PWM-Inverter Drive Control operating with a standard Personal

Computer
Wolfgang Frank
Federal Armed Forces University
85579 Neubiberg - Germany

Abstract: Today, often special and complex computing systems are often missed. So, normally assembler or low level language
are common in laboratories for investigations of inverter drive programs must be generated for the complete control system,
control. But it is also possible to control drives using a simple even for parts, which are not time-critical . Thus, installation and
personal computer (PC). With such systems, even PWM control operation of these high performing test drives take a high expen-
methods can be realized. A system, which complies with these diture of man power. Therefore, a simpler arrangement for
demands is described. Realizations about the feasibilities, e.g. investigations of inverter drive systems was searched. We found
the maximum pulse frequency, and first practical results are pre- out, that modern PC - by adding some components - may be qua-
sented. lified to handle all tasks of the control unit of fig. 1.

1. Introduction 2. Concept using a standard PC solely

In drive systems, specially developed, high performing computer 2.1. Hardware equipment
systems are mostly used. They contain digital signal processors Fig. 2 shows an arrangement for such an inverter drive system.
(DSP) and/or microcontrollers (µC). For development and The PC must contain a Pentium® processor (or comparable unit),
investigation, they still need an additional host, such as a desirably clocked with 166 MHz or higher. For acquisition of the
personal computer (PC) is. The principle of such a system is

Figure 1: System with special control unit for drive control and
additional PC for communication and service routines

Figure 2: Drive system with a standard PC for all functions

shown in fig.1. The controller manages and performs all proce-
dures for inverter and machine. Additional components, as e.g. analogue measurement signals (A/D-conversion), input and
timers, A/D-converters and I/O-ports, are needed. In µC/DSP output of digital signals (firing signals, state feedback, etc.), and
some of these elements may be integrated ([7], [8]). The installed timer functions a high speed multi-I/O card must be inserted into
PC works like a tool to provide a suitable environment. With a the PC. The card may be a commercial one. Of course, the
system of fig.1, it is possible to compute complex control measuring transducer and firing amplifier stay the same as in
strategies even for PWM-inverters in real-time. But these other systems. So, the complete drive control may be performed
systems demand high development costs of hardware. without any further hardware. On the other hand, the integration
Programming and data transfer of µC/DSP require an extensive of special chips for drive functions is also possible, but it
environment, as development kit, assembler, linker, etc. But demands hardware developments with an expenditure similar to
important tools like debugger or high level language compiler those needed in fig.1.
First considerations and tests resulted in, that during on-line there are up to 256 different interrupts to handle with. Generally,
operation data input via keyboard or data output via screen must these interrupts are divided into hardware interrupts and
be evidently restricted. Nevertheless, the whole system still gains software interrupts.
its whole capability at off-line tests or simulations and keeps its Software interrupts are caused by an explicit call of an interrupt
advantages concerning the programming facilities. routine during the program´s run time. They are applied to
events, which always occur at well defined instants. Therefore,
2.2. Software and operating system for on-line operation they can´t be used in processes with stochastic events.
DOS as a single task operating system was selected. For DOS, a For the recognition of stochastic events, like income of data,
big variety of hardware drivers and software is available. In con- hardware interrupts are used. They are triggered by external
trast to advanced multitasking operating systems, both real-mode hardware components and surveilled by Programmable Interrupt
and protected-mode operation are possible in DOS. In protected- Controllers (PIC). In PC-systems, only 15 external hardware
mode, another way of address computation is necessary, because sources can cause an interrupt, so the rest are software triggered
the tasks aren´t allowed to influence each other. Therefore, every interrupts. But not all Interrupt Request lines (IRQ) of the PIC
task needs its own corresponding operation environment, which are occupied initially by the system. Some can be used by
contains the Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT), stacks, registers peripheral components and it is also possible to replace nearly
and other protected-mode specific tables and structures [10]. every interrupt-routines by individual ones.
This causes an evident expenditure of additional computing. For
high speed operation, especially for fast interrupt processing,
real-mode operation must be used. So, extended memory mana-
gers, such as Microsoft´s EMM386.EXE, aren´t allowed to be
installed. Because of the time-critical processes, which the pro-
cessor has to cope with in real-time, even the act of switching
between several possible tasks would take too much time.
Consequently, multitasking operating systems are not suited for
these systems. In order to concentrate on the main targets, the
execution of Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR-) programs,
such as mouse drivers, must be prevented.
With this system, the programming of nearly all control
procedures may be performed using common high level
languages (C, Pascal, etc.). The use of high level languages
Figure 3: principle of interrupt driven operation in PC
effects short development time and gives advantages for teaching architecture (ISR = Interupt Service Routine) in real-
or operating efforts. The students/operators are enabled to mode
generate and test or simulate programs by themselves using the
same routines, which are programmed for inverter operation. The Fig. 3 shows the process of interrupt handling of a PC system in
resulting solution depends on the compiler´s facilities for using case of a hardware interrupt caused by a timer termination at
the instruction set of the used processor type (386, 486, Pentium, IRQ3 in real-mode. After having counted down to zero, the timer
etc.). But different compiler (e.g. Borland, Microsoft, GNU, etc.) output rises “high”, what invokes a “high” signal at pin INTR of
compile the same program in a different way. Therefore, the the processor. The processor itself answers with an interrupt
solution also depends on the compiler itself. Besides, extremely acknowledge signal back to the PIC. The processor stores its
time-critical processes can be realized by assembler pro- registers on the stack and jumps into the corresponding interrupt-
gramming. routine. After the interrupt return command (IRET) the
If off-line process simulations need more memory, the operating processor loads the registers from the stack again, returns to its
system may be switched into protected-mode. The change from last routine and continues with the next instruction.
real-mode to protected-mode is no problem for software in high In PC-systems operating in real-mode, the start address of all
level languages. And even the reorganization of assembler parts interrupt-routines is stored in the IDT. After the detection of an
is fairly uncomplicated. interrupt, the processor receives the number of the interrupt and
multiplies it with 4. The result is the address of the IDT entry for
3. Realization this specific interrupt. The table itself begins at 000h and every
3.1. Interrupts in PC systems entry contains two words of 2 bytes each, representing the
The generation and the output of the pulse pattern is realized by memory segment and the offset of the start address of the
the use of timers generating hardware interrupts. Unlike in µC, interrupt-routines. Fig. 4 shows the structure of the IDT [9]. In
the handling of interrupts is more difficult in PC systems, since PC-systems, hardware interrupts are located from interrupt type
8 to 15 (PIC 1, partially shown in fig. 4) and from 70 to 77 (PIC IRQ.
2). The remaining interrupt types are shared by internal In the used system, the timer is initialized for single shot
processor interrupts (e.g. division by zero), interrupts of the interrupt and 16-bit operation (mode 0) ([1], [2]). This provides
operating system and the BIOS (e.g. for mass storage media), both a maximum range of time intervals as well as a suitable
and individually programmable software interrupts. signal processing. The control data and the data concerning the
interval length is transferred to the plug-in card via ISA-bus and
loaded into the corresponding base addresses.
The Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) decides, whether
an interrupt is serviced or not. Since the computation must
concentrate on inverter control at on-line operation, other
interrupts must be disabled in order to get no delay of the
important interrupt routines. That will be achieved by writing in
the interrupt mask register of the PIC ([3], [4]). Masking of
interrupts means, that these interrupts will not be serviced in case
of a “high” signal being detected at its request line. Thus, only
the interrupt lines, which are related to the keyboard (IRQ 1) and
the line, which the plug-in timer works on (e.g. IRQ 5), are
allowed to be enabled. This minimum number of interrupts cares
for a concentration of computation on the control tasks.
The input/output of digital signals, such as the output of firing
signals or the input of failure signals, is managed by the
Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI), which may be located
on a multi-I/O-card mentioned above. Most cards use Intel´s chip
Figure 4: Structure of the Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT) 82C55A, which is easily programmable for bidirectional
operation ([5], [6]).
Although there is a Programmable Interval Timer (PIT) already
wired with the PC´s PIC on the motherboard (IRQ0), it is not 3.3. Interrupt programming
recommended to use it. There are important system functions, Since low level interrupt programming in assembler is very
such as hard disk drive and floppy disk drive operation, which complex, many high level languages provide convenient
are triggered by the system timer. Therefore, it is not possible to commands or routines to manage it. An example of an individual
replace that interrupt-routine by another one. It is only possible interrupt routine in C++ syntax will be demonstrated.
to “chain” an individual interrupt-routine to the existing routine
of the operating system. As a consequence, the duration of #include <dos.h> /* interrupts, outportb */
working out a modified interrupt 8 (i.e. individual system timer #include <.....> /* other functions/procedures being used */
interrupt-routine for (IRQ0) stays longer than another modified
hardware interrupt-routine, like e.g. interrupt 11 (= COM2 on #ifdef __cplusplus /* asking for compilation mode C <--> C ++*/
IRQ3). Thus, an additional timer is necessary. The timer should #define __CPPARGS ...
desirably be clocked with 1 MHz or higher in order to obtain a #else
suitable resolution of interrupt intervals. Most of the commercial #define __CPPARGS
timer plug-in cards, even the lowest cost ones, meet this demand. #endif
int intnr = 0x0d; /*variable of interrupt type, 0x0d = IRQ 5*/
3.2. Setup and programming of peripheral hardware /* interrupt prototype */
Every peripheral component is related to a base address. It is not void interrupt new_handler(__CPPARGS);
relevant, if this component is a discrete chip or a complete unit, /* interrupt function pointer */
like a plug-in card. Therefore, hardware programming means to void interrupt (*old_handler)(__CPPARGS);
write on or to read from those base addresses. Unlike peripheral void main()
motherboard-mounted chips, plug-in cards often contain dip { old_handler = getvect(intnr); /* save the old interrupt */
switches to set the base address. The output of the I/O-card´s setvect(intnr,new_handler); /* install interrupt handler
timer must be connected directly with the desired IRQ of the */
ISA-slot. Many I/O-cards provide an interrupt selection via ... instructions ...
jumper bar. In any other case, a dummy ISA plug-in card must /* restore original interrupt routine */
be inserted, which the timer output is connected to on the desired setvect(intnr,old_handler);
} For that purpose, the continuous course of the reference voltage
void interrupt new_handler(__CPPARGS) uref may be replaced by a constant step value u*(k) within each
{ ... instructions ... sampling section k representing the average value in this period.
outportb(0x20, 0x20); } This leads to a linear relation between the switching instant tS
and the step voltage u*(t). The switching instant tS for one phase
The operating system interprets the entries of the IDT as values within a half-period k is
of pointer variables. Therefore, the key word “interrupt”
provides the definition of the handler as a pointer to a procedure. TP u (k)


±
tS
1 , k  Û0 (2)
The following tasks must be considered for programming 4 UD
individual interrupt routines (C or C ++):
1. Every interrupt routine to be replaced must be saved before.
Thus, a variable of the type “pointer to procedure” is defined Fig. 5 shows the principle of this method for a single phase. In a
and specified with the key word “interrupt”. The storage 3-phase-system, there are three switching events tSa, tSb, tSc,
process is executed by the function “getvect(# of interrupt)”.
2. The installation of interrupts is managed by the “setvect(# of
interrupt, interrupt handler)”. This causes a replacement of
the corresponding IDT entry by the start address (segment
and offset) of the replacing handler.
3. The original interrupt routine of the operating system has to
be restored before the program terminates. This avoids
conflicts of interrupt handlers and provides a stable
operation.
4. The interrupt handler must be terminated with a reset of that
PIC request line, at which the interrupt request came in. This
is implemented by an “automatic end of interrupt “-command
(“outportb(0x20, 0x20)”).
Items 1., 2. and 3. must be done only once immediately at the
beginning respectively at the end of the main program.
The realization of interrupt handlers in Pascal is similar, but it
should be referred to the programming manual for the explicit Figure 5: Principle of asymmetric regular-sampling for one
implementation. phase

3.3. Sampling strategy which have to be calculated and queued up in chronologous

Methods, which base on a continuous comparison of the real order within every sampling section. The Programmable Interval
quantity of a state variable with its reference (e.g quasi- Timer (PIT) can only recognize time intervals. Therefore, the
analogous digital control), are generally inappropriate for chronologous order of the firing times must be converted into a
systems described in this paper. Interrupt driven operations, e.g. stack of intervals of tS,i (i = 0, 1, 2).


methods basing on a “predictive computation of switching Before the last interrupt of a half-period occurs, the first
events”, are more suitable. switching instant of the following half-period k+1 must be
For a first test of the proposed computer topology, the known, because that instant defines the next PIT interval. Due to
asymmetric regular-sampling method with on-line computation this demand, the complete succeeding half-period must be
of switching events was used. It provides both easy computed. This results in a distribution of computation
programming and the use of results of former investigations. published in [11]. Within a succeeding half-period k+1, the
With asymmetric sampling the pulse period TP is divided into periods between two switching instants are computed by
two sampling sections with a duration of TP/2 each. Within one Tp
ûtS, k
±
sampling section the integral of the modulated output voltage uout 1, i
tS, k 1, i  tS, k, 2 i
0; k  Û0 (3)
2
 

should be equalized to the integral of the reference voltage uref.

ûtS, k
±
That means


1, i
tS, k 

1, i tS, k 

1, i 1

i
1, 2; k  Û0 (4)
tk 1 tk

1
T ± whereas tS,k,2 is the last switching instant of the current half-
uref (t) dt
uout (t) dt  u (k) , k  Û0 (1)


tk tk
2 period.
The corresponding state modifications of the switching events
are determined simultaneously. A timer termination causes an the amount of tdel related to the absolute time of the timer
interrupt, which manages the output of the new inverter state and oscillator. It can be assumed, that the time shifting is nearly
the loading of the next time interval. The interrupt handles only constant. Therefore, it may be compensated by correcting the
those routines, which are needed for the pulse forming itself. All timer values. But this is not necessary.
other calculations are performed by the main program outside the Depending on the sampling settings, the timer may be loaded
interrupt-routine. with very small values representing short times tref computed
with equations (4) and (5). That means, that the times tref may
4. Results become shorter than the time-to-action interval tact, which is
4.1. System specification needed by the processor to handle the complete interrupt. This
The system consists of a Pentium 166 MHz processor mounted causes an error interval terr (fig. 6 a)-c)) for the firing signal.
on a ASUS P/I-P55TP4N motherboard equipped with 512 kB Thus, the firing signal can´t be put out in the right time. Fig. 7
cache RAM and a memory of 32 MB RAM. Of course, less shows the maximum errors of the used system. This picture was
memory is considerable for mere inverter operation, but much
memory is useful for simulations. Apart regular plug-in cards -
such as graphic adapter - a commercial multi-I/O-card (CIO-
DAS 1600, ComputerBoards Inc.) and an additional timer-card
(CIO-DIO 24/CTR3, ComputerBoards Inc.), which is clocked
with 10 MHz, are inserted. The 3-phase voltage source inverter
works at 500V dc voltage and is rated for 70A ac output. It is
constructed using commercial half bridge IGBT modules (SKM
145 GB 123 D), which are driven by commercial drivers (SKHI
22).

4.2. PWM operation

The limiting criteria of the system with respect to the pulse
frequency are the amount of on-line computation inside and
outside the interrupt routine as well as the time delay and the
time-to-action of the interrupt.
Since microprocessor systems have to save their environment in
case of interrupts, a short delay time tdel occurs between the timer
termination and the switching gate impulse. Generally, this is not
a serious problem, because it leads to a general time shifting of

Figure 7: Switching with maximum error-time terr

taken for an output voltage of 0 V. The sampling implies, that all

three phases switch simultaneously. But the software is
programmed to perform only one switching during one interrupt
routine. Consequently, the system works out the three switchings
as fast as possible. The curve at the top shows the interrupt
signal of the timer. It is set to “1" at the termination of the timer
Figure 6: Principle of interrupt processing regarding time-to- and is reset to “0" by the interrupt-routine described above. The
action demonstrated at logical firing signals interrupt handling needs additional time after this reset. The
a) t ref = t S > t min
b) t ref = t S = t min three curves uGa, uGb, uGc represent the voltage at the gates of the
c) t ref < t S = t min IGBT´s. It can be seen, that the error-time may get up to 17µs.
Special routines are programmed for these cases. Then, two or processor´sperformance. It is obvious, that there are enough
even more switchings are merged into one interrupt-routine and resources left to implement the machine control for pulse
very short time intervals are performed by dummy routines of frequencies in a range of about 5kHz. In the case of mere
known duration. inverter control, an operation with pulse frequencies up to 10
The firing signals at the IGBT gates of the complete three phase kHz should be possible. But that means on the other hand, that
voltage system are shown in fig. 8. for one period of the output inverter control operation can be realized even with less
voltage. The output frequency is 50 Hz with a pulse frequency of powerful processors, such as a 486 is. 486-systems could be a
cheap solution for teaching efforts in the field of electric drives.
For the exact limits of microprocessor systems, precise
measurements of the processor load have to be done. In order to
improve the range of pulse frequencies, other sampling methods
could be used as well as special routines within the sampling
method. Besides, higher pulse frequencies may be achieved
using advanced interrupt programming.

[1] Intel Corporation, 82C54 CHMOS programmable

interval timer , data sheet; September 1993
[2] H.-P. Messmer, PC-Hardwarebuch, New York; Addison-
Wesley, 3rd edition 1995, pp. 649
[3] H.-P. Messmer, PC-Hardwarebuch, New York; Addison-
Wesley, 3rd edition 1995, pp. 625
[4] R. Jigour, Using the 8259A programmable interupt
controller, application note; Intel Corporation, 1979
[5] H.-P. Messmer, PC-Hardwarebuch, New York; Addison-
Wessley, 3rd edition 1995, pp. 625
[6] Intel Corporation, 82C55A CHMOS progammable
peripheral interface, data sheet; September 1987
Figure 8: Gate voltages uGa(t), u Gb(t), u Gc(t) of a 3-phase inverter [7] Philips Semiconductor, Selction Guide for the 80C51
with pulse control at 50 Hz fundamental frequency Microcontroller Family; Philips Electronics North
America Corporation, 1995
5 kHz. In the area of minimum or maximum output voltage, the [8] Texas Instruments, TMS320C2xx Fixed-point Digital
gate signals get the whole amplitude, but the used digital Signal Processors, product bulettin; 1996
oscilloscope does only incorrectly reproduce the real curves. [9] S. Fedtke, 80286/80386/i486 effizient programmiert: AT-
Betriebssysteme, Braunschweig; Vieweg-Verlag, 1991,
pp.471/472
5. Conclusion [10] Intel Corporation, Pentium Processor Family Developer´s
Fig. 9 shows the expenditure of time of interrupt processing Manual, Mt. Prosect (IL); Intel Corporation, 1996, ch.14-
during three sampling sections. It can be easily seen, that the 15
interrupt keeps only a small amount (about 20%) of the [11] M.E. Fraser, C.D. Manning, “A proposed predictive
average current controller for four-wire boost rectifiers”,
presented at the IEE Conference on Power electronics and
variable speed drives, September 23-25, 1996, p. 147

Figure 9: Distribution of interrupts in an interval of 500 µs