Managing Organisation

19.The Role Of Information Technology In Management

Introduction:

No invention has ever influenced the human beings as computer has. In less than seven decades of
its existence it has managed, materializing the Concept of a global village. Technologies like
Computational Intelligence, Neural Networks, Genetic Algorithms, Data Communication &
Networks, Telecommunication, Databases, and Evolutionary Computing etc.

Collectively offer the business community a broad set of tools capable of addressing problems that
are much harder or virtually impossible to solve using the more traditional techniques from
statistics to operations research.

Country running and putting it on the track of the development is very complex task and might
require the decisions making on the basis of the country‟s past experience and present situation
which is obviously available in the form data.

Today‟s best technology to manage and process data is the Information technology. IT must be seen
as an investment and not an expense. IT is laying a vital and expanding role in business.

IT helps the manager to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their business processes,
managerial decision making, and workgroup collaboration, thus helping the managers to strengthen
the positions of their company in a Rapidly changing environment. IT has become a necessary
ingredient for Managers to succeed in today‟s dynamic global environment.

Definition

Information Technology (IT) was described by Chaffey and Wood as ‘‘technology resources used
for business information management’’. These resources include software, hardware and
telecommunication networks used for managing information.

According to Benemati et al.,IT is changing rapidly and considering the increasing strategic
impact of IT on business operations, its successful management is of utmost importance. Irani and
Love suggested that for IT management to be successful, it must be perceived as an iterative
business process capable of providing organisational learning throughout the lifecycle of the
technology. However, even when IT is managed successfully, the question arises, as to what role IT
plays in the achievement of organisational strategic goals and objectives

In response to this question, Venkatraman et al and Franz and Klepper postulated that the proper
role of IT in an organisation is usually epitomised as a fit or alignment with the strategic goals of
the organisation. Therefore, IT can only be appropriately aligned when infrastructure put in place to
implement the IT strategy is adequate; the strategy supports the organisation‟s strategy and business
processes.

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Concepts Information System And Technologies in Business

WHY INFORMATION SYSTEMS ARE IMPORTANT

An understanding of the effective and responsible use and management of information systems is
important for managers and other business knowledge workers in today‟s global information
society. Information systems and technologies have become a vital component of successful
businesses and organizations. Information systems constitute an essential field of study in business
administration and management, as they are considered a major functional area in business
operations.

An IS Framework for Business Professionals: Figure 1.2

Foundations of Information Systems and Technologies in Business

Managers or business professionals are not required to know the complex technologies, abstract
behavioral concepts, or the specialized applications involved in the field of information systems.
Figure 1.2 illustrates a useful conceptual framework that outlines what a manager or business
professional needs to know about information systems. It emphasizes five areas of knowledge:
· Foundation Concepts
· Information Technologies
· Business Applications
· Development Processes
· Management Challenges

Foundations of Information Systems and Technologies in Business

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What is an Information System?

An information system (IS) can be any organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communications networks, and data resources that collect, transforms, and disseminate information
in an organization.
Information Technologies:Business professionals rely on many types of information systems that
use a variety of information technologies.
For example:
Types of IS - Manual (paper-and-pencil) information systems
 Informal (word-of-mouth) information systems
 Formal (written procedures) information systems
 Computer-based information systems

Computer-based information systems (IS) use hardware, software, the Internet, and other
telecommunications networks, computer-based data resource management techniques, and other
forms of information technologies (IT) to transform data resources into a variety of information
products for consumers and business professionals.

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SYSTEM CONCEPTS - A FOUNDATION
System concepts underlie the field of information systems. Understanding system concepts will
help you understand many other concepts in the technology, applications, development, and
management of information systems. System concepts help you understand:
o Technology. That computer networks are systems of information processing components
that uses a variety of hardware, software, data and telecommunication technologies.
o Applications. That electronic business and commerce involves interconnected business
information systems.
o Development. That developing ways to use information technology n business includes
designing the basic components of information systems.
o Management. That managing information technology emphasizes the quality, strategic
business value, and security of an organization‟s information systems.

Other System Characteristics:

A system does not exist in a vacuum; rather, it exists and functions in an environment containing
other systems.
Subsystem: A system that is a component of a larger system, where the larger system is its
environment.
System Boundary: A system is separated from its environment and other systems by its system
boundary.
Interface: Several systems may share the same environment. Some of these systems may be
connected to one another by means of a shared boundary, or interface.
Open System: A system that interacts with other systems in its environment is called an open system
(connected to its environment by exchanges of inputs and outputs).
Adaptive System: A system that has the ability to change itself or its environment in order to survive
is called an adaptive system.

An information system model expresses a fundamental conceptual framework for the major
components and activities of information systems. An information system depends on the resources
of people, hardware, software, data, and networks to perform input, processing, output, storage, and
control activities that convert data resources into information products.
The information systems model outlined in the text emphasizes four major concepts that can be
applied to all types of information systems:
o People, hardware, software, data, and networks, are the five basic resources of information
systems.
o People resources include end users and IS specialists, hardware resources consist of
machines and media,
o Software resources include both programs and procedures, data resources can include data
and knowledge bases, and network resources include communications media and networks.
o Data resources are transformed by information processing activities into a variety of
information products for end users.
Information processing consists of input, processing, output, storage, and control activities.
The basic IS model shows that an information system consists of five major resources:
o People resources
o Hardware resources
o Software resources
o Data resources
o Network resources

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INFORMATION SYSTEM ACTIVITIES
Information processing (or data processing) activities that occur in information system include the
following:
o Input of data resources
o Processing of data into information
o Output of information products
o Storage of data resources
o Control of system performance
BUSINESS APPLICATIONS, DEVELOPMENT, AND MANAGEMENT
The Fundamental Roles Of Is Applications In Business
Information systems perform three vital roles in any type of organization. That is, they support an
organization‟s:
o Business processes and operations
o Decision making by employees and managers
o Strategies for competitive advantage

Information Technology is increasingly important in the competitive marketplace. Managers need

all the help they can get. Information systems perform three vital roles in business:

Support Business Operations. From accounting to tracking customers' orders, information

systems provide management with support in day-to-day business operations. As quick response
becomes more important, the ability of information systems to gather and integrate information
across business functions is become crucial.

Support Managerial Decision Making. Just as information systems can combine information to
help run the business better, the same information can help managers identify trends and to evaluate
the outcome of previous decisions. IS helps managers make better, quicker, and more informed
decisions.

Support Strategic Advantage. Information systems designed around the strategic objectives of the
company help creates competitive advantages in the marketplace. Competitive Advantage is created
or maintained with the company succeeds in performing some activity of value to customers
significantly better than does its competition.

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According to Porter, following one or more of these strategies can develop competitive advantage:

Cost Strategies. Becoming a low-cost producer in the industry allows the company to lower prices
to customers. Competitors with higher costs cannot afford to compete with the low-cost leader on
price.
Differentiation Strategies. Some companies create competitive advantage by distinguishing their
products on one or more features important to their customers. Unique features or benefits may
justify price differences and/or stimulate demand.
Innovation Strategies. Unique products or services or changes in business processes can cause
fundamental changes in the way an industry does business.
Growth Strategies. Significantly expanding production capacity, entering new global markets,
diversifying into new areas, or integrating related products or services can all be a springboard to
strong company growth.
Alliance Strategies. Establishing new business linkages and alliances with customers, suppliers,
former competitors, consultants, and others can create competitive advantage

History of the role of Information Systems

1950-1960 1960-1970 1970-1980 1980-1990 1990-2000

Data Management Decision Strategic & Electronic
Processin Reporting Support User Commerc
g e
Electronic
Data Management
Processing Information
-TPS Decision
Systems Support End User
System Computing Electronic
-Ad hoc Exec Info sys Business &
Reports Expert systems Commerce
SIS -Internet worked
E-Business &
Commerce

Data Processing: 1950s - 1960’s:

Electronic data processing systems. Transaction processing, record keeping, and traditional
accounting applications.
Management Reporting: 1960s - 1970’s:
Management Information systems. Management reports of pre-specified Information to support
decision-making.
Decision Support: 1970s - 1980s:
Decision Support systems. Interactive ad hoc support of the managerial decision-making process.
Strategic and End User Support: 1980s - 1990’s:
o End User computing systems. Direct computing support for end user productivity and work
group collaboration.
o Executive information systems (EIS). Critical information for top management Expert
systems: Knowledge-based expert advice for end users Strategic Information Systems.
Strategic products and services for competitive advantage.

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o Expert Systems (ES) and other Knowledge-Based Systems

Role: Expert systems can serve as consultants to users by providing expert advice in limited
subject areas.
o Strategic Information Systems (SIS)
Role: Information technology becomes an integral component of business processes, products,
and services that help a company gain a competitive advantage in the global marketplace

Electronic Business and Commerce: 1990’s - 2000’s:

Internet worked e-business and e-commerce Systems. Internet worked enterprise and global e-
business operations and e-commerce on the Internet, intranets, extranets, and other networks.

Types of Information Systems

Information Systems can be classified by the type of the support they provide an organization.
Therefore, several types of information systems can be classified conceptually as either:
· Operations Support Systems
· Management Support Systems

• Operations support systems process data generated by and used in

Business operations. They produce a variety of information products for internal and external use.
Operations support systems do not emphasize producing the specific information products that can
best be used by managers.
Further processing by management information systems is usually required. The role of a business
firm‟s operations support systems is to:

1 Effectively process business transactions

2 Control industrial processes
3 Support enterprise communications and collaboration
4 Update corporate databases.

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Focus on processing the data generated by business transactions and operations. Transaction
processing systems record and process data resulting from business transactions (sales, purchases,
inventory changes). TPS also produce a variety of information products for internal or external use
(customer statements, employee paychecks, sales receipts etc.).
TPS process transactions in two basic ways:
· Batch Processing - transactions data is accumulated over a period of time and processed
periodically.
· Real-time (or on line) processing - data is processed immediately after a transaction occurs.
Process Control Systems (PCS) - Process control systems are systems, which make use of
computers to control ongoing physical processes. These computers are designed to automatically
make decisions, which adjust the physical production process. Examples include petroleum
refineries and the assembly lines of automated factories.
Enterprise Collaboration Systems - Enterprise collaboration systems are information systems that
use a variety of information technologies to help people work together. Enterprise collaboration
systems help us:
o Collaborate - to communicate ideas
o Share resources
o Co-ordinate our cooperative work effort as members of the many formal and informal
process and project teams.
The goal of enterprise collaboration systems is to use information technology to enhance the
productivity and creativity of teams and work groups in the modern business enterprise.

Management support systems focus on providing information and support for effective decision
making by managers. They support the decision-making needs of strategic (top) management,
tactical (middle) management, and operating (supervisory) management. Conceptually, several
major types of information systems support a variety of decision-making responsibilities:
o Management Information Systems (MIS)
o Decision Support Systems (DSS)
o Executive Information Systems (EIS)

Management information systems are the most common form of management support systems.
They provide managerial end users with information products that support much of their day-to-day
decision-making needs.
MIS provide a variety of pre specified information (reports) and displays to management that can be
used to help them make more effective, structured types of day-to-day decisions. Information
products provided to managers include displays and reports that can be furnished:
o On demand
o Periodically, according to a predetermined schedule
o Whenever exceptional conditions occur
Decision support systems provide managerial end users with information in an interactive session
on an ad hoc (as needed) basis. Managers generate the information they need for more unstructured
types of decisions in an interactive, computer-based information system that uses decision models
and specialized databases to assist the decision-making processes of managerial end users.
Executive information systems provide top and middle management with immediate and easy
access to selective information about key factors that are critical to accomplishing a firm‟s strategic
objectives. EIS are easy to operate and understand.

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Other Classifications of Information Systems:

Several other categories of information systems that support either operations or management
applications include:
o Expert Systems
o Knowledge Management Systems
o Functional Business Information Systems
o Strategic Information Systems
o Cross-functional Information Systems

Management Challenges of the Information Technology

. Business
IS Human Strategies
Resources
IS Development
. Business Process
. Business Needs

. Customer
Relationship
IT Infrastructure . Business Partners
IS Performance . Suppliers
. Business Customers

. Ethical
. Organization Structure Considerations
. And Culture . Potential Risks?
. User Acceptance . Potential Laws
. Possible Response

For managerial end users, the information systems function represents:

o A major functional area of business that is important to a business‟ success
o An important factor affecting operational efficiency, employee productivity and morale, and
customer service and satisfaction.
o A major source of information and support needed to promote effective decision making by
managers.
o An important ingredient in developing competitive products and services that gives an
organization a strategic advantage in the marketplace.
o A major part of the resources of an organization and its cost of doing business
o A vital, dynamic, and challenging career opportunity for many men and women.

Prospective managers and business professionals should become aware of the problems and

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opportunities presented by the use of information technology and learn how to effectively confront
such managerial challenges.
Information systems can be mismanaged and misapplied so that they create both technological and
business failure.

Top Five Reasons for Success Top Five Reasons for Failure
User involvement Lack of user input
Executive management support Incomplete requirements and
Specifications
Clear statement of requirements Changing requirements and
Specifications
Proper planning Lack of executive support
Realistic expectations Technological incompetence

Developing IS Solutions: [Figure 1.20]

Developing successful information system solutions to business problems is a major challenge for
business managers and professionals today. As a business professional, you will be responsible for
proposing or developing new or improved use of information systems for your company. As a
business manager, you will also frequently manage the development efforts of information systems
specialists and other business end users.
Most computer-based information systems are conceived, designed, and implemented using some
form of systematic development process. Figure 1.20 shows that:
o Several major activities must be accomplished and managed in a complete IS development
cycle.
o In the development process, end users and information specialists design information
system applications based on an analysis of the business requirements of an organization.
o Investigating the economic or technical feasibility of a proposed application.
o Acquiring and learning how to use the software required implementing the new system, and
making improvements to maintain the business value of a system.

Challenges of Ethics and IT:

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As a prospective managerial end user and knowledge worker in a global society, you should also
become aware of the ethical responsibilities generated by the use of information technology. For
example:
o What uses of information technology might be considered improper, irresponsible, or armful
to other individuals or to society?
o What is the proper use of an organization‟s information resources?
o What does it take to be a responsible end user of information technology?
o How can you protect yourself from computer crime and other risks of information
technology?
Ethical dimensions of information systems deal with ensuring that information technology and
information systems are not used in an improper or irresponsible manner against other individuals
or to society.

A major challenge for our global information society is to manage its information resources to
benefit all members of society while at the same time meeting the strategic goals of organizations
and nations. For example, we must use information systems to find more efficient, profitable and
socially responsible ways of using the world‟s limited supplies of material, energy, and other
resources.
Challenges of IT Careers:
o Information technology and its uses in information systems have created interesting, highly
paid, and challenging career opportunities.
o Employment opportunities in the field of information systems are excellent, as organizations
continue to expand their use of information technology.
o Employment surveys continually forecast shortages of qualified information systems
personnel in a variety of job categories.
o Job requirements in information systems are continually changing due to dynamic
developments in business and information technology.
The IS Function:
The information systems function represents:
o A major functional area of business that is as important to business success as the functions
of accounting, finance, operations management, marketing, and human resource
management.
o An important contributor to operational efficiency, employee productivity and morale, and
customer service and satisfaction.
o A major source of information and support needed to promote effective decision making by
managers and business professionals.
o A vital ingredient in developing competitive products and services that gives an
organization a strategic advantage in the global marketplace.
o A dynamic, rewarding, and challenging career opportunity for millions of men and women.
o A key component of the resources, infrastructure, and capabilities of today‟s internet
worked e-business enterprise.

IT TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR MANAGERS:

Customer-Focused e-Business
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A key strategy by managers for becoming a successful e-business is to maximize customer value.
This strategic focus on customer value recognizes that quality rather than price becomes the primary
determinant in a customer‟s perception of value.

A Customer-Focused e-business, then, is one that uses Internet technologies to keep customer
loyal by anticipating their future needs, responding to concerns, and providing top quality
customer service.
Such technologies like intranets, the Internet, and extranet websites create new channels for
interactive communications within a company, with customers, and with suppliers, business
partners, and others in the external business environment. Thereby, encouraging cross-functional
collaboration with customers in product development, marketing, delivery, service and technical
support. A successful Customer-Focused e-business attempts to „own‟ the customer's total business
experience through such approaches as:

o Letting the customer place orders directly, and through distribution partners
o Building a customer database that captures customers' preferences and profitability, and
allowing all employees access to a complete view of each customer.
o Letting customers check order, history and delivery status.
o Nurturing an online community of customers, employees, and business partners.

For many companies, the chief business value of becoming a customer-focused e-business lies in
its ability to help them:

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Keep customers loyal
Anticipate customer‟s future needs
Respond to customer concerns
Provide top quality customer service
The concept of customer-focused e-business focuses on customer value. This strategy recognizes
that quality, rather than prices, has become the primary determinant in a customer‟s perception of
value. From a customer‟s point of view, companies that consistently offer the best value are able to:
Keep track of their customers‟ individual preferences
Keep up with market trends
Supply products, services and information anytime and anywhere
Provide customer services tailored to individual needs.
Increasingly, businesses are serving many of their customers and prospective customers via the
Internet. This large and fast-growing group of customers wants and expects companies to
communicate with them and service their needs at commerce websites. The Internet has become a
strategic opportunity for companies large and small to offer fast, responsive, high-quality products
and services tailored to individual customer preferences.
REENGINEERING BUSINESS PROCESSES

Business Quality Business

Improvement Reengineering
Definition Incrementally Improving Radically Redesigning
Existing Processes Business Systems
Target Any Processes Strategic Business
Processes
Potential 1100%%--5500%% Improvements 1100--Fold Improvements
Payback
Risk Low High
What Changes? Same Jobs --More Efficient Big Job Cuts; New Jobs;
Major Job Redesign
Primary IT and Work Simplification IT and Organizational
Enablers Redesign

One of the most popular competitive strategies today is business process reengineering most often
simply called re engineering. Re engineering is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of
business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in cost, quality, speed, and service. BPR
combines a strategy of promoting business innovation with a strategy of making major
improvements to business processes so that a company can become a much stronger and more
successful competitor in the marketplace. The potential payback of re engineering is high, but also
is its level of risk and disruption to the organizational environment.

The Role of Information Technology

Information technology plays a major role in re engineering business processes. The speed,
information processing capabilities, and connectivity of computers and Internet technologies can
substantially increase the efficiency of business processes, as well as communications and
collaboration among the people responsible for their operation and management.
IMPROVING BUSINESS QUALITY
No single approach to organizational change is appropriate for all circumstances. One important
strategic thrust is continuous quality improvement, popularly called total quality management
(TQM). Previous to TQM, quality was defined as meeting established standards or specifications
for a product or service. Statistical quality control programs were used to measure and correct any
deviations from standards.
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Total Quality Management:
Quality is defined as meeting or exceeding the requirements and expectations of customers for a
product or service. This may involve many features and attributes such as:
 Performance
 Reliability
 Durability
 Responsiveness
 Aesthetics
 Reputation
Total quality management uses a variety of tools and methods to seek continuous improvement of
quality, productivity, flexibility, timeliness, and customer responsiveness. According to quality guru,
Richard Schonberger, companies that use TQM are committed to:
 Even better, more appealing, less-variable quality of the product or service.
 Even quicker, less-variable response - from design and development through supplier and
sales channels, offices, and plants all the way to the final user.
 Even greater flexibility in adjusting to customers‟ shifting volume and mix requirement.
 Even lower cost through quality improvement; rework reduction, and non-value-adding
waste elimination.

BECOMING AN AGILE COMPETITOR

Agility in competitive performance is the ability of a business to prosper in rapidly changing,

continually fragmenting global markets for high-quality, high-performance, customer-configured
products and services. An agile company can:
 Make a profit in markets with broad product ranges and short model lifetimes.
 Process orders in arbitrary lot sizes.
 Offer individualized products while maintaining high volumes of production.
Agile companies depend heavily on information technology to:
 Enrich its customers with customized solutions to their needs.
 Cooperate with other businesses to bring products to market as rapidly and cost-efficiently
as possible.
 Combine the flexible, multiple organizational structures it uses.
 Leverage the competitive impact of its people and information resources.
 The Free.Perfect.Now model developed by AVNET Marshall embodies these principles
into a succinct model for serving its customers in the most

CREATING A VIRTUAL COMPANY

A virtual company (also called a virtual corporation or virtual organization) is an organization that
uses information technology to link people, assets, and ideas. People and corporations are forming
virtual companies as the best way to implement key business strategies that promise to ensure
success in today‟s turbulent business climate.

Virtual Company Strategies:

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Several major reasons why people are forming virtual companies include:
· Share infrastructure and risk
· Link complementary core competencies
· Reduce concept-to-cash time through sharing
· Increase facilities and market coverage
· Gain access to new markets and share market or customer loyalty
· Migrate from selling products to selling solutions

BUILDING THE KNOWLEDGE-CREATING COMPANY

To many companies today, lasting competitive advantage can only be theirs if they become
knowledge-creating companies or learning organizations. That means consistently creating new
business knowledge, disseminating it widely throughout the company, and quickly building the new
knowledge into their products and services.

Knowledge-creating companies exploit two kinds of technology:

· Explicit Knowledge - data, documents, things written down or stored on computers.
· Tacit Knowledge – “how-tos” of knowledge, which reside in workers.
Successful knowledge management creates techniques, technologies, and rewards for getting
employees to share what they know and to make better use of accumulated workplace knowledge.

Knowledge Management Systems: [Figure 2.16]

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Knowledge management has become one of the major strategic uses of information technology.
Many companies are building knowledge management systems (KMS) to manage organizational
learning and business know-how. The goal of KMS is to help knowledge workers create, organize,
and make available important business knowledge, wherever and whenever it‟s needed in an
organization. This includes processes, procedures, patterns, reference works, formulas, “best
practices,” forecasts, and fixes. Internet and Intranet web sites, groupware, data mining, knowledge
bases, discussion forums, and videoconferencing are some of the key information technologies for
gathering, storing, and distributing this knowledge.
Characteristics of KMS:
 KMS are information systems that facilitate organizational learning and knowledge creation.
 KMS use a variety of information technologies to collect and edit information, assess its
value, disseminate it within the organization, and apply it as knowledge to the processes of a
business.
 KMS are sometimes called adaptive learning systems. That‟s because they create cycles of
organizational learning called learning loops, where the creation, dissemination, and
application of knowledge produces an adaptive learning process within a company.
 KMS can provide rapid feedback to knowledge workers, encourage behavior changes by
employees, and significantly improve business performance.
 As an organizational learning process continues and its knowledge base expands, the
knowledge-creating company integrates its knowledge into its business processes, products,
and services. This makes it a highly innovative and agile provider of high quality products
and customer services and a formidable competitor in the marketplace.

Enterprise Resource Planning

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a cross-functional enterprise system hat serves as a

framework to integrate and automate many of the business Processes that must be accomplished
within the manufacturing, logistics, distribution, accounting, finance, human resource functions of a
business.
ERP software is a family of software modules that supports the business activities involved in these
vital back office processes.
ERP is being recognized as a necessary ingredient for the efficiency, agility, and responsiveness to
customers and suppliers that an e-business enterprise needs to succeed in the dynamic world of e-
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commerce.
Companies are finding major business value in installing ERP software in two major ways:

1. ERP creates a framework for integrating and improving their back-office systems that results in
major improvements in customer service, production, and distribution efficiency.

2. ERP provides vital cross-functional business processes and supplier and customer information
flows supported by ERO systems.

Online Analytical Processing

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) is a capability of management, decision support, and

executive information systems that enables managers and analysts to interactively examine and
manipulate large amounts of detailed and consolidated data from many perspectives. Basic
analytical operations include:

Consolidation. This involves the aggregation of data. It can be simple rollups or complex
groupings involving interrelated data. For example, sales offices can be rolled up to districts and
districts rolled up to regions.

Drill-Down. OLAP can go in the reverse direction and automatically display detailed data that
comprises consolidated data. For example, the sales by individual products or sales reps that make
up a region's sales can be accessed easily.

Slicing and Dicing. This refers to the ability to look at the database from different viewpoints. For
example, one slice of a database might show all sales of a product within regions. Another slice
might show all sales by sales channel. By allowing rapid alternative perspectives, slicing and dicing
allows a manager to isolate the information of interest for decision-making.

Data is retrieved from corporate databases

and staged in an OLAP multi-dimensional
database.

Corporate
Databese

Laptop
Client
OLAP
Server Multi Dimensional
Databese
Web-enabled OLAP .Operational DB
Server .Data Marts
.Data Warehouse

Intelligent Agents

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An Intelligent Agent (IA) is a software surrogate that fulfils a stated need or activity. The IA uses
built-in and learned knowledge about how an end user behaves or in answer to posed questions, to
implement a software solution --such as the design of a presentation template or spreadsheet -- to
solve a specific problem of interest to the end user. IAs can be grouped into two categories for
business computing:

User Interface Agents.

• Interface Tutors. These observe computer operations, correct user mistakes, and provide hints and
advice on efficient software use.
• Presentation Agents. These show information in a variety of reporting and presentation forms and
media based on user preferences.
• Network Navigation Agents. These discover paths to information and provide ways to view
information that are preferred by a user.
• Role-Playing Agents. These play what-if games and other roles to help users understand
Information and make better decisions.

Information Management Agents.

• Search Agents. These help users find files and databases, search for desired information, and
suggest and find new types of information products, media, and resources.
• Information Brokers. These provide commercial services to discover and develop information
resources that fit the business or personal needs of a user.
• Information Filters. These receive, find, filter, discard, save, forward, and notify users about
products received or desired, including E-mail, voice mail, and all other information media.

Interface
Tutors Search
Agent
Presentations
Agents Information
Brokers

Network
Navigation Information
Agents Filters

Role
Playing
Agents

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Expert Systems

An Expert System (ES) is a knowledge-based information system that uses its knowledge about a
specific, complex application area to act as an expert consultant to end-users. The components of an
ES include:
Knowledge Base. A knowledge base contains knowledge needed to implement the task. There are
two basic types of knowledge:
Factual knowledge. Facts, or descriptive information, about a specific subject area.
Heuristics. A rule of thumb for applying facts and/or making inferences, usually expressed as rules.

Inference Engine. An inference engine provides the ES with its reasoning capabilities. The
inference engine processes the knowledge related to a specific problem. It then makes associations
and inferences resulting in recommended courses of action.

User Interface. This is the means for user interactions. To create an expert system a knowledge
engineer acquires the task knowledge from the human expert using knowledge acquisition tools.
Using an expert system shell, which contains the user interface and inference engine software
modules, the KE then encodes the knowledge into the knowledge base.
A reiterative approach is used to test and refine the expert system's knowledge base until it is
deemed complete.

Decision Management

Diagnostic/Troubleshooting

Maintenance/Scheduling

Major
Application Design/Configurations
Categories
Of Expert Systems
Selection/Classification

Process Monitoring/Control

Managing the IS Function

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 Managing Organisation
19.The Role Of Information Technology In Management
The IT organization structure has radically changed in the last few years. The shift towards
decentralized IS teams and decentralized IS management, evident in the 1980‟s and 90‟s, has
recently been replaced with a return to centralized control and management of IS resources.

This has resulted in the development of hybrid organization structures with both centralized and
decentralized elements. Some companies have spun-off there IS organizations into subsidiaries or
business units.

Others have relied on outsourcing IS functions to either application service providers or system
integrators. Regardless of these organizational changes, the IS organization function still involves
three major components:

• Application Development Management.

Involves managing activities such as systems analysis and design, project management, application
programming and systems maintenance for all major e-business IT development projects.

• IT Operations Management.
Involves the management of hardware and software, network resources. Operational activities that
must be managed include computer system operations, network management, production control,
and production support.
Many of these management activities are automated. For example, system performance monitors
monitor the processing of computer jobs and in some cases actually control operations at large data
canters.
Most system performance monitors supply information needed by chargeback systems. These are
systems that allocate costs to users based on the information services rendered.

• Human Resource Management.

Involves recruiting, training, and retaining qualified IS personnel. Such personnel may include
managerial, technical, as well as clerical support staff.

Application Development Human Resource Management

-System analysis -IS Recruting - Training
- System Design - Retainment Programs
- Programming -Supports Staff
- System Maintenance

IT Operation Management
- Network Management
- Production control
- Production Support
- System Performance

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 Managing Organisation
19.The Role Of Information Technology In Management
Conclusion

The role of information technology system was adopted to aid the achievement of the
organisation‟s strategic development goals. The introduction of a new business system to cover the
major business areas in the organisation greatly improved operational efficiency and profitability.
Now, data is effortlessly accessible and reports can easily be generated thereby providing
management with information to make long-term strategic plans and decisions.
The role of IT in the attainment of strategic goals has been an area of constant debate.

The characteristics of the management's role in IT development are not straightforward. They can
be summarized in terms of a typology of behaviours; five distinct patterns are discernible. These
patterns represent characteristic types which display markedly different levels of personal
involvement. The behaviour patterns can be arranged in order of personal involvement, each
subsequent pattern requiring increasing levels of time and effort expenditure, and technical
expertise from the manager. The adoption of a particular behaviour pattern is thought to be largely
dependent on organizational resource constraints, and hence indirectly on organizational size.
However, personal characteristics, experience and predilections will also play a part in moulding the
involvement level adopted. A typical pattern in the smaller firms shows the top manager to be
closely involved in cycles of IT development and implementation. Recognition of the marked
differences in top manager involvement patterns in IS has significant implications for the design of
training and education intended for business, and for further research into business IT
implementation.

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Chapter 2 Competing with

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