSO. RS was the starch solubilized in the DF residue or the
difference in starch content with and without added DMSO. Different methods for
starch determination were used, too. In products with a high starch to fiber ratio,
formation of enzyme-resistant starch during processing may contribute signifi-
cantly to the DF content of the product. RS has been identified in cooked and
baked foods such as bread, boiled potatoes, pasta, legumes, porridge, and corn
flakes at levels of 1–4 g/100 g d.m. Cooked, dried, and ground legume seeds,
such as beans, which are rich in amylose, showed an RS content of 3–6%, which
is considerably higher than that formed during baking of bread. As the raw beans
showed 0.8% RS it may be that these products have a high content of RS2 (12,13),
which is resistant starch like raw potato starch.
Although Englyst (14) proposed a method for the determination of different
kinds of RS, which was accepted initially, there is still the need for a quick and
reliable method, mainly for the determination of RS3, the retrograded amylose.
The true RS content of foods may be higher than that recorded for RS3 in fiber
residues since only a fraction of retrograded starch remains in the residues. The
continuing development of new methods (15) shows there still is demand for it.
Although interesting from a scientific point of view, the physically inaccessible
kinds of RS are not of great importance, as most food is consumed after heating.
To take this to the extreme, it means RS2 from potatoes should not be considered,
because when they are consumed, there is only RS3. On the other hand, in eating
raw cereals like muesli, there really is a greater consumption of RS2, physically
trapped starch, but only a small part of the population consumes it.
The repeated heating of starch-rich foods (Table 2), measured by the IDF
fraction, shows the possibility of accumulation of RS. Potatoes (variety
‘‘Hansa’’) were cooked in water, drained, cooled to room temperature, and stored
in a refrigerator for 18 h (overnight). Heating of the cooked potatoes, the cooked
polished rice, and the pasta (100% durum wheat) in the microwave oven was
done without additional water.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the content of IDF, or of RS, respectively,
is greater in products heated with excess water in a normal cooking pot than in
products heated without water, e.g. in a microwave oven, as expected. On the
other hand, in heating in the microwave oven, there was an increase, too. The
highest amount of RS, compared to the original but low value for the uncooked
food, was formed in rice heated in a normal cooking pot or a microwave oven.
In pasta, too, there was a great increase, but only about half that in rice. The
reason was that these foods are rich in amylose and underwent complete starch
gelatinization during cooking. The least amount was formed in potatoes, indepen-
dent of the method of heating. The decrease in RS in rice during heating in the
normal pot results from the fact that in this case, there was a great amount of
insoluble material poured away with the cooking water, which was opaque from
it (16).
TABLE 2 RS formation in reheated foods as seen by IDF (% d.m.)

Normal
Cooking Microwave
Food pot oven Pressure cooker
Potatoes, uncooked: 5.0% — 5.8%
Cookng time: 15 min 7.2% — 6.2% (6 min)
⫹ 2 min 8.3% 6.1% 8.6%
⫹ 2 min 8.9% 8.1% 9.8%
Rice, uncooked 1.0%
Cooking time: 10 min 4.6%
⫹ 2 min 7.9% 5.4%
⫹ 2 min 5.1% 7.2%
Pasta, uncooked 1.8%
Cooking time: 12 min 4.0%
⫹ 3 min 5.0% 4.4%
⫹ 3 min 5.8% 4.8%
As can be seen from these results, the reheating of already cooked pasta,
(salad-) potatoes, and rice is a way to increase the RS or DF content, respectively,
in normal starchy food without adding other material. In order to reach a higher
intake of RS, consumers can be told to prepare a greater amount than is actually
needed, refrigerate the surplus, and reheat as needed. This heating is best done
with additional water and in a normal cooking pot or in a pressure cooker. The
increase in the absolute amounts is relatively small after repeated heating/cooling
cycles compared to the first heating (16).
EFFECTS OF PROCESSING ON DIFFERENT FOODS

Thermal treatments of wheat bran such as toasting, roasting, drum drying, auto-
claving and drum drying, microwaving and drum drying, and extrusion do not
significantly affect total DF content of wheat bran. Increased Klason lignin con-
tent of wheat bran is generally observed following thermal processing (17). Effect
of dry heat on wheat bran was that toasting for 30 min and 60 min at 177°C
resulted first in a decrease from 44.1% to 42.6% after 30 min and an increase
to 51.3% after 60 min. The largest change was in the lignin fraction from 2.9%
at time 0 to 4.3% after 30 min and 12.0% after 60 min of processing. Visually,
the samples were significantly brown after 30 min and dark brown after 60 min
of toasting. There was no significant difference in the hemicellulose content with
processing; however, there was a small decrease in the cellulose content. Boiling
wheat bran for 30 min had relatively little effect on the DF constituents. There
400 Rabe
was no significant difference in the hemicellulose or cellulose fraction; only a

small but significant increase in the lignin fraction was realized. The major effects
appear to have been a dramatic decrease in the pectic substances: wet heat tends
to first solubilize the pectins and then destroy them. This effect was also found
in boiling pureed carrots, but there was no significant difference in the lignin
fraction of carrots (18).
Wheat and rye bran, extruded with or without addition of lactic acid,
showed a significant loss of cellulose on one hand, and on the other an increase
of ‘‘lignins’’ by Maillard products. As the reaction time is very short (about 40
seconds) compared to the baking time of pumpernickel bread (at least 16 hours),
the changes are not that great. Extrusion with lactic acid results in an increase
of the SDF as a disintegration of the IDF without changing the TDF content.
Extrusion of wheat or rye flour under normal conditions does not result in produc-
tion of high amounts of RS. This might be due to starch gelatinization, disintegra-
tion of the starch granule or even destruction of amylolytic enzymes. Another
reason is the low water content (⬍ 20%), so that no gelatinization and no reorga-
nization of the amylose molecules is possible (19). While under extreme extrusion
conditions it was found that the amount of soluble fiber increased. Conversely,
corn fiber, extruded at pH 3 to 11, showed statistically no change in their soluble
and insoluble fiber content (20). An increase in SDF is expected to improve the
nutritional value of fiber sources such as corn or soy bean hulls.
Cooking increases the DF content of potato. Wet heat processing, such as
boiling, tends to first solubilize and then destroy the pectin substances by degrad-
ing galacturonan chains. Pectin molecules are depolymerized by chain splitting
via β-elimination. Once the chain length of the degraded parts is small enough
and the molecules are no longer bound in the framework of the cell wall gel
by cations, pectic galacturonan is partly solubilized. Ions accelerate this break-
down. Calcium ions retard the solubilization of pectin in comparison with potas-
sium. Calcium-binding anions (citrate, phytate and malate) favor the solubiliza-
tion of pectin (21). The SDF of instant mashed potatoes and of French fries
remain unchanged during domestic cooking. The major SDF constituents of po-
tato have been identified as pectin and hemicellulose. Boiling and microwave-
heating appear to increase the IDF of instant mashed potatoes. In French fries,
deep-fat frying significantly increases the IDF while baking causes only a minor
additional change in IDF fraction. The formation of lignin-like substances and
enzyme-resistant starch is also responsible for the increased IDF. Since the SDF
content in processed potato remains constant during cooking, any increase in
TDF can therefore be attributed to the elevated IDF level. In French fries, baking
does not alter the starch composition but deep-fat frying reduces digestible starch
and significantly increases the amount of RS (22).
The amount of TDF [non-cellulosic polysaccharides (NCP) ⫹ cellulose]
in untreated potato was 6.8% of dry matter. All treatments increased total DF,
most changes being statistically significant. The maximum value was 10.9%
(130°C, pH 4.2). Total DF in untreated, mashed tomatoes was 23.2%. Autoclav-
ing without added water reduced it further to a minimum of 18.6% (130°C, pH
4.2). Baking in an oven increased the total DF in tomato to 26.0% d.m., while
microwave treatment did not cause significant changes. Potato cellulose increased
very significantly in all treatments, and most in the excessive autoclaving at
130°C. Lignin and cellulose contents of autoclaved tomato samples were smaller
than those of untreated tomato. Baking increased the quantities of all constituents.
Microwave treatment also significantly increased the NCP values of tomato.
Acidification of the cooking water of potato or the tomato slurry did not have a
clear effect on DF, but it tended to reduce the NCP values. Uronic acid concentra-
tion of tomato and potato was lowest in the samples autoclaved at 130°C. DF
was increased more by boiling and pressure cooking than by baking or microwave
treatment. The increment in the total DF was due to the increases in both water
insoluble NCP and cellulose, and was evidently caused by retrograded starch.
The total DF of tomato was lowered by all autoclave treatments, but only the
changes at 130°C were statistically significant. Baking increased TDF signifi-
cantly. This treatment caused considerable drying and scorching of the product,
increasing not only the lignin, but also all other fractions (23). Cooking increases
solubility of pectic substances while decreasing the water insoluble fraction.
There is essentially no difference in the total insoluble pectic substances due
to the method of cooking.
The DF contents in drum-dried wheat flour products are not significantly
different from those of the unprocessed flours. Extruded flours, on the other hand,
have a significantly lower content of insoluble fiber regardless of processing con-
ditions. Extrusion cooking, autoclaving, steam flaking and, in particular, popping
of wheat results in a redistribution of insoluble to soluble DF. The influence of
the various processes on the TDF are small, but a slight solubilization of fiber
components is observed for all processes, except drum-drying, when severe con-
ditions were used (24).
The SDF fraction isolated from rye DF showed interesting properties.
Partly hydrolyzed and marketed in dried form, they can be incorporated in rolls
with a remarkable enrichment of the SDF of up to 150% related to the flour DF.
A 10% enrichment of the rye SDF in mashed strawberries or raspberries, which
means a consumption of 5.6 g SDF per day, were accepted by patients. In type II
diabetics the DF showed a leveling effect to the course in the blood glucose (25).
The baking of bread (extraction flour or wholemeal) is not accompanied by
great influences on DF during the different stages like dough processing, baking,
storage, drying (freeze-drying or drying with normal pressure), freezing or thaw-
ing. Only the RS content, starting from the dough-making, growing during the
baking process and resulting in the greatest differences during the time of cooling
is the reason for higher DF values (26).
402 Rabe
Because of the long and intensive influence of heat, the DF content of the
crust differs from that of the crumb: on a dry matter basis the insoluble fiber
content is lower. This is because of a lower content of RS, caused by the reduced
availability of water. On the other hand, insoluble hemicelluloses become soluble.
Dextrination can cause breaking of α-1,4-glucosidic bonds of starch. The arabin-
oxylans are more influenced by heat than the xylose chains. The cleaved xylose
molecules are not determined as DF any more.
In relation to the used wholemeal wheat flour, the insoluble hemicelluloses
are diminished by 1.1% d.m. in the crust after a baking time of 55 min compared
to the corresponding wheat flour. After a baking time of 80 min there is a decrease
of 2.1% d.m. Only small amounts of these show up as SDF. The cellulose is not
affected by the heat (Table 3) (27). The rising of the lignin and protein content
in the IDF residues is taken as a marker for condensation and polymerization
reactions taking place in the crust, yielding nitrogen-containing substances, not
degraded by the enzymes for DF determination. At the moment it is not clear if
part of the insoluble DF is becoming soluble, and part of the soluble hemicellulose
is hydrolyzed, or if a part of the insoluble hemicellulose is hydrolyzed directly
to molecules not determined as DF. At low moisture levels, intramolecular rup-
ture of α-1,4-linkages in starch produces oligosaccharides and more high-molecu-
lar fragments containing 1,6-anhydropyranose end-units. These anhydro units are
TABLE 3 Dietary fiber and components in bread and corresponding

flour, %DM
Components of
Components of IDF (29) TDF (27)
Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin RS IDF SDF TDF
Wholemeal 5.5 1.5 0.8 ⬍ 0.1 8.2 2.6 10.8

flour
Dough, freeze 5.5 1.8 0.7 ⬍ 0.1 8.1 2.5 10.6
dried
Bread, whole, 5.3 1.9 1.1 0.4 8.7 2.7 11.4
fresh baked
55 min
Crumb, fresh 5.4 1.8 0.9 0.4 8.5 2.6 11.1
Crumb, dried 5.5 1.8 1.0 0.6 8.9 2.5 11.4
Crust, baked 55 4.4 1.8 1.4 0.2 7.8 3.2 11.0
min
Crust, baked 80 3.4 1.7 2.7 0.1 7.9 2.7 10.6
min
Adapted from Refs. 27,29

able to react either with water, thus forming maltodextrins, or with hydroxyl
groups on starch or other polysaccharides, to form new branched structures. Such
new linkages are not degradable with amylolytic enzymes and represent an irre-
versible chemical modification (28).
Fermentation can also result in changes of the DF content. Total DF in
natto and tempeh decreased slightly during fermentation. Pectic substances in
natto increased 14% versus the control. Among component sugars, the relative
amounts of arabinose, galactose, and galacturonic acid increased during the fer-
mentation because of the growing of the bacteria, while no significant change
was observed in the amount of DF. The hemicellulose fraction decreased in the
case of tempeh during fermentation (30). During sourdough fermentation there
is a decrease of the insoluble hemicelluloses by 2.7%, and even the soluble hemi-
celluloses are diminished by 0.9%; the xylose and arabinose are not determined
as DF anymore (31).
Baking of rye bread with sour dough containing acetic and lactic acid en-
hances the DF content by formation of RS during cooling, too; on the other side,
the non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) fraction is diminished. The same results are
gained by addition of the acid itself or with wheat bread, baked with wheat-
sourdough. The loss in the insoluble hemicelluloses starts with dough making,
mainly by destruction of the xylose side chains, and mannose- and galactose-
containing polymers, which does not result in a greater rising of the amount of
soluble hemicelluloses; most are not determined as DF anymore. There is a
greater influence of the acids on fine particles in flour than on coarse particles
as DF is not protected by intact cell structures and there is more destruction during
the baking process. During baking there is a further reduction of the insoluble
hemicelluloses, accompanied by a rising of the soluble part, without a change in
the arabinose/xylose ratio. In the crust there again is a reduction of the IDF
accompanied by a higher SDF and an increase of the lignin fraction. Baking of
pumpernickel bread, which has a long baking time (up to 24 hours), accompanied
by lower baking temperatures (12°C) results in a continuing reduction of insolu-
ble hemicelluloses, which in the end is about 2.4% lower than in the correspond-
ing whole grain flour. Parallel to this is a modest rising in the soluble hemicellu-
loses and a continuous rise of the lignin and the RS content, so that in the end
the DF in this process remains nearly constant (31).
It was shown (8) that low-temperature, extended (20 h at 120°C) baked
wholemeal breads contain higher amounts of RS than a corresponding ordinary
baked bread (40 min at 200°C): 3.0% or 5.4% (starch basis), respectively. With
added lactic acid (10.5 g lactic acid, 90 wt%, with 650 g flour, pH 4.3) or lactic
acid in combination with malt the RS formation was even more pronounced:
6.6% and 6.7% (starch basis), respectively. Addition of acetic acid on an equiva-
lent molar basis did not exert this effect, nor did malt or malt in combination
with acetic acid (8). With lactic acid added to bread baked under ordinary condi-
404 Rabe
tions, there was no increase in RS formation, which means the baking process
is the important part in RS formation. Sourdough-baking is an old traditionally
used process in Europe. Bread baked from flour containing a high amylose con-
tent, e.g. wholemeal high-amylose barley flour, with the low-temperature, ex-
tended process showed 7.7% RS (starch basis). This shows the formation of RS
is strongly related to the amylose content.
The baking process increases the content of Klason lignin. Since phenolic
propane lignin cannot be formed by baking, the increase is probably due to forma-
tion of highly resistant products such as Maillard products. Staling of bread af-
fects neither the content nor the composition of DF. The formation of RS takes
place within hours after gelatinization of starch. It involves recrystallization of
the amylose fraction (linear-(1,4)-α-D-glucose) whereas staling involves retro-
gradation of amylopectin (branched (1,4),(1,6)-α-D-glucose). The slow retrogra-
dation of amylopectin is due to difficulties with which bulky molecules crystal-
lize. On the other hand, linear amylose molecules associate very easily and
therefore retrograde easily (32).
Fiber enrichment in cereal products like bread or rolls is possible without
difficulties with material such as bran. Changes of theses products by processing
are very small compared to their DF content. As bakery products cannot further
be heated and cooled again without changing their appearance by browning prod-
ucts dramatically, the best way to get more RS into bread is by enrichment of
bread and fine baked goods with RS-rich material from high-amylose corn starch.
This can be done without problems by minimal changes in the production process
adjusting the water absorption; the bakery products show a whiter color than
with wheat bran. The incorporated RS remains practically unchanged. Dried and
ground crumb of wheat bread was added in concentrations of 5 and 10% to normal
flour and bread baked from it. The IDF content raised from 1.4% to 1.5–1.6%
with addition of 5% and to 1.7–1.8% with the addition of 10%. This small in-
crease is because the RS is a minor component in the dried bread, too. But it
shows RS is not affected by mixing, fermenting or baking. RS physiologically
shows functions similar to DF, but technologically it shows the same properties
as insoluble DF. Addition of 10% autoclaved wheat starch, high in RS, gives
breads with RS contents that are three times that of normal breads. Because the
production of RS is a costly procedure, especially if the product contains as much
RS as possible (which means a further treatment with α-amylase), the RS enrich-
ment in bread might be useful only in few cases, especially today where there
is a growing interest in food prepared without ‘‘additives.’’
Eerlingen et al. replaced 24% of wheat flour with 4% vital gluten and 20%
extruded, retrograded high-amylose starch. They produced breads with 8.4% RS
d.m. and 6.1% d.m. DF and with an excellent taste and shelf life. But the RS
level of the bread was lower than could be predicted from the analytical data of
the starting material, which they thought might be due to some RS destruction
in the bread making process. They found that the RS content in breads increased
significantly after seven days of storage (about 3% d.m.), while the DF content
remained unchanged. This indicates the observed increase could not be ascribed
to the formation of resistant retrograded amylose, but it seems possible that retro-
gradation of amylopectin increased the resistance to hydrolysis of the starch. This
was confirmed by DSC analysis (33).
Enrichment of cakes with fiber isolated from different seed hulls or waste
pulp of pineapple resulted in cakes with TDF up to 8% d.m. with no altered
sensory characteristics and volume. It was found that, although rich in insoluble
fraction, the incorporated fibers did not reflect a proportionate increase in the
insoluble fiber content of the products. This could possibly be due to heat pro-
cessing, which is often known to reduce the IDF components followed by a re-
lease of SDF (34).
When the brown seaweed hijiki (Hizikia fusiformis) was steamed for 6 h
or the brown seaweed kombu (Laminaria ochotensis) and the red seaweed nori
(Porphyra spp.) were boiled for 2 h (these treatments simulate conventional pro-
cessing of the seaweed), the SDF of all three seaweeds increased during heat
processing. Molecular weight of the soluble fraction decreased during heat treat-
ment, the decrease being greatest in nori (boiling for 1 h decreased Molecular
weight to 15% of the value in non-heated samples). IDF content decreased during
heating, the decrease being greatest for kombu (boiling for 1 h reduced the value
to approx. 40% of the IDF content of raw samples). Molecular weights of the
main leached-out fractions were comparable to those of the SDF (35).
Total DF in 15 kinds of fresh and cooked vegetables commercially avail-
able was 1.1 to 6.2 g/100 g fresh weight, and the ratio of insoluble to soluble
DF was from 90:10 to 58:42 according to the kind of sample. TDF in normally
cooked vegetables was 1.4 to 5.6 g/100 g weight, and the ratio of insoluble to
soluble DF was from 86:14 to 57:43. Changes in TDF contents during normal
heat treatment occurred in edible burdock, green peas with pod, garland chrysan-
themum, Japanese radish, eggplant, Chinese cabbage, spinach and sweet pepper.
The changes were within 6 to 17%. Turnip, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, Chinese
chives, carrot, and broccoli showed little or no change in content during normal
heat treatment. DF was further decreased by boiling for up to 22.5 min in turnip,
cauliflower, edible burdock, Japanese radish, eggplant, carrot, Chinese cabbage,
and sweet pepper, whereas the content did not change in other vegetables (36).
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT PROCESSES

Temperature changes in extrusion-cooking are less important than those observed
for mechanical energy. Solubilization results from mechanical transformation
rather than from thermal effects. The total amounts of DF are similar (50.4–
406 Rabe
52.2%) for most of the extruded products (Table 4) (37). A remarkable fact is
that the content of soluble fiber increases from 8 to 16% with increased severity
of treatment. The xylose to arabinose ratio in the SDF increased after extrusion-
cooking indicating preferential solubilization of slightly branched arabinoxylans.
Phenolic acids, mainly ferulic acid, which are ester-linked to the arabinoxylans,
are also solubilized. Water absorption capacity, as measured by the Baumann
method, increases from 270 for untreated bran to 375% for the products processed
under low severity treatments (6).
The influence of various processes on the TDF content is small. The most
significant changes are found when autoclaving or popping under severe condi-
tions. These processes decrease the TDF content by 0.7% and 2.0-3.2% d.m.,
respectively. The effect of autoclaving is mainly seen as a loss of arabinoxylans.
These components are known to be sensitive to thermal degradation under the
weakly acidic conditions commonly prevailing in foods. Processing under severe
conditions produces a redistribution of DF from insoluble to soluble, most pro-
nounced in the case of popping (24).
Deep fat frying does not change the DF content very much, because the
water content of the products is nearly the same as in the dough (loss about 10%)
and the frying time is not very long. The same processes take place in the crust
of bread, i.e., changing from insoluble to soluble hemicelluloses and building of
‘‘lignins’’; the temperatures are not that high (about 180°C) (26). During the
production of normal pasta, the changing DF content is only affected by RS.
After cold extrusion of the pasta dough, the RS content of the fresh pasta is about
0.8% d.m., changing to negligible amounts (0.1%) after drying for 12 hours.
The explanation is this RS might be formed during the hydrolysis for the DF
determination. Only small amounts of hemicellulosic material are leached into
the water during cooking of pasta in plenty of water. On the other hand, non-
TABLE 4 Insoluble, soluble, and total DF content (%DM) of wheat bran

after different conditions of extrusion cooking
Spec.
Screw Water Product mechanical. Dietary fiber
speed added temperature energy
(rev/min) (% of dry matter) (°C) (KWh/t) Insol. Sol. Total
250 17.5 120 232 41.4 10.8 52.2
250 8.7 126 301 38.3 12.0 50.3
240 11.3 113 316 37.3 13.9 51.4
240 6.1 105 386 30.7 16.0 46.7
Adapted from Ref. 37

DF-material is extracted into the water, too, resulting in higher DF values. This
is also found with cooked vegetables. On the other hand, RS is built in large
amounts (about 1% d.m.), because during cooking, the starch is completely gelati-
nized. During cooling more amylose can recrystallize than in bread, where the
available water is limiting this process. Corresponding to this, more RS is found
in bread that was baked with higher amounts of dough water (38).
HTST (high-temperature, short-time) extrusion-cooking causes a redistri-
bution of insoluble to soluble DF with a constant TDF content. Thus in raw wheat
flour 40% of total fiber is soluble versus 50-75% in the extruded products. Even
in the products processed under mild conditions (screw speed 150 rpm, mass
temperature 161°C), the redistribution is statistically significant. In raw whole
grain wheat flour, 15% of the total fiber is soluble, versus about 20% after pro-
cessing. Extrusion cooking of pure wheat starch does not affect its digestibility.
However, extrusion cooking of wheat flour increases the fermentability. No such
effect is obtained with extruded whole grain wheat flour. Extrusion cooking pri-
marily affects the fermentability of the smaller fiber fraction connected with the
endosperm. In extruded wheat flour, the solubilization of fiber might be a factor
in increasing the availability to microorganisms. In general, soluble fiber is more
easily fermented than insoluble fiber (19,39).
Considering the different components of IDF, i.e., cellulose, lignins, and
insoluble hemicelluloses, it is the hemicelluloses that are broken down during
processing. Cellulose and lignins are resistant to the attack of acids in concentra-
tions used in food processing. Enzymes like cellulase, which can degrade cellu-
lose and lignins, but which are proteins, are inactivated soon after the beginning
of the heating. That means these enzymes can only act during the period before
baking, proofing, or fermentation. Heating, on the other hand, induces the build-
ing of new structures as temperature and time chemical reactions start. These
reactions become evident with the appearance of browning products by the Mail-
lard reaction. As the resulting products can be quite complex, they show the same
attributes as lignins, e.g. insoluble and undegradable. In SDF, it is mainly the
pectins and soluble hemicelluloses that are degraded. If there is enough water,
as in cooking fruit and vegetables, hemicelluloses and pectins are leached into
the water. Wet heat first solubilizes the pectins and then destroys them by degrad-
ing the galacturonan chains. In products rich in starch or amylose, there is the
building of the enzyme-resistant starch fraction in cooling after the heating-pro-
cess. Generally, the level of water soluble fraction increases with severity of
processing conditions, the water soluble fraction coming mainly from hemicellu-
lose (18). Extrusion most significantly modifies the properties of DF.
Altogether, processing under normal conditions has little effect on the
amount of TDF content when expressed on an ‘‘as is’’ basis. Results on dry
matter basis are more affected. Additionally, other, indirect effects can also be
seen: cooking can cause a small but significant increase in DF due to loss of
408 Rabe
non-fiber components, resulting in an ‘‘enrichment’’ of the fiber. Deep-fat frying,

on the other hand, results in a dilution of the DF due to the incorporation of fat
in the baked goods. Different methods of DF and RS determinations might be
the reason for conflicting results. Considering the small amount of dietary fiber
in and consumed from vegetables and fruits, the changes in DF by processing
may not be of physiological significance. Physically modified high-fiber products
such as wheat bran with an altered relation of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber
may be of interest in the future as the physiological effects with the components
of the fiber.
REFERENCES
1. Sievert, D., Seibel, W., Rabe, E. & Pfeilsticker, K. (1987) Getreide Mehl Brot 41,
172–177
2. Mongeau, R. & Brassard, R. (1982) Cereal Chem. 59, 413–417
3. Brodribb, A.J.M. & Groves, C. (1978) Gut 19, 60–65
4. Wyman, J.B., Heaton, K.W, Manning, A. P. & Wicks, A.C.B. (1976) Am. J. Clin.
Nutr. 29, 1474–1479
5. Björck, I., Nyman, M. & Asp, N.-G. (1984) Cereal Chem. 61, 174–179
6. Englyst, H.N., Quigley, M.E. & Hudson, G.J. (1995) European J. Clin. Nutr. 49,
Suppl.3, S48–S62
7. Englyst, H.N., Anderson, V. & Cummings, J.H. (1983) J. Sci. Food Agric. 34, 1434–
1440
8. Liljeberg, H., Akerberg, A. & Björck, I. (1996) Food Chem. 56, 389–394
9. Delcour, J. A. & Eerlingen, R.C. (1996) Cereal Foods World 41, 85–86
10. Eerlingen, R.C. & Delcour, J.A. (1995) J. Cer. Sci. 22, 129–138
11. Berry, C.S. (1986) J. Cereal Sci. 4, 301–314
12. Tovar, J., Björck, I. M. & Asp, A.-G. (1990) J. Agric. Food Chem. 38, 488–493
13. Tovar, J., Björck, I. M. & Asp, A.-G. (1980) J. Agric. Food Chem. 38, 1818–1823
14. Englyst, H. N., Kingman, S. M. & Cummings, J. H. (1992) European J. Clin. Nutr.
46, Suppl.2, S33–S50
15. Goni, I., Garcia-Diz, L., Manas, E. & Saura-Calixto, F. (1996) Food Chem. 56, 445–
449
16. Rabe, E. (1994) in: Asp, N.-G., van Amelsvoort, J.M.M. & and Hautvast, J.G.A.J.
(Ed.) Proceedings of the concluding plenary meeting of EURESTA–Wageningen:
EURESTA, 146–148
17. Jae-Kwan, H., Chong-Tai, K., Sung-Ja, C. & Chul-Jin, K. (1995) Korean J. Food
Sci. Technol. 27, 394–403; from English summary
18. Anderson, N.E. & Clydesdale, F. M. (1980) J. Food Sci 45, 1533–1537
19. Seibel, W. Sievert, D. & Seiler, K. (1988) Mühle ⫹ Mischfuttertechn. 125, 487–
489
20. Artz, W.E., Warren, C. &Villota, R. (1990) J. Food Sci. 55, 746–750,754
21. Keijbets, M.J.H., Pilnik, W. & Vaal, J.F.A. (1976) Potato Res. 19, 289–303
22. Thed, S.T. & Phillips, R. D. (1995) Food Chem. 52, 301–304
23. Varo, P., Veijalainen, K. & Koivistoinen, P. (1984) J. Food Technol. 19, 485–492
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(1986) J. Cereal Sci. 4, 315–323
25. Gebhardt, E. (1996) Ernähr./Nutr. 20, 397–405
48–152
27. Sievert, D., Seibel, W., Rabe, E. & Pfeilsticker, K. (1989) Ernähr./Nutr. 13, 75–81
28. Siljestöm, M., Björck, I. and Westerlund, E. (1989) Starch/Stärke 41, 95–100
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101–106
30. Taguchi, K., Kawabata, M., Ohtsuki, K. & Tanaka, Y. (1986) J. Japan. Soc. Nutr.
Food Sci. 39, 203–208; from English summary
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172–176
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Chem. 71, 165–170
34. Sreenath, H.K., Sudarshanakrishna, K.R., Prassad, N.N., and Santhanam, K. (1996)
Starch/Stärke 48, 72–76
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Sci Fisheries 59, 1371–1375; from English summary
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from English summary
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259–264
39. Björck, I., M. Nyman and N.-G. Asp (1984) Cereal Chem. 61, 174–179
28
Application of Complex
Carbohydrates to Food Product
Fat Mimetics
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

LEON PROSKY
INTRODUCTION
Except in cases of obesity, where the energy consumed had to be reduced in
order to lose weight, fat in the diet and its effect on the overall health of the
consumer was hardly considered to be of importance until the 1980s. Reduced-
calorie foods shared a small portion of the market, which was directed toward
persons with obesity or persons deciding to maintain their body weight through
calorie restriction. For the most part, calorie reduction was sought through the
reduction in the intake of carbohydrates even though carbohydrate restriction
resulted in smaller calorie reductions compared to fats.
Consumers are growing increasingly aware of the link between fat intake
and excess weight and heart disease. Dietary recommendations are to reduce the
411
412 Cho and Prosky
current fat intake at 37% of calories to no more than 30% (1). Unfortunately,
this task is made more difficult by the presence of hidden saturated fat present
in processed foods, particularly packaged dry goods (2). Nevertheless, over the
past 15 years, low-fat food products incorporating fat substitutes or replacers
have risen exponentially to meet consumer demand. The major classes of fat
replacers are carbohydrates, proteins, emulsifiers, reduced-calorie fats, and syn-
thetic fats. The focus of this chapter will be on carbohydrate-based replacers and
their functions in low-fat products. But first, some of the reasons for the shift
towards consuming less fat will be discussed.
FAT INTAKE AND DISEASE

There is a growing body of evidence that suggests high fat intake may specifically
contribute to overeating and obesity, more so than other dietary energy sources
like carbohydrates. Although fat is energy dense, it appears to have a weak effect
on satiety (3). In contrast to the carbohydrates, fat oxidation seems to be is largely
unrelated to fat intake, and dietary fats are more efficiently used and more readily
converted to body fat (3). In fact, recent evidence suggests that carbohydrates
may not make a significant contribution to body fat in humans under normal
feeding conditions in humans (3). Finally, there is longitudinal data that point to
a causal relationship between fat intake and weight gain over time in certain
individuals (3).
Official recommendations are based on the evidence that reduced fat, par-
ticularly saturated fat, leads to a reduction in serum cholesterol, a known risk
factor for coronary heart disease. Some investigators have also postulated that a
reduction in fat intake may decrease mortality from breast, colon, and prostate
cancers (4–6). Browner and colleagues have estimated that if the population were
to follow the current dietary recommendations for fat intake, coronary heart dis-
ease mortality rates could decrease as much as 20% depending on age (7). Based
on their assumptions of the relationship between fat intake and heart disease and
cancer, they have also estimated that 42,000 of the 2.3 million adult deaths oc-
curring in the U.S. each year could be deferred (7).
The general consensus is that both the quantity and type of dietary fat are
important in preventing certain chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease.
The Eskimos, for example, ingest mainly a high fat diet of fish, and experience
less coronary heart disease and thrombosis than persons eating the high fat diets
that contain mostly saturated fats (9). The major mechanism would seem to be
the effects of the fats on the proportion of serum cholesterol associated with the
high-density lipoproteins (HDL) as compared with the serum cholesterol associ-
ated with the low-density lipoproteins (LDL). That is, the diets that have a higher
proportion of polyunsaturated fats, such as those diets that contain fish and certain
vegetable sources or the monounsaturated (e.g. olive oil) fats, tend to reduce the
Food Product Fat Mimetics 413
risk from CHD. Conversely, diets rich in saturated fats increase the ratio of LDL-
cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol increasing the risk of a coronary heart disease
incident (9,10). However, it is not quite as simple as it seems because different
saturated fats and dietary sources of saturated fat have different influences on
the level of LDL-cholesterol (11). For example, dairy products which are high
in myristic acid (14: 0) appear to increase levels of LDL-cholesterol whereas beef
fat, containing palmitic (16: 0) and stearic (18 : 0) acids, do so to a lesser extent
and cocoa butter, with a high proportion of stearic acid, increases LDL-choles-
terol only slightly. This would strongly indicate that other dietary constituents
are interacting and playing a vital role in this process.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAT REPLACER MARKET

In the 1980s, significant changes in the official nutritional recommendations were
made when the relationship of carbohydrates and of fats to diet and health were
better understood. Reports of the National Advisory Committee on Nutrition Edu-
cation (NACNE) and the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy
(COMA) in the United Kingdom indicated that fat intake should be reduced from
42%, at the time, to 34% or 35% of total food energy in the diet (12,13). Further
recommendations were to reduce the intake of saturated fat to 10% (NACNE)
or 15% (COMA) of the food energy, to decrease salt intake, and to increase in
the consumption of complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber (12,13).
Similar developments took place in the United States. The U.S. Surgeon
General published a major review on nutrition and health proposing that the di-
etary energy from fat be reduced to 30% (1). A further review carried out by
the National Academy of Sciences (14) resulted in the U.S. government report
‘‘Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans’’ (15). Recent
data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES III, 1989–91) showed that Americans are currently consuming ap-
proximately 34% of their total calories as fat (16), but this is still considerably
higher than the goal.
Nevertheless, there is an increasing trend to reduce dietary fat intake by
consuming low-fat and reduced-fat foods (17). The production of low-fat, high-
fiber products came to the forefront with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) final rule published in the Federal Register. The ruling stated that the
grams of total dietary fiber could be subtracted from the grams of carbohydrate
of the food before using the Atwater conversion factor (4 kcal/g) to determine the
caloric content of the food (18). This provided a mechanism for calorie reduction
through the ingestion of more fruits, cereal grains, and vegetables, all containing
high dietary fiber, and manufacturing of foods supplemented with dietary fiber
fractions. At the present time, only the insoluble dietary fiber may be subtracted
414 Cho and Prosky
from the carbohydrate content before calculating the calorie content of the
food (19).
However, the major reduction in calories could only be obtained when
along with the higher content of dietary fiber, the fat in the product could be
replaced by a fat substitute. Because of consumer demand for low-fat and low-
cholesterol products, reduced-calorie and low-fat or fat-free food products repre-
sent the fastest-growing segments of the food industry (20). It has been estimated
that the total retail sales of all products using fat substitutes would reach $6.2
billion in 1996 (20).
In order to be a successful reducer of fat content of a food, the fat replacer
or substitute must impart certain characteristics to the food product. Among these
are flavor, mouthfeel, texture, structure, process performance, shelf life and ap-
pearance. The sensation of a fatty mouthfeel is formed by a combination of sev-
eral inadequately defined and quantified parameters including viscosity, absorp-
tion, cohesiveness, and waxiness (21). The food industry has also found that
instead of trying to match particular products, it may be better to create something
different. Many times a familiar brand name may at first attract persons to the
product, but it also gives them a standard frame of reference. Sometimes the
process must be dramatically altered to accommodate the new formulation and
yet yield a product similar to full-fat product.
The real potential for growth of low-fat foods and therefore fat replacers
depends upon the quality of the low-fat product, technology to further improve
quality, marketing to widen the range of low-fat foods, and consumer willingness
to accept low-fat foods as an essential part of their diet (21). The taste and texture
of low-fat foods must be equivalent to that of standard products for consumer
acceptance. Consumers will not trade off product quality even if the product is
perceived to have healthy aspects which are important to the consumer (17).
Many of the lightly processed low-fat cheeses, biscuits, and mayonnaise produced
to date have failed in this regard. Sauces and dressings have been more successful
because the strong flavor systems are largely independent of fat content (21).
CARBOHYDRATE-BASED FAT REPLACERS

The major carbohydrate-based fat substitutes include starches, maltodextrins,
polydextrose, altered sugars, pectin, gums, and other dietary fibers. By stabilizing
substantial quantities of water in a gel-like matrix, this group of fat replacers
mimics some of the textural and functional characteristics of fat. The functionali-
ties of the different carbohydrate-based fat replacers are described below. Most
of the carbohydrate-based ingredients are ‘‘label-friendly’’ and have GRAS
(Generally Recognized As Safe) status by the U.S. FDA. However, certain carbo-
hydrate-based fat substitutes (e.g. polydextrose, xanthan gum, and gellan gum)
are approved for use only in specific applications (22,23). An extensive listing
of companies that have produced carbohydrate-based products to reduce, extend,

or replace fat in low-fat products are listed in a chapter by Jones (25). The leading
manufacturers and their products are shown in Table 1.
Polydextrose
Polydextrose is prepared by vacuum thermal polymerization of glucose, using
sorbitol as a plasticizer and citric acid as a catalyst (25). Although 1–6 glycosidic
bonds predominate (both alpha and beta), polydextrose is composed almost en-
tirely of randomly cross-linked glucose polymers. The energy value of polydex-
trose is only 1 kcal/g because the random bonding renders it relatively resistant
to digestive enzymes, with a large proportion excreted unchanged in the feces
(26). Because of the low digestibility of polydextrose, laxative effects have been
observed above the threshold value of 90 g/d (26). No deleterious effects of
polydextrose have been observed in animal testing, and it does not appear to
interfere with the absorption and utilization of essential vitamins, minerals, or
amino acids (27).
Polydextrose exists in five forms, all of which are highly stable (28). The
original polydextrose powder is available in coarse (Pfizer, Inc.) and fine (A. E.
Staley) granulations and has a tart/bitter aftertaste (pH of 2.5 to 3.5). Type N
polydextrose is a 70% solution neutralized with potassium hydroxide to a pH of
5.0 to 6.0 and has been described as being slightly sweet-salty-bitter (26–28).
Type K polydextrose is a powder buffered to the same pH as type N with potas-
sium bicarbonate. In solution, polydextrose type K has a slightly sweet-sour-
bitter taste (30). The fourth form, type F (Litesse, Pfizer, Inc.), is an improved
polydextrose powder with reduced titratable acidity and a bland/neutral taste.
The recently developed Litesse II (Pfizer, Inc.) has tenfold lower titratable acid-
ity than Litesse and has been described as having a clean, mildly sweet taste.
With lower acidity levels, Litesse II can be used at much higher concentrations
than previous versions of polydextrose and has negligible sucrose inversion and
minimal effects on fat rancidity (26).
As a low-calorie bulking agent, polydextrose reduces the calories of full-
sugar foods while maintaining body and texture. Polydextrose can also contribute
to the mouthfeel and creaminess of fat-reduced formulations because of its high
viscosity in solution (26). Because polydextrose slows moisture changes in foods,
its use in dry mixes improves flowability, assures uniform dispersion, and pre-
vents lumping (28). The essentially bland taste of polydextrose renders it applica-
ble to both sweet and savory applications. However, certain sweet products, such
as confectionary, usually require the addition of a high intensity sweetener like
aspartame, acesulfame-K, or alitame (26). An example of a low-fat confectionary
product containing polydextrose is Lo, launched in 1991 by the Leaf Group in
Finland. Thus, polydextrose has been used in the preparation of bakery goods
416 Cho and Prosky
TABLE 1 Carbohydrate-based fat replacers and their manufacturers

Trade Name Manufacturer/Developer Product Components
AF Fiber ITD Corp. Almond hemicelluloses

Amalean I, American Maize Products Co. Modified high amylose maize
Amalean II starch
Avicel FMC Corp. Microcrystalline cellulose ⫹
carboxymethylcellulose gel
Avicel RCN-30 FMC Corp. Cellulose ⫹ maltodextrin ⫹
xanthan gum
Avicel RCN-15, FMC Corp. Cellulose ⫹ guar gum
Avicel RCN-10
CentuTex Woodstone Foods Golden pea fiber
C*Pur 01906 Cerestar Potato maltodextrin
Fibercel Alpha-Beta Technology β-Glucan from yeast
Fibrex Delta Fibre Foods Sugarbeet fiber
Fibrim Protein Technologies Soy hemicelluloses
International
Fibruline Cosucra Inulin
Frutafit Suiker Unie Inulin
Kelcogel Kelco Carrageenan
Kelcogel BF Kelco Gellan gum
Kel-Lite Kelco Xanthan/Guar gum blend
Litesse, Pfizer Food Science Polydextrose
Litesse II
Natureal Alko Oat starch, oat fiber
N-Lite National Starch and Chemical Starch
Co.
Novagel NC 200 FMC Corp. Microcrystalline cellulose ⫹
carageenan
Nutricol FMC Corp. Konjac flour gel
Paselli Excel Avebe Maltodextrin
Pretested Colloid TIC Gums Gum arabic, modified starch,
No Fat 102 and alginate blend
Raftiline Orafti Inulin
Raftincreaming Tiense Suikkerraffinaderij Inulin
Services
Slendid Hercules Pectin gel
Solka Floc James River Corp. β-1,4-Glucan polymer
Stellar Amylum Maize starch
TrimChoice A. E. Staley Manufacturing β-Glucans (dextrins) from oat
(Oatrim) Co. (ConAgra Specialty flour
Grain Products)
Vitacel J. Rettenmaier and Sohne Microfibrillated wheat fibers
⫹ maltodextrin
and baking mixtures, in confectionery products to partially replace either sugar

(including corn syrup) or fat, in frozen desserts and dairy products to replace
sugar and butter fat, and in fruit jellies (29). In contrast to other high-weight
polysaccharides, polydextrose can achieve a 90% or greater calorie reduction in
gelatin-type desserts. Polydextrose has also been shown to provide mouthfeel,
viscosity, and bulk to low-fat spoonable and pourable dressings (26).
Maltodextrins
The success of starchy products in reducing the fat content in food formulations
is partially dependent upon having particle sizes small enough to simulate fat
emulsions. Small particle native starches from certain grass and cereal seeds exist,
but their use is uneconomical due to the production costs involved in their prepa-
ration (17). For this reason, enzymatic degradation of starch polysaccharides has
been employed to produce maltodextrins as fat replacers. Typical starch sources
are corn, potato, tapioca, and rice. With dextrose equivalents (DE, an indication
of the extent of starch hydrolysis) below 20, maltodextrins are highly digestible
(supplying 4 kcal/g), are easy to blend with other dry ingredients, are readily
dissolved, and have low viscosity in solution (30). Low-DE maltodextrin gels
(consisting of 1 part maltodextrin and 3 parts water) only have 1 kcal/g.
The most useful characteristic of maltodextrins in fat replacement is their
ability to form thermoreversible gels that melt upon heating and reset to compara-
ble gel strength when cooled (31). The main function of the soft and spreadable
maltodextrin gels is to provide texture and mouthfeel simulation of fats in food
products. Maltodextrins may also act as bulking agents. However, like native
starches, maltodextrins have the tendency to retrograde slowly in food products
during storage (31). Low-DE (i.e. DE ⬍ 5) maltodextrins can also exhibit variable
freeze-thaw stability, unreliable heat and acid stability, and an undesirable starchy
flavor to delicate foods if used at high concentrations (38). Many stable food
starches used as fat replacers are chemically modified to be resistant to tempera-
ture, shear, and low pH levels encountered in processing (17,28) (Table 1).
Low-DE maltodextrins derived from potato starch have advantages over
those produced from other starch sources. Potato starch is thought to retrograde
less readily than other starches because of its longer chain amylose molecules,
reducing the tendency for turbidity and undesirable texture (30). In addition to
being thermoreversible, the potato-based maltodextrin gels are pH stable (pH 3–
7), can withstand shearing and heating effects, and have a unique plastic,
spreadable, shorthening-like texture (30). Commercial maltodextrins derived
from potato starch include C*Pur 01906 (Cerestar), Paselli SA2 (Avebe), and
Lycadex 100 (Roquette).
Maltodextrins can be used in a variety of products. The shortening-like
texture of potato maltodextrins makes them ideal as fat replacers in baked prod-
418 Cho and Prosky
ucts such as cakes, muffins, and cookies by increasing dough viscosity and im-
proving aeration (30). Low-DE maltodextrins promote water-in-oil emulsions and
have thus been used in low-fat cheese products, spreads, sauces, soups, and salad
dressings (29,39,40). Because Cerestar’s C*Pur 01906 has a minimum gelling
concentration of 12% (vs. 18% of other maltodextrins), lower levels are required
in low-fat spread formulations and the unpleasant starchy flavor associated with
high maltodextrins levels can be avoided. C*Pur 01906 has also been shown to
provide better flavor release in low-fat spreads due to its ability to lose 50% of
its gel structure at oral temperatures (31). In addition to being a fat replacer,
maltodextrins can stabilize and enhance the body and viscosity of ice cream
and other dairy products (32,33). There have also been recommendations for mal-
todextrin use as fat replacers in meat products such as frankfurters and ham-
burgers (31).
CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
Microcrystalline Cellulose
Microcrystalline cellulose powder (Avicel, FMC Corp.) is a nonfibrous form
of cellulose produced by acid hydrolysis of the cellulose pulp (34). Intense shear
forces (i.e. wet mechanical disintegration) are used to form the colloidal variant
of microcrystalline cellulose. To prevent reaggregation of the colloidal crystalline
aggregates during drying, soluble hydrocolloids such as carboxymethylcellulose
(Avicel RC/CL), xanthan gum (Avicel RCN30), or alginate (Avicel
AC815) are introduced (42). Powdered forms of microcrystalline cellulose are
commonly used as an inert fiber source and non-caloric bulking agent. Colloidal
microcrystalline cellulose is physically and structurally similar to an oil-in-water
emulsion and imparts the fat-like mouthfeel of full-fat products (34). In addition
to being a general stabilizer in food formulations, colloidal Avicel products are
used as fat replacers in salad dressings, bakery products, dairy products, ice cream
and frozen desserts, cheese, spreads, and processed meats. In frozen foods, colloi-
dal microcrystalline cellulose prevents ice crystal formation during freeze-thaw
cycles (42).
The Novagel (FMC Corp.) range of fat mimetics, developed in the late
1980s, are cellulose microcrystals co-processed with 10–15% guar gum (Nova-
gel RCN 10, Novagel RCN 15) which forms pliable, spherical particles in
solution (34). In food formulations, these particles impart a creamy mouthfeel,
body, opacity, and fat-like consistency to products. Novagel and Avicel prod-
ucts have similar food applications. In reduced fat cheese products, Novagel
breaks and lubricates the elastic protein structure formed in the absence of fat,
improving both melting and eating properties (43). Recent ‘‘light’’ processed
cheese formulations with Novagel NC 200 have employed carageenan gum
(extracted from red seaweed) to interact directly with casein micelles from the
milk-based ingredients, resulting in textures resembling the full-fat control (35).
Often, the whey and water separation is the most difficult process operation to
control when making reduced-fat cheeses that contain fat substitutes (35).
Methylcellulose Gums
Methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) are gums de-
rived from chemical modification of cellulose (Methocel, Dow Chemical Co.).
In forming MC, cellulose is treated with alkali (e.g. sodium hydroxide) followed
by methyl chloride. For the production of HPMC, propylene oxide is added to the
reaction mixture (36). The degree of substitution (amount of substituent groups up
to a maximum of three on the anhydroglucose units of cellulose) and the molar
substitution (average number of molecules of substituent per anhydroglucose
molecule; used for HPMC only) affects the physicochemical properties of MC
and HPMC (37). Such properties include water retention, electrolyte sensitivity,
dissolution temperature, gelation characteristics, and solubility in nonaqueous
systems.
Both MC and HPMC gel at high temperatures, which is opposite to that
observed with plant-derived gums. This unique property reduces fat uptake in
fried foods and provides a barrier to moisture loss during baking and cooling.
MC and HPMC provide controlled pourability and mouthfeel characteristics to
low-calorie sauces and salad dressings. HPMC stabilizes fat droplets and air cells
in reduced-fat frozen desserts, and both MC and HPMC inhibit ice-crystal forma-
tion during freeze-thaw cycles. Foam stability characteristics of MC and HPMC,
as well as fat-like mouthfeel, have led to their incorporation in low-fat whipped
toppings as well (36).
Bacterial Cellulose
A new form of cellulose called bacterial cellulose has been produced by the action
of Acetobacter aceti. At 97% water by weight, bacterial cellulose is paste-like
and comprised of flocks of microfibrils which swell and disperse homogeneously
at a level of 3% in solution. The viscosity of the suspension is low compared to
common thickeners. This cellulose has the highest water-holding capacity among
commercial cellulose products and is considered as a low-calorie material and
fat substitute (38). In food formulations, bacterial cellulose functions as a heat-
stable suspending agent and as a filler to reinforce the body of fragile food hy-
drogels. Bacterial cellulose improves the quality of pastry products by reducing
their stickiness. It also can be added to meat products as a fat substitute and to
jam as a non-caloric bulking agent (39).
420 Cho and Prosky
Pectin
Pectin is a soluble dietary fiber obtained by mildly acidic aqueous extraction of
plant material, the main sources being citrus peel and apple pomace (40). Slen-
did products (Hercules Inc.) are fat replacers based on pectin fiber. Pectins have
different degrees of esterification (the percentage of methyl-esterified galacturo-
nic acid units). Low-ester pectins (Slendid 100 and 110) typically range from
20–40% whereas high-ester pectins (Slendid 200) are between 55 and 75%
(40). To function as a fat replacers, Slendid is dissolved in water, gelled with
calcium ions, and sheared into small particles to mimic the physical and sensory
characteristics of emulsified fats (41). In contrast, Slendid 200 does not gel or
dissolve in water but swells and instantaneously forms soft and flexible particles
with an average size greater than 200 µm. The original size of these soft particles
is significantly reduced with food processing (40,41). The Slendid line of prod-
ucts are stable to heat, pH, shear, and salt, have a neutral taste, and are almost
calorie-free (40).
Slendid may be used to partially or fully replace fat in a wide range
of products: spreads, mayonnaises, salad dressings, processed meats, ice cream,
processed cheeses, soups and sauces, desserts, and bakery products. The use of
Slendid in spreads and mayonnaise can reduce the fat content from 80% in the
full-fat version to 20% and 3%, respectively (40). Slendid 200 was developed
for use in low-fat spreads and emulsified meat products to eliminate the water
homogenization step (41). In soups and sauces, Slendid 100 and 110 (the 110
type being more viscous) are preferentially used because of their superior heat
stability to Slendid 200 (40).
GUMS
Gums, due to their high water-holding capacity, are used as thickeners and viscos-
ity enhancers in food applications. Gums provide texture and gloss and often add
a fat-like mouthfeel to food products. The type of gum used for a particular food
application is dependent upon many factors. Temperature and shear affects the
solubility and dispersibility of gums. Time, pH, temperature, and concentration
can also affect viscosity formation as well as gel-forming characteristics of gums
(22). Gums used in food applications, some of which are described below, include
agar, alginate, gum arabic, carrageenan, curdlan, konjac, guar gum, gellan gum,
locust bean gum, pectin, and xanthan gum.
Galactomannan Gums
The main galactomannan gums used in commercial applications are guar gum
and locust bean gum. Both gums are composed of a linear chain of α-1,4 linked
D-mannose with single α-D-galactose units linked 1,6 with the main mannan
chain (42). Because of its lower mannose:galactose ratio, guar gum solubilizes
at lower temperatures than locust bean gum. Thus guar gum is cold water soluble
and produces highly viscous, pseudoplastic solutions (43). In contrast, locust bean
gum must be heated (80°C) for complete hydration and viscosity development.
The main function of galactomannans in low-fat foods is not as a fat-re-
placer per se but to imbibe water and control viscosity (28). This becomes increas-
ingly important as the fat level in foods is reduced. Both locust bean gum and
guar gum have been used as stabilizers in ice cream and other frozen desserts
to control ice and sugar crystal growth (42). The stabilizing properties of galacto-
mannan gums have made them useful in low-fat cheese products, bakery goods,
and sauces and dressings.
Xanthan Gum
Unlike galactomannans, xanthan is produced from the microorganism Xanthamo-
nas campestris under anaerobic fermentation conditions. The main polymer chain
consists of β-1,4 linked D-glucose units as in cellulose but with alternate residues
substituted with a charged trisaccharide group (mannose-glucuronic acid-man-
nose) linked 1,3 with the main chain (42). Solutions of xanthan gum, which is
readily soluble in hot or cold water, are highly pseudoplastic, resulting in ex-
tremely high viscosities when not under the influence of shear. These properties
persist even at very low (0.1%) concentrations of xanthan which contributes to
its effectiveness as a stabilizer in low-fat foods (42).
Xanthan gums are generally used as stabilizers in dressing, sauces, and
mayonnaises to exploit its weak-gel, pseudoplastic properties. In pourable dress-
ings, the resting gel structure suspends particulate matter, making the dressing
visually attractive. The small shear forces produced by the act of pouring are
enough to break down this structure and allow the dressing to pour from the
bottle. The dressing clings to the food instead of draining off because the gel
structure rapidly reforms (52). Xanthan gums also have good flavor release char-
acteristic due to its highly pseudoplastic nature. Kelco has a line of products
(Keltrol, Keltrol BT, and Keltrol RD) made from xanthan gum. Keltrol BT (brine
tolerant), with improved hydration over regular Keltrol in high salt systems, is
suitable for use in chili sauces, marinades, barbecue sauces, thickened soy sauce,
and relishes. Keltrol RD, a readily dispersible xanthan gum, requires mimimal
mixing and eliminates dust problems during processing (24).
Other Gums
The three types of carrageenan gums (κ-, ι-, and λ-carrageenan), extracted from
red seaweed, differ in the content and distribution of sulfate ester groups (53,54).
ι-Carrageenan forms thermoreversible gels that are clear, elastic and syneresis-
422 Cho and Prosky
free in the presence of calcium ions (53,54). κ-Carrageenan forms strong, rigid
gels, and its tendency toward syneresis is controlled by blending with ι-carra-
geenan (53,54). λ-Carrageenan acts as a thickener but has no gel-forming proper-
ties (54). Of the three types of carrageenans, the ι-type has the greatest freeze-
thaw stability (53,54). Carrageenans bind water, improve the texture and slicing
properties of processed meats, and reduce cooking losses (49). Carrageenans have
been used in the production of low-fat cheese products, gelled milk desserts, milk
drinks, and low sugar jams and jellies (43,49). A commercial brand of carra-
geenan is Kelcogel by Kelco.
Kelco has recently developed the biosynthetic gellan gum (Kelcogel BF)
which was approved for non-standardized food use by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) in November 1992 (24). Kelcogel BF produces strong
gels, which have excellent clarity and are stable to heat and a wide range of
pH levels. Highly versatile, Kelcogel BF has created new textural variations for
confections, dessert gels, dairy products, frostings, icings and glazes, puddings,
jams and jellies, and structured foods (24).
Konjac flour gel is the basis of the Nutricol product from FMC Corp. Like
other hydrocolloid gums, Nutricol provides viscosity and simulates the sensory
properties of fats. The incorporation of the konjac flour gel at 10–20% in low-
fat prerigor pork sausage resulted in a product with similar shear force and sen-
sory textural attributes to the full-fat control. The cooked low-fat sausage with
konjac flour gel was less than 15% whereas the full-fat control sausage fat levels
were over 40% (55).
Hydrocolloid Gum Blends

Gelatin is a well-established product that has an important use as a fat replacer
in low-fat spreads, yogurt, sauces, dressings, desserts, and ice cream (56). The
introduction of combinations of gelatin with various hydrocolloids has resulted
in new plastic textures that closely mimic the mouthfeel of fats. Slimgel (PB
Gelatins), launched in 1992, is a family of blends consisting of gelatin and guar
or locust bean gum (Slimgel 100 and 200, respectively) (56). With gelatin, both
galactomannan gums exhibit thermodynamic incompatibility with phase separa-
tion. That is, when dissolved at an appropriate concentration in water and allowed
to set with cooling, the gelatin is dispersed as discrete beads of gel in a continuous
viscous galactomannan matrix. Although gelatin melts in the mouth much like
solid triglycerides, the galactomannan keeps the melted products sufficiently vis-
cous to provide proper flavor release and mouthfeel (56).
A Slimgel dispersion in water exhibits similar rheology to solutions of
xanthan gum where it is gel-like when at rest and liquifies with low levels of
shear. Slimgel 100/i, composed of gelatin, guar gum, pectin, and maltodextrin,
is less gel-like, but has more viscous character than Slimgel 100 or 200 (56).
Slimgel 100/i also has higher stability to a variety of food processing conditions
(56). Slimgel products are used in meat products (Slimgel 100), spreads (usu-
ally Slimgel 200), dairy products and desserts, dressings and sauces, and baked
products (56). Slimgel 100/i is preferably used in frozen desserts, dressings,
and sauces because of its cold solubility, ease of use, and improved mouthfeel
due to slower melting (56).
Blends of galactomannans and xanthan are often used in food applications
because they have been found to have functionalities that were at least the same
or better than either gum alone at a reduced cost. When locust bean gum and
xanthan gum are heated together, the resulting solution has a much higher viscos-
ity than would be obtained with either gum alone. At high enough concentrations,
locust bean/xanthan gum blends form thermoreversible gels with a melting tem-
perature between 50 and 55°C (57). Guar gum/xanthan gum blends have a syner-
gistic increase in viscosity but without gel formation (58). Kel-Lite CM (Kelco)
is a xanthan/guar gum blend used to eliminate shortening in baked goods through
its stabilizing and emulsifying properties (24).
Galactomannans are also used with certain types of carrageenans. Guar
gum with low concentrations of λ-carageenan produce an increase in viscosity
whereas high carageenan concentrations increase gel strength. Locust bean gum
and κ-carageenan enhances gel strength and a range of textures from brittle to
elastic. Locust bean gum/carageenan also lessens the degree of syneresis (23).
FIBERS
A number of fat replacers have been based on fiber from a variety of sources
such as soy beans, oats, sugar beets, almonds, peas, and wheat (Table 1). In
addition to replacing fat, products containing β-glucan and inulin have been re-
ported to reduce serum cholesterol (59,60). The fat replacer products Oatrim,
Z-trim, Vitacel, and inulin are described in more detail below.
Oatrim
In 1991, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) developed an oat-based fat
substitute called Oatrim. (α-Amylase enzymes were used to break down the amy-
lose and amylopectin chains in the oat flour or bran to maltodextrins. The enzyme
treatment conditions were selected so that the β-glucan bound to the cellular
matrix was liberated, ranging in levels from 1–10%. The blend of β-glucan and
low-DE maltodextrin produced a product with improved functional properties
and fat-like mouthfeel in comparison with other maltodextrin gels. An added
benefit of the β-glucan is its reported lowering effects on blood cholesterol and
triglycerides (50). ConAgra Specialty Grain Products and Rhone-Poulenc/Quaker
Oats Companies are currently producing Oatrim under a licensing agreement with
424 Cho and Prosky
the USDA. Oatrim is presently marketed by A. E. Staley under the name of

TrimChoice.
Z-trim
Z-trim is another product recently developed by the USDA as a calorie-free, high
fiber fat replacer (54). In a two-fold shearing process, the fiber structure of hulls
of oats, soybeans, peas, and rice, or bran from corn or wheat are reduced
to microscopic sizes with the aid of peroxide and alkali. Z-trim has zero calor-
ies, no taste, smooth texture, large water-holding capacity, and high viscosity.
Z-trim provides moistness, density and smoothness to foods such as reduced-
calorie cheese products, hamburger, and baked goods. Replacement of 100 g fat
with Z-trim reduces the caloric content of the food by 900 calories and adds 10
g of fiber.
Vitacel
Microfibrillation of wheat fibers with enrichment of a special grade of maltodex-
trin has produced the product Vitacel by Rettenmaier (55). Vitacel is composed of
70% wheat fibers and 30% maltodextrin. This wheat fiber gel has many functional
properties that make it ideal as a fat replacer: viscosity, creamy mouthfeel, body,
and substance. This product can thus be used instead of hydrocolloids for many
applications. Vitacel can be used as a thickener and binder and for stabilization
of emulsions, foams, and liquid media. Its freeze-thaw stability allows for appli-
cations in frozen foods (55).
Inulin
Inulin is a polymer of up to 35 fructose units terminating with a sucrose molecule
(56) with a sweetening power of 30–65% that of sucrose (28). The main sources
of inulin are Jerusalem artichokes and chicory tubers (28). Like the altered sugars
isomalt (an equimolar mixture of α-D-glucopyranosyl-1,6-D-sorbitol and α-D-
glucopyranosyl-1,1-D-mannitol) and alternan (α-D-glucansucrase, i.e. a polymer
of the enzymatically hydrolyzed glucose of sucrose), inulin can be considered
as a sucrose replacer because it can provide some sweetness as well as other
functional properties of sucrose. Inulin can also be thought of as a fiber and will
be under consideration as such by the U.S. FDA now that the methodology for
determining inulin in foods has been approved by AOAC International. In addi-
tion to replacing sugar in foods, inulin has been used in ice cream to replace
both butterfat and sugar, providing a product, sweetened with aspartame, with a
16% dietary fiber content and 52% fewer calories than conventional ice cream
(56). Inulin has also been suggested for use in confectionary and bakery products.
Fat replacers based on inulin are Fibruline by Cosucra, Fruitafit by Suiker Unie,
Raftiline by Orafti, and Raftincreaming by Tiense Suikkerraffinaderij Ser-

vices.
APPLICABILITY OF CARBOHYDRATE-BASED FAT

MIMETICS IN DIFFERENT LOW-FAT PRODUCTS
Presently, xanthan gum, guar gum, carrageenan, and cellulose gel are the most
widely used carbohydrate-based fat substitutes. Nevertheless, the market remains
highly fragmented because an ingredient that works well in one product may not
be suited for another (20). In addition, the flavor profiles can vary widely de-
pending on the type of fat mimetic used. Previous limitations to the use of these
fat mimetics have been overcome such as applicability in fried foods (e.g. MC and
HPMC) and better control in water activity changes in foods (e.g. polydextrose),
increasing product shelf life.
The highest level of penetration of carbohydrate-based replacers has been
in the dairy sector. Polydextrose, cellulose-based products, and gums have greatly
improved the quality of ice cream and other frozen desserts because of their
freeze-thaw stability. In contrast, consumer acceptance of low-fat cheese products
has been typically low because of inadequacies in texture, consistency and flavor.
However, the development of reduced-fat cheese foods with microcrystalline cel-
lulose in conjunction with gums like carrageenan are making some progress in
this area (35).
The use of carbohydrate-replacers in bakery products, especially cookies,
biscuits, and crackers, has met with some difficulty because of their low moisture
content. The fat in baked goods is important for tenderness and mechanical han-
dling. Some of the problems that have been encountered—loss of viscosity and
moisture, poor aeration, poor heat transfer, poor flavor release, and reduced shelf
life—have been reduced with improved forms of polydextrose (Litesse II), potato
maltodextrins (C*Pur 01906), cellulose gums (MC and HPMC), and fiber-derived
products like Z-trim. Nevertheless, emulsifiers (fatty-acid derived compounds)
are usually needed to provide the texture and cohesiveness found in regular fats
(57). Experiments using carbohydrate-based fat substitutes (Litesse, N-Flate,
RiceTrin, Stellar or TrimChoice) and emulsifiers [diacetyl-tartaric esters of mon-
oglycerides (DATEN), glycerol monostearate (GMS), or sodium stearoyl-2-lacty-
late (SSL)] had breaking force and toughness values similar to traditional full-
fat cookies with fat-substitute level of 35% (58). Thus, it is possible to achieve
15-20% reductions in fat content by making certain modifications to conventional
bakery formulations. Nutricia (Nutricia, Netherlands), an 89% fat-free Maderia
Cake, was such a product launched in 1994 and is based on xanthan and other
gums (22).
The most difficult sector with relatively low activity in new product devel-
426 Cho and Prosky
opment is confectionary. Low-fat products are less likely to succeed in such ‘‘in-
dulgence’’ products. With chocolate confectionary, compositional requirements
such as the presence of cocoa butter or cocoa butter equivalent make the develop-
ment of low-fat chocolate an onerous task (21). Total fat reductions can be at
most 20–25% with the current technology and regulatory systems if quality is
to be maintained (22). Of the few low fat confectionary products available, poly-
dextrose has been the basis for ‘‘Lo’’ launched by the Leaf Group in Finland in
1991.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

With the mounting scientific evidence of the role of dietary fats, especially satu-
rated fats, in coronary heart disease, more consumers will see the need to have
low-fat foods as a regular part of their diet. Clear labeling of the hidden saturated
fat contents in foods would allow the consumer to make a more informed choice
(2). Carbohydrate-based fat replacers play an important role in the growing indus-
try of low-fat and reduced-fat foods. Technological advances in this group of fat
mimetics have led to applications previously not believed to be possible. How-
ever, no single fat replacer has all the properties suitable for different food appli-
cations. The food chemist and manufacturer must consider the processing condi-
tions as well as the rheological and functional capabilities of the fat replacer.
Despite the health benefits of consuming low-fat foods, deficits in taste, texture,
and other sensory qualities limit its success. With successful marketing and im-
provements in technology and quality, low-fat products will have a considerable
impact upon most sectors of the food industry.
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29
Patent Literature Review on
Complex Carbohydrates as Fat
Mimetics
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

INTRODUCTION
As demonstrated in the previous chapter there is a multifactorial need and desire
for complex carbohydrates to be used as fat replacers. The detriment that is caused
by consuming a diet that is high in saturated fat has been well documented with
regard to several disease states, particularly coronary heart disease. Fat intake
and the preponderance of obesity in the United States is another indication of
the need to reduce the overall fat intake in the diet. Due to this unprecedented
demand and the unlimited potential to develop products that emulate the charac-
teristics of fat, a deluge of related patents has been filed.
There are several different types of complex carbohydrates used as fat mi-
metics. Starch based fat mimetics are predominantly maltodextrins. Hydrocolloid
fat mimetics include carboxylmethyl cellulose (CMC), carrageenan and xanthan
gum. Conventional fiber based mimetics include products such as Oatrim, Z-trim,
and Vitacel. Oligosaccharides or low molecular weight polysaccharides based fat
431
432 Cho
mimetics include polydextrose and inulin. The range of applications of these fat
replacers include products such as: beverages, desserts, baked goods, dairy prod-
ucts (milk, ice cream), thickening agents, emulsifiers, suspending agents, salad
dressing, meat products (sausages, hamburger), as well as fruit and vegetable
products.
The patents included in this chapter are evidence of the growing market
of low-fat foods and more specifically those using complex carbohydrate fat mi-
metics. The potential for food companies who implement these new ideas is enor-
mous.
STARCH-BASED FAT SUBSTITUTES

Starch—General 1
Fat-free mimetic economical use compsn. useful for prepd. foodstuffs—
comprises starch, cellulose, protein, gum and flavouring, useful for easy
to use bakery fillings, ice-cream, cheese or baked goods.
Patent Assignee: GRIFFITH LAB WORLDWIDE INC (GRIF-N)
Inventor: TANG P S
Number of Countries: 001 Number of Patents: 001
Patent No Kind Date Applicat No Kind Date Main IPC Week
US 5589215 A 19961231 US 93128602 A 19930929 A21D-002/00 199707 B
Abstract (Basic): US 5589215 A
Fat-free compsn. comprises:
(a) 10–85 wt.% starch (I);
(b) 2–25 wt.% of cellulose (II);
(c) 4–70 wt.% protein (III);
(d) 0–4 wt.% gum; and
(e) 0–8.2 wt.% flavouring (IV).
Also claimed are:
(i) a reduced fat biscuit;
(ii) a reduced fat cream soup;
(iii) a reduced fat cheese sauce;
(iv) a reduced fat cream sauce;
(v) a reduced fat chicken gravy;
(vi) a method for preparing a foodstuff comprising replacing at least a
portion of the fat in the foodstuff with a fat-free mimetic
comprising dry components;
(vii) a foodstuff made by the above process; and
(viii) a method (I) for preparing a foodstuff; and
(ix) a foodstuff made by the above method (I).
USE—The compsn. is a fat mimetic useful in a range of prepd.
Patent Literature Review 433
foodstuffs including soup, sauce, gravy, salad dressing, bakery fillings, ice-
cream, cheese, and baked goods, etc.
ADVANTAGE—The compsn. is partic. economical and easy to use.
Starch—General 2
Starch-based texturising agent derived from high amylose starch—by
pre-gelatinising to disrupt starch granules with or without retrograding
the starch.
Patent Assignee: OPTA FOOD INGREDIENTS INC (OPTA-N)
Inventor: FINOCCHIARO E T
US 5584937 A 19961217 US 92900899 A 19920618 C08B-030/12 199705 B
US 93138541 A 19931015 WO 94US11654 A 19941014 US 95460223 A
19950602
A food formulation (I) contains a starch-based texturising agent (IIa),
(IIb) or (II) derived from high amylose starch (III). (IIa) is essentially
crystalline. It is derived by pre-gelatinising the starch under aq. conditions at
temp., pressure and time to disrupt the granules and cause the starch to
retrograde. (IIc) is essentially non-crystalline. It is derived by pre-gelatinising
the starch to disrupt the granules without retrograding. (IIb) is partially
crystalline. It is derived by pre-gelatinising the starch to disrupt the granules
and cause partial degradation.
USE—Claimed foods are mayonnaise, salad dressing, cheesecake,
mousse, no-fat sour cream, meat products, yogurt, cottage cheese dressing, ice
cream, frozen dessert, cream cheese, processed cheese, topping, whipped
cream, sauces, cake frosting, peanut butter spread, confection, non-dairy
creamer, cheese-based sauce, cultured dairy product, baked or cold processed
food, cream based sauces, savory sauces and non-cultured dairy products.
ADVANTAGE—(II) can fully or partially replace fats in a food
product, to obtain a reduced fat or fat-free formulation. It provides fat-like
attributes e.g., structure, viscosity, smoothness and opacity. It can also
stabilise full fat food.
Starch—General 3
Low fat meat prods. or meat analogues—contg. thermo-irreversible
starch gel, esp. potato starch gel, as fat substitute.
Patent Assignee: SWIFT-ECKRICH INC (SWIF-N)
Inventor: LAI D
434 Cho

WO 9615685 A1 19960530 WO 95US15132 A 19951121 A23L-001/314
199627 B
Abstract (Basic): WO 9615685 A
Low fat meat foods comprise meat and thermo-irreversible starch gel.
Low fat meat analogues comprise plant protein and the gel.
Prods. also contain vegetables, pastry, breading, gravy or seasonings.
The gel is 1 tapioca, corn, wheat, rice or, esp. potato starch gel, which are
pre-gelled. The gel is at 5–50 (10–40) (30) wt.% w.r.t. meat. The gel has
average particle size 0.1–3 times that of the meat. It is at most 5 wt.% of the
prods. The meat is beef, poultry, pork or mutton, esp. ground beef, turkey, or
a mixt. of turkey and beef. In the analogues, the plant protein is soya bean
protein.
USE—Prod. have reduced total fat, satd. fat, cholesterol and calories,
giving sausages, salami, meatballs, etc. of good mouthfeel and flavour.
Starch—General 4
Thermally stabilised swelling-resistant non-crystalline particles of high
amylose starch—for use as non-chemically modified fat replacers and/or
food whiteners.
Patent Assignee: SOC PROD NESTLE SA (NEST)
Inventor: BAENSCH J; GUMY D; SIEVERT D; WURSCH P; WUERSCH P
WO 9603057 A1 19960208 WO 95IB556 A 19950713 A23L-001/0522
199612 B
AU 9528058 A 19960222 AU 9528058 A 19950713 A23L-001/0522 199621
NZ 288729 A 19970424 NZ 288729 A 19950713 A23L-001/0522 199723
WO 95IB556 A 19950713
EP 773723 A1 19970521 EP 95923521 A 19950713 A23L-001/0522 199725
WO 95IB556 A 19950713
Novel food grade texture agents (I) are in the form of thermally
stabilised swelling-resistant non-crystalline particles of high amylose
starch. They present a gelled soft structure in which the amylose
content of the starch is 40–70% and in which 90% of particles have dia. 5–
30 µm.
USE—(I) are used as fat replacers (claimed) and/or as whitening agents.
ADVANTAGE—(I) are non-chemically modified and are therefore
more acceptable to the consumer. They have a good combination of taste and
mouthfeel, and are prepd. easily and inexpensively.
Starch—General 5
Thickened foodstuff—comprises foodstuff, water and as essential

thickening agent a starch extracted from plant having sugary-2 starch
genotype.
Patent Assignee: AMERICAN MAIZE PROD CO (AMEM); AMERICAN
MAIZE TECHNOLOGY INC (AMEM)
Inventor: FRIEDMAN R; HAUBER R; KATZ F
WO 9526642 A1 19951012 WO 95US4182 A 19950404 A23L-001/0522
199551 B
AU 9522394 A 19951023 AU 9522394 A 19950404 A23L-001/0522 199605
US 5476674 A 19951219 US 94223518 A 19940405 A23L-001/0522 199605
FI 9505863 A 19951205 WO 95US4182 A 19950404 A23L-000/00 199609
FI 955863 A 19951205
EP 701405 A1 19960320 EP 95915547 A 19950404 A23L-001/0522 199616
WO 95US4182 A 19950404
EP 701405 A4 19960703 EP 95915547 A 19950000 A23L-001/0522 199644
AU 677904 B 19970508 AU 9522394 A 19950404 A23L-001/0522 199727
A thickened foodstuff comprises of a foodstuff, water, and an essential
thickening ingredient—a starch extracted from a starch bearing plant having a
sugary-2 (su2) starch genotype. The starch thickens the food at a
rate faster than conventional starch and provides the foodstuff with a paste
that has a stronger gel strength than a paste made from a conventional
starch.
Also claimed is a method for making a thickened foodstuff, the starch
used in granular form, a process for replacing high amylose starch with the
starch extracted from the plant of su2 genotype, a thickened foodstuff for
canning, a process for making the foodstuff and a batter mix for breaded deep
fat fried foods comprising the starch.
USE—The su2 starch is ideal ingredient for use as a thickening
agent in foodstuffs such as pie fillings, starch jelly candies, soups, sauces,
breadings, batters, and snack foods, and as replacement for conventional
high amylose starches, and as thin-thick canning starch. The starch can
also be used in the manufacture of gum-type candies, and as fat
mimetics.
ADVANTAGE—The su2 genotype starch produces a gel having a
higher strength and a faster set than conventional starches and has lower
gelatinisation temp. Because of lower temps. necessary to cook and absence of
special equipment cost savings result.
436 Cho
Starch—General 6
Prepn. of non-separable starch-oil compsn.—used as food coating, lipid
replacement, seed coating, thickener, etc.
Patent Assignee: US SEC OF AGRIC (USDA)
Inventor: ESKINS K; FANTA G F; ESKINS K L
WO 9528849 A1 19951102 WO 95US4909 A 19950421 A23D-009/02 199549 B
AU 9524259 A 19951116 AU 9524259 A 19950421 A23D-009/02 199608
EP 758198 A1 19970219 EP 95918272 A 19950421 A23D-009/02 199713
WO 95US4909 A 19950421
Preparing a compsn. having a uniform and stable distribution of lipid in
a continuous starch phase comprises: (a) cooking an aq. dispersion of starch to
solubilise the starch to form an aq. soln.; (b) maintaining in a non-retrograded
state while combining with lipid under sufficient turbulence to produce an
emulsion comprising droplets of the lipid uniformly dispersed through the
soln.; and (c) recovering the emulsion under conditions which stabilise the
distribution of lipid.
USE—The formulation is opt. used as a coating on a food prod. pref.
on nuts, legumes, cereals (pref. popcorn), fruit and vegetables or is used to
partially or wholly replace a lipid component which is normally present in a
food prod. pref. in sour cream, yogurt, ice cream, cheese, cheese spread, cake
mix, cookie dough mix, salad dressing, meat, margarine, powdered shortening,
instant gravy or confectionary. Alternatively, the formulation is a carrier or
vehicle for active agents in health care prods. such as hand lotion, hand
cream, body lotion, body cream, bath oil, shampoo, hair conditioner, suntan
lotion, lipstick, eye shadow, dusting powder, foot powder, medicinal oil,
vitamin, antibiotic or antifungal agent. The formulation may also be used as a
thickener in paint, ink, polish, paint remover, lubricant, toner and drilling
mud. It may also be used as a fat substitute and seed coating.
ADVANTAGE—The compsns. have a non-greasy, yet slippery texture.
They form soft gels which can be easily converted to pourable fluids by
application of heat.
Starch—General 7
Prepn. of starch-based texturing agent—comprises heating a slurry of
amylose starch, filtering and reducing temp. to allow starch to
retrograde.

Inventor: FINOCCHIARO E T; MALLEE F M; STONE J A
WO 9510196 A1 19950420 WO 94US11654 A 19941014 A23L-001/0522
199521 B
AU 9480170 A 19950504 AU 9480170 A 19941014 199536
US 5470391 A 19951128 US 92900899 A 19920618 C13K-001/06 199602
US 93138541 A 19931015
EP 723403 A1 19960731 EP 94931364 A 19941014 199635
WO 94US11654 A 19941014
Method for preparing. a starch-based texturising agent, comprises:
a) heating a slurry of high amylose starch in an aq. medium for a temp.
and time sufficient to disrupt starch granules to produce a solubilised
starch soln.;
b) filtering the resultant soln. to remove impurities; and
c) reducing the temp. of the resultant soln. to a temp. and for a period
of time sufficient for the starch to retrograde.
Texturising agent derived from high amylose starch which is non-
degraded, retrograde and crystalline or non-crystalline in structure, is also
claimed.
Methods of removing the off-flavour and off-colour from a high
amylose starch; producing a high amylose starch-based texturising agent;
and making a reduced fat or non-fat food formulation; are also
claimed.
USE—The starch-based texturising agent provides several fat-like
attributes such as structure, viscosity, smoothness and opacity to reduce and/or
replace the fat content in foods. The texturising agent can also be used in full
fat foods as a stabiliser, and be incorporated into drug and cosmetic
formulations.
ADVANTAGE—The texturising agent provides a safe and cost
effective product for use in foods, drugs or cosmetics. The functionality of the
agent as a fat replacer and stabiliser is achieved without chemical modification
of the starch polymer, does not necessitate the use of numerous adjunct
ingredients, and prod. is stable for use in a variety of food processing
schemes.
In full fat products, the texturising agent provides improved mouthfeel,
body and stability. Food formulations contg. the texturising agents exhibit
excellent freeze/thaw and frozen storage stability, shelf stability and resistance
to shear and thermal abuse.
438 Cho
Starch—General 8
Fat substitute compsns. for use in foods—comprising starch and protein
obtd. from seeds by solvent extraction of lipids.
Patent Assignee: NURTURE INC (NURT-N)
Inventor: BIXBY S H; TARR B D
WO 9423587 A1 19941027 WO 94US4119 A 19940414 A23L-001/05 199442 B
AU 9466344 A 19941108 AU 9466344 A 19940414 A23L-001/05 199507
US 5393550 A 19950228 US 9347846 A 19930415 A23L-001/0522 199514
EP 693883 A1 19960131 EP 94914172 A 19940414 A23L-001/05 199609
WO 94US4119 A 19940414
AU 673435 B 19961107 AU 9466344 A 19940414 A23L-001/05 199701
JP 8509126 W 19961001 JP 94523453 A 19940414 A23L-001/05 199705
WO 94US4119 A 19940414
Fat substitute compsns. (I) for use in foods comprise a microparticulate,
starch/protein material obtd. by solvent extraction of lipids from seeds. (I)
contain at least 60% starch (by dry wt.) and are gelled by heating with an aq.
material. Low fat or fat-free foods are prepd. by combining (I) with other
animals or vegetable food ingredients.
The seeds are canola, beans, rape, soya, oats, barley. The size of the
microparticles are 0.5–20 µm before gelling. The ratio of starch :protein is
60 :40–95:5, esp. 85: 15.
The material is obtd. from oats by milling, solvent extraction and
physical sepn. of the particles. It is free from denaturation due to alkaline
extraction
USE—(I) allow low fat foods to be prepd. that do not inhibit
assimilation of fat-soluble vitamins and other nutrients. They are esp. dairy
prods. or their substitutes (claimed).
Starch—General 9
Prepn. of compsn. for replacing fat and/or oil in food—by gelatinising
starch contg. amylose and amylopectin, membrane separation, pptn. of
amylose, recrystallising and fragmenting to form particle gel.
Patent Assignee: STALEY MFG CO A E (STAL)
Inventor: HARRIS D W; LITTLE J A
Patent Family:
WO 9418849 A1 19940901 WO 94US697 A 19940118 A23L-001/05 199436 B
US 5374442 A 19941220 US 90483208 A 19900220 199505

US 90578994 A 19900906 US 91746381 A 19910816
US 91798291 A 19911126 US 92908728 A 19920706
US 92918862 A 19920730 US 9319162 A 19930216
Prepn. of compsn. of matter useful in replacing fat and/or oil in food
formulation comprises: (a) gelatinising starch having amylose and amylopectin
components to form aq. mixt.; (b) exposing mixt. to membrane that will only
allow aq. soln. of pure amylose to pass through, but no amylopectin; (c) sepg.
amylopectin by passing through membrane with less than 15 wt.% of dry
solid through membrane being amylopectin; (d) precipitating amylose from aq.
soln.; (e) successively heating and cooling pptd. amylose in contact with
major amt. of an aq. liquid to recrystallise at least a portion of pptd. amylose;
and (f) fragmenting minor amt. of prod. in major amt. of aq. liquid to form a
particle gel of the compsn.
USE—The recrystallised and fragmented amylose ppte. allows for the
replacement of a portion (10–100 wt.%) of the fat and/or oil in foods, with
little or no effect on the organoleptic desirability of the food. Typical foods in
which fat and/or oil can be replaced include frostings, creme fillings, frozen
desserts, dressings, meat prods. margarine, fruit butters, puddings, sauces,
topping, etc. Thus lower calorie and lower cholesterol prods. can be prepd.
The processed amylose can also be used as a thickener, etc.
Starch—General 10
New pullulanase from Bacillus deramificans—for starch saccharification
etc., with good stability over wide temp. and pH ranges, also related
DNA vectors, transformed cells etc.
Patent Assignee: SOLVAY SA (SOLV); SOLVAY & CIE (SOLV)
Inventor: AMORY A; DEWEER P
EP 605040 A1 19940706 EP 93203593 A 19931220 C12N-015/56 199426 B
AU 9352759 A 19940707 AU 9352759 A 19931230 C12N-009/44 199431
FI 9305900 A 19940629 FI 935900 A 19931228 C12N-009/44 199433
CA 2112028 A 19940629 CA 2112028 A 19931229 C12N-015/56 199434
JP 6217770 A 19940809 JP 93337202 A 19931228 C12N-009/44 199436
BE 1006483 A3 19940913 BE 921156 A 19921228 C12N-000/00 199439
BE 1007313 A3 19950516 BE 93744 A 19930715 C12N-000/00 199526
BE 1007723 A6 19951010 BE 931278 A 19931119 C12N-000/00 199546
CN 1090325 A 19940803 CN 93121736 A 19931228 C12N-009/44 199713
Abstract (Basic): EP 605040 A
440 Cho
Pullulanase (I) produced by a strain of Bacillus deramificans (or its

derivs. or mutants) is new. Also new are (1) DNA (II, sequence of 27846p
reproduced) coding for (I); (2) expression or chromosomal integration vectors
contg. (II); (3) transformed strains of B. licheniformis contg. (II) or such
vectors; (4) recombinant (I) produced by these strains and (5) isolated and
pure cultures of B. deramificans.
USE /ADVANTAGE—(I) hydrolyses the alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds of
both amylopectin and pullulan. It is useful (together with glucoamylase) for
saccharification of starch in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries.
Typical applications are as anti-staling additives in bread making and brewing
(prodn. of low calorie beer); in prepn. of low calorie foods where amylose
replaces fats; in prodn. of oligosaccharides from amylopectin; prodn. of
tetraholosides by condensation of maltose; to condense mono/oligo-
saccharides with 1-6 bond formation, and to clarify fruit juices.
(I) has better stability than known pullulanases over a wide temp. and
pH range (partic. at about 60°C and pH 4.5, where half-life is about 55 hr). It
may allow a redn. in the amt. of glucoamylase used (opt.) thus of byproducts
formed) without adverse effect on glucose yield. Also it can be used in concn.
solns. (high content of liquefied starch) so costs of evapn. are reduced.
Starch—General 11
Compsns. used as fat replacements in e.g., baking—comprise viscous
liq., liq. humectant, starch and fibre.
Patent Assignee: ORCHID ISLAND TECHNOLOGIES INC (ORCH-N)
Inventor: VANDERVEER F
WO 9412054 A1 19940609 WO 93US11646 A 19931201 A23L-001/0522
199424 B
AU 9456838 A 19940622 AU 9456838 A 19931201 A23L-001/0522 199436
Reduced fat food prods. are prepd. using a compsn. of an edible viscous
liq. (I), a liq. humectant (II), a starch (III) and a fibre (IV).
Pref., (I) is corn syrup. (II) is glycerine. (III) is arrowroot, corn, high
amylose, pea, potato, rice, tapioca, waxy maize and/or wheat. (IV) is
amaranth bran, apple, barley, cellulose, citrus, cocoa bran, corn bran, fruit,
multigrain, mustard, oat bran, pea bran, peanut bran, pear, psyllium, rice bran,
soy bran, sugar beet, sunflower, tomato, vegetable and/or wheat bran.
Compsns. also contain an emulsifier (V), esp. acetylated.
USE /ADVANTAGE—For pastries, biscuits, icings, sweets and sweet
fillings, fillers, meats, salad dressings, yoghurt and ice-cream can be made
using the compsns. Reduced fat prods. have acceptable taste, texture and
consistency and do not increase water activity.
Starch—General 12
Low-calorie food used as fat substitute—contains polysaccharide and
branched dextrin.
Patent Assignee: DAINIPPON PHARM CO LTD (DAIN)
JP 5276898 A 19931026 JP 92112136 A 19920403 A23L-001/307 199347 B
Abstract (Basic): JP 5276898 A
Food contains polysaccharide(s), opt. xanthan, carageenan, alginates or
cellulose and branched dextrin, e.g., enzymatically decomposed or acidified
starch comprising amylopectin.
USE—Low-calorie food having reduced fat content is used as a
substitute for fats.
Starch—General 13
Starch hydrolysates as fat replacements—prepd. by heating granular
starch in aq. acid-solvent mixt., to cleave some amylose gps but not
gelatinise.
Patent Assignee: EASTMAN J E (EAST-I)
Inventor: EASTMAN J E
US 5275837 A 19940104 US 92884693 A 19920518 A23L-001/05 199402 B
CA 2095875 A 19931119 CA 2095875 A 19930510 A23L-001/052 199406
The amt. of fat in food is reduced by using as at least partial fat
replacement a starch hydrolysate (D.P. 20–200; D.E. 0.5–5) prepd. as follows:
(a) a granular starch (I) slurry comprising at least 20 wt.% amylopectin (II),
H 2O, an H 2O-miscible organic solvent, and acid (to 0.1-2N) is heated to effect
cleavage of at least 20% of the terminal amylose gps. from (II) without
gelatinising (I); and (b) the resulting granular starch hydrolysates are sepd.
from the liq.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The hydrolysates are prepd. in a single-step, high
yield process that rapidly goes to completion, and readily sepd. from the liq.,
while biological contamination is no problem. The hydrolysates are useful as
fat replacements over a very broad range of solids (1–75 wt.%), and in a wide
variety of goods, including salad dressings, frostings, glazings, ice creams,
margarines, yogurts, breads, cakes and pastries etc. The hydrolysates are also
442 Cho
useful in other food applications (replacements for caseinates in cheeses) and

non-food uses (pharmaceuticals), etc.
Starch—General 14
Low-fat and non-fat bakery dough—comprises wheat flour, fat substitute
e.g., potato flour, non-fat dry milk solids, emulsifying binder, fat-like
sensory additive and leavening agent.
Patent Assignee: JEWELL A M (JEWE-I)
Inventor: JEWELL A M; SEAMAN T
CA 2087318 A 19930716 CA 2087318 A 19930114 A21D-008/02 199340 B
US 5344663 A 19940906 US 92821735 A 19920115 A23L-001/10 199435
Abstract (Basic): CA 2087318 A
A fat substd. shortened bakery dough comprises wheat flour, 8–62%
potato flour (all percentages are based on the wt. of the wheat flour), as a fat
substitute. A bakery prod. produced from the bakery dough contains less than
15% fat, 1.1–12% of a caseinate protein source, 7–60 wt.% of an ovalbumin
emulsifying binder source, 15–93% of a fat-like sensory additive, a leavening
agent; and 7–28% of a liq. whereby a bakery prod. produced from the bakery
dough has a moisture content less than 15% and has a coarse crumb grain
structure.
Also claimed, a process for preparing a fat substitute bakery dough,
comprises mixing a wheat flour, 8–62% of potato flour as a fat substitute,
from 1.1–12% of a water absorbing binder, from 7–60% of an emulsifying
binder, 11–93% of a fat-like sensory additive and a leavening agent, where all
percentages are based on the wt. of wheat flour.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat substitute dough produces a baked prod.
with satisfactory colour (browning), flavour and texture qualities combined
with a desirable open, coarse crumb grain structure (not cake-like). The dough
produces cookies with a high moisture content, yet does not require
preservatives to avoid microbial contamination. The dough has improved
freeze-thaw and storage stability. Also, the dough and its baked prods. are
relatively cheap to produce compared to those produced from enzyme- or
acid-modified starches used as fat substitutes or synethetic fat substitutes.
Starch—General 15
Fat substitute useful in foods esp. in non-fat coffee whitener—prepd. by
heating mixt. of starch, corn syrup solids, malto-dextrin non-fat dry
milk, etc. to specified temp. and drying the prod.
Patent Assignee: BORDEN INC (BORD)

Inventor: BIBEAU L S; KELLER D J; MCKENNA R J
CA 2047266 A 19921121 CA 2047266 A 19910717 A23C-011/02 199312 B
A process for producing a fat substitute useful in foods comprises: (a)
combining starch, corn syrup solids, malto-dextrin and non-fat dry milk,
dipotassium phosphate, Na-hexametaphosphate, Na-citrate, water, and glycine;
(b) heating the soln. of step (a) to a temp. above 150°C for a time sufficient to
form a viscous gel and (c) drying the prod. from step (b) to produce a powder
prod. Also claimed is the fat substitute compsn. produced and coffee whitener,
cheese prod., frozen dessert, yoghurt prod, cottage cheese prod., imitation sour
cream and a hot beverage prod., each contg. the fat substitute compsn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat substitute is derived primarily from
potato starch, corn syrup solids and non-fat dry milk. The non-fat coffee
whitener contg. the substitute exhibits at least 18 months non-refrigerated
shelf life.
Starch—General 16
Powdery edible material in aq. suspension—comprises cellulose material
regenerated from edible polysaccharide in suspension, for use as edible
fat substitute.
Patent Assignee: ASAHI CHEM IND CO LTD (ASAH)
JP 5023119 A 19930202 JP 91198232 A 19910715 A23L-001/0534 199310 B
The material comprises cellulose regenerated from aq. alkali metal
hydroxide and edible polysaccharide, homogeneous mixt. of both ingredients
being at least 10% in the continuous form and its particle size of 50% of
accumulated vol. being 50 microns or less. Water suspension contains the
material in an amt. of 3 to 40 wt.%.
Pref. the edible polysaccharide comprises gum arabicum, alginic acid,
carrageenan, pectin, pluran, mannan, starch, etc. The polysaccharide is 10% or
more in the material. The cellulose is dissolved in alkaline soln. and then
polysaccharide followed by mixing and kneading, to give dope. The dope is
extruded in water to coagulate, and it is washed and dried.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Material has good touch and feeling and bitter
taste is reduced, used as substitute for edible fat material, etc.
444 Cho
Starch—General 17
Foodstuffs with reduced fat content—have fat or oil content replaced
with fragmented enzyme de-branched amylopectin starch.
EP 529894 A1 19930303 EP 92307461 A 19920814 A23L-001/09 199309 B
A foodstuff having a reduced content of fat and/or oil, comprising a
mixt. of a foodstuff and a fragmented, debranched amylopectin starch ppte.
being capable of forming a particle gel in aq. dispersion.
The debranched amylopectin starch is pref. derived from a starch
consisting essentially of amylopectin, esp. waxy maize starch, and is
composed of more than 80 wt.% short chain amylose and essentially free of
amylopectin having a mol. wt. of greater than 20,000 g/mol.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Amylopectin starches which have been subjected
to enzymatic debranching followed by pptn. and then mechanical
disintegration of the ppte. into fragments, can be used to replace at least a
substantial portion of the fat and/or oil content of foodstuffs such as salad
dressings, icings, cream filling, ice cream, margarine, meat prods. such as
sausages, processed meats etc., cheese prods. such as cheese spreads, puddings
such as mousse desserts, candies such as chocolates, nougat etc., sauces,
toppings, etc. The prods. are esp. useful to replace part of the shortening used
in making layered pastry articles, in which layers of dough are assembled with
a roll-in contg. a shortening placed between the layers and the assembly is
then baked.
Starch—General 18
Foodstuffs with reduced fat content—has fat or oil content replaced with
enzyme-de-branched amylopectin starch.
EP 529893 A1 19930303 EP 92307460 A 19920814 A23L-001/09 199309 B
A foodstuff having a reduced content of fat and/or oil, comprising a
mixt. of a foodstuff and a particle gel comprising a minor amt. of debranched
amylopectin starch particles dispersed in a major amt. of an aq. liq. as
replacement for at least a substantial portion of the fat and/or oil of the
foodstuff.
Pref. the particle gel exhibits a transition in dynamic elastic modules
versus shear strain from substantially constant dynamic elastic modulus to
decreasing dynamic elastic modulus, the transition being exhibited at a shear
strain of less than ca. 50 millistrain. The debranched amylopectin starch is
pref. derived from a starch consisting essentially of amylopectin, esp. waxy
maize starch, and is composed or more than 80 wt.% short chain amylose
and essentially free of amylopectin having a mol.wt. of greater than 20,000 g/
mol.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Amylopectin starches have been subjected to
enzymatic debranching following by dissolution in an aq. liq. and then particle
formation to form a particle gel, can be used to replace at least a substantial
part of the fat and/or oil content of foodstuffs such as salad dressings, icing,
cream fillings, ice cream, margarine, meat prods. such as sausages, processed
meats, etc., cheese prods. such as cheese spreads, puddings such as mousse
desserts, candies such as chocolates, nougat, etc., sauces, toppings, etc. The
prods. are esp. useful to replace part of the shortening used in making layered
pastry articles, in which layers of dough are assembled with a roll-in contg. a
shortening placed between the layers, and the assembly is then baked.
Starch—General 19
Prodn. of amylodextrin prods. for food use—by fractionation of starch
hydrolysate(s) or soluble components from amylase treatment of milled
cereal, oil seed or vegetable fibre substrates.
Inventor: INGLETT G E
US 5225219 A 19930706 US 92815996 A 19920102 A23L-001/105 199328 B
Prodn. comprise (A) treating an aq. dispersion of a milled cereal, oil
seed or vegetable fibre substrate with an alpha-amylase (I) to hydrolyse the
substrate and liberate soluble fibre; sepg. the resulting water-soluble and
water-insol. fractions; and fractionating the water-soluble fraction; or (B)
preparing an aq. soln. of a starch hydrolysate with a DE below 10; and
fractionating the soln.
In (A), the substrate is pref. an oat, barley, rice or wheat flour, a
corresp. bran flour, a soya, pea or psyllium husk flour, or sugar beet fibre. (I)
is a thermostable alpha-amylase and the substrate is gelatinised concurrently
with hydrolysis. The fractions are sepd. by filtration or centrifugation. In (B),
446 Cho
the starch hydrolysate is selected from corn, potato, tapioca and wheat
dextrins and maltodextrins. Fractionation is effected by pptn. of amylodextrins
with a water-miscible organic solvent, pref. isopropanol, acetone or esp.
ethanol.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prods. are useful as functional and
nutritional components of foods such as dairy prods., meats, bakery
prods., frozen foods, yoghurt, snacks, confectioneries, coatings,
beverages and breakfast foods. They have higher gel strengths and a
blander taste than the corresp. unfractionated prods. (cf US4996063) and
can be used as aq. gels to replace fat in ice-cream, whipped cream,
cheese.
Starch—General 20
Starch hydrolysates formed with strong acid—used in foodstuffs partic.
as substitute for fats and/or oils.
Inventor: ANDERSON K F; BROWN C C; CHIOU R G; COONTZ H D;
HAMDEN C J; HARRIS D W; LEHNHARDT W F; LITTLE J A;
SCHANEFELT R V; SLOWINSKI L A; STANLEY K D; WITCZAK Z J;
WOLF-RUEFF J A; YOUNG A H; ANDERSON K R; HAMDAN C J;
BROWN C S; CHIOU R
EP 443844 A 19910828 EP 91301368 A 19910220 199135 B
WO 9112728 A 19910905 199138
CA 2036490 A 19910821 199145
AU 9173337 A 19910918 199150
CS 9102191 A2 19920513 CS 912191 A 19910715 C08B-030/14 199247
FI 9203749 A 19920820 WO 91US1029 A 19910215 A23L-000/00 199247
FI 923749 A 19920820
NO 9203259 A 19921019 WO 91US1029 A 19910215 A23L-001/307 199305
NO 923259 A 19920819
JP 5506776 W 19931007 JP 91505572 A 19910215 A23G-003/00 199345
WO 91US1029 A 19910215
AU 652743 B 19940908 AU 9173337 A 19910215 A23L-001/09 199437
US 5378286 A 19950103 US 90483208 A 19900220 C13K-001/06 199507
US 90578994 A 19900906
US 92857532 A 19920421
HU 67293 T 19950328 WO 91US1029 A 19910215 A23G-003/00 199518
HU 922707 A 19910215
EP 443844 B1 19960619 EP 91301368 A 19910220 A23L-001/09 199629
DE 69120314 E 19960725 DE 620314 A 19910220 A23L-001/09 199635

EP 91301368 A 19910220
The following are claimed (A) use as for the prepn. of a foodstuffs
material of a granular starch hydrolysate which in aq. dispersion is
organoleptically fat-like, (B) use as for the prepn. of a foodstuffs material of a
fragmented granular starch hydrolysate which in aq. dispersion is
organoleptically fat-like; (C) a process for prepg. a starch hydrolysate, (D) a
process for prepg. an insol. starch hydrolysate and EtOH, (E) processes for
sepg. a granular starch hydrolysate residue from a liquid phase, the granulates
of the granular starch hydrolysate residue being susceptible to physical
fragmentation, (F) a dry granular starch hydrolysate compsn., (G) a
starch hydrolysate compsn. and (H) an aq. fragmented starch hydrolysate
dispersion.
USE—The starch hydrolysates are used in foodstuffs partic. as at least
partial substitutes for fats and/or oils.
Starch—General 21
New partially esterified polysaccharide(s)—useful as non-absorbed, non-
hydrolysed fat substitutes having good organoleptic prop.
Patent Assignee: ARCO CHEM TECHNOLOGY INC (ATLF)
Inventor: WHITE J F
US 4959466 A 19900925 US 88147806 A 19880125 199041 B
EP 463245 A 19920102 EP 90306871 A 19900622 199202 N
Partially esterified polysaccharides (PEPs) of the formula (P-O(R)x)n
having the structure (I) are new: where P is a polysaccharide; n has average
value 3-50; R is H or 2-28C acyl; and x is deg. of esterification (1–80%; to
render the PEPs resistant to digestive tract hydrolysis and absorption, and to
be oils, fats or greases).
Pref. polysaccharides have the polysaccharide as an oligosaccharide
where n ⫽ 3-10, the acyl gps. are one or more 8-24C acyl (same or different),
and y ⫽ 1 or 2 (n, x, y, R selected to impart lipase hydrolysis rate less than
20% as compared with olive oil); esp. prefd. oligosaccharides are xanthan
gum, guar gum, gum arabic, alginates, cellulose or starch hydrolysis prods.,
hydroxypropylcellulose, casein, Karaya gum, pectin, or mixts.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The partially esterified polysaccharides (PEPs)
have substantial resistance to intestinal absorption and do not appreciably
hydrolyse in the digestive tract, have good organoleptic props., and (as well as
448 Cho
any hydrolysis prods.) are non-toxic. The PEPs have characteristics similar to
vegetable oils and fats, and are useful in a range of low calorie food prods.
Starch—General 22
Starch hydrolysate for use in reduced fat foods as fat replacement—
prepd. by maintaining a strongly acidic aq. slurry of the starch at
specified temp.
Inventor: HARRIS D W; STANLY K D
EP 529891 A1 19930303 EP 92307458 A 19920814 A23L-001/09 199309 B
Preparing a starch hydrolysate comprises maintaining a strongly acidic
aq. slurry comprises of a granular amylose starch at greater than 70°C and
below both (i) the gelatinisation temp. of the granular starch in the slurry and
(ii) the atmos. b.pt. of the slurry, to hydrolyse a substantial portion of the
starch and retain a starch hydrolysate residue insoluble in the aq. slurry.
Also claimed is the aq. dispersion of the starch hydrolysate, a method of
preparing a starch hydrolyate comprising maintaining a strongly acidic aq.
slurry of granular amylose starch at up to 70°C or gelatinisation temp. of the
starch, a method of pasteurising a foodstuff, a method of formulating a food
having a reduced fat and/or oil, the food formulation produced and an edible
compsn. contg. a mixt. of food or foodstuff with a fragmented, granular
amylose starch hydrolysate.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fragmented, granular, amylose starch
hydrolysate allows for the replacement of a substantialy portion (10–100
wt.%) of the fat and/or oil in a food formulation. In a French-style salad
dressing all the oil component can be replaced. In other foods such as
frostings, icings, cream fillings etc. 50–80% of fat and/or oil can be replaced.
The replacements do not result in any loss of organoleptic qualities of food.
The hydrolysates can also be used as a thickener, bodying agent, etc. The
food formulation include flavours, thickeners, nutrients, antioxidants,
antimicrobial agents, non-fat milk solids, acidulants, etc.
Starch—General 23
Fat-like carbohydrate contg. short chain amylose—for use as fat
replacement in foods, made by enzymatic de-branching of starch.
Patent Assignee: NAT STARCH & CHEM INVESTMENT (NATT)
Inventor: CHIU C W; MASON W; CHIU C

EP 486936 A1 19920527 EP 91119368 A 19911113 A23L-001/09 199222 B
AU 9187811 A 19920521 AU 9187811 A 19911112 A23L-001/09 199229
CA 2055856 A 19920520 CA 2055856 A 19911119 C08B-030/20 199232
JP 4351601 A 19921207 JP 91303376 A 19911119 C08B-030/20 199303
EP 486936 B1 19940810 EP 91119368 A 19911113 A23L-001/09 199431
DE 69103383 E 19940915 DE 603383 A 19911113 A23L-001/09 199436
EP 91119368 A 19911113
JP 2597058 B2 19970402 JP 91303376 A 19911119 A23L-001/307 199718
Fat-like carbohydrate (A) contains 12–100 wt.% short-chain amylose (I) and
is used to replace up to 100% of one or more fats in foods. Also new are
foods contg. (A) as a fat replacement to provide comparable functional and
organoleptic qualities.
More specifically, (A) are made by debranching starch, using an enzyme
which specifically degrades the alpha-1,6-D-glucoside linkages. It is used in
foods as a 20–30 wt.% aq. dispersion or in powdered form.
USE /ADVANTAGE—(A) is useful as a fat replacement in dairy prods.,
salad dressings, baked goods, puddings, coffee whiteners, etc. Aq. dispersions
of (A) have a variety of fat-like textures (oily, creamy or waxy) and produce
high-strength or thermoreversible gels.
Abstract (Equivalent): EP 486936 B
Use of a fat-like carbohydrate, comprising 12 to 100% by weight, short
chain amylose in foods in an amount effective to function as a replacement
for up to 100%, by weight of one or more fat(s) contained in the foods.
Starch—General 24
Prodn. of reduced fat foodstuff—comprises replacing fat and/or oil with
water and high amylose starch hydrolysate with DE 5-15., pref. made
from corn starch.
Patent Assignee: AMERICAN MAIZE PROD CO (AMEM)
Inventor: FARON E J; FURCSIK S L; KORNACKI L; MAURO D J; OWEN R;
TURNAK F L; TURNAK F
WO 9101091 A 19910207 199108 B
AU 9060630 A 19910222 199120
US 5094872 A 19920310 US 90617405 A 19901121 199213
EP 482094 A 19920429 EP 90911792 A 19900717 199218
EP 482094 B1 19940907 EP 90911792 A 19900717 A23L-001/0522 199434
WO 90US4013 A 19900717
450 Cho
DE 69012331 E 19941013 DE 612331 A 19900717 A23L-001/0522 199440

EP 90911792 A 19900717
WO 90US4013 A 19900717
EP 482094 A4 19920513 EP 90911792 A 19900000 199522
A method of preparing a reduced fat foodstuff comprises replacing at
least part of the fat and/or oil with water and a high amylose starch
hydrolysate which has a DE of 5-15 and a peak average molecular weight of
less than 10,000, and is made from a base starch with an apparent amylose
content of greater than 40%, esp. 60%.
The high amylose starch hydrolysate is an aq. dispersion, esp. as a
paste, with a solids content of 5–50 wt.%. The foodstuff is a salad dressing,
frozen novelty, ice cream, whipping topping, icing, cookie or sauce. A high
amylose corn starch is the pref. starch base. Up to 90% of the fat and/or oil is
replaced.
ADVANTAGE—An aq. dispersion of the high amylose starch
hydrolysate possesses good gel strength (greater than 25g, esp. 500–1100g).
The gels are smooth, creamy and white, and have no starchy or roasted
flavour. A caloric decrease of greater than 90% is obtained by replacing all of
the fat and/or oil.
Starch—General 25
Edible fat substitute material—comprising carbohydrate particle cores
with covalently bonded hydrophobic shell material.
Patent Assignee: SERES LAB INC (SERE-N)
Inventor: JENNINGS R A; STEARNS J F
EP 388572 A 19900926 EP 89710019 A 19890323 199039 B
Composite particles comprise solid core material (I) with shell
components (II) bonded to its surfaces. (I) has particle size 0.1–20.0 microns,
comprises naturally-occurring polysaccharides and has surface OH gps. for
bonding covalently with (II). (II) is of formula -X′-Y-Z, where X′ is derived
from any functional gp., X, which can bond covalently with (I), and Y and Z
together form a gp. which makes the particles hydrophobic.
The polysaccharides are microcrystalline cellulose, cellulose pulp,
colloidal cellulose, starch, flow and/or inulin. X is an acid chloride which
esterifies with the surface of (I). Y is an opt. branched 1-30C hydrocarbonyl
with up to 5 double bonds. Z is ester gp(s)., esp. a phosphatidyl chlorine
residue. Edible food prods comprise staple food prods. with the particles
dispersed therein. The staple food is butter, oil, salad dressing, ice cream,
milk, cheese, margarine, mayonnaise or shortening. The covalent bond is
stable w.r.t. human digestive tract enzymes.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Particles are edible fat substitutes, as they
resemble and are used in the same way as conventional triglyceride fats, but
reduces caloric and cholesterol intake without decreasing absorption of oil-
soluble vitamins or causing diarrhea.
Starch—General 26
Carbohydrate based fat or cream substitute—using hydrated macro-
colloidal spherical particles of given size distribution.
Patent Assignee: NUTRASWEET CO (NUTR-N)
Inventor: CHANG H; DUNN J M; SINGER N S; TANG P
WO 8912403 A 19891228 WO 89US726 A 19890621 199003 B
PT 90968 A 19891229 199004 AU 8938323 A 19900112 199013
US 4911946 A 19900327 US 88211494 A 19880624 199018
FI 9000926 A 19900223 199022 NO 9000879 A 19900423 19000489
A 19900223 199025 EP 380614 A 19900808
EP 89907903 A 19890621 199032 CN 1040311 A 19900314 199050
EP 403696 A 19901227 EP 89121654 A 19891123 199101
HU 53796 T 19901228 199107 ES 2019574 A 19910701 199131
DD 288748 A 19910411 199136
JP 3505666 W 19911212 JP 89507401 A 19890621 199205
US 5153020 A 19921006 US 88211494 A 19880624 A23L-001/307 199243
US 89367322 A 19890620 US 91678897 A 19910328
IL 90739 A 19921115 IL 90739 A 19890623 A23L-001/19 199250
CZ 8903820 A3 19930414 CS 893820 A 19890623 A23L-001/30 199331
CZ 277987 B6 19930714 CS 893820 A 19890623 A23L-001/30 199340
NO 173361 B 19930830 WO 89US2726 A 19890621 A23L-001/19 199340
NO 90879 A 19900223
AU 642852 B 19931104 AU 8938323 A 19890621 A23L-001/29 199351
EP 403696 B1 19940119 EP 89121654 A 19891123 A23L-001/10 199403
ES 2019574 T3 19940316 EP 89121654 A 19891123 A23L-001/10 199415
EP 380614 B1 19941012 EP 89907903 A 19890621 A23L-001/10 199439
WO 89US2726 A 19890621
DE 68918838 E 19941117 DE 618838 A 19890621 A23L-001/10 199445
EP 89907903 A 19890621
WO 89US2726 A 19890621
CA 1333019 C 19941115 CA 603772 A 19890623 A23L-001/052 199501
452 Cho
JP 95032685 B2 19950412 JP 89507401 A 19890621 A23L-001/19 199519

WO 89US2726 A 19890621
CN 1023759 C 19940216 CN 89106568 A 19890624 A23L-001/19 199520
RU 2039449 C1 19950720 SU 4614610 A 19890629 A23C-023/00 199614
FI 98600 B 19970415 WO 89US2726 A 19890621 A23L-001/19 199721
FI 90926 A 19900223
Water-dispersible macrocolloids comprise hydrated macrocolloidal
particles of carbohydrate. These are spherical and have such a particle size
distribution as to give the smooth organoleptic character of an oil-in-water
emulsion.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Ice cream, frozen desserts, salad dressing,
mayonnaise, cheese, cream cheese, sour cream, yoghurt, milk, cream, icing,
spread, whipped topping, sauce all use these microcolloids as fat substitute.
Unlike sucrose polyester fat substitutes, the macrocolloids are stable over a
wide temp. range, do not cause anal leakage and do not leach vitamins from
the gut. The particles are non-aggregated. The mean particle size ranges from
0.1–4 microns with less than 2% of particles over 5 microns. The particles are
of starch, dextran, gum, konjak and/or cellulose, esp. starch. They are of
cross-linked quinoa starch, cross-linked dextran, konjak or Ca alginate. Use of
the macrocolloid simulates the mouth feed of fat and/or cream.
Starch—General 27
Oil replacement compsn. for foodstuffs—comprising complexed
hydrated protein and cellulose gum, swelled gelatinised modified starch
and air bubbles.
Patent Assignee: GENERAL FOODS CORP (GENO)
Inventor: GIULIANO C; HO A S; RISPOLI J M; SABHLOK J P;
SCHERER B G
GB 2078483 A 19820113 GB 8118592 A 19810617 198202 B
US 4308294 A 19811229 198203 FR 2484793 A 19811224 198205
DE 3123775 A 19820616 198225 CA 1151943 A 19830816 198337
GB 2078483 B 19840411 198415 IT 1171294 B 19870610 199004
DE 3123775 C 19900613 199024
Abstract (Basic): GB 2078483 A
Compsn. comprises a complex of hydrated protein and a hydrated
cellulose gum which coats swelled gelatinised modified starch units at pH 3–
6; and has air bubbles incorporated in it.
The use of egg, soy or whey protein or casein; and hydroxypropyl,

hydroxymethyl, microcrystalline or carboxymethyl cellulose is claimed.
The compsn. has the texture, mouthfeel and lubricity of an oil. It can be
used to replace, at least partially, an oil in a food compsn. such as dessert,
margarine or salad dressing
Starch—General 28
Microcrystalline starch useful as fat substitute—is prepd. by
disintegration of microporous starch granules produced by hydrolysis of
granular starch.
Patent Assignee: WHISTLER R L (WHIS-I)
Inventor: WHISTLER R L
WO 9221703 A1 19921210 WO 92US4740 A 19920528 C08B-030/00
199252 B
US 5445678 A 19950829 US 91706894 A 19910529 C08B-030/12 199540
US 9386227 A 19930701
US 5580390 A 19961203 US 91706894 A 19910529 C08B-030/12 199703
US 9386227 A 19930701
US 95455425 A 19950531
A method for preparing a microcrystalline starch compsn, useful as a fat
substitute in reduced calorie foods, comprises partially hydrolysing granular
starch to form a microporous granular starch and disintegrating the prod. into
crystalline starch particles. Also claimed is the microcrystalline starch compsn.
produced.
Pref. the microporous granular starch is formed by action of an amylase
enzyme on granular starch and the microporous granular starch is
mechanically or chemically disintegrated to form the starch compsn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. can be opt. treated with starch
reactive cross-linking agents and/or other surface modifying agents to
optimise its rheological properties and organoleptic qualities of processed
foods contg. the compsn. The compsn. imparts the sensory perception of
fattiness with less calorie content and without compromising other
organoleptic qualities of the food prod.
Starch—General 29
Starch-derived, food-grade, insol bulking agent—for total or partial
replacement of sugar, flour and/or fat in foods to reduce calorie or fat
content.
454 Cho
Patent Assignee: OPTA FOOD INGREDIENTS INC (OPTA-N); ENZYTECH

INC (ENZY-N); OPTA FOOD INGREDIEN (OPTA-N)
Inventor: GROSS A; IYENGAR R; ZAKS A
WO 9107106 A 19910530 199124 B
US 5051271 A 19910924 US 89440585 A 19891122 199141
EP 502102 A1 19920909 WO 90US6865 A 19901121 A23L-001/308 199237
EP 91900500 A 19901121
JP 5506564 W 19930930 WO 90US6865 A 19901121 A23L-001/308 199344
JP 91501093 A 19901121
EP 502102 B1 19940713 WO 90US6865 A 19901121 A23L-001/308 199427
EP 91900500 A 19901121
DE 69010694 E 19940818 DE 610694 A 19901121 A23L-001/308 199432
WO 90US6865 A 19901121
EP 91900500 A 19901121
The calorie content of food is reduced by replacing all or some of the
sugar and/or flour with a food-grade insol. bulking agent. The agent is a
retrograded starch having a crystalline structure free of amorphous starch (I).
Fat content can be reduced by replacing all or some of the fat by (I). The
starch is amylose, amylopectin, dextran, glycogen, galactomannan, or corn,
wheat, oat or potato starch. (I) is made by (a) incubating a polysaccharide
dispersion under retrogradation conditions, (b) incubating the dispersion
formed with a catalyst under hydrolysis conditions and (c) washing to remove
the catalyst and water-soluble by-prods. The catalyst is an acid, esp. HCl,
H 2SO 4 or TFA. Before (a) the polysaccharide is pretreated with a glycosidase.
Step (b) is opt. omitted.
USE /ADVANTAGE—margarine, biscuits, frosting, brownies, fudge,
chocolate syrup or frozen desserts. (I) can be easily modified.
Starch—Meat Product 1
Redn. of animal fat content of meat prods.—by addn. of a triglyceride-
and ester-free animal fat replacement prod. comprising maltodextrin
cpds., and a matrix structure forming agent.
Patent Assignee: LIFEWISE INGREDIENTS INC (LIFE-N)
Inventor: BROZ R T; SHARE R A
US 5603976 A 19970218 US 93163983 A 19931207 A23L-001/314 199720 B
US 95418784 A 19950407

Redn. of the animal fat content of a meat prod. comprises replacing at
least a portion of the animal fat with a triglyceride- and ester-free animal fat
replacement prod. consisting of an aq. gel of (a) at least one maltodextrin
having a dextrose equiv. ⫽ 1–20, or (b) at least one such maltodextrin and
starch having a dextrose equiv. ⫽ 0, entrained in a matrix formed by at least
one matrix structure forming agent selected from an alginate, gum tragacanth,
pectin and konjac flour. The fat replacement prod. contains (a) 10–30 wt.%
maltodextrins and 0.1–5.0 wt.% matrix structure forming agent or (b) 5–30
wt.% maltodextrins, 0.5–12.0 wt.% starch and 0.1–5.0 wt.% matrix structure
forming agent.
USE—The fat substitute is used as a total or partial replacement for
animal fat in the prepn. of low fat meats and meat prods. from cattle, buffalo,
sheep, swine, goat, chicken, turkey, duck, quail or ostrich. It possibly may be
used as a meat extender.
ADVANTAGE—The fat replacement prod. is inexpensive, has few or
no calories, is an odourless white solid and can be incorporated into meat just
like an animal fat. It can be used without adverse organoleptic effects. It
provides excellent lubricity and juiciness and undergoes rendering on heating.
It behaves quite similarly to animal fat. It is an excellent vehicle for
incorporation of other agents often added to meat.
Fat mimetic compsns. that do not cause off-flavours—comprise starch,
cellulose, protein, gum and flavouring.
Patent Assignee: GRIFFITH LAB WORLDWIDE INC (GRIF-N)
Inventor: TANG P S
WO 9611587 A1 19960425 WO 94US11794 A 19941017 A23L-001/05
199622 B
Fat mimetic compsns. comprise 10–85 wt.% starch, 2–25% cellulose,
4–70% protein, 0–4% gum and 0–8.2% flavouring.
Also claimed is the prepn. of a foodstuff by replacing at least part of the
fat in the foodstuff with the fat mimetic compsn.
Starch is present in an amt. 24–84 wt.%. It is esp. (modified) corn,
potato, rice, wheat or tapioca starch or (modified) tapioca (malto)dextrin, esp.
tapioca dextrin or modified corn starch.
Cellulose is in powder form with particle size 5-100 (pref. 20) µm and
is esp. cellulose, cellulose gel or cellulose ether. Protein is present at 6.9–62.4
456 Cho
wt.% and is whey, whey protein concentrate, milk, non fat dried milk, casein,
rice protein, pea protein, soya, egg albumin or gelatin.
Gum is present in an amt. 1–2% and is esp. guar, carrageenan, arabic,
xanthan, alginate, methocel or curet gum. The flavouring is cream, butter,
cheese, chicken or beef flavour. Compsns. include sufficient water to give a
smooth and creamy consistency.
USE—The fat mimetic compsn. is used to replace normal fat in reduced
fat biscuits, cream soup, cheese sauce, cream sauce and chicken gravy, as well
as salad dressing, icing and bakery fillings, mayonnaise, ice-cream, cakes,
cookies and processed meats e.g., hot dogs and sausages.
ADVANTAGE—The compsns. reduce satd. and unsatd. fat and
cholesterol whilst maintaining the same flavour and other organoleptic
properties as their full-fat counterparts. The compsns. do not cause off-
flavours or undesirable appearance or mouthfeel.
Hydrolysed starch blends with fruit concentrates—to provide nutritive
sweetening and fat substitution in foods or beverages, esp. baked goods.
Patent Assignee: GREENLAND F A (GREE-I); LYNCH R J (LYNC-I);
MITCHELL C R (MITC-I); MITCHELL P R (MITC-I); MYERS T R
(MYER-I)
Inventor: GREENLAND F A; LYNCH R J; MITCHELL C R; MITCHELL P R;
MYERS T R
US 5492715 A 19960220 US 94222291 A 19940331 A23L-001/222 199613 B
Fruit concentrate compsns. are a blend of hydrolysed starch (I) of
dextrose equiv. (DE) 40 and a fruit concentrate (II) contg. no insolubles and at
least as sweet as sucrose. (II) contains 77% soluble solids with 70% simple
carbohydrates and 3–20% complex carbohydrates. (I) provides at most 60% of
the simple carbohydrates.
USE—Compsns. are used in foods or beverages, esp. in baked goods.
ADVANTAGE—The dual functionality in food formulations achieves
both nutritive sweetening and fat substitution.
Reduced fat processed meat—with fragmented aq. dispersion of granular
starch hydrolysate as fat substitute.
Inventor: SCHANEFELT R V; SMICK C

US 5368878 A 19941129 US 90483208 A 19900220 A23L-001/317 199502 B
US 90578994 A 19900906 US 92896096 A 19920610
US 9390570 A 19930706
Processed meat with reduced fat comprises ground meat contg. a minor
amount of a fragmented granular starch hydrolysate. Most of the hydrolysate,
but not all, is insoluble in cold water.
The carbohydrate replaces fat and/or oil in the meat, giving calorie-
reduced and low cholesterol products.
Cereal hydrolysate contg. compsn. for use as fat mimetic in foods—
comprises cereal hydrolysate comprising water-soluble dietary fibre
prepd. by hydrolysing aq. dispersion of substrate with enzyme, isolating
fibre and adding hydrocolloid gum.
Patent Assignee: RHONE POULENC INC (RHON); RHONE POULENC
SPECIALTIES CHEM CO (RHON)
Inventor: JENKINS R K; WILD J L
EP 577294 A2 19940105 EP 93304705 A 19930616 A23L-001/308 199402 B
BR 9302393 A 19940111 BR 932393 A 19930617 A23J-001/12 199406
AU 9341349 A 19931223 AU 9341349 A 19930618 A23L-001/10 199407
NO 9302262 A 19931220 NO 932262 A 19930618 A23L-001/308 199407
CA 2098552 A 19931220 CA 2098552 A 19930616 A23L-001/308 199410
US 5294456 A 19940315 US 92901331 A 19920619 A23L-001/105 199411
US 5294457 A 19940315 US 92901464 A 19920619 A23L-001/103 199411
JP 6098704 A 19940412 JP 93149041 A 19930621 A23L-001/10 199419
ZA 9304328 A 19940831 ZA 934328 A 19930617 A23L-000/00 199435
US 5380542 A 19950110 US 92901331 A 19920619 A23L-001/0522 199508
US 92901464 A 19920619 US 9373358 A 19930611
NZ 247925 A 19950328 NZ 247925 A 19930618 A23L-001/05 199519
EP 577294 A3 19940907 EP 93304705 A 19930616 A23L-001/308 199532
AU 663957 B 19951026 AU 9341349 A 19930618 A23L-001/10 199550
US 5585131 A 19961217 US 92901331 A 19920619 A23L-001/314 199705
US 92901464 A 19920619 US 9373358 A 19930611
US 94212076 A 19940314
A cereal hydrolysate contg. compsn. for use as a fat mimetic in foods
458 Cho
comprises: (A) a cereal hydrolysate comprising water soluble dietary fibre

material prepd. by hydrolysing an aq. dispersion of a cereal substrate with an
enzyme under conditions which will hydrolyze substrate starch without
appreciable solubilization of substrate protein to yield water soluble and
insoluble fractions. The water soluble dietary fibre material is isolated from
the water soluble fraction; and (B) a hydrocolloid gum effective and in an
amt. sufficient to form a thermo-irreversible gel with water-soluble dietary
fibre material.
Also claimed is a food compsn. contg. the fat mimetic and a food
compsn. comprising the dietary fibre prod.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The hydrolysate compsn. is useful as a fat
mimetic in preparing low fat comminuted meat prods. such as sausages. The
compsn. is obtd. in good yield and has good water holding capacity and
provides a fat reduced prod. with the visual, taste and mouthfeel properties
characteristic of a full fat meat prod. The gels can withstand the heating and
cooking needed to provide a prod. with the visual, taste and mouthfeel
characteristics desired in a fat mimetic particle of meat prods.
Foodstuff comprising native granular starch—is encapsulated in
continuous amorphous starch, used as substitute for fats in butchery and
biscuit prodn.
Patent Assignee: TIPIAK SA (TIPI-N)
Inventor: GROULT P; SIGONNEY L
FR 2661317 A 19911031 FR 905444 A 19900427 199203 B
Abstract (Basic): FR 2661317 A
Starch based foodstuff is produced by: (i) preparing a paste of starch
and water from native starch grains; (ii) fragmenting the paste; (iii) cooking
the fragments while effecting cooking differences between the starch grains;
(iv) drying the obtd. prod. and (v) grinding and sieving.
The obtd. prod. comprises granular starch associated (i.e., encapsulated)
with starch in a continuous amorphous state.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prod. is used as a substitute for fatty
materials in food prods., partic. in pork butchery and biscuit prodn. The prod.
is easily dispersible in water (cold or hot). It is slightly soluble in cold water,
the solubility increasing rapidly at 60–70°C, but, unlike native starch, this
solubility is not complete at high temp., a large fraction of the prod.
remaining in the state of insoluble particles even after intensive heat and
mechanical treatment. The prod. also has a high water retention capacity; the
particles are very hydrophilic and their swelling capacity in water at 95°C is
higher than 50 g water/g starch.
Foodstuff having reduced level of fat and/or oil—consists of particle gel
comprising water and material prepd. by precipitating amylose and
treating ppte. with alpha-amylase.
EP 529892 A1 19930303 EP 92307459 A 19920814 A23L-001/09 199309 B
A foodstuff having a reduced level of fat and/or oil comprises a mixt. of
foodstuffs and a particle gel as a replacement for at least a portion of the fat
and/or oil of the foodstuff. The particle gel comprises a minor amt. of
hydrolysed amylose precipitate regenerates by alpha-amylase and a major amt.
of an aq. liquid.
Also claimed is a method of formulating the foodstuffs contg. the fat
and/or oil ingredient replaced with the particle gel, an aq. dispersion useful as
a replacement for fats and/or oils contg. the particle gel, an edible compsn.
contg. the particle gel and an edible fat and/or oil replacement compsn. contg.
water and the particle gel.
Microcrystalline starch useful as fat substitute—is prepd. by
disintegration of microporous starch granules produced by hydrolysis of
granular starch.
Patent Assignee: WHISTLER R L (WHIS-I)
Patent Family:
WO 9221703 A1 19921210 WO 92US4740 A 19920528 C08B-030/00 199252 B
US 5445678 A 19950829 US 91706894 A 19910529 C08B-030/12 199540
US 9386227 A 19930701 US 5580390 A 19961203
US 91706894 A 19910529 C08B-030/12 199703
US 9386227 A 19930701 US 95455425 A 19950531
A method for preparing a microcrystalline starch compsn. useful as a fat
substitute in reduced calorie foods, comprises partially hydrolysing granular
460 Cho
starch to form a microporous granular starch and disintegrating the prod. into
crystalline starch particles. Also claimed is the microcrystalline starch compsn.
produced.
Pref. the microporous granular starch is formed by action of an amylase
enzyme on granular starch and the microporous granular starch is
mechanically or chemically disintegrated to form the starch compsn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. can be opt. treated with starch
reactive cross-linking agents and/or other surface modifying agents to
optimise its rheological properties and organoleptic qualities of processed
foods contg. the compsn. The compsn. imparts the sensory perception of
fattiness with less calorie content and without compromising other
organoleptic qualities of the food prod.
Food fat substitute compsn. having good mouthfeel—comprising aq.
soln. of alginate and complex carbohydrate having texture resembling
that of fat when dissolved in water.
Patent Assignee: TIVALL USA INC (TIVA-N)
Inventor: SHEMER M; SHEMER S
WO 9202147 A 19920220 199210 B
AU 9185030 A 19920302 AU 9185030 A 19910801 A23L-001/05 199224
WO 91US5444 A 19910801
A food fat substitute compsn. comprises an aq. soln. of alginate and
complex carbohydrate having a texture resembling that of fat when dissolved
in water. Also claimed is a food prod. contg. the fat substitute.
The complex carbohydrate is a plant derived water soluble fibre or
starch prod. consisting essentially of partially hydrolysed starch. The
starch prod. is selected from SHP, PASELLI SA2(RTM), MALTRIN
MO40(RTM), and N-OIL(RTM). The compsn. is in powdered or granulated
form. The compsn. comprises 1–20 wt. (esp. 5–15) wt.% alginate.
Alternatively the compsn. is in aq. soln. form and comprises 4–25 (esp. 10–
15) wt.% of the complex carbohydrate and 0.3–5 (esp. 1 to 1.5) wt.% of
alginate.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat substitute is made entirely of natural
prods. and has improved fat-like properties and gives improved mouthfeel to
food prods. esp. meat substitutes contg. it. The food prod. contg. the substitute
is selected from soup, gravy, sauce and dressing.
Low calorie meat prod.—comprises comminuted lean meat free from
visible fat, specified vegetable fat replacement and opt. salt.
Patent Assignee: DANISH CROWN INC AS (DACR-N); SLAGTERISELSK
WENBO (SLAG-N); STAGTERISELSK WENBO (WENB-N); SLAGTER
SKABET WENB (SLAG-N); SLAGTERISELSKABET WEMBO AMBA
(SLAG-N); DANISH CROWN INC (DACR-N); SLAGTERISELSKABET
WENBO AMBA (SLAG-N)
Inventor: CHRISTENSEN B; MOGENSEN F; CHRISTENSE B
WO 9108680 A 19910627 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 199128 B
FR 2655517 A 19910614 FR 9015481 A 19901211 199135
AU 9169165 A 19910718 199142
PT 96121 A 19910930 PT 96121 A 19901207 199142
ZA 9009702 A 19911030 ZA 909702 A 19901203 199148
CN 1052419 A 19910626 CN 90109842 A 19901211 199214
NO 9200174 A 19920310 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-001/31 199223
NO 92174 A 19920114
FI 9202693 A 19920610 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-000/00 199237
FI 922693 A 19920610
EP 505412 A1 19920930 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-001/314 199240
EP 91900743 A 19901130
BR 9007913 A 19921006 BR 907913 A 19901130 A23L-001/314 199245
WO 90DK312 A 19901130
NZ 236384 A 19930428 NZ 236384 A 19901207 A23L-001/317 199320
HU 62186 T 19930428 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-001/314 199322
HU 921269 A 19901130
ES 2035764 A1 19930416 ES 903154 A 19901210 A23L-001/317 199324
JP 5505098 W 19930805 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-001/31 199336
JP 91501197 A 19901130
AU 641202 B 19930916 AU 9169165 A 19901130 A23L-001/317 199344
ES 2035764 B1 19931216 ES 903154 A 19901210 A23L-001/317 199403
IT 1241028 B 19931227 IT 9067994 A 19901211 A23L-000/00 199422
EP 505412 B1 19940817 WO 90DK312 A 19901130 A23L-001/314 199432
EP 91900743 A 19901130
DE 69011691 E 19940922 DE 611691 A 19901130 A23L-001/314 199437
WO 90DK312 A 19901130
EP 91900743 A 19901130
IL 96520 A 19950831 IL 96520 A 19901130 A23L-001/317 199543
US 5468510 A 19951121 US 90517663 A 19900501 A23L-001/317 199601
462 Cho
US 90566223 A 19900813
US 90597719 A 19901016
US 90623747 A 19901219
US 94186028 A 19940125
IE 67971 B 19960515 IE 904443 A 19901210 A23L-001/314 199630
A low calorie meat prod. comprises: (a) a mixt. comprising (1)
comminuted lean meat substantially free from visible fat in an amt. of 20–95
wt.% of the mixt.; (2) a vegetable fat replacement ingredient comprising
dietary fibre and starch in a wt. ratio of 1 : 32 to 1: 1. The dietary fibre is at
least 5 wt.% of the fat replacement ingredient dry matter when determined as
non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) and the proportion of starch is at least 50
wt.% of the fat replacement ingredient. The proportion of vegetable fat
replacement ingredient is 5–80 wt.% of the mixt.; (b) opt. added salt in an
amt. of 0.1–4 wt.% of the mixt.; (c) opt. added water in an amt. of 5–50
wt.% of the mixt.; and (d) opt. one or more further ingredient.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The low calorie meat prod. is a pet food or a
ready to cook or ready to eat consumer meal etc. (hamburger, sausage,
spreadable prods. etc.); when the prod. is a hamburger prod. the content of fat
is at the most 15 wt.% and in other prods. the fat content is at most 10 wt.%;
when the lean meat is fish meat the prod. does not comprise hardened fat and
the dietary fibre is not Konjak mannan. The prods. have same taste, texture,
appearance and water binding capacity as conventionally prepd. high fat meat
prods.
Gel-forming starch hydrolysate prepn.—comprises two-stage addn. of
amylolytic enzyme to starch milk concentrate and heating.
Patent Assignee: ODESS BAKERY IND (ODBA-R); ODESS FOOD IND
TECHN (ODFO)
Inventor: DUDKIN M S; KAPRELYANT L V; SEREDNITSK P V
SU 1616588 A 19901230 SU 4414589 A 19880421 199146 B
Abstract (Basic): SU 1616588 A
A gel-forming starch hydrolysate is obtd. more efficiently by
concentrating starch milk, which is a side prod. of bread making, to solids
content of 15–30% and adding an amylolytic enzyme. The enzyme is added
in two stages. In the first stage 45–55% of the enzyme is added. The
suspension is heated to 50–52°C at the rate of 0.5–1.0°C/min., and left to be
heated for 5 min. at the max. temp. Subsequent heating to 71°C is followed
by addn. of the remaining enzyme.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Used in food industry as a cheaper method of
producing maltodextrins, which can replace fat in food preparations.
Starch—Snack 1
Fat free corn snacks—comprise corn, fat free filler e.g., starch, non-
digestible fibre and fat free ingredients e.g., salt.
Patent Assignee: PROCTER & GAMBLE CO (PROC)
Inventor: BIEDERMANN D T; JENSEN J M; JOHNSTON R W; RECE R D
WO 9639865 A1 19961219 WO 96US8541 A 19960604 A23L-001/164 199705 B
AU 9659747 A 19961230 AU 9659747 A 19960604 A23L-001/164 199716
Fat free corn snacks comprise: (a) 20–50% corn; (b) 20–62% fat free
filler comprising starch, protein and/or non-digestible fibre; (c) 1–35% non-
digestible fat substitute and (d) 0–10% fat free ingredients comprising salt,
emulsifiers and/or fat free seasonings.
USE—The corn snacks are digestible fat free corn chips e.g., fried,
baked and/or extruded salted snacks such as corn chips and sticks, tortilla
chips, corn curls and puffs, pellet snacks, half products and crackers.
ADVANTAGE—The low moisture triglyceride or digestible fat free
corn snacks have good taste and mouthfeel lubriciousness and acceptable
greasiness impressions.
Starch—Spread & Salad Dressing 1

Shortening substitute for use in foodstuffs and its prepn.—useful in
baked goods, candy and icing and esp. as a roll-in fat substitute.
Patent Assignee: AMERICAN MAIZE PROD CO (AMEM); CERESTAR
USA INC (CERE-N)
Inventor: MAURO D; STANKUS C; TREECE T
US 5576043 A 19961119 US 95478509 A 19950607 A23L-001/0522 199701 B
WO 9639863 A1 19961219 WO 96US9859 A 19960607 A23L-001/0522 199705
A shortening substitute comprises a mixt. of (a) 1–10 wt.%
pregelatinised, unmodified starch; (b) 5–15 wt.% pregelatinised, modified,
high amylopectin starch selected from pregelatinised, crosslinked,
464 Cho
hydroxypropylated starch and pregelatinised, crosslinked esterified starch; (c)

5–10 wt.% emulsifier comprising at least a monoglyceride; (d) 5–25 wt.%
shortening; and (e) the remainder (greater than or equal to 60 wt.%) water.
Also claimed is (i) process for making the shortening substitute; and (ii)
reduced fat foodstuffs in which shortening is replaced by the shortening
substitute.
USE—The shortening substitute is used to replace at least a portion of
the shortening in a foodstuff (e.g., in a wt. ratio of 1 :1) to make a fat-reduced
foodstuff (claimed), partic. in baked goods and esp. laminated pastry made
with roll-in shortening where all the shortening is substd., danish, pie crust,
cake and biscuits, candy and icing (all claimed).
ADVANTAGE—The shortening substitute has a caloric content ⫽ 2
calories/g while that of conventional shortening ⫽ 9 calories/g. It has the
necessary texture to act as a roll-in fat substitute. It works well in frozen
doughs. It has been found, in some instances, to produce baked goods with
superior taste to those produced with conventional shortening. The substitute
provides cost savings over conventional shortenings.

Reduced fat peanut butter prod.—comprises ground peanuts and native
starch which reduces or replaces the fat and/or sugar content.
Inventor: FINNOCHIARO E T
US 5549923 A 19960827 US 94219983 A 19940330 A23L-001/38 199640 B
A reduced fat peanut butter prod. (I) comprises: (a) ground peanuts in a
continuous oil phase; and (b) 5–50 wt.% native starch derived from corn, pea,
potato, garbanzo bean, wheat, rice, tapioca, sorghum, barley, waxy maize,
milo, arrow root, waxy rice or waxy milo.
USE—(I) is useful as a peanut butter, peanut spread or imitation peanut
butter, having a creamy, crunchy, old-fashioned or natural form.
ADVANTAGE—(I) has the flavour and consistency of conventional
peanut butter, and does not exhibit phase or oil sepn.

Fat free spread with the spreadability, body, texture and taste of
ordinary margarine—comprising gellan gum, water, non-gelling starch,
gelling salt, and non-fat milk solids.
Patent Assignee: MONSANTO CO (MONS)

Inventor: CHALUPA W F; SANDERSON G R
EP 685170 A2 19951206 EP 95870062 A 19950531 A23L-001/054 199602 B
EP 685170 A3 19960501 EP 95870062 A 19950531 A23L-001/054 199626
US 5534286 A 19960709 US 94252307 A 19940601 A23L-001/0522 199633
Spreads comprise 81–95.9% water, 2–11% non-gelling starch, 1–3%
gelling salt, 1–3% non-fat milk solids and 0.1–1.0% gellan gum.
Gellan gum and most of the starch are added to most of the water and
hydrated by heating to 180–212 (pref. 200) deg. F while mixing. The salt and
milk solids are mixed in and the mixt. cooled to 150–160°F. The rest of the
starch and water are added and blended until uniform, and the mixt. poured
into a container and allowed to cool and set. The initial starch and water are
at least 70 and at least 88% of the total amounts.
USE—The spreads are useful as margarine substitutes that are fat free
yet have the spreadability, body, texture and taste of ordinary margarine.

Non-fat food prods. e.g., fruit spreads and pie fillings—contg. pectin,
starch, cellulose or protein based fat mimetic having improved texture
and spreadability.
Patent Assignee: SMUCKER J M CO (SMUC-N)
Inventor: BRAIN C H; GAITHER K S; MUENZ D J
US 5451420 A 19950919 US 92857254 A 19920325 A23L-001/0524 199543 B
US 93115825 A 19930903
A non-fat food prod. comprises: (a) a mixt. of whole fruit, fruit purée,
fruit juice, fruit juice concentrate, cocoa, tomatoes, tomato juice, tomato paste,
tomato paste concentrate and/or tomato sauce; (b) one of water and a
sweetener; and (c) one of a stabiliser and a gel promoting agent; (d) a fat
mimetic as an additional ingredient providing the physical and organoleptic
characteristics of fat, selected from pectin based, starch based, cellulose based
and/or protein based fat mimetics.
The fat mimetic is a low methoxyl pectin forming 0.1 wt.% of the mixt.
The prod. has a soluble solids content of 5–80% and consists of particle 5–
100 µm.
466 Cho
USE—Used in non-fat food prods. e.g., fruit spreads, bakery fillings,

flavoured syrups, pie glazes and fillings etc.
ADVANTAGE—The food prods. have improved texture and enhanced
spread ability, flavour and mouthfeel. Bakery filling prods. also have improved
water retention and bake stability.

Non-fat or low-fat spreadable or squeezable margarine—comprises fat
mimetic, bulky agent, inulin and/or gum and water.
Patent Assignee: KRAFT GEN FOODS INC (KRFT); KRAFT FOODS INC
(KRFT)
Inventor: BULIGA G S; LIS D G; MILLER M S; POWELL W F;
KRISHNAMURTHY R G; TOMSKI S J; WITTE V C; TOMSKI S
EP 648425 A2 19950419 EP 94307646 A 19941018 A23D-007/00 199520 B
CA 2132502 A 19950419 CA 2132502 A 19940920 A23D-007/02 199529
EP 648425 A3 19950705 EP 94307646 A 19941018 A23D-007/00 199612
CA 2150086 A 19951209 CA 2150086 A 19950524 A23D-007/015 199614
US 5501869 A 19960326 US 92997689 A 19921228 A23D-007/015 199618
US 93138734 A 19931018
US 94255454 A 19940608
Margarine comprises: (a) a fat mimetic selected from waxy maize
starch, mixts. of the starch with gelling type maltodextrins and/or modified by
acid hydrolysis to remove amorphous regions from it; (b) opt. a bulking agent
selected from non-gelling maltodextrins, polydextrose and corn syrup solids;
(c) inulin and/or gum; and (d) water.
The bulking agent is present in an amt. of 0–5 (esp. 1–5)% and
component (c) is inulin. The compsn. also comprises a sweetness masking
agent selected from Ca-citrate and/or microreticulated microcrystalline
cellulose present in an amt. of 0.75–3 wt.% on a dry solids basis or Na-salt of
racemic 2-(4-methoxyphenoxy) propionic acid present at a level of 50–200
ppm. The fat mimetic is present at a level of 3.5–8% and the inulin at a level
of 10–23%.
USE—The margarine contains no fat or low-fat, and it is spreadable or
squeezable.
ADVANTAGE—The prod. has rheological properties similar to solid
margarine or squeezable margarine. The prod. has no fat and substantially
fewer calories compared to margarine.

Macro-colloidal starch particles as fat or cream substitutes—for use in
ice cream, sauces, spreads, whipped toppings, salad dressing, cheese,
cream cheese or icing.
Patent Assignee: NUTRASWEET CO (NUTR-N)
Inventor: SINGER N S
US 5370894 A 19941206 US 88211494 A 19880624 A23L-001/307 199503 B
US 89367322 A 19890620 US 91678897 A 19910328
US 92956788 A 19921005
A water-dispersible macrocolloid comprises particles of starch that are
non-aggregated, spheroidal, of mean particle size distribution 0.1–4 µm with
less than 2% (by number) over 5 µm and in a hydrated state. They form
macrocolloids of smooth organoleptic character like an oil-in-water emulsion.
They are selected from taro, Saponaria vaccaria, Amaranthus retroflexus,
Maranta arundinacea, or buckwheat starches.
USE—The macrocolloid is used as an analogue for ice cream, salad
dressing, mayonnaise, cheese, cream cheese, icing, spreads, whipped topping
or sauce.
ADVANTAGE—The compsn. simulates the mouthfeel of fat and/or
cream in the prod. when used to replace all or part of the fat and/or cream.

Compsn. prepn. for replacing fat and/or oil in foods—comprises
gelatinising starch contg. amylopectin, de-branching amylopectin using
ultrasonic, forming ppte. of de-branched prod. and fragmenting to form
gel.
Inventor: LITTLE J A; SCOBELL H D; HARRIS D W
WO 9418850 A1 19940901 WO 94US698 A 19940118 A23L-001/05 199436 B
US 5372835 A 19941213 US 90483208 A 19900220 199504
US 90578994 A 19900906 US 91746381 A 19910816
US 91798291 A 19911126 US 92908728 A 19920706
US 92918862 A 19920730 US 9319130 A 19930216
US 5395640 A 19950307 US 90483208 A 19900220 A23L-001/0522
199515 N
468 Cho
US 90578994 A 19900906 US 91746381 A 19910816

US 91798291 A 19911126 US 92908728 A 19920706
US 92908728 A 19920706 US 92918862 A 19920730
Prodn. of a compsn. of matter useful in replacing fat and/or oil in food
formulation comprises: (a) gelatinising a starch having amylopectin
component; (b) debranching the amylopectin in the gelatinised starch in a
debranching medium comprising ultrasonic waves at a frequency 20–100 kHz.
The debranching is effective to convert more than 80 wt.% of the amylopectin
to short chain amylase and form a debranched amylopectin starch in the
medium; (c) ceasing the prodn. of ultrasonic waves in the medium and
allowing the medium to form a ppte. of debranched amylopectin starch; and
(d) fragmenting a minor amt. of the debranched or amylopectin starch ppte. in
a major amt. of an aq. liquid. The fragmenting is effective to form a particle
gel of the compsn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The debranched starch ppte. allows for
replacement of a substantial portion (10–100 wt.%) of fat and/or oil in food
formulations such as frostings, icings, ice-cream, margarine, dressing, meat
prods., cheese prods., puddings, sauces, toppings, etc. The ppte. will also have
utility as a thickener, bodying agent, etc. Replacement of fat and/or oil
enables redn. in calories of the food prods. of at least one third per customary
serving without adversely affecting the organoleptic properties of the prod.

Reduced fat shortening substitute for bakery prods.—comprises
emulsion with fat and emulsifier as oil phase in aq. phase contg.
viscosifier and humectant.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL); VAN
DEN BERGH FOODS CO (VBER-N)
Inventor: BODOR J; DESAI G; DESAI G N
Patent Family:
WO 9412039 A1 19940609 WO 93EP3155 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199424 B
AU 9454648 A 19940622 AU 9454648 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199436
US 5360627 A 19941101 US 92982929 A 19921130 A23D-009/00 199443
ZA 9308668 A 19950726 ZA 938668 A 19931119 A23D-000/00 199535
EP 673201 A1 19950927 WO 93EP3155 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199543
EP 94900126 A 19931110
EP 673201 B1 19960724 WO 93EP3155 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199634
EP 94900126 A 19931110
DE 69303829 E 19960829 DE 603829 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199640

WO 93EP3155 A 19931110
EP 94900126 A 19931110
JP 8503372 W 19960416 WO 93EP3155 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199645
JP 94512690 A 19931110
ES 2089903 T3 19961001 EP 94900126 A 19931110 A21D-002/16 199645
Shortening substitutes are emulsions of 10–40% fat phase (I) and 90–
60% aq. phase (II). (I) contain a triglyceride and at least 3 wt.% (w.r.t.
emulsion) of emulsifier (II), at least 4.5 wt.% of (III) being propylene glycol
monoester of fats and fatty acids. (II) contains 5–30 wt.% starch, starch deriv.
and/or gum as viscosifier (IV) and 10–50 wt.% polyol humectant (V).
Pref. emulsions are oil-in-water. (I) and (II) are 15–35 and 65–85 wt.%
resp. (III) is 30–45% alpha monoglyceride and 45—70% propylene glycol
monoester. It esp. also contains lecithin. Prods. contain not over 20% fat. The
ratio triglyceride : emulsifier is 4–1 :1. The triglyceride has solid fat index at
10°C 20–70, 21°C 10–60, 33°C 5–50 and 40°C 1–20. (IV) is low DE-
maltodextrin, tapioca dextrin or pregelatinised tapioca dextrin. (V) is
hydrolysed corn starch or high fructose corn syrup.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prods. are used in bakery prods. and give
reduced fat, reduced caloric baked goods without introducing problems such
as reduced cake volume.

Fat-free margarine compsn. having reduced calorie content—comprises
inulin and/or gum, water, modified starch or gelling-type maltodextrin
fat mimetic and opt. bulking agent.
(KRFT)
Inventor: BULIGA G S; LIS D G; MILLER M S; POWELL W F; DANIEL G L
EP 605217 A2 19940706 EP 93310499 A 19931223 A23D-007/00 199426 B
NO 9304824 A 19940629 NO 934824 A 19931227 A23L-001/307 199429
FI 9305870 A 19940629 FI 935870 A 19931227 A23D-000/00 199433
CA 2110195 A 19940629 CA 2110195 A 19931129 A23D-007/00 199434
EP 605217 A3 19950503 EP 93310499 A 19931223 A23D-007/00 199545
Non-fat margarines comprise (a) a fat mimetic, (b) opt. a bulking agent,
(c) inulin and/or gum and (d) water. Fat mimetic (a) is a gelling type
maltodextrin or is starch with the amorphous regions removed by hydrolysis.
470 Cho
The bulking agent is at 0–5 wt.%. Component (c) is inulin. The

margarine is spreadable. The margarine esp. contains calcium citrate, esp. at
0.75–3.0%. It also contains a gum, esp. xanthan, guar or acacia gum, alginate,
carrageenan, pectin or gelatin, esp. at 0.1–2.0%. The fat mimetic is at 3.5–8
or 5–10%. The bulking agent is at 1.0–5%. The inulin is at 10–23%, esp. 15–
25%. If (b) is present, (c) is gum and the margarine is squeezable. (b) is at 5–
10%. Compsns. also contain 1.0–2.5% salt. They also contain 0.5–15% fat or
oil.
ADVANTAGE—Compsns. have the appearance and taste of margarine
or squeezable margarine with no fat and reduced calorie content.

Carbohydrate replacers for fat or oil in foods e.g., icing, glazes,
margarine etc.—is made of gelatinised, fragmented and retrograded
amylose starch in particulate gel form.
Inventor: HARRIS D W; LITTLE J A; STANLEY K D
WO 9409645 A1 19940511 WO 93US10321 A 19931028 A23L-001/05 199420 B
AU 9455411 A 19940524 WO 93US10321 A 19931028 199434
AU 9455411 A 19931028
US 5387426 A 19950207 US 90483208 A 19900220 A23L-001/0522 199512
US 90578994 A 19900906 US 91746381 A 19910816
US 91746432 A 19910816 US 91798291 A 19911126
US 91798292 A 19911126 US 92908728 A 19920706
US 92918861 A 19920730 US 92918862 A 19920730
US 92918951 A 19920730 US 92918952 A 19920730
US 92968979 A 19921030 US 5436019 A 19950725
US 90483208 A 19900220 A23L-001/05 199535 N
US 90578994 A 19900906 US 91798292 A 19911126
US 92908728 A 19920706 US 92918951 A 19920730
EP 666715 A1 19950816 WO 93US10321 A 19931028 A23L-001/05
199537
EP 94900410 A 19931028
JP 8502888 W 19960402 WO 93US10321 A 19931028 A23L-001/05
199645
JP 94511295 A 19931028
EP 666715 A4 19970205 EP 94900410 A 19940000 A23L-001/05 199722
Heat-treated and fragmented amylose starch hydrolysates are prepd. by
(i) gelatinising and retrograding an amylose starch to a degree that permits

physical degradation to form a particle gel; (iii) physically sepg. the treated
amylose from the aq. medium at elevated temp. to remove a water-soluble
hydrolysate fraction and the aq. medium, leaving hydrolysed, retrograded
amylose and (iv) physically fragmenting some of this in an aq. medium to
produce a particle gel.
The temp. in (iii) is over 90°C. The particle gel exhibits, at a shear
strain of under 50 millistrain, a transition from constant to decreasing dynamic
elastic modulus. The starch is derived from Zea mays. The starch is derived
from a starch of at least 40 wt.% amylose. the starch after treatment has only
a low content of 90°C water solubles.
Also claimed are foodstuffs contg. the prods. and aq. dispersions of the
prods.
USE—The gels act as carbohydrate replacements for some of the fat
and/or oil in food compsns., e.g., icings, glazes, creme fillings, frozen
desserts, dressings, meat prods., cheese prods., margarine, fruit butters, other
imitation dairy prods., puddings, sweets, sauces, toppings and syrups.

Viscous salad dressing with reduced fat—having proteinaceous water-
dispersible macrocolloid of denatured non-dairy whey protein as fat
substitute.
Patent Assignee: LABATT LTD JOHN (LABA)
Inventor: LATELLA J; SINGER N S; YAMAMOTO S
US 5139811 A 19920818 US 84606959 A 19840504 A23L-001/24 199236 B
US 87127955 A 19871202 US 89367261 A 19890616
US 90568745 A 19900817
Some or all of the fat and/or oil of a viscous salad dressing is replaced
by a proteinaceous, water-dispersible macrocolloid comprising non-aggregated
particles of denatured non-dairy whey protein.
In a dry state the particles have mean dia. ranging from 0.1–2.0
microns with less than 2% (in number) over 3.0 microns. They are
generally spheroidal viewed under an 800x microscope. In a hydrated
state they form a macrocolloid with smooth, emulsion-like, organoleptic
character.
USE—Prods. have texture like mayonnaise or starch-based salad
dressings and can be formulated to give sandwich spreads, tartar sauce or
refigerated spoonable salad dressing.
472 Cho

Reduced calorie salad dressing—contains fat mimetic, microcrystalline
cellulose, cold water swelling starch and gum giving fat-like properties.
Patent Assignee: LIPTON CO THOMAS J (LIPT-N)
Inventor: BAUER R; CUCCURULLO J A; DAZO P E; KOCHAKJI D J;
RIKON S M; RUBOW R E
US 5286510 A 19940215 US 92957492 A 19921007 A23L-001/0522 199407 B
Fat mimetic compsns. are an intimate admixt. of 30–70 wt.% colloidal
microcrystalline cellulose (I); 30–70% cold water swelling starch (II); 1–15 %
xanthan, carrageenan, locust bean and/or guar gums (III); 0–5 % alginate or
alginate deriv. and (IV); 0–5% opacifier (V). (V) is TiO2 and/or milk solids.
The mimetic imparts organoleptic props. similar to fat at 1–10% in a dressing
contg. up to 30% fat.
Pref., (I) is at 50–60 (56%); (II) at 40–50 (32%); (III) at 3–5 (4%); (IV)
at 1–3 (or 5%) and (V) at 0.5–4 (3)%. (IV) is propylene glycol alginate and
(V) is TiO2 .
70–99 pts. water are put in a vessel and agitation started. A dry mixt. of
0.3–5.6 pts. microcrystalline cellulose, 0.3–6 pts. starch, 0.1–0.5 pts. xanthan
gum, 0.1–0.5 pts. propylene glycol alginate and 0.04–0.52 pts. TiO2 is prepd.
and added under agitation. In a second vessel contg. 21–45 pts. water, 8–10
pts. vinegar, 12–27 pts. sweetener, 5–25 pts. flavour cocktail, and 0–30 pts.
oil are added and agitated until homogeneous. 25–30 pts. of the fat mimetic is
then dispersed in the compsn. in the second vessel.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Mimetics are used in low or no fat, reduced
calorie salad dressings. Dressings have smooth, creamy mouthfeel and texture
and lubricity like edible fat-contg. prods.

Reduced calorie food compsns. useful for salad dressings, etc.—
comprise extended polyvinyl alcohol fatty acid ester(s) as fat mimetics.
Patent Assignee: NABISCO INC (NATY)
Inventor: DAMELIA R P; JACKLIN P T; JANES L E; SCIMONE A
US 5240996 A 19930831 US 89312618 A 19890217 C08F-008/00 199336 B
US 89446220 A 19891205 US 92865565 A 19920409
Food compsn. comprises (as fat mimetic) an extended polyvinyl alcohol

ester polymer of formula H(CH 2-CH((CH 2 )mOH)-) nH (I) (where m is 1–8; n
is 5–100; X is H or RCO; and R is 1-20C aliphatic).
The compsn. is pref. a bakery or snack prod. (pref. also comprising flour
or starch), a candy (pref. also comprising a sweetener), or an emulsion (a fat
phase contg. (I), and an aq. phase). The compsns. may also comprise a
proteinaceous or sucrose polyester fat replacement. Pref. in the food compsns.,
(I) is used to replace at least 10% esp. at least 25% of the conventional fat. A
pref. (I) is prepd. by polymerising 4-penten-1-yl acetate with a catalytic amt.
of (PhCO) 2O2 under N 2 ; removing unreacted acetate ester by distn.,
interesterification with Me oleate in the presence of NaOMe; then purifying
the resulting (I).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat replacement polymers (I) may be
individually tailored to provide different polyvinyl alcohol esters having
desirable functional props. in a range of food prods. Thus (I) are useful in
emulsions (salad dressings and margarines), in high natural fat foods (dairy,
meat, nut and egg prods.), in all types of leavened baked goods, in snack
prods., and as frying oils.

Fat mimetic compsns. for reduced calorie salad dressings—comprise
microcrystalline cellulose, cold water swelling starch, gum, alginate,
opacifier and water.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL);
LIPTON CO THOMAS J (LIPT-N); UNILEVER LTD (UNIL)
US 5209942 A 19930511 US 91799583 A 19911127 A23C-001/24 199320 B
AU 9229619 A 19930603 AU 9229619 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199329
CA 2083806 A 19930528 CA 2083806 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199333
EP 558832 A2 19930908 EP 92203669 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199336
JP 5236906 A 19930917 JP 92341215 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199342
HU 63752 T 19931028 HU 923728 A 19921126 A23L-001/29 199348
CZ 9203496 A3 19940216 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199413
ZA 9209221 A 19940727 ZA 929221 A 19921127 A23C-000/00 199431
SK 9203496 A3 19950208 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199525
EP 558832 A3 19940831 EP 92203669 A 19921127 A23C-001/24 199531
JP 95095932 B2 19951018 JP 92341215 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199546
AU 667203 B 19960314 AU 9229619 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199618
474 Cho
CA 2083806 C 19960528 CA 2083806 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199633

Fat mimetic compsn. comprises: (a) 30–70% colloidal microcrystalline
cellulose (I); (b) 30–70% cold H 2O swelling starch (II); (c) 1–15% gum (III)
(xanthan, carrageenan, locust bean or guar gums or mixts.); (d) 0–5% alginate
(IV) (or deriv.); and (e) 0–5% opacifier (V) (TiO2 and/or milk solids). The
compsn. imparts organoleptic properties similar to fat when formulated at
1–10% in a dressing contg. up to 7% fat.
Pref. compsn. comprises 50–60% esp. 56% (I), 40–50% (II), 3–5%
esp. 4% (III) (esp. xanthan gum), 1–3% esp. 5% (IV) (esp. as propylene
glycol alginate), and 0.5–4% esp. 3% (V) (esp. as TiO2 ).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat mimetic compsns. allow the prodn. of
low fat/no fat reduced calorie salad dressings with the taste and functionality
of full fat dressings. In addn., the dressings may be prepd. using relatively low
energy processes.

Milk fat substitute particles for food spread—contg. insol. hydrophilic
inner matrix, bonded hydrophobic layer of fatty acid and outer lipidic or
amphiphilic cpd. for low fat paste.
Patent Assignee: BIOVECTOR THERAPEUTICS SA (BIOV-N); A & S
BIOVECTEURS (ASBI-N); BIOVECTOR THERAPEUTICS SA (ASBI-N)
Inventor: GIBILARO J; SAMAIN D
WO 9221251 A1 19921210 WO 92FR497 A 19920604 A23L-001/308 199252 B
FR 2677225 A1 19921211 FR 916744 A 19910604 A23L-001/307 199306
EP 542965 A1 19930526 EP 92911690 A 19920604 A23L-001/308 199321
WO 92FR497 A 19920604
JP 6500697 W 19940127 JP 92510770 A 19920604 A23C-011/00 199409
WO 92FR497 A 19920604
EP 542965 B1 19960508 EP 92911690 A 19920604 A23L-001/308 199623
WO 92FR497 A 19920604
DE 69210549 E 19960613 DE 610549 A 19920604 A23L-001/308 199629
EP 92911690 A 19920604 WO 92FR497 A 19920604
US 5534501 A 19960709 US 93978685 A 19930402 A01N-043/04 199633
US 95479539 A 19950607
Particles comprise (a) an insol. hydrophilic matrix surrounded by (b) a
1st hydrophobic layer of fatty acids bonded to the matrix by covalent bonds,
and (c) a 2nd layer of lipidic or amphiphilic cpds. Pref. the matrix is a
polysaccharide, naturally insol. or chemically or physically insolubilised, esp.

naturally insol. polysaccharides, cellulose, certain starches and dextrans,
carragenenes, and sol. polysaccharide gels rendered insol. by chemical
crosslinking. The fatty acids are bonded to the matrix by ester functions, esp.
esterification on the OH gps. of the matrix, using natural fatty acids. (c) The
amphiphilic cpds. are phospholipids or proteins, (milk components).

Cold swellable granulated starch for calorie reduced food—combined
with mayonnaise, Hollandaise, salad cream, etc., without requiring
synthetic prod.
Patent Assignee: CPC INT INC (CORP); MELWITZ A (MELW-I);
MAIZENA GMBH (CORP)
Inventor: MELWITZ A; SEEWI G; SPITZFADEN K; STUTE R
DE 4117327 C 9920903 DE 4117327 A 19910527 A23L-001/0522 199236 B
EP 516107 A1 19921202 EP 92108989 A 19920527 A23L-001/0522 199249
AU 9217170 A 19921203 AU 9217170 A 19920526 A23L-001/0522 199304
NO 9202095 A 19921130 NO 922095 A 19920526 A23L-001/29 199305
CA 2069463 A 19921128 CA 2069463 A 19920522 A23L-001/308 199307
FI 9202406 A 19921128 FI 922406 A 19920526 A23L-001/0522 199308
JP 5252906 A 19931005 JP 92135334 A 19920527 A23L-001/307 199344
AU 660978 B 19950713 AU 9217170 A 19920526 A23L-001/0522 199535
EP 516107 B1 19950920 EP 92108989 A 19920527 A23L-001/0522 199542
TW 254846 A 19950821 TW 92104083 A 19920525 A23L-001/19 199543
DE 69204904 E 19951026 DE 604904 A 19920527 A23L-001/0522 199548
EP 92108989 A 19920527
ES 2077293 T3 19951116 EP 92108989 A 19920527 A23L-001/0522 199551
IE 67896 B 19960501 IE 921629 A 19920701 A23L-001/0522 199629
Abstract (Basic): DE 4117327 C
Use is claimed of cold-swellable, granulated starch as a substitute for fat
or oil in foodstuffs, pref. fat-reduced emulsions, esp. mayonnaise, hollandaise,
salad cream and dips.
Pref. ratio of starch to fat or oil in the whole prod. is 2 :1–1: 15, and the
amt. of starch in the whole prod. is 2–12 (3–7) wt.%. The prod. pref. contains
10–60 (15–50) wt.% fat or oil.
USE /ADVANTAGE—For calorie-reduced foods. The prod. has good
taste, consistency and feeling, without requiring the use of a synthetic prod.
The emulsion is formed without requiring large amts. of starch.
476 Cho

Edible plastic dispersion esp. for use in low fat prods.—has a non-fat
continuous phase, and includes at least two condensed phases
comprising gel-forming compsns. contg. different gelling agents.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER NV (UNIL); UNILEVER PLC (UNIL)
Inventor: CAIN F W; CLARK A H; DUNPHY P J; JONES M G;
NORTON I T; ROSS-MURPH S B; ROSS-MURPHY S B
EP 298561 A 19890111 EP 88201405 A 19880705 198902 B
AU 8818750 A 19890112 198909
JP 1086831 A 19890331 JP 88169982 A 19880707 198919
ZA 8804936 A 19900328 ZA 884936 A 19880708 199017
US 4956193 A 19900911 US 88215009 A 19880705 199039
EP 298561 B1 19950517 EP 88201405 A 19880705 A23L-001/307 199524
DE 3853796 G 19950622 DE 3853796 A 19880705 A23L-001/307 199530
EP 88201405 A 19880705
JP 96029047 B2 19960327 JP 88169982 A 19880707 A23D-007/015 199617
An edible plastic dispersion not having a continuous fat phase and
including at least two condensed phases at least one of which is continuous
comprises (i) a gel-forming compsn. (A) contg. 1–8 times the critical concn.
of a gelling agent (I), and (ii) a gel-forming compsn. (B) contg. 1–8 times the
critical concn. of a gelling agent (b).
At least one of (a) and (b) is an aggregate-forming gelling agent and at
least one is not a starch. (a) and (b) are different and neither is a non-waxy
intact starch.
Also claimed are use of the dispersion in the prepn. of a food prod., and
a food prod. contg. the dispersion.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The dispersion can be used to replace margarine
or halvarine, or as dessert topping or filling, or can be used in the prepn. of
other food prods. to reduce their fat content, e.g., in mayonnaise-like food
prods. or pâté.

Converted gelling starch—of use as replacement for fat or oil in
foodstuffs.
Patent Assignee: NAT STARCH & CHEM CORP (NATT)
Inventor: HOFFMAN S; LENCHIN J; TRUBIANO P C
US 4510166 A 19850409 US 84572266 A 19840119 198517 B

EP 149258 A 19850724 EP 84116504 A 19841229 198530
AU 8436972 A 19850725 198537
ZA 8409843 A 19850613 ZA 849843 A 19841218 198539
JP 60164449 A 19850827 JP 856013 A 19850118 198540
DK 8500259 A 19850720 198603 CA 1226167 A 19870901 198739
EP 149258 B 19910508 199119 DE 3484562 G 19910613 199125
JP 93037007 B 19930601 JP 856013 A 19850118 A23L-001/0522 199324
JP 6105652 A 19940419 JP 92310583 A 19921119 A23D-009/00 199420
Converted gelling starch (I) has a dextrin equivalent (DE) less than 5;
aq. dispersions at 10–50 wt.% starch solids have a hot flow viscosity of at
least 10 secs. at 55°C and are capable of forming gels having a strength of at
least 25 g within 24 hrs. at 4°C.
Pref. (I) is a dextrin, or an acid-converted or enzyme-converted starch,
e.g., tapioca, corn or potato; it is esp. a tapioca dextrin of DE 1.5 or less, hot
flow viscosity 15–80 secs. and gel strength 65–150 g at 25% solids.
USE /ADVANTAGE—(I) forms with water a gel of neutral taste and
creamy smooth consistency; it is readily prepd. by conventional means. (I)
may be used to replace oil or fat partially or completely, e.g., in ice cream,
salad dressing, margarine, whipped topping or sauce.
Starch—Method 1
New method of prodn. of high amylose starch-based texturising agent—
useful in foods and in drug and cosmetic formulations.
Inventor: FINOCCHIARO E T; MALLEE F M; STONE J A
US 5547513 A 19960820 US 92900899 A 19920618 C13K-001/06 199639 B
US 93138541 A 19931015
WO 94US11654 A 19941014
US 95459401 A 19950602
A new method of producing a high amylose starch-based texturising
agent comprises: (a) heating a slurry of high amylose starch in an aq. acidic
medium for a temp., pressure and time sufficient to substantially disrupt starch
granules to produce a solubilised starch soln.; (b) filtering the resultant soln. to
remove impurities; and (c) drying the solubilised starch soln. by a suitable
means to preserve the amorphous structure and produce a starch-based
texturising agent that is non-retrograded and non-crystalline.
478 Cho
USE—The texturising agent functions to provide several fat-like

attributes such as structure, viscosity, smoothness and opacity to reduce and/or
essentially replace the fat content in foods. Additionally the texturising agent
can be used in full fat foods as a stabiliser. The texturising agent can also be
incorporated into drug and cosmetic formulations.
Starch—Method 2
Prepn. and packaging of frozen, instant mashed potato prod.—by
heating slurry contg. fat-contg. ingredient or substitute and water,
mixing with dehydrated potato solids, dispensing into ovenable trays,
sealing and freezing.
Patent Assignee: CONAGRA INC (CONA-N)
Inventor: JONSON S H; MOGILEVSKY S; SCHERPF D H
US 5536525 A 19960716 US 95550890 A 19951031 A23L-001/216 199634 B
A frozen instant mashed potato prod. is prepd. and packaged, by: (a)
heating a slurry contg. a fat-contg. ingredient (or fat substitute) and water at
above the gelatinisation temp. of potato starch but below the b.pt. of the
slurry; (b) mixing the heated slurry with dehydrated potato solids in a high-
speed mixer processor; and (c) dispensing the instant mashed potato prod. into
an ovenable container, sealing it, and freezing the contents.
The slurry is obtd. by combining (wt.%) 0.5–10 butter, margarine, and/
or fat substitute; 0–30 liq. milk; 0–3 dry milk cream; 0–8 seasonings and 50–
85 water.
USE—The process is useful in the prodn. of a frozen meal which only
needs heating before eating.
ADVANTAGE—The same flavour and texture is obtd. as mashed
potatoes prepd. from fresh-cooked potatoes.
The batch cycle time is reduced, allowing a high speed packaging line
of 250–300 meals/min.
Starch—Method 3
Prepn. of non-fat foodstuffs, esp. fruit and vegetable based products—
involving adding fat mimetic based on starch, pectin or protein to
improve texture and other properties.

US 5503863 A 19960402 US 92857257 A 19920325 A23L-001/29 199619 B
US 93115825 A 19930903
US 95488686 A 19950607
A non-fat food product (I) comprising a mixt. of (a) a food ingredient
selected from whole fruit, fruit purée, fruit juice or concentrate, cocoa,
tomatoes or tomato juice, sauce, paste or paste concentrate; (b) water and/or
sweetener; (c) a stabiliser and/or gel promoting agent; and (d) a fat mimetic
which is pectin, starch and/or protein based.
A range of compsns. contg. particular food ingredients is claimed, e.g., a
prod. contg. up to 55 wt.% fruit purée or fruit juice, 10–75% sweetener, up to
80% water, food acid, gel promoter, stabiliser and 0.1–4.0% pectin based
mimetic where the soluble solids are 20–80% and the particle size is 5–100
µm.
USE—The products (I) are not fat imitation products but are similar to
the traditional products comprising (a)–(c).
ADVANTAGE—(d), added as additional ingredient rather than as fat
substitute, improves the texture of (I), enhances the spreadability, flavour and
mouthfeel of some fruit spreads and improves the water retention and bake
stability of bakery filled products.
Starch—Flavor 1
Fat substitute for processed foods—prepd. by enzymatic hydrolysis of
small granule starch to give partial solubilisation.
Patent Assignee: LAFAYETTE APPLIED CHEM INC (LAFA-N)
WO 9610586 A1 19960411 WO 95US12466 A 19950929 C08B-030/00
199621 B
AU 9537600 A 19960426 AU 9537600 A 19950929 C08B-030/00 199631
Mfr. of granular starch-based fat substitutes for processed foods
comprises (i) hydrolysing a small granule starch until at least 5 wt.%
solubilised and (ii) recovering the prod. The starch used has average dia.
⬍5 µm. Hydrolysis is with an amylase in an aq. medium at below the starch
gelatinisation temp.
USE—The prods. have the rheological props. of fat and can be used in
low calorie processed foods as fat mimetics.
480 Cho
Starch—Fruits & Vegetables 1

Prodn. of starch hydrolysis prod. contg. partly gelatinised starch
granules—by heating aq. starch suspension, treating with alpha-amylase
and deactivating enzyme, for use as oil or fat substitutes.
Patent Assignee: CPC INT INC (CORP)
Inventor: DEA I C M; ROLLER S
EP 704169 A2 19960403 EP 95305834 A 19950822 A23L-001/0522 199618 B
CA 2159039 A 19960328 CA 2159039 A 19950925 C12P-019/14 199628
ZA 9507478 A 19960731 ZA 957478 A 19950906 C08L-000/00 199635
JP 8176202 A 19960709 JP 95246436 A 19950925 C08B-031/00 199637
EP 704169 A3 19960821 EP 95305834 A 19950822 A23L-001/0522 199641
BR 9504171 A 19961022 BR 954171 A 19950926 A23L-001/24 199648
SG 34269 A1 19961206 SG 951348 A 19950913 A23L-001/09 199706
Starch hydrolysis prods. contg. partly gelatinised starch granules are
produced by: (i) preparing. an aq. starch suspension contg. 10–30 wt.% starch
(dry wt.); (ii) heating to 58–80°C which is not significantly over the starch
gelatinisation temp.; (ii) treating with porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase at 58–
63°C until the required dextrose equiv. (DE) or mol. wt. for the water-soluble
fraction is reached; and (iv) deactivating the enzyme.
USE—The prods. are usable as oil or fat substitutes in food compsns.,
esp. salad dressing (claimed).
ADVANTAGE—Prods. are partly soluble in cold water, are not
pourable at 90°C, contain partly gelatinised starch granules, exhibit
birefringence under cross-polarised light and can form aq. gels of concn. 20%
with gel strength at least 25 g/mm in 24 hrs. at 4°C (claimed).
Starch—Fruits & Vegetables 2

Fruit spread—contains fat mimetic of low methoxy pectin or modified
corn starch improving texture and flavour and decreasing dissipation rate
in the mouth.
US 5260083 A 19931109 US 92857254 A 19920325 A23L-001/06 199346 B
AU 9335368 A 19930930 AU 9335368 A 19930319 A23L-001/064 199347
CA 2082751 A 19930926 CA 2082751 A 19921112 A23L-001/06 199351
AU 9517852 A 19950629 AU 9335368 A 19930319 A23L-001/064 199533

AU 9517852 A 19950503
Fruit spreads with improved texture and flavour comprise a
microparticulated blend of (a) up to 55 wt.% fruit ingredient; (b) sweetener, to
a soluble solids content of 20–70 wt.%; (c) up to 80 wt.% water and (d) a fat
mimetic. Ingredient (a) is whole fruit, fruit purée or fruit juice.
Pref. fat mimetic (d) is a low methoxyl pectin or a modified corn starch.
It is esp. at least 0.5 (0.5–3.0) wt.% low methoxyl pectin, and the blend has
particle size 5–100 microns; or is 5–20 wt.% modified corn starch, and the
blend has particle size 2–15 microns, opt. aggregated to not over 100 microns.
The spreads are produced by mixing the ingredients, cooking to a desired
solids content and homogenising under high shear.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Spreads are jelly- or jam-like. They have
improved texture and flavour characteristics and decreased dissipation rate in
the mouth.
Starch—Bakery & Grain 1

Starch-prune premixes for flour-based food prods.—useful as fat
replacements to give food prods. of good taste, improved shelf-life and
healthy eating characteristics.
Patent Assignee: CADEN J A (CADE-I); WOLKE M (WOLK-I)
Inventor: CADEN J A; WOLKE M
US 5484622 A 19960116 US 93105395 A 19930812 A21D-010/00 199609 B
US 95404506 A 19950315
Starch-prune premixes are used for making flour-based food prods. They
comprise amylopectin starch (I), amylose starch (II) and prunes (III). All three
are mixed together to form the premix, to which flour and other components
may be added to make the food prods.
ADVANTAGE—The prods. are low in fat, all natural, low cholesterol,
low Na, mould resistant, economical, resistant to microwave-induced loss of
texture and taste, have good taste and have good shelf life.

Low fat, low calorie fat substitute emulsions—contg. only natural
ingredients which require no other change in a recipe, e.g., baked goods.
Patent Assignee: MRS BATEMAN’S BAKERY LC (BATE-N)
Inventor: BATEMAN K
482 Cho

WO 9526641 A1 19951012 WO 95US4153 A 19950404 A23L-001/052
199546 B
AU 9522063 A 19951023 AU 9522063 A 19950404 A23L-001/052 199605
Low fat, low calorie fat substitutes are emulsions of 40–90 wt.%
polysaccharide (I) in 5–60 wt.% water.
The emulsions can be substituted 1-to-1 for fat in food prods. without any
other changes in the recipe and without altering the texture of the prod.
Also claimed are substitutes made from 1–40 wt.% baking fat, 40–80%
(I) and 5–40% water.
A second polysaccharide (II), pref. a water soluble starch, is present at
1–15%. A flavouring, esp. butter or an artificial flavouring, is present at up to
10%. The flavouring is oil or butter, olive, peanut, canola, corn or safflower
oil flavouring, or is up to 1% dried butter. A food colouring, esp. beta-
carotene or a yellow dye is pref. present. (I) is a maltodextrin of DE ⬍ 20,
esp. corn, rice, potato or tapioca starch.
Shelf-life is improved by adding up to 1% preservative. Up to 4% whey
protein and/or xanthan gum is added to enhance texture. The pH is also
adjusted.
USE—The compsns. can replace, e.g., shortening, margarine, butter, oil,
lard, and cream cheese.
ADVANTAGE—The compsns. are made only of natural prods. and
need no emulsifiers.

Fat reduced laminated doughs—using aq. gel of maltodextrin and beta-
glucan and/or pentosan in water as fat replacer.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); CONOPCO INC (CONO-N);
VAN DEN BERGH FOODS CO (VBER-N); UNILEVER NV (UNIL)
Inventor: BOODE-BOISSEVAIN K; VAN HOUDT-MOREE J D; VAN
HOUDT-MOREE J
WO 9421128 A1 19940929 WO 94EP698 A 19940308 A21D-013/08 199439 B
AU 9463753 A 19941011 AU 9463753 A 19940308 A21D-013/08 199504
ZA 9401855 A 19951129 ZA 941855 A 19940316 A21D-000/00 199601
US 5480662 A 19960102 US 94217521 A 19940324 A21D-002/00 199607
EP 700251 A1 19960313 EP 94911121 A 19940308 A21D-013/08 199615
WO 94EP698 A 19940308
JP 8507920 W 19960827 JP 94520594 A 19940308 A21D-002/18 199702

WO 94EP698 A 19940308
Laminated doughs comprise alternating layers of dough and of another
ingredient. The layers of other ingredient at least partly comprise an aq. gel
contg. 20–50 wt.% maltodextrin, esp. amylodextrin and 0–30 wt.% of beta-
glucan and/or pentosans, with the balance water.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Doughs are used for puff pastry, laminated
snacks, or for croissants. They may be frozen or baked. The aq. gel acts as a
fat replacer giving reduced fat content in the final baked dough.

Edible compsns. with reduced calorie value—in which fat is partially
replaced by partially digestible N-acylated esterified amino acid derivs.
Patent Assignee: NABISCO INC (NATY)
Inventor: FINLEY J W; KLEMANN L P; YARGER R G
US 5190782 A 19930302 US 89409254 A 19890919 A23L-001/29 199315 B
US 91690732 A 19910424
Edible compsn. contg. fat has at least 5% of the fat comprising an
acylated amino acid of formula R1OCOA(Xa)NHCOr (I) (where A is 1-6C
hydrocarbyl; X is opt. acylated amino acid side chain with 1-25C; n is 0 or 1;
each R is 1-29C aliphatic, 2029C R2OR3- or R3OCOR3- or R2CO2R3; R2
and R3 are aliphatic gps.; and each R1 is 1-30C aliphatic, or 2-30C R2OR3-
or R3OCOR2- or R2CO2R3-.
Pref. compsn. is a bakery prod. also contg. flour starch; a candy also
contg. a sweetener, and an emulsion comprising an aq. phase, and a fat phase
including (I). Pref. compsns. may also comprise a sucrose polyester or
proteinaceous fat replacement. Pref. compsns. have at least 20% esp. at least
25% of the fatty ingredient replaced by (I). Pref. (I) are fatty acid acylated,
fatty alcohol esterified amino acids selected from arginine, histidine, tyrosine,
cysteine, asparagine, glutamine, glycine, alanine, valine, (iso)leucine,
methionine, proline, phenylalanine, and tryptophan, esp. aspartic or glutamic
acid (or derivs.), lysine, ornithine, serine, and threonine, partic. an N-acrylated
aspartic acid diester (3-23C acyl; 4-24C ester gps.). Pref. (I) deliver 0.5–3
kcal/g on being metabolised.
ADVANTAGE—Pref. acylated amino acid ester derivs. (I) contain 1
side chain, and are partially digestible, achieving reduced calorie value and
reducing problems associated with non-metabolisable fat substitutes
484 Cho
(gastrointestinal upsets, including diarrhoea and anal leakage etc.). (I) may
also be tailored to include essential or desired fatty acids if desired.

Fat replacer for mfg. low or zero fat content foods—contains
phospholipid liposome(s) in water and reinforcing carbohydrate.
Patent Assignee: AMERICAN LECITHIN CO (AMLE-N)
Inventor: BUCCINO J; FIERRO J; JODLBAUER H; SILVA R F
US 5120561 A 19920609 US 91691357 A 19910425 A23L-001/30 199226 B
Low (or zero)-fat food contains as fat replacer liposomes contg. at least
5% phospholipid (I) and water, with water to (I) ratio 2–20:1. (I) is at least
35% phosphatidyl choline (Ia) with (Ia): phosphatidyl ethanolamine (Ib) ratio
2–10:1, and the liposomes also include an edible reinforcing material (II)
which stabilises them. (II) is starch, cellulose and/or gum, and the (Ii): (I)
ratio is 0.5–4 :1.
The fat replacer is new.
(Ia) is pref. 40–90% and (Ia): (Ib) is 3–6 :1. (II) is potato maltodextrin;
pregelatinised wheat starch and/or xanthan gum.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Apart from replacing (some of) the fat in the
food, the liposomes can also serve as carriers (for colours, vitamins, flavours,
etc.), encapsulating or moisturising agents, or depanner. These replacements
are partic. used in baking and can be used in smaller amts. than the fats which
they replace.

Low-fat dry mix based on sweetened cereal—comprising polydextrose,
cellulosic material, non-fat milk solid, emulsifier, modified food starch
and xanthan, guar or locust bean gum.
Patent Assignee: NELSON K J (NELS-I); PILLSBURY CO (PILL)
Inventor: NELSON K J; HAHN P W
WO 9200012 A 19920109 A21D-002/18 199205 B
AU 9174470 A 19920227 199218
EP 536139 A1 19930414 EP 91905226 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199315
WO 91US407 A 19910121
US 5262187 A 19931116 US 90546017 A 19900628 A23L-001/10 199347

US 91722710 A 19910628 US 92918945 A 19920722
EP 536139 B1 19940824 EP 91905226 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199433
WO 91US407 A 19910121
DE 69103633 E 19940929 DE 603633 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199438
EP 91905226 A 19910121 WO 91US407 A 19910121
Mix comprises: a sweetened cereal-grain ingredient base with a fat-
mimetic system of (i) less than 0.1 to 5 wt.% of a polydextrose or its buffered
form, (ii) less than 0.1 to 15 wt.% of a cellulosic material, (iii) less than 0.1
to 8 wt.% of a non-fat milk solid or substitute (IV), less than 0.1 to 4 wt.% of
each of an emulsifier and a modified food starch (V) and less than 0.1 to 2
wt.% of a mixt. of xanthan gum and guar or locust bean gum. The wt.% are
relative to the total wt. of the dry-mix.
Also claimed is a baked, low-fat food compsn. contg. the dry mix and a
low-fat ready-to-use butter contg. the dry mix.
Pref. the ingredient base includes sugar and flour at a ratio of 2: 1 to 1 :1
pts. wt. (Pbw). The dry mix also includes flavourings colouring, salt,
leavening agent, and/or preservatives.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The baked compsn. contg. the dry mix is moist,
tender, crumbly with good mouth feel and pref. contains one-third fewer
calories than a similar full fatted compsn. The dry mix produces substantially
homogeneously distributed small air cells throughout the volume of the baked
compsn.

Food prod. with moisture contg. filling —enclosed in bread-like casing
and intermediate layer sepg. filling from casing made of cake material of
specific vol.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER NV (UNIL); DIJKSHOORN J (DIJK-I);
UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); VAN DEN BERGH FOODS CO (VBER-N)
Inventor: DIJKSHOORN J; HOLSCHER E J
EP 421509 A 19910410 EP 90202466 A 19900918 199115 B
CA 2026614 A 19910403 199125
JP 3119945 A 19910522 JP 90263698 A 19901001 199127
US 5145699 A 19920908 US 90585859 A 19900919 A23D-001/08 199239
EP 421509 B1 19950201 EP 90202466 A 19900918 A21D-013/00 199509
DE 69016555 E 19950316 DE 616555 A 19900918 A21D-013/00 199516
EP 90202466 A 19900918
486 Cho
ES 2069671 T3 19950516 EP 90202466 A 19900918 A21D-013/00 199526

JP 2528734 B2 19960828 JP 90263698 A 19901001 A21D-002/26 199639
A food prod. comprises a moisture contg. filling enclosed in a bread-like
casing and an intermediate layer sepg. the filling from the casing made of a
cake material-having a specific volume of 1.5–4.0 m 3 /kg.
The cake material has a specific volume of 2–3 m 3 /kg and has a fully
developed cellular crumb structure. The bread-like casing is based on a whole
meal flour. The material of the intermediate layer is formed from a batter of
which the oil and fat phase in the form of an oil-in-water emulsion comprising
water soluble proteins and a combination of emulsifier comprising 12-24C
fatty acid acyl lactylate together with a) a polyglycerol ester of an unsatd. 12-
24C fatty acid, or b) a monoglyceride of an unsatd. 12-24C fatty acid, or c) a
mixt. of a monoglyceride of satd. and unsatd. 12-24C fatty acids. The water
soluble proteins are selected from whole eggs, egg white, non-fat dry milk
solids, skimmed milk powder and/or whey protein and is used in an amt. of
0.5–10 wt.% based on the wt. of the cake batter. At least part of the fat or oil
is replaced by a low-calorie fat replacer, esp. an edible polyester or polyhydric
alcohol having at least 4 free OH gps. of which at least 70% is esterified with
a satd. or unsatd. alkyl chain 8-24C fatty acid. A liquid oil is incorporated
into the batter absorbed in expanded at least partly gelatinised starch. The 12-
24C fatty acid acyl lactate is selected from free acid, alkali metal salts and/or
alkaline earth metal salts.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The intermediate cake layer has a fat content of
at most 20 wt.% based on the total recipe of the cake batter and acts as a
moisture migration controlling agent and as a softness imparting agent. The
filling is a savoury filling, a meat based filling, a fermented sausage, or sweet
filling, or a fruit based filling.
Starch—Beverage 1
Flavour carrier for forming emulsions of flavour oils—comprises beta-
limit dextrin obtd. from duwx starch obtd. from starch bearing plant
with dull waxy homozygous genotype.
Patent Assignee: AMERICAN MAIZE PROD CO (AMEM); AMERICAN
MAIZE TECHNOLOGY INC (AMEM)
Inventor: AMMERAAL R; FRIEDMAN R; AMMERAAL R N;
FRIEDMAN R B
US 5482560 A 19960109 US 94281408 A 19940727 C08B-031/00 199608 B
GB 2291882 A 19960207 GB 9515174 A 19950724 C08B-030/18 199609
AU 9523342 A 19960208 AU 9523342 A 19950629 C08B-030/18 199613

FR 2723106 A1 19960202 FR 958093 A 19950705 C12P-019/04 199613
BE 1008583 A3 19960604 BE 95648 A 19950725 C08B-000/00 199632
Flavour carrier comprises a beta-limit dextrin having a DE of ⬍ 1 and a
polymerisation degree as determined by a wt. ave. of 15,000–20,000. The
dextrin is obtd. from a duwx starch obtd. from a starch bearing plant with a
dull waxy homozygous genotype.
USE—The beta-limit dextrin is used as a beverage clouding agent,
thickener for gum candies, carrier for volatile ingredients for spray drying, and
bulking agent and in low fat food prods. as a fat replacer and extruded prods.
The beta-limit dextrin is also used as a slow release agent for delivery of non-
caloric sweeteners and drugs and for accelerating wound healing.
ADVANTAGE—The beta-limit dextrin has good water holding activity
at low viscosity, low dextrose equiv., limited enzyme susceptibility and cold
water solubility and reaches equilibrium slowly on dissolution.
Starch—Beverage 2
Prepn. of maltose and a novel limit dextrin—by treatment of starch with
a specific amylase below the gelatinisation temp. followed by prod.
recovery by ultrafiltration.
Patent Assignee: NOVO-NORDISK AS (NOVO)
Inventor: CHRISTENSEN T R; CHRISTOPHERSEN C; PEDERSEN S
WO 9510627 A1 19950420 WO 94DK383 A 19941013 C12P-019/22 199521 B
AU 9478532 A 19950504 AU 9478532 A 19941013 C12P-019/22 199536
Prodn. of maltose and limit dextrin comprises: (i) treating raw starch
with amylase, which is a hydrolase with the enzyme classification EC
3.2.1.133; and (ii) recovering the maltose and limit dextrin by ultrafiltration,
where the maltose is the permeate and the limit dextrin is produced as the
solid phase by liq.-solid sepn. of the retentate. The method is carried out at a
temp. lower than the lowest temp. at which the raw starch is gelatinised. Also
claimed is the limit dextrin produced by this method.
ADVANTAGE—The method is simpler and cheaper than known
methods for the prodn. of (I), and affords (I) or purity above 90%. The prepd.
inexpensive (II) is useful as a fat replacer in foods (claimed), when it has the
same good organoleptic properties as traditional fat replacers. (II) may also be
used in confections with a gum structure, in soft drinks, in viscous dairy
prods., and as a carrier for dried liqs.
488 Cho
Starch—Dairy 1
Food additive contg. synthetic sweetener and cream flavouring—
comprising fatty acid or ester, methyl ketone, diketone, hydroxy-ketone,
aldehyde or lactone, with low calorie value.
Patent Assignee: WILD GMBH & CO KG RUDOLF (WILD-N)
Inventor: WILD R
DE 4305874 A1 19940915 DE 4305874 A 19930225 A23L-001/226 199436 B
Abstract (Basic): DE 4305874 A
A food additive contains a synthetic sweetener and a flavour with the
taste of cream, comprising a 3-20 C opt. satd. fatty acid or ester with a 1-4C
alcohol, a 4-14C methyl ketone, a diketone, a hydroxyketone, a 4-14C opt.
satd. aldehyde, or a gamma- or delta-lactone.
Pref., the additive contains 1–10 pts. of sweetener, 0.5–20 pts. of cream
flavouring, and opt. a fat substitute, comprising starch, pectin, insulin or
protein cpds., esp. 10–1000 pts. of starch cpd., 10–2000 pts. of fruit pectin
and/or 2–500 pts. of non-fruit pectin, or 1–1000 pts. of protein cpd. The
sweetener is, e.g., aspartame, saccharin. The additive may contain a
dearomatised and concd. fruit compsn. with 60–80 deg. Brix. The fatty acid
has 8-12 C, with 1 or 2 unsatns., and the alcohol is glycerol. The starch cpd.
is enzymatically modified potato or tapioca starch, opt. enzymatically modified
potato starch, enzymatically modified tapioca starch and whey protein in ratio
of 0.3 :1 :1–1 : 4: 10. The pectin prod. is low or high esterified citrus pectin,
and the protein is whey protein.
USE—The additive is used domestically or industrially in prepn. of
dairy or ice prods. (claimed), esp. in skimmed milk prods., e.g., fruit yoghurt
and fruit curd with reduced sugar and fat content.
ADVANTAGE—Although the additive has low nutritional value, it has
a creamy taste.
Starch—Dairy 2
Low fat dairy prods. prepn.—by replacing part of the milk fat by
hydrated or pregelatinised starch particles before aggregation of the
casein.
Inventor: KLOOSTERMAN J; TORENVLIET L; VISSER J; KLOOSTERMA J
EP 427310 A 19910515 EP 90202761 A 19901017 199120 B
EP 427310 B1 19930609 EP 90202761 A 19901017 A23C-019/05 199323

DE 69001883 E 19930715 DE 601883 A 19901017 A23C-019/05 199329
EP 90202761 A 19901017
Prepn. of improved low fat dairy prods. aggregation of casein in milk is
effected by replacing at least part of the milk fat by hydrated or pregelatinised
starch particles, of particle size ⫽ 4–20 microns, before aggregation of the
casein is carried out. The prods. obtd. by this process are claimed. A low fat
cheese contains hydrated starch or pregelatinised starch particles of size ⫽
4–20 microns.
USE /ADVANTAGE—To prepare yoghurt, hard, semi-hard, processed,
fresh or soft cheeses. Addn. of the starch particles induces a mouthfeel
similar, e.g., that of fat in cheese-like prods.
Starch—Dairy 3
Imitation cheese compsn.—comprises water, vegetable fat or oil, and
caseinate replaced in part or whole with debranched starch.
Patent Assignee: ABLESTIK LAB (ABLE-N); NAT STARCH &
CHEM INVESTMENT (NATT); NAT STARCH & CHEM CORP (NATT)
Inventor: CHIU C; ZALLIE J P; CHIU C W
EP 363741 A 19900418 EP 89117943 A 19890928 199016 B
US 4937091 A 19900626 US 88258237 A 19881014 199028
AU 8942502 A 19900426 199033
JP 2211827 A 19900823 JP 89255355 A 19891002 199040
EP 363741 B1 19930331 EP 89117943 A 19890928 A23C-020/00 199313
DE 68905743 E 19930506 DE 605743 A 19890928 A23C-020/00 199319
EP 89117943 A 19890928
CA 1336245 C 19950711 CA 611940 A 19890919 A23C-020/00 199535
Imitation cheese consists of H 2O, an edible vegetable fat or oil, cheese
additives, and one or more edible caseinates (I) or starches suitable for
replacing (I). The cheese is prepd. by replacing up to 80% of (I) with a
gelatinised starch (II) which has been enzymatically treated to partially
debranch it and yield a mixt. comprising partially debranched amylopectin and
short-chain amylose.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The specific gelatinised starch (II) is an
inexpensive substitute for caseinates in the imitation cheeses, and provides the
reqd. texture, thermoreversibility and emulsificn. characteristics.
490 Cho
Starch—Dairy 4
Dairy food substitutes from vegetable oil and malto-dextrin—for use as
substitutes for milk, cream or butter in wide variety of foods.
Patent Assignee: MELKRIDGE PTY LTD (MELK-N)
Inventor: STRONG M J
WO 8908988 A 19891005 WO 89AU131 A 19890330 198942 B
AU 8934132 A 19891016 199008
ZA 8902330 A 19901128 ZA 892330 A 19890329 199101
New dairy substit. formulation comprises 6–10 pts. wt. oil in a
carbohydrate or protein matrix, 4–8 pts. wt. maltodextrin, sufficient emulsifier
to give a stable emulsion at 16g formulation per 250 ml water, and an
effective amt. of antioxidant. The maltodextrose is prod. by partial hydrolysis
of tuber or cereal starch. It is of formula (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n , where n ⫽ 300–1000,
and has dextrose equiv. (DE) 2–5, and pH 5.5–7 in 25% aq. soln.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Formulations can replace milk or butter fat in,
e.g., custards, cream, substits. ice creams, soft serve creams, coffe whiteners,
yoghurt, cakes, pastries, biscuits or butter replacers. They have realistic
mouthfeel, taste and appearance.
Starch—Emulsifier, Stabilizer, and Suspending Agent 1

Dry, water-dispersible fine cellulose compsn. used e.g., as stabiliser for
food or medicines—comprises fine cellulose and water-soluble gums
and/or hydrophilic substances.
Patent Assignee: ASAHI KASEI KOGYO KK (ASAH)
JP 7173332 A 19950711 JP 93318322 A 19931217 C08L-001/02 199536 B
Dry, water-dispersible fine cellulose compsn. consists of at least 20
wt.% and less than 50 wt.% of (A) fine cellulose and more than 50 wt.% and
up to 80 wt.% of (B) water-soluble gums and/or hydrophilic substances.
When the compsn. is dispersed in water, it has average particle size of up to 8
microns, contains up to 40% of particles having size of at least 10 microns
and has colloid fraction of at least 65%.
The water-soluble gums are, e.g., CMC-Na xanthan gum, carrageenan,
pectin, karaya gum, gelatin and arabic gum. The hydrophilic substances are
starch hydrolysates, dextrin, glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, lactose,
polydextrose, mannitol and sorbitol.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. is used as stabilisers for food and

medicine, dietary fibre and substitute for fats and oils. When the compsn. is
dispersed in water, a colloidal dispersion is obtd. which has smooth feeling.

New starch which can be used as a thickener—obtd. from grain
homozygous recessive for the waxy and amylose extender genes and
heterozygous for dull gene.
Patent Assignee: DU PONT DE NEMOURS & CO E I (DUPO)
Inventor: PEARLSTEIN R W; ULRICH J F; PEARLSTEIN R; ULRICH J
WO 9422291 A1 19941013 WO 94US3398 A 19940329 A01H-005/10 199441 B
AU 9464181 A 19941024 AU 9464181 A 19940329 A01H-005/10 199505
EP 691807 A1 19960117 EP 94911740 A 19940329 A01H-005/10 199608
WO 94US3398 A 19940329
BR 9406183 A 19960206 BR 946183 A 19940329 A01H-005/10 199612
WO 94US3398 A 19940329
US 5502270 A 19960326 US 9340333 A 19930330 A01H-005/00 199618
(A) Grain produced by a starch bearing plant is claimed in which the
genotype of the grain comprises a genome which is homozygous recessive for
the waxy gene and the amylose extender gene and heterozygous for the dull
gene.
(B) Also claimed is a pure starch extracted from a grain as in (A). To
produce the grain, homozygous recessive ae du wx plants are cross pollinated
with homozygous recessive ae wx plants or vice versa. The ae wx plants used
to make the cross pollination are homozygous dominant for the du gene.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The starch can be used as a thickener without
being chemically modified. The starch can be cooked with a foodstuff and
water to produce a thickened foodstuff (claimed). The starch has a creamy
texture when cooked, making it suitable as a fat substitute. The starch can also
be used in, e.g., paper, plastics, adhesives or paint. The starch has a higher
paste viscosity, greater shear resistance and greater acid resistance than normal
maize starch.

Ready-to-eat, low–no fat pudding—comprises water, calcium source,
thickening and sweetening agents, emulsifier, and calcium-sensitive,
irreversible gelling hydrocolloid.
492 Cho
(KRFT)
Inventor: KING L D; LESHIK R R
GB 2261805 A 19930602 GB 9224485 A 19921123 A23L-001/187 199322 B
DE 4239590 A1 19930603 DE 4239590 A 19921125 A23L-001/187 199323
CA 2082969 A 19930528 CA 2082969 A 19921116 A23L-001/187 199333
US 5238699 A 19930824 US 91800617 A 19911127 A23L-001/187 199335
GB 2261805 B 19950802 GB 9224485 A 19921123 A23L-001/187 199534
CA 2082969 C 19960507 CA 2082969 A 19921116 A23L-001/187 199628
Compsn. for the prepn. of a packaged ready-to-eat pudding comprises:
less than 3% fat; H 2O; a source of soluble Ca (I); thickening agent (II);
sweetener; emulsifier/stabiliser (III) and/or polyphosphate; and 0.01–1.5% by
wt. of an ungelled, Ca-sensitive, irreversible, gelling hydrocolloid (IV) as fat
replacement.
Pref. compsn. comprises 0–3%, esp. 0% fat. Pref. (I) is milk solids.
Pref. sweetener is sugar-free. Pref. (IV) is algin (or salts), low methoxyl
pectin, gellan gum or mixts., esp. Na alginate; and is pref. the only non-starch
hydrocolloid present.
ADVANTAGE—The low/no fat, ready-to-eat pudding-like desserts may
be UHT sterilised, when they are stable to storage for prolonged periods, or
may be prepd. under controlled conditions and stored at refrigeration temps.
The prods. have a smooth, creamy texture and mouthfeel, and the weak, soft
gel structure of full-fat, ready-to-eat puddings.

Ultrafine lupin flour used as substitute for starch, fat etc.—obtd. by
cleaning white lupin seeds, shelling and pre-grinding to obtain particles
of a specified size.
Patent Assignee: LA NOELLE SERVICES (NOEL-N); LA NOELLE
SERVICES COOP INTERET COLLECTI (NOEL-N); LA NOELLE SERV
COOP (NOEL-N); LA NOELLE SERVICES COOP INTERET (LNOE-N)
Inventor: AUGER I; CORRE V
EP 449697 A 19911002 EP 91400714 A 19910315 199140 B
FR 2660163 A 19911004 FR 904205 A 19900328 199150
PT 97206 A 19911129 199201
AU 9180457 A 19930211 AU 9180457 A 19910717 A23L-001/20 199313 N
AU 642509 B 19931021 AU 9180457 A 19910717 A23L-001/20 199349 N

EP 449697 B1 19940601 EP 91400714 A 19910315 A23L-001/20 199421
DE 69102184 E 19940707 DE 602184 A 19910315 A23L-001/20 199427
EP 91400714 A 19910315
ES 2054456 T3 19940801 EP 91400714 A 19910315 A23L-001/20 199432
Flour produced from shelled lupin seeds has a particle size distribution
such that at least 90% of the particles are smaller than 100 microns and at
least 60% are smaller than 30 microns.
At least 98% of the particles are smaller than 100 microns, at least 75%
are smaller than 30 microns, and at least 50% are smaller than 10 microns.
White lupin (Lupinus albus) seeds are cleaned, opt. heat-treated by
fluidisation in air at 85–170°C for 0.5–12 min., shelled, preground to 500–
2000 microns in a hammer mill, and finally ground by passage through a
series of three pairs of counter-rotating rolls under a pressure of 10 bar.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The flour is finer than known lupin flours and
has better functional properties, e.g., emulsifying, gelling and thickening
power. Used in foodstuffs, e.g., as partial caseinate substitute or a starch or fat
substitute.

Particulate free-flowing peanut butter material—contg. expanding
gelatinised starch material for prodn. of sauces.
Inventor: VAN ROOIJEN A; VANROOIJEN A
EP 414290 A 19910227 EP 90202045 A 19900726 199109 B
EP 414290 B1 19930922 EP 90202045 A 19900726 A23L-001/38 199338
DE 69003494 E 19931028 DE 603494 A 19900726 A23L-001/38 199344
EP 90202045 A 19900726
ES 2045765 T3 19940116 EP 90202045 A 19900726 A23L-001/38 199407
New particulate food compsns. comprise peanut butter and 5–35 wt.%
expanded (partially) gelatinised starch material.
The starch material is at 10–25 wt.%. Compsns. contain up to 10 wt.%
of additive(s). These are herbs, spices, flavourants, colourants, emulsifiers,
antioxidants, vegetable, fruits, dairy prods., meat from mammals, poultry or
fish, animal, vegetable or fungal protein, animal, vegetable or synthetic oil or
fat (fraction) and/or low-calorie fat replacer.
494 Cho
USE /ADVANTAGE—Prods. are free flowing and can be used for the
mfr. of peanut butter based sauces (e.g., satay) for meat dishes and meals.

Starch natural gum composite—processed so that polysaccharide
components are completely solubilised, are useful in foods as thickening
and suspending agents.
Inventor: CHRISTIANSON D D; FANTA G F
WO 9414887 A2 19940707 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 C08L-003/02
199428 B
AU 9465479 A 19940719 AU 9465479 A 19931208 C08L-003/02 199439
WO 9414887 A3 19940915 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 C08L-003/02
199518
US 5424088 A 19950613 US 92991811 A 19921217 A23L-001/05 199529
EP 674682 A1 19951004 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 C08L-003/02 199544
EP 94913248 A 19931208
JP 8505170 W 19960604 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 C08L-003/02 199648
JP 94515201 A 19931208
Compsn. comprises a water-solubilised blend of polysaccharide
components of starch and of a natural gum, the starch polysaccharide
components : natural gum polysaccharide components dry wt. ratio is in the
range 99:1–90:10.
Pref. the highest mol. wt. polysaccharide components of the blend have
significant molecular wt. redn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Compsns. are useful in foods as thickening
agents, suspending agents and fat substitutes. When placed in water, the
compsns. hydrate rapidly and yield dispersions that are not only smooth
and viscous but also possess considerable lubricity. Aq. dispersions of
certain blends show little or none of the undesirable tendency of cooked
starches to form rigid gels on standing or to exude water when frozen and
thawed.
In an example, 400 g. wheat starch was dry blended with 20 g. guar
gum. The blend was dispersed in 3 l. of water and the pH adjusted to 7.
Steam jet cooking was then carried out at 140°C with a steam pressure of 40
psig. within the cooker. The cooked soln. was drum dried and ground. An
emulsion formed by adding 30–35 wt.% corn oil to a 10 wt.% aq. dispersion
the compsn. was smooth and spreadable and remained stable under
refrigeration and/or room temp. conditions during extended storage.

Emulsifying starch degradation prod. used in low calorie foods—
comprises acidolysis of starch or acid roasting starch without degrading
particle structure.
Patent Assignee: SANMATSU KOGYO CO (SANM-N)
JP 5301903 A 19931116 JP 92134237 A 19920427 C08B-030/00 199350 B
Emulsifying starch degradation prod. (I) comprises acidolysis of starch
(II) or acid roasting of (II) without degradation of the starch particle structure.
(I) has a dextrose equiv. (DE) of 0.04–0.30, viscosity of 10–1,000 cps, and
emulsification above 0.3.
Low calorie emulsion foods contg. (I) as substitute oils and/or fats are
also claimed. Pref. the starch has ratio of amylopectin/amylose ⫽ 80/20–
85/15, and is esp. sweet potato starch and/or tapioca starch.
(II) is added to acid soln. (e.g., 1% hydrochloric acids). The mixt. is
stirred at 45°C for a few hr. to obtain (I), or a mixt. of (II) and acid (pref. 1%
to (II)) is heated at 130°C in a rotary kiln to obtain (I).
USE /ADVANTAGE—(I) is a good emulsifying agent used to emul-
sify fats and oils, and is useful as a substitute for fats and oils. (I) is prepd. simply
and easily.

Water-dispersible starch materials—produced by microwave cooking
and drying.
Patent Assignee: INRA INST NAT RECH AGRONOMIQUE (INRG)
Inventor: COLONNA P; DELLAVALLE G; TAYEB J
WO 8909793 A 19891019 WO 89FR153 A 19890404 198944 B
FR 2629684 A 19891013 FR 884528 A 19880406 198948
AU 8934192 A 19891103 199003
EP 374208 A 19900627 EP 89904573 A 19890404 199026
New starch materials (I) have a particle size of 0.5–5mm, a water-
solubility (S) of 15–65% and water-swellability (G) of 15–45 ml/g, where S
496 Cho
and G are calcd. from following formulae using 0.5g samples stirred in 50 ml
H 2O at 65°C for 30 min.: S ⫽ Wi–Wg/Wi ⫻ 100, G ⫽ Vw–Vs/Wg, where
Wi is the initial wt. of the sample (dry basis); Wg is the wt. of gel formed; Vs
is the initial vol. of water, Vs is the vol. of supernatant.
USE /ADVANTAGE—(I) are useful as fat substitutes in foodstuffs, e.g.,
cooked dishes, sausages and sauces. They are readily dispersed in water at any
temp. and have a high thickening power.
Starch—Dessert 1
Food modifying compsns. for fat-free cake icing—comprise edible
micro-milled soy fibre in aq. liq.
(KRFT)
Inventor: ANDERSON W A; DULIN D A; LOH J P; DULIN D; LOH J
Patent Family:
US 5230918 A 19930727 US 92865593 A 19920409 A23L-001/308 199331 B
EP 565260 A1 19931013 EP 93302133 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199341
CA 2091973 A 19931010 CA 2091973 A 19930318 A23G-003/00 199402
EP 565260 B1 19951011 EP 93302133 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199545
DE 69300611 E 19951116 DE 600611 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199551
EP 93302133 A 19930322
(A) Food modifying compsn. comprises (by wt.) 1–15% of an edible
soy fibre (I) of particle size 0.1–20 micron dispersed in 85–99% of an aq. liq.
(B) Cake icing comprises 10–100% of the compsn. (A).
Pref. compsn. (A) comprises 7–12% (I) and 88–93% aq. liq.; and pref.
also comprises 0.001–1.5% of a non-gelling, non-abrasive hydrocolloid as
whitening enhancer (esp. 0.3–0.9% gum arabic; 0.01–0.05% CMC, locust
bean gum, or carrageenan; or 0.001–0.01% guar gum), and 0.1–2%, esp. 0.5–
1.5% TiO2 . Pref. (I) has particle size 2–7 microns. Pref. aq. liquids are H 2O,
milk, or an aq. sugar soln. (esp. comprising 30–70% sugar and 40–75% H 2O;
sugar pref. sucrose, fructose, dextrose, corn syrup solids, high fructose corn
syrup solids, glycerol, sorbitol, or other liq. or solid sugars).
Pref. cake icing compsns. (B) comprise sugar, H 2O and compsn. (A) and
opt. starch, pref. (concns. independent of sugar and H 2O content of (A)) 25–
80% sugar, 25–50% H 2O, 2–10% starch and compsn. (A).
Cake icing compsns. (B) are prepd. by wet-milling a blend of sugar,
H 2O and compsn. (A) ((I) of particle size above 20 microns) to the desired
(I)-particle size.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat-free food modifying compsn. (A) contg.

micromilled soy fibres is an effective fat substitute, and is esp. useful in cake
icing compsns. to provide these with a creamy taste and a flavour profile that
resembles fat-contg. icing.
Starch—Dessert 2
Prodn. of non-fat non-milk ice cream—from aq. mix. contg. sucrose and
starch hydrolysate.
Patent Assignee: AKAD WISSENSCHAFTEN DDR (DEAK)
Inventor: ANTER E; AUGUSTAT S; GROSCHNER P; POESCHEL W;
RICHTER M; SCHIERBAUM F; SCHULZ P; SELLMER I
DD 161178 A 19850502 DD 215086 A 19790821 198535 B
Abstract (Basic): DD 161178 A
Prodn. of ice-cream substitutes free of fat and milk protein is effected
by preparing a mix contg. 15.7 wt.% sucrose, 7–9 wt.% of a gel-forming
starch hydrolysate with a D.E. of 5–8%, water, fruit prods. and stabilisers.
The mix is then pasteurised, cooled and frozen while whipping to incorporate
50% air, opt. followed by hardening.
ADVANTAGE—The prods. have better whipping, melting and mouth-
feel properties than conventional water-ice.
Starch—Dessert 3
Frozen desserts contg. rice and/or oat starch as fat substitute—giving
good texture, smoothness and mouth-feel, reducing fat content to
below 2%.
Patent Assignee: CONAGRA INC (CONA-N)
Inventor: BOST R; CHIGURUPATI S R; SCHERPF D
WO 9213465 A1 19920820 WO 92US727 A 19920128 A23G-009/00 199236 B
AU 9214344 A 19920907 AU 9214344 A 19920128 A23G-009/00 199249
WO 92US727 A 19920128
Frozen desserts comprise 1–4 wt.% rice starch and/or oat starch. Rice
starch has particle dia. less than 10 microns. The starch content is about 2%
and fat less than 10 (not over 2). Desserts comprise 1–4% starch, 0–10%
edible fat, 5–40% non fat solids, 0–40% flavouring, 25–80% water and an
effective amount of a sweetener, esp. 1–4% flavouring, 25–80% water and an
effective amount of a sweetener, esp. 1–4% starch, 0–10% butterfat, 8–14%
498 Cho
non-fat milk solids, 10–30% sweetener solids, 0–40% flavouring and 25–80%
water. The butterfat is esp. not over 2%, milk solids 11–13%, sweetener 18–
23% and starch 2%. Compsns. also contain 0.3% stabiliser solids. Desserts
comprise 1–4% starch, 0–10% (0–2%) butterfat, 10–14% (11–13%) non-fat
milk solids. 10–17% (12–15%) cane sugar solids, 5–10% (6–9%) corn sugar
syrup solids, 0.1–0.5 (0.3) % stabiliser solids, 0–40% flavourings and 25–80
(60–65)% water.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The starch acts as a fat substitute, allowing fat to
be reduced to under 2% in ice cream, frozen yogurt, ice milk, soft ice, soft
frozen yogurt, novelties etc. Prods. have good texture, smoothness and mouth-
feel.
DIETARY FIBER (DF)–BASED FAT SUBSTITUTES

DF—General 1
Prodn. of beta glucanase-treated, water-soluble dietary fibre compsn.—
involves treating aq. dispersion of beta-glucan with enzyme to form
compsn. with improved fat mimicking properties, i.e., similar taste.
Patent Assignee: QUAKER OATS CO (QUAK)
Inventor: SMITH J J
US 5458893 A 19951017 US 92847258 A 19920306 A23L-001/10 199605 B
US 93156134 A 19931122
Prodn. of beta glucanase-treated, water-soluble, dietary fibre compsn.
where aq. dispersion of a gelatinised, milled, beta-glucan contg. grain is
treated with alpha-amylase under conditions that will hydrolyse it and yield
both soluble and insol. fraction. Soluble fraction is sepd. and from it is
recovered the water-soluble dietary fibre mainly free of water-insol. fibre. The
improvement comprises: (a) treating beta-glucans released from the grain with
beta-glucanase. The wt. ratio of beta-glucanase to initial beta-glucan contg.
grain is 4 ⫻ 10 power ⫺6 :1 to 2 ⫻ 10 power ⫺2 to 1; (b) treatment of the
beta-glucans with the beta-glucanase is carried out at 30–60°C for 5–120
minutes at a pH of 5–7.
USE—Used as food additive or as a fat substitute in food prods.
ADVANTAGE—Compsn. has improved fat-mimicking properties.
Prods. made with them have same or similar taste, feel, texture, heat stability
and cooking properties as those made from fats.
DF—General 2
Water-soluble dietary fibre compsn. prepn., useful as fat mimetic—
comprises treating beta-glucan(s) released from substrate with beta-
glucanase, providing food additives, e.g., meat, dairy goods etc.
Inventor: SMITH J J
EP 634106 A1 19950118 EP 93111393 A 19930715 A23L-001/105 199507 B
NO 9302621 A 19950123 NO 932621 A 19930720 A23L-001/308 199511 N
BR 9302977 A 19950301 BR 932977 A 19930723 A23L-001/307 199515 N
FI 9303331 A 19950124 FI 933331 A 19930723 A23L-001/308 199516 N
CA 2100848 A 19950120 CA 2100848 A 19930719 A23L-001/308 199516 N
Water-soluble dietary fibre compsn. (I) is prepd. by treating an aq.
dispersion of a gelatinised, milled, beta-glucan-contg. grain-based substrate
with an alpha-amylase under hydrolysis conditions; sepg. the soluble and
insol. fractions; and recovering (I), free from insol. fibre, from the soluble
fraction. The obtd. beta-glucans released from the substrate, are then treated
with beta-glucanase under hydrolysis conditions.
USE (claimed)—(I) Is used as a fat mimetic or a fibre additive in food,
esp. processed meat, meat prods., dairy prods., baked goods; doughs or dry
mixes for preparing baked goods, fillings for baked goods or griddle prods.,
doughnuts, condiments, confectioneries, desserts, egg substitutes, dry mixes,
snack foods, soft drinks, malt beverages, sports beverages, dietary beverages,
salad dressings, spreads, soups, sauces, gravies, juice drinks, frozen food or
solidified foods.
DF—General 3
Water-dispersing compsn. for use in food, paint, medicine industry, e.g.,
thickening stabiliser—comprises fine cellulose and hydrophilic
substance.
JP 7070365 A 19950314 JP 93218436 A 19930902 C08L-001/02 199519 B
Water dispersing compsn., which is a dry compsn., consists of 50–95
wt.% of fine cellulose and 5–50 wt.% of hydrophilic substance. Ratio of
particles with particle size of at least 10 microns is less than 40% and colloid
graduation is at least 50% when compsn. is dispersed again into water.
500 Cho
USE /ADVANTAGE—Used for food, medicine, cosmetics, paint,

ceramics, resin, industrial products, etc. as suppression stabiliser, emulsion
stabiliser, thickening stabiliser, cloudy agent, foam stabiliser, fluidity
improver, shape retaining agent, water-leaving agent, ground modifier,
powdering base, and further, food-fibre base, oil and fat substitute, etc. The
water dispersing compsn. can be dispersed to original fine cellulose particles
and shows low viscosity when dispersed into water, which provides good feel
when passing through throat, and acts.
DF—General 4
Water dispersible, colloid generating cellulose complex—is used in
food and drinks, is free from sandy taste, is low calorie and provides
fibre.
Patent Assignee: ASAHI KASEI KOGYO KK (ASAH); MINAMI Y (MINA-I)
Inventor: MINAMI Y; MIYOMOTO H; MIYAMOTO H
AU 9225398 A 19930401 AU 9225398 A 19920929 C08L-001/02 199320 B
CA 2079558 A 19930331 CA 2079558 A 19920930 C08B-037/00 199324
AU 647968 B 19940331 AU 9225398 A 19920929 C08L-001/02 199418
TW 239864 A 19950201 TW 92107480 A 19920922 C08B-037/00 199516
JP 7268129 A 19951017 JP 92259396 A 19920929 C08L-001/02 199550
CN 1078481 A 19931117 CN 92112829 A 19920930 C08L-001/02 199710
Abstract (Basic): AU 9225398 A
Water dispersible complex, comprising: (a) 50–98% by wt. of fine
cellulose particles; and (b) 2–50% by wt. of water-soluble gum and/or
hydrophilic material; and in which the compsn. is such that an aq. dispersion
of it comprises; (i) not more than 5% by vol. of particles at least 10 microns
in size; and (ii) a colloid fraction of at least 65%; is new.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The complex is useful as a suspension, emulsion,
thickening or cloudiness stabiliser in foods, medicaments, cosmetics, coating
materials, ceramics, resins, and other industrial prods. It generates a large amt.
of colloidal particles on dispersion, is free from a sandy, rough taste, and does
not increase viscosity, the last two being partic. important in food and drinks,
in addition to improving taste. Examples of use in the food industry are in
beverages, soups, ice and soft cream, coffee whitener, mayonnaise and other
dressings, breads, cakes, noodles and pasta, and toppings and fillings. The
prod. is low-calorie, provides fibre, and can substitute for fats and oils in
diets.
DF—Beverage 1
High fibre low calorie beverage—prepd from rice bran, honey and whey
protein concentrate opt. with sweeteners or flavourings.
Patent Assignee: UNIV RES & MARKETING INC (UYRE-N)
Inventor: HAMMOND N A
US 5153019 A 19921006 US 91707468 A 19910530 A23L-002/02 199243 B
Powdered beverage prods. comprise (i) rice bran which has been
stabilised against the prodn. of fatty acids; (ii) honey which has not been
degraded by heating and (iii) whey protein concentrate. Honey (ii) is free
from coliform bacteria, spores and/or protein, all of which come from the
intestinal tract of the honeybee.
Prods. contain powdered milk, esp. non-fat milk or soya based milk
substitute. Powdered fruit juice is also present. Bran (i) is defatted and
stabilised. Prods. also contain a sweetener and/or flavouring esp. aspartame.
The wt. ratio (i) :(ii) is 1.3–3 :1, esp. 1 :2–2: 1. Prods. comprises 30–70 wt.%
(i), 30–60% (ii) and 30–70% (iii).
Liq. beverages from the prod. are new and contain 3–7 wt.% (i), 3–6%
(ii) and 3–7% (iii), esp. sweetened by aspartame, saccharin or liquorice root
extract.Reduced calorie beverages are new and contain 3–6 wt.% (i), 3–5%
(ii) and 3–4% (iii), totalling not over 25 wt.%, and water to 100%. The water
can be replaced by non-fat milk, esp. defatted soya milk, or by fruit juice.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Prods. give reduced calorie beverages which are
high in fibre and protein. The powders are resistant to bacterial spoilage.
DF—Bakery 1
Reduced fat deep-fried doughnuts—incorporating water-soluble dietary
fibre made from gelatinised cereal by amylase hydrolysis to avoid fat
take-up and act as fat replacement.
Inventor: BABBITT L; BRODIE J; BURKE R; KACHER J
WO 9618304 A2 19960620 WO 95US16941 A 19951214 A21D-002/36
199630 B
AU 9646097 A 19960703 AU 9646097 A 19951214 A21D-002/36 199642
WO 9618304 A3 19960822 WO 95US16941 A 19951214 A21D-002/36 199643
502 Cho
Reduced-fat deep fried doughnuts are prepd. by (a) preparing raw

doughnut material, (b) forming it into a doughnut shape, (c) deep frying and
(d) removing the cooked doughnut from the hot frying fat. The doughnut
material contains sufficient soluble dietary fibre to prevent some or all fat
absorption during frying. The fibre is prepd. by (i) treating an aq. dispersion
of a gelatinised, milled cereal with an alpha-amylase under hydrolysis
conditions and (ii) sepg. soluble and insol. fractions.
ADVANTAGE—The fibre component both prevents fat absorption and
acts as a fat replacementas a stabiliser by the colloidal property of fine
cellulose.
DF—Bakery 2
Reduced fat roll-in shortening spreads—giving baked goods with taste
etc. at least as good as full-fat prods.
Patent Assignee: BUNGE FOODS CORP (BUNG-N)
Inventor: KINCS F R; MINOR M P
US 5395638 A 19950307 US 9389711 A 19930709 A21D-013/08 199515 B
Reduced fat roll-in shortening spreads have oil-soluble phase (I) and
water-soluble phase (II) which are blended together. (I) is 48–65 wt.%
shortening and 0.5–5% emulsifier, both w.r.t. spread. (II) is 30–47% water
and 0.5–4% fat substitute. The fat substitute (III) is whey protein concentrate
and/or oat fibre derivs. and contains not over 5% fat w.r.t. (III).
(III) is at 0.5–2 wt.% w.r.t. spread. The shortening has m.pt. 103–122°C
and SFI 16–34 at 70°C. At least 2 (10–30)% of the shortening is beta′
tending fat, the rest being beta tending fat. The emulsifier is a water-in-oil
combination of 0.5–2 pts. wt. lecithin per pt. wt. monoglycerides.
Combinations of the spread and dough are new. Baked prods. from these
combinations are new.
USE—Spreads are used to make reduced fat baked goods of equal or
improved organoleptic props. and taste to their full fat equivalents.
DF—Meat Product 1
Low calorie food—contains dietary fibre of specified max. average
particle dia. and min. moisture content.
Patent Assignee: AJINOMOTO KK (AJIN)
JP 2057161 A 19900226 JP 88208562 A 19880823 199014 B

0.7–10 wt.% of dietary fibres of ave. particle dia. 80 microns or less and
having a moisture content of 9 or more are contained as a protein,
carbohydrate or fat substitute.
USE—Used in sausages, ham and other foods. Its calorie content is
DF—Meat Product 2
Reduce fat comminuted meat compsns.—contg. cereal hydrolysate, oat
bran, corn syrup solids and opt. yeast and encapsulated salt as fat
mimetic.
Patent Assignee: RHONE POULENC SPECIALTY CHEM CO (RHON)
Inventor: JENKINS R K; RHONE-POULENC SPECIALTY
EP 619083 A1 19941012 EP 94302221 A 19940328 A23L-001/317 199439 B
AU 9459045 A 19941006 AU 9459045 A 19940324 A23L-001/307 199441
BR 9401367 A 19941018 BR 941367 A 19940330 A23L-001/317 199443
NO 9401190 A 19941006 NO 941190 A 19940330 A23L-001/10 199443
CA 2120382 A 19941006 CA 2120382 A 19940331 A23L-001/308 199501
JP 6303943 A 19941101 JP 9453533 A 19940324 A23L-001/314 199503
CN 1095557 A 19941130 CN 94103973 A 19940401 A23L-001/105 199547
Cereal hydrolysate compsns. are for use as fat mimetics in foods. They
comprise (a) cereal hydrolysate, (b) oat bran and (c) corn syrup solids in
amounts that, when intimately mixed with food, give a fat reduced prod. with
the texture and mouthfeel of the full fat prod. Hydrolysate (a) is prepd. by
hydrolysing an aq. dispersion of a cereal with an amylase to give a water
soluble fraction (I) and an insoluble fraction (II) that contains the cereal
protein. It, (a), is (I) and/or (II) or water soluble dietary fibre solids from (I).
USE—Compsns. are used to give reduced fat comminuted meat.
DF—Fruit Paste 1
Low fat high fibre natural bread—with fat replaced by high fibre fruit
paste esp. contg. citrus pulp.
Patent Assignee: FAHLEN A E (FAHL-I)
Inventor: FAHLEN A E
US 4971823 A 19901120 US 89375536 A 19890630 199049 B
High fibre baked prods. comprise yeast; flour and high-fibre fruit paste,
504 Cho
but no added fat. Most of the flour is high fibre flour and 7–10 % of it is vital
wheat gluten. The fruit paste is at 5–15 wt% wrt flour dry wt. and is
intimately mixed with the flour.
USE /ADVANTAGE—By using the fruit paste instead of fat, high-fibre
bread is obtd. with increased fibre content and reduced fat.
DF—Low Calorie Foods 1

Flour compsns. with high gluten and soluble dietary fibre—comprising
milled oat groat prod. and having good staling resistance and low calorie
content.
Patent Assignee: RUDEL H W (RUDE-I)
Inventor: RUDEL H W
WO 9005453 A 19900531 199025 B
CA 2002223 A 19900522 199031
AU 9047441 A 19900612 199036
US 4961937 A 19901009 US 88276408 A 19881122 199043
ZA 9003737 A 19910327 ZA 903737 A 19900516 199117 N
EP 438536 A 19910731 EP 90901231 A 19891114 199131
JP 4023942 A 19920128 JP 9012893 A 19900518 199210 N
IL 91755 A 19920906 IL 91755 A 19890924 199242
AU 641628 B 19930930 AU 9047441 A 19891114 199347
EP 438536 B1 19941005 WO 89US5207 A 19891114 199438
EP 90901231 A 19891114
DE 68918702 E 19941110 DE 618702 A 19891114 199444
WO 89US5207 A 19891114
EP 90901231 A 19891114
EP 438536 A4 19920102 EP 90901231 A 19900000 199520
CA 2002223 C 19950704 CA 2002223 A 19891103 199534
Flour compsns. contain sufficient gluten flour to give a vital gluten
content of at least 17% of the dry mix, and a milled oat groat prod. giving
0.2–56.0% soluble oat dietary fibre w.r.t. the vital gluten content.
The vital gluten content is at least 75% and the soluble oat dietary fibre
content is 8.0–56.0 (0.2–10.6)%. The oat groat prod. includes milled oat bran
and/or milled rolled oats. Baking flour is at 10–90% and vegetable germ at
0.5–3.5% w.r.t. dry mix. The baking flour includes wheat flour, rye flour,
milled corn meal flour, whole wheat flour and/or milled miller’s bran flour.
The vegetable gum is guar gum.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Baked goods produced from the compsns. do not
stale and have extended keep qualities, have high protein and dietary fibre.
content and have reduced calories.
APPLICATION OF HYDROCOLLOIDS/GUMS TO
LOW-FAT AND LOW-CALORIE FOOD PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Hydrocolloid—General 1
Smooth, low fat or fat-free emulsion-simulating food prod.—has opaque
appearance and has additive of tricalcium phosphate and gum esp.
xanthan gum.
Patent Assignee: RHONE POULENC INC (RHON); COUTANT A F
(COUT-I); RHONE POULENC SPECIALTY CHEM CO (RHON)
Inventor: COUTANT A F; WONG P
EP 551170 A1 19930714 EP 93300008 A 19930104 A23L-001/0522 199328 B
AU 9331075 A 19930708 AU 9331075 A 19930106 A23L-001/05 199334
CA 2085381 A 19930708 CA 2085381 A 19921215 A23L-001/03 199339
US 5292544 A 19940308 US 92818690 A 19920107 A23L-001/05 199410
US 92984155 A 19921202
JP 6038705 A 19940215 JP 93545 A 19930106 A23L-001/24 199411
NZ 245627 A 19950224 NZ 245627 A 19930106 A23L-001/0522 199513
AU 661358 B 19950720 AU 9331075 A 19930106 A23L-001/05 199537
Smooth low fat, very low fat or fat-free emulsion-simulating food prod.
with an opaque appearance and non-gloppy texture having up to 15% fat
mimetic additive comprises: (i) greater than 1 to 10 wt.% of tricalcium
phosphate; and (ii) 0.1–5 wt.% gum. Also claimed is a method of preparing
the food prod.
The prod. is fat-free and contains up to 10% fat mimetic additive. The
amt. of tricalcium added is 1.2–5% and the prod. contains 50–95% water. The
fat mimetic comprises xanthan gum esp. oatrim.
Preparing the prod. comprises adding to the food specified amts. of
tricalcium phosphate and the gum.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prod. is esp. an emulsion-simulated dairy
prod. contg. sweetener and milk solids or a salad dressing. The prod. can be
used in foods such as salad dressing, ice cream, ice milk prods., fat-free milk
prods. etc. Tricalcium phosphate improves the opacity of the food giving it an
improved smoother texture and prevents stringiness or gloppiness in many
food prods. employing gums esp. xanthan gum.
506 Cho
Low calorie, low fat spoonable ice prod.—contg. sugar alcohol,
glycerine, gelling agent, bulking agent, synthetic sweetener, water and
opt. minor ingredients.
Patent Assignee: MAMA TISH’S ITAL SPECIALTIES INC (MAMA-N)
Inventor: FISHER T L; KATZ S N
US 5246725 A 19930921 US 92829422 A 19920203 A23G-009/00 199339 B
Low fat frozen ice prods. are spoonable at temps. above 4°C. They
comprise 5 :5–9 :5 wt.% sugar alcohol, 0.85–2.0 wt.% glycerine, 0.5–1.15
wt.% gelling agent, 3–10 wt.% bulking agent, 0.03–0.1 wt.% sweetener and
water to 100%.
Pref. the sugar alcohol is sorbitol, mannitol and/or xylitol. The gelling
agent is pectin, agar-agar, gelatin, carrageenan, alignate, gum arabic and/or
gum tragacanth. The bulking agent is maltodextrin, hydrolysed cereal solids,
corn syrup solids, polydextrose, xanthan gum, locust bean gum and/or CMC.
It esp. has DE 10-18.The synthetic sweetener is aspartame, thaumatin,
acesulphame K, glycyrrhizin, saccharin, chalcone, miracin, sucralose and/or
stevioside.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prods. have a low calorie content.
Complexed cpd. of microorganism cellulose—comprises microorganism
cellulose or their derivs. and high polymer material.
Patent Assignee: NAKANO SU-MISE KK (NAKA-N)
JP 3157402 A 19910705 JP 89294808 A 19891115 199133 B
Complexed cpd. of micro-organism cellulose, comprises micro-organism
cellulose or their derivs. and high polymer material as main component.
Pref. useful micro-organism to produce cellulose are aceto bacterium,
gluco b., pseudomonus b., agro b. etc. One of desirable cultivate bed is well
known Hestria-Schramm, and whose pH is 5–9, temp. 20–40°C. Optional
high polymers to be used are chitin, carboxymethyl chitin, chitosan,
carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose etc. Similar said micro-fibril
structure of cellulose produced by micro-organism and active high polymer
can be produced mechanically by mixing pure both materials, and can be
shaped into film or filaments.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Cellulose produced by micro-organism is useful

as food-stuffs, low calories adducts and stabiliser, but they are not enough to
provide their functions, and are desirable to be modified with chemicals or
physical devices, which have still various troubles in practical uses. Present
invention has succeeded to improve these disadvantages by adding high
polymer material to the cultivate bed of micro-organism to produce complexed
microfibril of cellulose and high polymer, under mutual activities. So the prod.
has excellent functions and is useful as food-base, additive, and modifier, high
polymer material and medical uses.
Low calorie fat substitute—having low calorie or calorie-free core with
outer coating of digestible fat.
Patent Assignee: PFIZER INC (PFIZ); CULTOR LTD (CULT-N)
Inventor: HENDRICK M E; REIMER R A
EP 380225 A 19900801 EP 90300428 A 19900116 199031 B
AU 9048843 A 19900802 199038
CA 2008314 A 19900725 199041
JP 2242656 A 19900927 JP 9015936 A 19900125 199045
ZA 9000520 A 19910828 ZA 90520 A 19900124 199139
EP 380225 A3 19921014 EP 90300428 A 19900116 199340
KR 9207007 B1 19920824 KR 90829 A 19900124 199406
US 5356644 A 19941018 US 89301576 A 19890125 199441
US 90607216 A 19901029
US 92957648 A 19921006
JP 95028696 B2 19950405 JP 9015936 A 19900125 199518
EP 380225 B1 19960228 EP 90300428 A 19900116 199613
DE 69025480 E 19960404 DE 625480 A 19900116 199619
EP 90300428 A 19900116
ES 2083997 T3 19960501 EP 90300428 A 19900116 199625
PH 27047 A 19930201 PH 39934 A 19900125 199635
IE 71931 B 19970312 IE 90265 A 19900124 199727
CA 2008314 C 19970527 CA 2008314 A 19900123 199733
Free-flowing microparticulate compsns. comprise an outer shell of a
digestible (semi)solid fat compsn. surrounding a low calorie or calorie-free
core material. If the core material is cellulose it is nm-fibrous.
The core material is a solid, liq., gel-forming compsn., foam and/or gas.
The mean particulate dia. is less than 250 microns. The core material is
508 Cho
polydextrose, non-fribrous cellulose deriv., erythritol, micronised bran or a

wax, esp. polydexlose. The core material is an aq. gel-forming compsn., esp.
formed by combining in an aq. medium, a gel-forming alginate, CMC,
succinoglycan, xanthan, gelatin, pectin or scleroglucan with a cross-linking
amount of Ca (II) or Mg(II) salt. A layer is present between the core and shell
and is of cellulose methylcellulose, cellulose acetate, phthalate, albumin,
casein, zinc, agar, gelatin, pectin, or gum arabic, but not the same as the core
material.
Prodn. of the compsns. by encapsulating such cores in such shells is
new. The coating is esp. by pan coating, spin disc coating, gas suspension
coating, centrifugal coextrusion, rotational suspension, coaceration, inclusion
complexation spray coating or spray drying.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Compsns. are used as low calorie fat substitutes
which are insol. under food formulation conditions.
A two-phase emulsion useful as a low calorie fat substitute—comprises
specified amts. of aq. phase rendered non-flowable by addn. of suitable
gel-forming compsn., oil phase compsn. and emulsifier.
Patent Assignee: PFIZER INC (PFIZ); PFIZER CORP (PFIZ)
Inventor: FUNG F; MILLER J W; WUESTHOFF M T; FUNG F N
EP 441495 A 19910814 EP 91300482 A 19910122 199133 B
AU 9170239 A 19910808 199139
NO 9100421 A 19910806 199141
CA 2035529 A 19910806 199142
FI 9100534 A 19910806 199143
PT 96660 A 19911031 199148
US 5082684 A 19920121 US 90475576 A 19900205 199206
ZA 9100805 A 19920930 ZA 91805 A 19910204 A23L-000/00 199244
US 5158798 A 19921027 US 90475576 A 19900205 A23D-009/00 199246
US 91636549 A 19910111
EP 441495 A3 19920916 EP 91300482 A 19910122 199339
AU 640200 B 19930819 AU 9170239 A 19910204 A23D-007/02 199340
AU 9341519 A 19930902 AU 9170239 A 19910204 A23D-007/02 199342
AU 9341519 A 19930625
US 5308639 A 19940503 US 90475576 A 19900205 A23D-007/00 199417
US 92823800 A 19920117
IL 97093 A 19940412 IL 97093 A 19910129 A23D-007/02 199422
KR 9304456 B1 19930527 KR 911909 A 19910204 A23D-009/00 199423
JP 7067577 A 19950314 JP 9114539 A 19910205 A23L-001/307 199519

AU 660812 B 19950706 AU 9170239 A 19910204 A23D-007/02 199534
AU 9341519 A 19930625
CA 2035529 C 19951031 CA 2035529 A 19910201 A23L-001/30 199603
A two-phase emulsion useful as a low calorie fat substitute comprises:
(a) 1–95% of an aq. phase rendered non-flowable by the addition of a suitable
amt. of a gel-forming compsn., and (b) from 5–99% of an oil phase
comprising a fat or oil and an emulsifier. The interaction between the non-
flowable aq. phase and the oil phase results in the two phase emulsion being
pourable.
Also claimed is a foodstuff contg. the two-phase emulsion and a method
of reducing fat content of a food contg. triglyceride using the emulsion, and a
fat substitute contg. in addn. to (a) and (b) specified amts. of a fat extender.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The emulsions are useful as fat substitutes,
replacing at least a portion of the normally present triglycerides. Pref. foods
into which the emulsion can be incorporated are salad dressings, frozen
desserts, soups, mayonnaise, fillings for cookies and cakes, whipped desserts,
etc.
Abstract (Equivalent): US 5082684 A
2-Phase emulsion comprises (a) 1–95% of single aq. phase rendered
non-flowable by addn. of gel-forming compsn.; and (b) 5–99% of oil phase
comprising solid or semi-solid fat or oil, and an emulsifier. Interaction
between (a) and (b) causes emulsion obtd. to be pourable. Gel-forming
compsn. comprises agar, gelatin, pectin, or carrageenan, and opt. a
crosslinking agent.
USE—A low calorie fat substitute.
Dispersion-type food or drug compsn.—contg. parenchymal cell
cellulose as stabiliser.
Patent Assignee: SBP INC (SBPS-N)
Inventor: MYERS C D; WEIVBEL M K
US 4923981 A 19900508 US 89334596 A 19890406 199023 B
A food or drug comestible consisting of at least one first material
dispersed in at least one second material is stabilised using parenchymal cell
cellulose (PCC), pref. in amt. at least 0.02 wt.%, esp. 0.02–20, partic. 0.02–
10 wt.%.
510 Cho
USE /ADVANTAGE—PCC is used for stabilising food prods. in the

form of emulsions (e.g., mayonnaise), foams (e.g., whipped cream), batters
and doughs, and for stabilising liq. or solid pharmaceutical prods. The
stabilised compsn. has reduced caloric content, reduced fat content, improved
texture, improved flavour release and/or improved mouthful. PCC is a
superior replacement for microcrystalline cellulose or xanthan gum normally
used in such compsns.
Fragmented anisotropic xanthan-protein complex dispersions mfr.—
comprises passing complex of the complex fibres through high shear.
Patent Assignee: KRAFT INC (KRFT); KRAFT GENERAL FOODS (KRAF-
N)
Inventor: BAER C C; BALMACEDA E A; BORWANKAR R P; CHEN C;
CHEN W; GAUD S M; HASENHEUTTL G L; HELLGETH L C; HENRY G A;
KAISER J M; KERWIN P J; KRATOCHVIL J F; LLOYD W L; MILLER M S;
MORGAN R G; STRANDHOLM J J; BALMADECA E A; MORGAN R G A;
WENSHERNG C
EP 340035 A 19891102 EP 89304316 A 19890428 198944 B
WO 8910068 A 19891102 198946
PT 90413 A 19891110 198950
AU 8935742 A 19891124 199016
CN 1038571 A 19900110 199042
FI 9005303 A 19901026 199107
EP 414776 A 19910306 EP 89905909 A 19890428 199110
DK 9002597 A 19901227 199112
NO 9004619 A 19901227 199112
BR 8907406 A 19910423 199121
JP 3505814 W 19911219 JP 89505929 A 19890428 199206
US 5104674 A 19920414 US 90548950 A 19900428 199218
CA 1334354 C 19950214 CA 598326 A 19890501 A23J-003/00 199514
Microfragmented anisotropic xanthan (I)/protein (II) complex dispersion
is produced as follows: (a) an aq. suspension of molecularly intimately
complexed (I)/(II) fibres is prepd. (contg. at least 10 wt.% (I) gum based on
total solids); and (b) the aq. fibre suspension is passed through a high shear
zone so that the fibres are fragmented to the title microfragments of max
dimension less than 15 micron.
Step (a). The aq. suspension pref. comprises 1–10 by wt. (I)/(II)
complex fibres, and is pref. heated to stabilise the complex. Step (b). The
dispersion is pref. concd. by centrifugation (at the isoelectric pH), or by
evapn. of at least some of the aq. phase. In an extension of the above method,
a syneresed molecularly entangled complexed ionic polysaccharide (III)/(II)
complex ppt is treated as above, where (III) is an anisotropic carboxymethyl
cellulose or carrageenan. Prefd. (II) include whey proteins and egg albumen.
The microfragments are pref. coated at least in part with Ca alginate or Ca
pectinate.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The microfragmented xanthan/protein dispersion
have desirable rheological props., including a stable lubricity and creamy
mouthfeel. The dispersions are useful as fat or oil substitutes in food prods.
(frozen desserts, spreads, dressings, baked goods and sauces, etc.), esp. as
replacements for edible triglycerides.
Sugar beet pectin for use in food or drug comestibles—has low mol.
wt., is highly acetylated, hydrophobic domains, specific ferulic acid
content and low viscosity.
Patent Assignee: SBP INC (SBPS-N); SLR INC (SLRS-N); WESTERN
SUGAR CO (WSUG-N); ST LAWRENCE REACTORS (SLAW-N);
WEIBEL M K (WEIB-I)
Inventor: WEIBEL M K
US 5008254 A 19910416 US 89430166 A 19891101 199118 B
EP 426434 A 19910508 EP 90311886 A 19901030 199119
AU 9065641 A 19910509 199126
CA 2029022 A 19910502 199128
JP 3197502 A 19910828 JP 90295185 A 19901031 199141
EP 426434 B1 19961211 EP 90311886 A 19901030 C08B-037/06 199703
DE 69029365 E 19970123 DE 629365 A 19901030 C08B-037/06 199709
EP 90311886 A 19901030ES 2098257 T3 19970501 EP 90311886 A
19901030 C08B-037/06 199724
Priority Applications (No Type Date): US 89430166 A 19891101;
US 82414931 A 19820903; US 83512940 A 19830712; US 8762445 A
19870615; US 89334596 A 19890406
Sugar beet pectin is claimed have at least one of the following
properties: (a) low molecular weight; (b) highly acetylated; (c) many
hydrophobic domains; (d) ferulic acid content up to 3 wt.%; and (e) relatively
low viscosity at 10 wt.%.
512 Cho
The sugar beet pectin is prepd. by: suspending sugar beet plant material
in an aq. medium to form a suspension; adjusting the pH to less than 4.5 or
greater than 9.0; maintaining at a temp. greater than 125°C for 15–600 sec.;
subjecting the suspension to mechanical shearing; and isolating the sugar beet
pectin from the suspension.
Also claimed is a food or drug comestible, other than fruit spreads,
having at least one of the following properties; (a) reduced caloric content; (b)
reduced fat content; (c) improved texture; (d) improved flavour release; or (e)
improved mouthfeel. The comestible being comprised of at least one first
material, at least second material, and the sugar beet pectin as above in amt.
sufficient to input at least one of the properties to be comestible.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The sugar beet pectin can be incorporated into
food or drug prods. to give improved properties, including physicochemical,
rheological and nutritional properties. Dietetic or other speciality comestibles
may also be prepd. in view of the fact that sugar beet pectin has a negligible
food value and is devoid of fat or cholesterol. The sugar beet pectin also
impedes the development of the ageing process so that, e.g., ice cream
creaminess is prolonged during storage and bread maintains a fresh elastic leaf
texture for longer periods of time.
A fat substitute—comprises microparticulate beads of hydrous
hydrocolloid gel produced by emulsion gelation.
Patent Assignee: MARS GB LTD (MRSC); MARS INC (MRSC)
Inventor: IZZO M T; JEROME R A; NACE J A; SPEIRS C; WHITE K E;
SPIERS C
WO 9119424 A 19911226 199203 B
AU 9180011 A 19920107 199217
EP 533815 A1 19930331 EP 91912025 A 19910619 A23L-001/308 199313
WO 91GB983 A 19910619
EP 533815 B1 19960207 EP 91912025 A 19910619 A23L-001/308 199610
WO 91GB983 A 19910619
DE 69117059 E 19960321 DE 617059 A 19910619 A23L-001/308 199617
EP 91912025 A 19910619
WO 91GB983 A 19910619
ES 2084171 T3 19960501 EP 91912025 A 19910619 A23L-001/308 199625
A fat substitute comprises microparticulate beads of a hydrous
hydrocolloid gel which is a prod. of emulsion gelation. Also claimed is a food
prod. contg. the fat substitute and a heat resistant chocolate comprising the fat
substitute. Pref. the beads comprise 0.1–10 wt.% gelling agent and contain the
reaction prod. of a gellable ionic polysaccharide and a physiologically
tolerable metal capable of gelation of the polysaccharide. The ionic
polysaccharide comprises at least one of alginate, pectate and sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The microparticulate beads are usable as fat
substitutes, as food additives with differing mouthfeel sensations in food
prods. such as ice cream, pudding, cheesecake, chocolate, dips, salad
dressings, etc. The beads can also be used for encapsulation of drugs,
enzymes, etc.
Hydrophilic colloid as foam stabiliser—polyglycerol fatty ester
emulsifiers in low calorie food topping spreads and ice creams.
Patent Assignee: BRISTOL-MYERS CO (BRIM); DRACKETT CO (DRAK)
US 3809764 A 19740507 197420 B
CA 969417 A 19750617 197527
0.2–3.0 wt.% hydrophilic colloid (acacia or xanthan gum,
carboxymethyl cellulose, gelatin, starch or a water-soluble protein) is used as
a foam stabilizer for a low calorie food such as imitation butter, margarine,
cheese spreads, dips, frozen desserts, ice creams, salad dressings and sauces
obtained from 0–5 wt.% fat, 0.33–7.5 wt.% polyglycerol ester as foaming
agent, and ⱕ45 wt.% flavouring, colouring, bodying and texturizing
ingredients. The polyglycerol ester contains 3–10 glycerol units and 1 or 2
saturated fatty acyl ester gps (16-20C).
Triglycerol monostearate, hexaglycerol distearate and decaglycerol
distearate as foaming agents
Edible dispersion esp. used as fat substitute—with continuous and gelled
disperse phases contg. different hydrocolloids, e.g., galactomannan and
gelatin.
Patent Assignee: TESSENDERLO CHEMIE NV (TESS-N)
Inventor: MUYLDERMANS G
514 Cho
WO 9317582 A1 19930916 WO 93BE12 A 19930308 A23L-001/05

199338 B
BE 1005742 A3 19940111 BE 92236 A 19920309 A23L-000/00 199407
Edible dispersion for providing a plastic texture contains at least two
hydrocolloids (HC) or HC systems and comprises a first phase (P1) and a
second gelled phase (P2). P1 forms a continuous phase in which P2 is
dispersed at at leat one temp. in the range of 0–40 (pref. 5–20, esp. 10-15)°C.
The concn. of the first HC or HC system is sufficient to form a continuous
phase which is immiscible with P2, such that P2 is dispersed in P1. The
concn. of the first HC or HC system is such that the continuous phase is non-
gelled.
Also claimed is a mixt. for forming the dispersions, contg. at least two
HCs or HC systems, where the first HC (system) has critical temp. below 5°C
and the second HC (system) has critical temp. above 15°C. Wt. ratio of first
HC (system) to second HC (system) is 0.1–1: 1.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Use of the dispersions or mixts. in prodn. of
food prods. and compsns., esp. as fat substitutes, is claimed. The dispersions
are transparent or translucid (due to the almost constant size of the dispersed
phase particles), and do not adversely affect the colour of food compsns., e.g.,
chocolate pastes. Typical applications are in salad sauces, butter creams, ice
creams, chocolate pastes and pâtés. The dispersions provide texture, plasticity
and cuttability, and act as thickeners. They give good mouthfeel and improved
release of aroma, and have no unpleasant taste.
Powdery edible material in aq. suspension—comprises cellulose material
regenerated from edible polysaccharide in suspension, for use as edible
fat substitute.
Patent Assignee: ASAHI CHEM IND CO LTD (ASAH)
JP 5023119 A 19930202 JP 91198232 A 19910715 A23L-001/0534 199310 B
The material comprises cellulose regenerated from aq. alkali metal
hydroxide and edible polysaccharide, homogeneous mixt. of both ingredients
being at least 10% in the continuous form and its particle size of 50% of
accumulated vol. being 50 microns or less. Water suspension contains the
material in an amt. of 3 to 40 wt.%.
Pref. the edible polysaccharide comprises gum arabicum, alginic acid,
carrageenan, pectin, pluran, mannan, starch, etc. The polysaccharide is 10% or
more in the material. The cellulose is dissolved in alkaline soln. and then
polysaccharide followed by mixing and kneading, to give dope. The dope is
extruded in water to coagulate, and it is washed and dried.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Material has good touch and feeling and bitter
taste is reduced, used as substitute for edible fat material, etc.
Foodstuff compsn.—comprises mixt. of oligomers derived from
degradation of a polysaccharide deriv.
Patent Assignee: ALKO LTD (ALKO-N); ALKO OY AB (ALKO-N)
Inventor: LAHTINEN T; RHA C; TIMONEN M; VAARA R; VAARA T
EP 470870 A 19920212 EP 91307416 A 19910812 199207 B
AU 9181742 A 19920213 199217
CA 2042559 A 19920211 199218
FI 9103094 A 19920211 FI 913094 A 19910625 A23L 199219
JP 4229157 A 19920818 JP 91224889 A 19910810 A23L-001/307 199240
A foodstuff compsn. comprises a mixt. of oligomers derived from
degradation of a polysaccharide deriv., a majority of the oligomers having
mol. wt. such that the oligomer has a rod-like configuration. A method for
preparing a reduced caloric food prod. comprising the mixt. of oligomers, and
a mixt. of oligomers derived from the degradation of the polysaccharide deriv.
Pref. the compsn. comprises a mixt. of oligomers derived from
degradation of a polysaccharide deriv., other than a cellulose deriv. The mixt.
of oligomers have an average degree of polymerisation of 3–500. The
polysaccharide deriv. includes one or more carboxymethyl, hydroxyethyl
methyl, methyl, hydroxypropyl, methyl ethyl, hydroxyethyl, hydroxypropyl
methyl, sulphate, carboxylic acid, carboxylic acid ester and/or pyruvate
substituents. The polysaccharide contains 0.5 to 3 substituents per saccharide
unit. The polysaccharide deriv. is a starch deriv., carragmeenan, pullulan,
pustulan, alginate, laminarin, guar gum, gum arabic, inulin, pectin, whelan,
rhamsan, gellan, xanthan, zooglan, methylan, chitin, cyclodextrin or chitsan
(esp. the deriv. consists substantially of glucose units). The mixt. of oligomers
has an average degree of polymerisation of 5–100 (esp. 5–50). The mixt. has
a polydispersibility less than 2 and contains less than 25 wt.% of mono- and
disaccharides. The mixt. has average mol. wt. less than 15,000 (esp. 10,000).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat substitute is fat free and has fat-like
properties such that eating quality of the new prods. or high calorie
ingredient-replaced footstuff is desirable or substantially maintained.
516 Cho
Fructose polymer-contg. food with improved taste and flavour—where
the polymer is added as substitute for gelling material, low calorie
saccharide and/or fat.
JP 4356169 A 19921209 JP 91226638 A 19910529 A23L-001/307 199305 B
Gelling material, thickener, low calorie saccharide, high sweetness
sweetener and/or fat is added to the food. A part or all of gelling material,
low calorie saccharide and fat is substd. by fructose polymer. The fat is
cream, cream cheese, butter and/or vegetable fat. Gelling material and/or
thickener is gelatin, gum, pectin, starch, egg yolk, and/or egg white. The food
is cream, jelly, jam, ice-cream, sauce, chocolate, pudding, sponge-cakes,
bread, spread or ham and sausage.
USE—Gel property and creamy feel are improved. Flavour and taste of
the food is increased.
Hydrocolloids—General 15
Non-aggregating hydrocolloid micro-particulates—are used as foodstuff
fat replacers or as carriers, e.g., drugs, herbicides, detergent, surfactants,
enzymes, fertilisers etc.
Patent Assignee: FMC CORP (FMCC)
Inventor: CROSBY G A; DUMONT L E; RENN D W; RILEY P J;
SEWALL C J; THOMAS W R
WO 9505939 A1 19950302 WO 94US8860 A 19940804 B32B-009/00 199514 B
AU 9475210 A 19950321 AU 9475210 A 19940804 B32B-009/00 199526
US 5624612 A 19970429 US 93111800 A 19930825 B01J-013/02 199723
US 95476989 A 19950607
Dry, rehydratable, water-dispersible, gel-forming, porous hydrocolloid
microparticulates comprise (a) a gel-forming hydrocolloid as the matrix; and
(b) at least one water-soluble, non-gelling, hydration-enhancing hydrocolloid.
Matrix (a) contains (b) within its porous structure and may also have (b) as a
full or partial coating around the microparticulates. Pref., when rehydrated, the
microparticulates have average particle dia. of 0.1–150 (esp.10–30) microns.
They are esp. spherical. The matrix (a) is, e.g., agar, agarose, algin, low
methyl pectin, gellan, kappa-carrageenan, furcellaran, beta-carrageenan,

curdlan, konjac, glucomannan (or its derivs.) etc. Colloid (b) is a
galactomannan, glucomannan, starch, cellulose deriv., lambda-carrageen, algin,
pectin, xanthan and/or a synthetic polymer. It is esp Na CMC, and (a) is esp
heat-stable, cold-melt konjac.
USE—Prods are fat replacers in foodstuffs or carriers for drugs
herbicides, detergents, enzymes, etc.
Hydrocolloid—Bakery & Grain 1

Low-fat dry mix based on sweetened cereal—comprising polydextrose,
cellulosic material, non-fat milk solid, emulsifier, modified food starch
and xanthan, guar or locust bean gum.
Patent Assignee: NELSON K J (NELS-I); PILLSBURY CO (PILL)
Inventor: NELSON K J; HAHN P W
WO 9200012 A 19920109 A21D-002/18 199205 B
AU 9174470 A 19920227 199218
EP 536139 A1 19930414 EP 91905226 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199315
WO 91US407 A 19910121
US 5262187 A 19931116 US 90546017 A 19900628 A23L-001/10 199347
US 91722710 A 19910628
US 92918945 A 19920722
EP 536139 B1 19940824 EP 91905226 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199433
WO 91US407 A 19910121
DE 69103633 E 19940929 DE 603633 A 19910121 A21D-002/18 199438
EP 91905226 A 19910121
WO 91US407 A 19910121
Mix comprises: a sweetened cereal-grain ingredient base with a fat–
mimetic system of (i) less than 0.1 to 5 wt.% of a polydextrose or its buffered
form, (ii) less than 0.1 to 15 wt.% of a cellulosic material, (iii) less than 0.1
to 8 wt.% of a non-fat milk solid or substitute (IV), less than 0.1 to 4 wt.% of
each of an emulsifier and a modified food starch (V) and less than 0.1 to 2
wt.% of a mixt. of xanthan gum and quar or locust bean gum. The wt.% are
relative to the total wt. of the dry-mix.
Also claimed is a baked, low-fat food compsn. contg. the dry mix and a
low-fat ready-to-use butter contg. the dry mix.
Pref. the ingredient base includes sugar and flour at a ratio of 2: 1 to 1 :1
pts. wt. (Pbw). The dry mix also includes flavourings colouring, salt,
leavening agent, and/or preservatives.
518 Cho
USE /ADVANTAGE—The baked compsn. contg. the dry mix is moist,

tender, crumbly with good mouthfeel and pref. contains one-third fewer
calories than a similar full fatted compsn. The dry mix produces substantially
homogeneously distributed small air cells throughout the volume of the baked
compsn.
Hydrocolloid—Bakery & Grain 2

Low fat, low calorie fat substitute emulsions—contg. only natural
ingredients which require no other change in a recipe, e.g., baked goods.
Patent Assignee: MRS BATEMAN’S BAKERY LC (BATE-N)
Inventor: BATEMAN K
WO 9526641 A1 19951012 WO 95US4153 A 19950404 B 199546 B
AU 9522063 A 19951023 AU 9522063 A 19950404 B 199605
Low fat, low calorie fat substitutes are emulsions of 40–90 wt.%
polysaccharide (I) in 5–60 wt.% water. The emulsions can be substituted 1-to-
1 for fat in food prods. without any other changes in the recipe and without
altering the texture of the prod.
Also claimed are substitutes made from 1–40 wt.% baking fat, 40–80%
(I) and 5–40% water.
A second polysaccharide (II), pref. a water soluble starch, is present at
1–15%. A flavouring, esp. butter or an artificial flavouring, is present at up to
10%. The flavouring is oil or butter, olive, peanut, canola, corn or safflower
oil flavouring, or is up to 1% dried butter.
A food colouring, esp. beta-carotene or a yellow dye is pref. present. (I)
is a maltodextrin of DE ⬍ 20, esp. corn, rice, potato or tapioca starch.
Shelf-life is improved by adding up to 1% preservative. Up to 4% whey
protein and/or xanthan gum is added to enhance texture. The pH is also
adjusted.
USE—The compsns. can replace, e.g., shortening, margarine, butter, oil,
lard, and cream cheese.
ADVANTAGE—The compsns. are made only of natural prods. and
need no emulsifiers.
Hydrocolloid—Beverage 1
Low-calorie beverage contg. hydro-colloidal polysaccharide—saccharin
salt and aspartame, with texture and sweetness similar to prods.
sweetened with fructose syrup.
Patent Assignee: PEPSICO INC (PEPS)
Inventor: HAVEKOTTE M J; SHARKASI T; HAVEKOTTS M J

US 5126158 A 19920630 US 90564012 A 19900807 A23L-002/38 199229 B
US 91758225 A 19910909
GB 2259438 A 19930317 GB 9119530 A 19910911 A23L-001/236 199311 N
DE 4131084 A1 19930325 DE 4131084 A 19910918 A23L-002/38 199313 N
AU 9183752 A 19930311 AU 9183752 A 19910909 A23L-001/236 199317 N
FR 2681220 A1 19930319 FR 9111318 A 19910913 A23L-002/00 199320 N
ES 2034895 A1 19930401 ES 912096 A 19910923 A23L-002/38 199323 N
AU 643557 B 19931118 AU 9183752 A 19910909 A23L-001/236 199402 N
ES 2034895 B1 19931216 ES 912096 A 19910923 A23L-002/38 199403 N
JP 6090721 A 19940405 JP 91274534 A 19910926 A23L-002/00 199418 N
GB 2259438 B 19950301 GB 9119530 A 19910911 A23L-001/236 199512 N
Beverage contains at least one acceptable hydrocolloid polysaccharide
(I) at 25–800 mg/L; a saccharin salt (II) and aspartame (III), with the (III):
(II) ratio being 25–50: 1.
More specifically, (I) is at least one of natural or modified gum (esp.
xanthan or guar); an alkyl cellulose either (e.g, methylcellulose); pectin and
propylene glycol alginate. (II) is the Na and/or Ca salt.
USE /ADVANTAGE—These dietetic beverages have improved
mouthfeel and sweetness, i.e., in these respects they closely ressemble
beverages sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup (HFC5)
Hydrocolloid—Dairy 1
Making low calorie butter made from dairy cream—by phase reversion
on scraped surface heat exchanger using unsatd. distilled monoglyceride
and hydrocolloids.
Patent Assignee: ANONYMOUS (ANON)
RD 303053 A 19890710 198933 B
Abstract (Basic): RD 303053 A
Low calorie butter can be made form dairy cream by phase reversion on
a scraped surface heat exchanger, using unsaturated distilled monoglyceride
and hydrocolloids added to the cream.
In an example, 94.4% dairy cream 38% fat; 4.0% gelatin; 0.5% salt;
0.1% K-sorbate and 1.0% unsaturated distilled monoglyceride, high iodine
value. In all samples were used 7 ppm flavour, 4 ppm beta-carotene and pH
was adjusted to 6.0. The dairy cream was heated to 50°C and the additives
520 Cho
were added during intensive agitation. Phase reversion was achieved in a

laboratory perfector using 2 cooling cylinders approx. 40% of normal capacity
and ammonia temperature ⫺10°C. The speed of the rotor in the cooling
cylinders was approx. 950 rpm and outlet temperature of the low calorie
butter approx. 18°C. The low calorie butter sample has no loose water by
spreading after storage at 5 and 18°C and has an agreeable butter-like taste.
Low calorie, palatable frozen food compsns.—contg. poly-dextrose,
fructose, guar gum and emulsifier.
Patent Assignee: MINGHELLAS ISLE OF (MING-N)
Inventor: MINGHELLA E
GB 2193873 A 19880224 GB 86619827 A 19860814 198808 B
GB 2193873 B 19900214 GB 8619827 A 19860814 199007
Frozen food compsn. (contg. at least 5% by wt. fat, and at least 7.5 %
by wt. milk solids) comprises (per 500 wt. pts. of compsn). 50–70 wt. pts.
polydextrose (I), 20–30 pts. fructose (II), 0.75–1.5 pts. guar gum (III), and
0.75–1.25 pts. of an emulsifier (IV).
ADVANTAGE—The particular combination of milk prods. and
sweetening agents affords a low calorie, low carbohydrate prod. which is
extremely palatable. By virtue of the fat and milk solids content, the prod. can
be called ‘‘ice-cream.’’
Low calorie virtually fat-free processed cheese—produced from
skimmed milk cheese, microcrystalline cellulose, corn syrup solids,
anionic hydrophilic gum, emulsifier and opacifier.
(KRFT)
Inventor: BAER C C; BULIGA G S; HASSENHEUTTL G L; HENRY G A;
HETH A A; JACKSON L K; KENNEDY-TOLSTEDT J M; KERWIN P J;
MILLER M S; PARKER E M; PAUL N K; PECHAK D G; SMITH G F;
WITTE V C; DAVISON B C; HAMANN A C; PROSTKO L J;
SCHWIMMER W H; DAVIDSON B C; SMITH W H; NEELA K P;
SMITH G G F
WO 9102461 A 19910307 199112 B
PT 95027 A 19910418 199118

PT 95028 A 19910418 199118
US 5011701 A 19910430 US 89395800 A 19890818 199119
AU 9063525 A 19910403 199125
AU 9064282 A 19910403 199125
FI 9200673 A 19920217 WO 90US4619 A 19900816 A23C 199221
FI 92673 A 19920217
FI 9200674 A 19920217 WO 90US4621 A 19900816 A23L 199221
FI 92674 A 19920217
EP 487649 A1 19920603 EP 90914330 A 19900816 A23C-019/00 199223
WO 90US4619 A 19900816
NO 9200581 A 19920326 WO 90US4619 A 19900816 A23C-019/00 199226
NO 92581 A 19920214
NO 9200582 A 19920409 WO 90US4621 A 19900816 A23L 199228
NO 92582 A 19920214
JP 4507349 W 19921224 JP 90513382 A 19900816 A23C-019/082 199306
WO 90US4619 A 19900816
US 5215778 A 19930601 US 89395800 A 19890818 A23C-019/00 199323
US 90462606 A 19900109
US 93758462 A 19930601
NZ 234705 A 19930727 NZ 234705 A 19900730 A23L-001/24 199333
NZ 234706 A 19930727 NZ 234706 A 19900730 A23C-019/09 199333
AU 638751 B 19930708 AU 9063525 A 19900816 A23L-001/308 199334
AU 643706 B 19931125 AU 9064282 A 19900816 A23C-019/082 199403
EP 487649 B1 19960515 EP 90914330 A 19900816 A23C-019/00 199624
WO 90US4619 A 19900816
DE 69027034 E 19960620 DE 627034 A 19900816 A23C-019/00 199630
EP 90914330 A 19900816
WO 90US4619 A 19900816
PH 26991 A 19921228 PH 41041 A 19900816 A23L-001/0534 199635
ES 2088433 T3 19960816 EP 90914330 A 19900816 A23C-019/00 199639
CA 2059544 C 19961001 CA 2059544 A 19900816 A23L-001/052 199650
Fat-free processed cheese prods. are prepd. by (a) blending comminuted
natural skimmed milk cheese (I) with an aq. slurry of porous particulate
microreticulated microcrystalline cellulose (contg. 5–12 wt.% solids), 15–28
DE corn syrup solids, anionic hydrophilic gum, emulsifying salt and TiO2
opacifier to form a fat-free processed cheese blend, (b) injecting 6–17 wt.%
steam with mixing into the blend to form a homogeneous fluidised cheese
melt at 165–270°F, (c) keeping it at 220°F for 85 sec. or an equiv. time-temp.
relationship, (d) flash cooling into a vacuum zone (30 in. Hg or less) to a
temp. of 140–170 deg and (e) packaging.
522 Cho
(I) contains 50–60 wt.% water, under 1.67 wt.% fat and 40–50 wt.%
non-fat dairy solids. The prod. contains under 1.67 wt.% fat.
ADVANTAGE—Prods. are low calorie and fat-free. They have texture
and mouthfeel like conventional processed cheese slices.
Non gelatin-contg. powder compsns. for ice cream and milk drinks—
contains acid, starch milk powder, sweetener, colour, flavour, dried
cultured milk powder and gums.
Patent Assignee: BEN-GURION UNIV OF NEGEV (UYNE)
Inventor: DEVSHONY S
EP 242056 A 19871021 EP 87302238 A 19870316 198742 B
JP 62275653 A 19871130 JP 8758714 A 19870313 198802
IL 78146 A 19890928 199002
A powdered compsn for use in making tart during drinks and soft ice
cream comprises (a) 1–15% edible acid, (b) 0–6% pretreated starch, (c) 0–
10% dried, cultured milk powder, (d) 0.3–90% sweeteners (e) 0–7% colours
and flavours (f ) 0–50% milk powder, and (g) at least two of guar, carot and
xanthan gum, each of the two or more being present in an amt. of 0.3–4%,
and in a total quantity of 2.3–8%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. may be mixed with water or milk
to produce a stable, low calarie tart dairy drink or mixed with milk in a soft
ice cream machine to produce a stable, soft, low calorie ice cream. Sepn. does
not occur, nor does syneresis after 5–6 days in the refrigerator. The compsns.
are kosher, being free of gelatin, so Jews can enjoy them.
Low fat, low cholesterol process cheese prepn.—by adding cheese
culture to liq. milk having low fat content, processing soln., processing
obtd. curd, sepg. whey and ripening curd.
Patent Assignee: FIRST WORLD CHEESE (FIRS-N); ALPINE LACE
BRANDS INC (ALPI-N); GAMAY A (GAMA-I)
Inventor: GAMAY A
WO 9117664 A 19911128 199150 B
AU 9178897 A 19911210 199212
US 5225220 A 19930706 US 90522203 A 19900511 A23C-019/032 199328
US 92877953 A 19920430
NZ 238107 A 19941222 NZ 238107 A 19910510 A23C-019/00 199505
US 5395630 A 19950307 US 90522203 A 19900511 A23C-019/032 199515
US 92877953 A 19920430 US 9367455 A 19930523 US 94250336 A 19940527
US 5549916 A 19960827 US 90522203 A 19900511 A23C-019/32 199640
US 92877953 A 19920430 US 9367455 A 19930525 US 94250336 A
19940527 US 95378515 A 19950126 US 95475143 A 19950607
US 5612073 A 19970318 US 90522203 A 19900511 A23C-019/032 199717
US 92877953 A 19920430 US 9367455 A 19930527 US 94250336 A
19940527 US 95378515 A 19950126
Mfg. a low fat cheese starting material for process cheese mfg.
comprises: a) preparing a starting liq. milk having a fat content of 0–0.3%; b)
adding a selected cheese culture to the liq. milk and forming a starting cheese
formulation soln.; c) processing the cheese formulation soln. for reacting and
coagulating the soln. and forming the curd; d) cutting and processing the curd
at elevated temp until achieving a preselected pH range for the curd; e) sepg.
whey from the curd and controlling pH of the curd during further curd
development. The whey includes calcium dissolved during achievement of the
preselected pH range; and f ) processing and ripening the curd to form the
cheese starting material.
Also claimed is a method of mfg. a real process cheese prod. and a low
fat prod.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The cheese produced is fat free, cholesterol free
and low in calorie content. Flavours can be used to mask bitter and
unpalatable tastes and for imparting acceptable cheese flavours.
Low fat, low cholesterol cheese mfr.—by mixing and dissolving
carrageenan to low fat milk, adding selected cheese culture, processing,
separating whey and ripening the curd.
Patent Assignee: FIRST WORLD CHEESE (FIRS-N); ALPINE LACE
BRANDS INC (ALPI-N); ALPINE LACE BRANDS (ALPI-N)
Inventor: GAMAY A
WO 9117663 A 19911128 199150 B
US 5080913 A 19920114 US 90522527 A 19900511 199206
AU 9178795 A 19911210 199212
NZ 238108 A 19941222 NZ 238108 A 19910510 A23C-019/00 199505
524 Cho
Mfr. of low fat cheese comprises: a) preparing a starting liq. milk

having a fat content of 0.01–0.3%; b) mixing and dissolving a carrageenan
with the starting milk; c) adding a selected cheese culture to the liq. milk and
dissolved carrageenan and forming a cheese formulation soln.; d) processing
the formulation soln. for reacting and coagulating the soln and forming a curd;
e) cutting and processing the cord at elevated temp until achieving a
preselected pH range for the curd; f ) sepg. whey from the curd and
controlling the water content in association with the curd for controlling pH
during curd development; and g) processing and ripening the curd to form the
low fat cheese.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The method affords cheese with texture,
mouthfeel and flavour similar to higher fat natural cheese. The prod is of low
fat, low cholesterol and low calorie. The cheese produced is selected from
Cheddar cheese, Colby cheese, mozzarella cheese, Jack cheese, Muenster
cheese, Gouda cheese, Swiss cheese, blue cheese, Romano cheese, Parmesan
cheese and Camembert cheese.
Non-dairy frozen dessert compsns.—give ice cream substitutes with
usual appearance, texture and melt but low lactose, cholesterol, satd. fat
and calorie content.
Patent Assignee: KOHLMANN H G (KOHL-I)
Inventor: MINGIONE A
US 5478587 A 19951226 US 93109707 A 19930820 A23G-009/02 199606 B
Non-dairy compsns. for frozen dessert prepn. comprise 14.00–78.26%
(as dry wt.) non-dairy creamer (I), 3.48–52.17% sweetener (II), 2.5–42.98%
filler (III), 0.14–6.96% stabiliser (IV) and 0.01–0.29% smoother (V).
Pref. (ii) is sucrose with corn syrup solids (VI), aspartame (VII),
polydextrose (VIII), or (VI) and (VII) or (VII) and (VIII), or is (VIII) with
(VI) and/or (VII). (III) is maltodextrin. (V) is a vegetable gum, esp. xanthan,
guar, xanthan and guar, or carrageenan gum. Compsns. also contain a source
of dietary Ca. They also contain a partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, esp.
olive or canola oil, having mono-unsatd. : satd. fat ratio ⬎ 2 :1 and mono- :
poly-unsatd. fat ratio ⬎ 1: 19. Compsns. also contain 50–70 wt.% water. They
also contain 50–70 vol.% fruit juice.
USE—Prods. give lactose-free, low satd. fat, low cholesterol, low
calories desserts with the appearance, texture and melting characteristics of ice
cream.
Non-fat natural cheese prepn.—by combining skim milk, fat substitute
additive, starter culture and milk coagulating enzyme, coagulating obtd.
substrate, etc.
Patent Assignee: KRAFT GEN FOODS INC (KRFT)
Inventor: BORWANKAR R P; CARRELL N A; HAMANN A C; HYNES J T;
JACOBSON K A; KERRIGAN G L; NATH K R; REDDY D S; ALM W L
WO 9206598 A1 19920430 WO 91US7100 A 19910927 A23C-019/05
199220 B
AU 9187405 A 19920520 AU 9187405 A 19910927 A23C-019/05 199233
WO 91US7100 A 19910927
Mfr. comprises combining skim milk, a fat substitute additive, a starter
culture and a milk coagulating enzyme to provide a non-fat milk substrate,
coagulating the substrate, cutting the coagulation to provide curd particles and
whey, draining the whey, pressing the curd and curing the curd to form a non-
fat natural cheese.
Also claimed is the natural cheese prod. formed.
The fat substitute additive is pref. a microgel, a hydrocolloid or a
microfragment anisotropic polysaccharide/protein complex. The additive has
an average particle size of 0.5 to 30 microns and is present at a level of 0.5–
50 wt.% on dry solids basis (the fat substitute additive is esp. a fragmented
calcium alginate gel, a hydrocolloid selected from guar, agar, xanthan and
carrageenan or a microfragmented anisotropic xanthan (protein complex more
esp. xanthan/whey or xanthan/egg albumin complex).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The method enables preparation of non-fat
natural cheese. The additives added serve to provide the same function as the
fat particles usually associated with the protein matrix of cheese. The
additives provide particles which do not integrate with the casein network of
the cheese, but remain detached and provide mouthfeel resembling fat-contg.
cheeses.
Paste used as fat substitute, contg. carrageenan and potassium ions—for
food such as low calorie ice cream and mayonnaise, suitable for diet
foods.
Patent Assignee: AJINOMOTO CO INC (AJIN); AJINOMOTO KK (AJIN)
Inventor: FUSEYA Y; KONISHI M; KONOIKE T; MARUYAMA K;
526 Cho
MORITA Y; TAKAGAKI Y; TSUJIMURA H; YAMAGATA M

WO 9504480 A1 19950216 WO 94JP1288 A 19940804 A23L-001/307
199512 B
JP 7046965 A 19950221 JP 93194687 A 19930805 A23L-001/05 199517
EP 664084 A1 19950726 EP 94923071 A 19940804 A23L-001/307 199534
WO 94JP1288 A 19940804
EP 664084 A4 19960703 EP 94923071 A 19940000 A23L-001/307 199644
A paste for use in a food product contains 1.5–10 wt.% of carrageenans
mainly comprising kappa-carrageenan and 2–30 wt.% (based on the
carrageenan) of potassium ions. The paste has a viscosity of 300–25000 cP at
25°C. An aqueous solution contg. 1 wt.% of the carrageenans can pass
completely through a sieve having a JIS opening of 20 micron.
USE—The paste is used in salad dressing, mayonnaise and food
products contg. mayonnaise, and in ice cream and whipped cream (claimed) as
a partial or complete substitute for the fat component of a fat-contg. emulsion
food. It is useful in diet foods.
ADVANTAGE—The paste does not have an unpleasant effect on the
taste or appetising quality of food contg. it. Mayonnaise contg. the paste has
excellent viscosity characteristics, preservability, physical properties for
mixing with vegetables, etc.
Low fat or fat-free powdered coffee whitener—using reformed casein
micelles as fat substitute.
Patent Assignee: NESTEC SA (NEST)
Inventor: MELACHOURIS N; MOFFITT K R; RASILEWICZ C E;
TONNER G F
US 5318793 A 19940607 US 91760663 A 19910916 A23C-011/08 199422 B
US 92937574 A 19920831
Powdered coffee whitener comprises a spray-dried dispersion of
reformed casein micelles formed in situ by the sequential addn. of a soluble
source of Ca ions and a soluble source of phosphate ions to an aq. medium
contg. processed casein but no casein micelles.
The process casein material is acid casein and/or alkali metal caseinate;
the Ca source and phosphate source are each soluble salts. The spray-dried
dispersion of reformed casein micelles is blended with a carbohydrate, 0.05–1

wt.% hydrophilic colloid and sufficient buffer to give a pH of 6.3–6.8.
USE—The coffee whiteners use the casein as a replacement for the fat
component. They have the same functional and organoleptic properties as
conventional whiteners.
In an example, 96.9g of 8.87% CaCl 2 soln. was mixed into 1 l. of 55°C
water contg. 126g Na caseinate. Then 60.0g of soln. contg. 17.1% di K
phosphate and 1.8% NaOH was mixed in. After ultrafiltering, 1 ⫻ dilution
and ultrafiltering, the micelle suspension (96g) was mixed with a dry blend of
3.0g sucrose and 0.5g locust bean gum, homogenised, pasteurised and opt.
mixed with maltodextrin and spray dried.
Low fat natural cheese mfr. for body and texture of full-fat cheese—by
adding gel-forming fat mimetic of methylcellulose gum to skimmed
milk, setting. cutting, cooking and draining substrate, and curing.
(KRFT)
Inventor: CRAWFORD S I; MEHNERT D; MEIBACH R L; MILLER M S;
SURBER K J; WREZEL P
WO 9521534 A1 19950817 WO 95US518 A 19950113 A23C-019/00 199538 B
AU 9516801 A 19950829 AU 9516801 A 19950113 A23C-019/00 199548
EP 693881 A1 19960131 EP 95908508 A 19950113 A23C-019/00 199609
WO 95US518 A 19950113
US 5532018 A 19960702 US 94195270 A 19940214 A23C-019/00 199632
EP 693881 A4 19960612 EP 95908508 A 19950000 A23C-019/00 199644
The mfr. comprises:
(a) adding a gel-forming fat mimetic to skimmed milk;
(b) setting, cutting, cooking and draining the substrate formed;
(c) curing the cheese curd formed;
(d) comminuting the skimmed milk cheese obtd. and heating to 140–
180°F;
(e) holding for 0.5–8 min. to give a homogeneous cheese mass; and
(f) packaging.
Also claimed is a method for mfr. of a low-fat natural cheese
comprising providing a mixt. comprising a skimmed milk cheese, a gel-
forming fat mimetic, emulsifying salt and water.
USE—Used for mfr. of a low-fat natural cheese.
528 Cho
ADVANTAGE—The prod. emulates the body and texture of fat-contg.

natural cheeses.
Hydrocolloid—Dessert 1
Dry blend shortening substitute for bakery prods.—comprising xanthan
gum, guar gums and emulsifiers, for complete fat replacement in, e.g.,
cakes.
Patent Assignee: MERCK & CO INC (MERI)
Inventor: LAWSON M A; LIN S W
Patent Family:
EP 468552 A 19920129 EP 91201304 A 19910530 199205 B
CA 2043764 A 19911207 199209
JP 4252134 A 19920908 JP 91134695 A 19910606 A21D-008/00 199243
EP 468552 A3 19931222 EP 91201304 A 19910530 199515
Substitute comprises xanthan gum(s) and ingredient(s) of (a) other
gum(s) of gum arabic, propylene glycol alignate, guar-, locust bean or gellan-
gum, alginates, carrageenan, maltodextrin and carboxymethyl cellulose, and
(b) emulsifier(s) of monodiglycerides, sodium stearoyl lactylate, lecithin,
sorbitan monostearate, poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl) derivs. of lactylate, lecithin,
sorbitan monooctadecanoate and diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides.
A fat-reduced baking compsn. comprises 0.01–0.8 wt.% of the fat substitute.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Used to replace up to 100% of the fat in bakery
prods. such as layer cakes, muffins, devils food cake, cookies and doughnuts.
Prods. esp. cakes, contg. the fat substitutes have similar baking vols. and cake
densities, fine and uniform cell structures and comparable organoleptic
properties to full-fat cakes.
Reduced calorie, low acid dessert toppings—comprises carrageenan gum
blend, powdered cellulose bulking agent, non-heat thinning cellulose
gum bulking agent, corn syrups etc.
Inventor: ROCKLAND L B
US 5132128 A 19920721 US 91686810 A 19910417 A23G-003/00 199232 B
Reduced calorie, fat-contg., low acid dessert topping compsn. comprises:
a carrageenan gum (I) blend, a powdered cellulose bulking agent (II), a non-
heat thinning cellulose gum bulking agent (III), high fructose corn syrups
(IV), an edible humectant (V), and non-fat milk (VI). Compsn. has pH above
4.6, and has H 2O activity of less than 0.84 and contains at least 1/3rd less
calories than standard toppings.
Comprise (by wt.) 0.75–1.75% (I), 3–4.5% (II), 50–60% (IV), 1–1.5%
(V), 6.5–8.5% (VI), and 30–40% H 2O; and pref. also comprise 4–15% cocoa
powder as a flavour constituent (prim. agent a mixt. of Dutch and natural
cocoa powders). Pref. (I) blend includes a gelling gum and a viscosity control
gum in ca eq. amts., esp. carrageenan with added gelling agents and
carrageenan with guar gum. Pref. (III) is a microcrystalline cellulose. Pref. (V)
is propylene glycol.
ADVANTAGE—Low acid topping compsns. have the physical
characteristics of conventional standard toppings, but have ca 1/3rd of the
calories of a normal prod. Compsns. are esp. hot fudge toppings. In addn. the
compsns. have smooth uniform texture at ambient temps. and on cold
surfaces.
Aerated ice confections—with gas cells of high stability and capable of
acting as fat replacers.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL); GOOD
HUMOR CORP (GOOD-N)
Inventor: BEE R D; NEEDHAM D; SMALLWOOD K
WO 9412050 A1 19940609 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02
199424 B
AU 9456947 A 19940622 AU 9456947 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199436
FI 9502694 A 19950602 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-000/00 199536
FI 952694 A 19950602
NO 9502179 A 19950728 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-000/00 199540
NO 952179 A 19950601
ZA 9309041 A 19950830 ZA 939041 A 19931202 A23G-000/00 199540
EP 675685 A1 19951011 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199545
EP 94902657 A 19931125
CN 1095555 A 19941130 CN 93121654 A 19931202 A23G-009/02 199547
US 5472726 A 19951205 US 93160536 A 19931201 A23G-009/00 199603
SK 9500733 A3 19951108 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199605
SK 95733 A 19931125
CZ 9501431 A3 19951213 CZ 951431 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199606
530 Cho
NZ 258873 A 19960625 NZ 258873 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199631

WO 93EP3319 A 19931125
JP 8503608 W 19960423 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199645
JP 94512765 A 19931125
AU 671703 B 19960905 AU 9456947 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199647
EP 675685 B1 19970507 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199723
EP 94902657 A 19931125
DE 69310545 E 19970612 DE 610545 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199729
WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 EP 94902657 A 19931125
ES 2102189 T3 19970716 EP 94902657 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199735
HU 71934 T 19960228 WO 93EP3319 A 19931125 A23G-009/02 199740
HU 951589 A 19931125
Ice confections comprise gas cells having a stability in excess of 2
weeks and having a D3,2 (sic) particle size of less than 20 microns.
The D3,2 size of the gas cells is 0.1–10, esp. 0.5–3, microns. The gas
cells have a surface of edible surface active material. The gas cells are prepd.
separately in bulk and added to the ice confection during or after its prepn.
ADVANTAGE—Compsns. have good creaminess, whiteness and
flavour. The gas cells replace some of the fat in the compsns.
In an example, low fat ice cream was prepd. from 57.33 wt.% water,
3.00% butter oil, 0.11% locust bean gum, 10.00% skimmed milk powder,
8.00% maltodextrin of D.E. 17–19, 0.50% glycerol monostearate, 0.06% guar
gum, 6.00% maltodextrin of D.E. 40 and 15.00% gas cell mixt.
Sweetening compsn., useful for sugar-coated prods., e.g., chewing gum,
confectionery etc.—contains erythritol, non-erythritol saccharide(s) and
thickening stabiliser, e.g., agar.
Patent Assignee: NIKKEN CHEM CO LTD (NIKM); NIKKEN KASEI KK
(NIKK-N)
JP 8322504 A 19961210 JP 95154101 A 19950530 A23L-001/22 199708 B
Compsn. contains 35–65 w/w% of erythritol and 0.03–0.7 w/w% of
thickening stabilising agent comprised of polysaccharides selected from one or
more of carrageenan, agar, farcelan, pectin, curdlan, gellan gum, xanthan gum,
alginic acid sodium salt, tamarind gum. Saccharides other than erythritol are
in the amt. 43 pts. wt. of less (w.r.t. 100 pts. wt. of erythritol). Obtd. compsn.
is coated on surface of core material and dried.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Used for chocolate, tablet, chewing gum, candy

and medicinal products. Low calorie and non-cariogenic sweetening is
preserved for long term. Confectionery and medicinal products have improved
taste.
Hydrocolloid—Emulsifier, Stabilizer, & Suspending

Agent 1
Roughage rich diet supplement made from natural materials—comprises
soy bran and guar bean meal stored dry and finely ground and may be
added to, e.g., liquid foods including fruit juices.
Patent Assignee: DESAGA H (DESA-I)
DE 29611879 U1 19970807 DE 96U2011879 U 19960709 199737 B
Abstract (Basic): DE 29611879 U
Roughage rich composition for human nourishment, or at least as a food
supplement, comprises soy bran and guar bean meal. Preferably, the soy husk
residues (2) have the maximum possible surface area; they may be half husks.
The bran is roasted. Components of this material are stored dry, and may be
finely ground. The guar meal acts as a thickener or swelling agent.
USE—The roughage rich foodstuff is useful as a low-calorie food
supplement.
ADVANTAGE—The roughage-rich material controls digestion in a
calorie-reduced diet. It may be mixed, e.g., with fluid foods such as, e.g., fruit
juice, soups, gravy, yoghurt or porridge, where the guar meal acts as a
thickener.

Agent 2
Ready-to-eat, low–no fat pudding—comprises water, calcium source,
thickening and sweetening agents, emulsifier, and calcium-sensitive,
irreversible gelling hydrocolloid.
(KRFT)
Inventor: KING L D; LESHIK R R
GB 2261805 A 19930602 GB 9224485 A 19921123 A23L-001/187 199322 B
DE 4239590 A1 19930603 DE 4239590 A 19921125 A23L-001/187 199323
CA 2082969 A 19930528 CA 2082969 A 19921116 A23L-001/187 199333
532 Cho
US 5238699 A 19930824 US 91800617 A 19911127 A23L-001/187 199335

GB 2261805 B 19950802 GB 9224485 A 19921123 A23L-001/187 199534
CA 2082969 C 19960507 CA 2082969 A 19921116 A23L-001/187 199628
Compsn. for the prepn. of a packaged ready-to-eat pudding comprises:
less than 3% fat; H 2O; a source of soluble Ca (I); thickening agent (II);
sweetener; emulsifier/stabiliser (III) and/or polyphosphate; and 0.01–1.5% by
wt. of an ungelled, Ca-sensitive, irreversible, gelling hydrocolloid (IV) as fat
replacement.
Pref. compsn. comprises 0–3%, esp. 0% fat. Pref. (I) is milk solids.
Pref. sweetener is sugar-free. Pref. (IV) is algin (or salts), low methoxyl
pectin, gellan gum or mixts., esp. Na alginate; and is pref. the only non-starch
hydrocolloid present.
ADVANTAGE—The low/no fat, ready-to-eat pudding-like desserts may
be UHT sterilised, when they are stable to storage for prolonged periods, or
may be prepd. under controlled conditions and stored at refrigeration temps.
The prods. have a smooth, creamy texture and mouthfeel, and the weak, soft
gel structure of full-fat, ready-to-eat puddings.

Agent 3
Starch natural gum composite—processed so that polysaccharide
components are completely solubilised, are useful in foods as thickening
and suspending agents.
Inventor: CHRISTIANSON D D; FANTA G F
WO 9414887 A2 19940707 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 B 199428 B
AU 9465479 A 19940719 AU 9465479 A 19931208 B 199439
WO 9414887 A3 19940915 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 B 199518
US 5424088 A 19950613 US 92991811 A 19921217 B 199529
EP 674682 A1 19951004 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 B 199544
EP 94913248 A 19931208
JP 8505170 W 19960604 WO 93US11862 A 19931208 B 199648
JP 94515201 A 19931208
AU 679740 B 19970710 AU 9465479 A 19931208 B 199736
Compsn. comprises a water-solubilised blend of polysaccharide
components of starch and of a natural gum, the starch polysaccharide
components :natural gum polysaccharide components dry wt. ratio is in the range
99:1–90:10.
Pref. the highest mol. wt. polysaccharide components of the blend have
significant molecular wt. redn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Compsns. are useful in foods as thickening
agents, suspending agents and fat substitutes. When placed in water, the
compsns. hydrate rapidly and yield dispersions that are not only smooth and
viscous but also possess considerable lubricity. Aq. dispersions of certain
blends show little or none of the undesirable tendency of cooked starches to
form rigid gels on standing or to exude water when frozen and thawed.
In an example, 400 g. wheat starch was dry blended with 20 g. guar
gum. The blend was dispersed in 3 l. of water and the pH adjusted to 7.
Steam jet cooking was then carried out at 140°C with a steam pressure of 40
psig. within the cooker. The cooked soln. was drum dried and ground. An
emulsion formed by adding 30–35 wt.% corn oil to a 10 wt.% aq. dispersion
the compsn. was smooth and spreadable and remained stable under
refrigeration and/or room temp. conditions during extended storage.
Hydrocolloid—Fruits & Vegetables 1

Fruit spread—contains fat mimetic of low methoxy pectin or modified
corn starch improving texture and flavour and decreasing dissipation rate
in the mouth.
US 5260083 A 19931109 US 92857254 A 19920325 199346 B
AU 9335368 A 19930930 AU 9335368 A 19930319 199347
CA 2082751 A 19930926 CA 2082751 A 19921112 199351
AU 9517852 A 19950629 AU 9335368 A 19930319 199533
AU 9517852 A 19950503
AU 678698 B 19970605 AU 9335368 A 19930319 199731
AU 9517852 A 19950503
Fruit spreads with improved texture and flavour comprise a
microparticulated blend of (a) up to 55 wt.% fruit ingredient; (b) sweetener, to
a soluble solids content of 20–70 wt.%; (c) up to 80 wt.% water and (d) a fat
mimetic. Ingredient (a) is whole fruit, fruit purée or fruit juice.
Pref. fat mimetic (d) is a low methoxyl pectin or a modified corn starch.
It is esp. at least 0.5 (0.5–3.0) wt.% low methoxyl pectin, and the blend has
534 Cho
particle size 5–100 microns; or is 5–20 wt.% modified corn starch, and the
blend has particle size 2–15 microns, opt. aggregated to not over 100 microns.
The spreads are produced by mixing the ingredients, cooking to a desired
solids content and homogenising under high shear.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Spreads are jelly- or jam-like. They have
improved texture and flavour characteristics and decreased dissipation rate in
the mouth.

Prepn. of non-fat foodstuffs, esp. fruit and vegetable based products—
involving adding fat mimetic based on starch, pectin or protein to
improve texture and other properties.
US 5503863 A 19960402 US 92857257 A 19920325 A23L-001/29 199619 B
US 93115825 A 19930903
US 95488686 A 19950607
A non-fat food product (I) comprising a mixt. of (a) a food ingredient
selected from whole fruit, fruit purée, fruit juice or concentrate, cocoa,
tomatoes or tomato juice, sauce, paste or paste concentrate; (b) water and/or
sweetener; (c) a stabiliser and/or gel promoting agent; and (d) a fat mimetic
which is pectin, starch and/or protein based.
A range of compsns contg. particular food ingredients is claimed, e.g., a
prod. contg. up to 55 wt% fruit purée or fruit juice, 10–75% sweetener, up to
80% water, food acid, gel promoter, stabiliser and 0.1–4.0% pectin based
mimetic where the soluble solids are 20–80% and the particle size is 5–100
µ.
USE—The products (I) are not fat imitation products but are similar to
the traditional products comprising (a)–(c).
ADVANTAGE—(d), added as additional ingredient rather than as fat
substitute, improves the texture of (I), enhances the spreadability, flavour and
mouthfeel of some fruit spreads and improves the water retention and bake
stability of bakery filled products.

Starch-prune premixes for flour-based food prods.—useful as fat
replacements to give food prods. of good taste, improved shelf-life and
healthy eating characteristics.
Patent Assignee: CADEN J A (CADE-I); WOLKE M (WOLK-I)

Inventor: CADEN J A; WOLKE M
US 5484622 A 19960116 US 93105395 A 19930812 A21D-010/00 199609 B
US 95404506 A 19950315
Starch-prune premixes are used for making flour-based food prods. They
comprise amylopectin starch (I), amylose starch (II) and prunes (III). All three
are mixed together to form the premix, to which flour and other components
may be added to make the food prods.
ADVANTAGE—The prods. are low in fat, all natural, low cholesterol,
low Na, mould resistant, economical, resistant to microwave-induced loss of
texture and taste, have good taste and have good shelf life.

Non fat food prods., e.g., fruit spreads and pie fillings—contg. pectin,
starch, cellulose or protein based fat mimetic having improved texture
and spreadability.
US 5451420 A 19950919 US 92857254 A 19920325 A23L-001/0524 199543 B
US 93115825 A 19930903
A non-fat food prod. comprises: (a) a mixt. of whole fruit, fruit purée,
fruit juice, fruit juice concentrate, cocoa, tomatoes, tomato juice, tomato paste,
tomato paste concentrate and/or tomato sauce; (b) one of water and a
sweetener; and (c) one of a stabiliser and a gel promoting agents; (d) a fat
mimetic as an additional ingredient providing the physical and organoleptic
characteristics of fat, selected from pectin based, starch based, cellulose based
and/or protein based fat mimetics.
The fat mimetic is a low methoxyl pectin forming 0.1 wt.% of the mixt.
The prod. has a soluble solids content of 5–80% and consists of particle 5–
100 µm.
USE—Used in non-fat food prods., e.g., fruit spreads, bakery fillings,
flavoured syrups, pie glazes and fillings etc.
ADVANTAGE—The food prods. have improved texture and enhanced
spread ability, flavour and mouthfeel. Bakery filling prods. also have improved
water retention and bake stability.
536 Cho
Hydrocolloid—Snack 1
Xanthan gum and dextrin for puffed snacks—with less calories and
more stable structure than gun puffed fat and starch complexes.
US 3821428 A 19740628 197428 B
CA 978015 A 19751118 197549
1-2 wt. pts. xanthan gum and 2-1 wt. pts. dextrin, are mixed and formed
into a paste with H 2O until the dough is shiny and stringy. After stranding for
⬎18 hrs. pref. 24 hrs the dough is rolled into 0.125 inch sheets, seasoned and
baked, pref. for 15 mins at 400°F. The process is used to make low calorie,
puffed sticks, pretzels or fillings with a cheese, onion, bacon, garlic or peanut.
butter flavour.
Hydrocolloid—Spread & Salad Dressing 1

Water-in-oil emulsion low fat spread—contg. combination of linear and
spherical gel structure hydrocolloids in aq. phase.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER NV (UNIL)
Inventor: MILO B T; REISSMANN H A W
EP 52899 A 19820602 EP 81201222 A 19811030 198223 B
US 4389426 A 19830621 198327
ZA 8108060 A 19830520 198329
CA 1168923 A 19840612 198428
EP 52899 B 19850102 198502
DE 3168085 G 19850214 198508
A water-in-oil emulsion spread has a fat content of 25–65 wt.% and
comprises a dispersed aq. phase contg. a gelling system contg. one or more
hydrocolloids selected from maltodextrins of DE at least 20, pectin, lambola
carrageen and alginates, and at least one hydrocolloid selected from guar gum,
locust bean gum and iota carrageenan.
The gelling system pref. comprises a mixt. of guar gum and highly
esterified pectin in wt. ratio at least 4, pref. 6 or more. The compsn. pref.
contains 0.1–1.0, esp. 0.2–0.5 wt.% guar gum and 0.01–0.3, esp. 0.03–0.075
wt.% pectin, and 0.01–8, esp. 1–5 wt. protein, e.g., milk, vegetable or
microbial protein. The fat is pref. a plastic fat blend having the following
solids contents at the given temps.:—N10 20–30; N20 10–18; N30 1–8.
Use of a combination of linear gel structure and spherical gel structure
hydrocolloids yields a low calorie spread which is stable in storage but breaks
down pleasantly in the mouth.

Low calorie spread contg. high-methoxylated pectin—to
replace gelatin as emulsion stabiliser.
Patent Assignee: GRINDSTED PROD AS (GRIN)
RD 217009 A 19820510 198222 B
In a 40% fat calorie spread, milk protein destabilises the emulsion which
gives a spread with coarse water dispersion and poor microbiological shelf life.
Gelatin is known to stabilise the emulsion in the prod. at a dosage of, e.g., 2.5%
gelatin 120 bloom calculated on the low calorie spread.
In trying to replace gelatine with pectin, the following trials were made
with high-methoxylated pectin. Water phase contained 1.0% whey powder, 1.0%
salt and 53.9–55.4% water at pH 6.5. (1) 2.5% Gelatin 120 bloom; (2) 1.0%
Mexpectin SS 200 (slow set); (3) 2.0% Mexpectin SS 200 (slow set); (4) 1.0%
Mexpectin MS 300 (medium set); (5) 2.0% Mexpectin MS 300 (medium set);
(6) 1.0% Mexpectin RS 400 (rapid set); (7) 2.0% Mexpectin RS 400 (rapid set);
fat phase contained 0.5% DIMODAN OT (unsatd. distilled monoglyceride); 0.1%
sorbic acid; 0.3% colour; 39.2% fat blend; 24 pts. hardened soya, 41°C, 76 pts.
liq. soya-bean oil. The spreads were produced on a 2-tube laboratory Perfector
with low capacity and moderate cooling.
Evaluation after storage at 5°C showed that the spreads with Mexpectin
had a satisfactory water dispersion and shelf life.

Fat-free margarine compsn. having reduced calorie content—comprises
inulin and/or gum, water, modified starch or gelling-type maltodextrin
fat mimetic and opt. bulking agent.
(KRFT)
Inventor: BULIGA G S; LIS D G; MILLER M S; POWELL W F; DANIEL G L
538 Cho
EP 605217 A2 19940706 EP 93310499 A 19931223 A23D-007/00 199426 B

NO 9304824 A 19940629 NO 934824 A 19931227 A23L-001/307 199429
FI 9305870 A 19940629 FI 935870 A 19931227 A23D-000/00 199433
CA 2110195 A 19940629 CA 2110195 A 19931129 A23D-007/00 199434
EP 605217 A3 19950503 EP 93310499 A 19931223 A23D-007/00 199545
Non-fat margarines comprise (a) a fat mimetic, (b) opt. a bulking agent,
(c) inulin and/or gum, and (d) water. Fat mimetic (a) is a gelling type
maltodextrin or is starch with the amorphous regions removed by hydrolysis.
The bulking agent is at 0–5 wt.%. Component (c) is inulin. The
margarine is spreadable. The margarine esp. contains calcium citrate, esp. at
0.75–3.0%. It also contains a gum, esp. xanthan, guar or acacia gum, alginate,
carrageenan, pectin or gelatin, esp. at 0.1–2.0%. The fat mimetic is at 3.5–8
or 5–10%. The bulking agent is at 1.0–5%. The inulin is at 10–23%, esp.
15–25%. If (b) is present, (c) is gum and the margarine is squeezable. (b) is at
5–10%. Compsns. also contain 1.0–2.5% salt. They also contain 0.5–15% fat
or oil.
ADVANTAGE—Compsns. have the appearance and taste of margarine
or squeezable margarine with no fat and reduced calorie content.

Prodn. of low-fat salad dressing—contg. oil or fat and fresh cheese.
Patent Assignee: VER COOP MELKIND (VEME-N)
NL 8203425 A 19840402 NL 823425 A 19820901 198417 B
Abstract (Basic): NL 8203425 A
Mayonnaise-like dressings with a lower fat content than normal
mayonnaise are prepd. by blending an edible oil or fat with ingredients
conventionally used in mayonnaise, salad creams and other dressings. The
novel feature comprises incorporating fresh cheese in the mixt.
The mixt. pref. contains 5–40 wt.% oil or fat and 10–60% cheese, esp.
cottage cheese, opt. enriched with whey protein. The mixt. is pref. pasteurised.
A specifically claimed dressing comprises 48.2% cottage cheese (with 20%
whey protein concentrate), 20.0% vegetable oil, 18.0% water, 6.5% sugar,
2.25% starch, 1.65% salt, 1.2% powdered egg, 1.2% lactic acid, 0.5% flavour
and colour, 0.25% K sorbate and 0.2% guar.
The dressings have a low calorific value (e.g., 700–1030 KJ/100 g) and
good storage stability, texture and flavour.

Fat spread-type fermented milk used on bread and cracker—comprises
fermented milk, gelling type water-soluble polymer, iota carrageenan,
starch and thickening water-soluble polymer.
Patent Assignee: OYAMA NYUGYO NOGYO KYODO KUMIAI (OYAM-N)
JP 9172961 A 19970708 JP 95335030 A 19951222 199737 B
A milk containing composition of raw materials comprises fermented
milk, two or more of gelling-type water-soluble polymer for food containing
at least iota carrageenan and starch and one or more thickening water-soluble
polymer for food.
USE—The product is used by spreading to bread and cracker.
ADVANTAGE—The product is smoothly spread to bread. Decoration is
easily made. Whey does not separate. Low fat and low calorie product is
obtained.

Low fat spread prodn. with continuous aq. phase—which is gelled with
gelatin, a gelling hydrolysed starch and a gelling polysaccharide.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL)
Inventor: NORTON I T; UNDERDOWN J
WO 9535036 A2 19951228 WO 95EP2354 A 19950619 A23D-007/015
199606 B
AU 9528850 A 19960115 AU 9528850 A 19950619 A23D-007/015 199620
WO 9535036 A3 19960201 WO 95EP2354 A 19950619 A23D-007/015
199622
EP 753996 A1 19970122 EP 95924270 A 19950619 A23D-007/015 199709
WO 95EP2354 A 19950619
ZA 9505181 A 19970226 ZA 955181 A 19950622 A23D-000/00 199714
Low-fat spread contains 0–40% fatty phase in a continuous aq. phase.
The aq. phase is water contg. (wt.%): (a) 0.1–7 gelatin; (b) 2–30 gelling
hydrolysed starch, and (c) 0.3–5 (pref. 0.5–5) gelling polysaccharide (I). (I) is
agar, kappa- or iota-carrageenan, gellan, furcelleran, alginate and/or pectin and
the levels of (a), (b) and (c) are all w.r.t. the wt. of water. The spread is
540 Cho
produced by preparing a premix of (a), (b) and (c) in water, gelling (c) and
opt. (b) in the presence of shear at ⬎50°C, and then cooling to ⬍30°C.
USE—The spreads are low fat for low-calorie or other dietetic
considerations.

Low fat water-in-oil emulsion spreads with margarine-like properties—
using co-processed microcrystalline cellulose and galactomannan as fat
substitute.
Inventor: HUMPHREYS W M
WO 9412043 A1 19940609 WO 93US11195 A 19931118 A23D-007/00
199424 B
US 5338562 A 19940816 US 92981649 A 19921125 A23D-009/04 199432
AU 9456124 A 19940622 AU 9456124 A 19931118 A23D-007/00 199436
EP 670678 A1 19950913 WO 93US11195 A 19931118 A23D-007/00 199541
EP 94901582 A 19931118
EP 670678 A4 19951011 EP 94901582 A 19940000 A23D-007/00 199620
AU 668632 B 19960509 AU 9456124 A 19931118 A23D-007/00 199626
JP 8501702 W 19960227 WO 93US11195 A 19931118 A23D-007/00 199643
JP 94513246 A 19931118
JP 2652085 B2 19970910 WO 93US11195 A 19931118 A23D-007/015 199741
JP 94513246 A 19931118
Low fat water-in-oil emulsions (I) contain at least 56 wt.% water; a fat
substitute (II); a stabiliser (III); a gum; a continuous phase of not more than
28% oil and an emulsifier (IV). (II) is co-processed microcrystalline cellulose
(MCC) and galactomannan and has mean particle size 8–35 microns.
Pref. the emulsion contains 15–25% oil, 67% or more water, 0.5–4%
stabiliser and 0.1% or more gum. The stabiliser is MCC of mean particle size
0.05–0.5 microns, or 0.1–0.6 microns. the gum is xanthan and (IV) is a fatty
acid ester of an 8–18C fatty acid with glycerol, diglycerol or polyglycerol.
(IV) is esp. a mixt. of esters, esp. including a monoglyceride or polyglycerol
ester of an 8–18C (12–18) (14–18) fatty acid. (II) is a co-processed MCC/
guar or it has mean particle size 16–24 (18–22) microns and is at 0.5–1.5
wt.% and is co-processed MCC/galactomannan. (IV) has HLB 3–7 (4–6).
USE—Emulsions mimic the taste, thickness, smoothness, waxiness,
cohesiveness, physiological effect and mouth coating ability of full fat
margarine.

Fat substitute for addn. to foods as a salad dressing—comprises particles
contg. microcrystalline cellulose and galactomannan gum.
Inventor: MCGINLEY E J; TUASON D C
Number of Family:
US 5192569 A 19930309 US 89359065 A 19890526 A23L-001/0526 199321 B
US 90519693 A 19900507
US 91809857 A 19911218
Compsn. comprises dry, water-dispersible, water-stable, spheroidal-
shaped particles having an average particle size in the range of about 0.1–100
microns, each particle consisting of an aggregate of about 60–99 wt.% of
microcrystalline cellulose and about 40–1 wt.% galactomannan gum, the
aggregate remains impact if dispersed in an aq. medium. The particle size is
pref. about 5–15 microns. The microcrystalline cellulose is of colloidal size
and the galactomannan gum is pref. guar gum or locust bean gum.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn., in colloidal form, when added to
foods as salad dressings or dairy prods. as a fat substitute, imparts a fat-like
mouth-feel and consistency without the calorific value of fat.

Fat mimetic compsns. for reduced calorie salad dressings—comprise
microcrystalline cellulose, cold water swelling starch, gum, alginate,
opacifier and water.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL);
LIPTON CO THOMAS J (LIPT-N); UNILEVER LTD (UNIL)
US 5209942 A 19930511 US 91799583 A 19911127 A23C-001/24 199320 B
AU 9229619 A 19930603 AU 9229619 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199329
CA 2083806 A 19930528 CA 2083806 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199333
EP 558832 A2 19930908 EP 92203669 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199336
JP 5236906 A 19930917 JP 92341215 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199342
HU 63752 T 19931028 HU 923728 A 19921126 A23L-001/29 199348
CZ 9203496 A3 19940216 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199413
ZA 9209221 A 19940727 ZA 929221 A 19921127 A23C-000/00 199431
542 Cho
SK 9203496 A3 19950208 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199525

EP 558832 A3 19940831 EP 92203669 A 19921127 A23C-001/24 199531
JP 95095932 B2 19951018 JP 92341215 A 19921127 A23L-001/24 199546
AU 667203 B 19960314 AU 9229619 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199618
CA 2083806 C 19960528 CA 2083806 A 19921125 A23L-001/24 199633
CZ 282656 B6 19970813 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199739
SK 278504 B6 19970806 CS 923496 A 19921126 A23L-001/24 199740
Fat mimetic compsn. comprises: (a) 30–70% colloidal microcrystalline
cellulose (I); (b) 30–70% cold H2O swelling starch (II); (c) 1–15% gum (III)
(xanthan, carrageenan, locust bean or guar gums or mixts.); (d) 0–5% alginate
(IV) (or deriv.); and (e) 0–5% opacifier (V) (TiO2 and/or milk solids). The
compsn. imparts organoleptic properties similar to fat when formulated at
1–10% in a dressing contg. up to 7% fat.
Pref. compsn. comprises 50–60% esp. 56% (I), 40–50% (II), 3–5%
esp. 4% (III) (esp. xanthan gum), 1–3% esp. 5% (IV) (esp. as propylene
glycol alginate), and 0.5–4% esp. 3% (V) (esp. as TiO2 ).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat mimetic compsns. allow the prodn. of
low fat/no fat reduced calorie salad dressings with the taste and functionality
of full fat dressings. In addn., the dressings may be prepd. using relatively low
energy processes.

Improving flavour release in low calorie spread—by addn. of
hydrocolloid, e.g., sodium alginate, without protein.
RD 281062 A 19870910 198741 B
Flavour release in a low calorie spread is improved by incorporation of
a hydrocolloid (I), e.g., Na alginate or gelatin.
ADVANTAGE—(I), normally added as stabilisers, improve flavour
release without the need to incorporate proteins (usually milk proteins) as in
known compsns.

Edible plastic dispersion esp. for use in low fat prods.—has a non-fat
continuous phase, and includes at least two condensed phases
comprising gel-forming compsns. contg. different gelling agents.
Inventor: CAIN F W; CLARK A H; DUNPHY P J; JONES M G; NORTON I T;

ROSS-MURPH S B; ROSS-MURPHY S B
EP 298561 A 19890111 EP 88201405 A 19880705 198902 B
AU 8818750 A 19890112 198909
JP 1086831 A 19890331 JP 88169982 A 19880707 198919
ZA 8804936 A 19900328 ZA 884936 A 19880708 199017
US 4956193 A 19900911 US 88215009 A 19880705 199039
EP 298561 B1 19950517 EP 88201405 A 19880705 A23L-001/307 199524
DE 3853796 G 19950622 DE 3853796 A 19880705 A23L-001/307 199530
EP 88201405 A 19880705
JP 96029047 B2 19960327 JP 88169982 A 19880707 A23D-007/015 199617
New edible plastic dispersion without continuous fat phase, but with 2⫹
different condensed phases at least one being continuous, comprises 0.1–99
%wt. gel-forming compsn. (A) contg. 1-8 (1-5) X critical conc. of gelling
agent (A) (gelatin, kappa- or iota-carrageenan, alginate, agar, gellan, pectin, or
mixts.) and 0.1–99.9 %wt. gel-forming compsn. (B) contg. 1-8 (1-5) X critical
conc. of gelling agent (b) (whey protein, starch, denatured bovine serum
protein or soy protein, microcrystalline cellulose, or mixt.). Disposal is at
below 70 (20)°C. Continuous phase melts at 20–45°C. Fat phase and
thickening agents (xanthan gum) may be present. Aggregates are of mean size
0.01–10 microns. Mean diam. of fat globules if below 10 microns.
USE—Dietetic non- or low-fat replacement dispersions resembling
butter, margarine etc. without brittleness or too much elasticity.

Edible plastified dispersion used as spread—comprises continuous fat
phase and aq. phase contg. protein and/or hydrocolloid.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER NV (UNIL); VAN DEN BERGH FOODS CO
(VBER-N)
Inventor: CAIN F W; DAY J I; JONES M G; NORTON I T; SALGADO E Y
EP 279499 A 19880824 EP 88200283 A 19880216 198834 B
AU 8811786 A 19880825 198843 FI 8800713 A 19880819 198848
EP 279499 B 19911204 199149 DE 3866555 G 19920116 199204
FI 93601 B 19950131 FI 88713 A 19880216 A23D-007/00 199510
US 5451422 A 19950919 US 88157209 A 19880217 A23D-007/04 199543
US 89324962 A 19890316 US 91663755 A 19910301
544 Cho

An edible plastified dispersion of fat content less than 30 wt.%
comprises a continuous fat phase, and an aq. phase containing protein and/or
hydrocolloid. The aq. phase has viscosity less than 400 cps at 35°C, shear rate
1000 sec power 1. The content of amino acid residues is less than 200 ppm,
based on the wt. of the aq. phase.
Pref. fat content is 15–25 wt.%. 0.1–0.5% emulsifier, e.g.,
monoglyceride compsn. derived from partially hydrogenated sunflower oil, is
present. The aq. phase contains 95–99.9% water and 0.4–1% hydrocolloid,
e.g., kappa or iota carrageenan; it may be gelled. Droplet dia. is 5–25
microns.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The product is a spread, i.e., butter or margarine
replacement. It has a thick mouthfeel and not the watery feel of prior spreads
of low fat content. It is stable, and prepd. by conventional methods. These
results are achieved by having an aq. phase of relatively low viscosity, and a
very low content of amino acids.

Low fat low calorie water-continuous spread—–contains oligofructose,
another biopolymer and small amt. of oil phase.
Inventor: ALDERLIESTEN L; CASTENMILLER W A M; SCHOTEL R A;
VERSCHUREN J J; DE FOUW N J; VAN AMELSVOORT J M M;
AMELSVOORT J M M; DE FOUW MW N J; CASTENMILLER W A;
MATEUS J; NANNEKE JOKE DE FOUW M W; VAN AMELSVOORT M
EP 596546 A1 19940511 EP 93201727 A 19930616 A23L-001/236 199419 B
WO 9409647 A1 19940511 WO 93EP2837 A 19931012 199420
AU 9453338 A 19940524 WO 93EP2837 A 19931012 A23L-001/236 199434
AU 9453338 A 19931012
AU 9453723 A 19940524 WO 93EP3010 A 19931028 A23L-001/236 199434
AU 9453723 A 19931028
ZA 9307870 A 19950628 ZA 937870 A 19931022 A23L-000/00 199531
ZA 9308104 A 19950726 ZA 938104 A 19931029 A23D-000/00 199535
SK 9500556 A3 19950914 WO 93EP2837 A 19931012 A23L-001/236 199544
SK 95556 A 19931012
CZ 9501122 A3 19951213 CZ 951122 A 19931028 A23L-001/05 199606
Water-continuous spreads comprise 10–50 wt.% oligofructose, 0.05–30
wt.% other bipolymer and less than 20% of an oil phase.
Pref., the second biopolymer is a gum, starch microcrystalline cellulose

and/or protein. The gum is agar, algin, arabic, carrageenan, furcellaran, gellan,
ghatti, guar, karaya, larch, locust bean, pectin, trigacanth or xanthan gum and
is at 0.05–5 wt.%. The starch is a gelling, esp. hydrolysed starch at 5–20
wt.%. The protein is a gelling protein, esp. gelatin, at 0.05–10 wt.%. The
stress strain relation has a maximum stress of 0.01–100 kPa, esp. 0.3–60 kPa,
and a ratio of plastic stress to maximum stress of 0.1–1, esp. 0.2–0.95, at
5°C. The spread has Stevens value of over 50 g at 5°C. It has hardness over
12 N, gumminess over 0.7 and/or chewiness over 0.7, as measured by TPA. It
is non-thixotropic. The ratio of initial hardness at 260 seconds as measured by
CUC (40 second cycle time) is less than 1.5.
USE—Spreads are low fat, low calorie spreads.

Reduced calorie salad dressing—contains fat mimetic, microcrystalline
cellulose, cold water swelling starch and gum giving fat-like properties.
Patent Assignee: LIPTON CO THOMAS J (LIPT-N)
US 5286510 A 19940215 US 92957492 A 19921007 A23L-001/0522 199407 B
Fat mimetic compsns. are an intimate admixt. of 30–70 wt.% colloidal
microcrystalline cellulose (I); 30–70% cold water swelling starch (II); 1–15 %
xanthan, carrageenan, locust bean and/or guar gums (III); 0–5 % alginate or
alginate deriv. (IV) and 0–5% opacifier (V). (V) is TiO2 and/or milk solids.
The mimetic imparts organoleptic props. similar to fat at 1–10% in a dressing
contg. up to 30% fat.
Pref., (I) is at 50–60 (56%); (II) at 40–50 (32%); (III) at 3–5 (4%); (IV)
at 1–3 (or 5%) and (V) at 0.5–4 (3)%. (IV) is propylene glycol alginate and
(V) is TiO2 .
70–99 pts. water are put in a vessel and agitation started. A dry mixt. of
0.3–5.6 pts. microcrystalline cellulose, 0.3–6 pts. starch, 0.1–0.5 pts. xanthan
gum, 0.1–0.5 pts. propylene glycol alginate and 0.04–0.52 pts. TiO2 is prepd.
and added under agitation. In a second vessel contg. 21–45 pts. water, 8–10
pts. vinegar, 12–27 pts. sweetener, 5–25 pts. flavour cocktail and 0–30 pts.
oil are added and agitated until homogeneous. 25–30 pts. of the fat mimetic is
then dispersed in the compsn. in the second vessel.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Mimetic are used in low or no fat, reduced
546 Cho
calorie salad dressings. Dressings have smooth, creamy mouth feel and texture
and lubricity like edible fat-contg. prods.
In an example, fat mimetic comprise 5.6 pts. Avicel CL-611 (RTM), 0.4
pts. Keltrol T (RTM), 3.2 pts. Mira-Thik 468 (RTM), 0.5 pts. Kelcoloid LVF
(RTM), 0.3 pts. (13 white dispersion S. (RTM) and 85% water.

Low calorie water-in-oil spread compsn.—comprises continuous oil-and-
fat phases including emulsifier and decentralised water phases including
water-soluble hemicellulose.
Patent Assignee: TAIYO OIL & FAT MFG (TAIY); TERUMO CORP (TERU)
JP 5168402 A 19930702 JP 91296324 A 19911015 A23D-007/00 199331 B
A water-in-oil spread compsn. is composed of continuous oil-and-fat
phases and decentralised water phases. The oil-and-fat phases are 20–33
wt.% based on the total amt. of the compsn. and includes emulsifier. The
water phases contain 10–20 wt.% water-soluble hemicellulose derived from
cereals based on the total amt. of the compsn. The water-soluble hemicellulose
is an extract from hull of cereals, and more than 60 wt.% of the extract has
mol.wt. 10,000 or less and viscosity of its 10 wt.% soln. is below 30cp.
USE—Compsn. gives good applying property, flavour, texture
smoothness and stability, etc., and prevents increase of cholesterol.

Low calorie, non-fat viscous dressing prepn.—by addn. of starch base to
premix contg. gum- and spice-blends and micro reticulated
microcrystalline cellulose
Inventor: BARBERA B D; COMBES R C; SCHWIMMER W H
US 5087471 A 19920211 US 90626733 A 19901213 199209 B
Mixt. is prepd. of (i) a blend of gum (I) and a diluent, (ii) a blend of
H 2O, salt, sweetener (II), and spice, and (iii) an aq. dispersion of a
microreticulated microcrystalline cellulose (III); and (b) obtd. premix is
blended with a starch base (IV) to give dressing comprising 0.25–4% (II),
0.2–2% (I), 60–80% H 2O, 2–20% carbohydrates, 0–10% protein and less
than 4% triglycerides. Gum blend pref. contains 25–500% diluent by wt. of
(I). (I) is pref. xanthan, locust bean or guar gum, carboxymethyl cellulose,
carrageenan, or alginates or mixts., esp. xanthan gum; and amt. is pref. 40–
60% by wt. w.r.t. (III). The diluent is pref. a dry H 2O-soluble component of
the dressing, or a liq. triglyceride oil, fluid at room temps. (II) is pref. sucrose,
dextrose, fructose, maltose, triose, high DE corn syrup solids, or a synth.
sweetener; esp. 3–25% corn syrup solids. Pref. the process is continuous.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Smooth and creamy oral texture and lubricity
closely simulating the texture and taste of edible fat contg. prods. Also used
for operation on a continuous basis.

Reduced fat emulsion-type foods—with curdlan gel particles as fat
replacement.
Patent Assignee: TAKEDA CHEM IND LTD (TAKE)
Inventor: NAKAO Y; OKURA Y; TAWADA T
EP 520747 A1 19921230 EP 92305764 A 19920623 A23L-001/314 199301 B
CA 2072060 A 19921225 CA 2072060 A 19920623 A23L-001/054 199316
JP 6189700 A 19940712 JP 91151791 A 19910624 A23L-001/054 199432
US 5360624 A 19941101 US 92902239 A 19920623 A23L-001/054 199443
Emulsion-type foods have part or all of the fat components substituted
by a curdlan gel (I). They are prod. by mixing finely divided (I) with the other
raw materials.
(I) is pulverised to not larger than 100 microns. It contains 0.6–10 wt.%
curdlan. At least 20 wt.% of the fat component is replaced by (I). The curdlan
content of the food is 0.5–3 wt.%. (I) is thermo(ir)reversible.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Low calorie mayonnaise, spreads, dressings,
desserts, whipped cream, cheeses, dairy prods., confectioneries, white sauces,
etc., can be obtd. They have good appearance.

Reduced-calorie butter-like spread—is produced from wet concn. and
dry butter-fat and an aq. phase worked to give water-in-oil emulsion.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER PLC (UNIL); UNILEVER NV (UNIL)
Inventor: CAIN F W; ERNSTING P B; HOLEMANS P M J; NIEMEYER T R J
EP 385541 A 19900905 EP 90200425 A 19900223 199036 B
AU 9050505 A 19900906 199043
548 Cho
CA 2011412 A 19900903 199047

ZA 9001612 A 19911127 ZA 901612 A 19900302 199201
AU 640124 B 19930819 AU 9050505 A 19900227 A23C-015/04 199340
EP 385541 B1 19940427 EP 90200425 A 19900223 A23C-015/16 199417
DE 69008393 E 19940601 DE 608393 A 19900223 A23C-015/16 199423
EP 90200425 A 19900223
IE 63415 B 19950419 IE 90707 A 19900227 A23C-015/16 199523
Edible oil-and-water emulsion comprises 30–70 wt.% of an aq. phase
(sic.) comprising wet-concentrated and dry butterfat. The wet-conc. butterfat is
either butter or conc. cream, having over 40 wt.% fat. Pref. the wet concd.
butterfat component comprises at least 40 wt.% whole butterfat triglycerides.
It is dairy butter or cream of fat content over 40 wt.%. The dry butterfat is a
butterfat fraction, esp. an olefin fraction, esp. of m. pt. less than 20°C. The
emulsion contains a gelling or thickening agent, esp. milk protein, gelatin,
locust bean gum, guar gum, xanthan gum, alginate, carrageenan and/or pectin.
The emulsion contains a non-milk fat. It contains 30–50 wt.% fat phase and
70–50 wt.% aq. phase. The emulsion is prepd. by (a) admixing the butterfat at
1 : 10–10: 1 and opt. including a thickener and (4) working under high shear
conditions that a stable edible water-in-oil emulsion is formed. Step (a) is esp.
admixing dairy cream, butter olefin and a non-dairy aq. phase.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Butter-like spreads have reduced calorie and fat
content, good spreadability and buttery taste.

Emulsified fat compsn. used for, e.g., food dressing—contains edible
fat, water, xanthan gum, phospholipid mixt. or diglyceride.
Patent Assignee: KAO CORP (KAOS)
JP 5146270 A 19930615 JP 91337704 A 19911126 A23L-001/24 199328 B
Compsn. contains edible fat and water component. 0.055 wt.% or less of
xanthan gum and phospholipid mixt. of wt. ratio of phospholipid not contg.
nitrogen atom to phospholipid contg. nitrogen atom to phospholipid contg.
nitrogen atom 1.0 or more of diglyceride are further compounded.
USE—The compsn. is suitably used for dressing. It has smooth taste
without oiliness. It contains low calorie. Gelling after preservation does not
occur.

Low-calorie mayonnaise prodn.—from aq. mixt. of dairy protein and
pectin, sugar, salt, mustard paste, vegetable oil and acetic acid.
Patent Assignee: DAIRY RAW METLS USE RES (DAIR-R); FOOD IND
CORRSP INS (FOOD-R)
Inventor: BABAK V G; MOLOCHNIKO V V; VOSKANYAN O S
SU 1648321 A 19910515 SU 4712042 A 19890510 199206 B
Abstract (Basic): SU 1648321 A
The method comprises prepn. of an aq. mixt. of a complex of dairy
proteins with pectin or edible carboxy-methyl cellulose, in amt. 0.7–0.8% at
ratio (1 :5)–(1:6), respectively pH 7.5–8.0 and temp. 35–40°C with mixing
for 5–10 min., adding 1.5–2.5% sugar, 1.0–1.5% salt and 0.05% soda
pasteurising at 60–65°C for 15–20 min., cooling to 30–35°C, mixing with
separately prepd. mustard paste (I) and adding with continuous mixing, 30–
40% of vegetable oil, at 20–25°C and 12–14% of 6% vinegar, followed by
homogenising.
Mustard paste (I) is prepd. from 1.0–1.5% mustard powder and water,
by mixing at 35–40°C and ratio 1 :(3.5–4.0), pasteurising obtd. paste at 90–
95°C for 15–20 min. and cooling to 35–40°C.
Tests show that obtd. prod. has viscosity 2.2–2.5 Pa. sec. at relative
shear rate 27/sec. and improved stability to centrifuging (1.5% of water
separates during centrifuging at 3000 rpm for 5 min.).
USE /ADVANTAGE—In oil and fat industry, as the method of prodn.
of mayonnaise of reduced calorific value. Produced low calorie low-calorie
mayonnaise has improved nourishing properties and increased stability on
storage.

Reduced calorie fruit spread—contg. sucralose high intensity sweetener,
low methoxy pectin or carrageenan, CMC, guar gum and locust bean
gum.
Patent Assignee: MCNEIL-PPC INC (MCNI)
Inventor: ANTENUCCI R N; SHARP S E
US 5270071 A 19931214 US 92900643 A 19920618 A23L-001/06 199350 B
EP 575179 A2 19931222 EP 93304745 A 19930617 A23L-001/06 199351
550 Cho
CA 2098673 A 19931219 CA 2098673 A 19930617 A23L-001/064 199410

NZ 247788 A 19941125 NZ 247788 A 19930603 A23L-001/0532 199501
EP 575179 A3 19940608 EP 93304745 A 19930617 A23L-001/06 199526
EP 575179 B1 19970514 EP 93304745 A 19930617 A23L-001/06 199724
DE 69310613 E 19970619 DE 610613 A 19930617 A23L-001/06 199730
EP 93304745 A 19930617
Fruit spread, contg. not more than 9 calories per teaspoon, comprises the
gelled prod. of (a) water, (b) fruit, (c) sucralose high intensity sweetener, (d)
low methoxy pectin or carrageenan gelling agent, (e) carboxymethylcellulose,
(f ) guar gum, and (g) locust bean gum.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The spread is comparable in organoleptic quality
to full-calorie, high-solids prods. It has good sweetness intensity and quality,
and good texture.
A fruit spread having not more than 7.5 kJ/ml (9 calories per teaspoon),
said fruit spread comprising the gelled product of: (a) water; (b) fruit or fruit
flavouring; (c) sucralose high intensity sweetener; (d) low methoxy pectin
having a degree of methylation below 50% or carrageenan gelling agent; (e)
carboxymethylcellulose.

Prepn. of low fat food prods.—by heating-shearing aq. microcrystalline
cellulose, then mixing with xanthan gum then food components.
Inventor: BAER C C; BULIGA G S; HASSENHEUTTL G L; HENRY G A;
HETH A A; JACKSON L K; KENNEDY-TOLSTEDT J M; KERWIN P J;
MILLER M S; PARKER E M; PAUL N K; PECHAK D G; SMITH G F;
WITTE V C; BAER C; BULIGA G; HASSENHEU G L; HENRY G; HETH A;
JACKSON L; KENNEDYTOL J; KERWIN P
WO 9102463 A 19910307 199112 B
EP 487639 A1 19920603 EP 90913618 A 19900816 A23L-001/0534 199223
WO 90US4621 A 19900816
JP 4507348 W 19921224 JP 90512721 A 19900816 A23L-001/24 199306
WO 90US4621 A 19900816
Low fat or fat-free prods. are prepd. as follows: (a) an aq. dispersion
comprising (by wt.) 3–10% microcrystalline cellulose (I) and 90–97% H 2O is
heated and repeatedly sheared in a high shear zone having a pressure drop at
least 12,000 psi to fragment (I) to submicron sized fragments; (b) the (I)
fragments are re-agglomerated under high shear conditions to afford an aq.
dispersion of porous microreticulated microcrystalline cellulose (II) particles
having void vol. at least 25 vol.%, mean particle size 5–20 micron, and
particle size distribution such that at least ca 75 wt.% of the particles have
max. dimension less than 25 micron; (c) the dispersion is combined with
2–33% of a xanthan gum (III) (based on (II) dry wt.); and (d) the xanthan-
stabilised (II) dispersion is blended with additional food components to
provide the title food comprising 0.25–4% (II), 50–99 H 2O, 1–35%
carbohydrates, 0–10% protein, and less than 7% triglycerides.
ADVANTAGE—The process affords a range of nutritious, low calorie,
fat-free foods (frozen desserts, and food dressings, etc.) which have
exceptional, smooth, creamy, oil-like textures and well rounded fat mimetic
mouthfeel characteristics.

Low-calorie spread contg. fibre from de-hulled peas—has oil and/or
water phase(s) contg., e.g., mono-(di-)glyceride, gelatin, and up to 20
percent fibre.
Patent Assignee: ANONYMOUS (ANON)
RD 313011 A 19900510 199023 B
A low-calorie spread with dietary fibre has been developed, a typical
recipe could be: Water Phase: 68.8% water; 10.0% pea fibre; 1.0% gelatin;
0.1% salt; 0.1% K-sorbate; Fat Phase: 1.0% distilled monoglyceride, iodine
value 105; 19.0% fat blend; 25 pts. hardened soya, m. pt. 41°C; 75 pts. soya
oil; 4 ppm beta-carotene; plus flavouring. The pea fibre used was a fine-
powdered highly functional fibre prod. made from dehulled peas. A typical
analysis is: Dietary fibre 35%; Starch 45%; Protein 11%; Fat 0.0%; Ash 2.0%;
Moisture 7%; pH (10% suspension) 6.8. The low-calorie spread can be
produced under standard conditions on a tube-chiller system. Trials made on
pilot plant tube-chiller have shown that the recipe can be varied considerably
and still a spreadable and stable prod. can be obtd., e.g., water content
0–88%, fat content from 0–90%, distilled monoglyceride or mono-diglyceride
with iodine value from 1–134 and dosage from 0–5%; and hydrocolloids from
0–4%. The content of the pea fibre prod. can be up to 20%.
552 Cho

Water-in-oil emulsion low fat spread—contg. combination of linear and
spherical gel structure hydrocolloids in aq. phase.
Patent Assignee: UNILEVER NV (UNIL)
Inventor: MILO B T; REISSMANN H A W
EP 52899 A 19820602 EP 81201222 A 19811030 198223 B
US 4389426 A 19830621 198327
ZA 8108060 A 19830520 198329
CA 1168923 A 19840612 198428
EP 52899 B 19850102 198502
DE 3168085 G 19850214 198508
A water-in-oil emulsion spread has a fat content of 25–65 wt.% and
comprises a dispersed aq. phase contg. a gelling system contg. one or more
hydrocolloids selected from maltodextrins of DE at least 20, pectin, lambda
carrageenan and alginates, and at least one hydrocolloid selected from guar
gum, locust bean gum and iota carrageenan.
The gelling system pref. comprises a mixt. of guar gum and highly
esterified pectin in wt. ratio at least 4, pref. 6 or more. The compsn. pref.
contains 0.1–1.0, esp. 0.2–0.5 wt.% guar gum and 0.01–0.3, esp. 0.03–0.075
wt.% pectin, and 0.01–8, esp. 1–5 wt. protein, e.g., milk, vegetable or
microbial protein. The fat is pref. a plastic fat blend having the following
solids contents at the given temps.:—N10 20-30; N20 10-18; N30 1-8.
Use of a combination of linear gel structure and spherical gel structure
hydrocolloids yields a low calorie spread which is stable in storage but breaks
down pleasantly in the mouth.

Low calorie spread contg. high-methoxylated pectin—to replace gelatin
as emulsion stabiliser.
RD 217009 A 19820510 198222 B
gives a spread with coarse water dispersion and poor microbiological shelf
life. Gelatin is known to stabilise the emulsion in the prod. at a dosage of,
e.g., 2.5% gelatin 120 bloom calculated on the low calorie spread.
In trying to replace gelatin with pectin, the following trials were made
with high-methoxylated pectin. Water phase contained 1.0% whey powder,
1.0% salt and 53.9–55.4% water at pH 6.5. (1) 2.5% Gelatin 120 bloom; (2)
1.0% Mexpectin SS 200 (slow set); (3) 2.0% Mexpectin SS 200 (slow set);
(4) 1.0% Mexpectin MS 300 (medium set); (5) 2.0% Mexpectin MS 300
(medium set); (6) 1.0% Mexpectin RS 400 (rapid set); (7) 2.0% Mexpectin RS
400 (rapid set); fat phase contained 0.5% DIMODAN OT (unsatd. distilled
monoglyceride); 0.1% sorbic acid; 0.3% colour; 39.2% fat blend; 24 pts.
hardened soya, 41°C, 76 pts. liq. soya-bean oil. The spreads were produced on
a 2-tube laboratory Perfector with low capacity and moderate cooling.

Fat-like agent compsn—comprises dry, water-dispersible particles of an
agglomerate of micro-reticulated or micro-fibrillated microcrystalline
cellulose and a readily water dispersible hydrocolloid.
Inventor: HEESE S; RUSZKAY T A; TUASON D C
WO 9502966 A1 19950202 WO 94US6830 A 19940616 A23L-001/05 199510 B
AU 9473552 A 19950220 AU 9473552 A 19940616 A23L-001/05 199521
EP 716571 A1 19960619 EP 94922440 A 19940616 A23L-001/05 199629
WO 94US6830 A 19940616
EP 716571 A4 19970305 EP 94922440 A 19940000 A23L-001/05 199729
A compsn. comprises dry, water-dispersible particle comprising an
agglomerate of components comprising microreticulated or micro-fibrillated
microcrystalline cellulose in a predominant amt. by wt., and a hydrocolloid
selected from carboxymethylcellulose and xanthan gum to provide effective
coverage of the cellulose. The agglomerate readily disperses in water into its
component pts. under aq. food processing conditions.
Also claimed are (i) prepn. of the compsn.; (ii) a food compsn. contg
the compsn and (iii) a process for imparting fat-like properties to a low-calorie
aq. based foodstuff.
USE—The compsn provides fat-like properties to low-calorie aq. based
foodstuffs, such as salad dressings, dairy prods. such as frozen desserts etc.
554 Cho
Other food stuffs such as candies, frostings, gravies, margarines, puddings,

soups, spreads etc. may also be improved using the compsn.
ADVANTAGE—The agglomerate readily disperses in water into its
component parts.
Hydrocolloid—Low Calorie Foods: Satiety/Weight

Control 1
Low calorie liq. food for patients having obesity or diabetes mellitus—
contains pectin with specific degree of esterification, gels at pH less than
3, has good taste and long retention time in stomach.
Patent Assignee: TERUMO CORP (TERU)
JP 6030729 A 19940208 JP 92192491 A 19920720 A23L-001/307 199410 B
Liq. food contains a pectin with a degree of esterification of less than
40% and has ability to gel at a pH of less than 3.
USE—As a low calorie food, for preventing obese patients from
overeating and protecting patients of diabetes mellitus from abrupt increase in
blood glucose values. It has a good taste and a long retention time in the
human stomach.

Control 2
Low calorie jelly contg. glucomannan—which swells in stomach giving
feeling of fullness.
Patent Assignee: ENNAGRAM SARL (ENNA-N)
Inventor: LERMONTOFF A
FR 2684848 A1 19930618 FR 913589 A 19910325 A23L-001/307 199337 B
Glucomannan is used in the prepn. of an eatable jelly giving a feeling of
fullness.
The glucomannan is pref. derived from Amorphophallus Konjak, 15–30
g. being used per 1000 g. of jelly. The remainder of the jelly is water, but it
may further contain stabilisers, esp. 0.5–2 g. of pectin and citric acid,
preservatives, esp. 0.5–1.5 g. methyl p-hydroxy benzoate and flavourings.
Other additives which may be included are sweeteners, such as Aspartame,
fructose, sucrose, or saccharin and colours. They are packed in 25 g. sachets

for use.
USE—A low calorie aid to dieting.

Control 3
An improved diet food for controlling calorie intake—suitable for
patients suffering from obesity or diabetes.
Patent Assignee: TERUMO CORP (TERU); OHTA A (OHTA-I)
Inventor: OHTA A; WATANABE H
WO 8802992 A 19880505 WO 87JP821 A 19871026 198819 B
AU 8781045 A 19880520198833
JP 62506676 X 19881006 JP 87506676 A 19870000 198846
EP 333858 A 19890927 EP 87906943 A 19871026 198939
JP 92020585 B 19920403 JP 87506676 A 19871026 199218
US 5122379 A 19920616 WO 87JP821 A 19871026 A23L-001/182 199227
US 89350701 A 19890426
EP 333858 B1 19930203 EP 87906943 A 19871026 A23L-001/307 199305
WO 87JP821 A 19871026
DE 3784076 G 19930318 DE 3784076 A 19871026 A23L-001/307 199312
EP 87906943 A 19871026
WO 87JP821 A 19871026
EP 333858 A4 19901227 EP 87906943 A 19870000 199514
Improved diet food for controlling calorie intake, has a reduced content
of carbohydrate and contains low-calorie cereals, water-soluble edible fibres,
and proteins in predetermined amts. corres. to an intended intake. The proteins
are specified to have an isoelectric point in acid region. The amts. of the
water-soluble edible fibres and the proteins are adjusted so that when an aq.
soln. of this food comes into contact with a gastric juice the soln. become a
gel. The weight ratio of the water-soluble edible fibres to the proteins is
specified to be 1 : 0.5–1 :8 (pref. 1 :0.5–1 :2). The weight ratio of the total amt.
of the water-soluble edible fibres and the proteins to the amt. of the
low-calorie cereals is specified to be 1 : 1–100. The low-calorie cereals are
sugar-free cereals produced by removing sugar materials from boiled rice
through extraction. Pref. water-soluble edible fibres are carrageenan and guar
gum. An example of this diet food is rice gruel. The diet food can contain
condiments such as soy sauce, bean paste, sodium glutamate.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The diet food contains 50% or less calories than
556 Cho
usual foods and can stay for a prolonged time in the stomach. Useful as food
for patients suffering from obesity or diabetes.

Control 4
Low calorie protein based compsns.—that expand in the stomach to firm
gelatinous masses which reduce appetite by mechanical action.
Patent Assignee: BATTISTA O A (BATT-I)
Inventor: BATTISTA O A
WO 9001879 A 19900308 WO 89US3538 A 19890818 199013 B
AU 8941804 A 19900323 199033
EP 403597 A 19901227 EP 89909670 A 19890818 199101
HU 54880 T 19910428 199123
JP 3502047 W 19910516 JP 89509055 A 19890818 199126
EP 403597 A4 19920205 EP 89909670 A 19890000 199520
Very low calorie edible produce that expands to at least five times its
original vol. when in contact with stomach juices is produced by (i) dry
blending 10–50% animal or vegetable protein, at least 5% alpha cellulose,
10–50% microcrystalline cellulose and 10–25% edible gum and (ii)
compressing into a shaped form. The gum is in dry powder form and the
other components in dry, solid particulate form.
The total non-foamed non-crosslinked protein is pref. 10–50 (30)% of
the blend. The blend is shaped by compressing at 2–20% or more kg.
The components are at at least 20, at least 5, 20–40 and 10–20% resp. The
shaped forms are circular elliplical, oblong or round-edged rectangular prods.
formed at 4–16 or more kg. The protein is gelatin the gum is carrageenan or
guar gum. The protein and alpha cellulose are blended together before
blending with the other ingredients. The prod. comprises 10% carrageenan,
10% guar gum, 20% alpha cellulose, and non-foamed non-crosslinked protein,
microcrystalline celluloses RC581 and PH101 (or their commercial equivs. or
analogues) to 100%. The protein is animal protein, gelatin or soybean
protein.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prods. provide feeling a satiety without
using drugs yet have good taste, easy intestinal tract absorption and are
pleasant to consume.

Control 5
Prepn. of high fibre, zero-calorie expandable compsns.—by compressing
dry mix of microcrystalline cellulose(s), alpha-cellulose, and edible
gums.
Patent Assignee: BATTISTA O A (BATT-I)
Inventor: BATTISTA O A
EP 317079 A 19890524 EP 88309767 A 19881019 198921 B
AU 8824524 A 19890525 198929
JP 1296954 A 19891130 JP 88291115 A 19881119 199003
US 5032415 A 19910716 US 90545708 A 19900629 199131
Zero-calorie edible prods. are prepd. by: (a) dry blending a mixt. of dry,
solid (non-foamed) particulate ingredients comprising 40–80%
microcrystalline celluloses (I), at least 5% alpha-cellulose (II), and 8–20%
fine, powdered, edible gums (III); and (b) the dry compsn. is compressed into
a shaped form. The prod. can expand to at least 5 times its original vol. when
contacted with gastric juices.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsns. do not swell significantly until
they reach the stomach, when they form a heavy, liq., swollen mass of ca zero
calorie content.

Control 6
Low calorie, boiled, granular cereal—with reduced carbohydrate levels,
useful for obesity and diabetes.
Patent Assignee: TERUMO CORP (TERU); THERMO KK (THER-N)
Inventor: OHTA A
EP 251925 A 19880107 EP 87401510 A 19870630 198801 B
JP 63112959 A 19880518 JP 87161095 A 19870630 198826
US 4892747 A 19900109 US 88219055 A 19880712 199010
JP 92041580 B 19920708 JP 87161095 A 19870630 A23L-001/10 199231
EP 251925 B1 19920812 EP 87401510 A 19870630 A23L-001/10 199233
DE 3781051 G 19920917 DE 3781051 A 19870630 A23L-001/10 199239
EP 87401510 A 19870630
558 Cho
JP 4228043 A 19920818 JP 87161095 A 19870630 A23L-001/10 199239

JP 91133258 A 19870630
Boiled, granular low-calorie cereal has a reduced carbohydrate content.
Prod. is gruel-like, and pref. also contains a thickener/filler (pref. a dietary
fibre, esp. highly soluble, e.g., carrageenan, pectin, xanthan gum), and
seasonings (pref. salt, soybean sauce, miso, and Na glutamate). The prefd.
cereal is rice.
By boiling a cereal, adding H 2O or dil. aq. acid heated to at least 60°C,
warming the mixt. at not less than 60°C for 1–30 mins. while the viscosity of
the H 2O or dil. aq. acid is kept at not more than 200 cP, then removing the
soln.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The low-calorie, boiled cereal has a reduced
carbohydrate (esp. saccharide) content, and is useful for the therapy and
prevention of obesity, and the therapy of diabetes. The prod. has the taste,
flavour and appearance of, e.g., plain rice gruel.

Control 7
Formulation for use in treatment of obesity—complete hunger abating
low-calorie diet comprising both liquid and solid components.
Patent Assignee: ABNEYCREST LTD (ABNE-N)
Inventor: CRAWFORD M
GB 2169485 A 19860716 GB 8520330 A 19850814 198629 B
GB 2169485 B 19880713 GB 8520336 A 19850814 198828
Abstract (Basic): GB 2169485 B
A formulation of a daily diet for use in the treatment of obesity
comprises 45–75 (pref. 45–60) g protein, 50–180 (pref. 50–150)g
carbohydrate, 3–27 (pref. 3–15) g fat, at least 5g fibre and at least the min.
recommended daily allowances of minerals and vitamins and contains
800–1200 KCals per daily dose. The formulation is administered partly in the
form of a liquid dose and partly in the form of a solid dose. The formulation
may further comprise at least 1g of tryptophan at least 10% of the fat may be
medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), the protein is vegetable protein and the
fibre is slow-release guar gum coated with protein.
ADVANTAGE—The formulation is a complete, hunger-abating low
calorie diet (LCD). MCTs reduce body adipose tissue, while tryptophan is
converted in vivo to neurotransmitter serotonin which induces a feeling of
insatiety thus leading to decreased food intake. The vegetable protein reduces
blood cholesterol levels thus minimising the risk of heart disease. The guar
gum coating of protein resists saliva which prevents the gum from swelling
until it is in the stomach, where it can absorb cholesterol and triglyceride. The
slow-release guar gum also prevents ‘‘insulin rebound.’’ Partial administration
as a solid allows mastication, which reduces the feeling of hunger.

Control 8
Diet compsn. for reducing body wt. and serum lipid level—contg.
gelatin, bran and pectin, pref. protein and opt. additives.
Patent Assignee: BIOTEST SERUM INST GMBH (BIOT)
Inventor: BITTERMANN K H; BONHARD K; LISSNER R
EP 28374 A 19810513 198121 B
DE 2944535 A 19810521 198122
DK 8004673 A 19810817 198137
EP 28374 B 19830316 198312
DE 3062369 G 19830421 198317
Diet compsns. for reducing body wt. and lowering the serum lipid level
contain gelatin in addn. to pectin and bran. Wt. ratio gelatin : pectin :bran is
100 :5 :80 to 100 :43: 28.
The diet compsn. is prepd. by dissolving gelatin and pectin in a little
water, distributing the bran and opt. further additives in the viscous soln. and
working the pasty compsn. to shaped articles.
The diet compsn. can replace 2 main meals for patients who are over-
weight or suffer from vascular disorders leading to myocardial infarct and
arteriosclerosis.
Gelatin supplies amino acids required by the human body and prevents
health hazards and catabolic effects setting in after 10 days on a bran/pectin
mixt. diet. Central nervous system metabolic centres are stimulated to support
the low calorie diet effects. The gelatin has a specific swelling activity,
increases intestinal wall tone and overcomes the sensation of hunger.
Hydrocolloid—Low Calorie Foods: Laxative 1

Low calorie, high fibre laxative compsn.—comprising psyllium husk,
apple fibre, fructose, gum arabic and flavourants.
Patent Assignee: MEER CORP (MEER-N)
Inventor: MEER F H; MOUNTAIN F; SCHULTZ H V
560 Cho

US 5073370 A 19911217 US 91660406 A 19910222 199202 B
Natural fibre laxatives contain psyllium husk, sweetener, gum arabic and
flavourants. The prods. contain apple fibre, such that the apple fibre and
psyllium husk together are at least 75 wt.% and are at 23–40 and 40–58 wt.%
resp.
The psyllium husk is at about 48 wt.%. The apple fibre is at about 32
wt.%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Prods. are mixable with water for use as a
laxative and when used with a medically supervised dietary programme impart
a feeling of satiety. The prods. are low in calories.
Hydrocolloid—Low Calorie Foods: Laxative 2

Low calorie high fibre laxative—comprising psyllium husk, apple fibre,
fructose, gum arabic and flavourant.
Patent Assignee: MEER CORP (MEER-N)
Inventor: MEER E H; MOUNTAIN F; SCHULTZ H V
US 4996051 A 19910226 US 88275714 A 19881123 199111 B
Natural fibre laxatives consist of 40–58 wt.% psyllium husk, 23–40
wt.% apple fibre and the balance (up to 25 wt.%) fructose, gum arabic and
flavourants.
The psyllium husk is at 48 wt.%. The apple fibre is at 32 wt.%. The
fructose is at (12–24) 17 wt.%. The flavourant is natural apple flavour, esp. at
1–4.5 (2) wt.%. The gum arabic is at (0.3–2) 0.5 wt.%. All granular
components are below a no. 40 mesh size esp. below a no. 50 mesh size.
ADVANTAGE—Compsns. are low calorie, high fibre laxatives which
can be mixed with water or used with a medically supervised dietary
programme to give a feeling of satiety.
Hydrocolloid—Misc. Low Calorie Foods 1

Gluten free biscuits contg. guar flour—are free from animal protein and
fat, useful as appetite satisfiers for overweight people.
Patent Assignee: BIMBOSAN AG (BIMB-N)
Inventor: HOSANG A
CH 684921 A5 19950215 CH 93125 A 19930114 A21D-013/08 199511 B

Abstract (Basic): CH 684921 A
Gluten-free biscuits contg. no animal protein and no animal fat are made
using only gluten-free flours and with the addn. of guar flour.
USE—The biscuits can be taken by persons allergic to gluten, and are
esp. useful as appetite satisfiers for overweight people.
ADVANTAGE—The guar acts as binder in the absence of gluten to
maintain coherent biscuits. Guar has a very low calorie content and limits the
uptake of cholesterol in the digestive system, and is thus a useful health-
promoting ingredient.

Prepn. of jelly food, e.g., low calorie pudding—contains mixt. of
carrageenan and konjak powder.
Patent Assignee: SHIMIZU KAGAKU KK (SHIM-N)
JP 8196218 A 19960806 JP 9531428 A 19950126 A23L-001/06 199641 B
Prodn. contains mixt. of carrageenan and konjak powder permeating 150
mesh at the ratio of 10:1–10:10 is 0.1–10 wt.%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—To prepare jelly food such as pudding of low
calorie. Konjak powder and carrageenan can be used together in spite of their
difference of swelling and gelling rate. Jelly food contg. low calorie is prepd.
at low cost.

Prepn. of low calorie bean-jam-like foods—comprises coagulating aq.
soln. contg. gelling agent, gum or carrageenan and food additives and
crushing.
Patent Assignee: SANEIGEN FFI KK (SANE-N)
JP 8173087 A 19960709 JP 94328059 A 19941228 A23L-001/236 199637 B
Prepn. of low-calorie, bean-jam-like foods comprising preparing an aq.
soln. contg. 0.4–5 wt.% gelling agent of gellan gum, agar and carrageenan
and food additives, allowing the soln. to coagulate to gel and crushing finely
to prepare bean-jam-like paste. Pref. the soln. contains a gelling agent
comprising 0.4–2 wt.% gellan gum, 0.7–5 wt.% agar or 1–3 wt.%
carrageenan.
562 Cho
ADVANTAGE—The foods are low-calorie and have a flavour like

Japanese bean jam.

New low-calorie soft drink having guava-like aroma—contains sugar
substitute, pectin, colour reagent, protein hydrolysate from gelatin or
casein, aromatising agent, fruit juice and carbonated water.
Patent Assignee: DIKOMA PROD CO (DIKO-R)
Inventor: ARTYUKOV A A; GOLOMPVZAYA E A; PARFENOVA T V
RU 2044498 C1 19950927 RU 9345763 A 19930917 A23L-002/00 199623 B
Abstract (Basic): RU 2044498 C
Soft drink based on pectin juice, colourant, aromatising agent and water,
additionally contains: (i) sugar substitute; (ii) protein hydrolysate from gelatin
or casein; (iii) blueberry or blackcurrant juice; and (iv) carbonated water. The
drink comprises (in kg per 100 d1 of prod.): sugar substitute 0.2–0.5, pectin
0.5–2.0, and colour reagent 0.00001–0.00002, and (in litres) protein
hydrolysate 1–3, aromatising agent 0.2–0.5, blueberry or blackcurrant juice
5–10 and balance carbonated water.
Soft drink is prepd. by mixing previously dissolved pectin with protein
hydrolysate, sugar substitute, juice, colouring agent and aromatising agent, and
carbonating the obtd. mixt. Drink has raspberry-red colour, a sweet-sour taste,
aroma resembling guava fruit, dry substances content 2–3% and acidity 2.5–
3.0 g/l.
ADVANTAGE—Provides new, low-calorie soft drink called ‘‘Farma’’
(RTM), having health improving-prophylactic properties, good appearance and
original aroma with guava notes.

Low calorie fruit spreads of good taste and texture—prepared by gelling
water, fruit and sweeteners with gelling agent, carboxymethyl cellulose,
guar gum and locust bean gum.
Patent Assignee: MCNEIL-PPC INC (MCNI); JOHNSON & JOHNSON (JOHJ)
Inventor: ANTENUCCI R N; DAVIS T R; MANIERE F Y; SHARP S E
US 5397588 A 19950314 US 92900643 A 19920618 199516 B
US 93141166 A 19931021
EP 649601 A2 19950426 EP 94307704 A 19941020 199521

AU 9475840 A 19950511 AU 9475840 A 19941014 199527
CA 2130842 A 19950422 CA 2130842 A 19940825 199529
BR 9404173 A 19950627 BR 944173 A 19941020 199534
JP 7184570 A 19950725 JP 94273143 A 19941013 199538
EP 649601 A3 19960508 EP 94307704 A 19941020 199628
NZ 264668 A 19970324 NZ 264668 A 19941012 199719
AU 679110 B 19970619 AU 9475840 A 19941014 199733
Low calorie fruit spreads comprise the gelled prod. of water, fruit or
fruit flavouring, high intensity sweetener(s), low methoxy pectin or
carrageenan gelling agent, CMC, guar gum and locust bean gum.
ADVANTAGE—The spreads have good sweetness intensity and quality
and good texture.

New isomalto-oligosaccharide cpd.—used as functional food material,
prepd. by contacting new alpha-amylase with pullulan or panose.
Patent Assignee: OJI CORN STARCH CO LTD (OJIP); SAKANO Y (SAKA-I)
JP 7025891 A 19950127 JP 93193881 A 19930712 C07H-003/06 199516 B
Isomalto-oligosaccharides of formula (I) are new. Also claimed is a
novel alpha-amylase enzyme (AA), producing the isomalto-oligosaccharides of
formulae (I) and (II). Properties of AA are as follows: (1) Action: (a) mainly
produces maltose from starch; (b) produces panose from pullulan; (c)
hydrolyses pullulan in the presence of glucose to produce (I) and (II). (2)
Substrate specificity: hydrolyses the alpha-1,4-glucoside bonds of starch and
pullulan to produce (respectively) maltose and panose, which panose is
converted to (I) and (II) in the presence of glucose, and decomposes (II). (3)
Optimal pH and stability: optimal at pH 6–7 for the pullulan substrate and
stable at pH 6–9. (4) Optimal temp. and thermal stability: optimal at 45-55°C
for the pullulan substrate and stable at at most 50°C. (5) Mol. wt.: about
60,000, measured by SDS polyacrylamide gel slab electrophoresis. Also
claimed is prepn. of (I) by the action of AA on pullulan or panose.
USE—(I) are useful as functional food materials.
ADVANTAGE—The method and enzyme give the new isomalto-
oligosaccharides (I) which have low sweetness, low calorie content, high tooth
decay resistance and bifidus growth factor action, and are non-fermenting.
564 Cho

Gum system for use in very low calorie table syrup, e.g., maple
syrup—comprises carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan and propylene glycol
alginate gums and imparts desirable viscosity, stability and taste profile.
Inventor: JONES L J; RACICOT W F
WO 9510197 A1 19950420 WO 94US11051 A 19941007 A23L-001/0534
199521 B
AU 9479228 A 19950504 AU 9479228 A 19941007 A23L-001/0534 199536
US 5478589 A 19951226 US 93134249 A 19931008 A23L-001/09 199606
A gum system for use in a stable, artificial sweetener-contg. very low
calorie table syrup having an aftertaste comprises (a) carboxymethylcellulose
gum, (b) xanthan gum, and (c) propylene glycol alginate gum. The combined
amt. of carboxymethylcellulose gum and xanthan gum is sufficient to impart
to the syrup a desired stable viscosity suitable for a table syrup. The amt. of
propylene glycol alginate gum is sufficient to substantially mask the aftertaste
of the syrup.
Also claimed are stable, artificially sweetened, very low calorie table
syrups comprising the gum system.
Pref. the gum system comprises by wt. of the total syrup compsn.
1.00–1.40 wt.% carboxymethylcellulose, 0.14–0.22 wt.% xanthan gum, and
0.03–0.07 wt.% propylene glycol alginate gum. The wt. ratio of
carboxymethylcellulose gum to xanthan gum is 5: 1–8 :1, and the wt. ratio of
propylene glycol alginate gum to xanthan gum is 0.2 :1–0.3 :1.
ADVANTAGE—The gum system allows prepn. of synthetic table
syrups, e.g., maple syrup, having desirable viscosity, mouthfeel, pourability,
stability and taste profile.

Reduced calorie sandwich biscuit fillings—has some fat/oil replaced by
high solids sugar syrup contg. non- or low-calorie bulking agent.
Inventor: LAAMAN T R; SEWALL C J
WO 9601571 A1 19960125 WO 95US8371 A 19950630 A23L-001/0526
199610 B
AU 9529157 A 19960209 AU 9529157 A 19950630 A23L-001/0526 199619

US 5629041 A 19970513 US 94272891 A 19940708 A23L-001/0534 199725
Sandwich biscuit fillings are 35 wt.% fat/oil and 65% sugar with up to
5% additional flavouring and/or colouring. The calorie content is reduced by
replacing fat/oil, such that its content is less than 25%, with a sugar syrup of
at most 70% solids and a non-calorie or low calorie bulking agent of water
absorptivity up to 200%. The water activity (Aw) of the filler is 0.2–0.7.
Water activity is 0.3–0.6 (pref. 0.51–0.59). The bulking agent has water
absorptivity up to 150 (up to 100)% and is a cellulose, hemicellulose, inulin
and/or polydextrose. The bulking agent is a sugar syrup of solids content at
least 70% at 15–35% of the total filler. A polyhydric alcohol is present at up
to 40 wt.%. A food grade emulsifier is present at up to 3.0 wt.%.
ADVANTAGE—Sugar in the filler is adequately bound, avoiding
crumbling and loss of filler.

Fine cellulose-contg. food compsn. for high vegetable fibre or low
calorie food—comprises dried complex consisting of fine cellulose and
water-soluble gum and/or hydrophilic material.
JP 6335365 A 19941206 JP 93318323 A 19931217 A23L-001/308 199508 B
Food compsn. comprises a dried complex consisting of 20–98 wt.%-fine
cellulose, 2–80 wt.%-water soluble gums and/or a hydrophilic material. A fine
cellulose-contg. food compsn. contains the water dispersible complex having
average grain dia. of up to 8 microns when the complex is dispersed in water,
and having grains of at least 10 microns, up to 40%, and a colloid fraction of
at least 65%.
Pref., the water soluble gums comprise: low cost bean gum, gum arabic,
agar, carrageenan, etc. the hydrophilic material comprises: starch hydrolysed
material, dextrin, cane sugar, glucose, fructose, etc.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. is used for producing a high-
vegetable fibre-contg. food or low-calorie food and drink, milk prod. or
fat and oil-processed food. The use of the food compsn. for the drink, milk
prod., or fat and oil-processed food enhances stability, texture, and
appearance.
566 Cho

Boiled rice grain type low calorie food—comprises water-soluble
dispersion gel contg. glucomannan, starch, dietary fibre and alginic acid
and/or carrageenan.
Patent Assignee: HOSODA SHOTEN KK (HOSO-N); SUGIYO CO LTD
(SUGI-N)
Inventor: HOSODA S; HOSODA Y; KATO E
JP 6315356 A 19941115 JP 93289529 A 19931118 A23L-001/0528 199505 B
US 5498435 A 19960312 US 93165855 A 19931214 A23L-001/05 199616
Water-soluble dispersion gel consisting of glucomannan, starch and
dietary fibre forms a low calorie food. In addition, alginic acid and/or
carrageenan is used.
USE—The appearance and mouthfeel are very close to boiled rice
grains, and good resistance to freezing is obtd.

Poly-dextrose prods. mfr. in commercially viable forms—by flash
shearing polymerised prod. through spinning heads, used, e.g., addn. to
low calorie foodstuffs.
Patent Assignee: FUISZ TECHNOLOGIES LTD (FUIS-N)
Inventor: FUISZ R C
GB 2276173 A 19940921 GB 943075 A 19940217 C08B-037/00 199435 B
CA 2115808 A 19940819 CA 2115808 A 19940216 C07H-003/06 199439
GB 2276173 B 19970402 GB 943075 A 19940217 C08B-037/00 199717
Poly-dextrose is made by subjecting flowable poly-dextrose feedstock to
flash shearing means in a spinning appts. This instantaneously disrupts the
flowable stream into separate masses of poly-dextrose polymerisate.
Glucose and maltose polymers(poly-dextrose) are melt polymerised
using edible acids as catalysts at temperatures of 140–180°C in a time/temp
relationship.
The reaction takes place in a chamber (11) and the feedstock flows to a
rotating (3500rpm) heated spinning head (32). A stream of air is also fed to
the head to flash shear the product emerging from orifices in the spinning
head. The material is collected in a fixed bin (34) for removal by other means.
USE /ADVANTAGE—To make poly-dextrose polymerise in a suitable

form for adding to low calorie foodstuffs. Bioaffecting agents may be
included with the poly-dextrose, e.g., (a) antitussives, such as
dextromethorphan, and chlorphedianol hydrochloride; (b) antihistamines, such
as chlorpheniramine maleate and terfenadine; decongestants, such as
phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, pseudoephedrin and ephedrine; (d)
various alkaloids, such as codeine and morphine; (e) mineral supplements
such as potassium chloride; (f ) laxative, vitamins and antacids; (g) ion-
exchange resins such as cholestyramine; (h) anti-cholesterolemic and anti-lipid
agents; (i) antiarrhythmics such as N-acetyl-procainamide; ( j) antipyretics and
analgesics such as acetaminophen, aspirin and ibuprofen; (k) appetite
suppressants such as phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride or caffeine; (l)
expectorants such as guaifenesin; (m) anti-anxiety agents such as diazepam;
and (n) anti-ulcer agents such as sucralfate. It may also be used with cosmetic
adjuvants, e.g., dimethyl siloxanes, mucopolysaccharides, methyl and propyl
parabens, biotin, lanolin, aloe, glycerin, mineral oil, nicotinamide compounds,
sunscreens, such as para-aminobenzoic acid, hair conditions, moisturisers,
moisturising creams, astringents and powders such as talcs. The commercial
material is formed ready to use without energy intensive milling operations.

Prodn. of low calorie jelly sweets with high solid content—by replacing
sugar with polydextrose and sorbitol, and using gellan gum as gelling
agent.
Patent Assignee: GIBSON W (GIBS-I); KELCO INT LTD (KELC);
ROLLEY N A (ROLL-I); SOFUYI O Y A (SOFU-I); WINWOOD R J
(WINW-I)
RD 361057 A 19940510 RD 94361057 A 19940420 A23G-000/00 199432 B
Low calorie jelly sweets can be made by replacing most of the
sugar with polydextrose and sorbitol; and gellan gum is used as gelling
agent.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The firm jelly sweets (jubes) low total 80%
solids or more and low calorie content (less than 70 KJ/15g). The addn. of up
to 15% sorbitol lowers viscosity of the hot polydextrose-contg. confectionary
mix sufficiently to allow deposition into moulds, and the gellan gum does not
add to the viscosity of the depositing mix.
568 Cho

Fat-free vitamin-C fortified yogurt and juice blend—mfd. by
homogenising fat-free cultured un-flavoured yogurt and blending with
pasteurised liq. contg. water, pectin-based fat substitute, citric and
ascorbic acids and conc. juice flavouring.
Patent Assignee: NOHNER R (NOHN-I)
Inventor: NOHNER R; PARK P H
CA 2077389 A 19930920 CA 2077389 A 19920902 A23C-009/133 199350 B
Mfg. a fat-free, vitamin C fortified yogurt and juice blended beverage
having a smooth, full-bodied mouthfeel comprises: (a) culturing pasteurised
skimmed milk to form fat-free unflavoured yogurt; (b) homogenising the
unflavoured yogurt to eliminate lumps and curds; (c) preparing a liq. mixt. of
water, a pectin-based fat substitute, citric acid and ascorbic acid to provide
100% of the U.S.R.A. (recommended daily allowances) of vitamin C in an 8
ounce serving of the resultant beverage; (d) pasteurising the liq. mixt. contg.
the vitamin C before mixing it with the yogurt; and (e) blending together
40–50 pts.wt. of the liq. mixt., 10–25 pts.wt. of conc. juice flavouring, and
30–60 pts.wt. of the yogurt to form the fat-free vitamin C fortified beverage.
Also claimed is the beverage formed.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Addn. of the vitamin C to the liq. mixt. allows a
substantial portion of it to survive pasteurisation. No pasteurisation of the
yogurt occurs after culturing is initiated and the resulting beverage has active
yogurt cultures which are believed to be beneficial to the digestive system.
The vitamin C enrichment gives 100% of the US RDA for vitamin C, making
the beverage a healthy portion of an overall balanced diet.

Incorporating coagulable milk protein into flour based food prods.—
gives improved nutritive value and reduced calorie content.
Patent Assignee: DUBOIS J (DUBO-I)
Inventor: DUBOIS J; DUBOIS J C
FR 2661072 A 19911025 FR 905491 A 19900418 199202 B
Process allowing development of improved food prods. based on
amylaceous substances comprises incorporating a coagulable milk protein into

the formulation.
The coagulable milk protein is esp. casein or alkali(ne earth) salts of
casein. Pref. the casein is in the form of a fine powder with a particle size of
less than 500 micron. The casein may be incorporated as a technical additive
in an amt. of 0.1–5% or as a substitute for part of the amylaceous material in
an amt. of not less than 10%. Other materials which can be incorporated into
the formulation as a replacement for part of the flour are inert non-calorific
materials such as cereal residual prods., clays, coloidal kaolin, talc, vegetable
or synthetic cellulose, hydrocolloids and mucilages; and protein hydrolysates,
esp. where the overall level of substitution of the amylaceous material is
10–50%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Incorporation of the milk protein into flour-based
food prods. such as bread, cakes, biscuits, pancakes, pastry, etc., improves the
nutritive value and flavour of the prod. and reduces the flour content and
calorific value without affecting the normal character of the food prod.

Polydextrose compsn. free of colour and bitter taste—prepd. by
dissolving polydextrose in solvent, adjusting pH to 3.0 or higher,
passing through ion-exchange column.
Patent Assignee: WARNER LAMBERT CO (WARN); WARNER-LAMBERT
CO (WARN)
Inventor: BUNICK F J; LUO S J
EP 458748 A 19911127 EP 91810374 A 19910516 199148 B
AU 9176301 A 19911128 199204
NO 9101954 A 19911125 199205
CA 2042920 A 19911123 199207
US 5091015 A 19920225 US 90527224 A 19900522 199211
PT 97731 A 19920228 199213
FI 9102443 A 19911123 199214
ZA 9103841 A 19920325 ZA 913841 A 19910521 199218
CN 1056697 A 19911204 CN 91103405 A 19910521 C08L-005/02 199235
JP 4227901 A 19920818 JP 91144033 A 19910521 C08B-037/00 199240
EP 458748 A3 19920311 EP 91810374 A 19910516 199326
PH 27202 A 19930504 PH 42497 A 19910522 C08B-037/00 199635
A polydextrose compsn., substantially free of colour and bitter-tasting
570 Cho
residual cpds. is made by a process comprising: (a) dissolving polydextrose in

a solvent; (b) adjusting the pH of the soln. to 3.0 or higher; (c) passing the
soln. through an ion exchange column; and (d) collecting and concentrating
the eluate until a commercially useful polydextrose compsn. is recovered.
Pref. the solvent is water. The concn. of polydextrose in soln. is 5–90%
esp. 30–40 wt.% of the soln. The ion exchange column is comprised by a
resin selected from anionic exchange resins and/or cationic exchange resins
(esp. derivs. of cellulose, chitin, silicate, dextrans, polyacrylamide gel and/or
vinyl cross-linked resins). The polydextrose soln. is passed through the ion
exchange column at room temp.; or at elevated temp. and pressure. The soln.
is passed through the column more than once.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The compsn. is useful as a bulking agent for
incorporation into low calorie food. The bulking agent may be combined with
high intensity sweeteners as a replacement for sugar in foods to lower their
calories without detracting from their texture and mouthfeel.

Gum system for very low calorie table syrups—comprises
carboxymethyl cellulose and xanthan gum.
Inventor: GORDON W A; JONES L J
US 5292545 A 19940308 US 90559121 A 19900726 A23L-002/00 199410 B
US 91784359 A 19911029
Gum system comprises (by wt. of total syrup): (a) 1–1.75%
carboxymethylcellulose (I); and (b) 0.1–0.27% xanthan gum (II); with wt.
ratio (I):(II) ⫽ 5–21:1.
Very low calorie table syrups contg. the above gum system
are also claimed.
Pref. gum systems and very low calorie table syrups comprise (by wt. of
total syrup) 1–1.6% esp. 1–1.4% (I), 0.14–0.27% esp. 0.14–0.22% (II), and at
least 75% deionised H 2O; and pref. also 0.01–0.1% of a chelating agent (esp.
Na hexametaphosphate), and 0.01–0.1% of a preservative. The pref. syrups
have pH 4–5, contain (I) and (II) in wt. ratio 5–8: 1, and have viscosity
250–1000 esp. 400–700 cps. (‘‘Broofield LVT’’ (RTM) viscometer at ca.
25°C). Alternative pref. gum systems, and very low calorie table syrups
comprise 1.2–2.6% (I) and 0.12–0.16% (II), in wt. ratio 9–12:1; at least 90%
deionised H 2O, 0.01–0.1% chelating agent, and 0.01–0.1% preservative.
ADVANTAGE—The gum systems have a desirable mouthfeel, stability,
viscosity and pourability, and may be used as a stable vehicle to provide

palatable very low calorie synthetic table syrups which contain little or no
sugar solids.

Low calorie beverages—comprises aspartame, multi-vitamin(s), xanthan
gum, citric or maleic acid and flavouring.
Patent Assignee: JANG D C (JANG-I)
Inventor: JANG D C
CA 2098005 A 19931210 CA 2098005 A 19930608 A23L-002/00 199409 B
An aq. beverage compsn. contg. 1–40 calories per 11.5 oz. serving
comprises: 200–600g aspartame; up to 200% of the recommended daily
allowance (RDA) of multiple vitamins per serving; 30–250g of xanthan gum,
100–7000g of citric/maleic acid; and flavouring to produce a palatable
beverage for a 250 gallon batch.
Also claimed is a process for making the compsn.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The beverages are useful as palatable, low
calorie nutritious beverage. The beverage is pleasing to the eye as well as the
palate and has a long shaft life, i.e., will not form precipitates for many
months.

Food modifying compsns. for fat-free cake icing—comprise edible
micro-milled soy fibre in aq. liq.
(KRFT)
Inventor: ANDERSON W A; DULIN D A; LOH J P; DULIN D; LOH J
US 5230918 A 19930727 US 92865593 A 19920409 A23L-001/308 199331 B
EP 565260 A1 19931013 EP 93302133 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199341
CA 2091973 A 19931010 CA 2091973 A 19930318 A23G-003/00 199402
EP 565260 B1 19951011 EP 93302133 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199545
DE 69300611 E 19951116 DE 600611 A 19930322 A23L-001/29 199551
EP 93302133 A 19930322
(A) Food modifying compsn. comprises (by wt.) 1–15% of an edible
soy fibre (I) of particle size 0.1–20 micron dispersed in 85–99% of an aq. liq.
572 Cho
(B) Cake icing comprises 10–100% of the compsn. (A).

Pref. compsn. (A) comprises 7–12% (I) and 88–93% aq. liq.; and pref.
also comprises 0.001–1.5% of a non-gelling, non-abrasive hydrocolloid as
whitening enhancer (esp. 0.3—0.9% gum arabic; 0.01—0.05% CMC, locust
bean gum, or carrageenan; or 0.001—0.01% guar gum), and 0.1—2%,
esp. 0.5—1.5% TiO2 . Pref. (I) has particle size 2–7 microns. Pref. aq. liquids
are H 2O, milk, or an aq. sugar soln. (esp. comprising 30–70% sugar and
40–75% H 2O; sugar pref. sucrose, fructose, dextrose, corn syrup solids, high
fructose corn syrup solids, glycerol, sorbitol, or other liq. or solid sugars).
Pref. cake icing compsns. (B) comprise sugar, H 2O and compsn. (A) and
opt. starch, pref. (concns. independent of sugar and H 2O content of (A))
25–80% sugar, 25–50% H 2O, 2–10% starch and compsn. (A).
Cake icing compsns. (B) are prepd. by wet-milling a blend of sugar,
H 2O and compsn. (A) ((I) of particle size above 20 microns) to the desired
(I)-particle size.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The fat-free food modifying compsn. (A) contg.
micromilled soy fibres is an effective fat substitute, and is esp. useful in cake
icing compsns. to provide these with a creamy taste and a flavour profile that
resembles fat-contg. icing.

Low-calorie food used as fat substitute—contains polysaccharide and
branched dextrin.
Patent Assignee: DAINIPPON PHARM CO LTD (DAIN)
JP 5276898 A 19931026 JP 92112136 A 19920403 A23L-001/307 199347 B
Food contains polysaccharide(s), opt. xanthan, carageenan, alginates or
cellulose and branched dextrin, e.g., enzymatically decomposed or acidified
starch comprising amylopectin.
USE—Low-calorie food having reduced fat content is used as a
substitute of fats.

Stabilised low calorie table syrup—comprising water, artificial
sweetener, and gum system comprising carboxymethyl cellulose gum
and xanthan gum.
(KRFT)
Inventor: ACKERMANN K R; SWALLOW N A

US 5106646 A 19920421 US 91638581 A 19910108 199219 B
EP 494743 A1 19920715 EP 92300076 A 19920106 A23L-001/09 199229
CA 2058723 A 19920709 CA 2058723 A 19920103 A23L-001/09 199239
Low calorie, aq. table syrup comprises (by wt.) at least 70% H 2O, less
than 20 sugar solids (I), an artificial sweetener (II) and a gum system
consisting of carboxymethyl cellulose gum (III) and a cellulose-free xanthan
gum (IV). Amt. of (III) is to impart desired viscosity. Amt. of (IV) is 15–75
wt.% of (III). When the syrup is stored at 70°C its viscosity does not increase
more than 40% after 7 months.
Pref. (III) has mol. wt. sufficient to give viscosity 500–6000, esp.
800–3100 cps. in a 2% aq. soln. at 25°C. Amt. of (III) is pref. to give syrup
viscosity 200–2000, esp. 500–1600 cps. at 70°C pref. 0.3–3%, Amt. of (IV)
is pref. 20–60 % by wt. of (III). (IV) pref. has a molecular wt. to give
viscosity 1000–2000 cps. at 1 wt.% in a 1% soln. of KC1 in H 2O at 25°C.
ADVANTAGE—The reduced sugar content and reduced calorie table
syrup is comparable in quality and stability to conventional table syrups.

Dietetic ballast materials and pectin prodn. from dried plant residues—
by treating with ammonia gas to foramido-pectin(s), extracting the
amidated pectin and washing and drying the residue.
Patent Assignee: AMINO GMBH (AMIN-N)
Inventor: STEINMETZE W
DE 4042405 A 19920326 DE 4042405 A 19900428 199214 B
Dietetic ballast or filler materials are prepd. from dried plant residues by
first treating the dried plant residues with gaseous ammonia at room temp.,
after which the amidated pectin is extracted from the plant residues with water
or dil. NaOH and the plant residues from which the pectin has been extracted
are washed and neutralised and further processed into dietetic ballast or filler
materials in the known way.
Pref. the dried plant residues, esp. sugar beet chips, are placed in a
reaction tower and an atmos. of ammonia is introduced. The contact time
between the dried residues and the ammonia gas is pref. 30 mins. to 10 hours,
esp. 30–90 mins.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The process allows extraction of high grade
574 Cho
pectin from plant residues such as sugar beet chips, and also removes other
water soluble impurities from the plant residues so that very pure cellulose-
and hemicellulose-contg. residues are obtd. which can be processed into
ballast and filler materials for incorporation into foodstuffs and dietary prods.
such as reduced calorie foodstuffs.

Prepn. of reduced calorie frozen dessert(s)—by enzyme treatment of aq.
milk ingredients to hydrolyse polysaccharide(s) to mono-saccharide(s),
heating, and adding sweetener.
Patent Assignee: SHAZER W H (SHAZ-I)
Inventor: ELLE ; KELLER S E; SHAZER W H
US 5093137 A 19920303 US 90599219 A 19901017 199212 B
Reduced calorie frozen dairy dessert prepn. comprises (a) a mixt. of
milk ingredients (I) and H 2O is heated to effect pasturisation; (b) the mixt. is
cooled and treated with an enzyme (II) for long enough to reduce milk
polysaccharides to the monosaccharide components; (c) the mixt. is heated for
5–60 min. at 70–95°C; (d) a high potency sweetener (III) and flavours are
added; and (e) the mixt. is frozen. The prod. contains no added sugars or
bulking agents.
In step (1), (I) is pref. whole, skim, or condensed skim milk, or non-fat
dry milk. Pasteurisation is pref. at 60–90°C. The (I)-H 2O mixt. pref. includes
at least 10% by wt. lactose. In step (b), (II) may be added directly, or after
immobilisation. A pref. (II) is beta-galactosidase. Step (d). (II) is pref.
aspartame, cyclamate, acesulphame-K, sucralose, or salts or mixts. The frozen
dessert pref. also comprises a stabiliser (esp. carrageenan, locust bean gum,
xanthan gum, or microcryst cellulose). Opt. a cultured yogurt may be added to
the dessert before it is frozen.
ADVANTAGE—The process affords sugar-free, reduced calorie frozen
desserts that contain no additional bulking agents, but have superior
consistency, palatability, and mouthfeel.

Low calorie confectioneries—made from polydextrose by agglomerating
into granules before tablet forming.
Patent Assignee: SOC EURO PROD REFRACTAIRES (SGPR);
PFIZER INC (PFIZ); WARNER-LAMBERT CO (WARN); WARNER
LAMBERT CO (WARN)
Inventor: BUNICK F J; SHAW J J

EP 452262 A 19911016 EP 91810239 A 19910403 199142 B
AU 9174158 A 19911010 199148
NO 9101353 A 19911010 199150
CA 2039947 A 19911010 199201
FI 9101683 A 19911010 199203
ZA 9102593 A 19920129 ZA 912593 A 19910408 199210
JP 4228030 A 19920818 JP 91101775 A 19910408 A23G-003/00 199240
EP 452262 A3 19920408 EP 91810239 A 19910403 199328
EP 452262 B1 19960103 EP 91810239 A 19910403 A23L-001/308 199606
DE 69115974 E 19960215 DE 615974 A 19910403 A23L-001/308 199612
EP 91810239 A 19910403
ES 2082174 T3 19960316 EP 91810239 A 19910403 A23L-001/308 199618
Reduced calorie confections are prepd. by (a) intimately contacting
polydextrose with a binding soln. for long enough that the powder congeals
into granules and (b) forming compressed tablets from the granules. The
binding soln. is a sorbitol and/or alginate soln. It contains 50–80 (70)%
sorbitol by wt. The alginate is Na or K alginate esp. 0.5–2.5 (2)% Na alginate
soln. The granules have particle size 16–100 (20–70) (30–60) mesh. The
polydextrose is homogeneously mixed with a bulking agent before contacting
with the binding soln. The bulking agent is dextrose, sucrose, sugar alcohol,
sugar alcohol oligomer, palatinite, dextrose and/or dextrose oligomers. The
reduced calorie confections are new. Agglomerates were prepd. from 337.5g
Pfizer improved polydextrose, 384.0g sucrose, 28.5g 42DE corn syrup, 15.5g
breath freshener and 5.6g TiO2, using 3.2g 2% algin soln. as binder. 300.00g
of these were mixed with 2.25g Mg stearate, 1.25g aspartame and 2.25g spray
dried flavour. The tablets were far better than controls with no binder: soln.
ADVANTAGE—Tablet forming is easy and tablets formed are uniform
in wt. and appearance and are resistant to capping, chipping or crumbling in
the mouth.

Prepn. of low calorie dextrin—by heating starch with at least one of
lactose, sugar or guar gum in presence of (in)organic acid.
Patent Assignee: NICHIDEN KAGAKU KK (NICH-N)
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JP 3084001 A 19910409 JP 89219703 A 19890825 199120 B

Prepn. comprises heating starch or partially hydrolysed starch with at
least one sugar selected from lactose, sugar, guar gum and partially
hydrolysed guar gum in the presence of (in)organic acid.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Low calorie food material which is hardly
digestible is obtd.
In an example starch or partially hydrolysed starch is mixed with 10–30
wt.% of sugar. Inorganic acid or organic acid is added to the mixt. so that the
pH of a sample of the soln. diluting to aq. 5% soln. shows 2.5–3.5. The acidic
soln. is heated at 140–180°C for 1–3 hrs. to obtain dextrine soln. The dextrin
soln. is purified with active carbon and spray-dried to obtain colourless and
odorless dextrin. The acids are HCl, H 2SO 4 , HNO3 , H 3 PO4 , acetic acid or
citric acid.

Glucomannan prod.—comprises glucomannan with acidic material
encapsulated with hydrophobic material.
Patent Assignee: NIPPON OILS & FATS CO LTD (NIOF); UNI COLLOID
KK (UNIC-N)
Inventor: KENICHI H; KOICHI I; MASATSUGU I; SEIKI H
EP 387899 A 19900919 EP 90105010 A 19900316 199038 B
JP 2245148 A 19900928 JP 8963538 A 19890317 199045
CN 1045982 A 19901010 199125
US 5049401 A 19910917 US 90496204 A 19900319 199140
JP 3247244 A 19911105 JP 9042420 A 19900226 199150
Glucomannan prod. contains glucomannan (I) as the principal
components and comprises an acidic material (II) encapsulated with a
hydrophobic substance (III).
Pref. (II) are acetic, citric, fumaric, adipic, tartaric, malic,
ascorbic, gluconic, succinic, or lactic acids. Opt. the glucomannan
prod. may also contain an alkaline substance (esp. Ca(OH) 2 , CaO, NaOH,
KOH, K 2 CO3 , Na 2 CO3 , NaPO4 or Na 2 HPO4 ) encapsulated with a hydrophobic
material (IV) ((IV) of m. pt. less than the m. pt. of (III); esp. of m. pt. 5°C
less than the (III) m. pt.), and/or cellulose, and/or a natural polysaccharide
(esp. carrageenan, locust bean gum, guar gum, alginic acid, Na alginate,
xanthan gum, cyclodextrin, tamarind seed polysaccharide, agar, pullulan, or
pectin).
USE /ADVANTAGE—The prod. may be coagulated rapidly, when the

tissues are not destroyed and a homogeneous material possessing better
elasticity and H 2O-lowering props. is obtd. The coagulated material is used as
a Konjak food, or it may be blended with other foods to produce low calorie
comestibles or to improve their consistency.

Low calorie ice pop formulation—contg. powdered cellulose and
glycerine to prevent hardness and graininess.
Patent Assignee: JAMES RIVER CORP (JAME)
Inventor: ANG J F; MILLER W B
US 4857352 A 19890815 US 8762517 A 19870616 198941 B
New ice pop formulation comprises (a) at least 1 wt.% powdered
cellulose of average particle size below 20 microns, (b) a polyhydric alcohol
to lower the freezing point of the pop, (c) a gum to keep (a) suspended and
(d) water.
The alcohol is propylene glycol or, esp., glycerine. The glycerine is at
1–5 (2–3) wt.%. Compsns. also contain 0.05–0.2 wt.% aspartame. The
cellulose is at 1–5 wt.% and esp. has average particle size below 17.5
microns. The gum is xanthan, guar or locust bean gum, esp. at 0.2–0.6%. The
formulation also contains flavouring agents, colouring and up to 0.5 wt.%
souring agent. The souring agent is citric acid.
ADVANTAGE—The prod. is low calorie but not hard or lacking
smoothness, which were problems with prior art low calorie pops.

Low-calorie ice cream-type product—comprises milky protein, polyol,
e.g., propylene glycol and stabiliser, e.g., gelatin.
JP 1218553 A 19890831 JP 8843274 A 19880225 198941 B
The low-calorie ice cream-type prod. contg. less fat and no cane sugar
comprises the following: (a) water, 70–75 wt.%: (b) Milky protein, 15–25
wt.%; (c) A polyol material, 3–7 wt.% of propylene glycol, glycerol,
mannitol, sorbitol, glucose syrup hydride or starch hydrolysate hydride; and
(d) a stabiliser, 1.0–2.0 wt.% of a component of gelatin, carrageenan, agar or
578 Cho
pectin and a component of carboxy methyl cellulose, guar, locust bean gum,
xanthan, gelatin, carragenane or acidolysis cellulose.
USE—The low-calorie ice cream-type prod. has ice cream-like taste and
contains less fat and no cane sugar.

Frozen fruit juice shake—comprising frozen mixt. of fruit juice,
stabiliser(s), protein, flavour, acid, and water to give specified brix
value.
Patent Assignee: OLYMPUS INDS INC (OLYM-N)
Inventor: WADE B; WADE T L
EP 303374 A 19890215 EP 88306993 A 19880729 198907 B
AU 8820420 A 19890216 198915
US 4828866 A 19890509 US 88220283 A 19880720 198922
US 4830868 A 19890516 US 8785454 A 19870814 198923
JP 1231852 A 19890918 JP 88198763 A 19880808 198943
CN 1031468 A 19890308 199009
ZA 8805644 A 19900425 ZA 885644 A 19880801 199021
A frozen, hard pack, fruit juice product comprising: at least one type of
fruit juice; a fruit juice flavour enhancer selected from the group consisting of
flavouring, spices, flavour enhancers and edible organic acids and mixtures
thereof; from 0.5 percent to 1.5 percent by weight of at least one stabiliser
based upon the total weight of said product with the provision that the product
contains at least 0.02 percent xanthan gum; from 0.05 percent to 0.50 percent
by weight of whipping agent protein based upon the total weight of said
product; an amount of water to adjust the overall brix value of said product to
the range of 10 to 35, and said product being essentially free of added sugar
and corn sweetener additives and having overrun of at least 20 percent
wherein said frozen fruit juice product has a smooth creamy appearance and
good low temperature storage properties.

Highly nutritional, vegetarian dry food supplement—comprising
vegetable protein and lipid(s), psyllium husks as fibre and carbohydrate
source.
Patent Assignee: KALOGRIS T P (KALO-I)
Inventor: KALOGRIS T P

US 4737364 A 19880412 US 8711407 A 19870204 198817 B
Known highly nutritional vegetarian dry food supplements (providing
not more than 120 calories/15g) consisting of vegetable protein (I) (soy
protein isolate and/or brewer’s yeast; to give total protein content 35–65% by
wt.), 10–20% by wt. total complex carbohydrate (II), at least 4% by wt. fibre
(III), vegetable lipids (IV) (polyunsatd. vegetable oil or vegetable derived
lecithin; to give total lipid content 10–20% by wt.), and 5–20% by wt. total
vitamins and minerals are improved by using psyllium husks as the sole
source of (II) and (III).

Low calorie food and drink—contains gymnemaic acid and pullulan as
suppressing agents for glucose absorption from the intestines.
Patent Assignee: HIJI Y (HIJI-I)
Inventor: HIJI Y
JP 62236469 A 19871016 JP 8677725 A 19860404 198747 B
JP 91008188 B 19910205 JP 8677725 A 19860404 199109
US 5116820 A 19920526 US 8734957 A 19870406 A61K-031/70 199224
US 89418715 A 19891003
US 90563734 A 19900806
Food and drink contains gymnemaic acid and pullulan as the
suppressing agent for the absorption of glucose from intestines.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Gymnemaic acid, the major ingredient of
Gymnema sylvestre plant suppresses the absorption of glucose from the
intestines. By using it together with pullulan, the amt. of gymnemaic acid can
be saved.

Carbonated beverage contg. low-calorie sweetener—with a cold water-
soluble natural gum added to reduce carbon dioxide loss and improve
palatability.
Inventor: TAKIZAWA K; UEDA S
EP 239938 A 19871007 EP 87104522 A 19870326 198740 B
580 Cho
JP 62232362 A 19871012 JP 8674834 A 19860401 198746

US 4956191 A 19900911 US 88275603 A 19881123 199039
EP 239938 B 19911204 199149
DE 3774912 G 19920116 199204
JP 93041222 B 19930622 JP 8674834 A 19860401 A23L-002/00 199327
A carbonated beverage contains a low-calorie sweetener (I) as part or
the whole of its sweetener content and a cold water-soluble natural gum (II).
Pref. (I) is aspartame, Acesulphame, Stevia extract, or their derivs. and (II) is
gum arabic.
Pref. the concn. of the natural gum in the carbonated beverage is 5–50
mg/dl. Pref. the amt. of (I) in the entire amt. of sweeteners is 30–90%,
esp. 50–80%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—Carbonated beverages such as cola, cider-like
soft drink and ginger ale and turbid carbonated beverages contg. fruit juices
can be prepd. By including a natural gum into the carbonated beverage contg.
the low-calorie sweetener in such a low concn. as to scarcely cause a
thickening effect, there is obtd. a carbonate beverage having a high
palatability comparable with a beverage contg. sugar and a reduced tendency
toward the decrease of dissolved CO2 gas after opening the bottle.

Prepn. of low calorie instant noodle—by mixing soln. of arginic acid
and carrageenan with starch and protein, and coagulating by contact
with calcium salt or metal salts.
Patent Assignee: MISHOKUKEN KK (MISH-N)
JP 62158466 A 19870714 JP 86865 A 19860107 198733 B
JP 89026665 B 19890524 198924
Soln. of arginic acid and carrageenan is mixed with starch and protein to
make starch alpha state. The resultant is contacted with Ca salt or two or
more valent metal strips to coagulate it, and the coagulated prod. is cut into
lines and dried.

Low-calorie powder for beverages—comprises powdered milk, beer
yeast, saccharide and, e.g., pectin.
Patent Assignee: NIKKEN FOOD HONSHA (NIKK-N)

JP 61242541 A 19861028 JP 8585686 A 19850422 198649 B
The powder comprises (1) 40%–70% (wt.) powdered milk, (1) 5%–20%
(wt.) edible beer yeast, (3) 5%–20% fructooligosaccharide or isomerised
lactose, and (4) 5%–30% (wt.) of pectin, alginic acid, guar gum, carrageenan,
and/or an agar.
USE—The powder is used together with water or milk.

Palatable reduced calorie chewing gum—contg. gum base, and low
levels of polysaccharide and a sweetener.
Patent Assignee: WARNER-LAMBERT CO (WARN); WARNER LAMBERT
CO (WARN)
Inventor: HRISCISEC F; SUBRAMAN R C; YOU C W; CHERUKURI S R;
HRISCISCE F; WEI Y C
AU 8771879 A 19871105 AU 8771879 A 19870423 198751 B
ZA 8702856 A 19871013 ZA 872856 A 19870422 198801
EP 252874 A 19880113 EP 87810267 A 19870428 198802
JP 62289149 A 19871216 JP 87106469 A 19870501 198805
PT 84797 A 19880527 198826
US 4765991 A 19880823 US 86859108 A 19860502 198836
EP 252874 B 19911016 199142
DE 3773772 G 19911121 199148
JP 92033427 B 19920603 JP 87106469 A 19870501 A23G-003/30 199226
ES 2026566 T3 19920501 EP 87810267 A 19870428 A23G-003/30 199228
CA 1321097 C 19930810 CA 535942 A 19870429 A23G-003/30 199338
Abstract (Basic): AU 8771879 A
Highly palatable, reduced calorie chewing gum comprises high levels
(35–94%) of a non-styrene-butadiene copolymer/polyvinyl acetate chewing
gum base, and low levels (5–10%) of a polysaccharide (I) and a sweetening
agent (II). (I) is opt. modified polydextrose, or polymaltose, or mixts.
Pref. chewing gums contain (by wt.) 0.005–35% (II), 35–70% gum
base, and pref. also 0.01–2% thickening agent (Me cellulose, alginate,
carrageenan, xanthan gum, karaya, agar, gelatin, carob, tragacanth, locust bean
gum, guar, gum arabic, pectin, (Na) carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl
cellulose, or mixts.), up to 7% cellulose, and up to 10% filler. The thickening
582 Cho
agent is pref. added as a premix contg. (by wt.) 40–60% wetting agent,
12–18% H 2O, 22–48% (II), and 0.1–5% thickening agent. The prefd. (I) is
polydextrose.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The low calorie chewing gum contains low
levels of fillers, is highly palatable, has the necessary sweetness, and has a
softer, more pleasant chew and mouthfeel.

Prepn. of low-calorie, gelatin-free frozen confections—by dynamic
freezing, with reduced hydrocolloid levels.
Inventor: GONSALVES A A; GRIFFIN J J; SMITH R A
US 4582712 A 19860415 US 84667185 A 19841101 198618 B
CA 1249164 A 19890124 198911
Low-calorie, gelatin-free frozen confection which is ready to eat at
freezer temps. is prepd. as follows: (a) an aq. mixt. is formed comprising (by
wt.) 2–5% f. pt. depressant (I), 0.1–1.8% hydrophilic colloid (II), stabiliser
(III) (amt. (II)⫹(III) totals not more than 2%), 0.02–0.1% food acid, and
0.03–0.15% non-nutritive sweetener (IV); (b) the mixt. is dynamically cooled
so that partial freezing is accomplished at 10–32°C; (c) the partially frozen
mixt. is shaped; then (d) the shaped mixt. is frozen to less than 10°F. (II) is
low methoxyl pectin, carrageenan, alginate, or mixts., and amt. used is to
maintain the ice crystal structure produced during the partial freezing step (b).
ADVANTAGE—Elimination of gelatin from the compsns. affords a
storage stable, high quality confection which is ready to eat at freezer temps.
In addn., total hydrocolloid levels may be reduced. The prod. (which retains
its shape on a stick, etc.) delivers a refreshing, texturally pleasing eating
experience.

Dietary fibre compsn. prepn.—by coating insoluble fibre with soluble
fibre.
Patent Assignee: WARNER-LAMBERT CO (WARN)
Inventor: MORLEY R C; SHARMA S C
ZA 8408391 A 19850429 ZA 848391 A 19841026 198539 B
EP 166825 A 19860108 EP 84304156 A 19840620 198602
PT 80576 A 19851206 198604

AU 8429735 A 19851212 198606
US 4565702 A 19860121 US 84616990 A 19840604 198606
JP 60262573 A 19851225 JP 84135352 A 19840702 198607
NO 8502230 A 19851230 198608
FI 8502188 A 19851205 198611
DK 8403025 A 19851205 198616
CA 1210630 A 19860902 198640
ES 8703728 A 19870516 ES 543821 A 19850603 198725
EP 166825 B 19880921 198838
DE 3474098 G 19881027 198844
Abstract (Basic): ZA 8408391 A
Dietary fibre prods. comprise (a) 40–60% sweetener, (b) a flavour
source, and (c) 10–40% of a dietary fibre compsn. comprising insoluble fibre
coated with soluble fibre, the insoluble fibre being purified and free of
digestible components.
The insoluble fibre is purified wheat, maize, barley, rye and/or oat bran.
The soluble fibre is a natural gum (e.g., arabic, tragacanth, karaya or ghatti), a
seaweed extract (e.g., agar, alginate, carrageenan or furcellan) or a mucilage
(e.g., psyllium).
ADVANTAGE—The prods. (e.g., tablets or snack bars) have a high
ratio of fibre to digestable material without having a high calorie content. The
unpleasant mouthfeel of the insoluble fibre is mashed by the soluble fibre
rather than with fats or carbohydrates.

High fibre food prod.—with coating contg. fat, sweetener, milk solids,
yogurt and flavouring agents.
Patent Assignee: WARNER-LAMBERT CO (WARN)
Inventor: BAGAN J E; BECKER A J; MEDRI M W
EP 128666 A 19841219 EP 84303155 A 19840510 198451 B
AU 8426420 A 19841115 198502
ZA 8402031 A 19840911 ZA 842031 A 19840319 198502
JP 59213361 A 19841203 JP 8491975 A 19840310 198503
US 4568557 A 19860204 US 83493451 A 19830511 198608
ES 8506986 A 19851201 198610
CA 1210632 A 19860902 198640
EP 128666 B 19870401 198713
DE 3462845 G 19870507 198719
584 Cho
US 4673578 A 19870616 US 85793369 A 19851031 198726

High-fibre food prod. consists of (by wt. of prod.) 5–30% dietary fibre
(I), coated with above 40% pref. not more than 70% of a coating compsn. The
coating compsn. contains (by wt. of compsn.) 25–55% fat, 30–60% sweetener
(II), up to 30% milk solids (III), up to 30% yogurt (IV), and up to 10%
flavouring agent(s). (I) is suitably (hemi)cellulose, pectin or lignin from
vegetables, fruit, grains, nuts or seeds (esp. bran or germ form pref. corn,
wheat, oats, barley, soy, rye or rice; or oats). An esp. prefd. (I) is a mixt. of
corn bran and corn germ used at 5–30% esp. 6–10 wt.% of total prod. (or
6–10% corn bran and up to 10% corn germ). The prod. contains pref. 40–
65% esp. 45–50% partic. 45–47% of coating compsn. Fat is suitably a
fractionated fat, an (opt. partially) hydrogenated fat, or an unsatd. fat, esp.
coconut, palm, cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, soy or corn oils, partic. palm
kernal oil. Amt. of fat is pref. 25–40% esp. 29–32% by wt. of compsn.
(esp. 29–32% palm kernel oil with 0.5–0.6% palm oil). (II) is pref. saccharin
or aspartame, esp. a mono- or di-saccharide, partic. granulated sugar, and amt.
is 40–50% esp. 48% by wt. of compsn. (III) is pref. a solid of whole milk,
non-fat milk, cream, whey, soy protein, casein, artificial creamer, pref. non-fat
milk solids, and amt. is pref. 12–16% esp. 14% by wt. of compsn. Suitable
flavouring agents include flavour oils, and flavouring foods (e.g., nuts, germs,
fruits, etc.), esp. peanut butter at 7–16% by wt. of food prod. The coating
compsn. has
H 2O-content pref. of 0.5–0.75%.
USE /ADVANTAGE—The ready-to-eat, nutritious, relatively low
calorie snack prods. contain relatively large amts. of dietary fibre (I), but do
not possess the dry taste and fibrous mouthfeel of conventional prods. In
addn., the prod. tastes crunchy and crispy, but is not cooked or toasted, etc.

High water content low calorie cake—contg. cellulose flour and opt.
gum and emulsifier (SE 27.12.83).
Inventor: FROST J R; GLICKSMAN M; HEGEDUS E; SILVERMAN J E
US 4451490 A 19840529 US 82355403 A 19820308 198424 B
CA 1182335 A 19850212 198511
A cake comprises 40–65% water, 5–30% cake flour, 0–25% sugar,
1–6% shortening, 0–10% egg white solids, 0.5–6% leavening agent, 0–2%
emulsifier, 2–20% cellulose flour and 0–5% gum. The gum is, e.g.,
carrageenan, guar gum, locust bean gum, karaya gum, methyl cellulose,
pectin, alginate or agar or their mixts. The emulsifier is pref. polyoxyethylene
(20) sorbitan monooleate, Na stearoyl-2-lactylate mono- and diglycerides or
mixts. of these. The leavening agent is pref. NaHCO3 and NaAl phosphate.
The compsn. pref. contains 45–60% water, 9–25% cake flour, 5–20% sugar,
1–5% shortening, 1–6% egg white solids, 1–5% leavening agent, 0.1–2%
emulsifier, 5–15% cellulose flour and 0.1–3% gum.
The cake has high quality and excellent texture. It has a higher water
content than conventional cakes, and a lower caloric value, typically below 2
cals/g.

Low calorie cake prodn.—from mixt. contg. cellulose powder, citrus
albedo, pineapple seed or sugar beet pulp.
Inventor: FROST J R; GLICKSMAN M; HEGEDUS E; SILVERMAN J E
SE 8301234 A 19831227 SE 831234 A 19830307 198413 B
CA 1182334 A 19850212 198511
US 4503083 A 19850305 US 82355405 A 19820308 198512
Cake comprises 40–65% water, 5–30% cake flour, 0–25% sugar, 1–6%
shortening, 0–10% egg white solids, 0.5–6% leavening agent, 0–2%
emulsifier, 1–10% of citrus albedo, sugar pulp, and/or pineapple core as
bulking agent, and 0–10% gum, and contains less than 20 cals./g.
Pref. leavening agent is NaHCO3 , and/or sodium aluminium phosphate;
and emulsifier is polyoxyethylene(20) sorbitan monooleate, sodium stearyl-2-
lactylate and/or mono- and/or diglycerides. Gum is carrageenan, guar, gum
arabic, locust bean gum, tragacanth, karaya, hydroxypropyl-cellulose,
methylcellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, xanthan, pectin, alginate and/or
agar.
USE—Has high quality and excellent texture and is 40% or more
calorie-reduced w.r.t. conventional cakes.

Prepn. of low calorie, high fruit content marmalades, jams etc.—by
mixing fruit, sucrose, pectin, thickener.
Patent Assignee: NYIREGYHAZI KONZERV (NYIR-N)
Inventor: BUGLYO T; GYORINE M; KOVACS P; NADASDI J
586 Cho

HU 38041 T 19860428 HU 834247 A 19831213 198621 B
Abstract (Basic): HU 38041 T
Fruit or fruit juices, sugar (min. 30% sucrose), food acids, low degree
ester pectin, one or more metallic salts and a fruit thickener are mixed
together to produce low calorie, high fruit content marmalades, jams and
jellies.

Low calorie high moisture content cake prodn.—from batter contg. gum
or bulking agent as water binding additive.
Inventor: FROST J R; GLICKSMAN M; HEGEDUS E
US 4431681 A 19840214 US 82355404 A 19820308 198409 B
CA 1182683 A 19850219 198512
Prepn. comprises forming a batter contg. 40–65 wt.% water, 5–30 wt.%
cake flour, 0–25 wt.% sugar, 1–6 wt.% shortening, 0–10 wt.% egg white
solids, 0.5–6 wt.% of a leavening agent, 0.2 wt.% emulsifier and 1–20 wt.%
water binder; adjusting the viscosity of the batter to 15,000–50,000 cps.
(Brookfield) and baking the batter at 300–450°F. for 10–60 mins. to produce
a baking loss of 5–20%. The water binder is a gum, e.g., carrageenan, guar
gum, locust bean gum, tragacanth, hydroxypropyl cellulose, CMC, xanthan,
pectin, alginates or agar, or a bulking agent, e.g., citrus albedo, cellulose flour,
sugar beet pulp, pineapple core, bran, sugar cane pulp or polydextrose. The
emulsifier is, e.g., Tween 80 (RTM), Na stearoyl-2-lactylate or mono- or
diglycerides. The batter may include minor amts. of other ingredients, e.g.,
salt, vanillin, non-fat milk solids, flavour or colouring. The viscosity of the
batter is adjusted by addition of water.
The caloric value is at least 40% lower than that of conventional cakes.
It contains 40% or more of water, but is not preceived to be excessively
moist, and does not have a gritty or gummy texture.

Vegetable and/or fruit juice preparations—are low-calorie, dietetic or
diabetic prods. contg. pectin and magnesium.
Patent Assignee: KOZPONTI ELELMISZER (ELEL-N)
Inventor: BUGLYO T; HEGYI L; IVANICS L; NADASDI S; RICSO J;

SCHLICK I; ZETELAKINE B
HU 27810 T 19831128 HU 813945 A 19811223 198403 B
Abstract (Basic): HU 27810 T
Low-calorie, diet or diabetic vegetable/fruit juices; creams or cocktails
are prepd. by (a) grinding the vegetable and/or fruit tissues; (b) treating with
endopolygalacturonase, opt. in the presence of water; and (c) adding to the
suspension, consisting of cell agglomerates of below 0.2 mm., a Mg source
and opt. a stabiliser.

Low-calorie, aerated, non-alcoholic medicinal drink—made by boiling
and mincing dried apricots, adding sugar and pectin to part, and
recombining the parts with steaming and cooling.
Patent Assignee: SAMARKAND COOP INST (SAMA-R)
Inventor: ABRAMOVA Z H I; RAIMOVA E G
SU 891059 B 19811223 198242 B
Abstract (Basic): SU 891059 B
Method for manufacturing non-alcoholic aerated drinks for medicinal
purposes, pref. by mixing dried apricots with water, heating the mixt. to
boiling, mincing, and adding sugar. To extend the range of medicinal aerated
low-calorie drinks, after mincing, part of the mixt. is separated, sugar and
apple pectin are added in an amt. 0.25–0.5% of the total weight of the mixt.
The prepd. mixt. is kept to allow the pectin to swell, it is boiled, cooled,
mixed with the rest of the original mixture, casein hydrolysate is added (5%
of the total weight), and then the mixture is whipped up.

Non-nutritive flour substitutes for low calorie foods—contg. cellulose or
starch deriv., xanthan gum and lecithin.
Patent Assignee: PFIZER INC (PFIZ)
Inventor: TORRES A
US 4219580 A 19800826 198037 B
CA 1142387 A 19830308 198314
588 Cho
Flour substitute comprises (a) cellulose and/or a non-digestible acid-

treated starch deriv.; (b) 1–3.5 wt.% (based on (a)) xanthan gum and 2–7
wt.% (based on (a)) of lecithin, the amt. of lecithin being in addn. to lecithin
that may be supplied by egg yolk present in food prods. contg. the substitute.
Substitute is non-nutritive and can replace ⬉70% of the flour in low
calorie baked goods.

RD 217009 A 19820510 198222 B

RD 217009 A 19820510 198222 B

Low calorie diet bread—contg. added gluten, protein, alpha-cellulose
flour and edible gum.
Patent Assignee: THOMPSON J B (THOM-I)
Inventor: THOMPSON J B
Patent Family:
GB 1538360 A 19790117 197909 B
US 4109018 A 19780822 197911
Dough composns. for bread making contain per 100 pts. wheat flour 3-9
pts. added vital wheat gluten, 5–12 pts. edible protein, 10–20 pts. alpha-
cellulose flour and 0.5–6 pts. edible gum. The protein is esp. low fat soy
flour,or soy flour with non-fat dried milk. The cellulose pref. has particle size
25–50 µm. The gum is a synthetic cellulose ether, esp. NaCMC, or guar gum
or tragacanth.
The prod. has fewer calories, higher protein content and fibre content
than conventional breads or diet breads.

Flour substitute compsn. for reducing food calorie content—contains
cellulose and/or non-digestible starch derivs., xanthan gum and
emulsifier.
Patent Assignee: PFIZER INC (PFIZ)
590 Cho
Inventor: TORRES A
DE 2804634 A 19780810 197833 B
JP 53099347 A 19780830 197840
GB 1580015 A 19801126 198048
DE 2804634 B 19810219 198109
JP 82005141 B 19820129 198208
Edible compsn. for use as flour substitute contains (a) ⱖ1 cellulose and/
or a non-digestible acid-treated starch deriv., and (w.r.t. wt. of (a)) (b) 1–3.5
(1–2)% xanthan gum and (c) 2–7 (3–5)% emulsifier(s).
The compsns. can be used as flour extenders in dietary reduced calorie
foods, esp. for weight watchers, partic. for baking to bread, cakes, pastries,
etc. Calorie content can be reduced by 30–35% on replacing 70% flour by the
compsn.

Edible fibrous cellulose coated with edible gum—as low calorie filler
for foods and pharmaceuticals.
Patent Assignee: DOUGLAS D (DOUG-I); MAXFIBE INC (MAXF-N)
DE 2729370 A 19780105 197803 B
JP 53003544 A 19780113 197808
US 4143163 A 19790306 197911
GB 1581841 A 19801230 198101
CA 1102698 A 19810609 198127
Low calorie, edible cellulose fibre product for human consumption
contains corpuscular fibrous cellulose of average particle length ⬍75 µm, the
fibres being covered with an adherent soluble, smooth and palatable texture.
The amt. of the exible gum comprises 2–15% of the fibrous cellulose.
Used as low calorie filler in foods, pharmaceuticals, etc. Low calorie
and fat-free sour cream substitute, low calorie mayonnaise and margarine
substitutes, etc. may be prepared with this prod. The prod. forms a stable,
uniform gel-like suspension in water. The edible gum comprises sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose, guar gum, xanthan gum or carob beam gum, etc.

Stable jellied prods. from semi-manufactured fruit prods.—using
xanthan, galactomannan, and pectin or water-sol., cellulose deriv.
Patent Assignee: BOCK W (BOCK-I)
DD 121707 A 19760820 197641 B
Abstract (Basic): DD 121707 A
Jellied foods, esp. jams, preserves or jellies, are prepd. by heating liquid
semi-manufactured fruit prods. with a pH esp. 2.5–3.5, with a jellying
compsn. consisting of xanthan, galactomannan and pectin, or xanthan,
galactomannan and a water-sol. cellulose hydrocolloid, in presence of
saccharose and/or sugar substitute, followed by cooling to give a stable jellied
prod. Prods. of high gel stability and high water-bonding capacity, with good
clarity and brilliance are obtd. Low-calorie and dietetic foods can be prepd.

Low calorie pasta prodn.—by adding polygalactomannan gum to
vegetable protein and cereal material.
Patent Assignee: GEN MILLS INC (GENM)
US 3843818 A 19741022 197444 B
CA 1016394 A 19770830 197737
Title process comprises (a) mixing 15–50 pts. polygalacto-mannan gum,
e.g., guar gum or locust bean gum, and 85–50 pts. of a mixt. of vegetable
protein, e.g., vital gluten or soybean material and cereal material, e.g., durum
flour, (b) adjusting the moisture content to 28–38 wt.% (c) working the
hydrated mixt. in an extruder and raising the temp. to 55–98°C and (d)
extruding to form a pasta. The moisture content of the product may be 80
wt.% and the calorie content reduced by ⱖ50% while the product has
excellent taste and textural characteristics.
30
The Application of Complex
Carbohydrates to Functional Food
Development
SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

M. JENAB
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
INTRODUCTION
‘‘Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food’’
Hippocrates, 400 BC (1)
Functional foods are defined as everyday foods and drinks that may provide iden-
tified health enhancing benefits due to their components (2,3). Japan is the birth-
place of this concept and is so far the market leader in development and regulation
of this emerging industry. The concept of functional foods has been adopted from
the nutraceutical concept originated in the United States in the early 1980s after
the Kellogg Company and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) made a joint cam-
paign on the cancer preventive effects of certain types of fiber, in particular wheat
bran fibers. NCI Stated on packages of All Bran, a wheat bran breakfast cereal,
that certain types of dietary fiber help reduce the risk of certain types of cancer.
593
594 Cho and Jenab
This campaign stimulated research into foods as an alternative medicine in pre-

vention and the treatment of chronic diseases and the new concept on nutraceuti-
cals was initiated to promote the development of foods of specified health benefits
and to stimulate research activities in support of new product development. How-
ever, strict regulation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as well as the
unavailability of an official process to implement such efforts have hindered the
progress of marketing nutraceuticals in the U.S. However, Japan has modified
the concept of nutraceuticals and has created the new concept ‘‘functional foods’’
or ‘‘foods for specified use’’ to improve the public health. It was possible since
they created the third party association which can play a role between the industry
and the government. The first functional food, now known as ‘‘Yokult’’ yoghurt,
was developed in Japan in the 1930s and is currently consumed by over 23 million
people worldwide (4). More such product successes will undoubtedly develop
as the industry emerges from its infancy towards an estimated $100 billion world-
wide market which translates to almost 5% of total food expenditure (2). Current
markets for functional foods are estimated to be approximately 9, 28 and 30
billion dollars in the United States, Japan and European Union respectively.
The development of functional foods is driven by consumer lifestyle and
attitude changes towards healthier eating. This is supported by both governments
concerned about increasing health care costs of a growing and graying population
and by constantly increasing knowledge and innovation on the link between nutri-
tion and disease. After the establishment of the links between diet and disease,
the development of functional foods aimed at reducing these risks and enhancing
the diet seems only logical and natural in order to satisfy the growing consumer
demands and interests that will develop. In fact, functional foods are the third
generation of healthy foods to be placed on the market, following the introduction
of products such as fruit juices and whole wheat bread in the mid-1970s and
products with removed and lowered fat and sugar in the mid-1980s (4) all of
which were also spurned due to increased consumer demand and technological
and research advancements within the international food industry. Functional
foods provide an ideal way in order to enact necessary dietary changes by provid-
ing a large variety of health conscious products that once carefully regulated,
proven and trusted by consumers, will be used readily and effectively.
In general, functional foods fall into three categories: those that claim to
reduce the risk of diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancer or diabetes;
those that try to control or modulate immune function; and those that aim to
improve or enhance mood and performance. Thus, the development of appro-
priate functional foods can have benefits to (a) the consumer, by enhancing their
health and allowing longer, better and more productive lives, (b) governments,
by reducing both health care costs and the burden on the system and (c) the
industry, who research, develop and subsequently profit from products which are
in high demand.
Application to Functional Food Development 595
The development of functional foods relies heavily on the use of nutraceuti-

cals, which are, according to the American Dietetic Association: ‘‘. . . substances
that may be considered a food or part of a food and provide medical or health
benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease.’’ (5) One such nutra-
ceutical is dietary fiber, increased consumption of which may prevent a number
of cancers (6), particularly colon cancer (7), as well as lowering cholesterol (8),
important for coronary heart disease, and controlling blood sugar and insulin
levels, of importance in diabetes (9). The need to increase the level of consump-
tion of dietary fibers and the concomitant development of consumer friendly or
palatable fibers and fiber mixtures along with consumer trends and increased
pressures are pushing the development of more beneficial products containing
high levels of dietary fibers or complex carbohydrates. Some examples of suc-
cessful products containing these active ingredients are, in the UK: Ribena Fruit
and Fiber, Fruit and Fiber Yoghurt, GAIO bioyoghurt and Shape Milk Drink; in
Denmark: high oligosaccharide wine gums; and in France, high oligosaccharide
smart drinks. Oligosaccharides, in particular resistant oligosaccharides, can be
considered to be similar to fibers due to their indigestibility, increased fer-
mentability and health benefits. They too can affect gut microflora, controlling
the growth of undesirable bacterial strains while promoting the colonization by
beneficial strains. In addition to soluble fibers, however, the oligosaccharides can
also be employed as sweetening agents thus replacing sugars (10). These complex
carbohydrates were the first functional ingredients. The ever-growing popularity
of functional foods using these ingredients in Japan, Europe, and more recently
in the United States, ensures that they will remain extremely important functional
ingredients in the future.
FOOD PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

The main reasons for the emergence of functional foods have come from three
different avenues; first, from the consumer, who demands better and healthier
products because of increased awareness and knowledge about nutrition and
health in general; second, from governments, who are concerned about increased
health care costs of populations that are increasingly living longer and getting
older; and third, from the food industry who are anxious to apply new knowledge
about nutrition and medicine to their products and to pursue opportunities in
this sector. But different cultures and regions of the world may have varying
perspectives and attitudes towards functional foods (2).
Functional food development essentially began in Japan, where functional
foods have been welcomed and well accepted by eager consumers. For example,
in Japan, functional beverage sales through vending machines rival those of soft
drinks and beer. But these products may not be as popular in Western cultures
(11). The Japanese approach to functional food development involves a thorough
596 Cho and Jenab
investigation of the safety and efficacy of the product as well as validity of the
claims made. A close liaison between the government, industry, scientists, nutri-
tionists and consumers takes place within a well developed legislative and regula-
tory framework (2).
Because of these varying perspectives of functional foods, the issues re-
garding business and product development in this sector differ between East and
West. In Japan, the public acceptance and government/industry cooperation have
allowed the quick development of a regulatory framework and thus of a multitude
and large variety of functional food products, whereas in Europe and the United
States, there is much debate on the need for or setup of any legislative and regula-
tory frameworks (2). Yet, despite this confused and complex situation in the
West, many companies are trying to develop products with a single or overall
health benefit in mind (2).
A central issue in functional food development is health claims. The oppor-
tunity to make health claims on foods can be a valuable marketing tool for the
food industry in stimulating market growth and attracting consumer interest as
well as allowing companies to gain a sustained competitive advantage. Since
strong health claims carry important promises, a regulatory framework needs to
clearly define if, when and how health claims can be made with a particular
product and whether such claims need to be supported by extensive research to
prove the efficacy as well as safety of the product (12). In general, the more
health claims for foods move towards medical and physiological grounds, the
greater the level of evidence that is required to support them.
In addition, if tougher health claim regulations become implemented, the
product development and research costs will undoubtedly increase. At some point
and with some products, the industry may find itself questioning whether the
expense of developing functional food products is worthwhile. For example, if
functional food health claims were to be supported in a system similar to the
requirements for pharmaceuticals, it is estimated that a budget of a least $2 mil-
lion would be required. Thus, ingredients which have already been extensively
researched and tested for their beneficial effects may find great use in functional
product development. For example, dietary fibers and complex carbohydrates
have been the focus of decades of research throughout the world and are associ-
ated with a multitude of beneficial and healthful effects. Thus, existing or new
fibers and fiber blends can and are being easily used in a wide variety of functional
products such as bioyoghurts (oligosaccharides), high fiber breakfast cereals
(wheat bran) and fiber enriched milk or soft drinks (polydextrose). In fact, in
Japan, fiber rich drinks were the first commercially successful functional foods
and dietary fibers and oligosaccharides are the two major ingredients currently
used in functional foods (13).
Oligosaccharides can be used as functional ingredients for prebiotic or
sweetening purposes. Some oligosaccharides used as functional ingredients, such
as palatinose and coupling sugar, are digested completely and are absorbed from
the small intestine. Other oligosaccharides, such as neosugar, however, are not
hydrolyzed or poorly hydrolyzed in the small intestine and so reach the large
intestine relatively intact. Once in the colon, they become active substrates for
bacterial fermentation. It is this property that is associated with most of their
health benefits (14,15).
There are also those oligosaccharides that improve the colonic bacterial
milieu as well as providing energy for the host in the form of short chain fatty
acids (SCFA). These SCFA also lower the pH in the lumen of the colon which
promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria such as, Bifidobacterium and Lactoba-
cillus, which are more resistant to an acidic environment, and decreases the num-
bers of less desirable and harmful bacteria such as Clostridium and Eubacterium
strains (16,17). The beneficial strains of bacteria suppress the production of nitro-
gen derivatives (ammonia, indole), phenol and skatol and also decrease the pro-
duction of potential carcinogens and mutagens due to their altered enzyme activi-
ties (18). Functionally, these oligosaccharides are perhaps the most important
and have achieved wide use in functional food products in Japan and more in-
creasingly in Europe and the United States (19). In fact, in Japan in 1996, of the
69 specific health use food items permitted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare,
40 use oligosaccharides such as neosugar, xylo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligo-
saccharides, fructo-oligosaccharides, lacto-fructo-oligosaccharides, soybean oli-
gosaccharides or isomalto-oligosaccharides (16). Currently, oligosaccharides are
used widely in a variety of products in Japan, ranging from prebiotic soft drinks
(Meiji Seika Co., Calpis Food Industry, Nichirei Co., Joban Yakuhin Kogyo Co.,
Asahi Breweries, Ostuka Pharmaceutical, Taisho Shokuhin Kogyo Co., Morinaga
Milk Industry), table-top sweeteners (Meiji Seika Co., Hakubun Co., Calpis Food
Industry, Taisho Pharmaceutical, Dainippon Seito Co., Showa Sangyo Co., Enu-
iko Sugar Co., Nissin Sugar Co., Nippon Oligo Co.), sugar confectionaries (Meiji
Seika Co., Ezaki Glico Co.), chocolate confectionaries (Lotte Co., Ezaki Glico
Co.), chewing gums (Lotte Co., Ezaki Glico Co.), biscuits (Ezaki Glico Co.,
Nippon Kayaku Co., Nippon Menado Katohin Co.), yoghurts (Suntory Co., Ezaki
Glico Co., Takanashi Nyugyo Co., Morinaga Food Industry, Meiji Milk Prod-
ucts), vinegars (Morushige Ueda Co.), coffee drinks (Meiji Seika Co.), desserts
(Meiji Milk Products), infant milk formulas and baby foods (Yakult Honsha
Co.) (13).
Unlike Japan, the European consumer awareness of the benefits of oligosac-
charides is much lower with between 3% (UK) to 16% (France) of survey respon-
dents claiming to have heard of them (20) versus 70% in Japan (21). Only a few
European products feature oligosaccharide ingredients. For example, a fermented
milk drink called Fyos, launched in Belgium in 1994, and Fruit and Fiber Yoghurt
sold by the Sainsbury chain in the UK both contain inulin, a functional oligosac-
charide made from chicory (19). Much scientific evidence exists from a large
598 Cho and Jenab
number of international specialized university and corporate research centers to

support the validity of these functions and also to document maximum allowable
doses and the like (16). There are other benefits of oligosaccharides which as of
yet do not merit functional claims due to the infancy of the experimentation
levels. These effects, observed mostly for chicory oligosaccharides such as inulin,
include improvement in the bioavailability of calcium, magnesium and iron as
well as causing hypolipidemia (22). Thus oligosaccharides hold much promise
as functional ingredients for current and future development of functional foods.
However perhaps the first functional ingredient was conventional dietary
fiber ingredients which have historically been associated with various health ben-
efits; wheat bran and psyllium in the prevention of constipation to prevention of
colon cancer (6,7), improvement of glucose absorption (lowering of the glucose
level and insulin response) (9), modulation of GI transit times, fecal bulking (23)
and psyllium and oat bran in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and control
of cholesterol bioavailability (8). Initially marketed with high success in bakery
and cereal products, fiber sources such as polydextrose, added to milk and soft
drinks are common practice in Japan (e.g. Fibe Mini from Otsuka Pharmaceutical,
one of the most popular fiber functional drinks) and becoming popular in Europe
where products such as Ribena Juice and Fiber (UK) have been extensively and
successfully advertised and marketed with cholesterol lowering health claims
(19). In Japan, the All Bran product, containing wheat bran (Nihon Kellogg Co.),
was the first conventional dietary fiber product allowed to make a health claim.
Dietary fibers have also been used in meat products such as sausages (Itoham
Foods Co.), in pasta (Tokyo Tanebe Co.) and in soft drinks (Otsuka Pharmaceuti-
cals, Pokka Corp., Fipro Seiyaku Co.). Dietary fibers commonly used in Japan
are Wheat Bran, in the popular Kelloggs products, polydextrose, partially depo-
lymerised guaran, indigestible dextrin, psyllium seed coat, pineapple fiber, konjak
and tofu lees (13).
In the United States, awareness of the beneficial effects of fibers is increas-
ing. The FDA now allows general health claims regarding the intake of foods
containing certain amounts of dietary fiber and the risk of cancer and heart dis-
ease. Thus, functional products containing wheat bran and oat bran, classically
associated with a decreased risk of colon cancer and heart disease respectively,
will become more popular as awareness of the American public and acceptance
of these products grows.
It is obvious that dietary fiber and oligosaccharides have become very popu-
lar functional ingredients. Thus, the functional food industry is dependent on a
supply of these functional ingredients to be incorporated into functional foods.
Such ingredients are produced from raw ingredients through either simple or very
complex and often costly processing techniques. As the Japanese experience has
clearly shown, their inclusion in the diet adds great value to a food by way of
extra health benefits which attract consumer interest. This consumer interest has
been a major driving factor in the functional food product development industry
(24). The trends in the 1990’s have been towards healthier natural and organic
products such as low salt or low fat while the future trends in the next millennium
are predicted to be towards health-enhancing, anti-cancer and preventative func-
tional food products (24). Complex carbohydrates and dietary fibers are currently
positioned as the major functional food ingredients and so the growth of this
market will see an increase in the development and use of products containing
them coupled to an increase in research about their benefits, necessary for the
all important and sales driving health claims.
REGULATIONS, OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

Japan
Regulation
In Japan, functional foods are regulated under the Foods for Specified Health Use
(FOSHU). The legislation, brought about in 1991 due to a rise in the popularity of
functional foods and due to concerns over the illegal marketing of some products,
is an amendment to the Nutrition Improvement Law which was created shortly
after World War II. In order to be licensed under FOSHU, a food must meet
several criteria which will be discussed in detail later in the chapter. The FOSHU
legislation licenses products with special dietary uses to bear a label claiming
health promotion benefits (25). Often these claims are somewhat vague with state-
ments such as ‘‘. . . need no anxiety on your decayed teeth? . . . ,’’ ‘‘. . . useful
for improving the dietary life of a person whose blood pressure is somewhat
higher . . .’’ or ‘‘. . . it refreshes your intestines . . . .’’ However, foods making
specific claims that they can prevent or treat disease are subject to regulation as
medicines, which require much more supporting scientific data on the efficacy
and safety of the product–a reasonable requirement. For example, the Kellogg’s
All Bran product is allowed under FOSHU to make the following claim: ‘‘Wheat
bran is rich in dietary fiber, keeps your insides in good condition. A delicious
food to refresh your body.’’ The claim does not discuss the colon cancer protec-
tive effects of wheat bran which have been shown almost conclusively in a large
number of international studies (7).
Constraints
FOSHU can be applied only to foods that have scientifically identified health
benefits and not to isolated nutrients or supplements. FOSHU certification is not
easy to obtain. Manufacturers must pass a stringent 3 stage approval process.
This is easier for domestic manufacturers since they can use a self-regulated
agency called the Japan Health Food Association (JHFA) to review the claimed
600 Cho and Jenab
health benefits of a product and to accelerate its approval. This is a major stum-
bling block for foreign manufacturers and food companies trying to access the
volatile Japanese functional food market.
A second, perhaps more important constraint is that FOSHU accreditation
will only be given to food products that can be consumed as part of the regular
Japanese diet or in ‘‘ordinary dietary patterns’’ and have comparable nutrient
compositions to similar foods. In other words, FOSHU controls foods tradition-
ally found to be safe for consumption and to have ascertainable health bene-
fits (26).
Despite this legislation, many problems, which are common throughout the
world remain to be solved. These include: what distinguishes food from medi-
cines, how to scientifically prove and judge the efficacy and safety of a product,
how to monitor the appropriate marketing of a product or what type of a health
claim to approve. It is clear that many of these constraints apply at the interna-
tional level and so can best be considered and dealt with accordingly at that level.
Opportunities
Japan has a reasonable process for the approval of health claims and to provide
a license to market the food product. This allows manufacturers some exclusivity
and to gain a sustained competitive advantage by displaying an approved label
to gain consumer confidence and trust. Despite the somewhat increased difficulty
for foreign manufacturers to get FOSHU approval, this can be circumvented by
forging partnerships and alliances with Japanese firms. Foreign firms may then
seek membership in the JHFA which could then accelerate the approval of their
product (26).
European Union
Legislation
Unlike Japan, the European Union has no regulation placing functional foods in
a distinct food category. There is no legal definition for a functional food, let
alone any regulations to deal with specific health claims. There has been some
progress in government acceptance of the idea and concept of functional foods
and the need for certain regulations and legislation particularly in the UK where
the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has developed a working, but
not legal, definition of a functional food (27). Similar to Japan, however, the
European Union makes a clear distinction between food and medicine in that if
specific health claims are made by a product suggesting that it can prevent, treat
or cure disease, it must be dealt with as a medicine, thus requiring much more
stringent regulation. There is debate over a distinction between a nutritional
health claim and a medicinal health claim. The current legislation believes that
the main function of a food is not to cure or prevent disease.
Constraints
The lack of a legal definition of functional foods and the delayed acceptance of
functional foods as a separate category rather than an extension or better versions
of current products are major constraints for the development of the functional
foods industry in Europe. In addition, the lack of acceptance of health claims is
also a major constraint for manufacturers. Although there is a European Union
directive against health claims, it is up to member nations to adopt the directive
or to legislate their own regulations. This causes a lack of harmonization where
a product may be marketable in one area but not in another (26). The lack of
appropriate and uniform legislation to cover functional foods may undermine
consumer confidence and hurt the development of the functional foods market
as manufacturers will be unwilling to invest in an unstable market.
Opportunities
Some health claims are being made in Europe mostly by high fiber breakfast
cereals, probiotic dairy products, diabetic products and sports drinks (3). Opportu-
nities exist for manufacturers willing to take the risk of marketing products only
in certain regions and with selective labeling and careful advertising campaigns
(26). As in Japan, opportunities exist with products historically or culturally asso-
ciated with health benefits. This may allow the manufacturer to either make a
subtle claim or to not make a claim at all.
The USA
Legislation
In the United States, as in Europe, there is no standard legislation governing nor
even a direct definition of functional foods. The FDA only defines foods as arti-
cles used primarily for taste, aroma or nutritive value (28). However, the Nutrition
Labeling Education Act (NLEA) may allow certain health claims as authorized
by the FDA but only in the context of the whole diet, not just specific products,
and only in cases where there is both strong available evidence and agreement
among experts for a particular health benefit (27). The NLEA works to provide
dietary recommendations to consumers by requiring that key sources of specific
nutrients and their contribution to the recommended daily intake levels in every
food product be identified on every pack (24). In addition, the NLEA defines
terms such as light, low and reduced, commonly used by manufacturers to imply
a healthier product. The act also regulates health claims that can be made by
food products in relation to these terms and to their components. Currently in
the United States, the FDA has authorized ten general health claims among which
are those for intake of fiber containing grain products, fruits and vegetables and
602 Cho and Jenab
lowered cancer risk as well as intake of fiber containing grain products (especially
soluble fiber, particularly from oat bran or oatmeal), fruits and vegetables and
decreased coronary heart disease risk (29). However, the wording of these claims
is very general.
Constraints
The biggest constraint to the growth of the U.S. functional food market is the
lack of a definition and direct regulation of functional foods. In addition, the
existing NLEA legislation requires strict and demanding scientific evidence for
health claims of specific food or ingredients. In contrast, the DSHEA is a permis-
sive piece of legislation than the NLEA. This disparity between the two may
make the development and introduction of certain functional foods more chal-
lenging for the manufacturers.
Opportunities
In general the U.S. regulators seem to be accepting of functional foods and roles
they can play in the health and well being of the American population. The FDA
has mandated a Food Advisory Committee to debate the safety, efficacy and
regulation of new food products, allowing expert input from industry, govern-
ment, research institutions and organizations. This committee has often resulted
in a consensus or strong majority of opinion and thus allowed the FDA to proceed
more rapidly with approval of claims.
CONCLUSIONS
As research into the link between diet and disease intensifies, as newer links are
found and old hypotheses proven, the educated public will demand high quality
functional products and the food industry will meet their demands with new,
popular, great tasting, safe, effective and health enhancing functional products.
These large varieties of functional products will contain many functional ingredi-
ents and, as the Japanese experience shows, the bulk of these will be dietary
fibers, oligosaccharides and other complex carbohydrates. Technological ad-
vancements in food science will allow the development of new fibers, fiber blends
and oligosaccharides as well as more uses for existing ones. Thus, these ingredi-
ents will continue to play a vital role in functional product development through-
out the world. The growing global functional food market will require interna-
tional standardization and firm regulation of health claims, not only to protect the
consumer from fraudulent claims but also to allow manufacturers to effectively
develop, prove and market their products. The development of such legislation
is critical for the global functional foods market which is still in its infancy.
Whoever gives these things [foods] no consideration and is ig-

norant of them, how can he understand the diseases of man?
Hippocrates, 400 BC (1)
REFERENCES
1. Jones, WHS. (1932) Hippocrates, p. 351.
2. Potter, D. (1996) Personal communication.
3. Young, J. (1997) Future opportunities for functional foods. Food Manufacture 70,
63.
4. Young, J. (1996) A perspective on functional foods. Food Science and Technol. 10,
18–21.
5. Anonymous. (1995) Position of the American Dietetic Association: phytochemicals
and functional foods. J Am Diet Assoc. 95, 493–496.
6. Kritchevsky, D. (1996) Diet in heart disease and cancer. Adv Expt Med Bio 369,
201–209.
7. Wynder, EL., Reddy, BS., and Weisburger JH. (1992) Environmental dietary factors
in colon cancer: some unresolved issues. Cancer 70, 1222–1228.
8. Anderson, JW. (1995) Dietary fiber, complex carbohydrate and coronary heart dis-
ease. Can J Cardiology 11Suppl.,55G–62G.
9. Nuttall, FQ. (1993) Dietary fiber in the management of diabetes. Diabetes 42, 503–
508.
10. Blenford, D. (1995) Trends in functional foods and ingredients. Food Tech Europe,
Dec 1995, 24–28.
11. Hollingsworth, P. (1995) Functional foods: fad or fact? Food Technology, 49, 32–
35.
12. Brown, KS. (1996) Functional foods: a fruitful research field, but various regulatory
obstacles persist. Scientist 10, 1–8.
13. Anonymous. (1997) Functional foods and drinks in Japan. JapanScan Food Industry
Bulletin, Stratford-on-Avon, England.
14. Oku, T. (1994) Special physiological functions of newly developed mono- and oligo-
saccharides. In: Goldberg, I. (ed), Functional foods. New York, Chapman & Hall,
202–218.
15. Oku, T. (1992) Dietary fiber and new sugars. In: Baba, S., Akerele, O., Kawaguchi,
Y. (eds). Natural resources and human health. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 159–170.
16. Oku, T. (1996) Oligosaccharides with beneficial health effects: a Japanese perspec-
tive. Nutrition Reviews 54Suppl., S59–S66.
17. Kumemura, M., Hashimoto, F., and Fiji, C. (1992) Effects of administration of 4G-
B-D-galactosylsucrose on fecal microflora, putrefactive products, short-chain fatty
acis, weight, moisture and pH, and subjective sensation of defecation in the elderly
with constipation. J Clin Biochem Nutr 13, 199–210.
18. Gorbach, SL., and Goldin, BR. (1992) Nutrition and the gastrointestinal microflora.
Nutrition Reviews 50, 378–381.
19. Hilliam, M. (1996) Functional foods: the Western consumer viewpoint. Nutrition
Reviews 54Suppl., S189–S194.
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20. Cathro, JS., and Hilliam, M. (1993) Future opportunities for functional and healthy
foods in Europe: an in-depth consumer and market analysis. Leatherhead Food Re-
search Association Multiclient Study.
21. Anonymous. (1993) Consumer survey on new foods. Japanscan 8, 16.
22. Roberfroid, MB. (1996) Functional effects of food components and the gastrointesti-
nal system: chicory fructo-oligosaccharides. Nutrition Reviews 54Suppl., S38–S42.
23. Eastwood, MA. (1992) The physiological effect of dietary fiber: an update. Annu
Rev Nutr 12:19–35.
24. Datamonitor (1996) Innovation on food ingredients. NY, NY.
25. Kojima, K. (1996) The Eastern consumer viewpoint: the experience in Japan. Nutri-
tion Reviews 54Suppl., S186–S188.
26. Smith, BL., Marcotte, M., and Harrison, G. (1996) A comparative analysis of the
regulatory framework affecting functional food development and commercialization
in Canada, Japan, the European Union and the United States of America. Personal
communication.
27. Richardson, DP. (1996) Functional foods–shades of gray: an industry perspective.
Nutrition Reviews 54Suppl., S174–S185.
28. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. (1938) 52 Stat 111.
29. Anonymous. (1993) The FDA’s final regulations on health claims for foods. Nutri-
tion Reviews 51, 90–93.
30. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. (1938) 52 Stat 1040.
31. Hasler, CM. (1996) Functional foods: the Western perspective. Nutrition Reviews
54 Suppl., S6–S10.
Appendix I
Perspectives on Dietary Fiber
Definition*
Consumer interest and public policy on dietary fiber has recently changed. The
definition and method for determination of dietary fiber have evolved in Western
countries over the past two decades. In the United States, the Food and Drug
Amdinistration (FDA) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued final
food labeling regulations in January 1993 (1,2). The regulations have mandated
the labeling of dietary fiber with optional breakdown of soluble and insoluble
dietary fiber on food packages. For nutritional labeling, AACC Methods 32-05
(corresponding to AOAC Method 985.29) and 32-07 (AOAC Method 991.43)
(3–5) have been recommended for dietary fiber analysis by both agencies (1,2).
Europe, the protocols for dietary fiber labeling are still being developed for the
European common market.
It is important that regulatory agencies, researchers in nutritin and analyti-
cal areas, industry representatives, consumers, and health professionals have a
common understanding of the definition of dietary fiber. The analytical methodol-
ogies should be developed and imporved to meet that definition.
Thus, we conducted two international surveys to determine wether a con-
senusus could be reached on the definition of dietary fiber and associated method-
ologies and to consider appropriate classification of oligosaccharides that are not
* Reprinted with permission from Cereal Foods World and American Association of Cereal Chemists,
Inc. 1994.
605
606 Appendix I
hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes. Results of the survey should help

international harmonization of acceptable definitions of dietary fiber and its com-
ponents. The survey results will also provide insight for chemissts seeking to
modify analytical methods and develop reference materials to meet the accepted
definition.
In our first survey, initiated in December 1992, 144 professionals partici-
pated, representing 30 countries (3). Seventy percent of participants responded
that the dietary fiber definition should reflect both chemical and physiological
perspectives. The survey results indicated that 65% of respondents supported the
current dietary fiber definition as polysaccharides and lignin that are not hy-
drolyzed by human alimentary exzymes. However, 59% supported the future
expansion of the dietary fiber definition to include oligosaccharides that are resis-
tant to hydrolysis by human alimentary exzymes.
Because inclusion of these unavailable oligosaccharides in the definition
may influence future nutrition labeling and food technology research, a follow-
up survey was sent in December 1993 along with the results form the first survey
to find out if the first survey results could be confirmed. We specifically addressed
the issure of the new definition that may include oligosaccharides that are not
hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes. In the second survey (122 persons,
representing 30 countries), 65% of the participants supported the inclusion of
these oligosaccharides. Eighty percent supported the inclusion of resistant
starches and lignin in addition to non-starch polysaccharides in the dietary fiber
definition. It is noteworthy that 6% believed dietary fiber includes only non-starch
polysaccharides or plant cell wall components (3). It appears that there is general
agreement that the chemical entity of dietary fiber is not limited to nonstarch
polysaccharides and plant cell wall components.
It is noteworthy that 78% of respondents believe the term dietary fiber
should be preserved (3). Eighteen percent supported abolishing the term dietary
fiber. It appears that scientists generally believe that the term dietary fiber should
continue to be used in the scientific literature, although the exact definition of
dietary fiber can evolve and be modified as long as scientific findings support
such modifications.
Based on these scientific findings, we have propoed (5,6) the expansion of
the definiton of dietray fiber to include resistant oligosaccharides, in addition to
currently included nonstarch polysaccharides, resistant starch, and lignin. We
have also proposed a new term, resistant oligosaccharides, which is defined as
oligosaccharides that are resistant to hydrolysis by human alimentary enzymes
(6). Tentatively, we propose that a minimum degree of polymerization (DP) unit
for resistant oligosaccharides should be 3 or above. We want to point out that
an exact cut-off DP unit can be developed in the future as a more common under-
standing on resistant oligosaccharides evolves. The term resistant oligosaccha-
rides can be used synonymously with the term unavailable oligosaccharides.
Appendix I 607
Our proposals on the new dietary fiber difinition and the new term, resistant
oligosaccharides, have been well received at the Sixth International Symposium
on Biological and Environmental Reference Materials (7) and at the European
dietary fiber symposium (8).
The addition of resistant oligosaccharides to the dietary fiber definition may
open new avenues in the nutitional, analytical, and food technology research
areas. Along this line, a common understanding on resistant oligosaccharides
should be developed. We expect that certain types of oligosaccharides can be
claimed for dietary fiber in the future, if the unavailability in the healthy human
upper gastrointestinal tract and the resulting pyhsiological actions similar to other
dietary fiber components are fully proven. We want to point out that oligosaccha-
rides that are hydrolyzed in the upper GI tract of normal, healthy human subjects,
such as lactose, maltotriose, and maltotetrose, cannot be classified as resistant
oligosaccharides. It is noteworthy that most of the foods in today’s market do
not contain resistant oligosaccharides, with the exception of a few formulations,
but new product development efforts as well as nutrition research could evolve.
Along this line, analytical methodology should be fine tuned to fully recover
resistant oligosaccharides as well as resistant starch in the dietary fiber analysis.
In a previous article (9), we addressed the issue of incomplete recovery of resis-
tant starch with the current dietary fiber methods. Until a reliable methodology
is developed to meet the new definition of dietary fiber, currrent dietary fiber
methods should continue to be used for dietary fiber labeling (9). We want to
emphasize that this new definition would not affect the dietary fiber values of
most food products.
REFERENCES
1. Food and Drug Administration. Food labeling, general provisions. Nutrition labeling.
Label format. Nutrient content claims. Ingredient labeling state and local require-
ments. Exemptions, final rules. Fe. Reg. 58:2302, 1993.
2. Department of Agriculture. Food labeling, general provisions. Nutrition labeling. La-
bel format. Nutrient content claims. Ingredient labeling, state and local requirements.
Exemptions, final rules. Fed. Reg. 58:631, 1993
3. AACC Mehod 32-05, Total dietary fiber, app. October 1991; Mehtod 32-07, Determi-
nation of soluble, insoluble, and total dietary fiber in foods and food products, app.
October 1991. Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists,
8th ed. The Association, St. Paul, MN, 1983.
4. Prosky, L., Asp, N.-G., Schweizer, T. F., DeVries, J. W., and Furda, I. Determination
of insoluble, soluble, and total dietary fiber in foods and food products: Interlaboratory
study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71:1017, 1988.
5. Lee, S. C., Prosky, L., and DeVries, J. W. Determination of insoluble, soluble, and
total dietary fiber in foods: Collaborative study. J. AOAC Int. 75:395, 1992.
608 Appendix I
6. Lee, S. C., and Prosky, L. International survey on dietary fiber definition, analysis,
and reference materials. J. AOAC Int. 79:in press.
7. Lee, S. C., and Prosky, L. International survey on dietary fiber reference materials.
(Abstr.) Sixth Int. Symp. Biol. Environ. Ref. Materials, 1994.
8. Lee, S. C., and Prosky, L. International survey on dietary fiber definition. (Abstr.)
Symp. Mech. Dietary Fiber Action, 1994.
9. Lee, S. C., and Prosky, L. Dietary fiber analysis for nutrition labeling. Cereal Foods
World 37:765, 1992.
Appendix II
Total Carbohydrates and Total
Dietary Fiber Content in
Grain-Based Foods*
BAKERY
Water Carb. % TDF % FAT
Bagels, cinnamon-raisin 32 55.2 2.3 1.7
Bagels, cinnamon-raisin, toasted 26.9 59.3 2.5 1.8
Bagels, egg 32.7 53 2.3 2.1
Bagels, egg, toasted 27.7 57 2.5 2.2
Bagels, oat bran 32.9 53.3 3.6 1.2
Bagels, oat bran, toasted 27.9 57.3 3.8 1.3
Bagels, plain, enriched, with calcium propionate 32.6 53.4 2.3 1.6
(includes onion, poppy, sesame)
Bagels, plain, enriched, without calcium propionate 32.6 53.4 2.1 1.6
Bagels, plain, toasted, enriched, with calcium 27.6 57.5 2.5 1.7
propionate (includes onion, poppy, sesame)
Bagels, plain, toasted, enriched, without calcium 27.6 57.5 2.5 1.7
Bagels, plain, toasted, unenriched, with calcium 27.6 57.5 1.7
Bagels, plain, toasted, unenriched, without calcium 27.6 57.5 1.7
Bagels, plain, unenriched, with calcium propionate 32.6 53.4 2.1 1.6
Bagels, plain, unenriched, without calcium 32.6 53.4 2.1 1.6
propionate(includes onion, poppy, sesame)
Biscuits, mixed grain, refrigerated dough 37.8 47.4 5.6
Biscuits, mixed grain, refrigerated dough, baked 27.7 55.1 2.6 6.5
* Adopted from USDA Handbook No. 8 Electronic Release 11, 1997.
609
610 Appendix II
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, commercially baked 26.7 48.5 1.3 16.5

Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, dry mix 9.2 63.3 2.1 15.4
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, dry mix, prepared 28.9 48.4 1.8 12.1
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, prepared from recipe 28.9 44.6 1.5 16.3
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, refrigerated dough, higher 33.6 43.7 1.5 13.5
fat
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, refrigerated dough, higher 27.8 47.5 1.6 14.7
fat, baked
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, refrigerated dough, lower 37.9 47.6 1.6 4.5
fat
Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, refrigerated dough, lower 27.7 55.4 1.9 5.2
fat, baked
Bread crumbs, dry, grated, plain 6.2 72.5 2.4 5.4
Bread crumbs, dry, grated, seasoned 5.6 70.4 4.2 2.6
Bread sticks, plain 6.1 68.4 3 9.5
Bread stuffing, bread, dry mix 4.2 76.2 3.2 3.4
Bread stuffing, bread, dry mix, prepared 64.8 21.7 2.9 8.6
Bread stuffing, cornbread, dry mix 4.6 76.7 14.3 4.2
Bread stuffing, cornbread, dry mix, prepared 64.9 21.9 2.9 8.8
Bread stuffing, plain, prepared from recipe 65.2 22.2 7.2
Bread, banana, prepared from recipe, made with 29.2 54.6 1.1 10.5
margarine
Bread, banana, prepared from recipe, made with 27.8 55.1 11.8
vegetable shortening
Bread, Boston brown, canned 47.2 43.3 4.7 1.5
Bread, cornbread, dry mix, enriched (includes corn 7.8 69.5 6.5 12.2
muffin mix)
Bread, cornbread, dry mix, prepared 31.9 48.1 2.4 10
Bread, cornbread, dry mix, unenriched (includes corn 7.8 69.5 6.4 12.2
muffin mix)
Bread, cornbread, prepared from recipe, made with low 39.1 43.5 7.1
fat (2%) milk
Bread, cornbread, prepared from recipe, made with 38.6 43.5 3.5 7.7
whole milk
Bread, cracked-wheat 35.8 49.5 5.5 3.9
Bread, cracked-wheat, toasted 30.2 53.8 6 4.2
Bread, egg 34.7 47.8 2.3 6
Bread, egg, toasted 28.3 52.6 2.5 6.6
Bread, French or Vienna (includes sourdough) 34.3 51.9 3 3
Bread, French or Vienna, toasted (includes sourdough) 28.6 56.4 3.3 3.3
Bread, Indian (navajo) fry 26.5 53.3 1.8 9.5
Bread, Irish soda, prepared from recipe 30.1 56 2.6 5
Bread, Italian 35.7 50 2.7 3.5
Bread, Italian, toasted 29.4 55 2.9 3.9
Bread, mixed-grain (includes whole-grain, 7-grain) 37.7 46.4 6.4 3.8
Bread, mixed-grain, toasted (includes whole-grain, 7- 32.3 50.4 6.6 4.1
grain)
Bread, oat bran 44 39.8 4.5 4.4
Bread, oat bran, toasted 38.5 43.7 4.9 4.8
Appendix II 611
Bread, oatmeal 36.7 48.5 4 4.4

Bread, oatmeal, toasted 31.2 52.7 4.3 4.8
Bread, pita, white, enriched 32.1 55.7 2.2 1.2
Bread, pita, white, unenriched 32.1 55.7 1.6 1.2
Bread, pita, whole-wheat 30.6 55 7.4 2.6
Bread, protein (includes gluten) 40 43.8 3 2.2
Bread, protein, toasted (includes gluten) 34 48.1 3.3 2.4
Bread, pumpernickel 37.9 47.5 6.5 3.1
Bread, pumpernickel, toasted 31.8 52.2 7.1 3.4
Bread, pumpkin, prepared from recipe 30.8 51.2 12.8
Bread, raisin, enriched 33.6 52.3 4.3 4.4
Bread, raisin, toasted, enriched 27.8 56.9 4.7 4.8
Bread, raisin, toasted, unenriched 27.8 56.9 4.8
Bread, raisin, unenriched 33.6 52.3 4.4
Bread, reduced-calorie, oat bran 46 41.3 12 3.2
Bread, reduced-calorie, oat bran, toasted 35.7 49.2 14.3 3.8
Bread, reduced-calorie, oatmeal 44 43.3 3.5
Bread, reduced-calorie, oatmeal, toasted 33.3 51.5 4.2
Bread, reduced-calorie, rye 46 40.5 12 2.9
Bread, reduced-calorie, rye, toasted 35.7 48.2 3.4
Bread, reduced-calorie, wheat 43.2 43.6 12 2.3
Bread, reduced-calorie, wheat, toasted 32.4 51.9 2.7
Bread, reduced-calorie, white 42.9 44.3 9.7 2.5
Bread, reduced-calorie, white, toasted 32 52.7 3
Bread, rice bran 41 43.5 4.9 4.6
Bread, rice bran, toasted 35.9 47.3 5.3 5
Bread, rye 37.3 48.3 5.8 3.3
Bread, rye, toasted 31 53.1 6.4 3.6
Bread, wheat (includes wheat berry) 37.1 47.2 4.3 4.1
Bread, wheat bran 37.8 47.8 4 3.4
Bread, wheat bran, toasted 31.6 52.5 4.4 3.7
Bread, wheat germ 37.1 48.3 2.078 2.9
Bread, wheat germ, toasted 29.3 54.3 2.336 3.3
Bread, wheat, toasted (includes wheat berry) 31.6 51.3 5.3 4.4
Bread, white, commercially prepared (includes soft 36.7 49.5 2.3 3.6
bread crumbs)
Bread, white, commercially prepared, low sodium no 36.7 49.5 2.4 3.6
salt
Bread, white, commercially prepared, toasted 30.4 54.4 2.5 4
Bread, white, commercially prepared, toasted, low 30.4 54.4 4
sodium no salt
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 35.3 49.6 2 5.7
(2%) milk
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 28.9 54.5 2.2 6.3
(2%) milk, toasted
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with nonfat 34.8 53.6 2 2.6
dry milk
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with nonfat 28.3 58.9 2.9
dry milk, toasted
612 Appendix II
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with whole 34.8 49.6 6.2
milk
Bread, white, prepared from recipe, made with whole 28.4 54.5 6.9
milk, toasted
Bread, whole-wheat, commercially prepared 37.7 46.1 6.9 4.2
Bread, whole-wheat, commercially prepared, toasted 30 51.7 7.4 4.8
Bread, whole-wheat, prepared from recipe 32.7 51.4 6 5.4
Bread, whole-wheat, prepared from recipe, toasted 26 56.4 6.7 5.9
Cake, angelfood, commercially prepared 33.2 57.8 1.5 0.8
Cake, angelfood, dry mix 2.8 85.1 0.31 0.4
Cake, angelfood, dry mix, prepared 32.9 58.7 0.216 0.3
Cake, angelfood, prepared from recipe 31.8 59.5 0.1
Cake, Boston cream pie, commercially prepared 45.4 42.9 1.4 8.5
Cake, Boston cream pie, prepared from recipe 34.5 46.2 13.2
Cake, carrot, dry mix, pudding-type 3.6 79.2 9.8
Cake, carrot, dry mix, pudding-type, prepared without 30.9 46.7 2.038 15.7
frosting
Cake, carrot, prepared from recipe with cream cheese 20.6 47.2 1.2 26.4
frosting
Cake, cherry fudge with chocolate frosting 46.1 38 1.23 12.5
Cake, chocolate, commercially prepared with chocolate 22.9 54.6 2.8 16.4
frosting
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, pudding-type 3.9 78.7 3.48 9.2
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, pudding-type, prepared 30.2 44.4 1.951 18.6
without frosting
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, regular 3.1 73 2.4 15.6
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, regular, prepared without 32 49 2.2 11.7
frosting
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, special dietary 4.8 77.6 9.8
Cake, chocolate, dry mix, special dietary, prepared 24.4 60.6 7.7
without frosting
Cake, chocolate, prepared from recipe without frosting 24.4 53.4 1.6 15.1
Cake, fruitcake, commercially prepared 25.3 61.6 3.7 9.1
Cake, fruitcake, prepared from recipe 18.6 64.8 11.5
Cake, German chocolate, dry mix, pudding-type 3.6 80.1 3.5 9.5
Cake, German chocolate, dry mix, pudding-type, 26.9 49.7 1.367 18.6
prepared with coconut-nut frosting
Cake, gingerbread, dry mix 4.4 74.6 1.7 13.8
Cake, gingerbread, dry mix, prepared 33.1 50.7 1.16 10.2
Cake, gingerbread, prepared from recipe 28 49.2 16.4
Cake, marble, dry mix, pudding-type 3.1 79.3 2.9 11.7
Cake, marble, dry mix, pudding-type, prepared without 29.8 47.3 1.725 17
frosting
Cake, pineapple upside-down, prepared from recipe 32.3 50.5 0.8 12.1
Cake, pound, commercially prepared, butter 24.6 48.8 0.496 19.9
Cake, pound, commercially prepared, fat-free 31 61 1.1 1.2
Cake, pound, commercially prepared, other than all 23.1 52.5 1 17.9
butter, enriched
Cake, pound, commercially prepared, other than all 23.1 52.5 1 17.9
butter, unenriched
Appendix II 613
Cake, pound, prepared from recipe, modified, made 23.3 52.6 16.7
with butter
Cake, pound, prepared from recipe, modified, made 23.3 52.8 16.6
with margarine
Cake, pound, prepared from recipe, old-fashioned, 20.4 47.6 24.7
made with butter
Cake, pound, prepared from recipe, old-fashioned, 20.3 47.8 24.5
made with margarine
Cake, shortcake, biscuit-type, prepared from recipe 28.4 48.5 14.2
Cake, snack cakes, creme-filled, chocolate with 19.8 60.3 0.8 14.5
frosting
Cake, snack cakes, creme-filled, sponge 20.2 63.9 0.416 11.4
Cake, snack cakes, cupcakes, chocolate, with frosting, 22.8 67.2 4.3 3.7
low-fat
Cake, sponge, commercially prepared 29.7 61.1 0.549 2.7
Cake, sponge, prepared from recipe 29.4 57.7 4.3
Cake, white, dry mix, pudding-type, enriched 3.5 81 0.7 9.5
Cake, white, dry mix, pudding-type, prepared without 28.4 51.7 0.449 14.8
frosting
Cake, white, dry mix, pudding-type, unenriched 3.5 81 9.5
Cake, white, dry mix, regular 4 78 0.93 10.9
Cake, white, dry mix, regular, prepared without 30.8 55.4 0.662 7.7
frosting
Cake, white, dry mix, special dietary (includes lemon- 6 79.6 8.4
flavored)
Cake, white, dry mix, special dietary, prepared without 26.4 61.3 0.61 6.5
frosting
Cake, white, prepared from recipe with coconut 20.7 63.2 1 10.3
frosting
Cake, white, prepared from recipe without frosting 23.3 57.2 0.8 12.4
Cake, yellow, commercially prepared, with chocolate 21.9 55.4 1.8 17.4
frosting
Cake, yellow, commercially prepared, with vanilla 22.1 58.8 0.321 14.5
frosting
Cake, yellow, dry mix, light 3.1 84.1 1.3 5.5
Cake, yellow, dry mix, light, prepared no frosting, 3% 37.1 53.4 0.8 3.5
fat
Cake, yellow, dry mix, light, prepared no frosting, 6% 34.4 53.2 0.8 5.3
fat
Cake, yellow, dry mix, pudding-type 4 79.9 0.72 9.8
Cake, yellow, dry mix, pudding-type, prepared without 30 48.1 0.428 15.9
frosting
Cake, yellow, dry mix, regular, enriched 3.7 78.1 1.1 11.6
Cake, yellow, dry mix, regular, prepared without 29.8 54.4 0.8 9.4
frosting
Cake, yellow, dry mix, regular, unenriched 3.7 78.1 11.6
Cake, yellow, prepared from recipe without frosting 25.1 53 0.7 14.6
Cheesecake commercially prepared 45.6 25.5 0.42 22.5
Cheesecake prepared from mix, no-bake type 44.2 35.5 1.9 12.7
Cheesecake prepared from recipe 40.9 25.2 26
614 Appendix II
Cheesecake, plain, prepared from recipe, with cherry 49.2 26.5 18.5
topping
Coffeecake, cheese 32.2 44.3 1 15.2
Coffeecake, cinnamon with crumb topping, 21.9 46.7 2 23.3
commercially prepared, enriched
Coffeecake, cinnamon with crumb topping, 21.9 46.7 3.3 23.3
commercially prepared, unenriched
Coffeecake, cinnamon with crumb topping, dry mix 3.3 77.7 1.82 12
Coffeecake, cinnamon with crumb topping, dry mix, 30.5 52.8 1.199 9.6
prepared
Coffeecake, cinnamon with crumb topping, prepared 21 50.3 20.2
from recipe
Coffeecake, creme-filled with chocolate frosting 29.1 53.8 2 10.8
Coffeecake, fruit 31.7 51.5 2.5 10.2
Cookies, animal crackers (includes arrowroot, tea 3.9 74.1 1.1 13.8
biscuits,)
Cookies, brownies, commercially prepared 13.6 63.9 2.1 16.3
Cookies, brownies, dry mix, regular 2.8 76.6 14.9
Cookies, brownies, dry mix, regular, prepared 13 61.7 2.824 19.9
Cookies, brownies, dry mix, special dietary 3.5 80.4 4.2 12.5
Cookies, brownies, dry mix, special dietary, prepared 13 71.3 3.7 11.1
Cookies, brownies, prepared from recipe 12.6 50.2 29.1
Cookies, butter, commercially prepared, enriched 4.6 68.9 0.75 18.8
Cookies, butter, commercially prepared, unenriched 4.6 68.9 2.4 18.8
Cookies, chocolate chip, commercially prepared, reg, 4.1 66.8 2.5 22.6
higher fat, enriched
Cookies, chocolate chip, commercially prepared, reg, 4.1 66.8 2.5 22.6
higher fat, unenriched
Cookies, chocolate chip, commercially prepared, 4.1 73.3 3.6 15.4
regular, lower fat
Cookies, chocolate chip, commercially prepared, soft- 11.6 59.1 3.2 24.3
type
Cookies, chocolate chip, commercially prepared, 5.1 73.4 1.59 16.8
special dietary
Cookies, chocolate chip, dry mix 3 66.1 25.2
Cookies, chocolate chip, dry mix, prepared 3.6 64.1 1.382 25.4
Cookies, chocolate chip, prepared from recipe, made 5.7 58.2 28.4
with butter
Cookies, chocolate chip, prepared from recipe, made 5.7 58.4 2.8 28.3
with margarine
Cookies, chocolate chip, refrigerated dough 12.7 61.4 1.49 20.4
Cookies, chocolate chip, refrigerated dough, baked 3 68.2 1.652 22.6
Cookies, chocolate sandwich, with creme filling, 2.3 70.3 3.2 20.6
regular
Cookies, chocolate sandwich, with creme filling, 2 66.1 5.15 26.4
regular, chocolate-coated
Cookies, chocolate sandwich, with creme filling, 4.2 67.7 4.14 22.1
special dietary
Cookies, chocolate sandwich, with extra creme filling 1.6 68.1 2 25.2
Cookies, chocolate wafers 4.5 72.4 3.4 14.2
Appendix II 615
Cookies, coconut macaroons, prepared from recipe 10.6 72.2 1.8 12.7
Cookies, fig bars 16.5 70.9 4.6 7.3
Cookies, fortune 8 84 1.6 2.7
Cookies, fudge, cake-type (includes trolley cakes) 11.8 78.3 2.752 3.7
Cookies, gingersnaps 5.3 76.9 2.2 9.8
Cookies, graham crackers, chocolate-coated 2.6 66.5 3.1 23.2
Cookies, graham crackers, plain or honey (includes 4.4 76.8 2.8 10.1
cinnamon)
Cookies, ladyfingers, with lemon juice and rind 19.5 59.7 1 9.1
Cookies, ladyfingers, without lemon juice and rind 19.5 59.7 9.1
Cookies, marshmallow, chocolate-coated (includes 10.1 67.7 2 16.9
marshmallow pies)
Cookies, molasses 5.8 73.8 0.95 12.8
Cookies, oatmeal, commercially prepared, fat-free 12.5 78.6 7.3 1.5
Cookies, oatmeal, commercially prepared, regular 5.7 68.7 2.8 18.1
Cookies, oatmeal, commercially prepared, soft-type 11 65.7 2.7 14.7
Cookies, oatmeal, commercially prepared, special 6.5 69.9 2.87 18
dietary
Cookies, oatmeal, dry mix 5.3 67.3 19.2
Cookies, oatmeal, dry mix, prepared 5.9 65.3 3.885 19.5
Cookies, oatmeal, prepared from recipe, with raisins 6.4 68.4 16.2
Cookies, oatmeal, prepared from recipe, without raisins 6.2 66.4 17.9
Cookies, oatmeal, refrigerated dough 15.3 59.1 2.51 18.9
Cookies, oatmeal, refrigerated dough, baked 5.8 65.7 2.787 21
Cookies, peanut butter sandwich, regular 2.8 65.6 1.9 21.1
Cookies, peanut butter sandwich, special dietary 3.7 50.8 34
Cookies, peanut butter, commercially prepared, regular 6.1 58.9 1.8 23.6
Cookies, peanut butter, commercially prepared, soft- 11.5 57.7 1.7 24.4
type
Cookies, peanut butter, prepared from recipe 5.9 58.9 23.8
Cookies, peanut butter, refrigerated dough 12.6 52.1 1.14 25
Cookies, peanut butter, refrigerated dough, baked 4 57.3 1.248 27.5
Cookies, raisin, soft-type 13.1 68 1.2 13.6
Cookies, shortbread, commercially prepared, pecan 3.3 58.3 1.8 32.5
Cookies, shortbread, commercially prepared, plain 3.7 64.5 1.8 24.1
Cookies, shortbread, prepared from recipe, made with 3.1 56 33.4
butter
Cookies, shortbread, prepared from recipe, made with 3 56.4 33.2
margarine
Cookies, sugar wafers with creme filling, regular 1 70.1 0.6 24.3
Cookies, sugar wafers with creme filling, special 4.4 66 25.7
dietary
Cookies, sugar, commercially prepared, regular 4.8 67.9 0.762 21.1
(includes vanilla)
Cookies, sugar, commercially prepared, special dietary 5.7 76.8 0.89 13
Cookies, sugar, prepared from recipe, made with butter 8.9 59.8 23.6
Cookies, sugar, prepared from recipe, made with 8.9 60 1.2 23.4
margarine
Cookies, sugar, refrigerated dough 14.5 59 0.68 20.7
Cookies, sugar, refrigerated dough, baked 5 65.6 0.8 23.1
616 Appendix II
Cookies, vanilla sandwich with creme filling 2.2 72.1 1.5 20

Cookies, vanilla wafers, higher fat 4.2 71.1 2 19.4
Cookies, vanilla wafers, lower fat 5.1 73.6 1.9 15.2
Cracker meal 7.6 80.9 2.56 1.7
Crackers, cheese, low sodium 3.1 58.2 2.4 25.3
Crackers, cheese, regular 3.1 58.2 2.4 25.3
Crackers, cheese, sandwich-type with peanut butter 3.8 57 2.82 23.2
filling
Crackers, crispbread, rye 6.1 82.2 16.5 1.3
Crackers, matzo, egg 6.4 78.6 2.798 2.1
Crackers, matzo, egg and onion 7.2 77.1 5 3.9
Crackers, matzo, plain 4.3 83.7 3 1.4
Crackers, matzo, whole-wheat 4.8 78.9 11.8 1.5
Crackers, melba toast, plain 5.1 76.6 6.3 3.2
Crackers, melba toast, plain, without salt 5.1 76.6 6.3 3.2
Crackers, melba toast, rye (includes pumpernickel) 4.9 77.3 8 3.4
Crackers, melba toast, wheat 5.5 76.4 7.4 2.3
Crackers, milk 4.7 69.7 1.92 15.8
Crackers, rusk toast 5.5 72.3 7.2
Crackers, rye, sandwich-type with cheese filling 3.8 60.8 3.585 22.3
Crackers, rye, wafers, plain 5 80.4 22.89 0.9
Crackers, rye, wafers, seasoned 4 73.8 20.897 9.2
Crackers, saltines (includes oyster, soda, soup) 4.1 71.5 3 11.8
Crackers, saltines, fat-free, low-sodium 3.4 82.3 2.7 1.6
Crackers, saltines, low salt (includes oyster, soda, soup) 4.1 71.5 3 11.8
Crackers, saltines, unsalted tops (includes oyster, soda, 4.1 71.5 2.7 11.8
soup)
Crackers, standard snack-type, regular 3.5 61 1.6 25.3
Crackers, standard snack-type, regular, low salt 3.5 61 1.6 25.3
Crackers, standard snack-type, sandwich, with cheese 3.9 61.7 1.851 21.1
filling
Crackers, standard snack-type, sandwich, with peanut 3.1 58.7 2.756 23.9
butter filling
Crackers, wheat, low salt 3.1 64.9 4.5 20.6
Crackers, wheat, regular 3.1 64.9 4.5 20.6
Crackers, wheat, sandwich, with cheese filling 3.2 58.2 3.076 25
Crackers, wheat, sandwich, with peanut butter filling 3.4 53.8 4.378 26.7
Crackers, whole-wheat 2.7 68.6 10.5 17.2
Crackers, whole-wheat, low salt 2.7 68.6 10.5 17.2
Cream puffs, prepared from recipe, shell (includes 40.5 22.8 0.8 25.9
eclair)
Cream puffs, prepared from recipe, shell, with custard 53.5 22.9 0.4 15.5
filling
Croissants, apple 45.6 37.1 2.5 8.7
Croissants, butter 23.2 45.8 2.6 21
Croissants, cheese 21 47 2.6 20.9
Croutons, plain 5.5 73.5 5.1 6.6
Croutons, seasoned 3.6 63.5 5 18.3
Danish pastry, cheese 31.4 37.2 0.97 21.9
Danish pastry, cinnamon, enriched 24.3 44.6 1.3 22.4
Appendix II 617
Danish pastry, cinnamon, unenriched 24.3 44.6 1.2 22.4

Danish pastry, fruit, enriched (includes apple, 27.1 47.8 1.9 18.5
cinnamon, raisin, lemon, raspberry, strawberry)
Danish pastry, fruit, unenriched (includes apple, 27.1 47.8 1.9 18.5
cinnamon, raisin, lemon, raspberry, strawberry)
Danish pastry, lemon, unenriched 27.1 47.8 1.9 18.5
Danish pastry, nut (includes almond, raisin nut, 20.4 45.7 2 25.2
cinnamon nut)
Danish pastry, raspberry, unenriched 27.1 47.8 1.9 18.5
Doughnuts, cake-type, chocolate, sugared or glazed 16.3 57.4 2.2 19.9
Doughnuts, cake-type, plain (includes unsugared, old- 20.8 49.7 1.5 22.9
fashioned)
Doughnuts, cake-type, plain, chocolate-coated or 14.4 48 2 31
frosted
Doughnuts, cake-type, plain, sugared or glazed 19.6 50.8 1.5 22.9
Doughnuts, cake-type, wheat, sugared or glazed 29.8 42.6 2.22 19.3
Doughnuts, French crullers, glazed 17.9 59.5 1.2 18.3
Doughnuts, yeast-leavened, glazed, enriched (includes 25.4 44.3 1.2 22.8
honey buns)
Doughnuts, yeast-leavened, glazed, unenriched 25.4 44.3 2.1 22.8
(includes honey buns)
Doughnuts, yeast-leavened, with creme filling 38.2 30 0.77 24.5
Doughnuts, yeast-leavened, with jelly filling 35.6 39 0.85 18.7
Eclairs, custard-filled with chocolate glaze, prepared 52.4 24.2 0.6 15.7
from recipe
English muffins, mixed-grain (includes granola) 40.2 46.3 2.79 1.8
English muffins, mixed-grain, toasted (includes 35 50.3 3.04 1.9
granola)
English muffins, plain, enriched, with calcium 42.1 46 2.7 1.8
propionate (includes sourdough)
English muffins, plain, enriched, without calcium 42.1 46 2.7 1.8
English muffins, plain, toasted, enriched, with calcium 37.1 50 2.9 2
English muffins, plain, toasted, enriched, without 37.1 50 2.9 2
calcium propionate (includes sourdough)
English muffins, plain, toasted, unenriched, with 37.1 50 2
English muffins, plain, toasted, unenriched, without 37.1 50 2
English muffins, plain, unenriched, with calcium 42.1 46 1.8
English muffins, plain, unenriched, without calcium 42.1 46 1.8
English muffins, raisin-cinnamon (includes apple- 38.6 48.7 2.9 2.7
cinnamon)
English muffins, raisin-cinnamon, toasted (includes 33.3 53 3.1 2.9
apple-cinnamon)
English muffins, wheat 42.3 44.8 4.62 2
English muffins, wheat, toasted 37.2 48.7 5.03 2.1
618 Appendix II
English muffins, whole-wheat 45.7 40.4 6.7 2.1

English muffins, whole-wheat, toasted 41 44.1 7.3 2.3
French toast, frozen, ready-to-heat 52.6 32.1 1.11 6.1
French toast, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 54.7 25 10.8
(2%) milk
French toast, prepared from recipe, made with whole 54.4 24.9 11.3
milk
Hush puppies, prepared from recipe 29 46 2.8 13.5
Ice cream cones, cake or wafer-type 5.3 79 3 6.9
Ice cream cones, sugar, rolled-type 3 84.1 1.66 3.8
Leavening agents, baking powder, double-acting, 5 27.7 0.2 0
sodium aluminum sulfate
Leavening agents, baking powder, double-acting, 4 24.1 0.2 0
straight phosphate
Leavening agents, baking powder, low-sodium 6.2 46.9 2.2 0.4
Leavening agents, baking soda 0.2 0 0 0
Leavening agents, cream of tartar 1.7 61.5 0.2 0
Leavening agents, yeast, baker’s, active dry 7.6 38.2 21 4.6
Leavening agents, yeast, baker’s, compressed 69 18.1 8.1 1.9
Muffins, blueberry, commercially prepared 38.3 48 2.6 6.5
Muffins, blueberry, dry mix 20 63.2 10
Muffins, blueberry, dry mix, prepared 35.6 48.8 1.1 8.8
Muffins, blueberry, prepared from recipe, made with 39.5 40.7 10.8
low fat (2%) milk
Muffins, blueberry, prepared from recipe, made with 39 40.6 11.3
whole milk
Muffins, blueberry, toaster-type 30.8 53.3 1.8 9.5
Muffins, blueberry, toaster-type, toasted 26.4 56.7 1.9 10.1
Muffins, corn, commercially prepared 32.6 50.9 3.38 8.4
Muffins, corn, dry mix, prepared 30.5 49.1 2.37 10.2
Muffins, corn, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 33 44.2 12.3
(2%) milk
Muffins, corn, prepared from recipe, made with whole 32.5 44.2 12.9
milk
Muffins, corn, toaster-type 23.6 57.9 1.6 11.3
Muffins, corn, toaster-type, toasted 18.7 61.6 1.7 12
Muffins, oat bran 35 48.3 4.6 7.4
Muffins, plain, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 37.7 41.4 2.7 11.4
(2%) milk
Muffins, plain, prepared from recipe, made with whole 37.2 41.4 2.7 12
milk
Muffins, wheat bran, dry mix 4.8 73 12
Muffins, wheat bran, dry mix, prepared 35.4 46.6 4.2 9.2
Muffins, wheat bran, prepared from recipe, made with 35.4 41.9 12.2
low fat (2%) milk
Muffins, wheat bran, prepared from recipe, made with 34.9 41.8 12.8
whole milk
Muffins, wheat bran, toaster-type with raisins 31.4 52.2 7.7 8.8
Muffins, wheat bran, toaster-type with raisins, 27 55.5 8.2 9.4
toasted
Appendix II 619
Pancakes plain, frozen, ready-to-heat (includes 45.2 43.6 1.79 3.3

buttermilk)
Pancakes, blueberry, prepared from recipe 53.2 29 9.2
Pancakes, buckwheat, dry mix, incomplete 9.1 71.3 8.47 2.7
Pancakes, buckwheat, dry mix, incomplete, prepared 53.7 28.2 2.3 7.6
Pancakes, buttermilk, prepared from recipe 52.5 28.7 9.3
Pancakes, plain, dry mix, complete (includes 8.8 71.3 2.7 4.9
buttermilk)
Pancakes, plain, dry mix, complete, prepared 53 36.7 1.3 2.5
Pancakes, plain, dry mix, incomplete (includes 9.1 73.6 5.44 1.7
buttermilk)
Pancakes, plain, dry mix, incomplete, prepared 52.9 28.9 1.86 7.7
Pancakes, plain, prepared from recipe 52.9 28.3 9.7
Pancakes, special dietary, dry mix 10.8 73.9 1.4
Pancakes, special dietary, dry mix, prepared 49 42.2 0.8
Pancakes, whole-wheat, dry mix, incomplete 8.8 71 1.5
Pancakes, whole-wheat, dry mix, incomplete, prepared 52.8 29.4 2.83 6.5
Phyllo dough 32.6 52.6 1.9 6
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, chocolate 5.5 55.5 31.7
wafer, baked
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, chocolate 7.3 54.4 1.5 31.1
wafer, chilled
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, graham 4.2 65.2 1.5 24.9
cracker, baked
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, graham 6.1 63.9 1.5 24.4
cracker, chilled
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, vanilla 6.7 51.2 37
wafer, baked
Pie crust, cookie-type, prepared from recipe, vanilla 8.5 50.2 0.1 36.2
wafer, chilled
Pie crust, standard-type, dry mix 7.6 52.1 31.4
Pie crust, standard-type, dry mix, prepared, baked 10.6 50.4 1.77 30.4
Pie crust, standard-type, frozen, ready-to-bake, baked 11.2 49.6 1 32.8
Pie crust, standard-type, frozen, ready-to-bake, enriched 21 44.1 0.89 29.2
Pie crust, standard-type, frozen, ready-to-bake, 21 44.1 0.89 29.2
unenriched
Pie crust, standard-type, prepared from recipe, baked 9.8 47.5 1.68 34.6
Pie crust, standard-type, prepared from recipe, unbaked 19.7 42.3 3.4 30.8
Pie, apple, commercially prepared, enriched flour 52.2 34 1.6 11
Pie, apple, commercially prepared, unenriched flour 52.2 34 1.7 11
Pie, apple, prepared from recipe 47.3 37.1 12.5
Pie, banana cream, prepared from mix, no-bake type 50.9 31.6 0.62 12.9
Pie, banana cream, prepared from recipe 47.9 32.9 0.7 13.6
Pie, blueberry, commercially prepared 52.5 34.9 1.03 10
Pie, blueberry, prepared from recipe 51.2 33.5 11.9
Pie, butterscotch, pudding-type, prepared from recipe 46.3 33.3 14.3
Pie, cherry, commercially prepared 46.2 39.8 0.8 11
Pie, cherry, prepared from recipe 45.8 38.5 12.2
Pie, chocolate cream, prepared from recipe 46.6 31.2 16.1
Pie, chocolate creme, commercially prepared 43.5 33.6 2 19.4
620 Appendix II
Pie, chocolate mousse, prepared from mix, no-bake 49.7 29.6 15.4
type
Pie, coconut cream, prepared from mix, no-bake type 49.7 28.5 0.5 17.6
Pie, coconut cream, prepared from recipe 43.7 34.2 16
Pie, coconut creme, commercially prepared 43.2 37.2 1.29 16.6
Pie, coconut custard, commercially prepared 49.2 30.2 1.8 13.2
Pie, egg custard, commercially prepared 60.9 20.8 1.6 11.6
Pie, egg custard, prepared from recipe 58.2 26.8 8.9
Pie, fried pies, cherry 37.6 42.6 2.6 16.1
Pie, fried pies, fruit 37.6 42.6 2.6 16.1
Pie, fried pies, lemon 37.6 42.6 2.6 16.1
Pie, lemon meringue, commercially prepared 41.7 47.2 1.2 8.7
Pie, lemon meringue, prepared from recipe 43.3 39.1 12.9
Pie, mince, prepared from recipe 37.4 48 2.6 10.8
Pie, peach 54.4 32.9 0.82 10
Pie, pecan, commercially prepared 19.3 57.2 3.5 18.5
Pie, pecan, prepared from recipe 19.5 52.2 22.2
Pie, pumpkin, commercially prepared 58.1 27.3 2.7 9.5
Pie, pumpkin, prepared from recipe 58.5 26.4 9.3
Pie, vanilla cream, prepared from recipe 47 32.6 0.6 14.4
Popovers, dry mix, enriched 11.7 71 4.3
Popovers, dry mix, prepared 54.6 31.6 4.5
Popovers, dry mix, unenriched 11.7 71 4.3
Popovers, prepared from recipe, made with low fat 54.5 28 0.9 7.6
(2%) milk
Popovers, prepared from recipe, made with whole 53.8 27.9 8.5
milk
Puff pastry, frozen, ready-to-bake 8.5 45.1 1.475 38.1
Puff pastry, frozen, ready-to-bake, baked 7.4 45.7 1.49 38.5
Rolls, dinner, egg 30.4 52 3.7 6.4
Rolls, dinner, oat bran 44 40.2 4.1 4.6
Rolls, dinner, plain, commercially prepared (includes 31.9 50.4 3 7.3
brown-and-serve)
Rolls, dinner, plain, prepared from recipe, made with 29.1 53.4 1.9 7.3
low fat (2%) milk
Rolls, dinner, plain, prepared from recipe, made with 28.6 53.4 7.8
whole milk
Rolls, dinner, rye 30.1 53.1 4.87 3.4
Rolls, dinner, wheat 37 46 3.78 6.3
Rolls, dinner, whole-wheat 33.1 51.1 7.54 4.7
Rolls, French 34.8 50.2 3.2 4.3
Rolls, hamburger or hotdog, mixed-grain 38 44.6 3.81 6
Rolls, hamburger or hotdog, plain 34 50.3 2.7 5.1
Rolls, hamburger or hotdog, reduced-calorie 46 42.1 6.2 2
Rolls, hard (includes kaiser) 31 52.7 2.3 4.3
Strudel, apple 43.5 41.1 2.2 11.2
Sweet rolls, cheese 29.4 43.7 1.2 18.3
Sweet rolls, cinnamon, commercially prepared with 24.8 50.9 2.4 16.4
raisins
Sweet rolls, cinnamon, refrigerated dough with frosting 28.9 51.6 12.2
Appendix II 621
Sweet rolls, cinnamon, refrigerated dough with frosting, 22.7 56.1 13.2
baked
Sweet rolls, prepared from recipe with raisins and nuts 27.1 51.9 12.8
Taco shells, baked 6 62.4 7.5 22.6
Taco shells, baked, without added salt 6 62.4 7.5 22.6
Toaster pastries, brown-sugar-cinnamon 10.8 68.1 1 14.2
Toaster pastries, fruit (includes apple, blueberry, 12.3 71.1 2.09 10.2
cherry, strawberry)
Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, corn 44.1 46.6 5.2 2.5
Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, corn, without added 44.1 46.6 5.2 2.5
salt
Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, flour 26.8 55.6 3.3 7.1
Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, flour, without added 26.8 55.6 3.1 7.1
calcium
Waffles, buttermilk, prepared from recipe 42.1 33 13.6
Waffles, plain, dry mix, prepared from complete-type 42.5 35.2 1.4 13.7
Waffles, plain, frozen, ready-to-heat (includes 44.9 38.6 2.2 7.8
buttermilk)
Waffles, plain, frozen, ready-to-heat, toasted (includes 42.1 40.7 2.3 8.2
buttermilk)
Waffles, plain, prepared from recipe 42 32.9 14.1
Wonton wrappers (includes egg roll wrappers) 28.8 57.9 1.84 1.5
CEREALS
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 4.1 74.3 8.5 9
MUESLIX Apple & Almond Crunch
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER 100% 2.5 68.64 7.5 16.45
Natural Cereal with Oats and Honey
Cereals ready-to-eat, 100% BRAN, (wheat bran, 3 72.9 29.6 5
barley)
Cereals ready-to-eat, 100% NATURAL CEREAL, 1.9 67.1 6.6 18.8
WITH APPLE AND CINNAMON, (oats, wheat)
Cereals ready-to-eat, 100% NATURAL CEREAL, 3.5 65.8 6.6 18.5
WITH RAISINS AND DATES, (oats, wheat)
Cereals ready-to-eat, 40% BRAN FLAKES, 2.5 79.8 14.1 1.4
RALSTON PURINA, (wheat bran)
Cereals ready-to-eat, ALPHA-BITS, (oat with other 1.3 86.6 4.3 2.3
grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, BRAN CHEX, (wheat bran, corn) 2.3 79.7 16.2 2.8
Cereals ready-to-eat, C.W. POST, PLAIN, (oats with 2.3 74.9 7.4 13.2
other grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, C.W. POST, WITH RAISINS, 3.9 71.8 13.2 14.3
(oats with other grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, COCOA PEBBLES, (rice) 2.1 85.9 1.6 5.4
Cereals ready-to-eat, COOKIE-CRISP, CHOCOLATE 1.9 87.5 1.4 3.6
CHIP AND VANILLA, (corn with other grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, CORN CHEX, (corn) 1.9 87.7 1.8 0.4
622 Appendix II
Cereals ready-to-eat, CORN FLAKES, RALSTON 2.7 86.6 1.9 0.4

PURINA, (corn)
Cereals ready-to-eat, FROSTED RICE KRINKLES, 1.9 91.1 0.6 0.2
(rice)
Cereals ready-to-eat, FRUITY PEBBLES, (rice) 2.9 86.1 1.3 5.2
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, WHEATIES 3.48 79.3 7 3.09
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, APPLE 2.51 83.5 5.3 5.44
CINNAMON CHEERIOS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, BASIC 4 7.14 76.3 6.1 5.16
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, BERRY 2.32 87.1 0.6 3.87
BERRY KIX
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, BODY 2.44 86.1 3.1 3.16
BUDDIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, BOO 1.69 91.1 1.3 1.77
BERRY
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, CHEERIOS 3.37 76.2 8.8 5.9
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, CINNAMON 2.09 79.46 5 10.14
TOAST CRUNCH
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, CLUSTERS 2.52 78.9 7.7 6.33
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, COCOA 1.89 89.05 0.6 3.01
PUFFS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, COUNT 1.84 88.1 1.5 2.88
CHOCULA
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, CRISPY 7.09 80.6 6.2 1.38
WHEAT ’N RAISINS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, Country Corn 2.61 86.53 1.5 1.68
Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, FIBER ONE 3.82 80.02 47.5 2.81
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, 1.91 90.9 0.6 1.71
FRANKENBERRY
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, FROSTED 2.22 85.12 5.2 3.32
CHEERIOS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, GOLDEN 2.64 85.63 3.1 3.6
GRAHAMS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, HONEY 2.68 88 5 0.98
FROSTED WHEATIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, HONEY 2.33 80.87 5.2 4.13
NUT CHEERIOS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, KABOOM 3.49 80.75 5 3.8
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, KIX 2.03 86.38 2.7 2.07
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, LUCKY 2.36 83.9 4 3.61
CHARMS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, 2.68 81.5 6.4 3.63
MULTIGRAIN CHEERIOS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, NATURE 5.43 69.87 5.2 14
VALLEY Cinnamon & Raisins Granola
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, NATURE 5.01 62.3 6.1 20.3
VALLEY Fruit n’ Nut Granola
VALLEY LOW FAT FRUIT GRANOLA
Appendix II 623

VALLEY Toasted Oats Granola
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, OATMEAL 2.36 76.28 7.9 8.36
CRISP WITH ALMONDS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, OATMEAL 2.44 84.02 8.1 3.34
CRISP WITH APPLES
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, Oatmeal 5.91 79.46 6.4 4.45
Raisin Crisp
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, RAISIN 4.5 75.37 9.2 8
NUT BRAN
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, REESE’S 1.92 76.6 1.3 10.65
PEANUT BUTTER PUFFS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, S’MORES 2.79 85.3 2.8 4
GRAHAMS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, SUN 2.8 79.53 4 5.74
CRUNCHERS
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, TOTAL 2.82 79.6 8.8 2.32
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, TOTAL Corn 2.56 85.55 2.5 1.61
Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, TOTAL 9.16 77.73 9.1 1.83
Raisin Bran
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, TRIPLES 3.13 83.28 2.8 3.37
Cereals ready-to-eat, GENERAL MILLS, TRIX 2.08 86.8 2.4 5.69
Cereals ready-to-eat, GRAPE-NUTS FLAKES, (wheat, 3.4 81.1 9.9 2.9
barley)
Cereals ready-to-eat, GRAPE-NUTS, (wheat, barley) 3.2 82 10 0.4
Cereals ready-to-eat, HEALTHY CHOICE from 3 84.1 9.4 1.2
KELLOGG’S Multi-Grain Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, HEALTHY CHOICE, 3.1 85.3 8.4 1.5
KELLOGG’S Almond Crunch with Raisins
Cereals ready-to-eat, HEARTLAND NATURAL 4.1 68.3 6.1 15.4
CEREAL, PLAIN, (oats, wheat germ)
Cereals ready-to-eat, HEARTLAND NATURAL 3.3 67.9 7.1 16.3
CEREAL, WITH COCONUT, (oats, wheat germ)
Cereals ready-to-eat, HEARTLAND NATURAL 5 69 5.5 14.2
CEREAL, WITH RAISINS, (oats, wheat germ)
Cereals ready-to-eat, HONEYBRAN, (wheat) 2.5 81.8 11.1 2.1
Cereals ready-to-eat, HONEYCOMB, (corn, oats) 1.4 89.1 2.8 1.8
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG’S FROSTED MINI- 5.3 82.5 10.7 1.6
WHEATS,regular and bite size
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG’S MUESLIX 10.28 73.6 6.8 5.9
Raisin & Almond Crunch with Dates
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, POP-TARTS 2.3 89.2 0 2.7
CRUNCH Frosted Strawberry
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, JUST RIGHT 6.9 80.5 5 2.9
Fruit & Nut
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3.59 72.9 11.9 12.67
CRACKLIN’ OAT BRAN
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S RICE 3 86.5 1.1 1.1
KRISPIES
624 Appendix II
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S ALL- 3.5 73.37 32.4 3.4

BRAN
APPLE CINNAMON SQUARES
APPLE JACKS
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 5.3 84.9 8 0.9
APPLE RAISIN CRISP
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 89 1.5 0.5
APPLE-CINNAMON RICE KRISPIES
BLUEBERRY SQUARES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S BRAN 3 79.9 39.9 2.4
BUDS
CINNAMON MINI BUNS
COCOA KRISPIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3.3 77.4 13.2 4
COMMON SENSE Oat Bran Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S CORN 2.89 91.7 1.4 0.58
POPS
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 86.2 2.2 1
CRISPIX
Complete Bran Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S Corn 3.23 86.49 2.8 0.71
Flakes
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 91 1.5 0.4
DOUBLE DIP CRUNCH
FROOT LOOPS
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 84.7 11.2 1.1
FROSTED BRAN
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 2.7 91 1.6 0.5
FROSTED FLAKES
FROSTED KRISPIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 90.3 1 0.3
FRUITY MARSHMALLOW KRISPIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S JUST 3.2 83.7 5.1 2.7
RIGHT with Crunchy Nuggets
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S Low 5.4 79.4 6 5
Fat Granola with Raisins
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S Low 3.5 80.3 5.9 5.9
Fat Granola without Raisins
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 6.2 77.6 8 5.7
NUTRI-GRAIN Almond and Raisin
NUTRI-GRAIN Wheat
Appendix II 625
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S Nut & 2.5 83.6 1.6 4.5
Honey Crunch
PRODUCT 19
RAISIN BRAN
RAISIN SQUARES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S RICE 3.5 85.5 1 5.3
KRISPIES TREATS Cereal
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 3 87.6 3.5 2
SMACKS
SPECIAL K
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S 9.1 79 9.2 3
STRAWBERRY SQUARES
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, TEMPTATIONS, 2.8 82.4 2.6 5.5
French Vanilla Almond
Cereals ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, TEMPTATIONS, 2.8 81.4 2.3 7.5
Honey Roasted Pecan
Cereals ready-to-eat, NATURAL BRAN FLAKES, 3 79.3 19.5 1.6
POST, (wheat bran)
Cereals ready-to-eat, NUTRI-GRAIN, WHEAT, see 3 84.6 6.3 1
new product 08292
Cereals ready-to-eat, POST oat flakes, (oat with other 3.1 75.2 3 2
grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, CAP’N CRUNCH 2.3 85.35 3.2 5.06
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, CAP’N CRUNCH’S 2.38 85.63 2.2 4.91
CRUNCHBERRIES
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, CAP’N CRUNCH’S 1.91 79.68 2.9 8.59
PEANUT BUTTER CRUNCH
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, HONEY GRAHAM 1.7 84.24 2.6 7.07
OH!S
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, KING VITAMAN 2 84.14 3.8 3.51
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, KRETSCHMER 3.4 58.11 10.2 7.78
Honey Crunch Wheat Germ
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER 100% 4.3 70.25 7.2 14.28
Natural Cereal with Oats, Honey, and Raisins
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER 1.91 78.59 7.6 4.28
CINNAMON OATMEAL SQUARES
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER CRUNCHY 2.59 84.18 17.8 3.3
BRAN
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER Low Fat 3.87 80.68 6 5.33
100% Natural Crispy Wholegrain Cereal with
Raisins
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER OAT 4 80.8 5.9 3.47
CINNAMON LIFE
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER OAT LIFE, 4 78.7 6.4 3.99
plain
626 Appendix II
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER OATMEAL 2.39 77.35 7.6 4.62

SQUARES
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER Oat Bran 4 72.62 10.5 5.17
Cereal
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER Puffed Rice 3.91 87.77 1.4 0.9
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER Puffed 3.69 76.39 9.4 2.15
Wheat
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, QUAKER Toasted 2.5 79.5 6.8 5.53
Oatmeal Cereal, Honey Nut
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, SUN COUNTRY 1.37 67.2 5.2 18.02
Granola with Almonds
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, SUN COUNTRY 2.82 72.2 6 13.63
Granola, Raisin and Date
Cereals ready-to-eat, QUAKER, SWEET CRUNCH/ 2.51 85.08 2.5 5.51
QUISP
Cereals ready-to-eat, RAISIN BRAN, POST, (wheat) 9.2 75.6 14.1 1.9
Cereals ready-to-eat, RAISIN BRAN, RALSTON 7.3 83 13.4 0.5
PURINA, (wheat)
Cereals ready-to-eat, RAISINS, RICE AND RYE, (rice 6 85.4 5.7 0.3
with other grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, RICE CHEX, (rice) 2.6 89.2 1.8 0.4
Cereals ready-to-eat, SUGAR FROSTED FLAKES, 1.5 90.1 2.2 1.4
RALSTON PURINA, (corn)
Cereals ready-to-eat, SUGAR SPARKLED FLAKES, 1.7 91.1 1.2 0.2
(corn)
Cereals ready-to-eat, SUPER SUGAR CRISP, (wheat) 1.5 90.2 1.5 0.9
Cereals ready-to-eat, TASTEEOS, (oat with other 2.1 79.1 10.6 2.8
grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, TEAM, (rice with other grains) 3.8 85.8 1.3 1.8
Cereals ready-to-eat, TOASTIES, (corn) 3 85.8 3.4 0.2
Cereals ready-to-eat, WAFFELOS, (wheat with other 2.5 86.3 4.2
grains)
Cereals ready-to-eat, WHEAT CHEX, (wheat) 2.5 82.2 8.9 2.5
Cereals ready-to-eat, corn flakes, low sodium, (corn) 3 88.8 1.1 0.3
Cereals ready-to-eat, crisp rice, low sodium, (rice) 3 91 1.4 0.3
Cereals ready-to-eat, crispy rice, (rice) 2.5 88.6 1.2 0.4
Cereals ready-to-eat, granola, homemade, (oats, wheat 5.3 53 10.5 24.6
germ)
Cereals ready-to-eat, rice, puffed, fortified, (rice) 3 89.8 1.7 0.5
Cereals ready-to-eat, wheat germ, toasted, plain, (wheat 5.6 49.6 12.9 10.7
germ)
Cereals ready-to-eat, wheat, puffed, fortified, (rice) 3 79.6 4.4 1.2
Cereals ready-to-eat, wheat, shredded, large biscuit, 3.98 81.3 9.8 1.65
(wheat)
Cereals ready-to-eat, wheat, shredded, small biscuit, 5.3 80.4 9.8 1.65
(wheat)
Cereals ready-to-eat,HEALTHY CHOICE, 5 81.8 9.3 1.9
KELLOGG’S Toasted Brown Sugar Squares
Cereals, ready-to-eat, KELLOGG, KELLOGG’S ALL- 3.7 75.6 51.1 3.1
BRAN WITH EXTRA FIBER
Appendix II 627
FRUITS
Acerola juice, raw 94.3 4.8 0.3 0.3
Acerola, (West Indian Cherry), raw 91.41 7.69 1.1 0.3
Apple juice, canned or bottled, unsweetened, with 87.93 11.68 0.1 0.11
added ascorbic acid
Apple juice, canned or bottled, unsweetened, without 87.93 11.68 0.1 0.11
added ascorbic acid
Apple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, diluted 87.9 11.54 0.1 0.1
with 3 volume water without added ascorbic acid
Apple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, diluted 87.9 11.54 0.1 0.1
with 3 volume water, with added ascorbic acid
Apple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 57 41 0.37
undiluted, with added ascorbic acid
Apple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 57 41 0.4 0.37
undiluted, without added ascorbic acid
Apples, canned, sweetened, sliced, drained, heated 82.28 16.84 2 0.43
Apples, canned, sweetened, sliced, drained, unheated 82.36 16.7 1.7 0.49
Apples, dehydrated (low moisture), sulfured, stewed 79.36 19.91 2.6 0.12
Apples, dehydrated (low moisture), sulfured, uncooked 3 93.53 12.4 0.58
Apples, dried, sulfured, stewed, with added sugar 78.76 20.73 1.9 0.07
Apples, dried, sulfured, stewed, without added sugar 84.13 15.32 2 0.07
Apples, dried, sulfured, uncooked 31.76 65.89 8.7 0.32
Apples, frozen, unsweetened, heated 87.16 12 1.9 0.33
Apples, frozen, unsweetened, unheated 86.85 12.31 1.9 0.32
Apples, raw, with skin 83.93 15.25 2.7 0.36
Apples, raw, without skin 84.46 14.84 1.9 0.31
Apples, raw, without skin, cooked, boiled 85.47 13.64 2.4 0.36
Apples, raw, without skin, cooked, microwave 84.63 14.41 2.8 0.42
Applesauce, canned, sweetened, with salt 79.58 19.91 1.2 0.18
Applesauce, canned, sweetened, without salt 79.58 19.91 1.2 0.18
Applesauce, canned, unsweetened, with added ascorbic 88.35 11.29 1.2 0.05
acid
Applesauce, canned, unsweetened, without added 88.35 11.29 1.2 0.05
ascorbic acid
Apricot nectar, canned, with added ascorbic acid 84.87 14.39 0.6 0.09
Apricot nectar, canned, without added ascorbic acid 84.87 14.39 0.6 0.09
Apricots, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, without skin, 74.33 24.85 1.6 0.04
solids and liquids
Apricots, canned, extra light syrup pack, with skin, 86.3 12.5 1.6 0.1
solids and liquids
Apricots, canned, heavy syrup pack, with skin, solids 77.56 21.47 1.6 0.08
and liquids
Apricots, canned, heavy syrup pack, without skin, 77.66 21.45 1.6 0.09
solids and liquids
Apricots, canned, juice pack, with skin, solids and 86.62 12.34 1.6 0.04
liquids
Apricots, canned, light syrup pack, with skin, solids 82.56 16.49 1.6 0.05
and liquids
628 Appendix II
Apricots, canned, water pack, with skin, solids and 92.36 6.39 1.6 0.16
liquids
Apricots, canned, water pack, without skin, solids and 93.43 5.48 1.1 0.03
liquids
Apricots, dehydrated (low-moisture), sulfured, stewed 63.6 32.62 0.24
Apricots, dehydrated (low-moisture), sulfured, 7.5 82.89 0.62
uncooked
Apricots, dried, sulfured, stewed, with added sugar 68.45 29.26 4.1 0.15
Apricots, dried, sulfured, stewed, without added sugar 75.56 21.9 3.2 0.16
Apricots, dried, sulfured, uncooked 31.09 61.75 9 0.46
Apricots, frozen, sweetened 73.3 25.1 2.2 0.1
Apricots, raw 86.35 11.12 2.4 0.39
Avocados, raw, California 72.56 6.91 4.9 17.33
Avocados, raw, Florida 79.73 8.91 5.3 8.87
Avocados, raw, all commercial varieties 74.27 7.39 5 15.32
Bananas, dehydrated, or banana powder 3 88.28 7.5 1.81
Bananas, raw 74.26 23.43 2.4 0.48
Blackberries, canned, heavy syrup, solids and liquids 75.06 23.1 3.4 0.14
Blackberries, frozen, unsweetened 82.21 15.67 5 0.43
Blackberries, raw 85.64 12.76 5.3 0.39
Blueberries, canned, heavy syrup, solids and liquids 76.78 22.06 1.5 0.33
Blueberries, frozen, sweetened 77.4 21.95 2.1 0.13
Blueberries, frozen, unsweetened 86.59 12.17 2.7 0.64
Blueberries, raw 84.61 14.13 2.7 0.38
Boysenberries, canned, heavy syrup 76.26 22.31 2.6 0.12
Boysenberries, frozen, unsweetened 85.9 12.19 3.9 0.26
Breadfruit, raw 70.65 27.12 4.9 0.23
Carambola, (starfruit), raw 90.92 7.83 2.7 0.35
Carissa, (natal-plum), raw 84.17 13.63 1.3
Cherimoya, raw 73.5 24 2.4 0.4
Cherries, sour, red, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, 69.73 29.23 0.8 0.09
solids and liquids
Cherries, sour, red, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids 75.66 23.27 1.1 0.1
and liquids
Cherries, sour, red, canned, light syrup pack, solids and 79.62 19.3 0.8 0.1
liquids
Cherries, sour, red, canned, water pack, solids and 89.93 8.94 1.1 0.1
liquids
Cherries, sour, red, frozen, unsweetened 87.2 11.02 1.6 0.44
Cherries, sour, red, raw 86.13 12.18 1.6 0.3
Cherries, sweet, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, solids 72.66 26.23 1.5 0.15
and liquids
Cherries, sweet, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and 77.61 21.27 1.5 0.15
liquids
Cherries, sweet, canned, juice pack, solids and liquids 84.95 13.81 1.5 0.02
Cherries, sweet, canned, light syrup pack, solids and 81.56 17.29 1.5 0.15
liquids
Cherries, sweet, canned, water pack, solids and liquids 87.05 11.76 1.5 0.13
Cherries, sweet, frozen, sweetened 75.53 22.36 2.1 0.13
Cherries, sweet, raw 80.76 16.55 2.3 0.96
Appendix II 629
Crabapples, raw 78.94 19.95 0.3

Cranberries, raw 86.54 12.68 4.2 0.2
Cranberry sauce, canned, sweetened 60.65 38.9 1 0.15
Cranberry-orange relish, canned 53.2 46.2 0 0.1
Currants, European black, raw 81.96 15.38 0.41
Currants, red and white, raw 83.95 13.8 4.3 0.2
Currants, zante, dried 19.21 74.08 6.8 0.27
Custard-apple, (bullock’s-heart), raw 71.5 25.2 0.6
Dates, domestic, natural and dry 22.5 73.51 7.5 0.45
Elderberries, raw 79.8 18.4 7 0.5
Feijoa, raw 86.6 10.63 0.78
Figs, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 71.39 27.86 0.1
Figs, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 76.33 22.9 2.2 0.1
Figs, canned, light syrup pack, solids and liquids 81.26 17.95 1.8 0.1
Figs, canned, water pack, solids and liquids 85.21 13.99 2.2 0.1
Figs, dried, stewed 69.8 27.57 4.8 0.49
Figs, dried, uncooked 28.43 65.35 9.3 1.17
Figs, raw 79.11 19.18 3.3 0.3
Fruit cocktail, (peach and pineapple and pear and grape 76.43 22.89 1.1 0.07
and cherry), canned, extra heavy syrup, solids and
liquids
Fruit cocktail, (peach and pineapple and pear and grape 87.7 11.63 1.1 0.07
and cherry), canned, extra light syrup, solids and
liquids
Fruit cocktail, (peach and pineapple and pear and grape 80.4 18.91 1 0.07
and cherry), canned, heavy syrup, solids and liquids
and cherry), canned, juice pack, solids and liquids
and cherry), canned, light syrup, solids and liquids
and cherry), canned, water pack, solids and liquids
Fruit salad, (peach and pear and apricot and pineapple 76.64 22.77 1 0.06
and cherry), canned, extra heavy syrup, solids and
liquids
Fruit salad, (peach and pear and apricot and pine- 80.26 19.11 1 0.07
apple and cherry), canned, heavy syrup, solids and
liquids
and cherry), canned, juice pack, solids and liquids
and cherry), canned, light syrup, solids and liquids
and cherry), canned, water pack, solids and liquids
Fruit salad, (pineapple and papaya and banana and 76.78 22.36 1.3 0.1
guava), tropical, canned, heavy syrup, solids and
liquids
Fruit, mixed, (peach and cherry-sweet and -sour and 73.73 24.23 1.9 0.18
raspberry and grape and boysenberry), frozen,
sweetened
630 Appendix II
Fruit, mixed, (peach and pear and pineapple), canned, 80.56 18.76 1 0.1
heavy syrup, solids and liquids
Fruit, mixed, (prune and apricot and pear), dried 31.18 64.06 7.8 0.49
Gooseberries, canned, light syrup pack, solids and 80.1 18.75 2.4 0.2
liquids
Gooseberries, raw 87.87 10.18 4.3 0.58
Grape juice, canned or bottled, unsweetened, without 84.12 14.96 0.1 0.08
added vitamin C
Grape juice, frozen concentrate, sweetened, diluted 86.9 12.75 0.1 0.09
with 3 volume water, without added vitamin C
Grape juice, frozen concentrate, sweetened, undiluted, 54.4 44.37 0.3 0.31
without added vitamin C
Grapefruit juice, canned, sweetened 87.38 11.13 0.1 0.09
Grapefruit juice, canned, unsweetened 90.1 8.96 0.1 0.1
Grapefruit juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 89.3 9.73 0.1 0.13
diluted with 3 volume water
Grapefruit juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 62 34.56 0.4 0.48
undiluted
Grapefruit juice, pink, raw 90 9.2 0.1
Grapefruit juice, white, raw 90 9.2 0.1 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, pink and red and white, all areas 90.89 8.08 1.1 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, pink and red, California and Arizona 89.31 9.69 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, pink and red, Florida 91.56 7.5 1.1 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, pink and red, all areas 91.38 7.68 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, white, California 89.58 9.09 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, white, Florida 90.76 8.19 0.1
Grapefruit, raw, white, all areas 90.48 8.41 1.1 0.1
Grapefruit, sections, canned, juice pack, solids and 89.67 9.21 0.4 0.09
liquids
Grapefruit, sections, canned, light syrup pack, solids 83.59 15.44 0.4 0.1
and liquids
Grapefruit, sections, canned, water pack, solids and 89.85 9.15 0.4 0.1
liquids
Grapes, American type (slip skin), raw 81.3 17.15 1 0.35
Grapes, canned, Thompson seedless, heavy syrup pack, 79.53 19.65 0.4 0.1
solids and liquids
Grapes, canned, Thompson seedless, water pack, solids 88.84 10.3 1 0.11
and liquids
Grapes, European type (adherent skin), raw 80.56 17.77 1 0.58
Groundcherries, (cape-gooseberries or poha), raw 85.4 11.2 0.7
Guava sauce, cooked 89.56 9.48 3.6 0.14
Guavas, common, raw 86.1 11.88 5.4 0.6
Guavas, strawberry, raw 80.66 17.36 0.6
Jackfruit, raw 73.23 24.01 1.6 0.3
Java-plum, (jambolan), raw 83.13 15.56 0.23
Jujube, dried 19.7 73.6 1.1
Jujube, raw 77.86 20.23 0.2
Kiwi fruit, (Chinese gooseberries), fresh, raw 83.05 14.88 3.4 0.44
Kiwifruit, (Chinese gooseberries), held in storage, raw 83.05 14.88 3.4 0.44
Kumquats, raw 81.7 16.43 6.6 0.1
Appendix II 631
Lemon juice, canned or bottled 92.46 6.48 0.4 0.29

Lemon juice, frozen, unsweetened, single strength 92.39 6.5 0.4 0.32
Lemon juice, raw 90.73 8.63 0.4 0
Lemon peel, raw 81.6 16 10.6 0.3
Lemons, raw, with peel 87.4 10.7 4.7 0.3
Lemons, raw, without peel 88.98 9.32 2.8 0.3
Lime juice, canned or bottled, unsweetened 92.52 6.69 0.4 0.23
Lime juice, raw 90.21 9.01 0.4 0.1
Limes, raw 88.26 10.54 2.8 0.2
Litchis, dried 22.3 70.7 4.6 1.2
Litchis, raw 81.76 16.53 1.3 0.44
Loganberries, frozen 84.61 13.02 4.9 0.31
Longans, dried 17.6 74 0.4
Longans, raw 82.75 15.14 1.1 0.1
Loquats, raw 86.73 12.14 1.7 0.2
Mammy-apple, (mamey), raw 86.2 12.5 3 0.5
Mangos, raw 81.71 17 1.8 0.27
Melon balls, frozen 90.26 7.94 0.7 0.25
Melons, cantaloupe, raw 89.78 8.36 0.8 0.28
Melons, casaba, raw 92 6.2 0.8 0.1
Melons, honeydew, raw 89.66 9.18 0.6 0.1
Mulberries, raw 87.68 9.8 1.7 0.39
Nectarines, raw 86.28 11.78 1.6 0.46
Oheloberries, raw 92.3 6.84 0.22
Olives, ripe, canned (jumbo-super colossal) 84.34 5.61 2.5 6.87
Olives, ripe, canned (small-extra large) 79.99 6.26 3.2 10.68
Orange juice, California, chilled, includes from 88.4 10.06 0.27
concentrate
Orange juice, canned, unsweetened 89.01 9.85 0.2 0.14
Orange juice, chilled, includes from concentrate 88.4 10.06 0.2 0.27
Orange juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, diluted 88.1 10.78 0.2 0.06
with 3 volume water
Orange juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 57.85 38.17 0.8 0.21
undiluted
Orange juice, raw 88.3 10.4 0.2 0.2
Orange peel, raw 72.5 25 10.6 0.2
Orange-grapefruit juice, canned, unsweetened 88.64 10.28 0.1 0.1
Oranges, raw, California, navels 86.81 11.63 2.4 0.09
Oranges, raw, California, valencias 86.34 11.89 2.5 0.3
Oranges, raw, Florida 87.14 11.54 2.4 0.21
Oranges, raw, all commercial varieties 86.75 11.75 2.4 0.12
Oranges, raw, with peel 82.3 15.5 4.5 0.3
Papaya nectar, canned 85.02 14.51 0.6 0.15
Papayas, raw 88.83 9.81 1.8 0.14
Passion-fruit juice, purple, raw 85.62 13.6 0.2 0.05
Passion-fruit juice, yellow, raw 84.21 14.45 0.2 0.18
Passion-fruit, (granadilla), purple, raw 72.93 23.38 10.4 0.7
Peach nectar, canned, with added ascorbic acid 85.64 13.92 0.6 0.02
Peach nectar, canned, without added ascorbic acid 85.64 13.92 0.6 0.02
632 Appendix II
Peaches, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, solids and 73.19 26.06 1 0.03
liquids
Peaches, canned, extra light syrup, solids and liquids 88.2 11.1 1 0.1
Peaches, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 79.28 19.94 1.3 0.1
Peaches, canned, juice pack, solids and liquids 87.49 11.57 1.3 0.03
Peaches, canned, light syrup pack, solids and liquids 84.72 14.55 1.3 0.03
Peaches, canned, water pack, solids and liquids 93.13 6.11 1.3 0.06
Peaches, dehydrated (low-moisture), sulfured, stewed 62.04 34.14 0.42
Peaches, dehydrated (low-moisture), sulfured, uncooked 7.5 83.18 1.03
Peaches, dried, sulfured, stewed, with added sugar 71.38 26.6 2.4 0.22
Peaches, dried, sulfured, stewed, without added sugar 78.1 19.69 2.7 0.25
Peaches, dried, sulfured, uncooked 31.8 61.33 8.2 0.76
Peaches, frozen, sliced, sweetened 74.73 23.98 1.8 0.13
Peaches, raw 87.66 11.1 2 0.09
Peaches, spiced, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and 79.2 20.08 1.3 0.1
liquids
Pear nectar, canned, with added ascorbic acid 84.01 15.76 0.6 0.01
Pear nectar, canned, without added ascorbic acid 84.01 15.76 0.6 0.01
Pears, Asian, raw 88.25 10.65 3.6 0.23
Pears, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, solids and 74.28 25.25 1.6 0.13
liquids
Pears, canned, extra light syrup pack, solids and liquids 87.3 12.2 1.6 0.1
Pears, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 80.35 19.17 1.6 0.13
Pears, canned, juice pack, solids and liquids 86.47 12.94 1.6 0.07
Pears, canned, light syrup pack, solids and liquids 84.46 15.17 1.6 0.03
Pears, canned, water pack, solids and liquids 91.81 7.81 1.6 0.03
Pears, dried, sulfured, stewed, with added sugar 61.2 37.14 5.8 0.29
Pears, dried, sulfured, stewed, without added sugar 64.44 33.81 6.4 0.31
Pears, dried, sulfured, uncooked 26.69 69.7 7.5 0.63
Pears, raw 83.81 15.11 2.4 0.4
Persimmons, Japanese, dried 23.01 73.43 14.5 0.59
Persimmons, Japanese, raw 80.32 18.59 3.6 0.19
Persimmons, native, raw 64.4 33.5 0.4
Pineapple juice, canned, unsweetened, without added 85.53 13.78 0.2 0.08
ascorbic acid
Pineapple juice, canned, with added ascorbic acid, 85.53 13.78 0.2 0.08
unsweetened
Pineapple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 86.5 12.77 0.2 0.03
diluted with 3 volume water
Pineapple juice, frozen concentrate, unsweetened, 53.1 44.3 0.7 0.1
undiluted
Pineapple, canned, extra heavy syrup pack, solids and 77.71 21.5 0.8 0.11
liquids
Pineapple, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 78.99 20.2 0.8 0.11
Pineapple, canned, juice pack, solids and liquids 83.51 15.7 0.8 0.08
Pineapple, canned, light syrup pack, solids and liquids 85.73 13.45 0.8 0.12
Pineapple, canned, water pack, solids and liquids 90.82 8.3 0.8 0.09
Pineapple, frozen, chunks, sweetened 77.1 22.2 1.1 0.1
Pineapple, raw 86.5 12.39 1.2 0.43
Pitanga, (Surinam-cherry), raw 90.81 7.49 0.4
Appendix II 633
Plantains, cooked 67.3 31.15 2.3 0.18

Plantains, raw 65.28 31.89 2.3 0.37
Plums, canned, purple, extra heavy syrup pack, solids 73 26.31 1 0.1
and liquids
Plums, canned, purple, heavy syrup pack, solids and 76.06 23.24 1 0.1
liquids
Plums, canned, purple, juice pack, solids and liquids 84.02 15.15 1 0.02
Plums, canned, purple, light syrup pack, solids and 83 16.28 1 0.1
liquids
Plums, canned, purple, water pack, solids and liquids 88.35 11.03 1 0.01
Plums, raw 85.2 13.01 1.5 0.62
Pomegranates, raw 80.97 17.17 0.6 0.3
Prickly pears, raw 87.55 9.57 3.6 0.51
Prune juice, canned 81.24 17.45 1 0.03
Prunes, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and liquids 70.67 27.8 3.8 0.2
Prunes, dehydrated (low-moisture), stewed 67.99 29.7 0.24
Prunes, dehydrated (low-moisture), uncooked 4 89.07 0.73
Prunes, dried, stewed, with added sugar 65.08 32.88 3.8 0.22
Prunes, dried, stewed, without added sugar 69.73 28.08 6.6 0.23
Prunes, dried, uncooked 32.39 62.73 7.1 0.52
Pummelo, raw 89.1 9.62 1 0.04
Quinces, raw 83.8 15.3 1.9 0.1
Raisins, golden seedless 14.97 79.52 4 0.46
Raisins, seeded 16.57 78.47 6.8 0.54
Raisins, seedless 15.42 79.13 4 0.46
Raspberries, canned, red, heavy syrup pack, solids and 75.33 23.36 3.3 0.12
liquids
Raspberries, frozen, red, sweetened 72.75 26.16 4.4 0.16
Raspberries, raw 86.57 11.57 6.8 0.55
Rhubarb, frozen, cooked, with sugar 67.79 31.2 2 0.05
Rhubarb, frozen, uncooked 93.51 5.1 1.8 0.11
Rhubarb, raw 93.61 4.54 1.8 0.2
Rose-apples, raw 93 5.7 0.3
Roselle, raw 86.58 11.31 0.64
Sapodilla, raw 78 19.96 5.3 1.1
Sapotes, (marmalade plum), raw 62.43 33.76 2.6 0.6
Soursop, raw 81.16 16.84 3.3 0.3
Strawberries, canned, heavy syrup pack, solids and 75.35 23.53 1.7 0.26
liquids
Strawberries, frozen, sweetened, sliced 73.18 25.92 1.9 0.13
Strawberries, frozen, sweetened, whole 78.05 21 1.9 0.14
Strawberries, frozen, unsweetened 89.97 9.13 2.1 0.11
Strawberries, raw 91.57 7.02 2.3 0.37
Sugar-apples, (sweetsop), raw 73.23 23.64 4.4 0.29
Tamarinds, raw 31.4 62.5 5.1 0.6
Tangerine juice, canned, sweetened 87 12 0.2 0.2
Tangerine juice, frozen concentrate, sweetened, diluted 88.1 11.06 0.11
with 3 volume water
634 Appendix II
Tangerine juice, frozen concentrate, sweetened, 58.2 38.85 0.6 0.39

undiluted
Tangerine juice, raw 88.9 10.1 0.2 0.2
Tangerines, (mandarin oranges), canned, juice pack 89.51 9.57 0.7 0.03
Tangerines, (mandarin oranges), canned, light syrup 83.06 16.19 0.7 0.1
pack
Tangerines, (mandarin oranges), raw 87.6 11.19 2.3 0.19
Watermelon, raw 91.51 7.18 0.5 0.43
LEGUMES
Bacon, meatless 48.98 6.33 2.6 29.52
Beans, adzuki, mature seed, cooked, boiled, with salt 66.29 24.77 0.1
Beans, adzuki, mature seeds, canned, sweetened 40.58 55.01 0.03
Beans, adzuki, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 66.29 24.77 0.1
salt
Beans, adzuki, mature seeds, raw 13.44 62.9 12.7 0.53
Beans, adzuki, yokan, mature seeds 35.45 60.72 0.12
Beans, baked, canned, plain or vegetarian 72.65 20.51 5 0.45
Beans, baked, canned, with beef 71.33 16.91 3.45
Beans, baked, canned, with franks 69.34 15.39 6.9 6.57
Beans, baked, canned, with pork 71.46 19.98 5.5 1.55
Beans, baked, canned, with pork and sweet sauce 70.71 20.99 5.2 1.46
Beans, baked, canned, with pork and tomato sauce 72.69 19.39 4.8 1.03
Beans, baked, home prepared 65.17 21.39 5.5 5.15
Beans, black turtle soup, mature seeds, canned 75.64 16.56 6.9 0.29
Beans, black turtle soup, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 65.74 24.35 5.3 0.35
with salt
Beans, black turtle soup, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 65.74 24.35 5.3 0.35
without salt
Beans, black turtle soup, mature seeds, raw 11 63.25 24.9 0.9
Beans, black, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 65.74 23.71 8.7 0.54
Beans, black, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 65.74 23.71 8.7 0.54
Beans, black, mature seeds, raw 11.02 62.37 15.2 1.42
Beans, cranberry (roman), mature seeds, canned 77.56 15.12 6.3 0.28
Beans, cranberry (roman), mature seeds, cooked, 64.65 24.46 10 0.46
boiled, with salt
Beans, cranberry (roman), mature seeds, cooked, 64.65 24.46 10 0.46
boiled, without salt
Beans, cranberry (roman), mature seeds, raw 12.39 60.05 24.7 1.23
Beans, French, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 66.57 24.02 9.4 0.76
Beans, French, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 66.57 24.02 9.4 0.76
salt
Beans, French, mature seeds, raw 10.77 64.11 25.2 2.02
Beans, great northern, mature seeds, canned 69.89 21.03 4.9 0.39
Beans, great northern, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 69 21.09 7 0.45
with salt
Beans, great northern, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 69 21.09 7 0.45
without salt
Appendix II 635
Beans, great northern, mature seeds, raw 10.7 62.37 20.2 1.14
Beans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, canned 77.95 14.88 3.5 0.31
Beans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 66.94 22.81 6.4 0.5
with salt
Beans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 66.94 22.81 6.4 0.5
without salt
Beans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, raw 11.75 60.01 24.9 0.83
Beans, kidney, california red, mature seeds, cooked, 66.93 22.41 9.3 0.09
boiled, with salt
Beans, kidney, california red, mature seeds, cooked, 66.93 22.41 9.3 0.09
Beans, kidney, california red, mature seeds, raw 11.75 59.8 24.9 0.25
Beans, kidney, red, mature seeds, canned 77.36 15.6 6.4 0.34
Beans, kidney, red, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with 66.94 22.81 7.4 0.5
salt
Beans, kidney, red, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 66.94 22.81 7.4 0.5
without salt
Beans, kidney, red, mature seeds, raw 11.75 61.3 15.2 1.06
Beans, kidney, royal red, mature seeds, cooked, boiled 66.99 21.85 9.3 0.17
with salt
Beans, kidney, royal red, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 66.99 21.85 9.3 0.17
without salt
Beans, kidney, royal red, mature seeds, raw 11.9 58.33 24.9 0.45
Beans, navy, mature seeds, canned 70.45 20.45 5.1 0.43
Beans, navy, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 63.18 26.31 15.9 0.57
Beans, navy, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 63.18 26.31 6.4 0.57
Beans, navy, mature seeds, raw 12.36 60.65 24.4 1.28
Beans, pink, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 61.2 27.91 5.3 0.49
Beans, pink, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 61.2 27.91 5.3 0.49
Beans, pink, mature seeds, raw 10.06 64.19 12.7 1.13
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, canned 77.54 15.25 4.6 0.81
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 64.27 25.65 8.6 0.52
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 64.27 25.65 8.6 0.52
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, raw 10.95 63.41 24.4 1.13
Beans, small white, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with 63.24 25.81 10.4 0.64
salt
Beans, small white, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 63.24 25.81 10.4 0.64
without salt
Beans, small white, mature seeds, raw 11.71 62.25 24.9 1.18
Beans, white, mature seeds, canned 70.1 21.94 4.8 0.29
Beans, white, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 63.08 25.1 6.3 0.35
Beans, white, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 63.08 25.1 6.3 0.35
salt
Beans, white, mature seeds, raw 11.32 60.27 15.2 0.85
Beans, winged, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 67.19 14.94 5.84
salt
Beans, yellow, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 62.98 25.27 10.4 1.08
Beans, yellow, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 62.98 25.27 10.4 1.08
salt
Beans, yellow, mature seeds, raw 11.1 60.7 25.1 2.6
636 Appendix II
Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds, canned 80.32 12.41 3.7 0.22
Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 71.54 19.65 5.4 0.4
with salt
Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 71.54 19.65 5.4 0.4
without salt
Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds, raw 10.98 58.3 25 1.53
Carob flour 3.58 88.88 39.8 0.65
Chickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram), mature 69.69 22.62 4.4 1.14
seeds, canned
seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt
seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt
seeds, raw
Chili with beans, canned 75.51 11.91 4.4 5.49
Cowpeas, catjang, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with 69.7 20.32 3.6 0.71
salt
Cowpeas, catjang, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 69.7 20.32 3.6 0.71
without salt
Cowpeas, catjang, mature seeds, raw 11.05 59.64 10.7 2.07
Cowpeas, common (black-eyed, crowder, southern), 77.59 16.53 3.3 1.6
mature seeds, canned with pork
mature seeds, canned, plain
mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt
mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt
mature seeds, raw
Falafel 34.62 31.84 17.8
Humus, raw 64.91 20.17 5.1 8.45
Hyacinth beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 69.13 20.7 0.58
Hyacinth beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 69.13 20.7 0.58
salt
Hyacinth beans, mature seeds, raw 9.38 60.76 1.69
Lentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 69.64 20.14 7.9 0.38
Lentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 69.64 20.14 7.9 0.38
Lentils, mature seeds, raw 11.19 57.09 30.5 0.96
Lima beans, large, mature seeds, canned 77.08 14.91 4.8 0.17
Lima beans, large, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with 69.79 20.89 7 0.38
salt
Lima beans, large, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 69.79 20.89 7 0.38
without salt
Lima beans, large, mature seeds, raw 10.17 63.38 19 0.69
Lima beans, thin seeded (baby), mature seeds, cooked, 67.15 23.31 7.7 0.38
boiled, with salt
Lima beans, thin seeded (baby), mature seeds, cooked, 67.15 23.31 7.7 0.38
Appendix II 637
Lima beans, thin seeded (baby), mature seeds, raw 12.07 62.83 20.6 0.93
Lupins, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 71.08 9.88 2.8 2.92
Lupins, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 71.08 9.88 2.8 2.92
Lupins, mature seeds, raw 10.44 40.38 9.74
Meat extender 7.48 38.32 17.5 2.97
Miso 41.45 27.96 5.4 6.07
Mothbeans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 69.23 20.96 0.55
Mothbeans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 69.23 20.96 0.55
Mothbeans, mature seeds, raw 9.68 61.52 1.61
Mung beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 72.66 19.14 7.6 0.38
Mung beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 72.66 19.14 7.6 0.38
Mung beans, mature seeds, raw 9.05 62.62 16.3 1.15
Mungo beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 72.51 18.34 6.4 0.55
Mungo beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 72.51 18.34 6.4 0.55
salt
Mungo beans, mature seeds, raw 8.58 61.01 16.4 1.83
Natto 55.02 14.35 5.4 11
Noodles, chinese, cellophane or long rice (mung 13.42 86.1 0.5 0.06
beans), dehydrated
Peanut butter, chunk style, with salt 1.13 21.59 6.6 49.94
Peanut butter, chunk style, without salt 1.13 21.59 6.6 49.94
Peanut butter, smooth style, with salt 1.22 19.28 5.9 51.03
Peanut butter, smooth style, without salt 1.22 19.28 5.9 51.03
Peanut flour, defatted 7.8 34.7 15.8 0.55
Peanut flour, low fat 7.8 31.27 15.8 21.9
Peanuts, all types, cooked, boiled, with salt 41.78 21.26 8.8 22.01
Peanuts, all types, dry-roasted, with salt 1.55 21.51 8 49.66
Peanuts, all types, dry-roasted, without salt 1.55 21.51 8 49.66
Peanuts, all types, oil-roasted, with salt 1.95 18.93 9.2 49.3
Peanuts, all types, oil-roasted, without salt 1.95 18.93 6.9 49.3
Peanuts, all types, raw 6.5 16.14 8.5 49.24
Peanuts, Spanish, oil-roasted, with salt 1.78 17.45 8.9 49.04
Peanuts, Spanish, oil-roasted, without salt 1.78 17.45 8.9 49.04
Peanuts, Spanish, raw 6.39 15.82 9.5 49.6
Peanuts, Valencia, oil-roasted, with salt 2.12 16.3 8.9 51.24
Peanuts, Valencia, oil-roasted, without salt 2.12 16.3 8.9 51.24
Peanuts, Valencia, raw 4.26 20.91 8.7 47.58
Peanuts, Virginia, oil-roasted, with salt 2.17 19.86 8.9 48.62
Peanuts, Virginia, oil-roasted, without salt 2.17 19.86 8.9 48.62
Peanuts, Virginia, raw 6.91 16.54 8.5 48.75
Peas, split, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 69.49 21.11 8.3 0.39
Peas, split, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 69.49 21.11 8.3 0.39
Peas, split, mature seeds, raw 11.27 60.38 25.5 1.16
Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 68.55 23.25 6.7 0.38
with salt
Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 68.55 23.25 6.7 0.38
without salt
Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, raw 10.59 62.78 15 1.49
Refried beans, canned 75.97 15.53 5.3 1.26
Sausage, meatless 50.4 9.85 2.8 18.16
638 Appendix II
Soy flour, defatted 7.25 38.37 17.5 1.22

Soy flour, defatted, crude protein basis (N x 6.25) 7.25 33.93 17.5 1.22
Soy flour, full-fat, raw 5.16 35.2 9.6 20.65
Soy flour, full-fat, raw, crude protein basis (N x 6.25) 5.16 31.93 9.6 20.65
Soy flour, full-fat, roasted 3.81 33.67 9.7 21.86
Soy flour, full-fat, roasted, crude protein basis (N x 3.81 30.38 21.86
6.25)
Soy flour, low-fat 2.7 37.98 10.2 6.7
Soy flour, low-fat, crude protein basis (N x 6.25) 2.7 33.58 10.2 6.7
Soy meal, defatted, raw 6.94 40.14 2.39
Soy meal, defatted, raw, crude protein basis (N x 6.25) 6.94 35.89 2.39
Soy milk, fluid 93.27 1.81 1.3 1.91
Soy protein concentrate, crude protein basis (N x 6.25), 5.8 25.41 5.5 0.46
produced by acid wash
Soy protein concentrate, produced by acid wash 5.8 31.21 5.5 0.46
Soy protein concentrate, produced by alcohol extraction 5.8 31.21 5.5 0.46
Soy protein isolate 4.98 7.36 5.6 3.39
Soy protein isolate, potassium type 4.98 10.23 5.6 0.53
Soy protein isolate, potassium type, crude protein basis 4.98 2.59 2 0.53
Soy sauce made from hydrolyzed vegetable protein 75.66 7.73 0.5 0.08
Soy sauce made from soy (tamari) 66 5.57 0.8 0.1
Soy sauce made from soy and wheat (shoyu) 71.09 8.51 0.8 0.08
Soy sauce made from soy and wheat (shoyu), low 71.09 8.51 0.8 0.08
sodium
Soybeans, mature cooked, boiled, without salt 62.55 9.92 6 8.97
Soybeans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt 62.55 9.92 6 8.97
Soybeans, mature seeds, dry roasted 0.8 32.72 8.1 21.62
Soybeans, mature seeds, raw 8.54 30.16 9.3 19.94
Soybeans, mature seeds, roasted, no salt added 1.95 33.56 17.7 25.4
Soybeans, mature seeds, roasted, salted 1.95 33.56 17.7 25.4
Tempeh 54.95 17.03 7.68
Tofu, dried-frozen (koyadofu) 5.78 14.56 7.2 30.34
Tofu, dried-frozen (koyadofu), prepared with calcium 5.78 14.56 1.2 30.34
sulfate
Tofu, fried 50.52 10.5 3.9 20.18
Tofu, fried, prepared with calcium sulfate 50.52 10.5 3.9 20.18
Tofu, okara 81.64 12.54 1.73
Tofu, raw, firm 69.83 4.28 2.3 8.72
Tofu, raw, firm, prepared with calcium sulfate 69.83 4.28 2.3 8.72
Tofu, raw, regular 84.55 1.88 1.2 4.78
Tofu, raw, regular, prepared with calcium sulfate 84.55 1.88 0.3 4.78
Tofu, salted and fermented (fuyu) 70.01 5.15 8
Tofu, salted and fermented (fuyu), prepared with 70.01 5.15 8
calcium sulfate
Winged beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with 67.19 14.94 5.84
salt
Winged beans, mature seeds, raw 8.34 41.71 16.32
Yardlong beans, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without 68.8 21.09 3.8 0.45
salt
Yardlong beans, mature seeds, raw 8.43 61.91 11 1.31
Appendix II 639
Yardlong beans, yardlong, mature seeds, cooked, 68.8 21.09 3.8 0.45
boiled, with salt
GRAINS
Amaranth 9.84 66.17 15.2 6.51
Arrowroot flour 11.37 88.15 3.4 0.1
Barley 9.44 73.48 17.3 2.3
Barley, pearled, cooked 68.8 28.22 3.8 0.44
Barley, pearled, raw 10.09 77.72 15.6 1.16
Buckwheat 9.75 71.5 10 3.4
Buckwheat flour, whole-groat 11.15 70.59 10 3.1
Buckwheat groats, roasted, cooked 75.63 19.94 2.7 0.62
Buckwheat groats, roasted, dry 8.41 74.95 10.3 2.71
Bulgur, cooked 77.76 18.58 4.5 0.24
Bulgur, dry 9 75.87 18.3 1.33
Corn bran, crude 4.71 85.64 85.5 0.92
Corn flour, masa, enriched 9.03 76.27 9.6 3.78
Corn flour, masa, enriched, yellow 9.03 76.27 3.78
Corn flour, whole-grain, white 10.91 76.85 9.6 3.86
Corn flour, whole-grain, yellow 10.91 76.85 13.4 3.86
Corn, white 10.37 74.26 4.74
Corn, yellow 10.37 74.26 4.74
Cornmeal, degermed, enriched, white 11.59 77.68 7.4 1.65
Cornmeal, degermed, enriched, yellow 11.59 77.68 7.4 1.65
Cornmeal, degermed, unenriched, white 11.59 77.68 7.4 1.65
Cornmeal, degermed, unenriched, yellow 11.59 77.68 7.4 1.65
Cornmeal, self-rising, bolted, plain, enriched, white 12.59 70.28 6.7 3.4
Cornmeal, self-rising, bolted, plain, enriched, yellow 12.59 70.28 6.7 3.4
Cornmeal, self-rising, bolted, with wheat flour added, 10.33 73.43 6.3 2.85
enriched, white
Cornmeal, self-rising, bolted, with wheat flour added, 10.33 73.43 6.3 2.85
enriched, yellow
Cornmeal, self-rising, degermed, enriched, white 10.17 74.79 7.1 1.72
Cornmeal, self-rising, degermed, enriched, yellow 10.17 74.79 7.1 1.72
Cornmeal, whole-grain, white 10.26 76.89 7.3 3.59
Cornmeal, whole-grain, yellow 10.26 76.89 7.3 3.59
Cornstarch 8.32 91.27 0.9 0.05
Couscous, cooked 72.57 23.22 1.4 0.16
Couscous, dry 8.56 77.43 5 0.64
Hominy, canned, white 82.53 14.26 2.5 0.88
Hominy, canned, yellow 82.53 14.26 2.5 0.88
Macaroni, cooked, enriched 65.99 28.34 1.3 0.67
Macaroni, cooked, unenriched 65.99 28.34 1.3 0.67
Macaroni, dry, enriched 10.25 74.69 2.4 1.58
Macaroni, dry, unenriched 10.25 74.69 2.4 1.58
Macaroni, protein-fortified, cooked, enriched, (n x 5.70) 59.73 31.66 0.21
Macaroni, protein-fortified, cooked, enriched, (n x 6.25) 59.73 30.88 1.5 0.21
Macaroni, protein-fortified, dry, enriched, (n x 5.70) 9.23 67.56 2.4 2.23
640 Appendix II
Macaroni, protein-fortified, dry, enriched, (n x 6.25) 9.23 65.65 2.4 2.23

Macaroni, vegetable, cooked, enriched 68.37 26.61 4.3 0.11
Macaroni, vegetable, dry, enriched 9.89 74.88 4.3 1.04
Macaroni, whole-wheat, cooked 67.15 26.54 2.8 0.54
Macaroni, whole-wheat, dry 7.34 75.03 8.3 1.4
Millet, cooked 71.41 23.67 1.3 1
Millet, raw 8.67 72.85 8.5 4.22
Noodles, Chinese, chow mein 0.73 57.54 3.9 30.76
Noodles, egg, cooked, enriched 68.7 24.84 1.1 1.47
Noodles, egg, cooked, enriched, with added salt 68.7 24.84 1.1 1.47
Noodles, egg, cooked, unenriched, with added salt 68.7 24.84 1.47
Noodles, egg, cooked, unenriched, without added salt 68.7 24.84 1.1 1.47
Noodles, egg, dry, enriched 9.67 71.13 2.7 4.21
Noodles, egg, dry, unenriched 9.67 71.13 2.7 4.21
Noodles, egg, spinach, cooked, enriched 68.52 24.25 2.3 1.57
Noodles, egg, spinach, dry, enriched 8.72 70.32 6.8 4.55
Noodles, Japanese, soba, cooked 73.01 21.44 0.1
Noodles, Japanese, soba, dry 6.88 74.62 0.71
Noodles, Japanese, somen, cooked 67.91 27.54 0.18
Noodles, Japanese, somen, dry 9.21 74.1 4.3 0.81
Oat bran, cooked 84 11.44 2.6 0.86
Oat bran, raw 6.55 66.22 15.4 7.03
Oats 8.22 66.27 10.6 6.9
Pasta, corn, cooked 68.31 27.91 4.8 0.73
Pasta, corn, dry 10 79.26 11 2.08
Pasta, fresh-refrigerated, plain, as purchased 31 54.73 2.3
Pasta, fresh-refrigerated, plain, cooked 68.56 24.93 1.05
Pasta, fresh-refrigerated, spinach, as purchased 30.1 55.72 2.1
Pasta, fresh-refrigerated, spinach, cooked 68.58 25.04 0.94
Pasta, homemade, made with egg, cooked 68.71 23.54 1.74
Pasta, homemade, made without egg, cooked 68.86 25.12 0.98
Quinoa 9.3 68.9 5.9 5.8
Rice bran, crude 6.13 49.69 21 20.85
Rice flour, brown 11.97 76.48 4.6 2.78
Rice flour, white 11.89 80.13 2.4 1.42
Rice, brown, long-grain, cooked 73.09 22.96 1.8 0.9
Rice, brown, long-grain, raw 10.37 77.24 3.5 2.92
Rice, brown, medium-grain, cooked 72.96 23.51 1.8 0.83
Rice, brown, medium-grain, raw 12.37 76.17 3.4 2.68
Rice, white, glutinous, cooked 76.63 21.09 10.19
Rice, white, glutinous, raw 10.46 81.68 2.8 0.55
Rice, white, long-grain, parboiled, cooked, enriched 72.49 24.73 0.4 0.27
Rice, white, long-grain, parboiled, cooked, unenriched 72.49 24.73 0.4 0.27
Rice, white, long-grain, parboiled, dry 10.16 81.72 1.7 0.56
Rice, white, long-grain, parboiled, dry, unenriched 10.16 81.72 1.7 0.56
Rice, white, long-grain, precooked or instant, enriched, 8.14 83.59 1.6 0.29
dry
Rice, white, long-grain, precooked or instant, enriched, 76.44 21.27 0.6 0.16
prepared
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, cooked 68.44 28.17 0.4 0.28
Appendix II 641
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, cooked, enriched, with 68.44 28.17 0.4 0.28
salt
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, cooked, unenriched, 68.44 28.17 0.4 0.28
with salt
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, cooked, unenriched, 68.44 28.17 0.4 0.28
without salt
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, enriched 11.62 79.95 1.3 0.66
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched 11.62 79.95 1.3 0.66
Rice, white, medium-grain, cooked 68.61 28.59 0.3 0.21
Rice, white, medium-grain, cooked, unenriched 68.61 28.59 0.21
Rice, white, medium-grain, raw, enriched 12.89 79.34 1.4 0.58
Rice, white, medium-grain, raw, unenriched 12.89 79.34 0.58
Rice, white, short-grain, cooked 68.53 28.73 0.19
Rice, white, short-grain, cooked, unenriched 68.53 28.73 0.19
Rice, white, short-grain, raw 13.29 79.15 2.8 0.52
Rice, white, short-grain, raw, unenriched 13.29 79.15 0.52
Rice, white, with pasta, cooked 71.74 21.43 2.5 2.82
Rice, white, with pasta, dry 7.13 75.32 2.44
Rye 10.95 69.76 14.6 2.5
Rye flour, dark 11.07 68.74 22.6 2.69
Rye flour, light 8.78 80.23 14.6 1.36
Rye flour, medium 9.85 77.49 14.6 1.77
Semolina, enriched 12.67 72.83 3.9 1.05
Semolina, unenriched 12.67 72.83 3.9 1.05
Sorghum 9.2 74.63 3.3
Spaghetti, cooked, enriched, with added salt 65.99 28.34 1.7 0.67
Spaghetti, cooked, enriched, without added salt 65.99 28.34 1.7 0.67
Spaghetti, cooked, unenriched, with added salt 65.99 28.34 0.67
Spaghetti, cooked, unenriched, without added salt 65.99 28.34 1.7 0.67
Spaghetti, dry, enriched 10.25 74.69 2.4 1.58
Spaghetti, dry, unenriched 10.25 74.69 2.4 1.58
Spaghetti, protein-fortified, cooked, enriched ( n x 59.73 31.66 1.7 0.21
5.70)
Spaghetti, protein-fortified, cooked, enriched (n x 6.25) 59.73 30.88 2 0.21
Spaghetti, protein-fortified, dry, enriched (n x 5.70) 9.23 67.56 2.23
Spaghetti, protein-fortified, dry, enriched (n x 6.25) 9.23 65.65 2.4 2.23
Spaghetti, spinach, cooked 68.14 26.15 0.63
Spaghetti, spinach, dry 8.34 74.81 10.6 1.57
Spaghetti, whole-wheat, cooked 67.15 26.54 4.5 0.54
Spaghetti, whole-wheat, dry 7.34 75.03 1.4
Tapioca, pearl, dry 10.99 88.69 0.9 0.02
Triticale 10.51 72.13 2.09
Triticale flour, whole-grain 10.01 73.14 14.6 1.81
Wheat bran, crude 9.89 64.51 42.8 4.25
Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, enriched, bleached 11.92 76.31 2.7 0.98
Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, enriched, calcium- 11.92 76.31 2.7 0.98
fortified
Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, enriched, unbleached 11.92 76.31 2.7 0.98
Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, self-rising, enriched 10.59 74.22 2.7 0.97
Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, unenriched 11.92 76.31 2.7 0.98
642 Appendix II
Wheat flour, white, bread, enriched 13.36 72.53 2.4 1.66

Wheat flour, white, cake, enriched 12.51 78.03 1.7 0.86
Wheat flour, white, tortilla mix, enriched 10.08 67.14 10.63
Wheat flour, whole-grain 10.27 72.57 12.2 1.87
Wheat germ, crude 11.12 51.8 13.2 9.72
Wheat, durum 10.94 71.13 2.47
Wheat, hard red spring 12.76 68.03 12.2 1.92
Wheat, hard red winter 13.1 71.18 12.2 1.54
Wheat, hard white 9.57 75.9 1.71
Wheat, soft red winter 12.17 74.24 12.5 1.56
Wheat, soft white 10.42 75.36 12.7 1.99
Wheat, sprouted 47.75 42.53 1.1 1.27
Wild rice, cooked 73.93 21.34 1.8 0.34
Wild rice, raw 7.76 74.9 6.2 1.08
VEGETABLES
Alfalfa seeds, sprouted, raw 91.14 3.78 2.5 0.69
Amaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.49 4.11 0.18
Amaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.49 4.11 0.18
Amaranth leaves, raw 91.69 4.03 0.33
Arrowhead, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 77.08 16.14 0.1
Arrowhead, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 77.08 16.14 0.1
Arrowhead, raw 72.48 20.23 0.29
Artichokes, (globe or French), cooked, boiled, drained, 83.97 11.18 5.4 0.16
with salt
Artichokes, (globe or French), cooked, boiled, drained, 83.97 11.18 5.4 0.16
without salt
Artichokes, (globe or French), frozen, cooked, boiled, 86.5 9.18 4.6 0.5
drained, with salt
Artichokes, (globe or French), frozen, cooked, boiled, 86.5 9.18 4.6 0.5
drained, without salt
Artichokes, (globe or French), frozen, unprepared 88.59 7.76 3.9 0.43
Artichokes, (globe or French), raw 84.94 10.51 5.4 0.15
Arugula, raw 91.71 3.65 1.6 0.66
Asparagus, canned, drained solids 93.98 2.48 1.6 0.65
Asparagus, canned, no salt added, solids and liquids 94.32 2.47 1 0.18
Asparagus, canned, regular pack, solids and liquids 94.32 2.47 1 0.18
Asparagus, cooked, boiled, drained 92.2 4.23 1.6 0.31
Asparagus, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.2 4.23 2.1 0.31
Asparagus, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.15 4.87 1.6 0.42
Asparagus, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.15 4.87 1.6 0.42
Asparagus, frozen, unprepared 91.82 4.1 1.9 0.23
Asparagus, raw 92.4 4.54 2.1 0.2
Balsam-pear, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, with 88.69 6.78 1.9 0.2
salt
Balsam-pear, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, 88.69 6.78 1.9 0.2
without salt
Balsam-pear, leafy tips, raw 89.25 3.29 0.69
Appendix II 643
Balsam-pear, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.95 4.32 2 0.18
Balsam-pear, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, without 93.95 4.32 2 0.18
salt
Balsam-pear, pods, raw 94.03 3.7 2.8 0.17
Bamboo shoots, canned, drained solids 94.32 3.22 1.4 0.4
Bamboo shoots, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 95.92 1.92 1 0.22
Bamboo shoots, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 95.92 1.92 1 0.22
Bamboo shoots, raw 91 5.2 2.2 0.3
Beans, kidney, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 89.3 4.72 0.58
drained, with salt
Beans, kidney, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 89.3 4.72 0.58
Beans, kidney, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 90.7 4.1 0.5
Beans, lima, immature seeds, canned, regular pack, 81.17 13.33 3.6 0.29
solids and liquids
Beans, mung, mature seeds, sprouted, canned, drained 96.1 2.15 0.8 0.06
solids
Beans, navy, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 76.02 15.01 0.81
drained, with salt
Beans, navy, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 76.02 15.01 0.81
Beans, navy, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 79.15 13.05 0.7
Beans, pinto, immature seeds, frozen, cooked, boiled, 58.01 30.88 8.6 0.48
drained, with salt
Beans, pinto, immature seeds, frozen, cooked, boiled, 58.01 30.88 8.6 0.48
Beans, pinto, immature seeds, frozen, unprepared 55.8 32.5 5.7 0.5
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 93.39 4.1 0.32
drained, with salt
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 93.39 4.1 0.32
Beans, pinto, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 81.3 11.6 0.9
Beans, shell, canned, solids and liquids 90.69 6.19 3.4 0.19
Beans, snap, canned, all styles, seasoned, solids and 94.3 3.49 1.5 0.2
liquids
Beans, snap, green variety, canned, regular pack, solids 94.68 3.5 1.5 0.1
and liquids
Beans, snap, green, canned, no salt added, solids and 94.68 3.5 1.5 0.1
liquids
Beans, snap, green, canned, regular pack, drained solids 93.3 4.5 1.9 0.1
Beans, snap, green, canned, special dietary pack, 93.3 4.5 1.9 0.1
drained solids
Beans, snap, green, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.22 7.89 3.2 0.28
Beans, snap, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without 89.22 7.89 3.2 0.28
salt
Beans, snap, green, frozen, all styles, unprepared 89.88 7.57 2.8 0.21
Beans, snap, green, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained 91.42 6.45 3 0.17
without salt
Beans, snap, green, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 91.42 6.45 3 0.17
with salt
644 Appendix II
Beans, snap, green, raw 90.27 7.14 3.4 0.12

Beans, snap, yellow, canned, no salt added, drained 93.3 4.5 1.3 0.1
solids
Beans, snap, yellow, canned, no salt added, solids and 94.68 3.5 1.5 0.1
liquids
Beans, snap, yellow, canned, regular pack, drained 93.3 4.5 1.3 0.1
solids
Beans, snap, yellow, canned, regular pack, solids and 94.68 3.5 1.5 0.1
liquids
Beans, snap, yellow, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.22 7.89 3.3 0.28
Beans, snap, yellow, cooked, boiled, drained, without 89.22 7.89 3.3 0.28
salt
Beans, snap, yellow, frozen, all styles, unprepared 89.88 7.57 2.8 0.21
Beans, snap, yellow, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 91.42 6.45 3 0.17
with salt
Beans, snap, yellow, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 91.42 6.45 3 0.17
without salt
Beans, snap, yellow, raw 90.27 7.14 3.4 0.12
Beet greens, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.13 5.46 2.9 0.2
Beet greens, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 89.13 5.46 2.9 0.2
Beet greens, raw 92.15 3.97 3.7 0.06
Beets, canned, drained solids 90.96 7.2 1.7 0.14
Beets, canned, no salt added, solids and liquids 91.62 6.58 1.2 0.07
Beets, canned, regular pack, solids and liquids 91.62 6.58 1.2 0.07
Beets, cooked, boiled, drained 87.06 9.96 2 0.18
Beets, cooked, boiled. drained, with salt 87.06 9.96 2 0.18
Beets, harvard, canned, solids and liquids 80.16 18.18 2.5 0.06
Beets, pickled, canned, solids and liquids 81.88 16.28 0.08
Beets, raw 87.58 9.56 2.8 0.17
Borage, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.88 3.55 0.81
Borage, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.88 3.55 0.81
Borage, raw 93 3.06 0.7
Broadbeans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 83.7 10.1 0.5
with salt
Broadbeans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 83.7 10.1 3.6 0.5
without salt
Broadbeans, immature seeds, raw 81 11.7 4.2 0.6
Broccoli, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 90.69 5.06 2.9 0.35
Broccoli, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90.69 5.06 2.9 0.35
Broccoli, flower clusters, raw 90.69 5.24 0.35
Broccoli, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, 90.72 5.35 3 0.12
with salt
Broccoli, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, 90.72 5.35 3 0.12
without salt
Broccoli, frozen, chopped, unprepared 91.46 4.79 3 0.29
Broccoli, frozen, spears, cooked, boiled, drained, with 90.72 5.35 3 0.11
salt
Broccoli, frozen, spears, cooked, boiled, drained, 90.72 5.35 3 0.11
without salt
Broccoli, frozen, spears, unprepared 90.55 5.35 3 0.34
Appendix II 645
Broccoli, leaves, raw 90.69 5.24 0.35

Broccoli, raw 90.69 5.24 3 0.35
Broccoli, stalks, raw 90.69 5.24 0.35
Brussels sprouts, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 87.32 8.67 2.6 0.51
Brussels sprouts, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 87.32 8.67 2.6 0.51
Brussels sprouts, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with 86.74 8.32 4.1 0.39
salt
Brussels sprouts, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 86.74 8.32 4.1 0.39
without salt
Brussels sprouts, frozen, unprepared 87.07 7.87 3.8 0.41
Brussels sprouts, raw 86 8.96 3.8 0.3
Burdock root, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 75.64 21.15 1.8 0.14
Burdock root, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 75.64 21.15 1.8 0.14
Burdock root, raw 80.09 17.35 3.3 0.15
Butterbur, (fuki), raw 94.5 3.61 0.04
Butterbur, canned 97.92 0.38 0.13
Butterbur, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 96.7 2.16 0.02
Butterbur, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 96.7 2.16 0.02
Cabbage, Chinese (pak-choi), cooked, boiled, drained, 95.55 1.78 1.6 0.16
with salt
Cabbage, Chinese (pak-choi), cooked, boiled, drained, 95.55 1.78 1.6 0.16
without salt
Cabbage, Chinese (pak-choi), raw 95.32 2.18 1 0.2
Cabbage, Chinese (pe-tsai), cooked, boiled, drained, 95.24 2.41 2.7 0.17
with salt
Cabbage, Chinese (pe-tsai), cooked, boiled, drained, 95.24 2.41 2.7 0.17
without salt
Cabbage, Chinese (pe-tsai), raw 94.39 3.23 3.1 0.2
Cabbage, common (Danish, domestic, and pointed 92.52 5.37 2.3 0.18
types), freshly harvest, raw
Cabbage, common (Danish, domestic, and pointed 92.52 5.37 2.3 0.18
types), stored, raw
Cabbage, common, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.6 4.46 2.8 0.43
Cabbage, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.6 4.46 2.3 0.43
Cabbage, raw 92.15 5.43 2.3 0.27
Cabbage, red, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.6 4.64 2 0.2
Cabbage, red, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.6 4.64 2 0.2
Cabbage, red, raw 91.55 6.12 2 0.26
Cabbage, savoy, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92 5.41 2.8 0.09
Cabbage, savoy, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92 5.41 2.8 0.09
Cabbage, savoy, raw 91 6.1 3.1 0.1
Cardoon, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.46 5.33 1.7 0.11
Cardoon, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.46 5.33 1.7 0.11
Cardoon, raw 94 4.89 1.6 0.1
Carrot juice, canned 88.87 9.29 0.8 0.15
Carrots, baby, raw 89.81 8.16 1.8 0.53
Carrots, canned, no salt added, solids and liquids 92.99 5.37 1.8 0.14
Carrots, canned, regular pack, drained solids 92.95 5.54 1.5 0.19
Carrots, canned, regular pack, solids and liquids 92.99 5.37 1.8 0.14
Carrots, canned, special dietary pack, drained solids 92.95 5.54 1.5 0.19
646 Appendix II
Carrots, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 87.38 10.48 3.3 0.18
Carrots, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 87.38 10.48 3.3 0.18
Carrots, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.88 8.25 3.5 0.11
Carrots, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 89.88 8.25 3.5 0.11
Carrots, frozen, unprepared 89.05 8.99 3.2 0.21
Carrots, raw 87.79 10.14 3 0.19
Cassava, raw 68.51 26.92 1.6 0.39
Catsup 66.58 27.29 1.3 0.36
Catsup, low sodium 66.58 27.29 1.3 0.36
Cauliflower, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93 4.11 2.7 0.45
Cauliflower, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93 4.11 2.7 0.45
Cauliflower, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 94 3.75 2.7 0.22
Cauliflower, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without 94 3.75 2.7 0.22
salt
Cauliflower, frozen, unprepared 92.51 4.68 2.3 0.27
Cauliflower, green, cooked, no salt 89.47 6.28 3.3 0.31
Cauliflower, green, cooked, salt 89.47 6.28 3.3 0.31
Cauliflower, green, raw 89.79 6.09 3.2 0.3
Cauliflower, raw 91.91 5.2 2.5 0.21
Celeriac, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.3 5.9 0.19
Celeriac, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92.3 5.9 1.2 0.19
Celeriac, raw 88 9.2 1.8 0.3
Celery, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 94.11 4.01 1.6 0.16
Celery, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 94.11 4.01 1.6 0.16
Celery, raw 94.64 3.65 1.7 0.14
Celtuce, raw 94.5 3.65 1.7 0.3
Chard, Swiss, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.65 4.14 2.1 0.08
Chard, Swiss, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92.65 4.14 2.1 0.08
Chard, Swiss, raw 92.66 3.74 1.6 0.2
Chayote, fruit, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.43 5.09 0.48
Chayote, fruit, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.43 5.09 2.8 0.48
Chayote, fruit, raw 93 5.4 3 0.3
Chicory greens, raw 92 4.7 4 0.3
Chicory roots, raw 80 17.51 0.2
Chicory, witloof, raw 94.52 4 3.1 0.1
Chives, freeze-dried 2 64.29 26.2 3.5
Chives, raw 90.65 4.35 2.5 0.73
Chrysanthemum, garland, cooked, boiled, drained, with 92.49 4.31 2.3 0.09
salt
Chrysanthemum, garland, cooked, boiled, drained, 92.49 4.31 2.3 0.09
without salt
Chrysanthemum, garland, raw 92.56 4.37 2.9 0.17
Coleslaw 81.5 12.41 1.5 2.61
Collards, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.86 6.13 2.8 0.19
Collards, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.86 6.13 2.8 0.19
Collards, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, 88.47 7.11 2.8 0.41
with salt
Collards, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, 88.47 7.11 2.8 0.41
without salt
Collards, frozen, chopped, unprepared 89.53 6.45 3.6 0.37
Appendix II 647
Collards, raw 90.55 7.11 3.6 0.22

Coriander, raw 92.8 2.59 2.3 0.588
Corn pudding 76.32 12.76 5.32
Corn with red and green peppers, canned, solids and 77.5 18.17 0.55
liquids
Corn, sweet, white, canned, cream style, no salt added 78.73 18.13 1.2 0.42
Corn, sweet, white, canned, cream style, regular pack 78.73 18.13 1.2 0.42
Corn, sweet, white, canned, vacuum pack, no salt 76.58 19.44 2 0.5
added
Corn, sweet, white, canned, vacuum pack, regular pack 76.58 19.44 2 0.5
Corn, sweet, white, canned, whole kernel, drained 76.92 18.59 2 1
solids
Corn, sweet, white, canned, whole kernel, no salt 81.34 15.4 0.7 0.5
added, solids and liquids
Corn, sweet, white, canned, whole kernel, regular pack, 81.34 15.4 1.7 0.5
solids and liquids
Corn, sweet, white, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 69.57 25.11 2.7 1.28
Corn, sweet, white, cooked, boiled, drained, without 69.57 25.11 2.7 1.28
salt
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels cut off cob, boiled, 76.73 19.56 2.4 0.43
drained, with salt
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels cut off cob, boiled, 76.73 19.56 2.4 0.43
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels cut off cob, 74.92 20.8 2.4 0.77
unprepared
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels on cob, cooked, 73.2 22.33 2.8 0.74
boiled, drained, with salt
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels on cob, cooked, 73.2 22.33 2.1 0.74
boiled, drained, without salt
Corn, sweet, white, frozen, kernels on cob, unprepared 71.79 23.5 2.8 0.78
Corn, sweet, white, raw 75.96 19.02 2.7 1.18
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, brine pack, regular pack, 81.34 15.4 1.7 0.5
solids and liquids
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, cream style, regular 78.73 18.13 1.2 0.42
pack
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, cream style, special 78.73 18.13 1.2 0.42
dietary pack
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, no salt added, solids and 81.34 15.4 1.7 0.5
liquids
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, vacuum pack, no salt 76.58 19.44 2 0.5
added
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, vacuum pack, regular 76.58 19.44 2 0.5
pack
Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, whole kernel, drained 76.92 18.59 2 1
solids
Corn, sweet, yellow, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 69.57 25.11 2.8 1.28
Corn, sweet, yellow, cooked, boiled, drained, without 69.57 25.11 2.8 1.28
salt
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels cut off cob, boiled, 76.73 19.56 2.4 0.43
648 Appendix II
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels cut off cob, 74.92 20.8 2.4 0.77
unprepared
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels on cob, cooked, 73.2 22.33 2.8 0.74
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels on cob, cooked, 73.2 22.33 2.8 0.74
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels on cob, unprepared 71.79 23.5 2.8 0.78
Corn, sweet, yellow, frozen, kernels, cut off cob, 76.73 19.56 2.4 0.43
Corn, sweet, yellow, raw 75.96 19.02 2.7 1.18
Cornsalad, raw 92.8 3.6 0.4
Cowpeas, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 75.48 20.33 5 0.38
with salt
Cowpeas, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 75.48 20.33 5 0.38
without salt
Cowpeas, immature seeds, frozen, cooked, boiled, 66.1 23.76 6.4 0.66
drained, with salt
Cowpeas, immature seeds, frozen, cooked, boiled, 66.1 23.76 6.4 0.66
Cowpeas, immature seeds, frozen, unprepared 64.15 25.13 5 0.7
Cowpeas, immature seeds, raw 77.2 18.9 5 0.35
Cowpeas, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.3 2.8 0.1
Cowpeas, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, without 91.3 2.8 0.1
salt
Cowpeas, leafy tips, raw 89.78 4.82 0.25
Cowpeas, young pods with seeds, cooked, boiled, 89.5 7 0.3
drained, with salt
Cowpeas, young pods with seeds, cooked, boiled, 89.5 7 0.3
Cowpeas, young pods with seeds, raw 86 9.5 0.3
Cress, garden, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.5 3.8 0.7 0.6
Cress, garden, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92.5 3.8 0.7 0.6
Cress, garden, raw 89.4 5.5 1.1 0.7
Cucumber, with peel, raw 96.01 2.76 0.8 0.13
Dandelion greens, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.8 6.4 2.9 0.6
Dandelion greens, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 89.8 6.4 2.9 0.6
Dandelion greens, raw 85.6 9.2 3.5 0.7
Dock, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.6 2.93 0.64
Dock, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.6 2.93 2.6 0.64
Dock, raw 93 3.2 2.9 0.7
Eggplant, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.77 6.64 2.5 0.23
Eggplant, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.77 6.64 2.5 0.23
Eggplant, raw 92.03 6.07 2.5 0.18
Endive, raw 93.79 3.35 3.1 0.2
Eppaw, raw 60 31.68 1.8
Fennel, bulb, raw 90.21 7.29 3.1 0.2
Garlic, raw 58.58 33.07 2.1 0.5
Ginger root, raw 81.67 15.09 2 0.73
Gourd, dishcloth (towelgourd), cooked, boiled, drained, 84.29 14.34 0.34
with salt
Appendix II 649
Gourd, dishcloth (towelgourd), cooked, boiled, drained, 84.29 14.34 0.34

without salt
Gourd, dishcloth (towelgourd), raw 93.85 4.36 0.2
Gourd, white-flowered (calabash), cooked, boiled, 95.32 3.69 0.02
drained, with salt
Gourd, white-flowered (calabash), cooked, boiled, 95.32 3.69 0.02
Gourd, white-flowered (calabash), raw 95.54 3.39 0.02
Hearts of palm, canned 90.2 4.62 2.4 0.62
Horseradish-tree leafy tips, raw 78.66 8.28 2 1.4
Horseradish-tree, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, 81.65 11.15 2 0.93
with salt
Horseradish-tree, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, 81.65 11.15 2 0.93
without salt
Horseradish-tree, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, with 88.42 8.18 4.2 0.19
salt
Horseradish-tree, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, without 88.42 8.18 4.2 0.19
salt
Horseradish-tree, pods, raw 88.2 8.53 3.2 0.2
Hyacinth-beans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, 86.9 9.2 0.27
drained, with salt
Hyacinth-beans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, 86.9 9.2 0.27
Hyacinth-beans, immature seeds, raw 87.87 9.19 0.2
Jerusalem-artichokes, raw 78.01 17.44 1.6 0.01
Jew’s ear, (pepeao), dried 11.14 81.04 0.44
Jew’s ear, (pepeao), raw 92.59 6.75 0.04
Jute, potherb, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 87.15 7.3 2 0.2
Jute, potherb, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 87.15 7.3 2 0.2
Jute, potherb, raw 87.72 5.8 0.25
Kale, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.2 5.63 2 0.4
Kale, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.2 5.63 2 0.4
Kale, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 90.5 5.24 2 0.49
Kale, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90.5 5.24 2 0.49
Kale, frozen, unprepared 91.12 4.9 2 0.46
Kale, raw 84.46 10.01 2 0.7
Kale, scotch, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.2 5.63 0.41
Kale, scotch, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.2 5.63 1.2 0.41
Kale, scotch, raw 87 8.32 1.7 0.6
Kanpyo, (dried gourd strips) 19.97 65.04 0.56
Kohlrabi, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 90.3 6.69 1.1 0.11
Kohlrabi, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90.3 6.69 1.1 0.11
Kohlrabi, raw 91 6.2 3.6 0.1
Lambs quarters, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 88.9 5 2.1 0.7
Lambsquarters, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 88.9 5 2.1 0.7
Lambsquarters, raw 84.3 7.3 4 0.8
Leeks, (bulb and lower leaf-portion), cooked, boiled, 90.8 7.62 1 0.2
drained, with salt
Leeks, (bulb and lower leaf-portion), cooked, boiled, 90.8 7.62 1 0.2
650 Appendix II
Leeks, (bulb and lower leaf-portion), raw 83 14.15 1.8 0.3

Leeks, (bulb and lower-leaf portion), freeze-dried 2 74.65 10.4 2.1
Lentils, sprouted, cooked, stir-fried, with salt 68.7 21.25 0.45
Lentils, sprouted, cooked, stir-fried, without salt 68.7 21.25 0.45
Lentils, sprouted, raw 67.34 22.14 0.55
Lettuce, butterhead (includes Boston and bibb types), 95.58 2.32 1 0.22
raw
Lettuce, cos or romaine, raw 94.91 2.37 1.7 0.2
Lettuce, iceberg (includes crisphead types), raw 95.89 2.09 1.4 0.19
Lettuce, looseleaf, raw 94 3.5 1.9 0.3
Lima beans, immature seeds, canned, no salt added, 81.17 13.33 3.6 0.29
solids and liquids
Lima beans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 67.17 23.64 5.3 0.32
with salt
Lima beans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 67.17 23.64 5.3 0.32
without salt
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, baby, cooked, 72.35 19.45 6 0.3
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, baby, cooked, 72.35 19.45 6 0.3
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, baby, unprepared 65.46 25.13 6 0.44
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, fordhook, cooked, 73.5 18.8 5.8 0.34
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, fordhook, cooked, 73.5 18.8 5.8 0.34
Lima beans, immature seeds, frozen, fordhook, 72.05 19.83 5.5 0.35
unprepared
Lima beans, immature seeds, raw 70.24 20.16 4.9 0.86
Lotus root, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 81.42 16.03 3.1 0.07
Lotus root, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 81.42 16.03 3.1 0.07
Lotus root, raw 79.1 17.24 4.9 0.1
Mountain yam, Hawaii, cooked, steamed, with salt 77.14 20 0.08
Mountain yam, Hawaii, cooked, steamed, without salt 77.14 20 0.08
Mountain yam, Hawaii, raw 81.44 16.31 0.1
Mung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 93.39 4.19 0.8 0.09
drained, with salt
Mung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, 93.39 4.19 0.8 0.09
Mung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, stir-fried 84.3 10.59 1.9 0.21
Mung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 90.4 5.93 1.8 0.18
Mushrooms, canned, drained solids 91.08 4.96 2.4 0.29
Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.08 5.14 2.2 0.47
Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.08 5.14 2.2 0.47
Mushrooms, enoki, raw 89.36 7.02 2.6 0.39
Mushrooms, raw 91.81 4.65 1.2 0.42
Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked, with salt 83.48 14.28 2.1 0.22
Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked, without salt 83.48 14.28 2.1 0.22
Mushrooms, shiitake, dried 9.5 75.37 11.5 0.99
Mustard greens, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 94.46 2.1 2 0.24
Mustard greens, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 94.46 2.1 2 0.24
Appendix II 651
Mustard greens, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with 93.8 3.12 2.8 0.25
salt
Mustard greens, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 93.8 3.12 2.8 0.25
without salt
Mustard greens, frozen, unprepared 93.21 3.41 3.3 0.27
Mustard greens, raw 90.8 4.9 3.3 0.2
Mustard spinach, (tendergreen), cooked, boiled, 94.5 2.8 2 0.2
drained, with salt
Mustard spinach, (tendergreen), cooked, boiled, 94.5 2.8 2 0.2
Mustard spinach, (tendergreen), raw 92.2 3.9 2.8 0.3
New Zealand spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without 94.8 2.2 0.17
salt
New Zealand spinach, raw 94 2.5 0.2
New zealand spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 94.8 2.2 0.17
Nopales, cooked, without salt 94.31 3.27 2 0.05
Nopales, raw 93.93 3.39 2.3 0.12
Okra, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 89.91 7.21 2.5 0.17
Okra, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 89.91 7.21 2.5 0.17
Okra, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.12 5.75 2.8 0.3
Okra, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.12 5.75 2.8 0.3
Okra, frozen, unprepared 90.82 6.64 2.2 0.25
Okra, raw 89.58 7.63 3.2 0.1
Onion rings, breaded, par fried, frozen, prepared, 28.5 38.16 1.3 26.7
heated in oven
Onion rings, breaded, par fried, frozen, unprepared 51.22 30.53 1.8 14.1
Onions, canned, solids and liquids 94.1 4.01 1.2 0.09
Onions, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 87.86 10.15 1.4 0.19
Onions, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 87.86 10.15 1.4 0.19
Onions, dehydrated flakes 3.93 83.28 9.2 0.46
Onions, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, with 92.24 6.6 1.7 0.1
salt
Onions, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, drained, 92.24 6.6 1.8 0.1
without salt
Onions, frozen, chopped, unprepared 91.99 6.81 1.8 0.1
Onions, frozen, whole, cooked, boiled, drained, with 92.24 6.7 1.4 0.05
salt
Onions, frozen, whole, cooked, boiled, drained, without 92.24 6.7 1.4 0.05
salt
Onions, frozen, whole, unprepared 90.22 8.44 1.7 0.06
Onions, raw 89.68 8.63 1.8 0.16
Onions, spring (includes tops and bulb), raw 89.83 7.34 2.6 0.19
Onions, welsh, raw 90.5 6.5 0.4
Parsley, freeze-dried 2 42.38 32.7 5.2
Parsley, raw 87.71 6.33 3.3 0.79
Parsnips, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 77.72 19.53 4 0.3
Parsnips, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 77.72 19.53 4 0.3
Parsnips, raw 79.53 17.99 4.9 0.3
Peas and carrots, canned, no salt added, solids and 88.15 8.48 3.3 0.27
liquids
652 Appendix II
Peas and carrots, canned, regular pack, solids and 88.15 8.48 2 0.27
liquids
Peas and carrots, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with 85.8 10.12 3.1 0.42
salt
Peas and carrots, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 85.8 10.12 3.1 0.42
without salt
Peas and carrots, frozen, unprepared 84.36 11.15 3.4 0.47
Peas and onions, canned, solids and liquids 86.4 8.57 2.3 0.38
Peas and onions, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with 88.18 8.63 2.2 0.2
salt
Peas and onions, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 88.18 8.63 2.2 0.2
without salt
Peas and onions, frozen, unprepared 81.5 13.51 3.5 0.32
Peas, edible-podded, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 88.91 7.05 2.8 0.23
Peas, edible-podded, cooked, boiled, drained, without 88.91 7.05 2.8 0.23
salt
Peas, edible-podded, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 86.6 9.02 3.1 0.38
with salt
Peas, edible-podded, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 86.6 9.02 3.1 0.38
without salt
Peas, edible-podded, frozen, unprepared 89.3 7.2 3.1 0.3
Peas, edible-podded, raw 88.89 7.56 2.6 0.2
Peas, green, canned, dietary pack, drained solids 81.7 12.58 4.1 0.35
Peas, green, canned, no salt added, solids and liquids 85.92 9.75 3.2 0.3
Peas, green, canned, regular pack, drained solids 81.7 12.58 4.1 0.35
Peas, green, canned, regular pack, solids and liquids 85.92 9.75 3.2 0.3
Peas, green, canned, seasoned, solids and liquids 86.51 9.25 2 0.27
Peas, green, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 77.87 15.64 5.5 0.22
Peas, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 77.87 15.64 5.5 0.22
Peas, green, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 79.52 14.26 5.5 0.27
Peas, green, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without 79.52 14.26 5.5 0.27
salt
Peas, green, frozen, unprepared 79.93 13.7 4.7 0.37
Peas, green, raw 78.86 14.46 5.1 0.4
Peas, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, drained, 74.37 21.86 0.51
with salt
Peas, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, boiled, drained, 74.37 21.86 0.51
without salt
Peas, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 62.27 28.26 0.68
Peppers, hot chile, sun-dried 7.15 69.86 28.7 5.81
Peppers, hot chili, green, canned, pods, excluding 92.5 5.1 1.3 0.1
seeds, solids and liquids
Peppers, hot chili, green, raw 87.74 9.46 1.5 0.2
Peppers, hot chili, red, canned, excluding seeds, solids 92.5 5.1 1.3 0.1
and liquids
Peppers, hot chili, red, raw 87.74 9.46 1.5 0.2
Peppers, jalapeno, canned, solids and liquids 89.9 4.9 1.9 0.6
Peppers, sweet, green, canned, solids and liquids 91.25 3.9 1.2 0.3
Peppers, sweet, green, cooked, boiled, drained, with 91.87 6.7 1.2 0.2
salt
Appendix II 653
Peppers, sweet, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without 91.87 6.7 1.2 0.2
salt
Peppers, sweet, green, freeze-dried 2 68.7 21.3 3
Peppers, sweet, green, frozen, chopped, boiled, drained, 94.7 3.9 0.9 0.18
without salt
Peppers, sweet, green, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, 94.7 3.9 0.18
drained, with salt
Peppers, sweet, green, frozen, chopped, unprepared 93.96 4.45 1.6 0.21
Peppers, sweet, green, raw 92.19 6.43 1.8 0.19
Peppers, sweet, red, canned, solids and liquids 91.25 3.9 1.2 0.3
Peppers, sweet, red, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.87 6.7 1.2 0.2
Peppers, sweet, red, cooked, boiled, drained, without 91.87 6.7 1.2 0.2
salt
Peppers, sweet, red, freeze-dried 2 68.7 21.3 3
Peppers, sweet, red, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, 94.7 3.9 0.18
drained, with salt
Peppers, sweet, red, frozen, chopped, cooked, boiled, 94.7 3.9 0.18
Peppers, sweet, red, frozen, chopped, unprepared 93.96 4.45 1.6 0.21
Peppers, sweet, red, raw 92.19 6.43 2 0.19
Peppers, sweet, yellow, raw 92.02 6.32 0.9 0.21
Pickle relish, hamburger 61.12 34.48 3.2 0.54
Pickle relish, hot dog 71.65 23.35 1.5 0.46
Pickle relish, sweet 62.07 35.05 1.1 0.47
Pickle, cucumber, sour 94.08 2.25 1.2 0.2
Pickle, cucumber, sour, low sodium 94.08 2.25 1.2 0.2
Pickle, cucumber, sweet 65.26 31.81 1.1 0.26
Pickle, cucumber, sweet, low sodium 65.26 31.81 1.1 0.26
Pickles, cucumber, dill 91.67 4.13 1.2 0.19
Pickles, cucumber, dill, low sodium 91.67 4.13 1.2 0.19
Pigeonpeas, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 71.8 19.49 6.2 1.36
with salt
Pigeonpeas, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 71.8 19.49 6.2 1.36
without salt
Pigeonpeas, immature seeds, raw 65.88 23.88 5.1 1.64
Pimento, canned 93.1 5.1 1.9 0.3
Poi 71.64 27.23 0.4 0.14
Pokeberry shoots, (poke), cooked, boiled, drained, with 92.9 3.1 1.5 0.4
salt
Pokeberry shoots, (poke), cooked, boiled, drained, 92.9 3.1 1.5 0.4
without salt
Pokeberry shoots, (poke), raw 91.6 3.7 1.7 0.4
Potato flour 7.6 79.9 6.1 0.8
Potato pancakes, home-prepared 47.26 28.64 2 15.24
Potato puffs, frozen, prepared 52.9 30.48 3.2 10.73
Potato puffs, frozen, unprepared 62.44 24.31 2.3 8.55
Potato salad 76 11.17 1.3 8.2
Potatoes, au gratin, dry mix, prepared with water, 78.98 12.84 0.9 4.12
whole milk and butter
654 Appendix II
Potatoes, au gratin, dry mix, unprepared 4.97 74.31 4.1 3.7

Potatoes, au gratin, home-prepared from recipe using 74 11.27 1.8 7.59
butter
Potatoes, au gratin, home-prepared from recipe using 74 11.27 1.8 7.59
margarine
Potatoes, baked, flesh and skin, with salt 71.2 25.23 2.4 0.1
Potatoes, baked, flesh and skin, without salt 71.2 25.23 2.4 0.1
Potatoes, baked, flesh, with salt 75.42 21.56 1.5 0.1
Potatoes, baked, flesh, without salt 75.42 21.56 1.5 0.1
Potatoes, baked, skin, with salt 47.31 46.07 7.9 0.1
Potatoes, baked, skin, without salt 47.31 46.07 7.9 0.1
Potatoes, boiled, cooked in skin, flesh, with salt 76.98 20.13 2 0.1
Potatoes, boiled, cooked in skin, flesh, without salt 76.98 20.13 1.8 0.1
Potatoes, boiled, cooked in skin, skin, with salt 77.8 17.21 3.3 0.1
Potatoes, boiled, cooked in skin, skin, without salt 77.8 17.21 3.3 0.1
Potatoes, boiled, cooked without skin, flesh, with 77.46 20.01 2 0.1
salt
Potatoes, boiled, cooked without skin, flesh, without 77.46 20.01 1.8 0.1
salt
Potatoes, canned, drained solids 84.28 13.61 2.3 0.21
Potatoes, canned, solids and liquids 87.83 9.89 1.4 0.11
Potatoes, French fried, frozen, home-prepared, heated 57.15 31.19 3.2 7.56
in oven, with salt
Potatoes, French fried, frozen, home-prepared, heated 57.15 31.19 3.2 7.56
in oven, without salt
Potatoes, French fried, frozen, unprepared 66.58 24.33 3 5.9
Potatoes, frozen, French fried, par fried, cottage-cut, 52.9 34.04 3.2 8.2
prepared, heated in oven, with salt
Potatoes, frozen, French fried, par fried, cottage-cut, 52.9 34.04 3.2 8.2
prepared, heated in oven, without salt
Potatoes, frozen, French fried, par fried, cottage-cut, 66.82 23.98 3 5.78
unprepared
Potatoes, frozen, French fried, par fried, extruded, 35.4 39.68 3.2 18.71
prepared, heated in oven, without salt
Potatoes, frozen, French fried, par fried, extruded, 49.94 30.15 4.5 14.95
unprepared
Potatoes, frozen, whole, cooked, boiled, drained, with 82.8 14.52 1.4 0.13
salt
Potatoes, frozen, whole, cooked, boiled, drained, 82.8 14.52 1.4 0.13
without salt
Potatoes, frozen, whole, unprepared 79.3 17.48 1.2 0.16
Potatoes, hashed brown, frozen, plain, prepared 56.1 28.1 2 11.5
Potatoes, hashed brown, frozen, plain, unprepared 78.85 17.72 1.4 0.62
Potatoes, hashed brown, frozen, with butter sauce, 63.71 24.13 3.8 8.79
prepared
Potatoes, hashed brown, frozen, with butter sauce, 72.51 18.28 2.9 6.66
unprepared
Potatoes, hashed brown, home-prepared 61.55 21.32 2 13.91
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, flakes without milk, dry 6.51 81.21 6.9 0.39
form
Appendix II 655
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, granules with milk, dry 6.3 77.7 1.1
form
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, granules without milk, 3.63 85.51 7.1 0.54
dry form
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, prepared from flakes 76.3 15.02 2.3 5.6
without milk, whole milk and butter add
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, prepared from granules 81.4 13.1 1.8 2.2
with milk, water and margarine added
Potatoes, mashed, dehydrated, prepared from granules 77.49 14.36 2.2 4.96
without milk, whole milk and butter added
Potatoes, mashed, home-prepared, whole milk added 78.46 17.55 2 0.59
Potatoes, mashed, home-prepared, whole milk and 76.26 16.71 2 4.23
butter added
Potatoes, mashed, home-prepared, whole milk and 76.26 16.71 2 4.23
margarine added
Potatoes, mashed, prepared from flakes, without milk, 76.3 15.02 2.3 5.6
whole milk and margarine
Potatoes, mashed, prepared from granules, without 77.48 14.4 2.2 4.93
milk, whole milk and margarine
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked in skin, flesh and skin, 72.04 24.13 2.3 0.1
without salt
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked in skin, flesh, with salt 73.55 23.28 1.6 0.1
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked in skin, flesh, without 73.55 23.28 1.6 0.1
salt
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked in skin, skin, without 63.5 29.63 5.5 0.1
salt
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked, in skin, flesh and skin, 72.04 24.13 2.3 0.1
with salt
Potatoes, microwaved, cooked, in skin, skin with salt 63.5 29.63 5.5 0.1
Potatoes, O’brien, frozen, prepared 61.96 21.86 1.7 13.21
Potatoes, O’brien, frozen, unprepared 79.97 17.47 1.9 0.14
Potatoes, O’brien, home-prepared 79.6 15.47 1.28
Potatoes, raw, flesh and skin 78.96 17.98 1.6 0.1
Potatoes, raw, skin 83.29 12.44 2.5 0.1
Potatoes, scalloped, dry mix, prepared with water, 79.17 12.77 1.1 4.3
whole milk and butter
Potatoes, scalloped, dry mix, unprepared 6.22 73.93 8.6 4.59
Potatoes, scalloped, home-prepared with butter 80.94 10.78 1.9 3.68
Potatoes, scalloped, home-prepared with margarine 80.94 10.78 1.9 3.68
Pumpkin flowers, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 95.2 3.3 0.9 0.08
Pumpkin flowers, raw 95.15 3.28 0.07
Pumpkin leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92.51 3.39 2.7 0.22
Pumpkin leaves, raw 92.88 2.33 0.4
Pumpkin pie mix, canned 71.49 26.39 8.3 0.13
Pumpkin, canned, with salt 89.97 8.08 2.9 0.28
Pumpkin, canned, without salt 89.97 8.08 2.9 0.28
Pumpkin, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.69 4.89 1.1 0.07
Pumpkin, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.69 4.89 1.1 0.07
Pumpkin, flowers, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 95.2 3.3 0.9 0.08
Pumpkin, leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.51 3.39 2.7 0.22
656 Appendix II
Pumpkin, raw 91.6 6.5 0.5 0.1

Purslane, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.52 3.55 0.19
Purslane, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.52 3.55 0.19
Purslane, raw 93.92 3.43 0.1
Radicchio, raw 93.14 4.48 0.9 0.25
Radish seeds, sprouted, raw 90.07 3.6 2.53
Radishes, oriental, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 95.04 3.43 1.6 0.24
Radishes, oriental, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 95.04 3.43 1.6 0.24
Radishes, oriental, dried 19.68 63.37 0.72
Radishes, oriental, raw 94.62 4.11 1.6 0.1
Radishes, raw 94.84 3.59 1.6 0.54
Radishes, white icicle, raw 95.37 2.63 1.4 0.1
Rutabagas, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 88.88 8.74 1.8 0.22
Rutabagas, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 88.88 8.74 1.8 0.22
Rutabagas, raw 89.66 8.13 2.5 0.2
Salsify, (vegetable oyster), raw 77 18.6 3.3 0.2
Salsify, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 81 15.37 3.1 0.17
Salsify, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 81 15.37 3.1 0.17
Sauerkraut, canned, solids and liquids 92.52 4.28 2.5 0.14
Seaweed, agar, dried 8.68 80.89 7.7 0.3
Seaweed, agar, raw 91.32 6.75 0.5 0.03
Seaweed, irishmoss, raw 81.34 12.29 1.3 0.16
Seaweed, kelp, raw 81.58 9.57 1.3 0.56
Seaweed, laver, raw 85.03 5.11 0.3 0.28
Seaweed, spirulina, dried 4.68 23.9 3.6 7.72
Seaweed, spirulina, raw 90.67 2.42 0.39
Seaweed, wakame, raw 79.99 9.14 0.5 0.64
Sesbania flower, cooked, steamed, with salt 93.3 5.23 0.05
Sesbania flower, cooked, steamed, without salt 93.3 5.23 0.05
Sesbania flower, raw 91.58 6.73 0.04
Shallots, freeze-dried 2 80.7 0.5
Shallots, raw 79.8 16.8 0.1
Soybeans, green, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 68.6 11.05 4.2 6.4
Soybeans, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 68.6 11.05 4.2 6.4
Soybeans, green, raw 67.5 11.05 4.2 6.8
Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, steamed 79.45 6.53 0.8 4.45
Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, steamed, 79.45 6.53 0.8 4.45
with salt
Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, stir-fried 67.2 9.4 0.8 7.1
Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, cooked, stir-fried, 67.2 9.4 0.8 7.1
with salt
Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 69.05 9.57 1.1 6.7
Spinach souffle 73.94 2.08 13.5
Spinach, canned, drained solids 91.78 3.4 2.4 0.5
Spinach, canned, no salt added, solids and liquids 93.22 2.92 2.2 0.37
Spinach, canned, regular pack, solids and liquids 93.22 2.92 1.6 0.37
Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 91.21 3.75 2.4 0.26
Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 91.21 3.75 2.4 0.26
Spinach, frozen, chopped or leaf, cooked, boiled, 89.98 5.34 3 0.21
drained, with salt
Appendix II 657
Spinach, frozen, chopped or leaf, cooked, boiled, 89.98 5.34 3 0.21

Spinach, frozen, chopped or leaf, unprepared 91.64 4 3 0.31
Spinach, raw 91.58 3.5 2.7 0.35
Squash, summer, all varieties, cooked, boiled, drained, 93.7 4.31 1.4 0.31
with salt
Squash, summer, all varieties, cooked, boiled, drained, 93.7 4.31 1.4 0.31
without salt
Squash, summer, all varieties, raw 93.68 4.35 1.9 0.21
Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, canned, 96.04 2.96 1.4 0.07
drained, solid, without salt
Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, cooked, 93.7 4.31 1.4 0.31
Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, cooked, 93.7 4.31 1.4 0.31
Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, frozen, 92.24 5.54 1.4 0.2
cooked, boiled, drained, with salt
cooked, boiled, drained, without salt
unprepared
Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, raw 94.2 4.04 1.9 0.24
Squash, summer, scallop, cooked, boiled, drained, with 95 3.3 1.9 0.17
salt
Squash, summer, scallop, cooked, boiled, drained, 95 3.3 1.9 0.17
without salt
Squash, summer, scallop, raw 94.18 3.84 0.2
Squash, summer, zucchini, includes skin, cooked, 94.74 3.93 1.4 0.05
Squash, summer, zucchini, includes skin, cooked, 94.74 3.93 1.4 0.05
Squash, summer, zucchini, includes skin, frozen, 94.74 3.56 1.3 0.13
cooked, boiled, drained, with salt
cooked, boiled, drained, without salt
unprepared
Squash, summer, zucchini, includes skin, raw 95.28 2.9 1.2 0.14
Squash, summer, zucchini, italian style, canned 90.61 6.85 0.11
Squash, winter, acorn, cooked, baked, with salt 82.9 14.58 4.4 0.14
Squash, winter, acorn, cooked, baked, without salt 82.9 14.58 4.4 0.14
Squash, winter, acorn, cooked, boiled, mashed, with 89.7 8.78 2.6 0.08
salt
Squash, winter, acorn, cooked, boiled, mashed, without 89.7 8.78 2.6 0.08
salt
Squash, winter, acorn, raw 87.78 10.42 1.5 0.1
Squash, winter, all varieties, cooked, baked, with salt 89.02 8.75 2.8 0.63
Squash, winter, all varieties, cooked, baked, without salt 89.02 8.75 2.8 0.63
Squash, winter, all varieties, raw 88.72 8.8 1.5 0.23
Squash, winter, butternut, cooked, baked, with salt 87.8 10.49 0.09
658 Appendix II
Squash, winter, butternut, cooked, baked, without salt 87.8 10.49 0.09
Squash, winter, butternut, frozen, cooked, boiled, with 87.8 10.05 0.07
salt
Squash, winter, butternut, frozen, cooked, boiled, without 87.8 10.05 0.07
salt
Squash, winter, butternut, frozen, unprepared 82.5 14.41 1.3 0.1
Squash, winter, butternut, raw 86.41 11.69 0.1
Squash, winter, hubbard, cooked, baked, with salt 85.1 10.81 0.62
Squash, winter, hubbard, cooked, baked, without salt 85.1 10.81 0.62
Squash, winter, hubbard, cooked, boiled, mashed, with 91.1 6.45 2.9 0.37
salt
Squash, winter, hubbard, cooked, boiled, mashed, 91.1 6.45 2.9 0.37
without salt
Squash, winter, hubbard, raw 88 8.7 0.5
Squash, winter, spaghetti, cooked, boiled, drained, or 92.3 6.46 1.4 0.26
baked, with salt
Squash, winter, spaghetti, cooked, boiled, drained, or 92.3 6.46 1.4 0.26
baked, without salt
Squash, winter, spaghetti, raw 91.6 6.91 0.57
Squash, zucchini, baby, raw 92.73 3.1 1.1 0.4
Succotash, (corn and limas), canned, with cream style 78.17 17.61 3 0.54
corn
Succotash, (corn and limas), canned, with whole kernel 81.96 13.98 2.6 0.49
corn, solids and liquids
Succotash, (corn and limas), cooked, boiled, drained, 68.37 24.38 0.8
with salt
Succotash, (corn and limas), cooked, boiled, drained, 68.37 24.38 4.5 0.8
without salt
Succotash, (corn and limas), frozen, cooked, boiled, 74.1 19.95 4.1 0.89
drained, with salt
Succotash, (corn and limas), frozen, cooked, boiled, 74.1 19.95 4.1 0.89
Succotash, (corn and limas), frozen, unprepared 74.11 19.94 4 0.89
Succotash, (corn and limas), raw 73.1 19.59 3.8 1.02
Swamp cabbage, (skunk cabbage), raw 92.47 3.14 2.1 0.2
Swamp cabbage, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 92.93 3.71 1.9 0.24
Swamp cabbage, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92.93 3.71 1.9 0.24
Sweetpotato leaves, cooked, steamed, with salt 88.71 7.32 1.9 0.3
Sweetpotato leaves, cooked, steamed, without salt 88.71 7.32 1.9 0.3
Sweetpotato leaves, raw 87.96 6.38 2 0.3
Sweetpotato, canned, mashed 73.88 23.2 1.7 0.2
Sweetpotato, canned, syrup pack, drained solids 72.47 25.36 3 0.32
Sweetpotato, canned, syrup pack, solids and liquids 77.39 20.93 2.5 0.2
Sweetpotato, canned, vacuum pack 76.03 21.13 1.8 0.2
Sweetpotato, cooked, baked in skin, with salt 72.85 24.27 3 0.11
Sweetpotato, cooked, baked in skin, without salt 72.85 24.27 3 0.11
Sweetpotato, cooked, boiled, without skin, with salt 72.84 24.28 1.8 0.3
Sweetpotato, cooked, boiled, without skin, without salt 72.84 24.28 1.8 0.3
Sweetpotato, cooked, candied 66.94 27.86 2.4 3.25
Sweetpotato, frozen, cooked, baked, with salt 73.7 23.4 1.8 0.12
Appendix II 659
Sweetpotato, frozen, cooked, baked, without salt 73.7 23.4 1.8 0.12
Sweetpotato, frozen, unprepared 74.89 22.22 1.7 0.18
Sweetpotato, raw 72.84 24.28 3 0.3
Taro leaves, cooked, steamed, without salt 92.15 4.02 2 0.41
Taro leaves, raw 85.66 6.71 3.7 0.74
Taro shoots, cooked, without salt 95.3 3.2 0.08
Taro shoots, raw 95.82 2.32 0.09
Taro, cooked, with salt 63.8 34.6 5.1 0.11
Taro, cooked, without salt 63.8 34.6 5.1 0.11
Taro, leaves, cooked, steamed, with salt 92.15 4.02 2 0.41
Taro, raw 70.64 26.46 4.1 0.2
Taro, shoots, cooked, with salt 95.3 3.2 0.08
Taro, tahitian, cooked, with salt 86.46 6.85 0.68
Taro, tahitian, cooked, without salt 86.46 6.85 0.68
Taro, tahitian, raw 87.96 6.91 0.97
Tomatillos, raw 91.63 5.83 1.9 1.02
Tomato juice, canned, with salt added 93.9 4.23 0.4 0.06
Tomato juice, canned, without salt added 93.9 4.23 0.8 0.06
Tomato powder 3.06 74.68 16.5 0.44
Tomato products, canned, paste, with salt added 73.8 19.3 4.1 0.55
Tomato products, canned, paste, without salt added 73.8 19.3 4.1 0.55
Tomato products, canned, puree, with salt added 87.46 9.56 2 0.16
Tomato products, canned, puree, without salt added 87.46 9.56 2 0.16
Tomato products, canned, sauce 89.07 7.18 1.4 0.17
Tomato products, canned, sauce, spanish style 89.08 7.24 1.4 0.27
Tomato products, canned, sauce, with herbs and cheese 83.43 10.24 2.2 1.93
Tomato products, canned, sauce, with mushrooms 87.97 8.43 1.5 0.13
Tomato products, canned, sauce, with onions 86.09 9.94 1.8 0.19
Tomato products, canned, sauce, with onions, green 88.28 8.76 1.4 0.74
peppers, and celery
Tomato products, canned, sauce, with tomato tidbits 89.09 7.09 1.4 0.39
Tomatoes, crushed, canned 89.44 7.29 1.9 0.28
Tomatoes, green, raw 93 5.1 1.1 0.2
Tomatoes, red, ripe, canned, stewed 91.01 6.78 1 0.13
Tomatoes, red, ripe, canned, wedges in tomato juice 91.78 6.31 0.16
Tomatoes, red, ripe, canned, whole, no salt added 93.65 4.37 1 0.13
Tomatoes, red, ripe, canned, whole, regular pack 93.65 4.37 1 0.13
Tomatoes, red, ripe, canned, with green chilies 94.23 3.62 0.08
Tomatoes, red, ripe, cooked, boiled, with salt 92.16 5.83 1.1 0.41
Tomatoes, red, ripe, cooked, boiled, without salt 92.16 5.83 1 0.41
Tomatoes, red, ripe, cooked, stewed 80.63 13.05 1.7 2.68
Tomatoes, red, ripe, raw, June thru October average 93.76 4.64 1.1 0.33
Tomatoes, red, ripe, raw, November thru May average 93.76 4.64 1.1 0.33
Tomatoes, red, ripe, raw, year round average 93.76 4.64 1.1 0.33
Tomatoes, sun-dried 14.56 55.76 12.3 2.97
Tomatoes, sun-dried, packed in oil, drained 53.83 23.33 5.8 14.08
Tree fern, cooked, with salt 88.6 10.98 3.7 0.07
Tree fern, cooked, without salt 88.6 10.98 3.7 0.07
Turnip greens and turnips, frozen, cooked, boiled, 94.19 2.88 2.4 0.16
drained, with salt
660 Appendix II
Turnip greens and turnips, frozen, cooked, boiled, 94.19 2.88 1.8 0.16
Turnip greens and turnips, frozen, unprepared 93.13 3.4 2.4 0.19
Turnip greens, canned, solids and liquids 94.69 2.42 1.7 0.3
Turnip greens, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.2 4.36 3.5 0.23
Turnip greens, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.2 4.36 3.5 0.23
Turnip greens, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 90.4 4.98 3.4 0.42
Turnip greens, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without 90.4 4.98 3.4 0.42
salt
Turnip greens, frozen, unprepared 92.93 3.67 2.5 0.31
Turnip greens, raw 91.07 5.73 3.2 0.3
Turnips, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.6 4.9 2 0.08
Turnips, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.6 4.9 2 0.08
Turnips, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 93.6 4.35 2 0.24
Turnips, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 93.6 4.35 2 0.24
Turnips, frozen, unprepared 95.67 2.94 1.8 0.16
Turnips, raw 91.87 6.23 1.8 0.1
Vegetable juice cocktail, canned 93.52 4.55 0.8 0.09
Vegetables, mixed, canned, drained solids 87.01 9.26 3 0.25
Vegetables, mixed, canned, solids and liquids 90.24 7.12 3.8 0.25
Vegetables, mixed, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, with 83.23 13.09 4.4 0.15
salt
Vegetables, mixed, frozen, cooked, boiled, drained, 83.23 13.09 4.4 0.15
without salt
Vegetables, mixed, frozen, unprepared 82.08 13.46 4 0.52
Vinespinach, (basella), raw 93.1 3.4 0.3
Waterchestnuts, Chinese, (matai), raw 73.46 23.94 3 0.1
Waterchestnuts, Chinese, canned, solids and liquids 86.42 12.43 2.5 0.06
Watercress, raw 95.11 1.29 1.5 0.1
Waxgourd, (Chinese preserving melon), cooked, boiled, 96.06 3.03 1 0.2
drained, with salt
Waxgourd, (Chinese preserving melon), cooked, boiled, 96.06 3.03 1 0.2
Waxgourd, (Chinese preserving melon), raw 96.1 3 2.9 0.2
Winged bean leaves, raw 76.85 14.1 1.1
Winged bean tuber, raw 57.4 28.1 0.9
Winged bean, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 90.11 3.21 0.66
with salt
Winged beans, immature seeds, cooked, boiled, drained, 90.11 3.21 0.66
without salt
Winged beans, immature seeds, raw 87.04 4.31 0.87
Yam, cooked, boiled, drained, or baked, with salt 70.13 27.6 3.9 0.14
Yam, cooked, boiled, drained, or baked, without salt 70.13 27.6 3.9 0.14
Yam, raw 69.6 27.89 4.1 0.17
Yambean, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 90.07 8.82 0.09
Yambean, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90.07 8.82 0.09
Yambean, raw 90.07 8.82 4.9 0.09
Yardlong bean, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt 87.47 9.18 0.1
Yardlong bean, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 87.47 9.18 0.1
Yardlong bean, raw 87.85 8.35 0.4
Index
Advance Notice of Proposed Rule Mak- Analytical method to measure complex

ing (ANPRM) of the FDA, 17 carbohydrates, 137–141
Alcohol, dietary guidelines for, 9 analytical results, 139–141
Alginates, 343 sample, 138
Alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AMP) treat- Antioxidants, dietary fiber and, 60
ment, 363–364 Antioxidant vitamins, 67
Allium compounds, 67 Asia-Pacific region:
American Dietetic Association (ADA): actual DF intake levels in, 102–103
DF guidelines, 10 DF intake recommendations in, 85–
functional food development and, 595 89, 90
Amylopectin, 117–119 Association of Official Analytical Chem-
HPAE-PAD in structural studies of, 279 ists (AOAC), 2, 3
Amylose, 117–119 analytical measurement of polydex-
Anaerobic colonic bacteria, fermentation trose, 238
of, 28 defining and labeling of complex car-
Analysis of dietary fiber, 74, 305–316 bohydrates, 21, 41–42, 47–48
component analysis procedures, 76–77 modified AOAC method for recovery
DNS reduction method for soluble of inulin and oligofructose, 208–
and insoluble NSP, 77 209
unavailable carbohydrate method, 76 combined with inulinase method, 211
Uppsalla GLC methods, 76–77 in determination of occurrence in
gravimetric procedures, 74–76 food products, 213–227
crude fiber determination, 74–75 AOAC International Workshop (1995):
detergent methods of fiber analysis, defining complex carbohydrates, 137
75 Task Force on Nutrient Labeling
Hellendoorn method, 75–76 Analysis, 47–48
661
662 Index
Australia: Bowel cancer, 65–66

DF recommendations for, 90 Breads:
daily intake, 79 DF in, 402
estimate of DF intake in, 93 bread staling, 351
Autoclaving, 378 as a structure enhancer, 350–351
guidelines for complex carbohydrates
Bacterial cellulose, 419 from, 11
Bakery products: resistant starch in, 387
DF applications in, 350–351 Breakfast cereals:
DF-based fat substitutes for, 501–502 DF in, 332
DF content of, 330–332 resistant starch in, 387
hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie British Nutrition Foundation Report, 8
product development, 517–518 defining complex carbohydrates, 43
recovery of FOS contained in, 199, dietary guidelines for complex carbo-
200 hydrates, 11
starch-based fat substitutes for, 481– Bulgaria, estimate of DF intake in, 93
486
total carbohydrates and total DF in, Canada:
609–621 DF recommendations for, 84–85
total sugar, starches and total DF in, 150 daily intake, 79
Baking, effect on dietary fiber composi- estimate of DF intake in, 93
tion, 379 Canadian Nutrition Recommendations
Barley bran, 361–362 (1990), 35
Belgium: Calibration of the NIRS, 293–295
DF daily intake rcommendations for, Cancer, 71, 594, 595
79 bowel, 65–66
estimate of DF intake in, 93 colon, 66, 595
Beta-glutan, 356–357 Canning, effect on dietary fiber composi-
Beverages: tion, 378
DF-based fat substitutes for, 501 Carbohydrate-based fat replacers, 414–
DF supplements in, 349–350 418
hydrocolloids/gums for low-calorie in low-fat products, 425–426
product development, 518–519 maltodextrins, 417–418
starch-based fat substitutes for, 486– polydextrose, 415–417
487 Carbohydrate-rich foods, 44–45
Bile acids, interaction between dietary Carbohydrates:
fiber and, 66 dietary guidelines for, 9–10
Bleaching, effect on dietary fiber compo- HPAE chromatography of, 273–274
sition, 377 total carbohydrates in grain based
Blood cholesterol, dietary fiber in low- food, 609–660
ering of, 58–60, 595 bakery products, 609–621
Blood sugar, control of, 595 cereals, 621–626
Boiling, effect on dietary fiber composi- fruits, 627–634
tion, 378 grains, 639–642
Botanical structure of dietary fiber, legumes, 634–639
307–310 vegetables, 642–660
Index 663
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), 431 [Chemistry of complex carbohydrates]

Carrageenans, 343–344, 425, 431 modified starches, 123–125
Cartenoids, 67 pectic substances, 122
Cellulose, 119, 351–363 resistant starch, 125–127
hemicellulose, 355–363 starch, 117–119
microcrystalline cellulose, 353–355 Chicory fructooligosaccharides, 26
powdered cellulose, 351–353 behavior and effects in the gastrointes-
Cellulose derivatives, 418–420 tinal tract, 28–29
bacterial cellulose, 419 bulking effect, 28–29
methylcellose gums, 419 fermentation by anaerobic colonic
microcrystalline cellulose, 418–419 bacteria, 28
pectin, 420 non-digestibility, 28
Cellulose gel, 425 as prebiotics, 29
Cellulose gums, 348–349 systemic effects of, 30–31
Central America, DF recommendations caloric value, 30–31
for, 91 effects on lipid metabolism, 30
daily intake, 79 mineral bioavailability, 31
Cereal brans, 358 Chile:
Cereals: DF recommendations for, 91
DF content of cereal grains, 332–333 estimate of DF intake in, 93
guidelines for complex carbohyrates China:
from, 11 DF recommendations for, 90
total carbohydrates and total DF in, estimate of DF intake in, 93
621–626 Cholesterol:
total sugar, starches and total DF in, coronary heart disease and, 412
151 lowering, 58–60, 595
See also Breakfast cereals; Whole- Colombia, DF recommendations for, 91
grain cereals daily intake, 79
Certification of five new food reference Colon cancer, 66, 595
materials. See New food refer- Colonic function, effect of dietary fiber
ence materials, certification of on, 307–309
Chemical treatment of dietary fiber, Column packing for high pH anion ex-
377–381 change chromatography, 275–
chemical modifications, 377–378 276
bleaching, 377 Committee on Medical Aspects of Food
enzymes, 377–378 Policy (COMA), 413
food processing, 378 Complex carbohydrate fractions in foods,
dry heat treatment, 379–381 determination of, 145–153
non-thermal treament, 381 method, 146
wet heat treatment, 378–379 results and discussion, 146–153
Chemistry of complex carbohydrates, Complex carbohydrates:
115–129 definitions, 1–4, 131–137, 234
cellulose, 119 the FDA and, 1–2, 3, 15, 20–22,
hemicellulose, 119–122 45–46
hydrocolloids (gums, mucilages), international survey on definition and
122–123 results, 133–137
664 Index
Complex Carbohydrates: The Science [Dessert]

and the Label (ILSI workshop), starch-based fat substitutes for, 496–
39–52 498
Composition of dietary fiber 329–340 Detergent method of fiber analysis, 75
Constipation, 71 Diabetes, 71, 594, 595
Corn bran, 360 Dietary fiber (DF), 2, 3, 4, 46, 329
Coronary heart disease (CHD), 71, 412, antioxidants and, 60
594, 595 bakery product applications, 350–351
DF and, 64–65 bread staling, 351
prevention of, 54–55 as a structure enhancer, 350–351
Coumarins, 67 bulking effect of chicory fructooligo-
Crude fiber (CF) determination, 74–75 saccharides compared to, 29
Cuba, estimate of DF intake in, 93 calculation of, 46
Czechoslovakia, estimate of DF intake cellulose and, 351–363
in, 93 hemicellulose, 355–363
microcrystalline cellulose, 353–
Daily intake of dietary fiber, recommen- 355
dations for (worldwide), 67, 78– powdered cellulose, 351–353
80 chemical and physical modifications
Dairy products: of, 373–384
hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie common components and sources of,
product development, 519–528 351
recovery of FOS contained in, 199, definition and analysis of, 72–74,
200 232–234, 310–311
starch-based fat substitutes for, 488– botanical structure and physiologi-
490 cal effects, 307–310
Deep fat frying, 406–407 international survey, 135–136
Definitions: methods, 311–313, 605–608
AOAC International Workshop re- dietary guidelines for, 10–11
sults (1995), 137 food sources of, 328–329
of complex carbohydrates, 1–4, 131– insoluble fiber, 329
137, 234 soluble fiber, 329
the FDA and, 1–2, 3, 15, 20–22, soluble and insoluble fibers, 329
45–46 specific food sources, 329, 330–
international survey on, 133–137 339
of DF, 72–74, 232–234, 310–311 HPAE-PAD for determination of,
international survey on, 135–136 268–269, 286
methods for determination, 605– hydrocolloids as, 342–343
608 hydrolipidemic effects of chicory fruc-
Denmark: tooligosaccharides compared to,
DF daily intake recommendations for, 30
79 identification of, 37
estimate of DF intake in, 93 measurement by NIRS, 296–301
Dessert: microbial gums and, 347–348
hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie gellan gum, 348
product development, 528–531 xanthan gum, 347–348
Index 665
[Dietary fiber (DF)] [Dietary fiber (DF)]

modified cellulose, pectin and, 348– alkaline hydrogen peroxide treat-
349 ment, 363–364
NDOs as, 31–32 encapsulation, 365
plant exudates and, 346–347 enzymatic modification, 365
gum arabic, 346 extrusion modification, 364–365
gum karayu, 346–347 See also New food reference materi-
gum tragacanth, 347 als, certification of; Polydextrose
in prevention of lipid metabolism dis- Dietary fiber-based fat substitutes (pat-
orders, 53–62 ent literature review), 498–505
animal studies, 55–56 bakery, 501–502
clinical and metabolic studies, 56– beverage, 501
58 fruit paste, 503–504
epidemiologic studies, 54–55 general, 498–500
mechanisms of action, 58–60 low-calorie foods, 504–505
root flour and, 345–346 meat product, 502–503
seaweed extracts and, 343–344 Dietary fiber intake, 71–111
alginates, 343 analytical methods for DF, 74
carrageenan, 343–344 component analysis procedures, 76–
seed extracts and, 344–345 77
guar gum, 345 DNS reduction method for soluble
locust bean gum, 344 and insoluble NSF, 77
selected hydrocolloid properties, unavailable carbohydrate method,
349–350 76
DF supplements in beverages, Uppsalla GLC method, 76–77
349–350 gravimetric procedures, 74–76
reduced fat foods, 350 crude fiber determination, 74–75
sources and properties of, 66–67, detergent method of fiber analysis,
329–342 75
component classification, 341– Hellendoorn method, 75–76
342 intake levels around the world, 94–
composition of DF, 329–340 106
industry availability, 340–341 Asia-Pacific region, 102–103
variation in source composition, Europe, 98–100, 102
341 North American and Latin
total DF content in grain-based foods, America, 95–97
609–660 problems in assessing intake, 92–94
bakery products, 609–621 recommendations for intake levels,
cereals, 621–626 77–92
fruits, 627–634 Asia-Pacific region, 85–89, 90
grains, 639–642 Europe, 79, 81–85, 86–88
legumes, 634–639 Latin America, 89, 91
vegetables, 642–660 North America, 80–81, 82–85
treatment to improve fiber functional- South Africa, 89–92
ity and unique fiber sources, worldwide intake recommendations,
363–365 78–80
666 Index
Dietary Goals for the United States Fat mimetics, complex carbohydrates as,
(1977), 8, 41 411–429
Dietary guidelines, 7–14 applicability of carbohydrate-based
for carbohydrates, 9–10 fat mimetics, 425–426
for complex carbohydrates, 11–12 carbohydrate-based fat replacers,
for DF, 10–11 414–418
dietary guidance, 8–9 maltodextrins, 417–418
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 8–9, polydextrose, 415–417
15, 16, 17 cellulose derivatives, 418–420
Dionex Ion Chromatograph, 195–196 bacterial cellulose, 419
Directive on Nutrition Labeling of Food- methylcellulose gums, 419
stuffs (issued by EU), 252 microcrystalline cellulose, 418–419
Disaccharides, 10 pectin, 420
Disease status, role of dietary fiber in pre- development of fat replacer market,
vention and management of, 235 413–414
Dithiolthiones, 67 fat intake and disease, 411–413
Diverticular disease, 65 gums, 420–425
Dry heat treatment of dietary fiber, fibers, 423
379–381 gelactomannan gums, 420–421
baking, 379 hydrocolloid gum blends, 422–423
extrusion, 380–381 inulin, 424–425
roasting, 379–380 oatrim, 423–424
other gums, 421–422
Energy metabolism, effect of carbohyr- Vitacel, 424
ates on, 12 xanthan gum, 421
Enzymes, 377–378 Z-trim, 424
enzymatic modification of DF, 365 See also Patent literature review
Europe: Federal Trade Commission (FTC), food
actual df intake levels in, 98–100, 102 label reform and, 17–19
benefits of oligosaccharides in, 597– Fermentation, 28, 381
598 Fibers as fat mimetics, 423
DF intake recommendations for, 79, Finland:
81–85, 86–88 DF recommendations for, 88
European Commission/Scientific Com- daily intake, 79
mittee for Foods (EC/SCF), 232 estimate of DF intake in, 93
European Union (EU): Flavinoids, 67
Directive on Nutrition Labeling of Food additives, HPAE-PAD in analysis
Foodstuffs issued by, 252 of, 281–282
functional food development in, 600– Food and Drug Administration (FDA):
601 defining complex carbohydrates, 1–2,
Extrusion cooking, 380–381, 407 3, 15, 20–22, 45–46
food labeling regulations and, 17–19,
Fat intake: 132, 605
dietary guidelines for, 9 complex carbohydrates, 41–42, 46–47
disease and, 411–413 functional food development and,
effect of DF on fat absorption, 310 601–602
Index 667
Food Guide Pyramid of the USDA, 7, Galactomannan gums, 420–421

9, 16, 40, 41 Gas chromatography (GC), 209
Food guides. See Dietary guidelines Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), 76–
Food labels. See Labeling (food labels) 77, 145–146, 209
Food reference materials for dietary fi- Gastrointestinal (GI) tract:
ber analysis. See New food refer- behavior and effects of chicory fruc-
ence materials, confirmation of tooligosaccharides in, 28–29
Foods for Specified Health Use DF and disorders of, 65
(FOSHU) in Japan, 232, 599– polydextrose effect on, 237
600 Gellan gum, 348, 422
France: Generally recognized as safe (GRAS),
DF recommendations for, 86 inulin and oligofructose as, 206
daily intake, 79 Germany:
estimate of DF intake in, 93 DF recommendations for, 86
Freezing, 381 daily intake, 79
Fructans, 126–127 estimate of DF intake in, 93
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS), 27, 126–127 Glucosinolates, 67
measuring FOS in food products, Glycemic index, polydextrose effect on,
191–201 237
materials and methods, 193–196 Grain-based foods:
results and discussion, 196–200 carbohydrates in RDA from, 9
See also Chicory fructooligosaccha- hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie
rides product development, 517–518
Fructose determination methods, 209–210 starch-based fat substitutes for, 481–
Fruit paste, 503–504 486
Fruits: total carbohydrates and total DF con-
DF content of fruit and fruit products, tent in, 609–660
334–335 Grains, total carbohydrates and total DF
DF intake from, 10 content in, 639–642
guidelines for complex carbohydrates Gravimetric procedures for dietary fiber
from, 9–10, 11 analysis, 74–76
hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie crude fiber determination, 74–75
product development, 533–535 detergent methods of fiber analysis,
starch-based fat substitutes for, 480–481 75
total carbohydrates and total DF in, Hellendoorn method, 75–76
627–634 Greece, estimate of DF intake in, 93
Functional food development, 593–604 Guam gum, 345, 425
definition of functional foods, 593 Gum arabic, 346
food production development perspec- Gum karaya, 346–347
tives, 595–599 Gums, 420–425
regulations, opportunities, and con- fibers, 423
straints, 599–602 gelactomannan gums, 420–421
European Union, 600–601 hydrocolloid gum blends, 422–423
Japan, 599–600 inulin, 424–425
the U.S., 601–602 oatrim, 423–424
three categories of functional foods, 594 other gums, 421–422
668 Index
[Gums] High pH, anion exchange chromatogra-

Vitacel, 424 phy at, 275–276
xanthan gum, 421 High pressure liquid chromatography
Z-trim, 424 (HPLC):
Gum tragacanth, 347 for analysis of oligofructose, 209
for analysis of polydextrose, 240–
Health benefits of complex carbohy- 244, 245
drates, 63–69 for determination of inulin in food
Hellendoorn method of dietary fiber products, 215–221
analysis, 75–76 for measuring complex carbohydrates
Hemicelluloses, 119–122, 355–363 in food products, 138–141
barley bran, 361–362 HIST (high-temperature, short-time) ex-
beta-glucan, 356–357 trusion cooking, 407
cereal bran, 358 Hungary, estimate of DF intake in, 93
corn bran, 360 Hydrocolloids, 122–123, 422–423
lignin, 357 as fat mimetics (patent literature re-
oat bran, 362–363 view), 505–591
resistant starch, 357–358 bakery and grain, 517–518
rice bran, 360–361 beverage, 518–519
wheat bran, 358–360 dairy, 519–528
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 412– dessert, 528–531
413 emulsifier, stabilizer, and sus-
High performance anion exchange chro- pending agent, 531–533
matography with pulsed ampero- fruits and vegetables, 533–535
metric detection (HPAE-PAD), general, 505–517
267–289 low-calorie foods: laxative, 559–
for analysis of inulin and oligofruc- 560
tose, 209, 221–223 low-calorie foods: satiety and
for analysis of physiologically func- weight control, 554–559
tional food additives, 281–282 miscellaneous low-calorie foods,
for analysis of starch and non-starch 560–591
polysaccharides, 277–278, 279, snacks, 536
282–284 spread and salad dressing, 536–554
application in pectin research, 286–287 as functional soluble DF, 342–343
column packings for high pH anion selected applications, 349–350
exchange chromatography, 275– H2 breath test to estimate resistant
276 starch in humans, 160–165
for determination of complex carbohy- Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
drates and DF, 268–279 (HPMC), 419
for determination of sugars and oligo-
saccharides, 276, 277 Iceland, estimate of DF intake in, 93
principle of PAD, 269–273 Identification of carbohydrates, 36
for quantitation of polysaccharides, Ileostomy model to estimate resistant
279–281 starch in humans, 163, 165
for structural studies on amylopectins, India, DF recommendations for, 90
279 daily intake, 79
Index 669
Indoles, 67 In vivo techniques to quantify resistant

Industrial process of dietary fiber, 374– starch, 157–168
381 comparison of in vivo models, 166
chemical treatments, 377–381 quantification of RS in animal mod-
chemical modifications, 377–378 els, 159–160, 161, 162
dry heat treatments, 379–381 pig model, 159–160
non-thermal treatments, 381 rat model, 160, 161, 162
wet heat treatments, 378–379 quantification of RS in humans, 160–
fiber separation techniques, 374– 166
376 H2 breath test, 160–165
particle size reduction, 376–377 ileostomy model, 163, 165
Inositol hexaphosphate, 67 intubation technique, 163, 165–
Insoluble dietary fiber, 329 166
International Life Science Institute sample test, 162–163
(ILSI), 21, 40 starch digestion in humans, 158–
International survey on complex carbo- 159
hydrate definition, 133–134 Ireland:
International survey on dietary fiber DF recommendations for, 88
definition, 135–136 daily intake, 79
Intubation technique to estimate resis- estimate of DF intake in, 93
tant starch in humans, 163, 165– Irritable bowel syndrome, 65
166 Isomaltooligosaccharides (IMO), 26
Inulin, 27, 203–212, 424–425, 432 Isothiocyanates, 67
analytical methods, 209–212 Italy:
direct GC, 209 DF recommendations for, 88
direct HPLC, 209 daily intake, 79
fructose determination method, estimate of DF intake in, 93
209–210
HPAE-PAD methods, 209, 221– Japan:
223 benefits of oligosaccharides in, 597
inulinase method, 209–211 DF recommendations for, 90
as DF, 205–206 daily intake, 79
elimination of pectolytic activities of estimate of DF intake in, 93
Novozym SP 230 by thermic functional food development in, 593,
treatment, 224–226 594, 595–597
in food products, determination of regulations, opportunities and con-
(modified AOAC dietary fiber straints, 599–600
method), 213–227 Japanese Foods for Specified Health
HPLC method for, 215–221 Use (FOSHU), 599–600
quantitative analysis for, 214–215 status of polydextrose and, 232
legal status, 206–207 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on
natural occurrence of, 204–205 Food Additives (JECFA), 232
recovery by DF methods, 207–208
Inulinase method for determination of to- Konjac flour gel, 422
tal fructan content in foods, 210, Konjac powder, 345–346
211 Korea, DF recommendations for, 90
670 Index
Labeling (food labels), 15–23, 37, 46– McGovern Commission, 45–46

47, 605 Malting, 381
dietary guidelines and, 16 Maltodextrins, 417–418, 431
educating consumers on the term Measurements and Testing (M&T) Pro-
‘‘complex carbohydrates,’’ 40 gramme, 251, 252–253
FDA regulations for, 17–19, 132, requirements for homogeneity, 255–
605 256
FTC and food label reform, 17–19 Measuring fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
post-NLEA, 19–21 in food products, 191–201
pre-NLEA, 17–19 materials and methods, 193–196
See also Science and the label results and discussion, 196–200
Latin America: recovery of FOS, 199, 200
actual DF intake levels in, 95–97 sensitivity of method for determin-
DF intake recommendations for, 89, ing FOS in cakes and dairy prod-
91 ucts, 200
Legumes: validity of method and deter-
DF content of, 335 mination of the recovery, 196–
total carbohydrates and total DF in, 199
634–639 Meat products:
total sugar, starches, and total DF in, DF-based fat substitutes for, 502–
151 503
Lignin, 2, 72, 73, 357, 606 starch-based fat substitutes for, 454–
defining complex carbohydrates and, 463
134 Metabolic effects:
Lipid metabolism: of carbohydrate intake, 12
DF in prevention of disorders of, 53– of DF, 235
62 Methylcellulose gums, 419
animal studies, 55–56 Mexico:
clinical and metabolic studies 56– DF recommendations for, 91
58 daily intake, 79
epidemiologic studies, 54–55 estimate of DF intake in, 93
mechanisms of action, 58–60 Microbial gums, 347–348
systemic effects of chicory fructo- Microcrystalline cellulose, 353–355,
oligosaccharides on, 30 418–419
Lipogenesis, carbohydrate intake effect Microwaving, 379
on, 12 Modifications of dietary fiber, 373–384
Locust bean gum, 344 industrial processing, 374–381
Low-calorie foods: chemical treatments, 377–381
DF-based fat substitutes for, 504–505 fiber separation techniques, 374–
hydrocolloids/gums in product devel- 376
opment, 554–591 particle size reduction, 376–377
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 412– Modified starches, 123–125
413 Monosaccharides, 10
LDL cholesterol levels, 55
Luxembourg, estimate of DF intake in, National Advisory Committee on Nutri-
93 tion Education (NACNE), 413
Index 671
National Cancer Institute (NCI), func- Non-digestible oligosaccharides

tional food development and, (NDOs), 25–33
593–594 behavior and effects of chicory fruc-
National Labeling and Education Act tooligosaccharides in the GI
of 1990 (NLEA), 2, 40, 132, tract, 28–29
601 bulking effect, 28–29
food label reform and, 19–21 fermentation by anaerobic colonic
labeling for complex carbohydrates, bacteria, 28
47 non-digestibility, 28
National Health and Nutrition Examina- as prebiotics, 29
tion Survey (NHNES III), 413 as DF, 31–32
National Research Council dietary guide- systemic effects of chicory fructo-
lines for complex carbohydrates, oligosaccharides, 30–31
12 caloric value, 30–31
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), effects on lipid metabolism, 30
291–303 mineral bioavailability, 31
application of NIRS to foods, 296 Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP):
chemometrics, 293–295 defining complex carbohydrates and,
instrumentation, 292–293 134
measurement of DF by NIRS, 296– DNS reduction method for soluble
301 and insoluble NSP, 77
Neosugar, 27 HPAE-PAD in analysis of, 277–278,
Netherlands: 279, 282–284
DF daily intake recommendations for, Non-starch saccharides, 3
79 Non-thermal treatments for dietary fiber,
estimate of DF intake in, 93 381
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) method North America:
of analysis, 75 actual DF intake levels in, 95–97
Neutral sugars, determination in foods DF intake recommendations for, 80–
of, 146, 150 81, 82–85
New food reference materials, 251– Norway:
260 DF recommendations for, 88
cell wall study, 253–254 daily intake, 79
certification study, 259–263 estimate DF intake in, 93
control materials, 260 Novozym SP 230 (commercial inu-
enzyme testing, 261 linase), 224–226
structure, 259–260 Nutraceuticals, 593, 594–595
intercomparison study, 256–259 Nutrient absorption, polydextrose effect
main study, 254–256 on, 237–238
M&T Programme requirements for Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guide-
homogeneity, 255–256 lines for Americans, 8–9, 15, 16, 17
preparation, packing, homogeneity Nuts and seeds, DF content of, 335–336
and stability check, 254–255
supplementary study, 263–264 Oat bran, 362–363
New Zealand, estimate of DF intake in, influence on lipoprotein cholestrol lev-
93 els, 57
672 Index
Oatrim, 423–424, 431 [Patent literature review]

Obesity, dietary fiber in treatment of, beverage, 501
65 fruit paste, 503–504
Oligofructose, 27, 203–212 general, 498–500
analytical methods, 209–212 low-calorie foods, 504–505
direct GC, 209 meat product, 502–503
direct HPLC, 209 hydrocolloids/gums for low-fat and
fructose determination method, low-calorie food product develop-
209–210 ment, 505–591
HPAE-PAD methods, 209, 221– bakery and grain, 517–518
223 beverage, 518–519
inulinase method, 209–211 dairy, 519–528
in food products, determination of dessert, 528–531
(modified AOAC dietary fiber emulsifier, stabilizer, and sus-
method), 213–227 pending agent, 531–533
HPLC method for, 215–221 fruits and vegetables, 533–535
quantitative analysis for, 214– general, 505–517
215 low-calorie foods: laxative, 559–560
legal status, 206–207 low-calorie foods: satiety and
natural occurrence of, 204–205 weight control, 554–559
Oligosaccharides, 2–3, 595 miscellaneous low-calorie foods,
benefits of, 596–599 560–591
in definition of complex carbohy- snacks, 536
drates, 134 spread and salad dressing, 536–554
in definition of DF, 606 starch-based fat substitutes, 432–498
HPAE-PAD in determination of, 276, bakery and grain, 481–486
277 beverages, 486–487
See also Non-digestible oligosaccha- dairy, 488–490
rides (NDOs); Resistant oligosac- dessert, 496–498
charides (ROs) emulsifier, stabilizer, and sus-
‘‘Other carbohydrates,’’ 20–21, 46–47 pending agent, 490–496
flavor, 479
Palatinose condensates (PC), 27 fruits and vegetables, 480–481
Pasta: general, 432–454
DF content of, 336–337 meat products, 454–463
guidelines for complex carbohydrates method, 477–479
from, 11 snacks, 463
resistant starch in, 387, 399 spread and salad dressing, 463–477
total sugar, starches, and total DF con- Pectic substances, 122
tent in, 151 Pectin, 349, 420
Patent literature review (complex carbo- HPAE-PAD in pectin research, 286–
hydrates as fat mimetics), 431– 287
591 pH, high, anion exchange chromatogra-
DF-based fat substitutes, 498–505 phy in, 275–276
bakery, 501–502 Phenols, 67
Index 673
Physically trapped starch (RS1), 125 Postprandial glucose response, effect of

Physiological effects of dietary fiber, DF on, 309
37, 43–44, 307–310 Potato(es):
colonic function, 307–309 effect of cooking on DF in, 400
fat absorption, 310 resistant starch in, 387, 399
polydextrose as soluble fiber, 234– Powdered cellulose, 351–353
238 Prebiotics, chicory fructooligosaccha-
disease prevention/intervention, rides as, 29
234–236 Processing effect on dietary fiber in
fermentation to short chain fatty foods, 395–409
acids, 236 effects of different processes, 405–
gastrointestinal function, 237 408
glycemic index, 237 effects of processing on different
nutrient interference, 237–238 foods, 399–405
postprandial glucose response, possible changes in processing, 396–
309 399
Plant exudates, 346–347 Psyllium content in ready-to-eat cereals,
Poland, estimate of DF intake in, 93 317–325
Polydextrose, 27, 229–247, 415–417, materials and methods, 319–322
432 apparatus, 319
analytical measurement of DF, 238– psyllium determination, 321–322
244 reagents, 319–320
AOAC method, 238–240 sample preparation, 320–321
HPLC methods, 240–244, 245 results and discussion, 322–324
complex carbohydrate definition and, Puerto Rico, DF recommendations for,
234 91
DF definition and, 232–234 daily intake, 79
physiological effects of DF, 234– Pulsed amperometric detection (PAD),
238 principle of, 269–273
disease prevention/intervention, Pulses:
234–236 DF content in, 335
fermentation to short chain fatty resistant starch in, 387
acids, 236
gastrointestinal function, 237 Ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals, psyllium
glycemic index, 237 content in. See Psyllium content
nutrient interference, 237–238 in ready-to-eat cereals
regulatory status around the world, Recommended Dietary Allowances
232 (RDAs), 8–9
structure of, 230–232 carbohydrates in diet, 9–10
Polysaccharides, 2, 72, 73, 606 DF in diet, 10
PAD in quantitation of, 279–281 Resistant oligosaccharides (ROs), 2–3,
starch and non-starch, HPAE-PAD in 25, 126–127, 229–230, 595
analysis of, 277–278, 279, 282– defining complex carbohydrates and,
284 134
Portugal, estimate of DF intake in, 93 defining DF and, 606–607
674 Index
Resistant starch (RS), 125–127, 171– [Science and the label]

189, 357–358, 385–394, 397 methodology development, 45–46
analysis of total starch, 173–174 overview, 40
analytical methods for, 174–186 panel discussion, 48–50
Champ method, 181–182 perspective on labeling, 46–47
comparison of main methods, 182– physiologic effects, 43–44
185 Scientific Committee for Foods of the
method of Bjôrck et al., 175–176 European Commission, 206–207
method of Englyst et al., 176 Seaweed extracts, 343–344
method of Muir and O’Dea, 179, Seed extracts, 344–345
180 Seeds and nuts, DF content of, 335–336
classification of, 172 Selenium, 67
defining complex carbohydrates and, Serum cholesterol, coronary heart dis-
134 ease and, 412
effects of processing on, 397–399 Short chain carboxylic acid (SCCA), 26
in foods, 377 Short chain fatty acids (SCFA), 597
production of, 388–392 polydextrose fermented to (in large in-
See also In vivo techniques to quan- testine), 236
tify resistant starch Simple carbohydrates, 44–45
Resistant starch granules (RS2), 125– Singapore, estimate of DF intake in, 93
126 Snacks:
Retrograded starch (RS3), 126–127 hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie
Rice: product development, 536
guidelines for complex carbohydrates starch-based fat substitutes for, 463
from, 11 Soluble dietary fiber, 329
resistant starch formation in reheated hydrocolloids as, 342–343
food, 399 South Africa, DF intake recommenda-
Rice bran, 360–361 tions for, 89–92
Roasting, 379–380 daily intake, 79
Romania, estimate of DF intake in 93 Soybean oligosaccharides (SOS), 26, 27
Root flour, 345–346 Spain:
DF daily recommendations for, 79
Salad dressing: estimate of DF intake in, 93
hydrocolloids/gums in low-calorie Sprouting, 381
product development, 536–554 Starch (starches), 36, 117–119
starch-based fat substitutes for, 463– defining complex carbohydrates and,
477 134
Salt intake, dietary guidelines for, 9 definition and identification of, 36
Saponins, 67 determination of starch content in
Saturated fat, dietary guidelines for, 9 foods, 146, 148
Science and the label, 39–52 digestion in humans of, 158–159
AOAC survey on complex carbohy- modified starch, 123–125
drates, 47–48 total starches, sugar, and total DF con-
defining simple and complex carbohy- tent in cereal grains, legumes,
drates, 44–45 pasta and vegetables, 151
dietary guidance issues, 42–43 See also Resistant starch (RS)
Index 675
Starch-based fat substitutes (patent litera- Unavailable carbohydrate method of DF

ture review), 432–498 analysis, 76
bakery and grain, 481–486 United Kingdom (U.K.):
beverages, 486–487 DF guidelines in, 10
dairy, 488–490 DF recommendations for, 87
dessert, 496–498 daily intake, 80
emulsifier, stabilizer, and suspending estimate of DF intake in, 93
agent, 490–496 United States (U.S.):
flavor, 479 DF recommendations for, 82–84
fruits and vegetables, 480–481 daily intake, 80
general, 432–454 estimate of DF intake in, 93
meat products, 454–463 functional food development in, 598,
method, 477–479 601–602
snacks, 463 United States Department of Agriculture
spread and salad dressing, 463–477 (USDA):
Starch polysaccharides, HPAE-PAD in food guide published by, 8–9
analysis of, 277–278, 279 Food Guide Pyramid of, 7, 9, 16, 40,
Steaming, 379 41
Sterols, 67 food label reform and, 17–19, 605
Sugars: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutri-
HPAE-PAD in analysis of, 276, 277 tion and Human Needs (1977),
total sugar, starches, and total DF con- 8, 41
tent in cereal grains, legumes, Uppsalla gas-liquid chromatography
pasta and vegetables, 151 method for DF analysis, 76–77
Suggested alternatives to the ‘‘complex Uronic acid, 146, 150
carbohydrates’’ term, 35–38 Uruguay, estimate of DF intake in,
Surgeon Generals’s Report on Nutrition 93
and Health, 10, 11–12
Sweden: Vegetables:
DF recommendations for, 88 DF content of, 10, 337–339
daily intake, 79 guidelines for complex carbohydrates
estimate of DF intake in, 93 from, 11
Switzerland, estimate of DF intake in, hydrocolloids/gums in low-fat cal-
93 orie product development, 533–
535
Taiwan, DF recommendations for, 90 starch-based fat substitutes for, 480–
Task Force on Nutrient Labeling Analy- 481
sis of the AOAC Internatinoal, total carbohydrates and total DF in,
47–48 642–660
Technical Committee on Carbohydrates, total sugar, starches and total DF in,
40 151
Thiocyanates, 67 Venezuela, DF recommendations for, 91
Total dietary fiber (TDF). See Dietary daily intake, 80
fiber (DF) Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
Trans-galacto-oligosaccharides (TOS or cholesterol levels, 55
GOS), 26, 27 Vitacel, 424, 431
676 Index
Water binding capacity (WBC) of pow- World Health Organization (WHO), rec-
dered cellulose, 352 ommendations for dietary fiber
Weight control: intake by, 78–80
DF in treatment of obesity, 65 Worldwide dietary fiber intake. See Di-
dietary guidelines for, 9 etary fiber intake
relationship between fat intake and,
412–413 Xanthan gum, 347–348, 421, 425,
Wet heat treatment of dietary fiber, 431
378–379 Xylooligosaccharides (XOS), 26
autoclaving, 378
boiling, 378
canning, 378 Yogurt (yoghurt), 594
microwaving, 379 determination of recovery of FOS con-
steaming, 379 tained in, 194
Wheat brans, 358–360 Yugoslavia, estimate of DF intake in,
thermal treatment of, 399–400 93
Wholegrain cereals, resistant starch in,
387 Z-trim, 424, 431

Complex Carbohydrates in Foods

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Complex Carbohydrates in Foods

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ISBN: 0-8247-0187-9

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Eastern Hemisphere Distribution

World Wide Web

Copyright  1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Current printing (last digit):

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Additives P. Michael Davidson University of Tennessee–Knoxville

1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Horn-

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Handbook of Dough Fermentations, edited by Karel Kulp and Klaus

Extraction Optimization in Food Engineering, edited by Constantina

Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Second Edition, Revised

Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, edited by Y. H.

Food Process Design, Zacharias B. Maroulis and George D.

Susan Sungsoo Cho

Part I: Health Benefits and Definition of Complex Carbohydrates

6. Complex Carbohydrates: The Science and the Label 39

Part II: Complex Carbohydrates—Chemistry and Analytical

Part III: Resistant Starch—Analysis 155

Part IV: Resistant Oligosaccharides—Analytical Methodology 189

17. Determination of Inulin and Oligofructose in Food Products

18. Polydextrose as Soluble Fiber and Complex Carbohydrate 229

Part V: Dietary Fiber—Analytical Methodology 249

19. Progress in the Certification of Five New Food Reference

20. High Performance Anion Exchange Chromatography with Pulsed

21. NIR Analysis of Dietary Fiber 291

22. Definition and Analysis of Dietary Fiber 305

23. Estimation of Psyllium Content in Ready-to-Eat Cereals 317

24. Food Sources and Uses of Dietary Fiber 327

25. Chemical and Physical Modifications of Dietary Fiber 373

26. Production of Resistant Starch 385

27. Effect of Processing on Dietary Fiber in Foods 395

28. Application of Complex Carbohydrates to Food Product

29. Patent Literature Review on Complex Carbohydrates as

Appendix I Perspectives on Dietary Fiber Definition 605

M. H. Auerbach H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut

S. A. S. Craig H. I. Cultor Food Science, Groton, Connecticut

F. Ouarne Béghin-Say, INSA, Toulouse, France

SUSAN SUNGSOO CHO

amount of maltotriose and maltotetrose. This problem might occur if complex

DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR CARBOHYDRATES

DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR DIETARY FIBER

DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR COMPLEX

THE FOOD LABEL AND DIETARY GUIDELINES

Eat foods with adequate starch and fiber . . . [S]imple carbohydrates,

PRE–NUTRITION LABELING AND EDUCATION ACT

The agency has proposed to make the declaration of a nutrient or food

ommendations with respect to the nutrient or component are high-lighted

Comments on this proposal indicated consumer interest in having complex

POST–NUTRITION LABELING AND EDUCATION ACT

TABLE 1 Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides

BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTS OF CHICORY

Fermentation by Anaerobic Colonic Bacteria

atoms ingested as oligofructose are incorporated into newly synthesized bacteria

Chicory Fructooligosaccharides as Prebiotics

TABLE 2 Bulking Effect of Chicory Fructooligosaccharides

Rats Oligofructose (10%) ⫹1 16

Humans Oligofructose (15g) ⫹ 1.2 15

*Bulking index ⫽ g of increase in fresh fecal weight / g of carbohydrates eaten