Plants For Life

Plants for life:
Medicinal plant conservation

and botanic gardens
20
YEARS
1987-2007
Plants for life:
Medicinal plant conservation
and botanic gardens
Belinda Hawkins
The Rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), extracts of which have helped increase the
chance of surviving childhood leukaemia from 10% to 95%.
Cover image: Echinacea spp. used by Native American Indians and still popular today
for stimulating the immune system and accelerating the healing of infections.
January 2008
ISBN: 1-905164-21-1
Published by Botanic Gardens Conservation International.
Recommended citation: Hawkins, B., 2008. Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation
and botanic gardens. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, U.K.
Further copies of this report can be requested from Botanic Gardens Conservation
International, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K.
Alternatively, please email medicinalplants@bgci.org.
Foreword
Medicinal plants harvested from the wild This report draws on a questionnaire
remain of immense importance for the survey of botanic gardens, experts and
well-being of millions of people around conservation organisations worldwide.
the world. Providing both a relief from The response has been extremely
illness and a source of income, over encouraging. Conservation organisations
70,000 plant species are thought to be such as Plantlife International, TRAFFIC
medicinal. Loss of habitat combined with and the IUCN SSC Medicinal Plant
over-harvesting threatens the survival of Specialist Group have all highlighted the
many of these plant species. Botanic valuable skills and expertise of botanic
gardens are important agencies for gardens that can and should be made
ensuring their conservation. available to provide integrated
conservation solutions for medicinal
The original purpose of the earliest plants. We are very grateful for their
botanic gardens established in Europe in practical suggestions and ideas for
the sixteenth century was the cultivation partnership. Botanic gardens have shared
and study of medicinal plants - at a time practical case studies and expressed
when medicine and botany were their willingness to take on more
essentially the same discipline. conservation commitments. BGCI will
The tradition of cultivating and displaying now act on the findings presented in this
medicinal plants has been retained by report to fully develop and implement a
many botanic gardens. For example, medicinal plant programme that delivers
a study by BGCI in 1998 highlighted the the objective in our 5 Year Plan:
medicinal plant collections of 480 botanic To enhance the conservation and
gardens. Conservation of threatened sustainable use of threatened medicinal
medicinal plants has become an plants to address human well-being and
increasingly important role through ex situ livelihood issues as a contribution
conservation as an insurance policy towards Targets 3 and 13 of the CBD
against loss of resources in the wild, Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.
informing visitors about the values and
conservation needs of these special
plants and working with local
communities to show how the plants they
rely on can be cultivated or harvested
sustainably. The multitude of ways in Sara Oldfield
which botanic gardens support the BGCI Secretary General
conservation of medicinal plants is December 2007
highlighted by this report. And yet much
more needs to be done.
Zingiber spectabile. In addition to its use
as a spice, ginger root has been used for
centuries for an array of complaints; from
stomach upset to rheumatism.
2 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Contents
Magnolia denudata.
Flower buds and seeds
used in Asia for
headaches and sinusitis.
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................4
2. Background .................................................................................................................................................................................5
3. Medicinal plants for healing .................................................................................................................................................6
4. Medicinal plants for livelihoods ...........................................................................................................................................8
5. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation .................................................................................................................10
6. Medicinal plants and botanic gardens .............................................................................................................................15
7. Recommendations for medicinal plant conservation actions by botanic gardens ..............................................20
8. Towards an action plan for medicinal plant conservation by BGCI ..........................................................................24
9. Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................................................................26
10. References .................................................................................................................................................................................27
Acronyms and Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................29
Annexes
Annex 1 The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: 2010 Targets .....................................................................................30
Annex 2 Source data for list of medicinal plants ....................................................................................................................31
Annex 3 Medicinal plants questionnaire ..................................................................................................................................33
Annex 4 Analysis of questionnaire responses ........................................................................................................................34
Annex 5 Suggested priority species for conservation action ................................................................................................36
Annex 6 The 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species categories ...................................................................................45
Annex 7 BGCI regional action plan for medicinal plant conservation ..................................................................................46
Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 3

1. Introduction
botanic gardens and BGCI can take. Secondly, a medicinal plants workshop
Although botanic gardens have involving over 150 participants was held
horticultural skills that can be at the Third Global Botanic Gardens
disseminated to achieve a community Congress in Wuhan, China in April 2007,
benefit that is not necessarily a at which a wider consultation exercise
conservation benefit, the focus for this was begun. This involved a questionnaire
work was on threatened medicinal plants. survey (Annex 3), which was directed at
various medicinal plant stakeholder
The project has involved updating BGCI’s bodies; from botanic gardens to NGOs,
PlantSearch database (available at Government agencies and commercial
www.bgci.org/plant_search.php/) to enterprises. 80 questionnaire responses
include information on threatened were received. Answers and commentary
medicinal plants for use as a planning received have been woven into this
tool. Some 3,000 key medicinal plant report. Graphic results can be seen at
Hibiscus spp. Many species are used species are now included in the Annex 4, suggested priority species can
medicinally and as food across the globe. database, allowing botanic gardens to be seen at Annex 5.
identify medicinal plant species within
their collections and BGCI to build a Drawing on all of these inputs, this
Botanic gardens around the world have picture of the ex situ status of priority report compares the need for
been involved in the study and cultivation species, at local, regional and global conservation of the world’s medicinal
of medicinal plants for over 500 years. levels. This phase of the project has plant diversity with the conservation
Collectively they provide an important resulted in the collection of large amounts resources provided by botanic gardens
repository for medicinal plants and the of data, which will be made available via around the world and moves towards
associated knowledge about these the PlantSearch database and will serve an action plan for prioritising
important species. Recognising this, as a basis for on-going work. Annex 2 conservation action, taking into
BGCI has taken various steps to promote records the sources of data used during account livelihoods and healthcare for
the conservation of medicinal plants by this initial exercise. an integrated approach.
the botanic garden community since its
establishment 20 years ago.
Currently, one of the aims of BGCI’s

5-year plan (2007 – 2012) (available at
www.bgci.org) is to enhance the
conservation of threatened medicinal
plants to address human well-being and
livelihood issues as a contribution
towards the Global Strategy for Plant
Conservation (GSPC) (Annex 1).
Though there are a range of resources
directed at the conservation of medicinal
plants, few of these have been
specifically targeted for botanic gardens.
BGCI’s ‘Safety Nets for Medicinal Plants’
project, a one-year programme of work
supported by the Rufford Maurice Laing
Foundation, aimed to maximise the
potential for skill-sharing within the
medicinal plant conservation community,
with a view to prioritising the practical
medicinal plant conservation actions that
4 Plants for life

2. Background
To begin simply, plants equal life. They are currently on the IUCN Red List of
the primary producers that sustain all other Threatened Species. Whilst the extinction
life forms. They regulate air and water of a species is the ultimate loss, the
quality, shape ecosystems and control the process of extinction itself has serious
climate. They provide food, medicine, consequences for local ecosystems. “Exploitation pressures have increased
clothes, shelter and the raw materials from Plant to plant interactions effect both with growing human population.
which innumerable other products are resource availability and habitat structure, Although sustainable exploitation of
made. These benefits are widely and play an important role in mediating the many species is theoretically
recognised but poorly understood. Thus responses of natural systems (Brooker, achievable, many factors conspire to
plants are both a vital part of the world’s 2006). Thus the loss of any one species make it hard to achieve in practice,
biological diversity and an essential weakens an ecosystem’s ability to adapt in and overexploitation remains a serious
economic resource for human existence. a rapidly changing world. threat to many species and
populations. Among the most
Yet plant extinctions are occurring at a rate commonly exploited species or groups
unmatched in geological history, leaving of species are plants and animals
ecosystems incomplete and impoverished. harvested for the medicinal trade”
Current extinction rates are at least 100 to (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
1,000 times higher than natural
background rates, with a quarter of the Destructive harvesting practices coupled
world’s coniferous trees known to be in with the degradation of forests,
jeopardy (IUCN, 2006) and as many as agricultural expansion, grazing pressure
15,000 medicinal plants under threat and urbanisation all threaten the survival
(IUCN/SSC MPSG, 2007). Over 50% of of medicinal plants. In short, we are
cycads, used medicinally and the oldest asking more and more from natural
seed plants on earth, are threatened with ecosystems even as we reduce their
extinction. This makes them one of the capacity to meet our needs (Kazoora,
most threatened groups of species 2002).
As we lose species, we lose vital

components necessary to our own
survival. Humans, with all their cultural
diversity, are an integral part of
ecosystems; ultimately one is entirely
dependent on the other. Whilst we drive
ecosystem change both directly and
Ginkgo biloba, a ‘living fossil’ with a long indirectly, changes in ecosystems cause
history of use in China for improving the changes in human well-being also.
memory. Adverse impacts on ecosystems have
adverse impacts on cultures and
communities, often affecting the world’s
poorest people with disproportionate
severity. The ecosystem approach to
conservation, which puts people at the
centre of ecosystem management, is
strikingly relevant to medicinal plants.
Surely, we should save the plants that
save us?

3. Medicinal plants for healing
Medicinal plants have been used by Traditional medicine

mankind for millennia; their use is as old In 1960, at the cave site of Shanidar
as humanity itself. The range of species “Traditional medicine is the sum total in what is now north-eastern Iraq,
used and their scope for healing is vast. of the knowledge, skills and practices the skeleton of an adult male was
Cures as yet undiscovered may exist in based on the theories, beliefs and discovered, lying on his left side in
plants as yet undescribed. Currently, it is experiences indigenous to different a partial foetal position. He’d been
estimated that the number of higher plant cultures, whether explicable or not, used buried some 60,000 years ago.
species used worldwide for medicinal in the maintenance of health as well as Routine soil samples were gathered
purposes is more than 50,000 in the prevention, diagnosis, for pollen analysis in an attempt to
(Schippmann et al., 2002). This equates to improvement or treatment of physical reconstruct the site’s palaeoclimate
approximately 20% of the world’s vascular and mental illness” and vegetational history. In some of
flora and constitutes the biggest spectrum (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2003). the samples concentrated clumps of
of biodiversity used by people for a pollen were found suggesting that
specific purpose (Hamilton et al., 2006). entire flowering plants had been
buried close to the man. Though the
source of the pollen is hotly debated,
a study of the particular flower types
suggested that the flowers may have
been specifically chosen for their
medicinal properties. Yarrow (Achillea
spp.), St. Barnaby’s thistle (Centaurea
spp.), groundsel (Senecio spp.) and
rose mallow (Hibiscus spp.) amongst
others were represented in the pollen
samples, all of which have long-
known curative powers as stimulants,
astringents and anti-inflammatories.
• In China, Traditional Chinese Medicine

(TCM) is largely plant-based (80%) and
TCM preparations account for 30-50%
of total medicinal consumption, rising
to 90% in rural areas (WHO, 2003).
• In India, Ayurvedic medicine, a system
more than 5,000 years old, is based on
some 2,000 plant species (Zedan,
2002).
• In Sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio of
traditional healers to the population
is approximately 1:500, while medical
doctors have a 1:40,000 ratio to the
rest of the population (Richter, 2004).
In fact, of the total pharmaceutical drug

supply available worldwide, only 15%
is consumed in developing countries
(Lydecker et al., 1992), supporting the
much-quoted WHO’s estimate that 80%
of people worldwide rely on traditional
medicine for their primary healthcare.
The majority of these people are in
developing countries, where rapid
population growth is expected to increase
pressures on medicinal plant resources.
The greater part of traditional therapy

involves the use of plants. With little or
no access to modern pharmaceuticals
and a strong cultural preference for In many cases modern chemistry cannot
traditional medicine, medicinal plants are offer viable alternatives to active
therefore fundamental to the well-being of botanical compounds. The compound
billions of people. paclitaxel (found in Taxus spp. and source
of the anti-cancer drug, taxol) was
Demand for traditional remedies is also described as the kind of molecule that no
increasing in so-called developed chemist would ever sit down and think of
countries, alongside growing making;
environmental awareness and a desire
for natural healing through natural “If contemporary chemistry is now
products. allowing us to merely copy such
molecules, one can imagine the near
‘Modern’ medicine impossibility of designing from scratch a
molecule with a comparable combination
Of course, allopathic or ‘modern’ of form and biological function”
medicine also owes a great deal to (Capson, 2004).
medicinal plants. Catharanthus roseus
for example, treats leukaemia and Predictions that advances in chemical
Hodgkin’s disease. Morphine and sciences and synthetic material
codeine are produced from cultivated Digitalis spp. development would lessen the need for
opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. natural materials have proved to be
Aspirin was originally found in willow bark extracted from the leaves of the common wrong, and modern medicine depends
(Salix spp.). Quinine from the cinchona foxglove (Digitalis spp.), are widely used on the continuing availability of
tree has been the primary treatment for for a variety of heart conditions. Topical biological materials as an
malaria for centuries. Digitalin medicines, steroids for eczema are produced from incomparable source of molecular
the yam (Dioscorea spp.) or from sisal diversity.
(Agave spp.) and the alkaloid
Galantamine, sourced from the bulbs of
snowdrops (Galanthus spp.) is used to
treat Alzheimer’s disease, slowing down
the progression of dementia.
In fact, as many as 50% of prescription

drugs are based on a molecule that
occurs naturally in a plant, with some
25% of prescription drugs derived directly
from flowering plants or modelled on plant
Taxus spp. molecules (Foster and Johnson, 2006).

4. Medicinal plants for livelihoods
Medicinal plants are clearly an important naturally rare and heavily exploited
global resource in terms of healthcare but species wild collection can be a major
they are also an important economic threat with local extinction the outcome.
resource, traded extensively on scales It is the collection for commercial trade
ranging from the local to the international. rather than home-use that is
overwhelmingly the problem (Hamilton,
Internationally, the trade in medicinal 2003).
plants is estimated to be worth $60 billion
per year (World Bank, 2004) increasing at Though notoriously poorly
a rate of 7% a year (Koul and Wahab, documented, and though our
2004). understanding of the biology, ecology
and status in the wild of most
Very little of the raw material to supply medicinal plants is very fragmented,
this demand is from cultivated sources. this level of wild harvest is said to be
Of the 3000 or so species known to be in currently unsustainable.
international trade (Schippmann et al, The consequences of unsustainable
2006) there are approximately 900 for We know this because herb-gatherers are harvest are far-reaching, and not simply
which commercial cultivation is underway having to go farther and farther afield to confined to a loss of healthcare or
or in development (Mulliken and Inskipp, harvest the plant they want; they’re biodiversity. Many of the world’s poorest
2006). Putting it another way, about 70- experiencing a drop in harvest levels. people rely on the collecting and selling
80% of the medicinal plants being traded Some species just aren’t there anymore. of wild medicinal plants for income
in the world’s most important range Unfortunately, the motivation of short- generation. Though prices paid to
countries for medicinal plants originate term profit increase neglects all gatherers tend to be very low medicinal
from wild-collection (WWF/TRAFFIC considerations of sustainability, but plant collection provides a significant
Germany, 2002). Many of these species conservation intervention can occur at income for the often marginal, rural poor
are widespread and abundant but for several points along the supply chain. (World Bank, 2004).
Gentiana lutea
bitter taste can still be detected at endangered over most of its range; it is
Gentiana lutea (Yellow dilutions of herb to water 1:20,000) and included in the Red Data Books of
gentian) is found in the it stimulates the taste buds and brain Bulgaria, Albania and Transcarpathia;
mountains of central and reflexes to promote the secretion of saliva wild harvest is banned in Montenegro;
southern Europe. Gentian and gastric juices. As such it has been the species is protected by law in
root (which can be as used as an appetite stimulant in the Serbia and the Ukraine and it is
thick as a person’s arm) treatment of anorexia (Foster, 2006). considered threatened in Turkey.
has a long history of use It is said to be especially useful in states
as an herbal bitter in the of exhaustion from chronic disease and Gentiana lutea is recorded in cultivation
treatment of digestive in cases of debility or weakness of the in 48 botanic gardens (PlantSearch
disorders. An Egyptian digestive system; strengthening the human database). The gathering of
papyrus from 1200 B.C. system by stimulating the liver, gall bladder propagation data from these gardens
mentions gentian as an and digestive system (Plants for a Future, and the exchange of this information
ingredient in medicines 2004). will help to ensure the ex situ
(Foster and Johnson, conservation of this species and will
2006). Most imports of G.lutea originate from support restoration and reintroduction
wild harvest and occasionally from efforts. BGCI aims to facilitate this
The root contains one of cultivation in south east Europe work though its medicinal plants
the bitterest substances (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). programme.
known to science (the The species is endangered or critically

• About 20,000 tons of medicinal and
aromatic plants worth US$18-20 million
are traded every year in Nepal alone,
and about 90% are harvested in
uncontrolled fashion by landless,
resource-poor mountain farmers for
whom the harvest and trade in
medicinal plants constitutes their only
form of cash income. The situation is
similar in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
and other countries of South Asia
(MAPPA, 2007).
• In Namibia, there are an estimated

5,000 to 10,000 Devil’s Claw
(Harpagophytum spp.) harvesters,
50 to 100 middlemen and 17 Namibian
exporters. The retail value in 2001 was
some US$40 million, though Namibia
captures at most 5% of the retail value
of the trade (Cole and Stewart, 2006).
• Ethnoveterinary medicine is used by

livestock raisers throughout the world
to keep their animals healthy and
productive, since modern treatments
may be expensive and inaccessible in
remote areas (Mathias, 2001).
Rows of ginseng and mushroom elixirs for sale in Seoul, Korea.
The world’s greatest concentration of

expect to receive around Rs 1500/kg medicinal plant wealth is found in tropical
(approximately US$37) (Uniyal et al, developing countries that are beset by
2006). Traditionally, it was harvested acute poverty. In these regions, the loss
every two to three years. It is now of biodiversity and land degradation is
Aconitum spp.
harvested every year and subject to a accelerating as poverty is increasing.
lengthened harvesting season, placing The loss of livelihood is a very real concern
Aconitum heterophyllum (Patris) is the species under heavy pressure given that approximately 1 billion people, a
endemic to the alpine and sub-alpine (Singh, 2006). The species shows poor fifth of the world’s population, live on less
zones of the north-west Himalayas. seed germination and low seed survival than US$1 a day (World Bank, 2007).
It grows only in localised restricted therefore regeneration is low under
ecological niches and is said to neither natural conditions. This characteristic, A common definition is that a livelihood is
invade new areas nor survive at lower combined with non-judicious the financial means whereby one lives; for
altitudes (Beigh et al, 2005). exploitation, over-grazing and habitat example, collecting wild medicinal plants
The species has; destruction mean that the species is for sale. However, this does not
now hard to find and critically necessarily mean that the plants
1 name in Arabic, 5 in Hindi, 2 in endangered. collected are sufficient to satisfy an
Kannada, 1 in Malayalam, 2 in Marathi, individual’s needs or to lift them out of
3 in Persian, 70 in Sanskrit, 83 in Tamil, Aconitum heterophyllum is recorded in poverty. Such a livelihood cannot
3 in Telugu, 5 in Tibetan and 4 in Urdu cultivation in only 4 botanic gardens therefore be sustainable. A sustainable
(FRLHT, no date). (PlantSearch database). BGCI will livelihood is one that can cope with and
therefore support the ex situ recover from stresses and shocks whilst
The dried root is commonly used to conservation of this species by alerting maintaining or enhancing its capabilities
treat gastric disorders and high fevers, gardens to the conservation needs of for the future and not undermining the
as a substitute for quinine and to treat the species, gathering species-specific natural resource base (Kazoora, 2002).
toothache and scorpion or snake bites. data and facilitating knowledge share Sustainable use meets the needs of the
It is a high value species; gatherers can between gardens. present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own
needs (Brundtland, 1987).

5. Approaches to medicinal plant
conservation
Medicinal plant conservation is challenging, The policy context The conservation of biodiversity is
since the taxa occur in a wide range of acknowledged as the cornerstone of
habitats and geographic regions. Their A policy trend positively linking sustainable development. For more
conservation threats and ultimate use are biodiversity conservation with human information on the CBD go to
diverse and users are not only local rural development is gaining momentum and www.cbd.int.
communities but also far away urban people’s access rights to natural • The World Trade Organisation’s (WTO)
citizens. However, it is widely agreed that resources necessary for their survival agreement on Trade-Related Aspects
the conservation of medicinal plants (and have improved with policy provisions. of Intellectual Property Rights
biodiversity in general) can be achieved (TRIPS), 1994, sets out how to deal
through an integrated approach balancing • The Convention on Biological with the commercial use of traditional
in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. Diversity (CBD) was ratified in 1992 at knowledge and genetic material by
the Rio Earth Summit. The 190 Parties those other than the communities or
Medicinal plant conservation must have agreed to commit to protect countries where these originate,
therefore operate within several spheres; biodiversity, develop sustainably and especially when these are the subject
drawing together disparate groups and engage in the equitable sharing of of patent applications. More
mutually acknowledging different benefits from the use of genetic information on the WTO and TRIPS
stakeholder interests in order to succeed. resources. Agreement is available at www.wto.org.
The Chiang Mai Declaration of 1988 led to the publication of the first Guidelines The guidelines detailed the experts
on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants (currently being updated), recognising most needed for a programme of
the “urgent need for international co-operation and co-ordination to establish conservation and sustainable utilisation
programmes for the conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate of medicinal plants, though terms may
quantities are available for future generations” (WHO, 1993). have changed in the almost 20 years
since, the roles remain just as current.
Agronomists: To improve techniques for cultivating medicinal plants

Conservation campaigners: To persuade the public of the need to conserve medicinal plants
Ecologists: To understand the ecosystems in which medicinal plants grow
Ethnobotanists: To identify the use of plants as medicines in traditional societies
Health policy-makers: To include conservation and utilisation of medicinal plants in their policy and planning
Horticulturists: To cultivate medicinal plants
Legal experts: To develop effective legal mechanisms that ensure that collection of medicinal plants is at
levels that are sustainable
Park managers: To conserve medicinal plants within their parks and reserves
Park planners: To ensure the park and reserve system contains the maximum diversity of medicinal plants
Pharmacologists: To study the application of medicinal plants
Plant breeders: To breed improved strains of medicinal plants for cultivation
Plant genetic resource To assess the genetic variation in medicinal plants and
specialists: maintain seed banks of medicinal plants
Plant pathologists: To protect the cultivated medicinal plants from pests and diseases without using dangerous
chemicals
Religious leaders: To promote a respect for nature
Resource economists: To evaluate the patterns of use and the economic values of medicinal plants
Seed biologists: To understand the germination and storage requirements of the seed of different medicinal plants
Taxonomists: To identify the medicinal plants accurately
Traditional health practitioners: To provide information on the uses and availability of medicinal plants

Access and benefit sharing (ABS)
One of the three fundamental objectives

of the CBD is to promote the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising
out of the utilisation of genetic resources.
One way of doing this is by confirming
the sovereign rights of the State over its
biological resources. The bioprospecting
of plants for potential new drugs raises
issues about the protection of traditional
knowledge and the mechanisms to
ensure that indigenous peoples benefit
from uses of their resources.
• The UNCTAD BioTrade Initiative • The 2002 World Summit on

(launched in 1996) promotes the Sustainable Development aimed to
sustainable use of goods and services promote a global commitment to
derived from biodiversity, in support of sustainable development, improving the
the objectives of the CBD lives of the world’s poorest people as
(www.biotrade.org/). well as reversing the continued
• The eight Millennium Development degradation of the global environment.
Goals (MDGs) were agreed by world For the latest developments see
leaders in 2000, providing an agenda http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
for reducing poverty and improving index.html.
lives through environmental • The WHO launched their Traditional
sustainability by the target date of Medicine Strategy in 2002, discussing
2015. Any measures which enable the the role of traditional medicine in health
sustainable use of natural resources to care systems. View at http://www.who.
improve livelihoods will contribute to int/medicines/publications/traditional
the MDGs. The MDGs can be viewed policy/en/. • Homalanthus nutans (the mamala tree)
at www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. • In 2004, the Addis Ababa Principles is native to the rainforests of the South
• The Millennium Ecosystem and Guidelines to the CBD detailed 14 Pacific island of Samoa. It has
Assessment (MEA) assessed the interdependent practical principles and traditionally been used to treat a
consequences of ecosystem change on operational guidelines that govern the number of conditions; from back pain
human well-being, gathering data from uses of components of biodiversity to to hepatitis, diarrhoea and yellow fever.
2001 to 2005 and providing a scientific ensure the sustainability of such use. Researchers at the University of
appraisal of the condition and trends in These can be viewed on the CBD California, Berkeley, in the US identified
the world’s ecosystems and the website, as before. a promising AIDS drug (Prostratin) in
services they provide, as well as the • Also in 2004, a new paragraph was the bark of the tree. Samoa therefore
scientific basis for action to conserve added to the Convention on declared sovereign rights over the
and use them sustainably International Trade in Endangered species, including the actual gene
(www.millenniumassessment.org). Species of Wild Fauna and Flora sequences, and signed an ABS
• The Doha Declaration of 2001 aimed (CITES) Resolution Conf.8.3 stating agreement with the University in 2004
to ensure that the TRIPS agreement that the Conference of the Parties (picture above). The agreement gives
and the CBD support each other; recognizes that implementation of Samoa and the University equal shares
“allowing for the optimal use of the CITES listing decisions should take into to any commercial proceeds resulting
world’s resources in accordance with account potential impacts on the from the genes. Samoa’s 50% share
the objective of sustainable livelihoods of the poor. See will be allocated to the government, to
development, seeking both to protect www.cites.org for further information. villages and to the families of traditional
and preserve the environment and to healers. Another facet of the
enhance the means for doing so in a agreement is a requirement that any
manner consistent with their respective subsequent commercialised drug must
needs and concerns at different levels be supplied to developing countries
of economic development”. free, at cost or at very nominal profit.
• In 2002 the CBD adopted the Global
Strategy for Plant Conservation
(GSPC), which specifies 16 outcome-
orientated targets for delivery by 2010.
See Annex 3 and www.plants2010.org. Homalanthus nutans

• In October 1991, the Costa Rican
Asociacion Instituton Nacional de
Biodiversidad (INBio), a private, non-
profit, scientific organization and
Merck, a U.S. multi-national
pharmaceutical corporation, signed a
two year agreement. In the agreement,
INBio would supply Merck with
samples among the plants, insects and
microorganisms collected from Costa
Rica’s protected forests. Merck then
would have the right to use these
samples to create new pharmaceutical
products. Merck paid one million
dollars to INBio for the right to analyze Clearly such agreements are beneficial in • IPEN establishes a system of facilitated
an agreed-upon number of indigenous many ways to countries rich in biodiversity exchange for a network of gardens that
plant and animal samples. Merck (it is but without the capacity to develop these have signed up to a Common Code of
believed) will pay INBio between one to resources. However, there are concerns Conduct. The IPEN system only covers
three percent royalties for any product that such legislative measures may restrict non-commercial use of living
developed through the agreement. access to plant resources for non- collections.
Ten percent of the initial one million commercial use such as research,
dollars and fifty percent of any royalty conservation, education and display. Non-monetary benefits resulting from
will be invested in biodiversity Considering the key role that botanic plant exchange can include knowledge
conservation through Costa Rica’s gardens play in educating the public transfer, technical support, staff exchange
Ministry of Natural Resources. (Trade about medicinal plant use, access to and capacity building to strengthen
and Environment Database, no date). medicinal plants for education and display conservation work in the country of origin
purposes as well as for conservation and of the plant material.
research activities, is important. Botanic
gardens have in recent years been Further information can be found at
working to develop harmonised www.bgci.org/abs.
approaches to implementing the ABS
provisions of the CBD. Two voluntary Cultivation versus wild harvest
approaches have been developed,
the Principles on Access to Genetic Cultivation has long been suggested as a
Resources and Benefit-Sharing (the possible mitigation to the unsustainable
Principles) and the International Plant wild harvest of medicinal plants,
Exchange Network (IPEN). simultaneously taking the pressure off
wild stock whilst boosting commerce.
• The Principles provide a framework to Along an agronomic model, modern
help guide gardens when developing methods of plant breeding, propagation
their own individual policies. and post-harvest processing techniques
Panax quinquefolius
It is highly prized as a universal remedy in grade roots according to physical
Panax quinquefolius (American east Asia, where more than 95% of characteristics; size (the bigger the
ginseng) has been heavily traded in harvested roots end up. Traded ginseng better), shape (the more ‘man-shaped’
North America for over a century; types include wild, wild-stimulated, and thicker the better), age (the older
cultivated woods-grown and cultivated the better) and colour (the darker the
“We were down in the Tennessee fields-grown. Field-grown ginseng roots better) (Sinclair, 2005).
mountains when there came slowly reach a size in three years that can only be
down the mountain trail a dilapidated attained by 15-30 years of growth under Illegal wild harvest is known to occur;
specimen of humanity, slouch hat, natural forest conditions, and are very pale 10,515 illegally harvested roots were
bare foot, coat hung on one shoulder, in colour compared to wild-grown roots. seized between 1991 and 1999 in the
and a sack, of unknown origin, in his Great Smokey Mountain National Park
hands. He saw us, heard us as we Wild ginseng root has the greatest alone (Pierce, 2002). Conservation
greeted – but without turning the head perceived medicinal value of all the efforts have therefore included
slunk on like some phantom creature ginseng types and this is reflected in employing marker technology to enable
into the forest labyrinth. ‘Humph’, price – from as much as US$1300/kg for distinction between cultivated and wild
said the guide. ‘You might a’ known. wild roots to as low as US$44/kg for root, as well as research into the active
You can’t expect nothin’ of a ginseng- field-cultivated roots (Pierce, 2002). compound content. P .quinquefolius is
digger.’” Though there is a move towards grading widely cultivated commercially, and
(Koch, 1910). the roots according to the quantity of recorded in eight botanic garden
active chemical content, buyers primarily collections (PlantSearch database).

Rauvolfia serpentina
decades (CITES, 2005).
Rauvolfia serpentina (Indian However the rapid
snakeroot, Sarpaghanda) is member of decline and isolated
the dogbane family, found in India, nature of snakeroot
Pakistan and south east Asia. populations means that
wild genetic stock is
“The primary folk use for the extract severely depleted.
was as a means of attaining states of
introspection and meditation, and On a small scale India has successfully
Harvesting Prunus africana. Indian holy men, including Mahatma cultivated snakeroot for many decades,
Ghandi, were habitual users of the for example in hospital gardens, and
allow medicinal plant products to be drug” continues to invest in this area. It is
engineered to a consistent and high (Mann, 1992). not clear how successful this has been
standard, infinitely more appropriate for however, given that the species
standardised pharmaceutical use. But the plant is also an important requires at least two years before
The cultivation, management and healer, used for stomach disorders, bearing marketable product. Further
enrichment planting of high value plants snakebite and epilepsy. R. serpentina experiments have shown that net
is therefore an important strategy to meet is also the source of the alkaloid returns are higher when Rauvolfia is
consumer demands and reduce the resperine, which revolutionized the inter-cropped than when grown alone,
impacts of markets on biodiversity. treatment of hypertension in the 1950s in this way yielding a year round
and is still commonly prescribed today. harvest and down-playing the slow
However, cultivation often requires major Chemically similar to serotonin, early growth of the species
inputs for a far-off return in a fluctuating resperine was also used to treat severe (Maheshwari, 1985).
market characterised by ‘fads’. Though mental illnesses due to its powerful
several medicinal plants are cultivated on sedative properties. Rauvolfia serpentina is recorded in
a large scale (Arnica montana, Hamamelis cultivation in 22 botanic gardens
virginiana, Panax quinquefolius and Once found in most of tropical India, (PlantSearch database). However, little
Catharanthus roseus to name a few) it is by 1998 it was confined to a range of is known about the genetic diversity of
not economically feasible to commercially less that 5,000km2; with an area of wild such cultivated stock and accessions
cultivate all of the medicinal plants that population occupancy said to be less in genebanks. A genetic study of the
are threatened in the wild. (It should be than 500km2 (Mamgain et al. 1998). plants in botanic garden collections will
noted that, despite cultivation, several of Export was banned by the Indian be encouraged by BGCI with a view to
these species were also considered as Ministry of Commerce in 1994, and in developing a strategy for the
priorities for further conservation attention Nepal in 2001 (Aryal, no date) and restoration of wild populations.
in the wild, see Annex 5). There is little trade is now less than it was in past
incentive to bring into cultivation species
that are required in relatively small
volumes, are slow growing, are believed
to be more potent in their wild form or do It should be noted that both large-scale
not command sufficiently high prices. cultivation and unsustainable wild harvest
lead to genetic erosion. When cultivated,
Moreover, there are social, economic and artificial changes (to intensify the
ecological benefits to wild harvest. As concentration of certain compounds)
mentioned, since wild collection is mostly often occur very quickly, unlike in nature.
carried out in low-wage countries and by In the short term the desired results are
low-income, underprivileged groups it’s a achieved but, in terms of genetic
chance for the poorest of people to get at diversity, there may be long term negative
least some income, despite having no land. consequences. It is a diverse gene pool
that contributes to the ability of species
Wild harvest also gives an economic value or populations to maintain resistance to
to ecosystems and habitats and thus diseases and to adapt to a changing
provides an incentive for the protection of climate. Environmental conditions at
something much larger than just the every level are constantly changing, and
medicinal plant. Though the only diversity can ensure that some
consequences of collecting activity are still individuals will be able to adapt to these
very little understood, the involvement of changes.
local people in sustainable management
practices increases both their desire and CITES and medicinal plants
ability to protect wild populations from medicinal (Schippmann, 2001) even
over-exploitation. Of course, the The Convention on International Trade in though only approximately 30 have been
assumption here is that stocks are Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and listed specifically because of concern
sufficient, demand will remain constant Flora (CITES) provides varying degrees of over their trade as medicine. The
and the structures and dynamics within protection to more than 33,000 plant intention of CITES is to promote a
local communities will remain stable. species. Of these, about 240 are sustainable trade in listed species.

Hoodia spp.
which acts as an appetite suppressant Species No. of botanic
Hoodia spp. are slow- and is claimed to help weight loss; garden collections
growing, perennial, “Amazing, most effective safe weight Hoodia bainii 2
spiny succulent plants. loss with no side effects advanced Hoodia barklyii 2
They occur in a wide appetite suppressant available!” Hoodia currori 1
Hoodia dregei 5
range of arid habitats “HoodiThin™ - Feel full faster and Hoodia gibbosa 1
in southern Africa, stay full longer!” “Hoodia diet pills Hoodia gordonii 10
Hoodia juttae 3
typically on arid gravel are guaranteed to work for you or it Hoodia langii 1
plains. Detailed costs absolutely nothing!” Hoodia macrantha 7
information on the Hoodia parviflora 1
Hoodia pilfera 4
distribution and The active ingredient has been isolated Hoodia pillansii 1
population status of from H. gordonii which only occurs in Hoodia ruschii 3
individual taxa is Namibia and South Africa. This species
limited but ten of the16 taxa assessed is considered to be abundant and There is significant commercial attention
have been classified as threatened widespread. However, some of the on this genera, given the lucrative nature
according to IUCN Red List categories, other taxa in the genus exist in of its promise. The species should only
with four taxa classified as Vulnerable fragmented populations (some with as be grown or collected with a permit and
in 2002. few as 250 individuals) and cannot plantations have been in development
easily be distinguished from H. gordonii. for several years. Demand however,
Traditionally used by the San bushmen These species are therefore under threat remains a threat to certain populations.
of South Africa, strong, global from over-collection for trade. All As a suggested species for priority
commercial interest in the genus has Hoodia species were listed on CITES conservation action, Hoodia will be
resulted from the isolation and Appendix II in 2005, but illegal trade is included in BGCI’s wider medicinal plant
patenting of an active ingredient (P57) known to occur. conservation programme.
CITES regulates international trade Schippmann, 1999); an import of It is essentially a framework for
between signatory countries. It is not woodchips can be listed as ‘bark’ with classifying species according to their
applicable to domestic or non-signatory no species name. extinction risk. So far, almost 40,000
traffic. Monitoring of the trade under the species have been assessed, of which
terms and conditions of the Convention is “It is indisputable that monitoring the some 12,000 are plants. It is difficult to
complex and only partially successful. trade in wild collected plants is only specify what proportion of threatened
It is thought that a huge amount of trade useful if carried out at species level and medicinal plant species have been
in medicinal plants goes unrecorded and that without such, analysis of the trade evaluated using the IUCN Red List
unregulated, for example that within and its impact on populations cannot be categories and criteria but it is generally
China or between Nepal and India. carried out effectively” recognised to be a low proportion.
(Schippman, 1994).
Even trade movements covered by CITES For more information on the IUCN SSC
are poorly understood, hampered by However, CITES is an important and the IUCN SSC Medicinal Plants
identification problems, under-resourced mechanism for trade regulation and to Specialist Group (MPSG) go to
enforcement and inconsistent national highlight critical issues. Botanic gardens www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/ and
interpretations of the international statute. can be involved in the success of CITES www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/mpsg/.
Most medicinal plant species are not in a number of ways.
traded under their scientific name, and
come in a variety of parts and derivatives. For more information on CITES and
Aquilaria malaccensis, for example, has at botanic gardens go to www.bgci.org/cites
least 50 trade names (Lange and or see A CITES manual for botanic
gardens (Oldfield and McGough, 2007).
The IUCN Red List of Threatened

Species
Policy frameworks and legislation are

informed by essential data such as the
endangerment assessments made by the
Species Survival Commission (SSC) of
the IUCN, which produces a Red List of
Threatened Species. Using a network of
thousands of scientists the Red List
provides taxonomic, conservation status
Seized cycads, said to have various and distribution information on globally
medicinal qualities and one of the most evaluated species according to specific
endangered living things on the planet. categories and criteria (Annex 6).

6. Medicinal plants and botanic gardens
Some 5,000 years ago, a botanic

garden said to have astounded the
Spanish conquistadores existed in the
city of Texcoco, the second most
important city in the once majestic
Aztec empire. Approximately 370
species of plants still grow there in a
confined geographical area, though
the city and the civilisation have long
since disappeared. Research
conducted at the sight has resulted in
the identification of all the plants that
would have been cultivated in the
garden, all of which have either
medicinal properties or other
economic uses (Montúfar, 2007).
The Botanical Garden of Padua,

founded in 1545 and one of the oldest
botanic gardens in the world, was
created by the Vatican Republic
purposely for the cultivation of
medicinal herbs. The institution
enabled students to use the garden to
learn how to distinguish between and
use medicinal plants, improving both As institutions, their work remit occupies Botanic gardens have a long-standing
local healthcare and scientific several spheres; from scientific research connection to medicinal plants in
understanding. Similarly, the Chelsea to education to informing legislation to particular, since the sole purpose of all
Physic Garden was founded in running community-based projects – and early botanic gardens was to grow and
England in 1673 by the Worshipful it’s a remit that’s widening in both scope study medicinal plants. They are
Society of Apothecaries to train and importance alongside global inherently well-placed to respond to the
apprentices to identify plants and to population increase, rapid urbanisation very specific local conservation needs of
help in the cultivation of exotic plants and relentless pressure on our collective medicinal plants and the people who rely
for medicine. These gardens thus met wild resources. Increasingly, botanic on them for health and livelihood in a
a research, economic and health goal. gardens are more than just ‘pretty particular region. Moreover, they are
places’. probably the most important agencies for
the conservation of native medicinal
Whilst conservation has not been a plants, since plants are not often the
These days, there are over 2,500 botanic traditional garden activity, it is becoming priority of other conservation bodies and
gardens in 150 countries around the more so, as demonstrated by the government agencies related to
world, holding over six million accessions International Agenda for Botanic Gardens agriculture pay little attention to those
of living plants representing around in Conservation (Wyse Jackson and species of undetermined economic use.
80,000 species. They are therefore major Sutherland, 2000) launched in 2000 to
repositories of species diversity and provide a common global framework for Using botanical and cultivation
collectively represent many, many years garden policies and signed by 432 knowledge there are a number of key
of learning. botanic gardens so far, as well as the ways in which botanic gardens can
involvement of botanic gardens in the contribute towards medicinal plant
development of the GSPC. conservation and sustainable use.

Questionnaire responses illustrated the collections. This is particularly important Plant records
wide range of areas in which botanic with threatened medicinal plants where
gardens are involved with medicinal protection in the wild may not be realistic An essential, defining feature of a botanic
plant conservation, the positive effects in the short-term, or where ex situ work garden is the maintenance of plant
of this work and the linkages between cannot yet be directly linked to in situ. records on the living collection. Each
botanic gardens and other The resources provided by these record typically records the scientific
conservation agencies. collections are important for in situ name of the plant and its origin (whether
recovery programmes. of known wild origin or cultivated source).
Ex situ conservation Many botanic gardens hold collections of
Target 9 of the GSPC calls for 70% of medicinal plants – see for example the
Ex situ conservation remains the main remit the genetic diversity of the major BGCI Directory of Medicinal Plant
and area of expertise of botanic gardens. socio-economically important plants Collections in Botanic Gardens (Wyse
It provides an important ‘insurance’ against conserved. Jackson and Dennis, 1998) but the value
the loss of plant genetic resources, with a of these has never been fully assessed.
key role to play in terms of preservation
and species re-introduction programmes, BGCI maintains the PlantSearch database
education and research. Wuhan Botanic Garden, China has which records data on plants in botanic
developed a medicinal plant garden garden collections. As of August 2007 the
This role has been defined by the with over 800 species for education, PlantSearch database held details on over
GSPC, specifically Target 8, which calls research and preservation (Z. Jiang, 2,540 botanic gardens, 681 of which have
for 60% of threatened plant species in pers.comm.). uploaded their species data, totalling
accessible ex situ collections, 505,000 records of approximately 140,000
preferably in the country of origin, and A medicinal plant seed bank and different taxa. The database is available
10% of them included in recovery and herbarium has been developed at for public use, although garden addresses
restoration programmes. Al-Quds University Botanic Garden are only accessible after requesting further
in Palestine, to preserve wild native information from the garden itself, due to
Living collections medicinal plants (K. Sawalha, the valuable nature of some of the plants
pers.comm.). held.
The conservation of plant resources can
be achieved through different methods In China, the Shangri-La Alpine As part of the ‘Safety Nets for Medicinal
such as seed banks, in vitro storage Botanical Garden in Yunnan province Plants’ project, BGCI has updated
methods, pollen banks and DNA banks is designing a Tibetan Medicinal Plants PlantSearch to include information on
as well as the maintenance of living Garden, collecting those species most some 3,000 medicinal plants species as
commonly used (Liu, pers.comm.). well as all plants listed on CITES. We have
obtained over 40 lists of key species
Chicago Botanic Garden maintains including almost 1,000 species threatened
both an outdoor collection and a seed in the wild due to unsustainable
bank of local medicinal plant species, harvesting and habitat destruction (see
for detailed evaluation of active plant Annex 2). Work is currently underway on
compounds. The identification of a detailed gap analysis of key medicinal
useful medicinal compounds should plant species in botanic garden
not only promote public health but collections and the conservation work
also underscore the importance of being done with them, if any.
protecting native flora.
Since botanic gardens hold the largest
Jardin Botanico de Bahia Blanca in assemblage of plants outside of
Argentina maintains a display of nature, it makes sense to work
medicinal plant species used on a towards a global inventory of medicinal
local scale (Villamil, pers.comm.). plants held in botanic gardens.
BGCI is working towards this aim.
Research
Botanic gardens provide a permanent

location around which an infrastructure
can develop. Around the world, they
have become centres for the research
and study of disciplines as diverse as
taxonomy, ecology, agronomy,
horticulture, ethnobotany and habitat
restoration, all of which inform medicinal
plant conservation.
Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanic in the search for active medicinal The Jodrell Laboratory at RBG, Kew in the
Garden in China has begun a research compounds, and studying the efficacy UK is dedicated to ethnobotany and runs
programme into the propagation and of these compounds. This is not as numerous research projects into the
re-introduction of local Dendrobium simple as it sounds. Normally, all chemistry, bioactivity and taxonomy of
species, used extensively in TCM. medicinal plants have one or two medicinal plants (Olwen, pers.comm.).
This will include field work to assess primary compounds and a number of This scientific research can be used to
the status of populations in the wild secondary compounds. The efficacy of inform legislation and policy development.
and research into cultivation techniques the plants in medicinal use depends on
(Y.Shouhua, pers.comm.). the interaction of all roughage, Turpan Desert Botanic Garden has
secondary and mucous compounds constructed an Ethnic Medicinal Plant
Leiden Botanic Garden in the with the primary active compounds. Garden, researching the use of medicinal
Netherlands has begun researching If primary compounds are isolated, they herbs used by the Uygur people of
ways of distinguishing between legally may have completely different effects Xinjiang (Tan, pers.comm.).
produced and illegally wild harvested than in combination with the cocktail of
agarwood (Aquilaria and Gyrinops spp.) secondary compounds of the respective At Reading University in the UK the
using DNA markers in plantation crops plant (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). Faculty of Pharmacy is developing a
(van Uffelen, pers.comm.). This Efficacy also depends, to a certain University Botanic Garden for use as a
research work aims to assist the control extent, on abiotic factors of the medicinal plant resource (V. Heywood,
of illegal wild harvest and trade in environments and on collection pers.comm.). Work is also underway in
threatened medicinal plants. methods. It differs from location to affiliation with the Foundation for the
location (soil quality, mineral content, Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions
In 2006, the Pfizer Plant Laboratory moisture content, temperature, intensity (FRLHT) in India on developing DNA
was opened in New York Botanic of light) and depends on the weather markers for medicinal plants. (J. Hawkins,
Garden, systematically screening plants conditions at the time of collection. pers.comm.).
Education harvest. Botanic gardens have a key role

to play in educating the public about the
Rightly hailed as a way of inspiring and value and conservation needs of
motivating action and public support, medicinal plants.
education about medicinal plants takes
many forms; from educating end
consumers about the sources of their Target 14 of the GSPC calls for
medicines to educating farmers and herb education and awareness about plant
gatherers about the value of sustainable diversity to be promoted.
Marie Selby Botanic Garden in Florida Several botanic gardens in the US for awareness and educating people about
is creating information profiles for the example, Denver, Brooklyn, North their shared medicinal plant resource
medicinal plants in the garden, to Carolina and New York as well as the (Salunkhe, pers.comm.).
include the conservation status of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Canada offer
species in the wild, geographical training courses in horticultural therapy. The IB-UNAM Botanic Garden, Mexico
information, botanical characteristics It has been well established that people runs courses whereby ethnobotanists
and ecology, uses to humans and parts respond positively to green plants and share their technical and botanical
of plants used, chemical compounds, colorful flowers. Gardening offers relief expertise while traditional healers share
history and folklore, re-affirming the from physical and cognitive limitations, their knowledge on the indigenous and
links between plants and people reduces stress, gently exercises aging or ritual use of plants. The information is
(Tieghem, pers.comm.). arthritic joints, and stimulates memory. disseminated by the botanic garden to
other healers, housewives, professionals
Seven of the eight botanic gardens in Krishna Mahavidyalaya Botanic Garden in and alternative health practitioners.
the South African National Biodiversity India grows approximately 130 species of
Institute’s (SANBI) network of botanic medicinal plants in pots, emphasizing In the UK, the Botanic Garden of Wales
gardens have demonstration gardens those used in indigenous systems of has a ‘Physicians of the Myddfai’
that are used for education, display and medicine. The plants are accompanied exhibition and displays traditionally
research on indigenous traditional use by display notes including the common important medicinal plants whilst Bristol
(Xaba, pers.comm.). name in various languages as well as its Zoological Gardens provides the locale
use as medicine and scientific data. for a series of courses and lectures on
Since the plants are in pots, a mobile medicinal plants.
exhibit has traveled extensively, creating

Networking In situ conservation
No single sector, public or private, can As recognised by the CBD, in situ

undertake the conservation of medicinal conservation is the preferable
plants alone and the neutral nature of methodology, since ex situ conservation
botanic gardens puts them in a good tends to take place outside the range state
position to act as intermediaries between of the target species. The preservation of
various commercial and scientific interests. species in situ offers all the advantages of
allowing natural selection to act, which
The importance of enhanced cannot be recreated ex situ. Unless plants
communication and knowledge exchange can be conserved in their natural habitats,
between concerned parties has also been in variable breeding populations, they run
recognised by the GSPC, which states the risk of extinction.
that networking can avoid duplication of
conservation effort, enable the
development of common approaches,
help strengthen links between different In reality, many species exist only as
sectors and ensure the co-ordination of part of ecosystems and cannot
policy development at all levels. survive unless their ecosystems are
preserved along with as much as
Target 16 of the GSPC calls for the possible of the biodiversity they
establishment and strengthening of contain. Cistanche deserticola, for
plant conservation networks. example, an important plant in TCM,
is dependent on two fungi; Mycena
osmundicola (to draw nutrients from
the soil and allow seed germination)
Working with local authorities, Oaxaca The Jardin Botânico da Fundaçâo and Armillaria mellea (which must be
Botanic Garden in Mexico has Zoobotânica de Belo Horizonte in Brazil incorporated into the tuber to
recommended Guiacum coulteri be partners with universities to study the maintain growth to maturity).
planted in local parks and public chemical composition and biological Similarly, Cistanche deserticola is
gardens, as well as making seeds activites of local medicinal plants parasitic to the roots of the desert
available to local schools and community (Nogueira, pers.comm.). shrub Haloxylon spp. The Haloxylon
organizations (A.de Avila, pers.comm.). genus is notoriously difficult to
The Botanic Gardens of Adelaide in cultivate, and is also know as ‘coal of
The Tasmania Herbarium in Australia Australia, as well as developing the desert’ because of its firewood
used its living collections to support education programs for schools based properties. The conservation of these
screening by a large pharmaceutical around indigenous knowledge and the species cannot be removed from the
company searching for active medicinal traditional uses of plants, work closely habitats they exist within.
compounds, in accordance with access with hospitals on harmful plants and
and benefit sharing regulations toxicology (Christensen, pers.comm.).
(Papworth, pers.comm.).
Traditionally, in situ conservation has
involved the protection of species within
their natural habitats in various forms of
land set aside as nature reserves or other
protected areas. This approach cordons
off certain areas and restricts their use.
Though often hampered by weak
enforcement capacity, protected areas
are of critical importance since we have
yet to master the sustainable use of
medicinal plant resources in the wild.
Botanic gardens are involved in the

management of natural habitats in this
way, as well as carrying out field-work,
such as wild population surveys.
A priority for medicinal plant conservation
is the carrying out of ecogeographical
surveys, followed by proper targeted in
situ species conservation with as many
samples of genetic (therefore chemical)
variation as possible preserved
Botanic garden display including various aloes, which are commonly used for (Heywood, pers.comm.).
skin conditions.

NGO representatives but most
importantly the rural populations of
people living near wild medicinal plant
populations. Preferable methodologies
will improve the understanding of impacts
on the livelihoods of the poor of both
harvesting medicinal plants and of
measures to ensure the conservation and
sustainable use of medicinal plants.
Community-based conservation Community-based conservation must

work therefore be integrated with development
at every level; from village to region to
Botanic gardens are increasingly involved world. A wide range of stakeholders
in the development, implementation and must be engaged from the start; from
support of local, community-based scientists to traders to government and
projects, for example using collections to
support local initiatives in primary
healthcare.
The Etnobotanica Paraguay project, run North Carolina Botanic Garden and
Medicinal plant conservation is about by the Conservatoire et Jardin the North Carolina Department of
plant resources, hence emphasising the Botaniques de la Ville de Geneve, is Agriculture collaborated on a project to
idea of conservation not for conservation’s researching the use of local medicinal mark Dionea muscipula plants growing
sake but for the conservation of resources plants and running targeted education in the wild. Roots are painted with a
for use (Hamilton, pers.comm.). campaigns to encourage the use and dye that glows under ultra-violet light,
Community-based conservation protection of appropriate species, as enabling the identification of wild
emphasises the things about these plants well as setting up community gardens harvested specimens. This is proving a
that give people drive to do something and looking at the best application of deterrent to would-be poachers, who
about them i.e. concerns about health, the plants. plucked thousands of Venus fly-traps
money (income generation) and cultures from the protected Green Swamp area
(important religious elements, heritage Malabar Botanic Garden in India is in a single afternoon in 2005 (Nature
protection). Recent forestry research has promoting the cultivation of the state’s Conservancy, 2006).
shown that, when their rights are native medicinal plants, by giving training
recognised, communities are more in relevant techniques to local farmers. Aburi Botanical Garden in Ghana in
effective at protecting forests than Guidance is given on the medicinal partnership with BGCI, the UNEP
national parks (Rights and Resources plants‘ cultivation, storage and trade. World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Initiative, 2007). In the last two years over 200 farmers the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
have been trained, and a farmer’s society and the University of Ghana ran the
However, response strategies designed to has been formed to share knowledge Conservation and Sustainable Use of
provide incentives for biodiversity and to promote the mass cultivation and Medicinal plants in Ghana project. This
conservation by ensuring that local people trade of medicinal plants. This has project aimed to improve communities’
benefit from one or more component of provided a valuable opportunity for these access to medicinal plants, and to
biodiversity (such as products from a farmers to expand and diversify their encourage their sustainable use. It set
single species) have proved very difficult crops, safeguarding their incomes. up a 50 acre model Medicinal Plant
to implement (MEA, 2005). Garden, based on community ethno-
At Nature Palace Botanic Garden in botanical surveys, which was planted
Uganda the Poverty Alleviation and with 1,361 medicinal plant seedlings,
Health Promotion through Conservation and also set up a plant nursery to hold
project engaged 50 subsistence 5,000 medicinal plant seedlings for
farmers who are now cultivating rare distribution to herbalists.
medicinal plants for income generation.
The farmers have formed an The National Botanic Garden of
Association (the Kasanje Conservation Belguim works closely with Kisantu
and Development Association), which is Botanic Garden in the Congo both on
now engaged in a drive to recruit more community education and the
farmers (D. Nkwanga, pers.comm.). propagation of medicinal plants for
distribution (Rammello, pers.comm).
Lophophora williamsii, used ritually in
Mexico for thousands of years.

7. Recommendations for medicinal plant
conservation by botanic gardens
The questionnaire survey has provided a

wealth of information on the ways botanic
gardens can support medicinal plant
conservation. These echo the points
made in the previous section, in which
case studies from questionnaire
responses have already been highlighted.
A strong majority of respondents
emphasised the role that botanic gardens
play in conservation education, and the
continued importance of raising
awareness about medicinal plant
resources. Also particularly highlighted
was the role of research and the need for
botanic gardens to develop collaborative
ventures, working with partner NGOs and
local communities.
Rescuing Aloe castanea from granite mining.
Logically, the information We have also indicated whether these

required for such a species are held in botanic garden
prioritisation exercise is: collections. Several species were
i) which species are most mentioned more than once, and these
threatened; ii) which species 35 priority species are presented first.
are most valuable in terms of BGCI will pay particular attention to work
healthcare and of livelihoods with its member gardens to conserve
and iii) our ability to conserve these species (See Section 8 and
the species in question. Annex 7).
Botanic gardens are well Prioritise actions

Encephalartos ghellinctii, vulnerable in the placed to define local
wild, slow-growing and rare in cultivation. priorities. Globally, BGCI can assist by 1. Research
assessing the extent to which plants are
Prioritise species already in cultivation by botanic gardens, It is widely recognised that medicinal plant
what their threat status is and (through conservation is hampered by a lack of
Taking into account the sheer number of collaboration with other organisations) good quality information. It is therefore
medicinal plant species around the world what the priorities for practical action are. essential to collect accurate data regarding
(c.70,000) and the number which may be plant population density in the wild in the
threatened (c.15,000) comprehensive and Annex 5 lists all the species that were past and present, the current commercial
consistent information on the threat status suggested to us as priority species for demand and future projections, methods of
of medicinal plants at a global level is not conservation action over the next 5 years, collection and threats to these plants.
yet available. This limits the extent to as well as their IUCN and CITES status. Botanic gardens are well placed to
which a rational prioritisation can be In most cases the information provided undertake research to determine the
undertaken for medicinal plant reflects species of national concern as taxonomy, propagation and management
conservation. provided by the respondents. techniques for medicinal plants.

Specifically, the following research areas demonstrated in different ways.
were highlighted in questionnaire For medicinal plants; why should wild
responses; harvest be curtailed when it will always
be the easiest option? Why should
• Regionally up-to-date lists of species consumers re-visit their consumption
used for medicinal purposes would habits and make a decision on which
enhance the opportunity to use them products they will use and which they
sustainably. won’t? An educated public can influence
• Locally used medicinal plants can then both the pattern of trade and,
be categorised according to their use, optimistically, governmental decisions.
value, ecological characteristics and
management, by way of prioritising Practical suggestions for educational
species for conservation action. initiatives included the following;
• Species-specific baseline data on the
status of populations in the wild and on • Botanic gardens should be aware of
what entails a sustainable harvest limit, the medicinal properties of plants
both culturally and commercially, is within their collections. Interpretation
required for priority species (to include panels can illustrate both the values
harvesting techniques which are and vulnerability of medicinal plants adding. Booklets can be prepared and
suitable for village level use). and promote an understanding of circulated on the latest cultivation
medicinal plant conservation, effecting methods and post-harvesting
2. Educate an attitudinal change about the use of processes for key species.
natural resources and medicinal plants. • Targeted education campaigns can
It has often been argued that a major Botanic gardens can pro-actively also be linked to outreach
reason for our failure to conserve natural improve people’s access to this programmes, for example to health
ecosystems is that we do not realise how information. care workers dealing with first line
valuable they are. In fact, a country’s • Model gardens can be created to be medicinal aid, or with school botanic
ecosystems and its ecosystem services demonstration areas for people living projects. Mobile exhibits have been
represent a capital asset. The benefits near to threatened species for shown to be particularly useful.
that could be attained through better conservation knowledge. Stakeholders
management of this asset are poorly can be taught appropriate ex situ 3. Collaborate
reflected by conventional economic management techniques such as
indicators, so this must be clearly domestication, management and value Much mentioned in questionnaire
responses was the need for a
collaborative approach to medicinal plant
conservation and the recognition that
botanic gardens are well placed to
facilitate this and add both key botanical
knowledge and key knowledge about
local people, industries and landscapes.
Key messages for botanic gardens were to:
• Joint plan rather than work in isolation,

check who else is doing what before
deciding priorities.
• Diversify working partners, for example
work with forestry, agriculture and
health industries, as well as NGOs.
• Develop regional approaches to the
management of species occurring in
neighbouring countries.
• Develop joint outreach and extension
programmes and contribute to these
by bringing botanical expertise on
specific taxa.
• Inform legislation and policy
development and assist with national
implementation and interpretation of
international statutes. For example,
training Customs officials on the
identification of CITES listed medicinal
plant parts and derivatives.
• Encourage private sector support for
sustainable and ethical sourcing.
Plants for life 21

4. Conserve • There are simple ways botanic gardens
can collect and promote indigenous
The role of plant and seed collections as a knowledge. For more information on
conservation resource was widely the collection of indigenous knowledge
acknowledged as an important piece of go to www.kew.org/ethnomedica/.
the conservation jigsaw puzzle. It was
emphasised that ex situ methods are 6. Develop alternatives to wild harvest,
made more relevant when they feed technology transfer
directly and specifically into targeted in
situ conservation, and that this should Another key questionnaire response,
become a normal partnership. Seed emphasised again and again, was the
banking was frequently cited in role of community involvement in
questionnaire responses as a vital back- conservation. This is imperative at all
up to other conservation methodologies, stages of project development and
and one that should be supported and 5. Preserve indigenous knowledge implementation. At a local level botanic
expanded for medicinal plants specifically, gardens can provide communities with
since most efforts have been directed to In 2004 the United Nations Conference valuable horticultural expertise and
crops thus far. Further, climate change on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) market information. The transfer of
science is turning its attention to the warned that a biodiversity crisis is being cultivation methodologies to farmers and
predicted effects of temperature rise on accompanied by a cultural diversity crisis other stakeholders via training initiatives
individual plant species. The alteration of and the weakening of the customary laws should be encouraged, as should the
a species’ environmental niche will in turn that traditionally regulated the use of development of harvester organisations
affect whole ecosystems; habitats will natural resources. The growing and best practice horticultural knowledge
shift and their composition change. awareness of loss of indigenous shared between these. Additionally,
Ex situ collections that attempt to recreate knowledge and the implications of this investments in technology transfer,
habitats become even more relevant in was reflected in questionnaire responses. research, training and capacity building,
this light. can make the private sector voluntarily
• Target 13 of the GSPC calls for the respond to environmental management.
decline of plant resources and
associated indigenous knowledge that • A recent study of 150 traditional healers
support livelihoods to be halted, since in South Africa found that 72% said
both physical habitat and ancient they would appreciate proper training
knowledge, once lost, will be gone on how to domesticate frequently used
forever. medicinal plants (Manzini, 2005).
• There are inherent conservation values • During storage considerable amounts
in the way plants were collected for of medicinal plants are wasted due to
traditional healing, many of which have humidity, insect attacks, inappropriate
now fallen out of use. In Zimbabwe, storage facilities and lack of awareness
for example, the collecting of bark, on the part of collectors. (Hamuyan et
roots, branches etc. from a plant that al., 2006).
showed signs of having been collected
from by another n’anga (traditional
healer) was prohibited. It was believed
Botanic gardens should therefore: that when a n’anga used a plant to
treat a patient, the patient’s disease
• Maintain and develop living collections was transferred into that plant.
of local medicinal plants and make When another n’anga subsequently
them available for teaching and used the same plant to treat a patient,
research use. the disease of the previous patient
• Set-up and maintain seed and would be transferred to the new
germplasm banks, specifically for local patient. This belief ensured that the
medicinal plants and those critically plant recovered from the effects of
endangered. Ensure that the best and collection (Mavi and Shava, 1997).
most current seed conservation • There have been clashes between
technologies are used, to ensure long- traditional healers and external
term preservation. organisations, based around the
• Foster ecological and floristic studies in ownership of indigenous knowledge.
sites of origin of plants. Botanic gardens are likely to have
• Maintain familiarity and compliance detailed specific knowledge about the
with regulations, for example CITES, landscapes, people and flora of an
and with the conservation status of area and are well-placed to build
medicinal plant holdings via, for community links and to help with the
example, the IUCN Red List. documentation of traditional knowledge
• Contribute to the development and on medicinal plants that is available in
testing of conservation methodologies. the public domain.

Compliance will maintain wild medicinal
Prunus africana
and protective folklore have therefore plant resources, prevent negative
Prunus africana (Pygeum, African given way to market demand. Prunus environmental impacts, ensure
cherry) is found in mountain tropical africana was listed on CITES Appendix compliance with laws, regulations and
forests in central and southern Africa II in 1995, is assessed as Vulnerable on agreements, respect customary laws and
and Madagascar and has been used for the IUCN Red List of Threatened apply responsible management and
centuries for its hard and durable timber Species and mentioned most business.
as well as for the medicinal properties of frequently in questionnaire responses,
its bark, which is used to treat malaria, despite being abundant in parts of its Botanic gardens can play a valuable role
fevers, kidney disease, urinary tract range, for example in South Africa (van in promoting the ISSC-MAP.
infections and more recently prostate Jaarsfeld, pers.comm.).
enlargement (benign prostatic Our survey showed the growing
hyperplasia). Overall, the medicinal retail Cordoba Botanic Garden has produced recognition of the importance of
trade for P .africana is estimated to be guidelines for a Pygeum management sustainable wild harvest as a
US$220 million/year (WWF, 2001). plan in Equitorial Guinea and Limbe conservation response.
Botanic Garden is involed in teaching
As long as the tree is not completely techniques for the sustainable harvesting • Data on the natural ecological
girdled it can bear repeated harvests. of Prunus bark as well as providing distribution of a species compared with
These limits should be relatively easy to seedlings for local nursery initiatives. good data on volume harvested is
determine. After all, the tree has been needed in order to develop sustainable
used sustainably for hundreds of years. Prunus africana is recorded in use regulations and management
Indigenous knowledge maintained that, cultivation in only 3 botanic gardens measures, such as an annual harvest
post-harvest, bark grows back more (PlantSearch database). However, it is quota.
quickly on the side of the tree that faces likely that this species is in fact being • Along the market chain, mechanisms
the sunrise. Since the tree heals faster cultivated much more widely. As part must be in place to ensure a better
this side, medicine made from this east- of our east African medicinal plants price for those who have observed
facing bark will heal a patient faster. programme, BGCI will gather further sustainable harvest limits and good
Thus only one side was stripped. information on the distribution in collection practice, such as certification
cultivation of this species and share along the lines of the FSC (Forest
When harvested sustainably, each this information with relevant partners. Stewardship Council) and MSC (Marine
batch of bark amounts to about 55kg Stewardship Council) Standards.
which currently returns US$10 - 20 to
the collector. When completely For more information on the ISSC-MAP
stripped, a large tree may yield up to a go to www.floraweb.de/map-pro/.
metric ton of bark worth US$200
(Future Harvest, 2000). Harvest limits
Whatever the conservation action,

projects must be appropriate to
• Micro enterprises that add value the organisation and set realistic,
through simple on-site techniques like achievable targets not removed
drying, cleaning, grading and from reality considering the area
packaging can strengthen the position you are working in.
in the market of collectors and farmers.
• Local, small-scale cultivation provides 7. Sustainable wild harvest Expect slow progress; an inherent
an alternative to wild harvest, though problem in conservation is that it
there is a distinction between Wild collection is sustainable as long as is given low priority compared to
cultivation for self-medication and the amount of medicinal plant material of the day to day activities of people
cultivation for income generation. a given species collected each year in a going about their lives.
• Medicinal plants in particular have very certain region does not exceed the
specific requirements concerning soil annual, natural increase of the species in However, considering the scale
and environment that affect the active the same location. If collection exceeds and urgency of the problem there
compounds in the plants. They are the natural increase over several is little room for reticence.
often more difficult to cultivate than consecutive growing seasons the species
other crop species, therefore may become regionally threatened “You must be the change you
interventions are needed to reduce (WWF/TRAFFIC Germany, 2002). want to see in the world”
cultivation risks and increase the (Mahatma Ghandi).
dependability of inter-cropping as a The International Standard for
way to supplement the opportunity Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal
cost of wild harvest. and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) has
• Small home gardens where plants can been developed by the IUCN/SSC
be cultivated for self-healing have been MPSG. It has six principles and 18
shown to be successful and deliver criteria, addressing ecological, social and
multiple benefits. economic requirements for sustainable
wild collection of medicinal plants.

8. Towards an action plan for medicinal
plant conservation by BGCI
• Link this data to the PlantSearch

database and make available via an
information portal. Continue to
develop PlantSearch as a means of
monitoring and recording medicinal
plants in botanic garden collections,
as well as identifying regions where this
is a priority.
• Coordinate the collection of case
studies, analysis of best practice and
sharing of lessons, helping to improve
both collection management and
conservation practice.
Use the information available for

educational purposes (see below).
2. Provide education and training

materials on medicinal plants and their
conservation
• Identify and publish case studies about

success in medicinal plant conservation.
• Provide information and educational
materials about relevant policy and
scientific issues, for example the ISSC-
MAP and CITES and ABS
requirements.
• Develop models and outreach materials
for 35 priority species relevant to all
levels of botanic garden visitors, staff
and volunteers, as well as for donors
and decision makers.
The role of BGCI is to support and enable the IUCN/SSC MPSG and Plantlife Develop education materials that inform
botanic gardens to act on the International, as well as various national key stakeholders about the need for
recommendations made for medicinal and local organisations and stakeholders. botanic gardens and their role in
plant conservation in the previous section medicinal plant conservation.
of this report. The questionnaire survey Activities at the global level
and consultation during this project 3. Promote the role of botanic gardens
resulted in a very wide range of 1. Information gathering and in CITES
suggestions of activities BGCI could awareness raising for over 400
undertake. These suggestions, together suggested priority species (at Annex 5) Questionnaire responses to CITES issues
with discussions between BGCI staff, favoured the promotion of appropriate
member gardens and other medicinal • Collect detailed information on the ex cultivation of CITES listed species and
plant conservation agencies have led to situ conservation status of these species local community participation in this,
the development of an action plan for and work towards ensuring that all are incentivising compliance and
BGCI’s medicinal plant conservation work, secure in ex situ collections (at least 5 conservation without threatening
as well as the identification of key partners botanic gardens), with well-documented, livelihoods. It was felt the focus of
for future activities, such as TRAFFIC, diverse genetic representation. capacity building should be on

developing countries, rich in biodiversity In its initial phase (based on BGCI’s Five 4. In-situ conservation and
but poor in resources, for whom Year Plan 2007-2012) the action plan reintroductions into the wild
implementation of CITES is harder. includes the development and
There was also a strong case for implementation of a series of new • Enhancing in situ conservation through
developing better identification and projects and programmes for selected the establishment and protection of
authentification tools to enable better priority medicinal plant species in the important medicinal plant areas
trade practice and enforcement. regions and countries where they managed by local communities, as well
Education and training across all naturally occur, as identified in this report. as reintroductions into the wild of
stakeholder levels was thought medicinal plant species that are extinct
necessary. BGCI will: The action plan at regional and national in the wild, or critically endangered.
levels (which also feeds information into
• Publish and distribute an updated our global activities) pursues an At Annex 7 is our tabular, project and
CITES Manual for botanic gardens, integrated, four-step approach of both species specific regional action plan for
making this available in English, ex situ and in situ conservation action: medicinal plant conservation.
Spanish and Chinese.
• Distribute CITES information to all 1. Conservation status assessments
stakeholders. The PlantSearch
database now includes information on • Training and capacity building for red
all CITES listed plants, so that botanic listing on medicinal plants through
gardens can be aware of the CITES regional and national workshops and
status of plants in their collections. working with IUCN/SSC MPSG.
Go to www.bgci.org/plant_search.php/.
• Help botanic gardens to develop 2. National ex situ collection surveys
identification and authentification tools and gap analysis
for plant materials so that CITES can
be implemented effectively for those • Development of species-specific action
species that are listed. plans for botanic gardens, with focus
• Help botanic gardens to help local on endemic medicinal species under
communities to build their capacity to severe threat.
comply with CITES.
• Collect and compile information so that 3. Enhancing ex situ cultivation
local species that do fulfill listing matching local needs
criteria can be included in CITES and
to aid with the proper development of • Compiling and promoting local
non-detriment findings. traditional knowledge in medicinal plant
management for enhancing sustainable
Activities at the regional/national use.
level • Establishing community-based
medicinal plant nurseries suitable for
BGCI’s action plan for medicinal plant alternative income generation,
conservation at regional and national including the development of
levels draws on its ongoing work and propagation and harvesting techniques
global partnerships to secure plant which combine traditional and scientific
diversity. knowledge.

9. Conclusions
This work has aimed to gather Indeed, medicinal plants conservation

information from a wide stakeholder base can be viewed as a microcosm for plant
to identify the issues to be addressed, conservation as a whole;
viewing the problem from different angles
and priority perspectives. “It speaks of supply, it speaks of
Typically of conservation debate, complex demand, and it speaks of competition
sustainability issues are at play, in this and control. Humankind’s use of species
case surrounding a widely misunderstood and ecosystems is critically determined
resource whose population and trade is by these variables”
notoriously hard to measure. (Murphree, 2003).
The wide range of habitats and plant Against this backdrop, and in the face of
types, as well as the variety of cultural, multiple threats from trade, habitat loss
social and economic conditions which and climate change, botanic gardens
affect the use of medicinal plants present have an important role to play in securing
substantial challenges to their medicinal plant diversity for people and
conservation. planet.

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Acronyms Acknowledgements
ABS Access and benefit sharing BGCI is extremely grateful to all those who participated in the questionnaire survey:
BG botanic garden
BGCI Botanic Gardens Conservation International Aburi Botanic Garden, Ghana Quarshi Research International, Pakistan
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity Academy of Sciences, Republic of Uzbekistan Reading University, UK
CITES Convention on International Trade in Adelaide Botanic Garden, Australia Regenerations International Botanical Garden, US
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania Royal British Columbia Museum, Canada
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation Alice Springs Desert Park, Australia SANBI, South Africa
FRLHT Foundation for the Revitalisation of Local Al-Quds University, Palestine Shangri-la Alpine Botanic Garden, China
Health Traditions, India Bahia Blanca Botanic Garden, Argentina Tciticin Botanic Garden of the Russian Academy
FSC Forest Stewardship Council National Botanic Garden of Belgium of Sciences, Russia
GSPC Global Strategy for Plant Conservation Black Hills State University Herbarium, US The Ministry of Environmental Affairs, Eygpt
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Bouganvillea, S.A, Costa Rica TRAFFIC International, UK
Zusammenarbeit Center for International Forestry Research, TRAFFIC US, US
ISSC-MAP International Standard for the Sustainable Wild Indonesia Tropical Research Institute Central America,
Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Costa Rica
IUCN World Conservation Union Siddha, India Turpan Desert Botanic Garden, China
IUCN/SSC MPSG IUCN Medicinal Plants Specialist Group Natural Chemotherapetics Research Laboratory, United States Fisheries and Wildlife Service, US
IPEN International Plant Exchange Network Museum of Kenya, Kenya University Alfredo Perez Guerro, Ecuador
MDG Millennium Development Goals Chicago Botanic Garden, US University Castilla-la Mancha, Spain
MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Chinese Academy of Sciences, China University of Gent, Belgium
MSC Marine Stewardship Council CITES, Switzerland University of Madrid, Spain
NCARTT National Center for Agricultural Research and Delft University Botanic Garden, Netherlands University of Otago, New Zealand
Transfer of Technology, Jordan Dunedin Botanic Garden, New Zealand Virginia College of Natural Resources, US
NGO Non-government Organisation Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal, Nepal Visva Bharati University, India
PIINTEC Pyongyang International Information Center Fauna and Flora International, UK Wageningen University and Research Centre,
for New Technology and Economy, Korea Forest Research, Morocco Netherlands
PROTA Plant Resources of Tropical Africa FRLHT, India Wildlife Wing, Himachal Pradesh, India
RGB Royal Botanic Garden Guizhou Botanic Garden, China Winrock International, Nepal
SANBI South Africa National Biodiversity Institute IMPLAD, China Wuhan Botanic Garden, China
SSC Species Survival Commission India Botanic Garden, India
spp. species Institute of Botany, Mongolian Academy of And to the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation,
ssp. subspecies Sciences, Mongolia who generously supported this study.
TAM Traditional African Medicine Institute of Ecology and Biology, Vietnam
TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine Jardin Botanico de Fundacao Zoobotanica de Thanks are particularly due to Patricia de
TRAFFIC Wildlife monitoring network, joint programme Belo Horizonte, Brazil Angelis, Alan Hamilton, Vernon Heywood, the
of WWF and the IUCN Jodrell Laboratory, RBG, Kew, UK TRAFFIC team and additional speakers at the
TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of International Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous medicinal plants session at the 3rd Global
Property Rights Knowledge, Kenya Botanic Gardens Congress in Wuhan, China;
UK United Kingdom Komi Scientific Centre, Russian Academy of Danna Leaman and Zimian Ding.
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Sciences, Russia
Development Krishna Botanic Garden, India
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Las Palmas Botanic Garden, Canary Islands
US United States of America Marie Selby Botanic Garden, US
WHO World Health Organisation Mediplant, Swiss Commission for the
WTO World Trade Organisation Conservation of Cultivated Plants, Switzerland
WWF World Wildlife Fund Elisabth Carey Miller Botanic Garden, US
Ministry of Environment, Cambodia
Moonbranch Botanicals, US
Nanjing Botanic Garden, China
National Museums of Kenya, Kenya
National Resource Center for Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, India
Nature Palace Botanic Garden, Uganda
NCARTT, Jordan
Nordic Gene Bank, Sweden
Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Pakistan
Philodassiki Botanic Garden, Greece
PIINTEC, Korea
Plantlife International, UK
PROTA, Kenya and the Netherlands

Annexes
Annex 1 – The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: 2010 Targets
A) Understanding and Documenting Plant Diversity (C) Using Plant Diversity Sustainably
Targets in this theme are: Targets in this theme are:
(i) A widely accessible working list of known plant species, as a (xi) No species of wild flora endangered by international trade;
step towards a complete world flora;
(xii) 30 per cent of plant-based products derived from sources
(ii) A preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all that are sustainably managed.
known plant species, at national, regional and international
levels; (D) Promoting Education and Awareness About Plant
Diversity
(iii) Development of models with protocols for plant conservation
and sustainable use, based on research and practical The target for this theme is:
experience.
(xiv) The importance of plant diversity and the need for its
B) Conserving Plant Diversity conservation incorporated into communication, educational and
public –awareness programmes.
Targets in this theme are:
(E) Building Capacity for the Conservation of Plant Diversity
(iv) At least 10 per cent of each of the world’s ecological regions
effectively conserved; Targets in this theme are:
(v) Protection of 50 per cent of the most important areas for (xv) The number of trained people working with appropriate
plant diversity assured; facilities in plant conservation increased, according to national
needs, to achieve the targets of this Strategy;
(vi) At least 30 per cent of production lands managed consistent
with the conservation of plant diversity; (xvi) Networks for plant conservation activities established or
strengthened at national, regional and international levels.
(vii) 60 per cent of the world’s threatened species conserved in
situ;
(viii) 60 per cent of threatened plant species in accessible ex situ

collections, preferably in the country of origin, and 10 per cent
of them included in recovery and restoration programmes;
(ix) 70 per cent of the genetic diversity of crops and other major
socioeconomically valuable plant species conserved, and
associated indigenous and local knowledge maintained;
(x) Management plans in place for at least 100 major alien

species that threaten plants, plant communities and associated
habitats and ecosystems.

Annex 2 – Source data for list of medicinal plants included in BGCI’s PlantSearch database
(number of species shown in brackets)
Africa: • Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal

communities of Chhota Bangal, Western Himalaya (35)
• Useful medicinal plants of Africa (494) Source: www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
Source: http://database.prota.org/search.htm artid=1435742
• Threatened South African medicinal plants (146) • Medicinal plants of the Chamoli district, West India (11)
Source: Wendy Foden, SANBI Source: http://www.plantlife.org.uk/international/plantlife-med-
• Medicinal plants that are of common use in Africa and plants-projects-allachy-India-Chamoli.htm
Madagascar (83) • Critically endangered and vulnerable species (110) List of
Source: Safowora, 1996. species banned from export (27)
(www.conserveafrica.org.uk/herbal_industry.pdf) Source: Suma Taqadur, FRLHT
• Medicinal plants used by majority of the population and • FRLHT Red List (104)
frequently cited by most traditional healers in Tanzania (10) Source: http://envis.frlht.org/iucnlist.php
Source: www.conserveafrica.org.uk/herbal_industry.pdf • FRLHT list of 7,637 Medicinal Plant Species
• Commonly used African medicinal plants for which a standard • 930 Traded Plants of Conservation Concern
would be useful (53) Source: http://envis.frlht.org/digital_herbarium_930.php
Source: http://www.aamps.org/aamps%20specieslist.pdf
• Medicinal plants used in Uganda (7) US:
Source: http://www.plantlife.org.uk/international/plantlife-med-
plants-projects-allachy-uganda.htm • Threatened medicinal plants of the US (208)
• Investigations on West African medicinal plants (8) Source: Patricia de Angelis, Chair MPWG, PCA
Source: http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1986/pdf/ • American Medicinal Plants of Commercial Importance (133)
5805x0653.pdf Source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/HerbHunters/
• Threatened Kenyan medicinal plants (96) hhunters.html
Source: Stella Simiyu • Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North
• East and Southern Africa: TRAFFIC evaluation of priority plant America (500)
species in the region (110) Source: A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs: Of
Source: Marshall, N.T. (1998) Searching for a Cure: Eastern and Central North America (Duke, Foster, Peterson,
Conservation of Medicinal Wildlife Resources 2000)
• Indigenous plants that are harvested as a source of active • Medicinal plants of the South West (48)
ingredients for export purposes (19) Source: http://medplant.nmsu.edu/plantindex.htm
Source: Cunningham, A.B (1993) African Medicinal Plants • NatureServe list of US medicinal species and their
• Cameroon Medicinal Plants (62) conservation status (538)
Source: http://www.africaphyto.com/eng/plantes.htm
• Selected African Medicinal Plants (155) Europe:
Source: Iwu, M.M (1993) Handbook of African Medicinal
Plants • Europe’s threatened medicinal plant species (20)
• Drug candidates from African Forests (12), African Medicinal Source: http://www.traffic.org/plants/executive-summary.html
Plants with Oral Health implications (12) and African and http://www.traffic.org/plants/recommendations.html
Medicinals on the World Market (8) • Cultivated Species of Bulgarian Wild Medicinal Plants (268)
Source: http://www.africanethnomedicines.net/i.elujobaetal.pdf Source: http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/europe/
bulgaria/bulgaria20.html
India: • Main threatened Turkish medicinal plants (8)
Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y4496E/Y4496E44.htm
• Medicinal plants of Northern Areas of Pakistan (109) • European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic
Source: http://www.wwfpak.org/nap/dnap_medicinalplants_ Resources Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Working Group: 10
survey_na_ibrahim.php priority species
• Medicinal plants that are easily cultivated (22) Source: http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_
Source: State Forest Research Institute, Arunachal Pradesh, aromatic/AppendixI.doc
India (http://www.arunachalpradesh.nic.in/med-plant.htm) • 16 target species for SEED net MAP project
• A-Z Catalogue of Indian Medicinal plants (500) Source: http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Med_
Source: http://www.sbepl.com/medicinal-plants-10.html aromatic/MAP2_draft_Jan2005.pdf
• Ethno-medicinal Plants Used by Gond Tribe of Kukrakhapa, • Main European Medicinals (83)
District Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh, India (32) Source: http://www.phyto-lexikon.de/liste/liste.html
Source: (http://www.naturalhealthweb.com/articles/ • Mediterranean Medicinal Plants (1404)
acharya1.html) Source:http://medusa.maich.gr/query1/?genus=&species=
• Medicinal plants of India (39) &use=medicine&Major_Parts=Any&Major_Chemistry=Any&
Source: http://www.bsienvis.org/medi.htm country=Any
• Medicinal plants of South India (4)
Source: http://www.rosneath.com.au/ipc6/ch02/brooks2/
index.html

China:
• Medicinal Plants in China: List of 150 commonly used

species
Source: World Health Organisation
http://www.wpro.who.int/internet/files/pub/69/toc.pdf
• Herbal Pharmacology of the People’s Republic of China (243)
Source: The Southwest School of Botanical Medicine
http://www.swsbm.com/Ephemera/China_herbs.pdf
South America:
• Amazon Medicinal Plants (233)

Source: http://www.rain-tree.com/plistbot.htm (Tropical Plant
Database)
• Important medicinal plants in Bolivia (8)
Source: http://www.positivehealth.com/permit/Articles/Herbal/
lunny22.htm
• TRAFFIC priority species (2)
Source: http://www.traffic.org/dispatches/archives/september
98/medicinal-projects.html
• 10 South American plants screened for anti-viral properties (10)
Source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-
bin/abstract/55001305/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
• Iracambi medicinal plants project in Minas Gerais (Brazil)
and the international standard for sustainable wild collection
of medicinal and aromatic plants (ISSC-MAP). (12)
Source: Gullia and Franz, IUCN/SSC MPSG
Newsletter Vol. 11.
General:
• Medicinal and Aromatic Plants included in the CITES

Appendices (229)
Source: Schippman, U. (2001) Significant Trade study
• IUCN species where main threat is over-harvesting for
medicinal use (26)
Source: IUCN
• Plants for a Future Database of Medicinal plants (7,500)
Source: http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/database/latinA.html

Annex 3 – Medicinal plants questionnaire
Safety Nets for Medicinal Plants Project 5. We want to help botanic gardens help medicinal plants.
Questionnaire Where do you think BGCI should focus our capacity building
over the next 5 years?
Linking more than 800 botanic gardens in 118 countries BGCI
(www.bgci.org) forms the world’s largest plant conservation There are a range of resources available on medicinal plants and
network, with a mission to mobilise botanic gardens and engage conservation programmes but little specifically targeted at
partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people botanic gardens. We want to maximise the potential for skill,
and the planet. One of the specific aims of our 5 year plan best practice and knowledge sharing.
(2007 – 2012) is to enhance the conservation of threatened
medicinal and nutritious plants to address human well-being Your input will help focus conservation efforts and feed into the
and livelihood issues as a contribution towards Targets 3 and 13 production of a new report and action plan containing case
of the GSPC. studies and best practice to utilise the skills of botanic gardens
in conserving threatened medicinal plant species.
To this end, we have begun to identify the threatened plant
species held in botanic gardens according to the BGCI Optional contact details:
PlantSearch database and we are working to improve the
information held so that it can be used as a planning tool. We Your name:
have also identified several successful models of medicinal plant
conservation work undertaken by botanic gardens. They Your institution:
include:
Email:
• Working with communities to document and use indigenous
knowledge Does your institution currently run any projects with
• Educating on the value and used of sustainably harvested medicinal plants? Please give brief details:
medicinal plants
• Collecting and developing gene pools of wild stock plants
• Research to discover and investigate medicinal plant
properties
• Using collections to support local initiatives in primary
healthcare, particularly in developing countries
• Using collections to support screening programmes for
pharmaceutical companies, in accordance with guidelines on
access and benefit sharing, and to assay the value and safety
of particular medicines
• Improving the agronomy of cultivated medicinal plants Many thanks for sparing the time to help! Please return any
• Cultivating medicinal plants, to tackle unsustainable harvest comments to Belinda Hawkins at BGCI at:
and improve ease of harvest
• Practice of horticultural therapy, using plants and gardening belinda.hawkins@bgci.org
to treat mental and physical disorders
• Educating end consumers and supporting standard setting for BGCI
medicinal plant production Descanso House
199 Kew Road
Now, in order to successfully match medicinal plant Richmond
conservation needs with the capabilities of gardens we would Surrey
greatly value your input. This will help to define priorities for TW9 3BW
both in situ and ex situ conservation programmes and to
facilitate best practice and priority activities for implementation. +44 (0)20 8332 5953
1. Out of the thousands of threatened medicinal plant species,

which, in your opinion, are outstanding priority species for
conservation action over the next 5 years?
2. In your opinion, what are the immediate priorities for

medicinal plants in relation to CITES?
3. In your opinion, what are the priority methodologies for

medicinal plant conservation?
4. How do you think botanic gardens can best complement the

medicinal plant conservation being undertaken by other
NGOs or agencies?

Annex 4 – Analysis of questionnaire responses
79 questionnaire responses were received from a wide range of The following pie charts and table relate to the suggested
individuals and organisations. The first three pie charts show the priority species; their status within botanic garden collections
range of participants in the questionnaire survey, by and whether they have been assessed using the IUCN
geographical region and by institution type. categories and criteria, either on the 1997 Red Data List or the
2007 Red List of Threatened Species.
Central and
Southwest South America 7%
Number of species from priority 30 (discounting the 5 genera
Asia and Australia and
suggestions) that are held in botanic garden collections
North Afirca Africa New Zealand
8% East Asia 5% (according to PlantSearch)
9%
14%
Held in 6 to 15
BG collections
Held in16 to 35 Held in plus 35
BG collections BG collections
India
7% 4 species 4 species
(13%) (13%)
Canada 3 species
and North Europe (10%) 8 species
America 33% (27% of
13% priority 30)
11 species Held in 0 BG
(37%) collections
Held in 1 to 5
BG collections
Commercial
Government 4%
Departments Research
5% Other
Institutions 4%
18%
Percentage of suggested species (out of total 428 species
mentioned) that are either on the 1997 IUCN Red List of
NGOs Threatened Plants or the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened
15% Species
Botanic
Garden
Universities 34%
20% 17%
Appear
on Red List
83%
Do not appear
on Red List
Developed Developing
Countries Countries
47% 53%

Within the 35 priority list 5 genera were suggested: Aloe spp.,
Aquilaria spp., Cinchona spp., Hoodia spp. and Panax spp.
These have been discounted from the above graph and looked
at separately. For Aloes, Aquilarias and Cinchonas only those
species that have been assessed as CR, EN or VU on the 2007
Red List of Threatened Species have been screened against the
PlantSearch database. For Panax spp. we have used both the
2007 Red Listed species and those specifically suggested to us
as of conservation priority. Only 3 Hoodia spp. appear on the
2007 Red List and all are classified as LC.
Number of species from priority 5 genera that are held in

botanic garden collections
Other species and IUCN Number of BG collections

Red List status (PlantSearch)
Aloe – 21 spp. on 2007 Red List, 740 BG records

Aloe ballii (EN) 6
A.ballyi (VU) 11
A.erinacea (EN) 11
A.helenae (CR) 9
A.peglerae (EN) 32
A.pillansii (CR) 16
A.ramosissima (VU) 19
A.squarrosa (VU) 17
A.suzannae (CR) 34
Aquilaria – 9 spp. on 2007 Red List
Aquilaria banaensae (VU) 0
A.beccariana (VU) 1
A.crassna (CR) 1
A.cumingiana (VU) 0
A.hirta (VU) 2
A.malaccensis (VU) 3
A.microcarpa (VU) 0
A.sinensis (VU) 6
Cinchonas – 4 spp. on 2007 Red List
Cinchona lucumifolia (VU) 0
C.mutisii (EN) 0
C.rugosa (VU) 0
Hoodia spp. – 3 spp. on 2007 Red List 13 species held in 41 BG collections
(see Hoodia spp. box in section 5)
Panax – 1 spp. on 2007 Red List
Panax zingiberensis (EN) 1
P. quinquefolius (not assessed) 8 (see P. quinquefolius box in section 5)
P. ginseng (not assessed) 13
P. stipuleanatus (not assessed) 0
P. vietnamensis (not included on 2006 Red List,
EN on 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants) 0

Annex 5 – Suggested priority species for conservation action
36
This list presents the species that were suggested to us as whilst others may be globally threatened. It is a compilation 428 species or genera were mentioned, some more than once.
priorities for conservation action over the next five years in of all the answers suggested to BGCI and represents Therefore, at the beginning of the table are the top 35 species,
answer to Question 1 of the medicinal plants questionnaire. multiple and varying stakeholder priorities. mentioned several times in questionnaire responses and suggested
Some of the species are only of local conservation concern, as key priority species for immediate conservation action.
A * next to species name indicates some conservation work already undertaken or supported by BGCI
The 35 most frequently mentioned species or genera
Species Region CITES (Appendix) IUCN (2007 categories at Annex 6) BGs Of interest
Aconitum ferox E.Asia, Himalaya, N.India 1997 Indeterminate 9 very poisonous plant, used for leprosy, choleras, rheumatism and fevers
•Aconitum heterophyllum E.Asia, Nepal/western Himalaya, India 4 very poisonous,simple contact has caused numbness in some people, but is anti-inflammatory, aphrodisiac and
astringent.
Aloe spp. Particularly Aloe turkanensis tropical Africa II (except A.vera) 890 21 species listed 2006, of which 9 are n/a gel from leaves used for burns, wounds and skin disorders whilst sap is a digestive stimulant and laxative
species listed CR, EN or VU. 158 species listed 1997
Aquilaria spp Indomalaysia II (31 species) 2006 9 species listed, 8 of which are n/a fragrant resin-impregnated heartwood of the tree used for incense and as an imporant medicine in TCM
CR or VU
Balanites aegyptiaca N tropical Africa to E Med 10 medicinal bark, roots contraceptive, fruit pulp used against worms in drinking water
*Cinchona spp. Andes to Costa Rica 2006 4 species listed, 3 of which are n/a source of alkaloids especially antimalarial quinine, still not completely superceded by synthetics
EN or VU. 1997 6 species listed
*Cordyceps sinensis Asia 0 a form of parasitic fungus that grows on insect larvae, eventually consuming the whole caterpillar. Said to have good
'yin yang balance' in TCM because of it's half-animal, half-plant appearance.
Coscinium fenestratum Southern India, Sri Lanka 1997 Rare 1 widely used in traditional medicinal systems of Ayurveda and Siddha to treat diabetes
Dactylorhiza hatagirea Himalaya, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet II 0 extract from the tuber used to treat wounds ad as a tonic for fevers
*Eucommia ulmoides China 2006 LR:nt, 1997 Rare 97 possibly not known in wild, TCM tonic for arthritis and tooth fillings
Gastrodia elata SE Asia II 2007 VU 4 dried and powdered a common TCM cure for headaches
Gentiana lutea Europe, W Asia 48 contains some of the bitterest compunds known to science
Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

*Hoodia spp. Particularly H.gordonii southern Africa 50 species listed on II 2006 3 species listed as LC, 1997 5 n/a traditionally used as an appetite supressant by the San bushment of South Africa, now used to treat obesity
species listed as VU or Rare
*Magnolia officinalis China II 2007 LR/nt 1997 VU 39 bark and flowers important in TCM
Nardostachys grandiflora (syn: Nardostachys jatamansi) Nepal/Himalaya II 3 rhizomes with oil formed prized salves in Roman times
*Neopicrorrhiza scrophulariflora (syn: Picrorhiza Nepal/Himalaya II 0 rhizomes anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory and have been shown in clinical trials to boost the immune system.
scrophulariiflora) Often used to treat scorpian and snake bites
*Nothapodytes nimmoniana southern India 0 yields Camptothecin, important anti-cancer alkaloid. Destructive harvesting and habitat loss has led to species decline
of 50-80%.
Oroxylum indicum Nepal/Himalaya, southern India II 16 bark used to treat ulcers and for animal de-worming, potential anti-cancer drug with several claims
Osyris lanceolata E Africa 1 East African sandalwood, known for it's scent and medicinal qualities, can fetch as much as US$15,000 a tonne.
Paris yunnanensis (syn: Paris polyphylla var.yunnanensis) China 2 used in TCM said to 'reduce heat, resolve toxicity, reduce swellings and stop pain'
*Panax spp. Particulalry P. vietnamensis and population N America, E Asia 2 species on II P.zingiberensis 2006 EN, 1997 2 n/a long history of use going back some 5,000 years, regarded as a cure all
specific P.ginseng species listed as EN
*Podophyllum hexandrum (syn: Sinopodophyllum emodi) Nepal/western Himalaya II 45 contains podophyllin, which interferes with cell growth and has been used to treat ovarian cancer
Prunus africana tropical and S Africa II 2007 VU 3 common treatment for prostitis
Rauvolfia serpentina Southern India, Vietnam II 22 source of resperine, reduces blood pressure and used to treat mental illness
*Rhoicissus revoilii tropical and S Africa 5 the Bushveld Grape, given to livestock to expell worms
Saraca asoca Southern India 2007 - VU 1 the tree under which the Buddha was born
*Saussurea costus (syn: S.lappa) E Himalaya I 1997 EN 6 considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in TCM, also used in Ayurvedic and Tibetan traditional medicine systems
*Sideritis raeseri Europe 1 Greek Shepherd’s tea, siad to have a positive effect on all ailments, particularly colds, respiratory problems and the
immune system
Swertia chirayita Himalaya, India 0 extensively used plant, used as a bitter tonic and for the treament of fever and for curing skin diseases
Taxus wallichiana Nepal/Western Himalaya II 2007 DD 19 used in Ayuvedic and TCM to treat fever and muscular pain but also as a source of the best-selling anti-cancer drug Taxol
Toddalia asiatica Africa 0 fruit used as a cough remedy, roots for indigestion, leaves for lung diseases and rheumatism and to treat fever.
Warburgia salutaris E Africa 2007 EN 1997 VU 1 bark a purgative, active against worms, leaves eaten in curries
Withania somnifera Africa, India 26 narcotic and diuretic
Zanha africana E Africa 0 a local 'cure all'
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Africa 0 roots used to treat malaria
Other medicinal plant species suggested as being of conservation concern
Acacia elatior ssp. elatior Africa 0

Acacia nilotica tropical Africa, natur.India 16 important tanbark and gum arabic substitute
Acacia tortilis Africa and Middle East 8
Acanthopanax gracilistylus (Elutherococcus) Vietnam 4
Acanthopanax rufinerve Korea 0
Achillea fragrantissima Arabian peninsula 2
Acokanthera oppositifolia Tropical, E and S Africa 9 digitalin-like, used as arrow poison
Aconitum balfourii Himalaya 1997 Indeterminate 1 poisonous and drug source including cough medicines
Aconitum spicatum China, India, Nepal, Bhutan 2
*Acorus calamus temperate North; from India to New Guinea 57 rhizome used in TCM since Hippocrates, found in Tutankahmun's tomb, mentioned in bible, used in Sumatra to
keep evil spirits away from children at night
Adansonia digitata tropical Africa 67 the baobab tree, lives up to 2000 years, many med and othe uses, dried fruit rich in citric acids, inner bark used
as rope,
Adenia gummifera South Africa 2 outer as cloth, seeds as fuel
Adenia hondala southern India 0
Adiantum capillus- veneris Europe 0
Adonis vernalis C and S Europe II 37 a local 'cure-all'
Ageratum conyzoides tropical America, now pan-tropic 17 digitalin-like
Agrimonia eupatoria Europe 52 folk medicine e.g diarrhoea, and insecticide - causes precocious metamorphosis of insects
Albizia anthelmintica tropical and southern Africa 0 folk medicine e.g live disease, source of yellow dye
Albizia coriaria N and C Africa 4
Albizia suluensis South Africa 2006 VU 1
Albuca fastigiata South Africa 3
Allium stracheyi western Himalaya 1997 VU 1
Aloe calidophila tropical Africa II 1997 Rare 2
Aloe elgonica tropical Africa II 1997 VU 18
Aloe linearifolia South Africa II 3
Aloe secundiflora tropical Africa II 39
Aloe turkanensis tropical Africa II 3
Aloysia triphylla South America 32 fragrant sedative tea also used extensively as a cheap lemon flavouring/scent for washing up liquid, lemon sherbert
Amsonia elliptica Japan, Chin, Korea 2
Anabasis ophyila Europe 0
Anemarrhena asphodeloides N.China and Japan 7
Anogeissus leiocarpa tropical Africa 1 chewing sticks, vermifuge for stock, termite-proof wood, source of yellow dye
Ansellia africana South Africa II 26
Aquilaria crassna Vietnam II 2007 CR 1
Aquilaria malaccensis Indonesia and Malaysia II 2007 VU 3
Aquilaria sinensis South China and Hong Kong II 2007 VU 6
Aralia continentalis W and N China, Korea, Siberia 17
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi N.America, N.Euope, N.Asia 53 used in tanning, in smoking mixtures, as urinary antiseptic
Ariocarpus bravoanus Mexico I 2007 VU 6 slow growing
Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus Mexico I 2007 NT 25 slow growing
Arisaema convolutum Asia 0
Arisaema peninsulae Asia 4
*Aristolochia tuberosa Vietnam 2007 EN 1
*Arnebia benthami western Himalaya 1
Arnica montana C and N Europe 44
Artemisia alba Europe 25

Artemisia siberi Palestine 0
Arum spp. Europe n/a
Asarum balansae Vietnam 0
37
Asarum heterotropoides var. seoulense E Asia, N Japan 0
38
Asparagus racemosus China, Japan, India 7

Asteropeia labatii Madagascar 2007 EN 0
Asteropeia mcphersonii Madagascar 2007 VU 0
*Atropa acuminate Himalaya II 0 used to dilate the pupil in surgery and eye exams
Azadirachta indica pan tropical 19 Neem
Ballota kaiseri Egypt 0
Begonia homonyma South Africa 1997 Rare 11
*Berberis aristata Nepal 24 bitter tonic for fevers
Berberis koreana Korea 44
Bergenia ciliata W Pakistan to SW Nepal 28 garden plant
Bergenia pacifica far east Russia 4
Bistorta amplexicaulis (Persicaria) Himalaya 4
Bletilla striata China, Japan II 46
Boschniakia rossica Russia, China, Japan 0
Boswellia neglecta Africa 2 relative of Frankinsence
Bowiea volubilis S and E Africa 36 bulb toxic and locally medicinal
Brachystelma pulchellum South Africa 0
Bridelia micrantha Africa 5
Brucea antidysenterica Africa 1
Bulbine latifolia South Africa 17
*Bunium persicum Himalaya 0
*Butea monosperma Nepal/Himalaya 7 astringent, vermifuge, said to be one of the most beautiful flowering trees, sacred to the Brahmins in India
Buxus koreana Korea 0
Caesalpinia volkensii Africa 1
*Canarium strictum southern India 0
Capparis spinosa Mediterranean Europe 35

Caragana chamlagu N China, Korea 3 relative of Ylang Ylang and supposedly an aphrodisiac
Caragana koreana Korea 0
Carica papaya C and S America 52 papaya
Carissa edulis Africa 11
Carissa spinosa Australia 1
Cassia abbreviata S Africa 4 one of the world's most popular natural laxatives
Catharanthus roseus Madagascar 50
Celastrus paniculatus southern India 5
Centella asiatica South Africa but pan tropical to Chile, 16 used in skin treatments and to treat leprosy
New Zealand
Centropogon pilalensis Ecuador 2007 CR 0
Cetraria islandica Europe, especially Arctic regions 0 iceland moss, highly prized lichen used as a cough medicine
Changium smyrnioides China 7
Chenopodium opulifolium Europe 8
Chuanminshen violaceum China 0
Cibotium barometz India, S China, W Malaysia II 9
Cimicifuga racemosa E N America 33
*Cinnamomum spp. E to SE Asia, Australasia, tropical America 24 species assessed 2007, of n/a
which 20 are CR, EN or VU
Cissus aphyllantha Africa 0
Cistanche tubulosa W India to NW China 1997 Endangered 3
Clausena anisata Africa 4
Cleome gynandra Africa 7
Clerodendrum incisum Africa 0
Clerodendrum eriophyllum Africa 0
Clerodendrum myricoides Africa 4
Clivia nobilis South Africa 44 common houseplant

*Colchicum luteum Western Himalaya 7
Colchium autumnale Europe to N Africa 54 pain killer and used in lots of genetic engineering work. Colchicine is used to make sterile hybrids fertile, acting on
chromosomes. Also used as a poison by the Greeks
Commiphora africana Africa 9
Commiphora holtziana Africa 2
Commiphora myrrha Africa 2
*Commiphora wightii Arabia to Indian desert 2007 DD 1 resin important local medicine for arthritis
Convallaria majalis N Europe 58 rhizomes used in scent and snuff also posionous
Coptis chinensis Vietnam 8
Coptis chinensis var. brebisepala E Asia 0
Coptis quinquesecta Vietnam 0
Coridothymus capitatus Meditterranean Europe 3
Corydalis humosa Asia 0
Corylus sieboldiana East Asia, Japan 0
Cotoneaster integerrima Europe 0
Craterostigma nanum tropical and southern Africa 0
Crocosmia paniculata South Africa 13 common garden plant
Crocus sativus Europe 32 richest known source of vitamin b2, source of saffron, reduces arteriosclerosis poss. Explaining low levels of
cardiovascular disease in spain where consumption is high
Croton membranaceus Africa 0
Cycas beddomei tropical Asia I 2007 CR 1997 EN 7
Daphne genkwa China 7 used clinically as a safe and efficient abortifacient
*Decalepis hamiltonii Southern India 0
Delphinium himalayai Nepal/Himalaya 0
*Dendrobium spp. tropical to warm Asia to Australia 1365 species, 2007 12 species listed of n/a
and Pacific cruentum - I, which all are CR, EN or VU
all II 1997 66 species listed
Dialium guineense Africa 7
Diaphananthe millarii South Africa II 1997 Rare 1
Digitalis lanata Europe 52 used as a cardiac stimulant since 1785
Dionea muscipula SE N America II 2 the Venus Flytrap, under research as a possible treatment for HIV
*Dioscorea deltoidea western Himalaya 6
Dioscorea dregeana South Africa 2
Dioscorea nipponica Asia 15
Diphylleia sinensis W China 2007 EN 4 rhizomes locally medicinal
Dovyalis abyssinica Africa 4
Drosera rotundifolia global in wet places 46
Drosera spp. global in wet places n/a
Dryopteris filix-mas N Europe 51 one of the oldest known vermifuges
Dysosma versipellis E Asia 2007 VU 7
Dysoxylum malabaricum southern India 0
Echinocodon lobophyllus China 0
Elaeodendron buchananii Africa 3
Embelia schimperi Africa 4
Encephalartos aemulans South Africa I 2007 CR 3
Encephalartos cerinus South Africa I 2007 CR 4
Encephalartos friderici-guilielmi South Africa I 2007 NT 16

Encephalartos ghellinckii South Africa I 2007 VU 11
Encephalartos lebomboensis South Africa I 2007 EN 28
Encephalartos msinganus South Africa I 2007 CR 1
39
Encephalartos ngoyanus South Africa I 2007 VU 11
40
Encephalartos nubimontanus South Africa I 2007 EW 1

Encephalartos senticosus South Africa I 2007 VU 1
Ephedra distachya Europe 38 used as a 'miracle' weightloss drug, mimics the effect of amphetamines
*Ephedra gerardiana Himalaya 16
Epimedium truncatum China II 2007 VU - add to iucn pie 0
Eremostachys superba western Himalaya 0
Eriosema populifolium South Africa 0
Eriospermum mackenii South Africa 2
Erythrina abyssinica Africa 17
Euadenia eminens tropical Africa 7
Euclea divinorum tropical Africa to Arabia 5
Eucomis autumnalis South Africa 0 common garden plant
Eugenia hastilis Mauritius 2007 CR 1997 Rare 0
Eulophia petersii South Africa II 10
*Euphorbia ambovombensis Madagascar I 2007 VU 1997 EN 5
Euphorbia antisiphilitica SW N America 1
Euphorbia bupleurifolia South Africa 12
Euphorbia candelabrum Africa 18
Euphorbia franksiae South Africa II 2
Euphorbia matabelensis Africa 0
Euphorbia woodii South Africa 10
Fagaropsis hildebranditii tropical and NE Africa 0
Ferula fukanensis central Asia 0
Ferula sinkiangensis China 0
Fritillaria roylei western Himalaya 5 bulb medicinal in TCM
Fritillaria walujewii China 7

Funtumia africana tropical Africa 0
Garcinia gummigutta southern India 0
Gardenia volkensii Africa 7
Gasteria croucheri SA 1997 VU 10
Gentiana kurroo western Himalaya 7
*Ginko biloba E China 0 older than the dinosaurs, a 'living fossil' now confined to one mountain slope in China, used to treat Alzheimers disease.
Gleditsia japonica East Asia, Japan 28
Gloriosa superba South Africa 33 common garden plant
Glycyrrhiza spp. Eurasia, Australia, N America and n/a licorice
temperate S America
Gonolobus saraguranus tropical America II 2007 VU 0
Guaiacum spp. warm America 18 on II 2006 3 species listed of which 2 EN n/a
Gymnadenia conopsea northern Europe 16
Gynostemma pentaphyllum China 2
Habenaria intermedia western Himalaya 0
Hagenia abyssinica E Africa 6
Harpagophytum procumbens SA 5
Harrisonia abyssinica tropical Africa 5
Haworthia limifolia South Africa 19
Helichrysum odoratissimum South Africa 1
Hippophae rhamnoides (location specific) Europe to N China 57
Horsfieldia spp. Indomalaysia to Australia 2007 68 species listed of which n/a
44 CR, EN or VU, 1997 6 species
listed
Hoslundia opposita tropical Africa 4
Hovenia dulcis E Asia 54 Japanese raisin tree
Huernia hystrix South Africa 10

Huperizia saururus Argentina 0
Huperzia serrata China 0
Hydrastis canadensis C and E N America II 17
Hydrostachys polymorpha South Africa 0
Hymenaea courbaril eastern Amazonia 20
Hyoscyamus niger temperate Europe, natur.N America 49 source of alkaloidal drugs used as hypnotic and narcotic, highly toxic
Hypericum perforatum Europe to C China, natur W N America 63 St John's wort but poisonous to stock through photosensitisation
Hypoxis hemerocallidea South Africa 11
Juniperus communis N temperate 2007 DD 1 used to flavour Gin
Justicia capensis South Africa 1
Kedrostis foetidissima Africa 4
Kigelia africana tropical Africa 0 locally purgative
Kleinia squarrosa Africa 0
Knipofia spp. Arabia, tropical and S Africa, Madagascar n/a
Knowltonia bracteata South Africa 3
Lannea schweinfurthii E and S Africa 2
Laurus nobilis Europe 78 bay, used in veterinary medicine and aromatherapy
Leptolaena abrahamii Madagascar 2007 EN 0
Leptolaena cuspidata Madagascar 2007 LC 0
Leptolaena multiflora Madagascar 2007 EN 0
Leptolaena raymondii Madagascar 2007 CR 0
Linum usitatissimum Europe 38 flax, linseed, not known in wild
Loesenera kalantha tropical Africa 2007 VU 0
Lonicera bournei Vietnam 0 honeysuckle
Lophophora willamsii Mexico 0 used for over 7000 years , contains over 30 alkaloids, mescaline the leading one
Lophora diffusa N Mexico 2007 VU 0
Lophophytum leandri S America II 0
Lycoris aurea China and Japan 6
Maerua decumbens tropical and S Africa to India 0
Maesa lanceolata tropical and S Africa, Madagascar 6 fruit is an effective bactericide
Magnolia hodgsonii SE Asia II 0
Magnolia officinalis ssp. Biloba China II 46 bark used as tonic in TCM
Magnolia officinalis ssp. officinalis China II 0
Markhamia lutea tropical Africa 10
Maytenus senegalensis Spain and N Africa to Bangladesh 4 locally medicinal, extracts have cytoxic effect on some cancers
Meconopsis aculeata western Himalaya 1997 EN 4 common garden plant
Menyanthes trifoliata circumboreal 40 rhizome a traditional cure for arthritis in Europe
Minthostachys mollis Argentina 0
Monarrhenus salicifolius Mauritius 2007 CR 1
Mondia whytei tropical Africa 3
Monsonia natalensis South Africa 0
Morchella spp. global n/a
Morinda officinalis China 4
Myrica salicifolia Africa 0
*Myristica dactyloides southern India 2007 LC/cd 0 used as flavouring (mace) and oil for toothpaste, excess is toxic, hallucinatory and addictive with reputation as aphrodisiac
Myrsine africana Africa 43
Mystacidium capense South Africa 1

Napeta binaludensis Iran 0
Nervilia aragoana southern India II 1
Obregonia denegrii N E Mexico I 2007 VU 1997 Rare 30
41
Ochrosia borbonica tropical Africa 2007 EN 1997 VU 5
42
Ocimum americanum Africa, Asia 11 basil

Ocimum gratissimum tropical and S Africa 13 traditional medicine, louse remover
Ocimum kilimandcharicum E Africa 0
Ocotea bullata South Africa 0
Ocotea usambarensis E Africa 0
Olinia rochetiana E and S Africa 0
*Opuntia megarrhiza Mexico II 2007 EN 0
Orbea woodii South Africa 1997 Rare 1
Orchis spp. N temperate zones to S W China and India 218 species - II n/a
Origanum syriacum near Eurasia 3 used against rheumatism, a painkiller
Origanum vulgare Europe to C Asia 55
Ornithogalum longibracteatum South Africa 18
Orobanche coerulescens Asia 0
Osyris abyssinica Africa 0 like sandalwood, oil used in scentmaking
Ozoroa insignis tropical Africa 3
Paederia scandens S E Asia, Malaysia 15
*Paeonia anomala Russia 31 common garden plant
*Paeonia emodi Himalaya 18
Paeonia japonica E Asia, Japan 13
Panax ginseng Korea, N E China II 13
Panax quinquefolius N America II 8
Panax stipuleanatus Vietnam 0
Panax vietnamensis Vietnam 1997 EN 0
Pappea capensis tropical E to S Africa 0
Paullinia pinnata tropical America, Africa 7 caffine high drink, (3 to 4 times that of coffee), locally medicinal, used in chewing gum, arrow poison, chewing-sticks
*Pelargonium (South African spp.) South Africa II n/a

Pentaphylloides fruticosa Russia 4
Peucedanum caffrum South Africa 1
Phellodendron amurense E Asia 58
Phellodendron sachalinense E Asia 21
Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora western Himalaya 0
Pimpinella caffra South Africa 0
Pinus gerardiana NW Himalaya 2007 LR:nt 1997 Rare 10
Pinus sibirica Russia 2007 LR:lc 27
Pistacia chinensis Himalaya 29
Plectranthus barbatus Africa, tropical and warm Old World 11 lice-remover, potential drug for hypertension, glaucoma, asthma
Plectranthus grallatus South Africa 1
Plectranthus pseudomarrubioides Africa 2
Plumbago zeylanica SE Asia 24
Polygonatum multiflorum India 48
Polystachya ottoniana South Africa 3
Prestonia rotundiflora tropical America 2007 EN 0
Primula boveana Egypt 9
Primula elatior Europe 40
Primula veris Europe 55
Prinsepia sinensis Himalaya to N China and Taiwan 44
Psammosilene tunicoides Himalaya 1997 Rare 1
*Pterocarpus santalinus southern India II 2007 EN 1997 EN 3
Ptychopetalum olacoides Eastern Amazonia 0
Rapanea melanophloeos (Myrsine) tropical and S Africa 2
Raphia australis South Africa 2007 DD 1997 Rare 10
Reynoutria sachalinensis temperate Asia 5
Rhamnus prinoides Africa 4

Rhamnus staddo Africa 2
Rheedia aristata (Garcinia) Cuba, Brazil 2007 EN 1997 Rare 1
*Rheum australe Nepal/Himalaya 13 rhubarb
Rheum coreanum E Asia, Korea 0
Rheum emodi western Himalaya 1
Rheum webbianum western Himalaya 10
Rhodiola elongata (Sedum) Korea 0
Rhodiola heterodonta western Himalaya 13
Rhodiola rosea Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and N America 42
Rhododendron brachycarpum Japan 35
Rhododendron chrysanthum E Asia 1997 VU 5
Rhoicissus tridentata tropical and S Africa 2
*Rosa arabica Egypt 1997 EN 3
Roylea cinerea western Himalaya 0
Ruscus aculeatus Europe 69
Ruscus spp. Macronesia and W Europe n/a
*Salacia oblonga southern India 1
Salvadora persica tropical Africa to Asia 9 known as the toothbrush tree
*Salvia officinalis S Europe and Mediteranean 68 sage
Sambucus nigra Eurasia 74 elderberry, associated with superstition, Romans used as a hair dye, medicinal and pith still used for holding
specimens when sectioning botanical material
Saracca indica India 14
Sarcolaena delphinensis Madagascar II 2007 EN 0
Sarcophyte sanguinea E tropical and South Africa 0
Saruma henryi NW to SW China II 2007 EN 10
Sasa coreana Korea 0
Satureja montana S Europe 51
Sceletium tortuosum (Phyllobolus) Namibia, W and C S Africa 0
Schizobasis intricata South Africa 4
Schlechterina mitrostemmatoides tropical E Africa 0
Scilla natalensis South Africa 14
Sclerocarya birrea tropical and S Africa 8
Scutellaria baicalensis Siberia to Japan 18
Scutia myrtina Africa 4
Secamone gerrardii South Africa 0
Securidaca longipedunculata tropical Africa 4
Senna didymobotrya tropical Africa, natur. Asia and America 11
Senna singueana Africa 6
Shorea talura Southern India 2
Sideritis spp. N temperate Old World and Macronesia n/a
Silene leucophylla Egypt 0
Siphonochilus aethiopicus South Africa 1997 Indeterminate 3
Solanum incanum Africa 3
Solanum lyratum E Asia 2
Sorbus sambucifolia N hemisphere 22
Stapelia gigantea South Africa 32 flowers smell of rotting flesh
Steganotaenia araliacea Ethiopia to S Africa 3

Stellera chamaejasme C Asia, Himalaya 4
Stephania cepharantha Vietnam 0
Strophanthus hispidus tropical Old World 10 arrow poisons and cardiac drug
43
Strychnos henningsii Africa 3
44
*Tabebeuia impetiginosa N Mexico to Argentina 0

Tamarindus indica origin tropical Africa 50 tamarind
Taxus chinensis S China to Malaysia II 2007 LR:lc 13
Taxus cuspidata E Asia II 2007 LR:lc 66
Teclea simplicifolia tropical Africa 2
Telosma procumbens Vietnam 0
Thalictrum ichangense Vietnam 2
Thymus quinquecostatus E Asia 5
Tilia cordata Europe 62
Tragopogon collinus Israel 0
Treculia africana tropical Africa 8
Trichilia emetica Africa 0
Tridactyle bicaudata South Africa 8
Tulbaghia ludwigiana South Africa 5
Turbina oblongata South Africa 2
Tylosema fassoglensis (syn: Bauhinia fassoglensis) pantropical 5
Urginea altissima (Drimia) South Africa 0
Urginea delagoensis South Africa 0
Usnea barbata South Africa 0
*Utleria salicifolia southern India 0
Uvaria scheffleri Africa 0
Vaccinium myrtillus Europe 44
Valeriana jatamansi Asia 2
Valeriana officinalis Eurasia 58
Vateria indica southern India 2007 CR 1
Veronica spp. Europe, Turkey, N America, Africa and 2007 1 species LR/nt n/a

Australia
Vinca spp. Europe to N Africa and C Asia n/a
Viola canescens India 0
Viscum album Europe, W Asia 20 mistletoe
Vitex rotundifolia Indomalaysia 13 used for flu, colds and sore eyes in TCM
Voacanga africana tropical Africa 11
Warburgia salutaris southern Africa 2007 EN the ‘pepper bark’ tree, widely traded and in high demand, bark in various forms is used for many ailment; from
common colds to malaria
Warburgia ugandensis E Africa 1
Withania somnifera Africa, Mediteranean to India 26 narcotic and diuretic
Ximenia americana Africa 3
Zanha africana E Africa 0 said to be a 'cure all'
Zanthoxyllum gillettii western Himalaya 0
Zanthoxylum armatum A Asia 0
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Africa 0
Zanthoxylum piperitum E Asia 0
Zanthoxylum usambarense Africa 0
Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides W Africa 0
Annex 6: The 2007 IUCN Red List of threatened species categories (basic definitions)
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Adequate data Threatened

Endangered (EN)
1. Conservation Dependent (cd). Taxa
Vulnerable (VU) which are the focus of a continuing
taxon-specific or habitat-specific
Evaluated Near Threatened (NT) conservation programme targeted
towards the taxon in question, the
Least Concern (LC) cessation of which would result in the
taxon qualifying for one of the
Data Deficient (DD) threatened categories above within a
period of five years.
2. Near Threatened (nt). Taxa which do
Not Evaluated (NE) not qualify for Conservation
Dependent, but which are close to
qualifying for Vulnerable.
The structure of the categories (2001 Categories and Criteria, version 3.1) 3. Least Concern (lc). Taxa which do not
qualify for Conservation Dependent or
Near Threatened.
EX – Extinct EN - Endangered
LC – Least concern
A taxon is Extinct when there is no A taxon is Endangered when the best
reasonable doubt that the last individual available evidence indicates that it meets A taxon is Least Concern when it has
has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct any of the criteria for Endangered and it been evaluated against the criteria and
when exhaustive surveys in known and/or is therefore considered to be facing a does not qualify for Critically Endangered,
expected habitat, at appropriate times very high risk of extinction in the wild. Endangered, Vulnerable or Near
(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its Threatened. Widespread and abundant
historic range have failed to record an VU - Vulnerable taxa are included in this category.
individual. Surveys should be over a time
frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle A taxon is Vulnerable when the best DD – Data deficient
and life form. available evidence indicates that it meets
any of the criteria for Vulnerable, and it is A taxon is Data Deficient when there is
EW – Extinct in the wild therefore considered to be facing a high inadequate information to make a direct,
risk of extinction in the wild. or indirect, assessment of its risk of
A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is extinction based on its distribution and/or
known only to survive in cultivation, in NT – Near threatened population status. A taxon in this
captivity or as a naturalized population (or category may be well studied, and its
populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is Near Threatened when it has biology well known, but appropriate data
A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild been evaluated against the criteria but on abundance and/or distribution are
when exhaustive surveys in known and/or does not qualify for Critically Endangered, lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a
expected habitat, at appropriate times Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is category of threat. Listing of taxa in this
(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify category indicates that more information
historic range have failed to record an for a threatened category in the near is required and acknowledges the
individual. Surveys should be over a time future. possibility that future research will show
frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle that threatened classification is
and life form. LR – Lower risk (from the 1994 appropriate. It is important to make
Categories and Criteria, version 2.3) positive use of whatever data are
CR – Critically Endangered available. In many cases great care
A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been should be exercised in choosing between
A taxon is Critically Endangered when the evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria for DD and a threatened status. If the range
best available evidence indicates that it any of the categories Critically of a taxon is suspected to be relatively
meets any of the criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. circumscribed, and a considerable period
Endangered and it is therefore considered Taxa included in the Lower Risk category of time has elapsed since the last record
to be facing an extremely high risk of can be separated into three of the taxon, threatened status may well
extinction in the wild. subcategories: be justified.

Annex 7: BGCI regional action plan for medicinal plant conservation
Region / Country General description Ongoing and planned activities Potential partners
EAST ASIA Medicinal plants are of immense • Magnolia ex situ collection survey: Chinese Academy of
• China importance in China. Some 11,164 Sciences
species are reported in China’s National - gap analysis with special reference to
Strategy for Plant Conservation (CSPC, medicinal Magnolias (e.g. M. officinalis State Forestry
2007) as used in TCM. The CSPC, and M. denudata) Administration
recently produced in response to the - strengthen ex situ collections and
GSPC, reflects the values and in situ conservation, and State Environmental
conservation needs of native medicinal - reintroduction into the original habitat. Protection
plants. Administration
• Undertake Quercus ex situ collection
The development and implementation of surveys and explore the potential to Global Trees
BGCI’s medicinal plants conservation strengthen ex and in situ conservation Campaign
activities in China is coordinated by its of threatened oaks. Examples of
office in Guangzhou, South China, and Chinese oaks with medicinal properties
supports a number of national targets, include: Quercus acutissima,
particularly; Q.dentata, Q.glauca, Q.semecarpifolia.
Target 3 – Research and exploration of
application models for plant conservation • Explore ex situ and in situ conservation
and sustainable use. initiatives for other threatened species,
Target 7 – In situ conservation of notably: Aristolochia tuberosa,
threatened species Eucommia ulmoides, Dactylorhiza
Target 8 – Ex situ conservation and hatagirea, Cordyceps sinensis, Paris
recovery plans for threatened species polyphylla var. yunnanensis, Gastrodia
Target 11 – No species of wild flora elata, Eremosparton songoricum and
endangered by international trade Cinnamomum mairei.
Target 12 – Strengthening sustainable
use and management of plant-based • Pursue conservation assessments of
products Rhododendrons in China to include
Target 13 – Halting the decline of plant medicinal species such as
resources that support livelihoods and Rhododendron molle, R. aureum,
associated traditional knowledge. R. anthopogon and R. arboreum.
SOUTH EAST ASIA Taxa of primary attention for BGCI in this • The initial phase of the project Research Institute of
• Vietnam, Laos, region include Aquilaria spp., Cibotium development will include: Science, Lao PDR
Cambodia, barometz, Stephania and Ardisia spp. a) Detailed target species and
Indonesia Over-harvesting in the wild has led to population assessments; Hanoi University of
serious declines of populations of b) Assessment of the potential for Pharmacy, Vietnam
Cibotium barometz in Indonesia, and of conservation of remaining
various species of Aquilaria, Stephania populations in situ and identification Department of Nature
and Ardisia in Vietnam, Laos and of suitable areas for reintroductions; Conservation and
Cambodia. The development of recovery c) Ex situ conservation: collection of Protection, Ministry of
programmes for these taxa will serve as plant propagation material, and Environment,
BGCI pilot initiatives for reintroduction of multiplication in botanic and home Cambodia
threatened medicinal plants in South gardens – involvement of local
East Asia into their habitat of origin. communities; Cibodas Botanic
d) Production of public awareness Gardens, Indonesia
materials and policy guidelines for
recovery of threatened medicinal
plants for decision makers;
e) Reintroduction into the original
habitat.

SOUTH ASIA It is estimated that 10% of all plant species • Development of medicinal plant FRLHT
• India, Sri Lanka in India are currently endangered (Pandey et conservation education programmes
al., 2007). There are estimated to be 8,000 (e.g. for high school students in PRAGYA
species of medicinal plants used in different Karnataka).
systems of Indian medicine. Some 930 of IUCN
these are known to be traded extensively, • Enhancing the establishment of
with at least 100 of these Red Listed (FRLHT, community-based nurseries and National Botanic
no date). provision of training in nursery Gardens, Sri Lanka
management for selected medicinal
There is a gap of 40,000 tonnes in the plant species. Ministry of
demand and supply of medicinal plants. Environment and
The major source is the forest, and about • Focus attention on key medicinal Natural Resources,
90% are collected from the wild (Kala and plant species such as: Aconitum Sri Lanka
Sojwan, 2007). ferox, A.heterophyllum,
Nothapodytes nimmoniana,
BGCI has supported medicinal plant Oroxylum indicum, Rauvolfia
conservation projects in India ranging from serpentina, Saraca asoca, Swertia
awareness raising and environmental chirayita and Coscinium fenestratum
education on medicinal plants in schools to and Cinnamomum spp. in Sri Lanka.
the establishment of medicinal plant gardens.
In Sri Lanka, BGCI is currently working jointly

with IUCN on the assessment and
conservation of Important Plant Areas.
EAST AFRICA Perhaps more than anywhere, Africa’s socio- • Pursue conservation status Plantlife International
• Kenya, Tanzania, economic profile dictates reliance on assessments.
Uganda traditional medicine. Native plants are the National Botanical
main constituent of traditional African • Development of village-specific Research Institute,
SOUTHERN AFRICA medicines (TAM) (Cunningham, 1993). Unlike home herbal health kits and home Namibia
• Namibia the systems of Ayurveda and TCM, TAM is gardens with medicinal species for
an oral tradition and there are few, if any, self healing, to include plants both SANBI
written records of its methods and materials. of conservation concern and those
Estimates of the number of species used under no perceived threat.
and the number threatened within Africa as
a whole are therefore almost impossible. • Develop ex situ and in situ
conservation initiatives for other
BGCI is working with the National Museums threatened species, notably: Aloe
of Kenya and other partners from Kenya, spp., Hoodia spp., Osyris lanceolata,
Tanzania and Uganda on conservation Rhoicissus revoilii, Toddalia asiatica,
assessments of and management plans for Warburgia salutaris, Withania
medicinal plants in the region. A similar somnifera, Zanha africana and
assessment is proposed for Southern Africa, Zanthoxylum chalybeum.
in particular in collaboration with the
National Botanical Research Institute in
Namibia.
• Madagascar Madagascar possesses some 80% endemic • Convene a series of stakeholder University of
biodiversity and is known to contain a workshops to identify project Antananarivo
wealth of medicinal plant species and interventions addressing immediate
indigenous knowledge. However, over 70% ex and in situ conservation needs Madagascar Plants
of its inhabitants live on less than US$1 a building on the results of the IPA Specialist Group
day, making it one of the poorest countries assessment and focussing on
in the world. The natural wealth of the species such as: Aloe suzannae, IUCN
island is therefore threatened by the extreme Asteropeia labatii, A.mcphersonii,
poverty of the human population, and some Euphorbia ambovombensis,
90% of the forest has now gone (Azafady, Leptolaena abrahamii, L.cuspidata,
2007). L.multiflora, L.raymondii and
Sarcolaena delphinensis.
As part of its joint initiative with IUCN – The
World Conservation Union, BGCI is working
on the assessment of Important Plant Areas
in Madagascar.

MESO AMERICA The traditional medicinal systems of this • Convene a series of stakeholder Mexican Association
• Mexico, Costa Rica region are highly localised, with plant workshops to identify project of Botanic Gardens
species known to be of importance in interventions addressing immediate
providing healthcare. There is little in the ex and in situ conservation needs INBio
way of an official catalogue of medicinal and focussing on species such as:
plants. The IUCN MPSG is currently Cinchona spp., Ariocarpus
working on a regional Red List of medicinal bravoanus, A.kotschoubeyanus,
plant species. Centropogon pilalensis, Euphorbia
antisyphilitica, Guiacum spp.,
BGCI is supporting the establishment of the Obregonia denegrii and Opuntia
Mexican Strategy for Plant Conservation. In megarrhiza.
this framework, a number of issues for
medicinal plant conservation will be
addressed.
In Costa Rica, BGCI is currently working

jointly with IUCN on the assessment and
conservation of Important Plant Areas.
Photo credits
All photographs are credited to BGCI except for the following: page 3, unknown (top), Conservatory and Botanic Gardens of Geneva
(bottom); page 7, Stock Exchange (pills and Digitalis); page 8, Ulf Liedén (Gentiana); page 9, Keira Bishop (ginseng); page 11, Paul
Alan Cox and Patricia Stewart (bottom), Steven King (middle); Page 12, Gisela Royo (top), unknown (bottom); page 13, G. Ulutuncok
and GTZ (Prunus), Ruth Butler (bottom), unknown (Rauvolfia); page 14, unknown (Hoodia), Peter Wyse Jackson (bottom); page 19
http://mynkw.totosik.pl (Lophophora); page 22; Fiona Walsh and Desert Knowledge Cooperative Centre (top); page 23, David
Nkwanga (Prunus); page 25, Ruth Butler (top).
Design: John Morgan, Seascape. Email: studio@seascapedesign.fsnet.co.uk
Botanic Gardens Conservation International is a worldwide membership organisation working on an

international scale to safeguard tens of thousands of plant species from extinction. Its mission is to mobilise
botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet.
BGCI brings together the world’s botanic gardens, forming a community working in partnership to achieve
conservation, education and development goals.
Enhancing the conservation of threatened medicinal plants to address human well-being and livlihood issues
is one of the aims of BGCI’s current 5-year plan. BGCI believes that the global network of botanic gardens
can play a key role in ensuring the sustainable use and protection of this vital resource. For more information
visit www.bgci.org or email medicinalplants@bgci.org.
BGCI is an independent organization registered in the United Kingdom as a charity (Charity Reg No
1098834) and a company limited by guarantee No 4673175. BGCI is a tax-exempt (502(c)(3)) non-profit
organization in the USA and is a registered charity in Russia.
For more information about BGCI and its activities, please contact: Botanic Gardens Conservation International,
Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953, Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956, email: info@bgci.org, www.bgci.org

This publication is supported by the Botanic Gardens
Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation Conservation International
Descanso House, 199 Kew Road,

Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K.
Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953

Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956
E-mail: info@bgci.org
Internet: www.bgci.org

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Plants for life:

Medicinal plant conservation

2 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

3. Medicinal plants for healing .................................................................................................................................................6

4. Medicinal plants for livelihoods ...........................................................................................................................................8

5. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation .................................................................................................................10

6. Medicinal plants and botanic gardens .............................................................................................................................15

7. Recommendations for medicinal plant conservation actions by botanic gardens ..............................................20

8. Towards an action plan for medicinal plant conservation by BGCI ..........................................................................24

10. References .................................................................................................................................................................................27

Acronyms and Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................29

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 3

Currently, one of the aims of BGCI’s

4 Plants for life

As we lose species, we lose vital

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 5

Medicinal plants have been used by Traditional medicine

• In China, Traditional Chinese Medicine

In fact, of the total pharmaceutical drug

The greater part of traditional therapy

In fact, as many as 50% of prescription

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 7

8 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

• In Namibia, there are an estimated

• Ethnoveterinary medicine is used by

Rows of ginseng and mushroom elixirs for sale in Seoul, Korea.

The world’s greatest concentration of

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 9

Agronomists: To improve techniques for cultivating medicinal plants

10 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

One of the three fundamental objectives

• The UNCTAD BioTrade Initiative • The 2002 World Summit on

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 11

12 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 13

The IUCN Red List of Threatened

Policy frameworks and legislation are

14 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Some 5,000 years ago, a botanic

The Botanical Garden of Padua,

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 15

Botanic gardens provide a permanent

Education harvest. Botanic gardens have a key role

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 17

No single sector, public or private, can As recognised by the CBD, in situ

Botanic gardens are involved in the

18 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Community-based conservation Community-based conservation must

Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens 19

The questionnaire survey has provided a

Rescuing Aloe castanea from granite mining.

Logically, the information We have also indicated whether these

Botanic gardens are well Prioritise actions

20 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Key messages for botanic gardens were to:

• Joint plan rather than work in isolation,

Plants for life 21

22 Plants for life: Medicinal plant conservation and botanic gardens

Whatever the conservation action,