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UNIT 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF
SOCIOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.2 What is sociology?

1.2.1 Concept of Society and Culture
1.2.2 Emergence of Sociology
1.2.3 . Social Groups
1.2.4 Kinds of Social Groups
1.3 Major Concerns of Sociology

1.3.1 Concept of Culture
1.3.2 Sociology and Science
1.4 Some Founding Fathers

1.4.1 August Comte
1.4.2 Emile Durkheirn
1.4.3 Max Weber
1.4.4 Karl Marx
1.4.5 Herbert Spencer
1.S Sociology and other Social Sciences
1.5.1 Social Psychology and Sociology
1.5.2 Sociology and Anthropology
1.5.3 Sociology and Economics
1.5.4 Basic and Applied Sociology
1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.7 Further Readings
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
give a definition of sociology;
describe social groups and their different classifications;
explain the major concerns of sociology;
describe the relation between sociology and science;
explain the relation between sociology and other social sciences; and
give in brief the ideas about the founding fathers of sociology such as, Comte,
Durkheim, Weber, Marx, and Spencer
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sociology, as coinpared to other social sciences, like economics and political science, is
a young discipline. One could say, it is about a hundred-and-fifty years old but there
Understanding Sociology has been a more rapid development of the subject in the last fifty to sixty years. This
is partly due to desire, particularly, after the Second World War, to understand more
dbout the behaviour of people in social situations. All social science subjects are
concerned with the behaviour of people but each of them studies defferent aspects.
Sociology, however, is concerned with social relations in general, and with social groupis
and institutions in particular.
1.2 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

Sociology can be defined as a study of society or social life, of group interaction and of
Social behaviour.
1.2.1 Concept of Society and Culture

Society has been defined as a relatively self sufficient, usually large group of peoplle
who maintain direct or indirect contact with each other through a culture. Culture is-
generally understood as the shared language, beliefs, goals, artefacts and experiences
that combine together to form a unique pattern. In other words, culture is a society's
way of life (Stebbins, Robert A. 1987; p- 172)
1.2.2 Emergence of Sociology

During the 19th century sociology emerged as separate social science in Europe and its
objective was the study of society. Auguste Comte, Spencer and Emile Durkheim
besides several other social thinkers sought to establish the idea of society as a matter
of study, unique in itself. They examined society as a whole - which is more than the
sum of its parts. Society is more than the actions, thoughts, values, belief and wishes
of its individual members. It is a complex and abstract reality; yet all human beings
live in a society.
A sociologist is interested in the general study of social behaviour as it occurs in
groups, large or small, and lays special stress on understanding social life in the
contemporary world. The word 'general' has been used as other social science
disciplines deal with more specific areas. For example, a political scientist studies
governmental functions and activities and an economist studies production aind
distribution of goods. It is, however, difficult to draw an exact line of difference.
Social psychology, social anthropology, political science and economics, all in a sense,
have human social life as their general subject.
As sociology is a relatively young discipline compared with the discipline of philosophy,
economics and political science, sometimes, people confuse it with social work.
Sociology is used in the discipline of social work to analyse and understand social
problems. Social work is concerned with the uplift ofthose socially deprived, physically
handicapped, etc. Sociology is not concerned with the reformation of society as su~ch
nor is it directly involved in social planning or directed change. The sociological
understanding and research can help in better planning and in finding ways and means
of acceptance of improved practices, in the formulation of development policies and
programmes. It is generally accepted that sociologists do not interfere with soc,ial
process. They are supposed to be value-neutral, i.e., they are not supposed to have any
bias or prejudice in the analysis of the social behaviour. There are, however, at prese:nt,
some, who question this and feel that sociologists must take an active role in the
development process.
We have defined sociology as the study of social life and group interaction and
social behaviour. In order to understand social life, sociology is interested in the study
of the organisation and the functioning of societies or social groups.
Nature and Scope
1.2.3 Social Groups of Sociology
Just as every human being is born in a society, everywhere, social life is lived in
groups, whether large or small. The term 'group' is used in different ways. There
might be a group, which is watching a game in progress, there might be a group of
people crossing a street. In sociology, the group is viewed in a different way. It has
already been inentioned that the basic interest of sociology is human social behaviour.
This leads to a study of how people relate to each other or interact with each other.
Tlie social group, therefore, would have to have the following:
i) a group of persons (two or more);
ii) a patterned interaction (i.e., there is a regularity in the social relations, based on
shared beliefs, values and norms); and
iii) the interaction is sustained over a period of time.
Tlie groups are formed in order to satisfy some human needs. A hasic need is survival
and a family, which is an example of a group, enables us to meet this need. As
individuals, it is not possible to fulfil all the needs. It is through the groups that the
needs are met. We derive many satisfactions from living in groups and therefore,
being a part of the group becomes important. The solidarity of a group is dependent
upon the frequency of interaction and the emotional attachment.
Box 1.1: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Ferdinand Tonnies (1855- 1936), a noted German sociologist, while examining
different kinds of societies found that there were two kinds of social groups,
similar to the concepts of primary and secondary groups found in all societies.
He found that in small homogeneous societies members interacted with one
another on face to face, informal basis. In these groups tradition dictated social
behaviour. Tonnies called this kind of society a Gemeinschaft, which. when
translated means broadly "a communal, or traditional society".
In comparison, societies that are large and heterogeneous, such as the modern
industrial societies, relationships among members are impersonal, formal,
functional and specialised. According to Tonnies these societies have often
contractual relationships which are on the basis of clear cut, legal contracts
rather than being governed by traditions. Tennies calls these societies Gesellschaft,
or "associational societies".
1.2.4 Kinds of Social Groups

The classification of social groups in two majortypes is based on the extent ofattachment
the individual would have to a group. The major classifications are (i) primary and (ii)
secondary groups.
i) A primary group has been defined as one in which the members have very close
or intimate relations and there is an emotional involvement. It has also been
defined as primary because it is this group, which is chiefly responsible for nur-
ture of social ideas of the individual. From the description above, we can go on
to a mQre precise definition.
Personality of an individual is involved in a primary group. The best example of
the primary group is the family. As one tries to analyse one's behaviour within
the family and the functions, the family performs for each individual member,
one can understand the importance of a primary group in shaping the ideas, be-
1iefs and norms ofthe members.
The primary groups (family, play groups, a'community, etc.) also acts as a link
between the individual and the larger society.
ChderstandingSociology ii) In contrast to the primary group, there are secondary groups. In the secondary
group, members interact with one another in a very specific range of activities.
The relationships in the secondary group are more casual, impersonal and for
specific purposes. A student body of a large college is a secondary group as they
interact as students. People working in a factory are also an example of a sec-
ondary group as they relate to each other as workers. You can see yourself how
the relationships between the family and in a work place differ. From that, you
will be able to understand the difference between primary and the secondary
groups. The understanding of the nature of the groups and their functions is very
important for understanding social behaviour.
Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space provided below for your answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Give a definition of sociology. Write about five lines.
2) What is social group? Use about five lines for your answer.
3) Given below are some social situations, which amongst them can be called
primary group. Tick the correct answer:
a) Meeting of political leaders during a summit.
b) Children playing "Kho Kho" in a field.
c) A feminist leader addressing women labourers.
d) -School Principal addressing students in an assembly.
1.3 MAJOR CONCERNS OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology seeks to study the society and to analyse it in terms of the social relations
that have a pattern. Sociology addresses itself to three basic questions:
i) how and why societies emerge?
ii) how and why societies persist? and
iii) how and why societies change?
Sociology has been concerned with the evolution of society. It has tried to analyse the
factors and forces underlying the historical transformations of society. For example,
societies have evolved from primitive tribal state to rural communities. How villages
have become important centres of commercial activity or of art and culture and grown
into towns and cities.
Sociology has also been concerned with the units of social life. The attempt has bean
to look at various types of groups, communities, associations and society. The effort
has been to study the pattern of social relationships in these units. An important area
which sociology deals with is social institutions. The institutions provide a structure
for the society and perform functions, which enable the society to meet its needs. In
any society, there are five basic social institutions;family, political institutions,economic
institutions, religious institutionsand educational institutions.However, in more complex
societies, there may be many other institutions such as bureaucracy, military Nature and Scopc
of Sociology
organisations,welfare and recreational organisations, etc. Caste is also an institution,
which is more or less peculiar to India.
Another area of study and analysis by sociologists is social processes. In one sense,
the social institutions provide the stability and order whereas social processes are the
dynamic aspects of social relations. Among the various processes that will be dealt
with in the latter units are socialisation, social control, co-operation, conflict, social
deviation and social change.
1.3.1 Concept of Culture

'Culture' is another very important concept. As mentioned earlier, we are immersed in
culture from birth onwards, we take culture for granted. It is difficult to imagine what
life would be like without culture. Culture provides summing up ofthe past experiences,
which are the necessary foundation for living in the present. Culture is learned and
shared among members of the grolip. Culture in a sense, can seem to be the chief
means of survival and adaptation.
On each of the topics mentioned, which are concerns of sociology, there will be units
which will deal in much greater detail. The society is dynamic and is changing,
consequently, the areas of interest of sociologists are increasing. Today, there is sociology
of knowledge, sociology of science and art, sociology of health, sociology of
development, etc. This indicates the expanding nature of sociology.
1.3.2 Sociology and Science

At times, sodaogy has been defined as the science of society. This raises the question
as to what skience is. Some have thought of science as an approach whereas others
have thought about it in terms of the subject matter. Simply stated, we might say that
the scientific approach consists of certain assumption that the phenomena studied have
a regularity and hence, a pattern. The method emphasises observation and verification
of social phenomena. This involves a systematic approach to the study of phenomena.
The systematic approach consists of:
i) defining a problem for study;
ii) collecting data on the problem defined;
iii) analysing and organising the data; which would help in formulation of hypoth-
esis; and
iv) further testing of the hypothesis and on the basis of this, develop new concepts
and theories.
Sociology has been using a systematic approach in the study of social life. On the
basis of the knowledge gathered through the systematic approach, it has tried to build
a body ofreliable knowledge. From this knowledge, it has tried to establish the patterns
of relationships from which effort can be made at understanding social behaviour.
If we look at sociology from the point of view of its approach to the study of society,
then sociology can be considered to be a science.

I) Write a note, in eight lines, on the basic concerns of sociology.
lfnden(;$nding Sociology ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Explain the relationship between sociology and science. Write about five lines.
1.4 SOME FOUNDING FATHERS

Later on, in various units of this course you will come across the names of inally early
sociolo$ists. A briefintroduction is given of early sociologists, whose contribution to
sociology is lasting. All of them wrote on the nature of human behaviour. In a way,
they tried to understand profound changes taking place in society.
4
Auguste Comte 1.4.1 Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
(1798 - 1857)
Comte is regarded as the founder of modern sociology. I3e is the first one to have used
the ward 'Sociology'. He tried to create anew science of society. which could not only
explain the past of mankind but also, predict its future course. He felt that society
moves through definite and fixed stages and that, it progresses towards ever-increasing
perfection. The three stages, according to him, in which the society moves, were:
i) the theological or the religious
to
ii) the metaphysical or the philosophical
to
iii) the positive or the scientific stage.
In the first stage. people thought, all phenomena were caused by supernatural forces.
Abstract forces of either a religious or secular type were considered to be the source of
knowledge in the second stage. In the last stage, scientific laws were supposed to
detarmine both the natural and the social worlds.
He also talked about two broad areas -'social statistics', which deals with the orderly
and,stable aspects of social life and patterns of behaviour (family, occupational, polity.
etc.). The second area called 'social dynamics' emphasises the study of changes in a
social system. According to him, sociology was to be the queen of all sciences.
Illustration
1.4.2 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Emile Durkheim Durkheim was also interested in sociology being a scientific discipline. He wrote a
(1858 - 1917)
book in 1895 entitled: Rules of Sociological Method. To him, social solidarity was
one of the main principles of human life. He distinguished between two kinds of
solidarity: 'mechanical solidarity' based on common assumptions, beliefs, sentiments
like those found in traditional societies and 'organic solidarity' based on the divisioil
of labour and inter-related interests as found in industrial societies. When solidarity is
broken, there would be social disorganisatio~~ and confusion in society.
He considered sociology as having wide iuterests, which includes sociology of religion,
sociology of knowledge, sociology of law. sociology of crime, economic sociology,
and sociology of education, art and aesthetics.
An important concept given by Durkheiln was social facts, which, according to him, Nature and Scope
of Sociology
are external to the individual but they exert pressure on the individual in the behaviour
pattern. Customs, traditions, folkways and mores are social facts. He felt that sociology
should be involved in the reformation of society. For him society was a reality in itself,
tliat is, it is more than its parts.
1.4.3 Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber used the concept of social action rather than social relations. A comprehensive Max Weber
study of social action, to him, meant understanding the meanings human beings give to (1864 - 1920)
their behavioural pattern. The social behaviour was not merely a mecllanical learning
of norms but how people interpreted the social values. Sociology studies all kinds of
social action without making any value judgements.
Weber was concerned with understanding of inter-relations between parts of society
and also, with comparative studies of different societies. He studied religion in different
societies. His work 011 Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism is one of the
well known works in sociology. Through both these approaches, he tried to develop
propositions having general validity. For example, he classified authority into three
types - charismatic, traditional and rational. These concepts are still used in the
study of leadership authority and power.
1.4.4 Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Marx has helped through his ideas in understanding the nature of society, particularly, Karl Marx
how conflicts occur. . Marx writes in 1848 that all history is a history of classes and (1818 - 1883)
class struggles. Tlie society gets divided between the oppressors and the oppressed-
masters and slaves, lords and serfs and in the modern times, capitalists and workers.
To analyse the structure of society, it was necessary to understand the forces of
production and relations of production. The contradiction between the forces and the
relations of prodi~ctionleads to class struggle. According to him, each society dies in
time because of internal conflicts and contradictions and is replaced by a higher one.
In time, capitalism would be destroyed and there would emerge a classless society
characterised by absence of conflict, exploitation and alienation from this world.
1.4.5 ~ e r b e i Spencer
t (1820-1903)
Spencer also empllasiseda total view of society. According to him, the study of sociology Herbert Spencer
covers the fields of family, politics, religion and social control, division of labour and (1820 - 1903)
social stratification. He emphasised the study of whole more than the study of parts.
Tlie individual institutions have significant relations. It is through a study of these
inter-relations tliat one can hope to understand society. He indicated that the inter
dependence of the various parts was functional, i.e., each of the part performs different
filnctions, wliich is necessary for the total well being of society. A large number of
sociologists, who are "functionalists", use Spencer's idea of the functional inter
dependence as a basis for their approach to the study of society.
Above descriptio~isof the contributions of founding fathers of sociology are sketchy.
The main purpose is to introduce their names and to give you some idea of their concerns
in sociology. I11 the later units of Elective course 13 on Sociological Thought we will
be studying their approaches, theories and contributions in greater details.
1.5 SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

As lnentioned earlier, sociology has a broad perspective. It is concerned with those
aspects of social life, which are present in all forms. It embraces every social setting.
Most related social sciences have restricted range of specialisations. It must be pointed
Understanding Sociology out that human behaviour cannot be divided neatly into different compartments and
each assigned to a specific social science. Hence, the boundaries between the disciplines
are often overlapping. Almost all the social sciences get outside their 'own' and into
'somebody else's' domain with great frequency.
1.5.1 Social Psychology and Sociology

Social psychology is the study of social and cultural influences on the individual. It
focuses on the behaviour of a single person and hence, differs from sociology, which is
more concerned with relations among groups.
However, there are areas of common interest such as socialisation, norms and values.
Moreover, the influences of the group on the individual and of the individual on the
group are also of interest to both social psychology and sociology.
1.5.2 Sociology and Anthropology

There are many fields in anthropology, namely; archaeology, linguistics, physical
anthropology and social anthropology. Although, anthropology has been regarded as
the study of early (primitive) cultures, and sociology ofthe more contemporary society.
This distinction is no longer valid. Many ofthe early village studies in India have been
done by social anthropologists. The tribal communities in India have, by and large,
been studied by anthropologists, in both their physical and social aspects. There is,
hence, some overlap between the areas of study of sociology and anthropology,
particularly, social anthropology. Culture and social organisations are concepts studied
in both these disciplines.
1.5.3 Sociology and Economics

Sociology and economics both study industry but do so differently. Economics would
study economic factors of industry, productivity, labour, industrial policy, marketing,
etc., whereas a sociologist would study the impact of industrialisation on society.
Economists study economic institutions such as factories, banks, trade and transportation
but are not concerned with religion, family or politics. Sociology is interested in
interaction between the economic institutions and other institutions in society, namely,
political and religious.
Social life, in modern times, is very complex and no discipline by itselfcan study all of
it in depth. While each social discipline focuses on a particular aspect of the society,
there is need to keep in mind the inter-relations of institutions of society. Only some
social sciences have been discussed so as to give a feel of relationships among social
sciences. Similar analysis of the relation of sociology can be made to philosophy,
history, public administration, etc.
1.5.4 Basic and Applied Sociology

Sociologists are interested in conducting research studies in the area of social life and
developing theories with regard to human social behaviour. The purpose is to build a
body ofreliable knowledge through which various aspects of social life can be understood
artd explained. While this is important, it is necessary to make use of this knowledge
in various aspects of human affairs. There are many factors, which have an impact on
social relations. Increased use of technology is one such area. Sociologists could1
anticipate as to how people will receive and react to new technology and changes it
might bring about in social relations. There are many programmes of development
that are launched. Sociologist can indicate what care needs to be taken in introducing;
changes without affecting their way of life so that suggested programmes can be
accepted. The reactions towards the innovations - acceptance, resistance or non-
acceptance should be noted, when studies could also provide further insight into social Nature and Scope
of Sociology
values and social behaviour.
Sociology thus provides an understanding about the social order in which we live and
about the forces that shape and mould it. It also suggests paths of action to ensure the
emergence of new social patterns. Imaginatively pursued the study of sociology enables
LISto understand the condition and the predicament of human beings. It can, also help
in finding solutions for the present problems and dilemmas of society.

I) What is the difference between basic and applied sociology?
Write about ten lines for your answer.
1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have given you a definition of sociology. We also explained the idea of
social groups. We have explained basic areas of concern for sociology. These include
the mention of the concept of culture. It also includes the relationship of sociology
with science as whole.
This unit also provides thumbnail sketches of five founding fathers of sociology. The
theories of these thinkers continue to influence present day sociology and other social
sciences as well. Finally we looked at sociology in its relation to psychology, economics,
and so on. We have therefore provided a good idea about the nature and scope of
sociology.
1.7 FURTHER READINGS

I) Mc. Kee, James B., 1981. Sociology : The Stu& of Society. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston: New York.
2) Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1972. A Handbook of Sociology. Eurasian Publishing
House: New Delhi
Llnderstanding Sociology
1.8 KEY WORDS
Classification : A way of putting data or information into different categories
and groups.
Culture This embodies the customs, rites and beliefs of a group of
people. It includes both material culture, such as, houses,
pots, coins etc. as well as non-material culture, such as, values,
beliefs, norms etc.
Group : Comprises two or more people who have a meaningful
interaction with each other and common goals.
Primary group : A social group with close ties and shared interests, e.g. the
fam i ly .
Secondary group : A large group with looser ties but common well defined goals,
e.g. office employees, or members of a club or associations.
1.9 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) In broad terms, sociology can be defined as the study of social life, group interac-
tion and social behaviour, while other social sciences study specialised areas of
social behaviour, Sociology is interested in taking an overall view of social life.
2) A social group refers to a group of persons (two or more), who have a regular
social interaction, based on shared beliefs, values and norms. The interaction
takes place on a basis over a period oftime. The interacting persons view them-
selves as members of the group. Examples of a group are the nuclear family, a
football team, etc.
3) b)
1) Sociology is basically concerned with the study of patterns in social relations.
Once relations between people are familiar and well-established, they become
institutionalised ways of social behaviour, then, it is sociology's concern to make
comparative studies of social institutions, such as, the family, economy and pol-
ity. Sociology is also concerned with the study of social processes, which reflect
the dynamic aspects of social relations.
2) Being the scientific study of society, sociology views science as an approach to
study social phenomena. In science, patterns in natural phenomena are discov-
ered by observation and verification; in sociology, social phenomena are observed
to formulate and test hypotheses.

1) Sociology is engaged in giving explanations of human social behaviour. For
making use ofthis knowledge of human affairs, sociological findings can be and
are used in planning development programmes. This kind of use of sociology is
given the name of applied sociology. It is obvious that basic sociology is confined
to researches into human social behaviour. Applied sociology differs from basic;
sociology in the sense that it only makes use of sociological findings in planning
and implementing action-oriented programmes for development.
UNIT 2 BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Key Sociological Concepts
2.2.1 The Concept of Society
2.2.2 Types of Society
2.3 Social Groups
2.3.1 Primary Groups
2.3.2 Secondary Groups
2.4 Status and Role
2.4.1 Types of Status
2.4.2 Multiple Statuses
2.4.3 The Concept of Role
2.5 Social Institution
2.6 Culture
2.6.1 Culture and Human Behaviour
2.62 Folkways
2.6.3 Mores
2.6.4 Values
2.6.5 Sub-cultures
2.7 Social Change
2.7.1 Agents of Change
2.7.2 Rate of Change
2.8 Social Control
2.9 Sociological Methods
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.1 1 Further Readings
2.12 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have read this unit we expect that you will be able-to:
explain the concept of society;
describe the nature of social groups;
discuss the concepts of status and role;
explain the relation between culture and human behaviour;
describe social change and social control; and
discuss sociological methods.
Understanding Sociology
2 1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we introduce you to basic concepts in sociology. These concepts include
that of society itself. The social group is discussed, as it is basic to society. We then
discuss status and role, which are crucial concepts. This unit also introduces the
conoepts of social institution and sociological method. Further, we explain various
aspects of culture including folkways and norms. The unit rounds off with explanations
of social change and social control. This is an important unit for grasping some ofthe
basic concepts of sociology.
2.2 KEY SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Let us first see what is meant by concepts. A concept is a word or phrase, which is
abstract from actual experience and which, more or less, means the same thing to all
those familiar with it. A concept represents a class of phenomena. Thus, car is a
concept, which signifies a vehicle of a particular kind. Once we are familiar with the
concept of car, we do not always have to see it physically in order to know, what
someone means by it. Similarly, a house or a table lamp are also concepts.
Concepts are necessary in every science since accuracy is achieved through them.
Every scientific discipline is continuouslydeveloping a refined set of concepts, which,
to those familiar with that discipline, will mean the same thing at all times. Sociology,
too, has a large number of concepts, which are similarly understood by all sociologists.
Here, we shall introduce you to some important sociological concepts. Many of these
concepts, it will be noticed, are expressed in words or terms, which are of daily use. It
is necessary to be careful with their sociological usage, because in sociology, these
very terms are used in some special sense:
2.2.1 The Concept of Society

Society is viewed by sociologists as s chain of social relationships. A relationship is
social, wheli it is determined by mutual awareness, that is, the behaviour of one individual
influencesthe behaviour of another. For example, when a teacher enters the classroom,
students stop making noise and stand up as a mark of respect for their teacher. This
behaviour signifies the social relationship between the teacher and the taught. Thus.,
social relationships exist only when individuals behave towards one another in ways
determined by their recognition ofeach other. This is why society is called a relational
concept.
In other words, society is not a substantial concept. It does not denote a concrete
reality, rather it refers to social relationships, which become institutionalised, when
people relate to each other in well-established and familiar ways.
2.2.2 Types of Society

The predominant types of social relationships form the basis of classifying human
society in various types. Most sociologists contrast the industrial society in which
they live with all other types. Some sociologists, like Spencer and Durkheim, classifie:d
societies on the basis of their size or scale and other features, such as, the extent and
degree of the division of labour, political organisation and social stratification, etc.
Some scholars, like Karl Marx, distinguish them on the basis of their economic
institutions. Thus, there are clearly many ways of classifying societies. Without going
into colnplicated arguments at this stage of your introduction to sociology, it is necessary
to realise that there is no ideal classification and no 'pure' example of various types of
society.
In broad terms, taking the wider interests of sociology into consideration, we can divide
societies into two types, namely; simple and complex. All primitive or tribal social
organisations are included among simple societies. The industrial societies with Basic Concepts in
Sociology
overlapping sets of social relationships are called complex societies.
Activity 1
Reflect about the type of society you live in and write a short note of one page
about your understanding of your society.
Compare your answer with those of other students at your study centre and discuss
with your Academic Counsellor.
2.3 SOCIAL GROUPS

The concept of group is central to sociology. While in normal discourse, we regard
any collection of two or more individuals to be'a group, sociologically, individuals
constituting a group must be conscious of a common belongingness, of sharing some
common understanding, common interests and goals as well as accepting certain rights
and obligations. In this sense, a family or a class can be called a group. A society or
community can also be called a group.
2.3.1 Primary Groups

First coined by the sociologist, Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), a primary group
is relatively small (though not all small groups are primary). Its members generally
have face-to-face contact, and thus, have intimate and co-operative relationships, as
well as strong loyalty. The relationships between the members are ends in themselves.
There is a basic human need for face to face, intimate co-operative interaction with
others. That is, members derive pleasure and enjoyment merely by associating with
one another. They have no other particular ends or goals in view. The primary group
comes to an end, when one or more members leave it; they cannot be substituted by
others. The best example of a primary group is the family or the friendship, or 'peer'
group, as sociologists call it.
2.3.2 Secondary Groups

Secondary groups, in several respects, are the opposite of primary groups. These are
generally large size groups, though not always so. Members of the secondary group
maintain relatively limited, formal and impersonal relationship withone another.
Unlike primary groups, secondary groups are specific or specialised interest groups.
Generally, a well defined, division of labour characterisesthese groups. Member can
be substituted and replaced, hence, a secondary group may continue irrespective of
whether its original members continue to be its members or not. A cricket team, a
music club, an army or a factory, and so on, are examples of secondary groups.
It is possible that within secondary groups, some members may come close to one
another and develop primary relations and form a group of peers. Several sociological
studies have shown that the presence of primary groups in armies, factories, and other
secondary groups, have contributed to high level of morale, and more effective
functioning.
2.4 STATUS AND ROLE

The variety of social relations in any society is obviously countless. Parenthood,
marriage, friendships, neigl~bourliness,and similar examples, illustrate the enormous
range of social relations, which sociologists examine and on the basis of which they try
to understand society. Each social relation is conceived, for purposes of analysis and
understanding, in terms of two components, namely, status and role.
llnderstanding Sociology Status, also referred to as social position by some writers, is the 'socially defined
location or place', which an individual occupies in a system of interaction or society.
Thus, in any interaction, none ofthe participants is without status. Indeed, no individual
can interact with another, if hislher status, as well as that of the person or persons, is
not clear in a given situation.
Thus, interaction in the family poses no proble~nsbecause each nieinber knows well
the status helshe and others are occupying. This knowledge allows for a smooth flow
and predictable interaction. But, when we encounter a stranger, we first of all want to
know his or her status. Until this is known, we are not clear, how we should behave:
towards him or her. Thus, it is status and knowledge of status that facilitates patterned
interaction.
2.4.1 Types of Status

Sociologists make a distinction between 'ascribed' and 'acl~ieved'statuses. Positions,
which one is born into or one acquires without one's own effort, are known as ascribeid
status. Mostly, kinship statuses come in this category. Achieved statuses are, in
contrast, based on and defined by what people do or acquire through their own effort.
Usually, people's occupational positions come in this category. Only in some cases, it
is possible to have both ascribed and achieved aspects in the same status, a hereditary
priest in an Indian village, for example, may be rejected if he fails to learn the required
scriptures.
2.4.2 Multiple Statuses

It should also beclear that every individual occupies multiple statuses. Even a young
infant is a son, a grandson, a brother, a nephew, and so on. As we grow up, we may get
into even more status positions. Public figures and other important men, women
simultaneously occupy several statuses. There is, however, one key status in terms of
which the individual is ultimately identified and evaluated. In modern societies, one's
occupation indicates one's key status.
2.4.3 The Concept of Role

We turn now to the concept of role. Role is the behavioural aspect of status; there can
be no statuses without a corresponding role attached to it Role is, thus, the dynamic
aspect of status and consists of rights and duties attached to it. Thus, an individual
occupyingthe status of afather, simultaneously, has some rights over his children, as
well as, some responsibilities towards them. Statuses and roles are, thus, two sides of
the same coin.
Role refers both to the actual behaviour of an individual occupying a particular status,
as well as to a set of expectations regarding behaviour, shared by those involved in
particular social relations. Thus, in the teacher-student relations, the teacher has an
expectation as to how the student interacting with him will or should behave. The
students, too, in turn, have their own set of expectations. Should either ofthem fail to
act according to other's expectations, their relations are adversely affected. Since
i~idividuals,by and large, fulfil role expectation, society gains uniformity of behaviour.
This discussion indicates the significance of the concept of role. Indeed, it is one of the
basic units of analysis of social order in human societies and later, in Block 7, Inore
will be discussed about this concept.
,
2.5 SOCIAL INSTITUTION -

Social institution can be defined as a 'broad goal-oriented behaviour, which is firmly
established'. It becomes possible to understand and predict the behaviour of people
because of this established pattern of behaviour found in a society. The study of social Basic Concepts in
Sociology
institutions, therefore, includes groups, roles, norms, beliefs and practices in a particular
area of social life.
Social institution provides the framework within which people in different societies
and cultures live. It provides the very structure of society. People are born in a family,
which is an institution. They are nurtured and socialised in this institution, which is
governed by the values, norms and mores of that society. How the family and its
members earn their living depends upon the economic institutions of their society.
How they maintain order and administration depends on the political institutions of
that society. How information and skills are passed from one generation to another,
depends upon the educational institution of that society. Finally, how people explain
their existence in society, from where they have come before birth and where they will
go after death, i.e. the 'religious experience' is established by the religious institutions.
. Thus, all social institutions in a given society are inter-related. Family as an institution
forms the pivot around which all other social institutions move as it provides the individual
members to the society. Therefore, as Perry and Peny (1973 : pp. 300) mention, "its
important to remember that institutions are simply abstract concepts of organised
habits and standardised ways of doing things. We cannot see institutions, what we
can see are families, schools, banks and so on." Culture is an essential aspect of all
societies. You will learn more about it in the next section.

1) Define the concept of society, in eight lines.
2) Show the difference between primary and secondary groups. Use about six
lines.
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3) Distinguish between status and role. Write about five lines for your answer.
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llnderstnnding Sociology
2.6 CULTURE
Besides society, role, status and institution, culture is another important theme that
engages the attention of sociologists. Ordinarily, even those, who are not at all familiar
with sociology, are familiar with the word 'culture'. In our daily life, we may describe
some people as very 'cultured'. We give such a label ifpersons concerned are refined
and polished in their behaviour and manner. But sociologists do not use the term
'culture' in this sense. They have their own, special understanding of it.
In sociological terms, culture can be defined as the total sum of human activities,
which are learnt. It is passed on from generation to generation through membership of
a particular society. As various learning processes in human societies involve systems
of tools, communications and symbols, we can also say that the concept of culture
refers to a system of tools, communications and symbols. People in order to learn new
activities require tools, language and symbols.
Cultures in human societies differ from one another and also, change over time. One
of the gains of studying sociology is that besides giving an idea of various cultures, it
also helps to develop an understanding of other cultures than one's own.
2.6.1
.L
Culture and Human Behaviour
A little reflection will show that in similar situations, people of different cultures reveal
differences in the way they meet these situations. For example, while greeting friends
and relatives, at home or on the street, men in our society may shake hands with other
men but as a rule, not with women. Similarly, notwithstanding great hunger, a vegetarian
refuses non-vegetarian food. This is because culture influences our behaviour in given
situations. Stated in sociological terms, culture is normative, that is, it provides
standards of proper conduct, and also therefore, tells us, what is right or wrong.
Concretely, these standards are provided to us by what are called cultural norms.
Thus, while many college students smoke thesedays, they do not normally do so in the
presence of their elders or teachers. In our culture, such an act is considered to be
wrong, that is, contrary to our cultural norms. The content ofthe non-material culture
of every society consists of a large number of norms. These norms are learnt and
enforced by folkways and mores.
2.6.2 Folkways
There are behaviour patterns that govern most ofour daily life and contacts with other
people. Thus, rising up from seats, when teachers enter into classrooms, allowing
women to purchase tickets without queuing, distribution of sweets after getting a job
or a promotion, and so on, are examples of folkways. A number of folkways are
simply acts of politeness.
In order that folkways may not be taken lightly, mechanisms such as praise, approval
and acceptance exist to make individuals conform to them. Conversely, a word of'
criticism, frown, or sarcastic remark or laughter are modes of expressing disapproval
of incorrect behaviour. Since most people desire that they should not look funny or be
considered rude and uncouth by their group, they fall in line with what the group
expects and desires. Therefore, most people conform to the folkway5 without eve111
being aware that they are conforming, or that there are alternative ways of behaving.
Basic Concepts in
2.6.3 Mores Sociology
These are norms that are considered to be more important by group, and even vital for
its welfare. Violation of the mores evokes an emotional response and instead of the
mere raising of eyebrow or ridicule, a strong group action follows. Thus, prohibition of
the consumption o f beef and alcoholic drinks are part of the mores of Hindu and
Muslim societies, respectively. Any violation ofthese will not be tolerated. Mores are
linked to cultural values.
It should now be clear that mores are norms of a higher order than folkways. There
is an element of compulsion in them and they are linked to the dominant values of the
culture. Mores clearly and definitely reflect the concepts of what is moral and immoral.
This is seen from the fact that mores are generally expressed in terms of 'must
behaviour' (for example, all married men and women must rerpain faithful to their
spouses and must observe sexual fidelity) or, negatively, in terms of 'must-not'
behaviour, for example, women should not expose their bodies.
2.6.4 Values
Values, the ultimate essence and spirit of cultures, are the underlying principles and
ideas on the basis of which societies and individuals choose their goals. Values are
also the criteria on which social and individual ends and means arejudged and evaluated.
Apart from goals, all conduct and behaviour whether for achieving these goals, or
otherwise, are judged and evaluated in the framework of accepted values. Any action
that is contrary to the cherished values of the group or society is condemned and
punished. For example, in Indian society there is a value regarding junior persons'
behaviour towards senior persons. Any deviance from accepted behaviour is always
a subject of criticism.
Unlike norms, which are quite specific, values tend to be generalised ideals and
somewhat abstract; nevertheless, they attract the total commitment of the society.
Another important point to bear in mind is, that in the case of complex and heterogeneous
societies, like India, which are characterised by many religious, linguistic and other
diversities, it is usual to have a number of sub-cultures within the framework of the
larger overall cultures. Thus, in India, religious communities like Muslims, Christians
or Sikhs or linguistic groups like Tamilians, Maharashtrians or Punjabis and so on,
have their own sub-cultural characteristics that distinguish them from other communities
or groups. But simultaneously, we also share certain core values like secularism,
democracy and equality of all citizens, irrespective of our diversities, and these integrate
us. But heterogeneous societies have constantly to keep emphasising and nurturing
their more universal and cultural values so that they are not forsaken in favour of the
sub-cultural values.
2.7 SOCIAL CHANGE

In tracing the origins of sociology, as well as in pointing out the concerns of early
Sociologists, it had been indicated that the changes brought by the industrial revolution
had a major role to play in the birth of modem sociology. Due to this, sociology and
sociologists have never lost sight of the study of social change, and this interest has
been major concern of the discipline throughout its entire history of about two hundred
years.
Although, sociologists have been studyingthe process of social change for a long time,
it is difficult to give a brief and precise definition. Social change refers to the process
Understanding Sociology by which alterations occur in society or social relations. Social change is a continuous
process.
Social change can be caused by many factors. Increased population can bring about
changes. Innovations-i.e., new ideas or an object can bring about new relationships.
It is also possible that one society can borrow ideas or objects from other societies,
which may cause variation in social relations.
Later on, you would be studying various theories of social change (evolution, cyclical,
conflict, modernisation and development). The leading sociologists, who have been
referred to in Unit 1, have their own ideas about how change occurs, which will be
discussed later.
2.7.1 Agents of Change

An important question is the identity of agents of change. As mentioned earlier, any
sub-units or institutions are instruments through which social change can be effected.
Some of the institutions are more important than others-the economic, political and
educational institutions are more central in effecting change. Religion can act as an
agent of change as well as resistance to change.
Although, the society continuously undergoes change, it must be pointed out that there
is usually resistance to change. N ~ Wideas and new behaviour patterns are not easily
accepted. Even material innovations also take time to be accepted and diffused in any
society (trains were considered in England as the work of the devil). Resistance is
greater, when traditional values and beliefs are involved.
2.7.2 Rate of Change

Another question is with regard to the rate of change. In societies, which are industrialised
and use sophisticatedtechnology (which itself has brought about changes), the rate of
change is more rapid than in pre-industrial societies. Another important fact to be kept
in mind is that a great deal of change today is caused by planning. This is referred to
as guided change, which is being undertaken in many developing countries. This would
be discussed further in the unit on social development.
Activity 2
Within your family, ask your grand parents or their cousins about the kind of
changes that they observe today in our society which were not present when they
were children. Make a note of one page and discuss it with other students at your
study centre.
2.8 SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control is a process to regulate behaviour within society. In a sense, social
control is to discourage people from deviating from the established values and
norms. Because of social control, people live up to what is expected of them. Social
control is an aspect of all social institutions and thus, it is pervasive to social life on
the whole.
Behaviour of people is controlled both by positive and negative sanctions. The aim of
both these types of sanction is to encourage people to conform to the norms. Positive
sanction can include praise, gifts and promotion whereas negative sanction can be
punishment, demotion ridicule or boycott. Social control is not necessarily always
successful. There are different approaches to the study of social control, these will be
discussed in later units.
Basic Concepts in
2.9 SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS Sociology
Sociologists have used many methods in studying society. In Unit 1, we have already
discussed the scientific method and its characteristics. Although, sociologists may use
different methods, the scientific approach is basic to all ofthem. The historical method
involves the study of origins, development and transformation of social institutions. In
this method, a sociologist uses information pertaining to one or more societies over a
long period of time. The main approach is to try to get some insights from the past
experiences with regard to social behaviour
In comparative method, data from different countries, different regions or different
religions are gathered. An effort is made to see whether there are any common factors,
which can explain patterns of behaviour.
The empirkal method refers to collection of data from the field. The facts of social life
P are studied and described as they exist. The techniques used in this method are
I , observation, survey, experimental, case studies.
6' These methods are not necessarily exclusive. There can be a combination of them.
The purpose of all these methods, in a way, is to try to answer the questions: 'Why do
people behave the way they do?' The sociological theories and concepts have emerged
as a result of these studies.
1 Check Your Progress 2
I
I
I
I) Write a note in ten lines on social division in tribal societies.
...................................................................................................................
2) What is social control? Explain in about five lines.
2.10 LET US SUM UP

This unit has explained clearly some important concepts in sociology. They are in fact
conce?t5 whi~hkeep appearing in the following units. We hope you have grasped
these concepts, such as, those of society, social group, status and role, socialinaitutions, '
culture, and so on. These concepts are basic to a S0~iologicalstudy. Finally, we

Understanding Sociology explained the concepts of sociai change and social control. It would be advisable that
, this unit is understood well by the student kor then it would help them better to understand
the following units.
2.1 1 FURTHER READINGS

1) .Ritzer, G. Kammeyer, K.C.W. and Yetman, N.R., 1979, Sociology: Experienc-
ing a Changing Sociery. Allan and Bacon Ind.: Boston
2) Peny, J. & Peny E:, 1973, The Social Web An Introduction to Sociology, Canfield
Press, San Francisco.
2.12 KEY WORDS

Culture : The system of behaviour, customs, regulations that are learnt and socially
acquired.
Folkways : Behaviour patterns that govern daily life and interactions, e.g. ways of
addressing one another.
Mores : Ways of behaviour that are crucial for the welfare of a society, e.g.
non-violence, fidelity, non-thieving and so on.
Role : In social life man and woman undertakes many responsibilities, e.g.
husband, mother, son, etc. They are various roles.
Status : Consists of rights and duties of a person in any position. Each status has
a role or set of actions attached to it, e.g. the teacher must teach.

PROGRESS
1) Society is a relational concept. It does not refer to a concrete reality. It is viewed
as a chain or a network of social relationships. A relationship becomes social
only when individuals interact in ways determined by well-established and famil-
iar recognition of each other. So, we can say that the concept of society refers to
social relationships, which become institutionalised.
2) Primary groups afe characterised by personalised relationshipsamong their mem-
bers. They are typically small and profoundly influence the members' behaviour.
Secondary groups, on the other hand, are relatively larger and more impersonal.
These groups are, generally, formed with a specific goal.
3) Within a set of social relationships among people, a place or a position is referred
to by the term 'status'. Each status carries with it a generally expected behaviour.
This behaviour is termed as 'role'. Role is, thus, the dynamic aspect of status.
1) Social change is a continuous process, which refers to changes occurring in soci-
ety or social relations. Multiple factors, such as, increased population, innova-
tions, natural disasters, political conflicts, etc., cause changes in society. Sub-
units or institutions in society are instruments through which social change is
effected. In pre-industrial societies, the rdte of change is slower as compared to
fast speed of change in industrial societies.
2) Social control refers to a regulatory process, which encourages people to con-
farmingto established values and norms. Non-conformity is considered to be a
deviant behaviour. Social control is exercised through the mechanism ofpositive
and negative sanctions.
UNIT 3 SIMPLE SOCIETIES
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Tntroduction
3.2 Economies in Simple Societies
3.2.1 Hunting and Gathering
3.2.2 Pastoral
3.2.3 Shifting Cultivation
3.2.4 Settled Cultivation
3.3 Systems ofExchange in Simple Societies
3.3.1 Two Examples
3.3.2 Markets
3.4 Social Organisation in Simple Societies
3.4.1 Kinship
3.4.1.1 Descent
3.4.2 Marriage
3.4.3 Religion
3.4.3.1 Religion and Magic
3.4.4 Polity
3.4.4.1 Types of Political System---€ephalous
3.4.4.2 Acephalous
3.5 Colonial Impact on Simple Societies
3.5.1 Supply of Traditional Products
3.5.2 Introduction of New Crops
3.5.3 The Industrial Wage Labour
3.5.4 Pkoblems of Colonialism
\
3.6 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After having read this unit, you should be able to:
describe the main features of economy and social organisation in simple societies;
explain the type of religion and political systems which exist in simple societies;
and
discuss the impact of colonialism on simple societies.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The term 'simple societies' refers to small-scale societies with a relatively simple
techilology. Such societies are not only small-in size but also their control over the
environment is quite limited. With small-scale markets, their scope for specialisation
in the divisibn of labour is restricted.
Sociology
Understi~l~ding All tribal societies can be called simple in terms oftheir limited technological control
over the environment. Their economies are, generally, based on the mode of production
of material goods for subsistence. Most such societies around the world have interesting
systems of exchange, which intervene between production and consumption of material
goods.
With their distinct types of socio-political organisations, tribal societies all over the
world present a striking contrast to the societies in which we live. Many tribal groups
are. now, caught in the process ofacquiring advance technologies. They can be called
'trsnsitional'. Most transitional societies have experienced colonial rule by Europeans.
111this unit, you will, first, read about the main features of economies and systems of
exchange in simple societies. Then. > o u \ \ i l l look at how these societies are socially
and politically organised and horn natural phenomena predominate in their religious
belief-systems. Finally, you will learn about the impact of colonial rule on simple
societies.
3.2 ECONOMIES IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES

Simple societies are spread over nearly the entire range of natural environments and
are not confined only to one or two regions. They are found in the dense equatorial and
tropical forests, in the hot and cold deserts and in the rich alluvial plains. They are
found also in the foothills and high ranges of mountains, in the savannas, sea coasts
and in the islands jutting out of the open seas. The diversity of natural environment
has resulted in the diversity of economies practised by such societies. Given the simple
technology, the impact of the natural environment is considerable. But the simple
societies, even with their simple technology, have everywhere shown an indomitable
spirit to face the harsh nature.
Based on the mode of productinn of material goods for subsistence, economies in
sithple societies can be groupc~ii I I O the following types: a) Hunting and gathering; b)
Pastoral; c) Shifting cultivation; and d) Settled cultivation.
Simple Society : Making a Fire

Simple Societies
3.2.1 Hunting and Gathering
Hunting and gathering societies live by hunting large and small game and by collecting
a wide variety of roots, fruits, and tubers. Despite the similarity in the relationship
with nature, the hunting and gathering societies differ a great deal among themselves,
depending upon the habitat and the animals they hunt.
All these hunting and gathering societies live close to nature and (rather than adapting
nature to themselves) they adapt themselves to nature. Following this principle, they
keep on moving from place to place in search of animals, fruits, roots and tubers.
It was generally believed by early anthropologists that the hunting and gathering
communities live on the edge of scarcity but recent researches have shown that this is
not so and that they enjoy a measure of affluencelabundance.
3.2.2 Pastoral
The domestication of animals forms the main feature ofthe pastoral stage. Some of
the pastoral communities mix pastoral economy with agriculture. For acquiring
sufficient water and pasture ground for their animals, the pastoral communities have
to move from place-to-place. Some pastoralists make only seasonal movements, while
others remain constantly on the move. Because of the importance of movement among
these people, tlie size oftheir population is always relatively small. Raiding of livestock
is quite common among pastoralists. They are known to have little regard for authority
and centralised administration. In India, the important pastoral communities include
the Toda (The buffalo herders of Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu), the Gujar (cattle and
buffalo herders) aiid tlie Bakenval (sheep and goat herders) of Jammu and Kashmir.
The pastoral communities have as their staple diet the animal products of meat, milk
and blood. The Toda do not mix the blood of the animal with milk as some African
pastoralists do.
The livestock reared among pastoralists have deep impact on their religious and other
beliaviour. Rearing the buffalo, for example, is a sacred activity for the Toda.
3.2.3 Shifting Cultivation

In shifting cultivation, after every few years, new ground is cleared by the farmer for
planting crops and tlie old plot is left to its natural growth. Compared to the pastoralists'
way of life, practitioners of shifting cultivation have relatively long residence in one
area. In such societies, land is often owned by the community.
A number oftribes practise shifting cultivation such as the Bantu ofequatorial Africa,
Garo of Meghalaya, Baiga and Abujhmar Maria of Madhya Pradesli and Saora of
Orissa. A number of tribes in Arunachal Pradesh also practise shifting cultivation.
3.2.4 Settled Cultivation

Relatively larger number of simple societies practise settled cultivation, where the
same fields are cultivated year after year. Settled cultivation makes it necessary for the
villages to become permanent settlements. A number of gods and deities rise up all
around tlie villages, investing religious significa~iceto the villages. The institution of
private property also gets more crystallised.
Depending upon the technology, the settled cultivation admits ofa two-fold division:
hoe cultivation and plough cultivation. Many island communities, like the Trobriaiid
Islanders in the Pacific, are hoe cultivators. The Munda, Santhal and Gond in India
are plough cultivators. The hill slopes give rise to yet another type of settled cultivation,
because to cultivate the hill slopes are cut up into terraces. The Nagas in India are
good examples of terrace cultivators.
Ilsderstasdisg Sociology Check Your Progress 1
I) Describe the main features of hunting and gathering societies in five lines.
3.3 SYSTEMS OF EXCHANGE IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES

To give and take things from each other is a necessary part of our daily behaviour and
therefore, forms an important aspect of interpersonal relations. In this sense, exchange
is not simply a theme in economics. Undoubtedly, many exchanges of goods are of
economic nature. In some other cases, occasions of gift-giving, being also ceremonial
in nature, express well established and thus, institutionalised relationships among the
people. Often, the purpose of exchanging goods is to maintain amicable relations
between groups to minimise the possibilities of conflict. For instance, during wedding
ceremonies in India, gifts are given and taken by both the sides of the bride and
bridegroom. In terms of their use-value, such gifts have certain economic value but
tliey also serve as a mark of status and put a kind of seal or stamp on the new relationship.
Secondly, such exchanges are not transacted only once. They usually form a series of
gift-giving, which builds mutual feelings of goodwill and express happy relations
between the two sides. One of the purposes ofexchanging goods is to maintain a state
of mutual indebtedness.
Face-to-face relationships of mutual help in simple societies are continually reinforced
by exchange of gifts. Many scholars, especially social anthropologists, have studied
simple societies. They have highlighted some forms of exchanges, which are peculiar
to some cases, with no parallels in Indian society. We bring you two classic examples
of the other than economic importance of gift-exchanges in simple societies.
3.3.1 Two Examples
i) The Kula Exchange

Malinowski, in his study of economic activities known as the Kula ring of the Western
Pacific region, showed that among the Trobriand Islanders, the members of the Kula
ring exchange among themselves ritually and socially valued objects. The system of
exchange is regulated in a kind ofring with two directional movements. I11 clockwise
direction, the red shell necklaces circulate aiid in anti-clockwise circulation, the white
arm-shells' circulate among the members of the Kula ring. These objects have no
commercial value but carry differing prestige value for donors aiid receipients. The
tribals undertake long dangerous sea voyages in search of these objects, which are
economically useless. While the Islanders normally haggle and bargain ill their day-to-
day buying and selling of other goods, the objects given and taken in the Kula are never
subjected to any bargaining.
ii) The Potlatch Ceremony

Our second example is from the American North-West where, the Kwakiutl (and also,
some other tribes of the region) organised large-scale feasts. At such occasions, not
only enormous quantities of food were consumed and gifts given to guests, but also
many articles (considered valuable by them) were destroyed. The practice of feasts
- - -
(known as the i~lstitutionof potlatch) among these people shows how giving away of Simple Societies
goods to the extent of physically destroying them was linked with their claims to a
higher social status. The more feasts one group organised,the more prestige it received.
Further, the more a group was invited to such potlatches and the more gifts it received,
the more prestige the group gained in the eyes of other groups. These feasts were
always organised by agnatic groups, i.e., by those standing in the relationship of brothers
to each other. One such group invited other such groups and vied with each other in
giving more and more food to eat and more and more gifts to take home and more and
more valuables to destroy.
Activity 1
Do you also have examples of gift exchange which are ritualised? Write an essay
of one page on a ritual exchange of gifts in your community. You may discuss
your essay with other students at your study centre, as well as, your Academic
Counsellor.
3.3.2 Markets
Although, most economic exchange of goods in simple societiestake place in markets,
there are some societies in which multiple transactions in different items take place
without a market. The Trobriand Islanders are a good example of this type.
In some simple societies, for instance in West Africa, markets are well-recognised
places for exchanges of goods. They are essential to the functioning of the society's
economic system. But besides their economic importance, markets also assume social
meaning as a meeting-place. The tribes ofYoruba of Nigeria and Arusha of Tanzania
are famous for their markets. Often, Market-places are also used as centres of
administration and for dissemination of information. In this respect, traditional centres
for development of folk forms of performing arts.
3.4 SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES

In order to present an overview of simple societies, their social organisation can be
briefly studied in four parts, namely, kinship, marriage, religion and polity. Kinship
roles in these societies subsume religious and political activities and it is, therefore,
reasonable to discuss them in one section.
Social antl~ropologicalstudies have shown that simple societies have extremely elaborate
systems of kinship, religion, economy and polity. But in contrast to modern complex
societies, simple societies present relatively simpler ways of organising social life.
3.4.1 Kinship
Since most simple societies have been studied in relation to tribal social systems, we
discuss the four aspects of social life in simple societies in similar terms. A tribal
group is generally considered to be a good example of a simple society. A tribe is,
often, spread over a small territory with its language, political and religious organisation.
It is usually divided into two or more sections. When divided into only two sections,
each section is called a moiety. But if a tribe is divided into more than two sections,
each section is called a phratry. Moieties and phratries are, generally, exogamous
groups, that is, members of these groups must find their spouses outside these groups;
they cannot marry within. Only in some societies, the moieties are endogamous, that is
members of such moieties must marry within the moiety. The Toda are an example of
such a group.
The members of a moiety or phratry, clan and lineage are under social obligation to
help each other. They generally act as corporate groups in performing a number of
linderstanding Sociology social, economic, political and religious activities. But the wide dispersal of a number
of tribal groups today in many parts of the world has weakened the corporate character
of these groups.
3.4.1.1 Descent
Common descent or origin in simple societies is generally traced through lineages and
clans. Lineages are those groups, which reckon common descent from a known ancestor.
Clans are the groups of those people, who treat each other as related through common
ancestry, even though, it may not be traceable with certainty. In other words, clans
have mythical ancestors. Lineages are relatively smaller groups with known ancestors
within clans, which are wider groups with presumed common ancestry.
Descent is usually traced through either mother or father. Descent through the mother
is called matrilineal or uterine descent. In a matrilineal system of descent, a man does
not belong to his father's lineage and clan. He belongs to the same clan and lineage as
his mother and his mother's brother. The Nayars of South India are an example.
In patrilineal descent, relationship with males and females of one's group is traced
only through males. Most of the students of the course are likely to belong to this form
of descent system.
Some people, however, have systems of double descent, that is, both matrilineal and
patrilineal groups are recognised, but for different purposes. For example, among the
Yako (Forde, 1950), the inheritance of immovable property is regulated through
patrilineal descent and that of movable property through matrilineal descent.
3.4.2 Marriage
In all societies, so also in simple societies, social recognition of mating among their
members is arranged through the institution of marriage. Monogamy is the most popular
type of marriage found in simple societies. Few tribal groups also practice polygyny
where a man has more than one wife at a given point of time. More rare is the polyandry
type of marriage, in which a woman is simultaneously the wife ofmore than one man.
The Kliasa in Uttar Pradesh and the Toda in Tamil Nadu practise polyandry. But there
is a difference between the two. Among the Khasa, the eldest brother marries and all
&her brothers simultaneously become the husbands oftheir elder brother's wife. This
type of polyandry is called adelphic or fraternal polyandry.
Among the Toda, the husbands of the woman need not be brothers. Multiplicity of
husbands raises the problem of the paternity of the child. The Toda solve this problem
by the performance of the 'bow and arrow' ceremony. When a woman becomes
pregnant, the husband who performs the 'bow and arrow' ceremony becomes the father
of the child to be born. He becomes the father of all the children born to her after the
ceremony. He is regarded as the father of the children born even after his death if no
other husband has performed, in the meantime the 'bow and arrow' ceremony. This
institution is indicative of the fact that the Toda give emphasis to social rather than
biological paternity.
1) Write a note in ten lines on social division in tribal societies.
Simple Societies
3.4.3 Religion
With their simple technology, the people in simple societies have very little control
over the natural environment. They are always overawed by the ferocities of nature.
Forest fires, floods thunder, cloud-bursts, earthquakes and wild animals, all affects
them severely and therefore they get frightened by the natural calamities far more than
in,more complex societies.
The belief in impersonal supernatural force finds expression in the wide spread belief
in 'mana', a supernatural power generally associated with kings or successful men.
Many Indian tribes, such as the Munda and the Ho of Singhbhum, Bihar also believe
in this force, which they call 'bonga'. Yet another expression of impersonal supernatural
force is 'taboo'. Taboo is a negative force and anyone who does not observe it exposes
himself to the danger of sqpernatural punishment. Taboo is used to regulate social
activities. Many tribal communities put a taboo mark on their property in the field and
the forest to ensure against theft. 'Mana' and 'taboo' are polynesian terms, which
have been incorporated into anthropological/sociologicalvocabulary.
Lack of understanding of the environment causes in them great anxiety. So it is no
wonder that the simple societies develop their own theories regarding the nature and
functioning of their environment. They have developed a theory of causation, which
tells them that natural events are caused by supernatural forces. The supernatural
forces have been visualised as belonging to two categories: personal forces and
impersonal forces. Religion addresses itselfto the personal forces and magic relates to
the impersonal forces. Religion and magic, for the tribal, are thus not contradictory
but complementary to each other.
3.4.3.1 Religion and Magic

Religion assumes that certain spirits and deities preside over nature. They have to be
propitiated, placated and worshipped in order to get their blessings. These spirits may
send both blessings and curses. So an element of freedom and an exercise of will are
attributed to the spirits and deities. Magic on the other hand, is an impersonal force
which can be made to operate provided the magic is performed properly. There is no
exercise of will with regard to the impersonal force. Magic must succeed. It can fail
only by an improper performance of magic or by the performance of more powerful
counter-magic.
Frazer (1 920) believed all magic to be sympathetic, based on the principle of sympathy
between cause and effect. He identified two laws governing the operation of magic,
the law of similarity and the law of contact. The magic based on the first law he called
homoeopathic or imitative magic and the magic based on the second law he called
contagious magic. In homoeopathic magic an image ofthe enemy is destroyed in order
to destroy the enemy. In contagious magic, magic is played on the separated part ofthe
body ofthe enemy, such as paired nails and hair.
But magic is not always destructive. It is in fact only a symbolic act. Magic is the
playing out of an event. It expresses desires in symbolic ways.
In brief, religion provides the simple societies with a theory of causation. It builds
confidence of nature. The fertility of fields, herds, women, of land and water are
believed to be ensured by religion. Religion also has certain political aspects, which
we shall examine, in the following section. You have already noticed the role of taboo
in the maintenance of order in certain spheres of tribal life.
Understanding Sociology
Activity 2
Do you think your religion and religious rituals have some elements of magic in it?
If yes, write a note of about one page on the topic of "Role of Magic in My
Religion" and compare it with those of other students at your study centre.
3.4.4 Polity
Maintenance of order over time is the central concern of political organisation in all
societies. But different societies solve this problem of order in different ways. Modern
state societies, characterised by structural differentiation, use the differentiated state
apparatus for the maintenance of order.
The simple societies are characterised by undifferentiated ways of keeping law and
order. The responsibility of maintenance of order is distributed among a number of
institutions and structures. Manifestly non-political institutions like kinship and religion
also perform political functions.
3.4.4.1 Types of Political System--Cephalous

Political systems among the simple societies are divided into two groups: (i) cephalous
and (ii) acephalous. Cephalous political system is one in which there is a
redognised head, a chief or a king. Acephalous political system is one in which no
single head is recognised and order is maintained by means other than state apparatus.
Bath cephalous and acephalous political systems admit of a number of subtypes
within them.
Among the cephalous political systems at least four subtypes can be recognised. Shilluk,
Swazi, Ethiopean Kingdom and Muslim Emirates of northern Nigeria may be taken to
represent these four types. Among the Shilluk, the headship is more ritual and symbolic
than substantial. The order is maintained by the principle of lineage rather than by
state apparatus. Swazi and Ethiopean Kingdoms represent two variants of a common
system. In both systems, kingship is a powerful institution. Kingship enjoys divine
sanction in both these systems. To disobey the king is not only a breach of political
obligation, it is also at the same time a breach of the religious obligation. In both,
authority is devoluted from the king to his subordinates from the king to his subordinates.
Among the Swazi, the devolution of authority is made from the king to his close kinsmen.
Thus in this type, the king and his close kinsmen rule.
In the Ethiopean Kingdom also there is devolution of authority from the King to his
subordinates. But the subordinates are not his kinsmen, they are his loyal non-kin
dependants. In fact in this system the kinsmen are avoided and very often intense
rivalry exists between the king and his kinsmen. Close kinsmen are often imprisoned
so that they do not create any trouble for the ruling chief. Thus, kinship is not without
significance even in this third type of cephalous political system. Though it must be
noted that in this type the significance is negative and instead of basking in the sunshine
of their kin, they are consigned to the darkness of the prisons.
The fourth subtype within the cephalous is qualitatively different from the above three
subtypes. In all the three, the ruler and the ruled are tribals of one ethnic group or
another. They share a number of social and political attitudes despite differentiation
on class and power hierarchy. In this fourth subtype the ruler comes from a different
culture and dominates over the tribal culture. It is clearly a case of political conquest.
Our example representing this type is the Muslim Emirate of northern Nigeria.
3.4.4.2 Acephalous
Among the acephalous political systems, once again, four subtypes can be identified.
The (i) Central African Bushmen, (ii) Yako ofNigeria, (iii) Masai of east Africa, and
(iv) Nuer of Sudan may be taken to represent these four subtypes. Bushmen are
hunting and gathering people, constantly moving from one place to another in search Simplc Socictia
of roots, fruits and tubers or in search of game animal. They are fragmented into small
bands. Whatever disputes that arise within and between families are resolved by the
elders of the band.
The second subtype consists of autonomous villages with their councils. Among the
Yako the village councils contribute to the maintenance of order. Membership of the
village council is based on a number of criteria such as genealogical position, economic
success and qualities of leadership.
The third subtype of which Masai herders are an example is quite widespread in east
Africa. The transition from childhood to manhood is not an unnoticed and
uneventful phenomenon among the simple societies. Most of them give ritual recognition
to this phenomenon. Among the Masai, the children undergoing this transition
are initiated into the youngest age-set. In course oftime the youngest age-set becomes
the eldest age-set and then it has to take on the responsibility of maintaining law
and order. So in this third subtype the maintenance of order is the responsibility of the
age-sets.
The fourth subtype is also quite widespread and Nuer tribe of Sudan is an example of
this subtype. Order is maintained in such societies by balanced opposition. The Nuer
are divided into agnatic descent groups, the lineages. Members of a lineage are obliged
to help other on occasionsofdispute. Hence a dispute between two individualsbelonging
to two different lineages soon becomes adispute between two lineages. Each lineage
organises itself into a fighting group to support its member. But when the two persons
in dispute belong to the same lineage, then the conflict is confined to this particular
lineage and nobody outside this group is involved in this dispute

1) What is an acephalous political system? Write in about twelve lines.
3.5 COLONIAL IMPACT ON SIMPLE SOCIETES

European colonialism came to be imposed on many simple societies from the 18th
century. Nineteenth century and the following decades represent the worst period of
Understanding Sociology colonial exploitation. Though a large number of simple societies in Latin America,
Africa, Asia and Oceania have been able to cast off colonial rule, there are quite a few
still struggling to throw off the yoke. Even in those societies which have become
politically independent, a number of structures and networks of exploitation established
during colonial rule continue to sap, manifestly or latently, the economic, political and
psychological vitality of these ex-colonial communities.
Colonialism imposed its imprint on all aspects of tribal life since the 18th century.
Economic, political, social and cultural aspects of the simple societies came to be
directly and indirectly, influenced by colonial rule. It has however to be noted that all
tribal societies under colonial rule did not experience the same level of disorganisation
in their social systems. In some the disrupting influence was much more severe than in
others. We shall now examine the impact of colonialism in the economic, political,
social and cultural aspects of simple societies
With the establishment of colonial rule the economics of the simple societies came to
be integrated with the international capitalist economic system. Some got intimately
integrated while others were only remotely integrated. In other words, some societies
adapted themselves much faster to new ideas practices and technological changes then
others. Economic integration with the capitalist system took three main forms: one, by
supplying the traditional products to the international commercial network through a
series of local and provincial agencies; two, through the introduction of new crops at
the inducement and coercion of the colonial capitalists; and three, by joining willingly
or under pressure, the industrial wage labour. The impact of economic integration was
most in the third and least in the first.
3.5.1 Supply of Traditional Products

In the first category come the hunting and gathering, pastoral and agricultural
communities that sold their traditional products to the agents ofthe capitalist market.
This initiated anew system of exchange and influenced to a certain extent, their traditional
systems of exchange and exchange obligations. But the impact was limited to only
certain areas of their social life. Cash got introduced to their system and they could
purchase with it certain new items of consumption but this did not bring about a
restructuring of economic relations in these simple societies.
3.5.2 Introduction of New Crops

The changes introduced by the second type of integration were more far reaching than
those associated with the first. In this a new agricultural cycle had to be followed
bringing about considerable change in the domestic organisation of production. Most
important consequence was the impact of fluctuations of the international price with
regard to the cash crops grown by these communities. Tobacco and sugarcane, were
some of the crops grown by the tribal communities specially for the world market. In
many cases they had to replace food crops by cash crops and hence were forced to buy
food from the market. Tribes in West Africa, for instance the Yorubas, were drawn
into the international capitalist market through this second type of integration. But
this type of integration did not result in geographical dislocation.
3.5.3 The Industrial Wage Labour

The most disastrous consequences followed from the third type of integration, by entering
the industrial labour market. The colonialists developed industries for which they needed
cheap labour. A number of inducements were first tried in Africa to lure people into
industrial employment. But when they failed, a lot of repressive measures were taken
to force the tribal people to work in the mines in the copper belt and in other factories
started all over urban Africa. People were forced to pay taxes in cash which was
available only in urban-industrial labour and when even these measures failed, physical
capture of tribals was resorted to man the hines and the factories.
These repressive measures did not stop at the factory gates but the entire industrial Simple Societies
discipline and the conditions of work were very repressive. Plantations in India, Africa
and Latin America, employed tribal and non-tribal labour also called indentured labour
and subjected them to dehumanising industrial discipline. This kind of integration
involved geographical migration, very often leaving the wife, children and old-parents
at home in the village. The worker faced problems at both ends of migration, at the
village end as well as at the factory.
Imposition of colonial rule disrupted the political order of the tribal communities. The
traditional political systems lost their sovereignty and legitimacy. The traditional
political chiefs suddenly found that their rights, autho;ity and power had vanished.
They acted now as the representatives of the colonial power and had to behave with
their own tribesmen in ways they would not have ever thought of doing in the past.
Traditional jurisprudence, traditional measures of the resolution of conflict, all became
irrelevant in the new colonial situation.
New political institutions, like police, magistrates and jails, came up all overthe tribal
world. New jurisprudence was imposed on them whose logic they failed to appreciate.
New men came to occupy many of these new positions. Though following the principle
of indirect rule, the British in 'Africa tried to retain old chiefs in many areas but this
could not be done everywhere. Hence new chiefs were appointed in many communities.
3.5.4 Problems of Colonialism

The new political system had many problems. It was divorced from its relationship
with kinship and religion. In the traditional political order as we have examined in an
earlier section, kinship and religion played an important part. The chief was assumed
to possess supernatural power because it was retained within one family. With chiefs
coming from other families, the religious character of kingship got considerably eroded.
Irrelevance of kinship support disintegrated not only the political system, but also, to a
great extent, even the kinship system. This is because of the fact that this political role
of the kinship system went a long way in giving a sense of unity and solidarity.
Economic and political changes had serious implications for the institutions and
processes of social solidarity. In fact the tribals found it hard to accept the cognitive
and affective elements of the new industrial culture. They got industrialised but could
not internalise the values of industrialism. The lack of industrialism resulted in the
high rate of absenteeism and low rate of turn over. The tribals became migrants not
only from the village to the urban-industrial complex but also from factory to factory,
from industry to industry. Thus an element of uncertainty and insecurity developed.
Colonial imposition resulted also in the disintegration of tribal cultures. Introduction
of new market rationality and cash economy moved them over from generalised
reciprocity to balanced reciprocity and in many cases to even negative reciprocity.
In the new urban-industrial environment they were not in a position to perform their
multiple rites and rituals connected with birth, marriage and death. This created
psychological deprivation and psychological strains within them. Living in an urban-
industrial environment kept them away from the annual ritual cycle, from the festivals
and also from a host of ritual obligations they were supposed to meet at their village
home. They suffered from a cultural vacuum at the urban industrial centre. They
could not practise their own culture and they could not participate in the cultural
activities of the urban-industrial centres. They became alienated not only from their
village but also from the industrial culture. In fact they got alienated from themselves.
The triblas did not meekly accept the imposition of colonial rule. Researches and
studies bear testimony to the fighting spirit of the tribals. In Kenya the Giriamas rose
against colonialism in 1913-14. The cult of Mumbo gripped the Gusii and the Luo in
Kenya. The Mau Mau rebellion, again in Kenya, speaks ofthe tribals' determination
to throw away the colonial masters. The cargo cults in Oceania are another expression
llndcrstrnding Sociology of the tribal antagonism to colonialism. In India too the tribals rose in violent uprisings
against the British and their supporters throughout the nineteenth century. The tribes
of Chotanagpur, the Munda, Ho and the Santhal, all rose against the British and the
Zamindars in the nineteenth century. In fact the uprisings were so many in the nineteenth
century Chotanagpur, that it may easily be called the century of tribal rebellions.
T m features stand out very clearly with regard to these tribal uprisings. One, most of
them were violent, to the extent permitted by their primitive tools. Two, they looked
for religious support for their success., They were all movements of hope of one kind
or another and were all too sure about their success. Needless to say most of them
were brutally crushed by the mighty colonial powers.

1) Write a note in about fifteen lines on exploitation of labour under colonialism.
3.6 LET US SUM UP

We have seen in this unit that simple societies have many different aspects to them.
Thete are tribal economies, which have special features including hunting, gathering
and agriculture.
This unit covered the factor of exchange in simple societies and their social organisation.
Marriage religion and political organisation were also discussed. Types of political
system in simple societies were examined. We have also pointed out how simple societies
suffered under colonialism, including exploitation of labour. We have thus given a
well-rounded overview of simple societies. A video programme, sent to your study
centre and dealing with an example of a simple society, gives you a visual understanding
of simple societies.

1) Bose, N.K., 1971. Tribal Life in India. National Book Trust: Delhi. i'
2) Radcliffe Brown, A.R., 1964. Structure and Function in Primitive Society. Cohen
and West: London.
Walker, A.R., 1986. The Toda o j South India: A New Look. Hindustan Simple Socictitr
3)
Publishing Corporation: Delhi.
3.8 KEY WORDS

Acephalous : Society with no recognised head, or single political authority.
Cephalous : Society with a single political head, e.g. a king.
Exogamous : Where marriage must be outside a given group.
Matrilineal : Where descent is traced through female ancestors.
Moiety : When a tribe is divided into two sections.
Patrilineal : When descent is traced from male ancestors.
Phratry : When a tribe is divided into many sections, each section is called a
phratry.
Poligyny : When a man has more than one wife.
3.9 M O D E L ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) 111hunting and gathering societies, people live by hunting large and small ani-
mals. They supplement this source of food by collecting a wide range of roots,
fruits, and tubers. Living close to nature, the people adapt themselves to nature
and move from place-to-place in search of food. In some cases, the hunters and
gatherers managed to enjoy a measure of affluence by securing surplus food.
1) Generally, a tribe is divided into two or more sections. In a tribe with two sec-
tions, each section is called a moiety. Tribes with more than two sections refer
each of these divisions by the term 'phratry'. Moieties and phratries are, gener-
ally, exogamous, that is, spouses are found from outside the social divisions. In
some societies, e.g., the Toda, moieties are endogamous, that is, members ofthe
moieties must marry within the division.
I) In acephalous political systems, no single head is recognised and order is main-
tained by means other than the state apparatus. This system has four sub-types,
exemplified by four groups-the Central African Bushmen, the Yako of Nigeria,
the Masai of East Africa and the Nuer of Sudan. In the first sub-type, order is
maintained by the eldest of each band of Bushmen, hunters and gatherers. In the
second sub-type, the village councils and in the third sub-type, age-sets take the
responsibility of keeping order in society. In the fourth sub-type, order is kept on
the basis of relations among lineages.
1) Labour was required for industries, developed by colonial powers in various
parts of the world. The colonialists, being a part of the capitalist economic sys-
tem, wanted to acquire labour at minimum cost. As they held also political power
over the colonies, they were able to coerce the colonised people in providing
cheap labour to their industries. People from simple societies were lured into
factories on false promises. When these protests lost their efficacy, even repres-
sive measures were employed for keeping the tribals in labour force. Plantations
in Asia, Africa and the Americas subjected their labourers to dehumanising con-
ditions of work
UNIT 4 COMPLEX SOCIETIES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Defining a Complex Society
4.2.1 Rural-Urban Dichotomy
4.2.2 Aspects of Community Life
4.2.3 Types of Urbanisation
4.3 Modern Society
4.3.1 Work in Complex Societies
4.3.2 WorkStructures
4.3.3 Conflict in Industry
4.3.4 Employment and Women
4.4 Post-Industrial Society
4.4.1 Further Features
4.4.2 Some Trends
4.5 Let us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit carefully, you should be able to:
o define a complex society;
a discuss the rural-urban dichotomy;
describe modem employment organisation;
explain what generates conflict in industry;
identify the characteristics ofthe employment of women in complex society; and
describe the main features of post-industrial society.
4.1 INTRODUCTION -
In Unit 3 we have indicated various aspects of simple societies. We find that complex
societies are not tribal or simple in their organisation. In part, we find, technological
advancement is what defines the complexity of modern society. There is however a
rural-urban dichotomy, and community life too is not completely removed from that in
simple societies. We examine industrial conflict in complex societies and also aspects
of employment of women. Finally we turn our attention to post-industrial society, its
main features, and some trends.
4.2 DEFINING A COMPLEX SOCIETY

Technological advances from the stage of hunting and gathering to landing on the
moon have given birth to a technologically advanced complex society in modern times.
Described as 'complex societies', modern industrial nation-states are contrasted with
the simple societies in various important ways:
larger territory and population membership; Complex Societies
i)
ii) greater occupatio~laldifferentiation, and specialisation of work and social groups;
iii) advanced technology for production of consunier items, building of houses, work
places, etc;
iv) greater co-ordination in the management of the complex society;
v) quick rate of change in terms of consumer goods, forms of education, and so on;
vi) faster modes of inass communication, such as, radio, TV, computers internet etc.
Initially it was technological advances that ushered in change. Huge markets sprang
up, occupational opportunities and population increase created the nation-state. This
is far more inclusive in organisation than anything in simple societies.
Advanced Technology in Complex Society
4.2.1 Rural-Urban Dichotomy

Sociologists had earlier thought that there is a clear difference between the urban and
the rural community. However gradually this coilcept of rural-urban dichotomy
underwent change. Some sociologists found that there was as much individualism,
lack of understanding, fear and suspicion of strangers even among the villagers as it
existed in the urban life. The 'peaceful village' image of rural life took a severe blow.
These studies indicated that the happy community-type of existence in villages was not
a fact. Remarkably the concept of the urban community also underwent change in the
1950's. It was found that family and friends made life close, informal, and secure.
That is to say there does exist 'urban villages' in city life as well.
Undentrndina Sociology This aspect of complex societies is very puzzling. Moreover there exist people who
live in villages and work in towns. Neither the village nor the town can thus be thought
of as a stereotype. Close associationsor lack of them did not depend on the environment.
They were independent.
I
Activity 1
Closely examine the community in which you live and write a report of about one
page on the nature ofyour community in tenns of its level of urbanisation; whether
you will call it rural, urban or semi-urban and why?
Discuss your report with those of other students at your study centre.
4.2.2 Aspects of Community Life

One thing is clear from the above is that the rural and urban life in complex society is
not the opposite of one another. In fact it could no longer be assumed that environment
determined any one type of association. However this is not to say that rural and urban
populations do not have any differences.
Later studies stressed that:
i) social class and
ii) stage in family cycle were very important factors in the complex societies.
According to the studies, social class influences choice over where a person can stay
(live). Stage in family cycle determines choice of area within a social class. Thus
young parents in a social class do not have as much to invest as those who are older.
There are thus several constraints on where a person can live. The housing market
makes a cluster of similar social class and stage in family cycle.
Some sociologistspoint out that it is the group that is influenced-not the community as
such. They argue in favour of studying local social systems. They feel these should be
studied with reference to:
i) maintenance and establishment;
ii) modifying circumstances; and
iii) inter-relationshipswith national systems.
It was suggested that community ties and behaviours are very much linked to national
behaviour. Personal ties were believed to be decreasing to a very large extent. Thus
vertical links to the central decision makers are replacing the 'horizontal' local ties.
Thus the two are deeply inter linked, although community reflects the nation. Again
the analysis of economic factors has become very important in urban studies. Further,
it was felt that urban problems are not exclusively urban, e.g. slums and poverty.
Thus, it may be pointed out that community studies do help in studying social change.
However locality study gives more precise data for the same.
4.2.3 Types of Urbanisation

There are three types of urbanisation concept:
i) Over-urbanisation.
ii) Under-urbanisation.
iii) De-urbanisation.
The developing world is experiencingover-urbanisation. Cities are enclaves which are
surrounded by villages. They are also considered to be 'beach-heads' from which
economic growth and its benefits go out towards rural areas. Our view on over-
urbanisation is that metropolitan development is due to foreign capital. Thus, cities
are being exploited by the main powers of the developed world.
Such urban centres become exploiters of the rural areas near them. They are, however, Complex Societies
themselves dependent on industrial n a t i o n d o t h for economic and political dominance.
In this situation, manufacturing industry does not grow strong. The service sector is
over-emphasised. What results therefore is urbanisationwithout proper industrialisation.
Thus over-urbanisation implies that cities in the developing world are not industrialised
enough relative to population ratios. The picture indicates that the service sector has
a deep agrarian root.

1) What is a complex society? Describe in about five lines.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
2) List the three types of urbanisation. Use about five lines.
4.3 MODERN SOCIETY

Modern society is basically industrial. In such societies we find that technical skills
are valued very much. Unskilled labour is valued but much less so. All this is reflected
in the wage structure. Administration and management services are very prestigious.
Modern society has several features. These include:
i) profit-motive production by big capitalists;
ii) technological advances;
iii) high rate of urban populations;
iv) bureaucratic organisation; and
v) spread of education.
Thus modem societies, large organisations are very important, but they make interaction
impersonal. In coiltrast to over-urbanisation in the developing world, there is under-
urbanisation in Eastern Europe. This is in a sense the opposite case relative to over-
urbanisation. While the former is produced by industrialisation and Iow rural
employment opportunities, under-urbanisation is the result of extra or over
industrialisation, accompanied by a lack of support systems like housing. Thus, those
employed in urban areas could not be given housing by the state. Further, the free
market rate was too steep for the average person's budget. Workers thus have to traveI
a long way up and down to work. Only the higher strata people have chances of
possessing a house. The process of under-urbanisation puts the burden of
industrialisation on the less well-off sections of society.
The next aspect that we examine is that of de-urbanisation. In Britain since the late
seventies there has been a movement away from large urban towns to small towns and
[Jnderstrnding Sociology villages. There has thus been a ruralisation of urban/industrial relations. This is seen
as a result of the economic and industrial policies, which encourage such a process.
Such ruralisation is especially evident in advanced technology sectors.
In general therefore community remains an important factor. It helps to study change.
Even today the idea of a good community is very strongly present. However, the
connection between community and wider society must be kept in mind always.
Again in modern society kinship significance goes down in terms of expectations and
obligations. However, there develops a complex division of labour. There is a great
deal of specialisation inside a large organisation.
In m'odern society also there are many varieties of subcultures and counter-cultures,
eachrepresenting a section of people. These form around music, philosophy, or political
beliefs. Further we find that the arena of the sacred is relatively small in modern
society. On the other hand folk societies are much smaller and closely knit together.
There is little use of technology and the religious ethos is very strong. It presents to an
extent a picture opposite to that of modern society.
There are some other aspects to modem society. There is the view that what is emerging
is a mass society. That is a society in which small groups have no chance.
Psychologically people become superficial, and without any deep commitment.
Relationships are insecure and competitive.
In terms of politics that local groups are cut off from the mainstream. Job satisfaction
is rare and people do not feel a sense of belonging to the work place. Thus this discontent
is manipulated by politicians. Some sociologists however see only pluralism in these
situations. They feel that modern society offers unlimited choices to the individual.
Activity 2 I
Prepare a map of the city/town/village where you live. Identify residential colonies
and find out who are the people living in this colony, what is their social background
in terms of religion, language, class and caste. Write a report of one page and
discuss it with the other students at your Study Centre and also Your Academic
Counsellor.
4.3.1 Work in Complex Societies

Work in complex organisations means work that is paid. However work may not earn
monetary wage. It may be time consu ing and call for skill without being wage
productive, e.g. house repairs. In simp&ocieties, the tendency is often to be partial
towards leisure. Work is thus mental or physical action that has some end result. Thus
work has a wide range of being. In fact, among the complex societies leisure activities
have to some extent become a means of work and wage earning, e;g; cricket, football,
wrestling and tennis. The players earn their living providing a spectacle to the crowd.
Others are willing to pay for their playing. Thus employment or self-employment is
the main arena of work. People's leisure activities are also related to it.
4.3.2 Work Structures
Very often in simple societies work is deeply linked with family and religion. Bronislaw
Malinowski indicates that in the Trobriand Islands many day to day tasks were overseen
by a magician. Again what was produced agriculturally was distributed keeping kinship
obligations in mind. In such societies work is not separated from domestic activities.
This is true also of pre-industrial France. Here household members helped in every
way with the work on the farm. In contrast, complex societies have specific workers
or employees. These people have a common work place away from home. Their work
uses power and machinery and is supervised. Thus there is little job-freedom. Fixed
hours have to be worked without a let-up in effort.
The main attraction for the employees, in a complex society, is the wages they are paid. Complex Societies
They have to submit themselves to higher authorities (manager, supervisor, etc.) while
at work. All this is quite different from simple societies. Work rhythms that take
account of the worker's pace and stamina are almost non-existent. The question of not
following the routine doesn't arise. A few provisions are made for emergencies (casual
leave, medical leave, etc.) in government organisations. Lax rhythms or personally
oriented rhythms are obsolete now. In complex societies commercial offices stress
time keeping and ceaseless labour. Time keeping is part and parcel of capitalist and
modern work modes.
Gradually, these factors were no longer considered to be imposed upon the workers;
they themselves found it convenient. They were willing to work hard and to follow all
the rules. This attempt to make workers time conscious and hard working continues
till the present day. All these changes have met with some opposition. However, the
complex societies do realise that the standard of living has risen greatly. However,
some of the work has been both.mentally and physically exhausting. Alienation is a
modern day fact in social life of the complex societies. This is quite opposite of the
tribal situation, e.g. Kalahari Bushmen. Here the material wants were few and easily
met with. There was no tendency or opportunity to aggravate wants.
Thus some sociologists have pointed out that simple societies have had a better life. It
is not so mechanical and relentlessly time oriented. There is time enough for leisure.
However, hcomplex societies, the concept of 'leisure' time has taken another meaning.
Some institutions; eg. Companies, offices etc. give paid vacations to their employees,
special leave is given so that the productivity and capacity ofthe workers may improve.
Work has become a most vital aspect of life in complex societies and wage labour is an
important factor in the area of work. To get the work done is also considered a kind of
work. Some sociologists think that when work, as an employment-earning wages, a
social status and standard of living pervades all areas of life, as it does in a complex
society, people's attitudes become exceedingly commercialised. Some sociologists
even believe that in contemporary societies class can be understood in terms of
consumption. Thus, a person who consumes more or expensive items may be placed
in a higher class. The tendency of commercialisation can lead to conflicts among the
factors of economy. To illustrate this point we take the issue of conflict in industry.
4.3.3 Conflict in Industry

In industry, the employer has control over the employees' labour over a particular
time. The employer would like to use his employee in different capacity. Therefore, he
leaves the contract sufficiently vague. Nevertheless, (i) work conditions and effort; (ii)
technical qualifications; and (iii) responsibility are areas of management worker
discussions, and often disputes. Thus, work effort is always being discussed relative
to pay. The worker wants higher pay and facilities. The management however, wants
to maximise profits, and this includes keeping low wages and long hours of work for
the workers. The same problem exists with technical skill and pay. Again responsible
behaviour is sought after by management. The level of responsibility varies with the
level in an organisation. Higher positions carry higher responsibility-and higher pay.
This too afterwards becomes a bone of contention.
Further conflict areas exist when attempts are made to put machines to work and
remove workers. This is also called retrenchment of labour. It also exists when attempts
are made to control them very closely. Jobs can often be dehumanising and alienating.
The most.visible form of industrial conflict are legal or illegal strikes. However, other
methods require co-operation among workers to:
i) go slow;
ii) absenteeism; and
iii) sabotage.
Ilnderstaodinp Sociology These methods may not show much on surface but cause great damage to management.
Industrial conflict has most meaning when it is recognised by management as a just
step. This is rarely the case. Very often trade unions are not recognised by management.
The pluralist view of industrial conflict is that various groups may have many
complaints. Later, when changes are to be made, they have to participate in decision
making. Control over workers is a controversial issue as well. Further this control is
established through bureaucratic rules and regulations. Thus choices are extremely
limited and the feelings of being hemmed in are very strong. Industrial conflict is a
worldwide fact and injustices are in it. However, it is important to provide solution to
this area.
4.3.4 Employment and Women

In complex societies appreciable headway has been made on employment of women.
Women however remain separated from men in the work spheres. There is "horizontal"'
segregation in that women are mostly in clericaljobs, catering, receptionists, nursing,,
school teaching and so on. There is 'vertical' segregation also-for example relatively
few women reach top managerial positions, or skilled manual jobs. As such their
wages too are lower than those of men. As matters stand today anti-women job
discrimination is on the way out. It is no longer felt that a woman must stay at home:
and only do domestic work.
Further the concept of two incomes has gained popularity, since it raises the standard1
of living. The responsibility of raising the young however remains vested with women.
This is also true of domestic work. However; in most nuclear families in urban areas,
men do contribute to the domestic work in one way or the other out of choice or out of
compulsion. As such maternity leave is provided for in most jobs. Women also often
spend time with their young. Even there is a provision for paternity leave which can be:
availed by the would be father. But still, women as workers are taken less seriously
than men by employers. They are not often delegated to workshops, which increase
their skill. It is often felt that they have domestic interests which reduce work--
seriousness. This need not be true, however, that union meetings etc. are not conducive
to women's participation although communication and technology advancement is
bringing more and more women into the work force. In general work is still more male
oriented.

ii) Cornpar&your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Write a brief note in fivalines on conflict in industry in modern societies.
..............................................................................................................................
2) Provide a picture of women and employment in complex society, in about threie

lines.
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Complex Societies
4.4 POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY -
Post-industrial society is a combination of various dimensions or features. These features

separate it from the modem society. We will examine three of them here and two more
in the next section. The first important feature is:
i) Service Economy: In post-industrial society, agriculture and manufacturing do
not absorb a majority of the work force. Services and trade are the major av-
enues of employmeat and the governmentsare major employers. Today only the
U.S.A. shows indications of this stage. There are over 60 per cent work force
engaged in servicks. This is expected to go even higher.
ii) Professional and Technicians: In industrial societies blue collar and semi skilled
labour predominate. However in post-industrial societies professional and tech-
nical operators grow to dominate. A ned class structure begins to form the basis
of post-industrial society.
iii) Theoretical Knowledge: In post-industrialsociety, theoretical knowledge has a
crucial value. Scientificknowledge along with mathematics based social science
become very significant. In fact a shortage of scientificallytrained professionals
is felt. In providing this need universities gain a great deal of importance.
4.4.1. Further Features

Post industrial societies manifest two more features:
i) Technology Planning
In modem society, use of some technologies has proved to be harmful e.g. DDT is
affecting crops, birds, wild life. Nuclear energy generating plants are creating nuclear
wastes and accidents risks as in Chemobyl. USSR. Post-industrial societies have
technology assessment to prevent any harmful effects of the technology. Thus, the
government and people are much more aware of the possibility that the advance of
techilology can often lead to harmful side consequences.
ii) Intellectual Technology

A new intellectual technology will be crucial to post-industrial society. It is not the
machine technology of the modern age. Intellectual technology comprises management
and other techniques needed to organise. Vast use of computers and super computers
and new mathematics is crucial. Decisions regarding the actual use of advanced
technology rest with the politicians and not with the technicians. In this situation, the
economy may feature an all-out exploitation of the less-developed population. This
may lead to a revolution on the part of those exploited. Thus, the post-industrial
society may not last long or-else societies, both the developed as well a s the developing,
may take conscious steps to protect themselves from over exploitation of natural
environment and pollution.
4.4.2 Some Trends

Post-industrial society.depends for its emergence on the persistence of the present
trends. What happens if this does not happen? Let us consider some of these aspects
below:
i) State Tasks: These include saving and distribution of wealth equitably. Both
these are contradictory - for the latter means expenditure not saving of capital.
Higher taxes do not solve the problem. Education, medicine, insurance, all needs
great expenditure. Saving is not enough to meet them and a fiscal crisis arises.
ii) Cultural Change: Change may come culturally - not only in the economy but all
aspects of social life. The new young may find fulfilment outside their careers as
well as inside them.
Understanding Sociology iii) Ideologies: Post-industrialism regulates the big corporations strictly. It is a type
of 'state capitalism'. In other countries state socialism exists. Socialism should
lead to communal society, which eventually makes the state obsolete. However
this is not borne out by trends in modern communism. It is also felt by some
sociologists that bureaucracy needs to be replaced by communal structures.
Thus there is much speculation about future trends. Recently, however it is being
questioned whether progress alone is the future. Cannot there be devastation in a
global sense or regional nuclear holocaust? This factor has come in to create much
sobriety and stops utopic visions of the future from being readily accepted.
In the 21 st century, we have entered yet another era of social existence. This era is
referred to as the "information age" where global communicationthrough radio, T.V.,
Computer networks, satellites has changedthe very notion of social group or community.
People from different regions, societies, languages etc. can be part of an Internet group,
constantly in touch with each other and so on. Sources ofknowledge and its accessibility
through improved communication technologies has taken such a significant shape that
we can talk about a 'global' world today where development of any kind, be it social
cultural, political or economic; it affects all societies throughout the world in different
ways and different proportions. One example is the post September or 911 1 event in
America when in 2002 the World Trade Center (WTC) building was destroyed by two
aeroplanes carrying passengers. Thousands of people were killed. The tragedy was
immense but its socio-political implications are still being felt everywhere in the world.
1) List three features of post-industrial society. Use about four lines.
4.5 LET US SUM UP

- - - - - - - -
Itl this unit we have examined the notion of complex societies. We began with a
discussion on the features of complex societies. This involved taking into consideration
rural and urban aspects of community life. It also included a look at various forms
that urbanisation takes.
We studied modern society as a major form of complex society. We examined work
and its aspects within such societies. Industrial conflict and women's employment
were two important issues that we explained. Finally, we studied post-industrial societies
and what they are comprised of. This included studying the features and variouts
possible trends that complex societies might take in the future such as, the mediis
revolytions which has really made the world a global world. We have thus provided ;a
rounded view of complex societies.

1) Bell, Daniel, 1973. The Coming ofpost-industrial Society. Basic Books: New
York.
2) Worsely, Peter (ed.), 1987. The N e w Introducing Sociology. Penguin Books
Limited: Middlesex.
Complex Societies
4.7 KEY WORDS
I Absenteeism : When workers are not in the work place without being
I
I on any leave.
Alienation : A feeling of dissatisfaction and dislike for the job that
the worker is doing.
Contention : A dispute over something, e.g. wages for work, with the
. management.
Horizontal Segregation : Keeping one particular group apart within the similar
wage and status level.
Medicare : Medical treatment available to workers and others.
, Obsolete : No longer in use; out moded.
Stereotype : A generally held idea about something e.g. villages are
beautiful and peaceful places.
Vertical Segregation : Separating people at the top (or bottom) level from others,
e.g. owners, managers, and supervisors.
4.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) A complex society is one, which has high technological developments. Its
organisations are formal and its' complicated bureaucratic set-up is an important
feature of a complex society.
2) The three types of urbanisation are:
i) over-urbanisation;
ii) under-urbanisation; and
iii) de-urbanisation.

1) Conflict and disputes arise in industry in modern societies over
i) working conditions;
ii) required technical qualifications; and
iii) responsibility relative to pay.
2) A large number of women are employed in complex society. However, most of
them are in low-level jobs--clerical, receptionists, etc. Very few reach high
positions.

1) Three features of an industrial society are:
i) basically, a service economy, e.g. trade;
ii) dominance of professionals and technicians; and
iii) vast scientific knowledge.
REFERENCES
'References cited in Block 1 (These are given here for those students who wish to
follow up certain points in detail.)
Cooley, C.H., 1964. Primary Groups, In L.A. Coser and B. Rosenberg (eds.),
Sociological Theory, pp. 3 11-4. Collier-Macmillan; New York.
Ilnderstanding Sociology Durkheim, E., 1938. The Rules of Sociological Method, (Eng. Trans.), Gleneoe:
The Free Press: Gleneoe.
Forde, D., 1950. Double Descent among the Yako. In Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. and
Forde D. (eds.), Afvican Systems of Kinship and Marriage, Oxford University Press.
London.
Frazer, J.G., 1920. The Golden Bough, London: St. Martin. An abridged version
has appeared under the title Magic and Religion (1945), St. Martin. London.
Perry, d & Perry E. 1973. The Social Web,An Introduction to Sociology, Canfield
Press, San Francisco.
Stebbins, Robert A, 1987. Sociology, The Study of Society, Harper and ROW
Publishers,New Y ork.
UNIT 5 FAMILY
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
1 5.2 Definition of Family
I 5.2.1 Family as an Institution
5.2.2 Variations in Family Forms
5.2.3 Universal Nature of Family
5.2.4 Biological Basis of the Family
5.2.5 Common Residence and Nomenclature
5.3 Social Functions of the Family
5.4 Role of Family in Industrial Society
5.4.1 Importance of Family
5.5 LetUsSumUp
5.6 Key words
A study of this unit would enable you to:

define the term family;
explain the concept of family as one of the social institutions of society;
describe the various forms of family;
explain the nature and characteristics of family;
distinguish the social functions of family; and
describe the role of family in contemporary modern society.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, in Block 1 , we have taught you some basic concepts. We also
gave a good idea about simple and complex societies. In this unit we introduce you to
the definition of the family, family as a social institution and variations in the family
form. We also explain the biological basis of the family. Important features such as
social functions of the family, roles and the importance of the family in industrial
society are also brought out in this unit.
The basic unit of the social structure in every society is the family. This is as true
among simple societies as within the complex, modem societies. However, it varies in
internal organisation, in its degree of autonomy and in the sanctions and taboos by
which it is protected and perpetuated. Its universality, its persistence through time and
under widely variant cultures, and its necessity for biological and social reasons should
be an effective reply to the 'prophets of doom' who fear that the family is of less
significance today than in earlier times. The specific pattern of family life in any given
social structure is the product of the mores and varies with time and place and peoples.
Therefore, the family has been seen as a universal social institution, as an inevitable
part of human society. It is built around the needs of human beings to regularise
sexual behaviour and protect and nurture the young ones.
Croups and lnstittttions It is the unit in which resources are pooled and distributed for consumption, around
which residence is organised and domestic tasks are performed. The social organisation
is associated with such emotive issues as love, marriage, home and child bearing. It is
the family that gives us our principal identity our social status and even our very name,
which is the lable ofthis identity in the larger society ofwhich we are a part. This unit
will give you an idea about the family as a social institution, the discussion will be kept
at a sociological level.
5.2 DEFINITION OF FAMILY

The early.and classical definitions emphasised that the family was a group based on
marriage, common residence, emotional bonds, and stipulation of domestic services.
The family has also been defined as group based on marital relations, rights and duties
of parenthood, common habitation and reciprocal relations between parents and children.
Some sociologists feel that the family is a social group characterised by common
residence, economic co-operation and reproduction.
In recent times the concept of family is viewed in terms of certain criteria applicable to1
all societies. For instance, it is felt that the family is a primary kinship unit, which^
carries out aspects of the sexual, reproductive, economic and educational functions
Keeping in view these definitions, we generally picture a family as a durable association^
of husband and wifk with or without children, or a durable association of a man or
woman along with children. Thus, members in the family live together, pool their
resources and work together and produce offspring. A family is also viewed as an
adult male and female living together with their offspring in a more or less permanent
relationship such as marriage which is approved by their society. These definitions
point out the basics or the minimum essentials ofthe family as a special kind of social
grouping: (i) it involves a sexual relationship between adults of opposite sexes; (ii) it
involves their cohabitation or living together, (iii) it involves at least the expectation of
relative permanence ofthe relationship between them; and (iv) most i~nportantof all,
the relationship is culturally defined and societallysanctioned-it is a marriage. Marriage
and the family are not just something people become involved in on their own. Some
of the ways in which they must relate to each other are decided for them by their
society. It is a well known and recognised fact that marriage is the basis for the family.
Since reproduction and control over it has been the concern of all societies, marriage
as a legal institution becomes a crucial factor. Marriage is recognised as a special kind
of relationship since it is the one in which families arecreated and perpetuated, and the
family is the ultimate basis of human society.
3.2.1 Family as an Institution

In the previous block of this course, ESO-11 you learnt about social institution and
how family is one ofthe pivotal and most significant institution of all societies.
There are various forms of family found all over the world; but most sociologists anld
anthropologists agree that universally the most common features of a family is that lit
is composed of individuals related to each other by blood, marriage, or adoption.
Family, like any other institution of society forms around complex, socially significar~t
problems, solving the problems of social existence is critical to collective living in all
societies. George Murdock (1949; 4- 11) lists four important functions served by the
nuclear family, these functions serve to resolve four major problems of society.
According to him the nuclear family along with other social institutions, serves to:
i) regulate sexual relations;
ii) account for economic survival ;
iii) controls reproduction; and
iv) socialises children
Out of all these functions, some thinkers believe that socialisation of children is one of. Family
the most central tasks of the family. Thus, one can see that family, as an institution,
helps solve the problem of regulating sexual behaviour, surviving economically,
reproducing new members of society and socialising them to become effective members
of that society and culture.
5.2.2 Variations in Family Forms

The bewildering variety of family forms, noticed in societies throughout the world in
the col~rseof human history, is a cultural pl~enomenonof considerable interest. For
instance, wit11 regard to residence some societies are matrilocal in their marriage and
family ctlstoms, while others are patrilocal. I n the former case, the young married
coi~pletakes up residence at the home ofthe bride's parents, whereas, i n the latter type
t l ~ couple
e takes up residence at the home of the bridegroom's parents. Residence in
most parts of India is patrilocal in that it gives to the husband and not the wife the right
to choose the place of residence after marriage.
The'issue of descent as to who will be related to whom and how, is not as simple as it
might first appear. Those who are socially defined by a given society as "related", are
called kin. Therefore from the point of view of lineage, there are three different systems
for tracing descent. In a matrilineal society descent is traced through the female line,
and i n a patrilineal society through the male line. 1t is also common to trace descent
bilaterally in some societies.
From the point of view of authority, the pattern ofdominance and subordination and
decision-making in the family, two different patterns are visible in different societies.
These are patriarchy-male dominant; matriarchy-female dominant. Most of the
societies have the patriarchal pattern. However, in modern societies of today, social
and cultural change is tending to establish more equalitarian pattern ofdecision-making
in which authority is shared between the conjugal pair.
i) Nuclear Family ii) Extended Family 7

Groups and Institutions Yet another distinction is made between the conjugal family or family by marriage on
tlie one hand and consanguine family or family by blood on the other, based on the
membership type ofthe family. While the conjugal family consists of parents and their
children, the consanguine family is made up of either parent and the units' blood relatives,
such as, mother, her children, her parents or father, his children, his parents etc.
Finally, we can also classify families into nuclear and extended types based on the way
they are organised. The nuclear family consists of a married couple and their children.
Tlie extended family is commonly defined as the nuclear family plus all kin belonging
to either side, living together. It may be pointed out here that a consanguineous family
implies 'ties ofblood'. Ties of blood means the relationship between parents and their
children, between siblings; even cousins on both paternal and maternal sides. It implies
no'particular form.
5.2.3 Universal Nature of Family

As stated earlier,the family is tlie most permanent and pervasive of all social institutions.
There is no human society without any family system. All societies both large and
small, primitive and civilised, ancient and modern, have institutionalised the process
of procreation of the species and the rearing of the young. It is a permanent and
universal institution and one of the constants of human life.
However we need to point out here that the same type of family is not found everywhere.
There are several types of family. For example in tlie West the nuclear family is found.
This comprises tlie husband and wife together with their children. In Indian villages
and in small towns the extended orjoint family is found. In India, too, largely nuclear
families are found but often, amongst the better off families in villages, especially
where agricultural land is there or amongst the communities involved in brusiness and
trade, one often finds tlie large joint or extended family. This form of family has
people living in it oftwo, three or sometimes four generations under the same roof.
5.2.4 Biological Basis of the Family

The institution oftlie family is to be explained in terms of biological factor-the existence
of two sexes and the sexual character of reproduction in the human species. It appears
as a natural answer to the liuman sexual drive, a phenomenon solidly based in the
biology of the human organism. Family provides legitimacy to all these biological
activities with the support of marriage.
Tlie family is characterised by its limited size. Because of this characteristic feature,
family is identified as a primary group. It may include parents and their unmarried
children or parents and their married as well as unmarried children. The bonds that tie
together these limited number of members with limited common interests are the outcome
of emotional factors such as love, mutual affectio5afi$-ealicitude. This emotional
basis of the family makes it an ideally suitable primary social group in every society.
Activity 1
Examine the type of family in which you live, in terms of residence, emotional
attachment, household, size etc. and write a short essay on "My Family and its
Social Structure". Compare your answer with those of other learners at your
study centre.
5.2.5 Common Residence and Nomenclature

The family is one of the most durable of all social institutions. Each family has a
residence, an address and a name. We recognise any family with the help of the family
name, location and address. A family can mean two quite different things depending
uponthe vantage from which we view it. For instance, the family in whicli one is a
child is the family of orientation and the family in which one is a parent is the family Family
of procreation. Each family thus has common habitation for its living. Without a
dwelling place, the task ofchild bearing and rearing cannot be adequately met. However,
family as a co~icepthas a wider meaning than mere household since a family can be
spread out geographically sometimes but yet emotionally, socially and legally be known
as a family. For example, a married couple may be living in two different cities or their
children may be working somewliere else, even living in a different countrylcity; but
they think ofthemselves as one family.

Note: i) Use space below for your answers.
1) Ciive a definition of the family. Use around three lines.
2) What is the biological basis ofthe family? Discuss in about three lines.
5.3 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

The reasons for the endurance and ilniversality of the family are largely grounded in
the fi~nctions[hat it performs for individuals and for society. The major functions the
family acco~nplishesare discussed below:
i) Member replacement and physical maintenance

In order to survive, every society must replace members who die and keep the survivors
alive. The regulations of reproduction is centred in the family as are cooking and
eating and care of the sick. Once children are born, they will be nurtured and protected
within the family. It is the family that feeds, clotlies and shelters them.
ii) Regulation of sexual behaviour

The faini ly regulates sexual behaviour. Each and every member's sexual behaviour is
influenced to some extent by what is learned in tlfe family setting. The sexual attitudes
and patterns of behaviour we learn in the family reflect societal norms and regulate our
sexual behaviour. The sociological notion of sexual regulation should not be confused
with repression. The norms, on the other hand, specify underwhat conditions and with
what partners sexual needs may be satisfied.
iii) Socialisation of children

The family carries out the serious responsibility of socialising each child. Children are
taught largely by their families to conform to socially approved patterns of behaviour.
If the family serves society as an instrument for the transmission of culture, it serves
the individual as an instrument of socialisation. A family prepares its children for
participation in the larger world and acquaints them with the larger culture.
C ~ O U ~and
S Institutions iv) Status transmission
Individual's social ibentity is initially fixed by family membership by being born to
parents of a given status and characteristics. Children take on the socio-economic
class standing of their parents and the culture of the class into which they are born,
including its values, behaviour patterns and definitions of reality. In addition to
internalising family attitudes and beliefs, children are treated and defined by others as
extensions of the social identity of their parents. In short, family acts as a vehicle of
culture transmission from generation to generation.
v) Economic activity
Until recent times, the family was an important unit of both production and consumption.
The family produced most ofthe goods it consumed and consumed most of the goods
it produced. But today, modern families mainly earn incomes. Thus, their principal
function is that of the consumption of goods and services which they purchase. Because
of the production of income the provision of economic support for family members is
a major function ofthe modern family.
vi) Social emotional support

The family as a primary group is an important source of affection, love and social
interaction. Caring for family members does not end with infancy and childhood. It is
seemingly the nature of human beings to establish social interdependencies, not only to
meet physical needs, but also to gratify emotional and psychological needs for response
and affection as well as.
vii) Inter-institutional linkage

Each baby is a potential participant in the group life ofthe society. Family membership
in a religious, political, economic, recreational and other kinds of organisations typically
gives individuals an opportunity to participate in activities that might otherwise be
closed to
them. The family, then, not only prepares the individual to fill social roles and occupy
a status in the community, but also provides the opportunities for such activity. Some
institutions depend also on the way the family functions in this regard to insure their
own continuity and survival.

1) Briefly discuss, in three lines, one important function of the family.
5.4 ROLE OF FAMILY IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

Many sociologists feel that the family has lost a number of its fiinctions in modern
industrial society. Institutions such as business, political parties, schools, welfare and
recreational organisations, creche and play schools, now specialise in functions earlier
performed only by the family. This reduces the dependency ofthe individual on his or
her family and kin. The high rate of geographical mobility in industrial society decreases,
the frequency and intimacy of contact among members ofthe kin-family network. The:
relatively high level of social mobility and the importance of 'achieved' status in modem Family
society have weakened the importance of family and its extended form since it has less
to offer to its members.
5.4.1 Importance of Family

However, this does not mean that the family is declining in importance. It has in fact
become more specialised and its role is still vital. By structuring the personalities of
the young and stabilising the personalities of adults, the family provides its members
wit11 the psychological training and support necessary to meet the requirements ofthe
social syste~ii.111fact, the loss ofcertain functions ofthe famiIy has made its remaining
functions more important. The family's responsibility for socialisingthe young remains
i~nportantas ever. Even though tlie family has largely lost its functions as a unit of
production, it sti I1 maintains a vital econornic fhnction as a unit of consumption. Parents
of today are expected to do their best to guide, encourage, and support their children in
their educatio~ialand occupational choices and careers. Compared to the past, parents
are Inore preoccupied with their children's health and emotional well being. State
health and welfare provisions have provided additional support for the family and
made its members more aware oftlie importance of health and hygiene in the home. In
a nutshell, tlie family has adapted and is adapting to a developing industrial society. It
remains as a vital and basic institution in society.
Across tlie span of history, tlie form and organisation ofthe family have varied, but in
every social structure it has been a primary group and the basic unit of social
organisation. Through the family the individual is a person with status, and children
are reared and guided, and the cultural heritage is transmitted to succeeding generations.
Families may be organised in an amazing variety of ways. Although the family is
rooted in the biological nature of human beings, in human experience it is always a
social i~lstitutionwliicli is governed by cultural norms.
With the growth of industry and the rise ofcities, family life and family patterns have
cliai~ged.Tlie ecoiiomic functions are largely transferred to outside agencies. Increasing
e~npliasisis, however, placed on psychological values such as affection, companionship
and emotional security.
Tlie present is a period of transition. The family withstood the sweeping changes in the
cultural pattern and found ways to adjust to each new situation. It will continue to
survive, whatever further changes the future may bring.
Activity2
Take 3 generations of your family, either you, your parents and tlieir parents or
you, your children and your parents (wliichever is relevant to you). Ide~itifytwo
important changes in the emotional bond between different generations in your
family and make a note of it. Compare your answer with other students at your
study centre. Discuss this topic with your Academic Counsellor, as well.

ii) Cornpare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) What is the role of tlie family in industrial society? Use around five lines for
your answer.
Groups and Institutions Why is the family still important in industrial society? Use around five lines fc~r
your answer.
5.5 LET US SUM UP -

In this unit we have studied various aspects ofthe institutien of family. We began with
definitions of the family and then studied variations in family forms. This included
describing the biological basis of the family. The universal nature of the family artd
common residence and nomenclature therein were also described.
We then turned to a description ofthe social functions ofthe family. Following this the
role of family in industrial society is explained. This part also emphasised the importance
of the family and aspects of the industrial family.
5.6 KEY WORDS -

Conjugal family : Family in which the members consist of spouses
(married couple) and their children.
Consanguine family : Family in which the m.embers are related by descent
rather than by marriage.
Extended family : Family consisting of one or more married pairs, their
children and other near relatives.
Family of orientation : The family into which one is born.
Family of procreation : The family of which the person concerned is a parent.
Kin : Those who are related through descent or marriage.
Matriarchy : Family dominated by the mother as head of the
household.
Matrilocal : The practice whereby a married couple settles in t:he
home ofthe wife's family.
Mores : Ideas of right and wrong which require certain action
and forbid others.
Nuclear family : Family consisting of parents and their children only.
Patriarchy : Family dominated by the father as head ofthe household.
Patrilocal The practice whereby a married couple, settles in ithe
home ofthe husband's family.
-
1) Kapadia, K.M. 1966. Marriage and Family in India, Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
2) Sutherland, R.L., Woodward, J.L., and Maxwell, M.A., (editors), 1961. Intro-
ductory Sociology, Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, Delhi.
3) Murdock, G.P., 1949. Social Structure, Macmillan, New York.
Family
PROGRESS
1) The family can be defined as group based on
a) Marital relations
b) Parenthood
c) Common residence
2) The biological basis of family is explained due to the existence of two sexes and
reproduction. Further, it is the natural answer to human sexual urges.

1) One important function of the family is to transmit the parents' status to the
children. The children's social standing is related to the family.

1) The role ofthe family in industrial society has weakened quite a bit. Institutions
like schools, business houses, political parties, recreational organisations, etc.,
reduce the role of the family. So, also does the high level of mobility.
2) The importance of the family in industrial society cannot be under-estimated, It
still provides socialising functions, psychological training and so on. The family
still performs economic functions (support), which allows children to get on in
life.
UNIT 6 MARRIAGE
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Institution of Marriage
6.3 Forms of Marriage
6.3.1 Monogamy
6.32 Polygamy
6.3.3 Rules ofEndogamy and Exogamy
6.4 Mate Selection
6.4.1 Preferential Marriage
6.4.2 Love Marriage
6.4.3 Mate selection among Tribals
6.5 Changes in Marriage
6.5.1 Changes in the Forms of Marriage
6.5.2 Changes in Mate Selection
6.5.3 Changes in Age of Marriage
6.5.4 Changes in Marriage Rituals and Customs
6.5.5 Changes in Marriage:Goals and Stability
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Key words
6.0 OBJECTIVES
Afler studying this unit you should be able to:
explain the institution ofmarriage;
describe the various forms of marriage;
explain what is implied by mate-selection;
discuss changes that have taken place in the institution of marriage; and
explain marriage goals and stability in marriage.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will explain the institution of marriage. We will also explain various
aspects connected with it. This will include discussion on forms of marriage. Such
forms include monogamy, polygamy and rules such as those of endogamy and exogamy.
We have also described mate-selection as an important aspect of marriage. Some of
the related areas covered are love marriages, preferential marriages, and mate selection
practices among tribals. The last part deals with changes inmarriage, its forms, mate
selection practices, age at marriage, and so on. We thus provide a full picture of the
institution of marriage.
Marriage
6.2 THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE
Marriage is an important and universal social institution of society. As a social
institution, it provides a recognised form for entering into a relatively enduring
heterosexual relatio~ishipfor the bearing and rearing of children. It is thus primarily a
way of regulating human reproduction. This reproduction, however, also has a
sociological dimension. The right of sexual relationship, that universally accompanies
marriage, provides legitimisation to the children born in wedlock; this legitimacy is of
great importance in the matters of inheritance and succession. Besides, through marriage
there comes into existence the family, a relatively stable social group, that is responsible
for the care and training of children. In all these respects, then, marriage has historically
provided the institutional mechanisms necessary for replacement of social members
and thereby has been meeting the important prerequisites ofhuman survival and society's
continuance. However, these societal prerequisites do not encompass all the values
and goals of marriage.
In some societies, particularly in the industrialised western societies, the chief aim of
marriage is not only procreation but companionship, emotional, and psychological
support are equally emphasised. The idea of companionship in marriage as a main
feature, however, is a recent development. For the major part of human history, all
societies have emphasised marriage to be a social obligation. It is invested with several
familial, social and economic responsibilities.
t
Historically marriage has been found to exist in a wide variety of forms in different
I societies. Also it has been found to perform differing functions. Indeed, even the
I
manner in which marriage are to be obtained reveals an astonishing variety of
I modes and customs. There is an almost endless variety in nearly everything concerning
I marriage. This has led to several definitions of what marriage is.
6.3 FORMS OF MARRIAGE

As has just been pointed out, above, and in Unit 5, marriage has a large variety of
forms. These forms can be identified on the basis of the number of partners and rules
governing who can marry whom.
In terms of the number of partners that can legitimately enter into matrimony, we have
two forms of marriage, namely, monogamy and polygamy.
6.3.1 Monogamy
Monogamy restricts the individual to one spouse at a time. Under this system, at any
given time a man can have only one wife and a woman can have only one husband.
Monogamy is prevalent in all societies and is almost the universal form in all modern
industrial societies. Even where polygamy (see Key Words) is permitted, in actual
practice, monogamy is more widely prevalent. Due to constraints of financial resources
and almost an even balance between the ratio of men and women in the population, a
vast majority of individuals living in polygamous societies cannot have more than one
spouse at a time.
1 In many societies, individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the
first spouse or after divorce; but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the
, same time. Such a monogamous marriage is termed as serial monogamy. Most western
a societies practise serial monogamy.
A society may also practise straight monogamy, in which remarriage is not allowed.
Most upper caste Hindu females were obliged to follow the norm of straight monogamy
prior to the enactment of Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, as until then widows were
not allowed to marry again. These restrictions had not, however, pertained to men.
Groups and They were allowed to remarry after their spouse's death. However, in some lower
castes, widow remarriage was permitted. In such a remarriage usually the deceased
husband's brother was considered a preferred mate. This practice helped keep property
within the family. It is also called leviratemarriage.
Monogamy
6.3.2 Polygamy
Polygamy denotes marriage to more than one mate at one time and takes the form of
either: Polygyny (one husband with two or more wives) or Polyandry (one wife with
two or more husbands).
Whik monogamy is permitted in all societies, polygamy, in the form of polygyny, is
the preferred form in several societies. Murdock's research, based on an analysis of
283 societies, revealed that 193 of these were characterised by polygyny, 43 were
monogamous and only 2 practiced polyandry.
Prefetrential rules for the choice of wives/husbands are followed in some polygamous
societies. In certain societies males marry the wife's sisters, and females their husband's
brothers. Such marriages are termed as sororal polygyny and fraternal polyandry,
respectively.
Male
+
Female
ii) Polyandry Marriage
Female
+
Male
Polyyandry
Among polyandrous societies, "fraternal" polyandry is by far the most common. I11
these societies, a groups of brothers, real or classificatory, are collectively the husbands
of a woman. This kind of polyandry has been found by the researchers in various parts
oftlie world. Tibet has been described as the largest and most flourishing polyandrous
co~nrnunityby Prince Peter. Polyandry is reported to be widely prevalent among some
tribes in South India, Todas are considered a classic example of polyandrous people.
In North India some groups of Jats are reported to be polyandrous.
Usually where econo~nicconditions are harsh, polyandry may be one response of society,
since in such situations a single male cannot adequately support a wife and children.
Also, extreme poverty conditions pressurise a group to limit its population.
Activity 1
Which type of marriage has been frequently practiced by your family members
and friends and why? Write a short note on "Type of Marriage in My Community"
and discuss your note with other learners at your study centre.
6.3.3 Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy

All societies have prescriptions and proscriptions regarding who may or may not lnarry
whom. In some societies these restrictions are subtle, while in some others, individuals
who can or cannot be married, are more explicitly and specifically defined. Forms of
marriage based on rules governing eligibility/ineligibility of mates is classified as
endogamy and exogamy.
Endoga~nyrequires an individual to lnarry within a culturally defined group of which
he or she is already a member, as for example, caste. Exogamy, on the other hand, the
reverse of endogamy, requires the individual to marry outside of liis/her own group.
Endogamy and exogamy are in reference to certain kinship units, such as, clan, caste
and racial, ethnic or religious groupings. In India, even village exogamy is practised in
certain parts of north India.
i) Religious endogamy is one ofthe most pervasive fonn ofendogamy. Most religious
groups do not permit or like their members to marry individuals of other faiths.
In addition, various groups in the social hierarchy such as caste and class also
tend to be endogamous. Endogamy is avery i~nportantcliaracteristicof the Indian
caste system. Among Hindus, there are over three hundred casteslsub-castes and
each one of them is endogamous. Despite modernising trends in India, wliich
Groups and lnstitutions have diluted caste restrictions in many respects, inter-caste marriages are still
few and mostly limited to educated urban individuals. Although the norms of
caste endogamy were widely prevalent, Hindu scriptures by allowing anuloma
and pratiloma marriages, institutionalised,to a limited extent, inter-caste marital
alliances. The anuloma marriage permits an alliancebetweena lower class woman
and higher caste man, while the pratiloma marriage is an alliance between higher
caste woman and a lower caste man. The former is referred to by the sociologists
as hypergamy and the latter as hypogamy.
ii) Rules of exogamy among Hindus are very specific. Hindus are traditionally
prohibited from marrying in their own gotra, pravara and sapinda (gotra, pravara
and sapinda refer to a group of individuals assumed to have descended from a
paternal or maternal ancestor and are variously termed as clan, sib or lineage).
The Hindu Marriage Act (1955) forbids marriage between sapinda, and specifies
that marriage between two persons related within five generations on the father's
side and three on the mother's side is void, unless permitted by local custom.
The exogamic rule, prohibiting marriage between siblings (brother-sister) and parent-
child is followed in virtually all societies. Sexual relations between the members of an
elementary nuclear family (other than parents) are termed as incest.

1) Distinguish between monogamy and polygamy. Use about three lines.
2) Write a brief note on endogamy and exogamy. Use about four lines.
6.4 MATE SELECTION

The process whereby people choose marriage partners is called mate selection. While
in some societies, individuals are relatively free to choose their mate from the 'field of
eligibles', in some other societies those getting married have almost no say regarding
wlrom they wish to marry. Even in the former situation individuals are not entirely free
to choose their mates. Culture and social pressures, in subtle or explicit ways, do
influence choice.
In all societies there is some notion of a 'good match'. Further, within endogamous
limits also, certain relationships are preferred. Thus, mate selection is usually influenced
by considerations of 'good match' and preferential mating.
In India, considerations of caste, religious and family background have traditionally
been of great importance i2 selection of mates. In addition, looks of the girl and her
competence as housewife, are also considered to be important. In urban middle class
families, the earning capacity of the girl is also given considerable weightage, these
days, in the selection of a bride.
Marriage
6.4.1 Preferential Marriage
While some societies prohibit marriage between certain categories of relations (kins),
other societies permit or even require certain kind of relatives to get married to. Thus
marriage with particular cross cousins (father's, sister's or mother's brother's offsprings)
are approved or permitted in many societies. Among Arabs and Muslims in India,
marriage between parallel cousins (child of father's brother or mother's sister) is
common. Possible reasons for permitting or preferring cousin marriages are: (a) family
wealth is not dispersed as it remains within related family groups; and (b) relationships
do not fade away as they are constantly renewed among offsprings of related families.
i) Marriage arrangements
In some societies, the decisions regarding mate selection are made by parents1relatives;
in some other societies individuals are relatively free to choose their own mates. Marriage
arrangements thus tend to follow two patterns, namely, parent arranged (arranged
marriage) and self-choice (love marriage)
ii) Arranged marriage

Traditional societies like India, where extended family network has been crucial,
arranging marriage has been the concern of parents and elders. In additions, gains in
terms of family prestige, economic prosperity and power (especially in affluent families)
have also been sought through 'proper' marriage alliances. Consequently, marriage
has been considered to be a serious matter which could not be left to the 'fancies' of the
immature. As such, in traditional societies 'arranged' marriages have been the norm.
Such marriages have also been unavoidable because in these societies there used to
exist rigid sex-segregation, due to which marriageable young girls and boys could not
come together and know one another. Even today, heterosexual intermingling is not
widely prevalent, and young people especially girls, themselves, seem to prefer arranged
marriages, which saves them from many psychological tensions which modern youth
undergo in mary ofthe western societies.
However it should be remembered that arranged marriages are rarely forced marriages;
the needs and preferences ofthe young people getting married are not entirely ignored.
6.4.2 Love Marriage

In the western urban-industrial method of mate selection, individuals go through the
process of dating and courtship, they make selections, based on the consideration of
feelings for one another. This is termed as 'love marriage' by AsiansIIndians. For, in
such marriages, mate choice is done by the individuals concerned on grounds of mutual
affection and love, rather than on pragmatic considerations of social status, wealth or
other familial advantages. These 'love marriages' stress the individual's supreme
right to love and be loved in a romantic-sensual sense. Such love is considered as the
essence of happiness in marriage.
There is an important difference between love marriage and arranged marriage. Whereas
in the latter at the individual's level one has vague expectations from marriage (in fact,
individuals enter into it primarily for performing their social duty), in self-choice
marriage there are great expectations of happiness and companionship from one's
partner in marriage. However, these are not very easy to attain and retain in day-to-
day life after marriage, where practical problems of existence confront the couple.
Mature personalities are able to adjust to this gap between dream and reality. The less
mature find it difficult to adjust. At times the gap between fantasy of romantic love
and exigencies of practical life is so wide that the strain becomes impossible to bear
and marriage ends in a failure.
,
Croups and Institutions Evidently such marriages involve a risk, and since the partners entering such a union
had not done so for familial or social reasons, the love marriage tends to be more
fragile than the arranged marriage. Many of the love marriages become unstable not
so much because of the mistaken selection but because of non-fulfilled expectations in
marriage.
- - - - -
Activity 2
Try to arrange a debate cum discussion with students at your study centre on the
topic of "Love Marriage Versus Arranged Marriage in the Contemporary Urban
Society; and Why?'Request your Academic Counsellors to Co-ordinate the debate.
6.4.3 Mate Selection among Tribals

Though premarital relationships among tribals are tolerated, and self-selection is
permitted, all regular marriages are parent arranged. Even marriage by 'capture' is
effected, in some tribes, at the instance or connivance of parents. Irregular marriages
are effected through elopement, intrusion or forcible application of vermilion, all of
which are eventually accepted by the parents and the families concerned, as signifying
wedlock. In practice various other forms of mate selection are in existence. The more
important among these are discussed below.
i) Selection by purchase and service

Mate selection 'by purchase' is the most prevalent practice. In this. bride-price has to
be paid to the girl's parents. The amount of bride-price rates from a nominal price (as
in case of Regma Naga) to such a high price (as in case of Ho) that many young men
and women have to remain unmarried.
Some tribes (Gond) have found a way out of the high bride-price. The would-be
groom lives and works in his would-be father-in law's house as a suitor-servant for a
number of years before he can ask for the girl's hand in marriage.
Another way of avoiding the payment of bride-price is through an exchange of girls1
women among eligible families.
ii) Youth dormitories

Tribes having youth dormitories provide a wide scope for the youth to choose their
mates. Therefore, marriage by mutual consent with parents approval has been the:
gqneral practice. Where parents object, elopement is a solution. Eventually the parents
welcome the couple's return.
iii) Selection by capture

Mate selection 'by capture' has been a feature of Naga, Ho, Bhil and Gond tribes.
Among Nagas, female infanticide was resorted to because of fear of raids for bride
capturing. Among the Gond capture takes place often at the instance of parents of the
bride and amongst the Ho it is prearranged. Besides physical capture, there is also a
ceremonial capture. Among Central Indian tribes peaceful captures are effected on the
occasion of certain inter village festivals.
iv) Selection by trial

Mate selection by trial also exists among some tribals. A young Bhil has to prove his
prowess before he can claim the hand of any girl. This is generally done through is
dance game. On Holi festival, young women dancers make a circle around a tree or
pole on which a coconut and gud are tied. The men folk make an outer ring. The trial
of strength begins when a young man attempts to break the inner circle in order to
reach the treelpole. The women resist his attempt with all their might; and in case the
man is able to reach tlie tree and eat the gud and break open tlie coconut. He can Marriage
choose any girl from the surrounding inner circle, as his wife.
Cases are reported among some tribals, where a girl desirous of marrying an unwilling
mate thrusts herself on him, bears all humiliations and harsh treatment till the man
yields. Such a marriage is termed as marriage by intrusion.
In addition to the above-mentioned ways of mate selection, probationary marriages are
also reported among tlie Kuki, who permit ayoung man and woman to live together at
the girls home for some weeks, and then decide whether to get married or not. In case
they decide to separate, the young man has to pay cash compensation to the girl's
parents.

1) Explain what is meant by preferential marriage. Use about three lines for your
answer.
2) Explain with examples how mate selection is done among tribals. Use about
three lines for your answer.
6.5 CHANGES IN MARRIAGE

Industrialisation and urbanisation have ushered in changes which have profoundly
affected the institution of marriage all over the world. While different societies, and
within each society defferent groups, have responded differentially to industrialisation
and urbanisation, nonetheless certain common trends in the changes affecting marriage
are discernible.
6.5.1 Changes in the Forms of Marriage

Societies with traditions of plural marriages are turning towards monogamy. Due to
the general improvement in the status of woman and her gradual emancipation from
the clutches of inale dominance, even in those societies where polygamy is permissible,
incidence of polyga~nousmarriages, and plurality of wives, are on the decrease. I11
India, tlie Hindu Marriage Act has banned both polygynous and polyandrous marriages.
Even in a Muslim country like Pakistan, legislation was introduced making it necessary
for tlie kazi to solemnize plural marriages only ifthe first wife gave her written consent.
The trend towards monogainy has also been encouraged by the new idea of romantic
love as the basis for marriage propogated by the western societies. It is a marriage in
which one specific individual is considered to be the ideal partner.
However, it would perhaps be wrong to assume that this trend towards monogamy is
also towards straight monogamy. While conditions in modern society have made
marriage unstable and the marriage bond is revokable, individuals are willing to risk
another marriage in order to find happiness. Parents and-friends too are sympathetic
in this matter. Hence, societies are likely to move towards the condition of serial
monogamy, rather than maintain straight monogamy.
Groups and Institutions
6.5.2 Changes in Mate Selection
In traditional societies like India, where mate selection was entirely a prerogative of
parents and elders, a dent has been made. Young men and women are increasingly
being given some say in the matter of mate selection. From a position in which they
had no say whatsoever concerning whom they were to get married to, a stage has now
come in which the concerned individuals are consulted and their consent obtained. In
urban middle class families, sons and daughters have even come to enjoy the right to
veto marriage proposals initiated by others. In the more advanced and enlightened
urban families, parents are now giving opportunities to their children to become
acquainted with prospective mates. "Dating" a practice in which a boy and a girl meet
each other to get to know each other and enjoy themselves with relative freedom is a
phenomenon which can be seen in different colleges and universities of predominantly
metropolitan cities in India. It is again an imitation of the Western Society and is the
result of exposure of people to Western culture to a far greater extent than it was
earlier.
In India, mate selection through newspaper advertisement has become quite a popular
practice among urban middle classes and the latest development is the reported
harnessing of the servicesof computers in bringing potentially compatible mates together.
6.5.3 Changes in Age of Marriage

In India where, traditionally, child marriages were prescribed, preferred and encouraged,
various efforts were made by social reformers to bring this practice to an end;
accordingly, the Child Marriage Restraint Act, popularly known as the Sarda Act, was
passed in1929. However, early marriage continues, in spite of the impact of modern
industrialisation and urbanisation, especially among the rural people. In urban areas,
too, there was a strong tendency to get a daughter married off as soon as possible.
But with increasing enrolment of girls in schools and colleges, and their desire to take
up employment, along with the problems of 'settling down7in life for the vast majority
ofboys, the age at marriage is perforce being pushed up. Further, as part of its population
policy, the Government has now prescribed the minimum age of marriage as 18 years
for girls and 20 years for boys. In urban areas, however, marriages are now generally
taking place beyond these prescribed minimum ages.
6.5.4 Changes in Marriage Rituals and Customs

Contemporary changes in India present us with a paradoxical situation. With greater
intrusion of technology and science, it was expected that a secular-scientific outlook
would emerge and, consequently, the non-essential rituals and customs have always
pleaded for avoiding of wasteful expenditures on meaningless customs and rituals.
But observation indicates that, contrary to the expectations of enlightened people,
marriages in India are tending to become more traditional insofar as the ritual-custom
complex is concerned. Today, there is a revival of many rituals and customs, which,
soon after independence, appeared to have become weak. To an extent, this revival is
a function of affluence. Many people in society have a lot of money to spend lavishly
on weddings, and there is a tendency among the not-so affluent to imitate the affluent.
6.5.5 Changes in Marriage : Goals and Stability

It was seen earlier that procreation has been the most important function of marriage in
traditional societies. In all communities, a large number of children, bestowed lligher
status upon parents and among Hindus sons were particularly desired. Thus, a large-
sized family was one of the cherished goals of marriage, and the blessings showered
upon the bridal couple included good wishes for several children.
But modern conditions of life have made a large family burdensome; in fact, even
1 those with three or four children are being disfavoured.
I Several developing Countries are seized of the problems that exploding populations
can cause and are, therefore, committed to encouraging the small family norm.
Restriction of family size is tlie declared official policy of many oftliese. India, in fact,
was the first country to adopt an official family planning programme. In those Asian
and African countries where there are democratic governments, through vigorous
education efforts, citizens are being made to realise and accept the advantages of limited
procreation.
China has also adopted a very strict population control programmes which involves
certain disincentives and punishments for couples that do not restrict procreation.
15 All these efforts are gradually influencing the values of people in !ndia, and other
couritries. It is being realised that it is better to have about two healthy and well-cared
for children than a large number who cannot be adequately fed, clothed or looked after.
As procreation, and along witli it parenting role, are tending to become less important,
other filnctions like companionship and emotio~ialsupport from the spouse and children
are beco~ningthe more important goals of marriage. In fact, the younger people today
are entering matrimony for happiness and personal fulfilment.
The conditions causing marital instability are likely to worsen rather than improve in
the filture. Our outlook, values arid ideals pertaining to marriage are also undergoing
change. What then is the future of marriage? Predictions concerning social life are
difficult and risky. But, there appears to be little chance that marriage, as a major
event in individual and social life will ever be given up and abandoned. If evidence
from western societies is any guide, high rates of divorce will not automatically deter
people fro111getting married. Notwithstanding marital instability, tlie individual's quest
for finding happiness in marriage will continue.

Note: i) Use space below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answers witli those given at the end of this unit.
1) Comment briefly upon changes in the forms of marriage. Use about five lines
for your answer.
2) Describe how the goals and stability of marriage are changing. Use about five
lines for your answer.
Croups and Institutions
6.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit various practices related to the institution of marriage were discussed. We
have presented the institution and forms of marriage early in the unit. These indicate
the wide differences in marriage practices and procedures. Our discussions on mate
selections indicate that society and social rules are based upon different aspects of
marriage. In many cases marriage happens within a very narrow choice. Finally we
have indicated how marriage as an institution has been changing. This shows that
marriage itself is a dynamic institution, always undergoing modification.

1) Gore, M.S., 1965. "The Traditional Indian Family" in M.F. Nimkoff (ed.),
Comparative Family Systems, Houghton-Mifflin: Boston.
2) Kapadia, K.M., 1966. Marriage and Family in India, Oxford University Press:
Mumbai.
- -
6.8 KEY w ornpp

Endogamy : When marriage is within a specific caste, class or tribal group.
Exogalply : When marriage occurs outside a certain group of relations.
Monogamy : When marriage involves one husband and one wife alone.
Polygamy : When marriage involves more than one mate at one time.
Polyandry : When more than one man is married to a woman.
Polygyny : When more than one woman is married to a man.

PROGRESS
1 ) In monogamy there is one husband and one wife. In polygamy there is more than
one mate at one time. Polygamy has two sub-types: polyandry and polygyny.
2) Endogamy requires that a person marries within a clearly defined group. He or
she is forbidden to marry outside it. Exogamy requires that a person marries
outside a particular group. There is a certain group within which a person should
not marry.
1) Preferential marriage refers to that type of marriage, which defines, whom we
should marry. Such marriages are common in South Indian (Cross cousins) and
among Muslims (Parallel cousins)
2) Mate selection among tribals is done in several ways. These include; (i) by
purchase of bride, (ii) youth dormitories; (iii) selection by capture of bride; (iv)
by athletic trial of bridegrooms.
1) The forms of marriage are undergoing change. Societies with a tradition of plural
marriage are turning towards monogamy. In this way women's place in marriage
has improved. However, remarriage for another partner is now acceptable. Thus,
serial lnonogamy is becoming a generally accepted practice.
2) In earlier times marriage had procreatio~las one of the main objectives. Today
the goal is a small family and the drive is to restrict family size. Couples are now
entering marriage with the hope of personal and emotional fulfilment. This makes
for very high expectations on the part of both, husband and wife.
UNIT 7 KINSHIP
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Significance of Kinship
7.3 Basic Concepts of Kinship
7.3.1 The Principles of Descent
7.3.2 Types of Descent
7.3.3 Functions of Descent Groups
7.3.4 Inheritance Rules
7.3.5 Rules of Residence
7.3.6 Patriarchy and Matriarchy
7.4 Descent Systems - Further Details
7.4.1 Patrilineal Descent
7.4.2 Matrilineal Descent
7.4.3 Nayars of Kerala: An Illustration
7.4.4 Other Matrilineal Communities
7.5 Kinship in India
7.6 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Keywords
7.0 ' OBJECTIVES

After you ha.ve read this unit you should be able to describe:
' the significance of kinship;
the basic concepts of kinship;
the principles of descent;
the types of descent; and
kinship system in India.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be giving you the basic aspects of kinship. We explain the significance
of kinship in social life. We then define the basic concepts of kinship. These include
the concepts of descent, inheritance, residence rules and sp on. Next we take up
descent systems, including the patrilineal and the matrilineal systems. Finally, we deal
with kinship modes in India. This unit provides a broad idea about the concept of
kinship.
7.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF KINSHIP

The kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives, either, by virtue of
a blood relationship technically called consanguinity, or by virtue of a marriage
relationship, that is through what is called affinity.
Groups and Institutions Most of us tend to regard the kinship system into which we are born and in which we
are reared as natural. It will seem natural and right to us that certain close relatives
should be tabooed as marriage and sexual partners, and we feel quite certain that
disastrousconsequences would follow any infringement of the taboos. We inay similarly
think it natural that certain classes of persons he preferred as marriage partners, or we
may on the contrary think it very unnatural that a114 persons be so designated.
We all have very strong ideas, too, about what is the correct and proper behaviour of
different kin towards each other-deference, respect, familiarity, avoidance, kindliness,
protectiveness, and so on, as the case may be. All such aspects of kinsliip relations
tend to be taken for granted unless, or until, one is confronted with the kinship practices
of other peoples. Initially, different practices may appear as disgusting or inhuman,
exotic or fantastic, strange or primitive, etc. Earlier anthropologists spent a great deal 4
of labour on trying to work out tlie various stages through which they believed kinship
systems had progressed in the course of human history. However strange other peoples'
kinship practices may at first appear to be, a closer look will usually show them to be
fi~nctional.They are useful for the maintenance of the society as a whole, contributing
to its continuity over time and containing the conflicts that might potentially disrupt it.
This is not to say that all practices are for the best for all members of the society and
for all time. One certainly need notjustify customs like sati, female infanticide, child
marriage, amniocentesis or killing of the female foetus etc. One would here try to
understa~idhow these practices are (or were) consistent with the principles and values
at work in the wider society.
7.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF KINSHIP

We have already made tlie general point that kinship relations are the outcome of the
culti~ralinterpretation of relations given in nature, and discussed some of the different
ways in which sociologists have looked at the kinship system. In doing so, we have
indirectly introduced some of the basic terms and concepts in kinship studies, which
we will now set out more systematically. You certainly do not need to memorise this
rather overwhelming set oftech~iicalterms, but you should try to understand the basic
principles and distinctions that these key terms seek to convey.
7.3.1 The Principles of Descent

Descent is the principle whereby a child is socially affiliated with the group of his or
her parents. In some societies the child is regarded as a descendant equally of both the
father and the mother, except that titles and surnames are usually passed down along
the 111aleline. Such a system is termed Bilateral or Cognatic. The individual belongs
simultaneously to several descent groups - those of the two parents, the four
grandparents, the eight great-grandparents, and so on. This link is limited only by
liiemory or by some conventionally determined cut-off point at, say, four or five degrees 1
removal. In small intermarrying communities, membership will probably overlap, and
in case of dispute or feud, the individual might find his or her loyalties divided. There
are some cognatic systems where the individual has the right by descent to membership
of several cog~iaticallyrecruited groups, but this right is actualised only if the person
is able to reside in a particular group's territory. Modern nationality iaws often make
this type of requirement.
7.3.2 Types of Descent

In other societies, by contrast and your own is most probably one of them-descent is
reckoned UNILINEALLY, that is, in one line only. The child is affiliated either wit11
the group of the father, that is, PATRILINEAL DESCENT, or with the group of the
mother, that is, MATRILINEAL DESCENT. Theories ofthe physiology of procreation
and conception often correlate with these different modes of reckoning descent. In the Kinship
former, the father is often given the primary role in procreation while the mother is
regarded as merely the carrier ofthe child; in systems of the latter type the father's role
may not be acknowledged at all.
Additionally, in some societies one finds that the child is affiliated to the group of
either parent, depending on choice, or to one parent for some purposes (for instance,
inheritance of property) and to the other parent for other purposes (for instance, the
inheritance of ritual or ceremonial roles). This is called DOUBLE UNILINEAL
DESCENT.
The principle ofunilineal descent provides the individual an unambiguous identification
with a bounded social group that exists before he or she is born and that has continuity
after he or she dies. Members of a descent group have a sense of shared identity, often
referring to each other as 'brother ' and 'sister' even when no genealogical relationship
can be traced. Descent groups are also very often, (though not inevitably), characterised
by exogamy. That is, marriage must be with persons outside this group. For instance,
traditional Chinese society was divided among approximately a hundred 'surname'
groups-you could perhaps call them CLANS-within which marriage was disallowed,
and these groups further divided into LINEAGES, whose members claimed to be able
to trace their descent, perhaps for several hundred year, form a founding ancestor, and
then into further localised SUBLINEAGES and so on down to the individual co-resident
families. Soinetimes a whole village might be settled by members of a single lineage.
The gotras of Indian caste society are also exogamous descent groups, segmented in
rather the same way.
1 Activity 1
I
Interview or discuss with some members of your family and prepare a chart
indicating five generations of your family on your fathers' side or mothers' side
whichever is relevant to you. Write a note of one page on "The kinship structure of
My Family". Discuss your note with other students and Academic Counsellor at
your study centre.
7.3.3 Functions of Descent Groups

Apart froin the function of exogamy, unilineal descent groups tend to be 'corporate' in
several other senses. Their members may often come together for ritual and ceremonial
functions, for instance, for collective worship of lineage gods, totems or ancestors.
The descent group will have a built-in authority structure, with power nor~nallyexercised
by senior males, and it may well own corporate property. An individual's economic
rights and responsibilities will be defined by his or her position in the descent group.
I 11 many societies
unilineal descent groups are also jural units, internally deciding their own disputes,
L and externally acting as a unified group in the conduct of feud, etc. For this reason,
lineage structure is often coterminous with the political structure in societies lacking a
centralised state structure.
Lineages cannot expand indefinitely in a single locality and often segment into smaller,
more manageable and economically viable lineage segments. You can see the lines of
segmentation of the ground, as it were. Consider the pattern of land ownership in an
Indian village; or at the pattern of village or urban settlement; aparticular quarter of
the village or town may be inhabited by the descendants of a single founding ancestor.
Often, the large havelis divide among brothers or step-brothers, and these quarters are
further divided amolig their descendants. In case a line dies out, the property would be
reconsolidated.
Groups and Institutions Given the range of social functions that descent groups may potentially perform, it is
little wonder that concern with the principles of unilineal descent has dominated the
work of many students of comparative kinship. However, even these scholars realise
that unilineal descent is not the whole story. In ancient Rome, women after marriage
severed all contact with their natal group. In certain slave societies, the slave has no
'family' of his or her own. In patrilineal systems, the mother's father, mother's sister,
and especially the mother's brother, are important relationships which need
further discussion. To take note of the importance of relationships, the scholars
have identified another principle. This has been termed the principle of
COMPLEMENTARY FILIATION which explains the significant ritual and social
roles of the mother's brother(s) in the lives of their sister's children. It reminds us that,
in most societies, an individual is a child of both parents, however descent is formally
reckoned.
7.3.4 Inheritance Rules

Rules of inheritance tend to co-ordinate with the reckoning of descent in most societies,
but not necessarily in a one-to-one manner. In fact, it is quite often the case that certain
types of property pass from father to son, and other types form mother to daughter. In
most parts of India, in the past, immovable property such as land and housing, was
inherited only by sons. In the absence of sons, except under rare circumstances, by the
nearest male relatives on the father's side. One the other hand, movable property in
the form of cash and jewellery was given to the daughter at the time of her marriage,
with a certain amouqt of jewellery also passing from the mother-in-law to the
daughter-in-law.
In addition to property of various kinds, rights and obligations, esoteric knowledge,
crafts and skills, etc., might be passed on in accordance with kinship roles, succession
to office to chieftainship, kingship, etc.-and to other social roles and statuses, is also
very often determined by kinship criteria. In such cases, the individual's status is said
to be 'ascribed', not 'achieved'. It is commonly asserted that ascriptive status of
'
1
modern, industrial societies. There is a great deal of truth in this statement, but one
should not underestimate the importance of kinship connections in modern
societies too. Often one finds that in a family if father is a doctor or lawyer the son or
daughter is also likely to choose the same occupation. Most ofthe Indian women who
have been successful in the political domain are either daughters, sisters or wives of
people who have been active in politics. One such example is the Nehru family of
India.
7.3.5 Rules of Residence

Rules of residence, meaning residence after marriage, are an important variable in a
kinship system, and substantially affect the quality of personal relations within the kin
network. Ifhusband and wife set up their own independent home after marriage, as is
usually the case in modern western society, residence is said to be NEOLOCAL.Where
the wife goes to live with the husband in his parents' home, residence is described as
VIRILOCAL, PATRILOCAL, or PATRIVIFULOCAL, and where the husband moves
to iive with the wife, it is termed MATRILOCAL or Rules of residence may or may not
'harmonise' with the rules of descent. On the whole, patrilineal descent systems correlate
with either neolocal or patrivirilocal residence patterns. However, matrilineal
descent systems may be combined with all three types of residence. It is also Combined
with what is called AVUNCULOCAL residence, that is, residence with the motller's
brother.
Kinship
ILLUSTRATION : I different types of Residence
(i) Neolocal (ii) Patrivirilocal (iii) IUatrilocal
NEOLOCALc RESIDENCE
I
PATRlVlRlLOCAL
I
MATRILOCAL
4 - fgj B I
MAN WOMAN MARRIAGE MALE FEMALE OFFSPRING
Legend:
7.3.6 Patriarchy and Matriarchy

A society is said to have a patriarchal structure when a number of factors coincide, i.e.
when descent is reckoned patrilineally, when inheritance of major property is from
father to sol;, when residence is patrilocal, and when authority is concentrated in the
hands of senior males. There is, however, no society on earth, nor any society actually
known to have existed, whose features are the exact reverse of these. For even in
matrilineal,matrilocal systems, which are fairly rare, major property is usually controlled
by males. And authority is normally exercised by males, though women may well
have a higher status in the family and greater powers of decision-making than in the
patriarchal set up. Some anthropologists assert that in societies with very simple
technology and minimal property, relations between the sexes are relatively egalitarian,
whether descent is formally matrilineal, patrilineal or bilateral, but others insist that
women, and children, have played subordinate roles in all human societies.
Forthis reason, the term 'matriarchy', though often found in the literature, is probably
a misnomer, best avoided, and there is certainly no conclusive evidence to support the
view that matriarchy was a universal early stage in the development of kinship systems.

1) What is the principle of descent? Explain in one line.
2) Explain the types of descent. Use about three lines for your answer.
7.4 DESCENT SYSTEMS-FURTHER DETAILS

The patrilineal descent systems of India have many of the features noted in similar
groups elsewhere. A boy at birth becomes a member of his descent group, and a
coparcener (partner) in a joint estate. A girl, by contrast, is only a residual member of
her natal group: at merriage she is incorporated into her husband's descent group and
ultimately (i.e. after her death) offered worship by their male descendants. Residence,
as we have already noted, is usually partilocal.
The descent group may participate in joint rituals such as the worship of certain deities
and ancestor worship, and will observe mourning restrictions, in various degrees,
following a death in the family. It may also own a certain amount of common property.
Immovable property such as land and housing is inherited in the male line only (of
course, we are speaking here of the traditional system, before the several changes
sought to be brought about by post-independence legislation). Whereas daughters are
given goods, cash and jewellery as 'dowry' at the time of marriage. The descent group
has an in built authority structure based on generation and age. Senior members have
the authority to settle disputes within the kin group, and to represent the group\in its
dealing with outsiders.
7.4.1 Patrilineal Descent

Taken together, the above mentioned features approach the 'patriarchal' model of society.
This has patrilineal descent, patrilocal residence, inheritance from father to son, and
authority in the hands of seniors as against juniors, and males as against females. A
number of social practices testify to the fact that a woman's only legitimate roles are
those ofwife and mother. Spinsterhood and widowhood are inauspicious and unenviable
conditions. A girl is regarded as merely a guest in her natal home and, initially at least,
as a rather threatening outsider in her marital home. The poignancy of the transition
between these two locales and these two statuses is captured in folklore and folksongs
with which you are probably familiar.
The patrilineal systems of the south are not so markedly patriarchal as those of the
north. Also a wplnan after marriage continues to have materially and psychologically
important relations with members of her natal group. This is more so with her parents
and her brothers, and the residual right to maintenance in their estate in adverse
circumstances. And in many other partilineal systems, the mother's brothers have
significant ritual and social roles in the lives oftheir sister's children, and an especially
tender and affectionate relationship with them.
Further modifying the starkly 'patriarchal' picture a number of social anthropologists,
speaking comparatively, have also drawn attention to the fairly substantial property
that devolves on a daughter at her marriage. Others, however, insist that this property
cannot be considered as a daughter's 'inheritance', comparable to that ofthe son, since
the greater portion of it is neither owned nor controlled by the girl in her own right. It
is really a form of 'bridegroom price', that is, an enticement to the groom's family as
part of the settlement of the marriage contract. However, equal rights of inheritance
by both son and daughter in one's father's or mother's self made property is recognised
and same states have even introduced it in their legislation,
Kinship
7.4.2 Matrilineal Descent
Matrilineal descent systems, of which there are several well-known examples in south-
western and north-eastern India, have their own distinctive characteristics. Empirically
you never find matrilineal systems that are an exact inverse of the patrilineal-patriarchal
model which we liave already described and which is fairly well approximated by the
patrilineal descent systems of north and south (but especially north) India. The reason
is quite simple: whatever tlie descent system, that is, matrilineal, patrilineal or indeed
bilateral, authority is usually exercised by males, only in extremely simple societies
one comes across a fair degree of mutual inter-dependence between males and females.
Also, tliougli rights, in property might be determined by the principles of matrilineal
descent (for instance, passing from mother to daughter or from mother's brother to
sister's son rather than from father to son as in patrilineal societies), major property is
usually controlled (if not actually owned) by males.
For obvious reasons, residence arrangements are problematic in matrilineal societies.
A man may not have authority over his own children, who belong to his wife's descent
group and who may also reside after maturity with their mother's brother. Conversely,
in cases wliere the husband customarily resides with his wife and children, he may
liave difficulty managing the property in which lie has an interest by virtue of descent,
and in exercising authority over his sister's children. 111other words, there seems to be
some sort of contradiction in matrilineal kinship systems, brought out in the dilemma
over residence, between a man's role as father and his role as mother's brother. His
natural love for his own children might easily come into conflict with his special jural
responsibilities towards his sister's children.
7.4.3 Nayars of Kerala: An Illustration

Among the matrilineal Nayars of Kerala, formerly, men resided in large and matrilineally
recruited joint families, called taravad, along witli their sisters, sister's children and
sister's daughter's children. They visited their wives in other taravads at night (this is
why the system has been popularly called tlie 'visiting husband' system). Their own
children resided with their mother in their mother's taravad. In this system the bond
6etween brother and sister was strongly emphasised, and the bond between husband
and wife correspondingly de-emphasised, this is more so because Nayar women could
legitimately have a number of visiting husbands (polyandry), provided they were of
the correct status (i.e. higher status Nayars or Namboodiri Brahmans). Also, Nayar
men could liave a number of wives (polygyny). In fact, the marital bond was so
~ninimisedamong the Nayars that anthropologists have debated endlessly whether Nayar
society liad the institution of marriage at all! Anthropologists have also cited that the
Nayar system disproves tlie proposition that the elementary or nuclear family is a
"universal" human institution. The details of these debates need not detain us here.
Indeed, the unique institutions and customs described by the anthropologists no longer
exist and have not existed for generations, but tlie Nayar case is a useful one for
illustrating the types oftensions that seem to be coming into matrilineal systems. They
liad aratlier unique way ofcoping with what anthropologists have called 'the matrilineal
puzzle'. Effectively they ensured the unity of the matrilineal at the expense of the
solidarity of the marital bond between husband and wife.
7.4.4 Other Matrilineal Communities

There are many other matrilineal communities in India whose kinship organisation is
rather different to that ofthe Nayars. For instance, the Khasis of Assam are matrilineal
in descent, inheritante and succession, and practise matrilocal residence. The youngest
daughter is tlie heiress, and lives in her mother's house alone witli lier husband and lier
children. The older daughter however may move out of the matrilineal household on
marriage and make new nuclear families; their husbands liave greater independent
Groups and Institutions authority than does the husband of the youngest daughter still residing martrilocally.
The Garo, also of Assam, have yet another arrangement. Marriage is matrilocal for
the husband ofthe daughter who becomes the head of the household and its manager.
A rule of preferential cross-cousin marriage ensures that a man is succeeded in this
position by his sister's son in an ongoing alliance relationship between the two linked
lineages.
Earlier anthropologists, working within an evolutionary framework, had maintained
that the matrilineal descent systems are the surviving traces of an earlier matriarchal
or 'mother-right' stage in the development of human kinship organisation, and that
these would automatically give way to patriarchal and then bilateral models. There is
no conclusive evidence that this has happened or is currently happening. At least in the
Nayar case it appears that the decline of the Nayar taravad over the last century has
given rise to a wide variety of residential patterns in the area, and it has become exactly
like the patrilineal groups in their neighbourhood.
Sociologists and anthropologists continue to find matrilineal descent groups of special
intere$t, not only because of the ramifications of the 'matrilineal puzzle', referred to
above, but also because issues concerning the status of women or gender relations
have come very much to the fore in recent years. It may be, as we have stated, that
males have authority and exercise control over property in both patrilineal and matrilineal
societies, but most scholars working on matrilineal societies, and the members of these
societies themselves, feel that there is nonetheless a qualitative difference in the status
of women in matrilineal, as against patrilineal, societies.
Activity 2
Think about emergency situation in your own family, such as, economic crises,
death, birth etc. Try to recall the people from whom your sought help and how
these people were linked with you. Write a report on "kinship in my Family1
Community" and discuss it with other students at your study centre.

1) Write a brief note on the patriarchal model of society. Use about three lines for
your answer.
...................................................................................................................
2) Explain matrilineal descent. Use about two lines for your answer.
7.5 KINSHIP IN INDIA

From your general knowledge, what would you say are the distinctive features of
kinship in the north and south of India? Almost everyone, spontaneously, thinks ofthe
different rules of marriage, and ofthe kinship practices that derive from these. We will
now briefly enumerate here the sort of contrasts that Iravati Karve, the famous
sociologist, had described.
In the Southern Zone, you usually find a preference for marriage with certain categories Kinship
of close kin, in particular with one or the other or both of the cross-cousins (but never
parallel cousins), or even with the elder sister's daughter. On the whole, the inter-
marrying groups are of comparable status. Though the actual marriage relationship
might give rise to a temporary inferiority of wife-givers in relations to wife-takers.
The marriage will probably involve groups which are geographically quite proximate-
even from the same village-and the bride will already be familiar with her in-laws.
You don't really expect a young bride to be badly treated by her mother-in-laws ifthat
woman is also her aunt or her maternal grandmother!
In north India, by contrast, marriages are never between persons who are already
closely related. A rule of village exogamy also ensures that brides are given to and
taken from other villages or towns, often at a considerable distance. The bride therefore
comes to her husband's family as a 'stranger'. She will always be suspected oftrying
to alienate her husband's affections, and will usually be blamed for the break up ofthe
joint family, should a partition subsequently take place. The distinction between
'daughters' and 'brides' is very sharply emphasised in this system (think ofthe practice
of veiling), and the new bride's position is relatively vulnerable, unless and until she
becomes the mother of a son. In this region it is also often the case that marriages unite
groups whose social status is already unequal, the wife-givers being of inferior status
to the wife-takers (hypergamy), while the marriage transaction commonly (though
again not invariably) takes the form of a 'dowry' payment. However legally taking
dowry or giving it, both have become illegal offences punishable by the state. But, in
reality it continues to affect a large category of people in India. Even other religions,
such as, Muslims, Christians and SCISTs are getting influenced by it. All in all, we
have in this combination of features the social-structural locale of also such practices
as levirate marriage, sati, female infanticide and, lately, 'bride-burning' or dowry deaths.
Box 7.1
In 1980 the government of India began to take notice of the issue of dowry as
oppression against women and took legal action against it. In December 1983
the Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act was passed. Section 498-A was
added to the Indian Penal Code. Under this Act cruelty to a wife was made a
cognisable non-bailable offence, punishable up to three years imprisonment,
and a fine. Section 113-A ofthe Evidence Act was amended so that court could
draw an inference of abetement to suicide (which most dowry deaths are claimed
to be) under section 174 of the Criminal Procedure Code. (IGNOU:.2000, WED
Programme, WED-01, pp. 34)
Other differences between the northern and southern systems noted by 1ra;ati Kame
(and others) relate to the rules of descent, inheritance and marriage. In brief, the
northern zone is universally patrilineal, though patrilineal systems are also found among
different communities in the southern or dravidian zone, along with a variety of residence
* patterns. We should add here that there are a number of important matrilineal groups
(for instance the Khasis and the Garos) in north-eastern India (eastern zone) as well.
k.
Of course, the division of the kinship may develop into major culture areas zones can
give only a very crude idea ofthe salient variations in kinship practices throughout the
subcontinent. A more precise picture emerges when one considers the sub-regional
varieties corresponding to the different regional languages and dialects. In analysing
these regional kinship systems, scholars pay attention not only to kinship terminologies
and to the way the people concerned speak about kinship relations and about the moral
obligations that stem from them, but also to the data of ritual practices, gift exchanges
folklore and other forms of cultural communication.
7.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have provided information about kinship. We have shown quite clearly
that kinship is significant to society. Moreover we have clearly indicated that the basic
kinship concepts like descent, inheritance and residence are important in all societies.
We also showed how patrilineal and matrilineal system are aspects of descent systems.
Finally kinship in India was examined in this unit. This unit therefore provides adequate
information about various aspects of kinship.

1) Faber, Bernard (ed.), 1966. Kinship and Family Organisation, Johan Wiley
and Sons: New York.
2) Fox, Robin 1967, Kinship and Marriage. Penguin Books : New York.
7.8 KEYWORDS
Consanguinity : The principle of recognising kinship by virtue of blood
relationships.
The principle of recognising relationship through
marriages.
Descent : The system of deriving relationships from an ancestor.
Bilateral or Cognatic : The system of descent in which a child is recognised
as a descendant equally of both the father and the
mother.
: The system of descent in which relationship with the
ancestor is recognised in one line only, i.e. either of
father or of mother.
Double unilineal The system of descent in which the child is affiliafed
to the group of either parent.
Patrilineal : Implies that descent is traced from the father's side.
Matrilineal : Where descent is traced from the motheg's side.
Patriarchal : Where the father is the main authority ih the family.
Complementaryfiliation : The principle which explains the significant ritual and
social role of mother's brother in a patrilineal society.

PROGRESS
1) Descent is the principle by which a person traces hisker ancestors.
2) The following is the list of the types of descent:
i) unilineal descent including (a) patrilineal descent (b) matrilineal descent.
ii) double-unilineal descent
iii) bilateral or cognatic descent.
1) The patriarchal model of society combines (i) patrilineal descent; (ii) patrilocal
residence; (iii) inheritance from father to son; (iv) authority in the hands of senior
males.
2) In matrilineal descent, though, inheritance goes through the mother to daughter,
major property is controlled by males and authority is also exercised by males.
REFERENCES
References, cited in Block 11.(These and other works are given here for those students
who wish to follow certain points in detail.)
Beattie, J., 1964. Other Cultures: Aims, Methods and Achievements in Social
Anthropologv, Reutledge and Kegan Paul: London, Chapters 7 and 8, pp. 93-138.
Fox, Robin, 1967. Kinship and Marriage. Penguin Books: New York.
Kame, I., 1965. Kinship Organisation in India. Asia Publishing House: Mumbai.
Majumdar, D.N. and Madan, T.N., (ed.) 1986 edition. An Introduction to Social
Anthropology. National Publishing House: New Delhi. Chapters 4 , s and 6, pp.
48-111.
Murdoch, P.G., 1949. SocialStructure. Macmillan: New York. Chapters 6 and 7,
pp. 91-183.
UNIT 8 NATURE OF SOCIALISATION
8.1 Introduction
j 8.2 What is Socialisation?
1 8.2.1 Shared Meanings and Values
8.2.2 Education and Socialisation
8.3 Socialisation: Norms and Values
8.3.1 Transmission of Knowledge
8.3.2 Conformity
I
8.4 Conscious and Unconscious Socialisation
8.4.1 Explicit and Implicit Directions
8.4.2 Behaviour Patterns
8.5 Role and Socialisation
8.5.1 Primary and Secondary Socialisation
8.5.2 Child and Adult Socialisation
8.6 Re-socialisation
8.6.1 Marital Re-socialisation
8.6.2 Attitudinal Change
8.6.3 Extensive and Intensive Socialisation
8.7 ~nticipatorySocialisation
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.10 Key Words
8.1 1 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
8.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit you should be able to:
describe the process of socialisation of human infants to become members of their
society;
explain distinctive features of socialisation that takes place in different social settings;
and
analyse types of socialisation.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall discuss various aspects of socialisation. It begins with the process and
concept of socialisation and discusses its aims and functions. Among the important aspects
of this unit is a discussion on types of socialisation. This includes conscious and unconscious
socialisation and socialisation into role playing, anticipatory socialisation and re-socialisation.
This unit, thereby, provides an in-depth view of the nature of socialisation.
8.2 WHAT IS SOCIALISATION?

All societies are concerned with the question: "How are the raw products or the human
infants born into the society to be transformed into workable human objects or trained to
Socialisation and Education become members of their societies?'The human infant is born as a biological organism
with only animal needs and impulses. It learns to control bowel movements and regulate
hunger as it grows up because the child has an inborn capacity to learn and to communicate.
Gradually it also learns the group-defined ways of acting and feeling. The process through
which it learns to internalise the values and norms into its self or the mode of learning to live
in society is called the process of socialisation. to internalise is to absorb something within
the mind so deeply that it becomes part of the person's behaviour, e.g., good manners.
Therefore, socialisation is basically the learning of social values and roles by its members.
In other words., most human behaviour is learned. It is not spontaneous.
Socjal scientists have re'ferred to this capacity of the child to learn and to internalise as the
plasticity of human nature. This capacity to learn is realised through socialisation; and
human infants develop into adequate members of human societies through the training received
in the family. This development is largely a process of learning. Therefore, we would like to
stress the point that what are known as seemingly inborn attitudes are determined and moulded
through the process of socialisation or learning of social norms, values, attitudes beliefs and
behaviour patterns.
8.2.1 Shared Meanings and Values

The socialisation of the young means that they learn to appre,ciate the shared meanings and
values of the culture at large or take them and that as guides to direct behaviour patterns in
their own life.- As the young child grows, he or she learns to utilise role-learning so as to
internalise what to expect from other people and how to produce for them what is expected of
children. A child learns to recognise and to respond to the shared meanings and expectations
from others only through the process of socialisation.
The process of socialisation begins at birth. It is a continuous process because social learning
never ends. However, childhood is the most important stage in the process of socialisation
during which a child internalises or learns most of the values, beliefs, norms, attitudes and
bcihaviour patterns of its family. The parents can be viewed as the socialising agents and the
child as the socialise. "Parents are usually the most potent socialising force working on the
individual in the early stages of childhood. Both consciously and unconsciously they push
the child in certain directions disposing him to learn in a particular way." (White, G. 1977 "
1) It is viewed by sociologists as a continuous and dynamic process that continues throughou't

life and demands re-socialisation (discussed in 8-6) at different stages of one's life.
t
Thus, from the point of view of society, socialisation trains a child to become a member of a
society by transmitting its norms, values and beliefs. It also transforms the biological organism 1
into a self, with a sense of identity, capable of disciplining and ordering behaviour endowed ,
with ideals, values and ambitions. However, socialisation regulates behaviour, it is also
an indispensable condition for individuality and self-awareness (Broom and Selznick;,
1955 : 43).
I Activity 1 I
Do you think a boy and a girl are socialised in the same way in your familylkin group? If
not, then why? Write an essay on "Gender Difference and Socialisation in My Family"
in about 500 words. Share your ideas and essay with other students and Academic
Counsellor at your study centre.
8.2.2 Education and Socialisation

In some societies, especially-in tribal societies, the education and socialisation of the young -
takes place without extensive formal educational institutions. However, education as a process
of learning is universal and takes place everywhere whether one lives in a city, village, and
jungle or in a desert. The universality of learning however, does not mean that all learning
is socialisation just as all education is not socialisation.
We may also mention that all learning is not socialisation since some of what one learns may
not be relevant or necessary for participation in given social roles. One could give the
example of, learning to smoke cigarette, cigar, etc. which may be irrelevant to that norms of
participation in the given social roles among certain social groups. However, the process by
which individuals acquire these values and norms (these are also referred to as culhlre) is in Nature of Socialisation
many ways similar'in all societies. They may differ from society to society and according to
certain factors within specific societies.
A child, in the first instance, is a member of a family. But he or she is also a member of a
larger kin-group (Blradri, Khandan etc.) consisting of brothers, sisters and other relatives of
the parents. The family into which he or she is born my be a nuclear family or an extended
family (for the difference see Unit 5 of this course). It is also a member of a larger society.
Membership of these groups and institutions imposes certain behavioural nonns and values
on each member. Thus, we are members of various groups simultaneously. For instance, we
ate a member of family, a biradri, a khandan, or a kunba, or a society, of a school or college
all at the same time. Corresponding to these memberships there are roles that are performed,
e.g., that of a son, daughter, grand child or a student. These are multiple roles which are
performed simultaneously. The process of learning the norms, attitudes, values or behavioural
patterns of these groups begins earlv in life and continues throughout one's life.
Nature of Socialisation

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) Explain in three lines what is meant by socialisation.
8.3 SOCIALISATION: NORMS AND VALUES

The norms, and values may differ within a society in different families belonging to different
castes, regions or social classes or religious groups according to whether one lives in a
Socinlisntion and Education village or in a city or one belongs to a tribe and whether one is a boy or girl. These social
groups can be viewed as socialising agencies. Their role confirms that the variation in
norms and values takes place according to some of these affiliations mentioned above. For
example, emphasis on cleanliness may vary according to social class. Also the language that
one speaks depends on the region one belongs to. A child is not born knowing a particular
language but learns it after birth. Again, some people do not eat meat altogether or abstain
only from beef or pork according to the religious groups they belong to. Thus the same
human infant is capable of growing into different kinds of adults. The adult personality
formed in one society will be different from that of an adult in another society: he or she may
be unfit for participation in many others. For example, a person who does not eat meat,
smoke or drink alcohol may look odd in a family where all these are permitted. Is socialisation
a one way process in which the child merely receives from the parents passively without
being actively involved in it? There are different views on it. However, in this unit, our
position is that it is a two-way process involving mutuality of interaction. True, the young
child is hot as active as the adult member, it is never a passive receiver.
What we have emphasised so far is that the aim of the socialisation process is to help the
child learn to conform to the societal norms, values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour patterns.
Here when we refer to societal expectation, it means that there are various levels ofexpectation.
When the individual is born, the first societal experience is through the family but as the
child grows up in the modem contemporary societies, hisher experiences expand. It becomes
a member of a number of agencies. The school is the second agency of which children
become members. Later on they will also become members of the religious groups to which
their parents belong. They will also be members of the social classes to which their families
belong. They will also become members of the occupational groups. The specific aim of
socialisatlion is to help the child to internalise these norms and become an active member of
the society.
A child is integrated into the society in the manner discussed above. Therefore, socialisation
is the process of social control to strengthen group life and also to foster the development of
the individual. It teaches or trains the individual to conform to the expectations of the social
group or groups. Thus, conformity to the group norms and behaviour is basic to the process
of socialisation through which society exerts social control on the individual members.
8.3.1 Transmission of Knowledge

According to Emile Durkheim, the categories of thought in the mind of individuals develop
during the course of socialisation. Socialisation also transmits knowledge from one generation
to the next. Social solidarity requires conformity to norms, rules and values as prescribed by
the society. When groups assemble and reinforce the feelings of solidarity e.g., wedding, or
religious festivals, mourning etc., these occasions help express the solidarity of the family
and the kih group. On the other hand, the Republic Day and the Independence Day are
occasions to express the solidarity of the nation. The social customs, rituals and social
ceremonies and occasions which bring members of a group together are called socialisation
practices. Through these practices, knowledge about norms values and behaviour pattern is
transmitted among members of human social groups.
The individual, through socialisation, helps maintain the social order. Thus socialisation
brings about social control by enabling the individual to know what to think and what not to
think, what to do and what not to do. Here, apart from the sense of group solidarity, the
individual has the fear of disapproval, punishment etc. which the society metes out for various
acts of deviance from the normal course of conduct.
8.3.2 Conformity
While socialisation produces a degree of conformity to social nonns behaviour in every
society, yet some individuals may still not conform. In other words, socialisation may not be
able to command complete conformity from all members of the society. Many factors may
encourage conflict. There may be conflicts between the aims and functions of the socialising
agents and af the socialisee. We have already mentioned that an individual is socialised by
many agencies - the family, the school, playmates, peer group, occupational group, and in
the modem society, also by the written word (i.e. books, magazines) and by the mass media
(television, radio, cinema). If they emphasise different values, the individual's conformity to
the values of a group or groups will be reduced. For example, students may be encouraged to
I
be exposed to mass-media. However, if mass-media teaches fundamentalism and extreme Nature ofSocialisation
conservatism, the conformity of students to liberal values is likely to be reduced.
The cases of non-conformity are referred to as those of deviance from the norms of the group
(see unit 30 on Social Control and unit 3 1 on Social Deviance). The values of the children
from the poor families will be at variance with those of the school. These children are
referred to as deviants and in extreme cases as juvenile delinquents.
8.4 CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS SOCIALISATION

Much of the socialisation of the child within a family and the school is conscious. In other
words, parents consciously inculcate in the child certain behaviour patterns and values that
they consider desirable. They achieve this by constantly telling the child what is good from
what is bad, what is right form of behaviour from what is wrong. They also reward the child
c if it conforms to these expectations, and punish in the opposite case. Therefore, the process
of socialisation is reinforced through a system of rewards and punishments. For example,
the emphasis on cleanliness, obedience, promptness, manliness and womanliness begins
early in life in most families. This is conscious socialisation since the socialising agents
C (parents) are conscious about the aims of socialisation process. Yet a major part of the
process of socialisation is unconscious and consists of learning through observation.
However, socialisation process within the family is conscious, as well as unconscious. The
same is true of the school where the aims of the school are explicit and are sought to be
inculcated in the classroom through text books. For instance, the explicit aim of the school
is to teach and to help students to succeed in their examinations. At the same time, the
children interact or mix with other children outside the classroom. They make friends and
form small groups called peer groups. These are important sources of influence on children.
They also become members of peer groups within their neighbourhood where they have a
small number of friends with whom they play almost regularly. Sometimes children learn
the norms and behaviour patterns of the members of their groups and these may be
contradictory to those of their family or the school. For example, if children begin to smoke .
because their friends smoke whereas their families are opposed to it, there is going to be
conflict. Or, children may begin to take serious interest in schoolwork although no member
of their families is intellectually inclined. On the other hand, interest in studies may be
common to the members of the family as well as to their friends. This process is the
unconscious process of the socialisation where children who learn and the children from
whom they learn are not conscious of or do not anticipate the consequences oftheir association
and interaction.
8.4.1 Explicit and Implicit Directions

We have distinguished between conscious and unconscious socialisation processes and have
given examples of the explicit and implicit injunctions against certain behaviour patterns
The aims of the process within the families are not deliberate, and explicit. Families do not
say that they are training the children to become honest or hard working, or boys to become
fearless, 01. girls to become passive. On the other hand. the cognitive aims of the schools are
well-known. The students are to read well. Pass their examination and so on. Therefore
there is a difference between the two processes that take place within the family, on the one
hand, and the school and other formal agencies, 6n the other. We may therefore draw a
distinction between the two processes and state that the aims of socialisation process within
the secondary groups such as schools are deliberate, more explicit and conscious compared
with that of the family. But both the processes take place simultaneously.
8.4.2 Behaviour Patterns

The learning of different behaviour patterns and values from one's friends or peers is the
unconscious process of socialisation. In fact, it is difficult to draw a distinction between a
socialising agent and a socialisee i.e., the peer group and the socialisee. The staying away
from the school could be one such example. A child may become friendly with those children
who play truant very often and remain absent from classes, and may learn to play truant after
becoming a member of that group. On the other hand, another child who initially did not
place high value on punctuality within the school, may learn to do so because he happens to
Sncialisation and Education become friendly with children who are very punctual. These are examples of unconscious
socialisation.
In contemporary societies, much of the unconscious learning takes place through the mass
media such as the cinema, the television, the comics, and novels (i.e., the print medium).
The emulation of the hero in the Indian cinema by the college going youth is a good example
of unc~nscioussocialisation.

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
1) Fill in the blanks given in the following sentences:
i) The aim of the socialisation process is to help the child to learn to conform to the
societal ...........................................................................
and ...........................................................................................................
ii) Socialisation may not be able to command complete ............................ from all
members of the society.
iii) Socialisation process within the family is ........................... as well as
iv) The aim of socialisation process within the secondary groups such as schools is
.................................... more .................................. and .................................
as compared with that of the family.
8.5 ROLE AND SOCIALISATION

A human infant is born in a social group. And soon after birth it becomes a member
of the social group and occupies the social position of a son or a daughter or of a grandson or
a grand-daughter. Thus the role refers to the social position one occupies by virtue of one's
position in a particular social group, and it entails rights as well as obligations.
VARIOUS ROLES OF A SOClALlSEE

An individual has to play different roles, the role of a son or a daughter, the role of a grandson Nature of Socialisation
or a grand-daughter in the due course of histher life. In other words, a person occupies
different social positions which are interrelated. The term role-set is used to refer to the
complex of roles occupied or performed by a person at one time (see Unit 25). The implication
f of this is that a child learns to behave in the manner that is expected of it by different
socialising agents. For instance, a child's behaviour with a parent has to be different from
I
that with the sister, or friends or ne~ghboursor classmates. These roles need not follow one
after the other but may be performed simultaneously, other roles may be added or deleted.
The list however is not exhaustive.
Similarly the behaviour with one's grandmother has to be different from that with one's own
mother. The child learns to perceive and internalise these subtleties as part of growing up.
As one learns a role well, one is able to interact with others, playing other roles and to
engage in role-interaction over time. This is what is called role and role socialisation.
Thus, role is the behaviour pattern based on norms. However, it is invested with specific
meaning e.g., the role of a boytgirl In a particular society is part of the culture of that society.
How does one learn a role? Initially, a child merely observes the roles of parents and other
members of the family and re-enacts them. Gradually, one learns to distinguish oneself from
others and one's role from the roles of others. One learns through observation, constant
reinforcement and reminders along with rewards for conformity and punishment for non-
conformity.
Activity 2
Do you observe any changes in parent child relationship within your family or friends
circle which did not exist earlier? Discuss with your friends and family members and
write a one page report on "The Impact of Social Change on the Process of Socialisation
Including Parent Child Interaction". Compare your report with those of other students at
your study center. Also, discuss the topic with your Academic Counsellor.
8.5.1 Primary and Secondary Socialisation

The needs of individuals are divided by psychologists into primary and secondary needs.
The primary needs are those which are in-born such as thirst and hunger The secondary
needs are, for example, the need for learning or to work. Secondary needs are those which
emerge, in the way, to satisfy primary needs. Similarly, institutions in the society are also
divided into primary and secondary institutions. The family is the first social group in
which the child is born, it is also the first group which satisfies and meets the primary needs
of the human-infant. It is called a primary group whereas a school is a secondary group
because it meets the derived needs of the child. Parents are the primary orthe chief socialising
agents for the child whereas the school teachers are the secondary socialising agents. We
may also distinguish between primary and secondary roles and between primary socialisation
and secondary soc~alisation.Norms and values within the family may be called the process
of primary socialisation whereas the learn~ngof the behavioural patterns, norms and values
of the school may be called secondary social~sation.
8.5.2 Child and Adult Socialisation

As we have mentioned earlier, the process of socialisation or learning of social roles continues
throughout life. As the individual becomesa member of different social groups and institutions,
it begins to learn new norms and values. For example, when one joins school one has to
learn the discipline of the school and the role of a student. Later on, as an adult, one has to
learn to become a parent and to assume family responsibilities. When one takes up an
occupation and becomes a member of an occupational group one has to learn the
responsibilities and roles that are implied in the membership of that particular group. For
example, the role of an executive will be very different from that of a small tea-stall owner, or
of a labourer. People have to be socialised in taking on these roles and values. That is why,
sociologists believe that the process of socialisation continues throughout life and does not
end at adolescence.
Socialisation and Education
Re-socialisation is a process of altering ones behaviour pattern and in the process imbibing
new social values and behaviour patterns. An individual is constantly learning new roles.
As a member of different social groups or institutions throughout one's life. For instance, a
child becomes a member of its family first, and learns to play the role of a son or daughter, or
that of a grandson or a grand-daughter if it is living in an extended family. If the father's
sister is living in the family the child also learns to play the role of a nephew or niece. Later
when beginning to play in the neighbourhood, one makes friends and follows the norms of
the group. For example, if a child disrupts the game too often or fights or cheats, others will
boycott that child till helshe stops causing disruption.,
Later, a child goes to school and learns to play the role of a student. Still later slhe takes up
a job and joins an organisation or sets up one's own enterprise or business. Whatever work
is taken up, one has to follow the work ethics of that occupational group and abide by the
norms. Thus, one is constantly learning new roles.
However, in some instances an individual has not only to learn a new role but simultaneously
has to unlearn part of the norms and behaviour patterns associated wlth an earlier role in
order to be effective in the new role. A very good example of unlearning the old role and
learning a new one is the role of an Indian girl before and after marriage. While there may
be differences in emphasis and also in the norms and behaviour patterns expected of girls in
different parts of India, we may safely generalise behaviour pattern of a daughter before and
after marriage.
8.6.1 Marital Re-socialisation

When a daughter is engaged to be married the process of new socialisation or re-socialisation
starts. She may be given instructions on how to behave in,the presence of her in-laws.
Among Punjabi Hindu families a daughter does not cover her head in front of her elders
before her marriage nor does she touch their feet. After her engagement she may be trained
to cover her head and also to touch the feet of elders, since she will have to do this soon after
the marriage. Though, we may mention that this may not be'practised any more among the
upper and middle class families, especially among the educated in the metropolitan cities.
Her re-socialisation begins after marriage. She has already been given countless instructions
to give up the carefree behaviour of her maiden days in the home of her in-laws, and to pay
deference to nearly every elder in her husband's family and how not to seem to be independent.
A newly married girl goes through the process of unlearning her earlier behaviour gradually.
In the initial stage she may only hide it or suppress it, and one may see her behaving nonnally
when she visits her parental home. As for example, she may laugh freely in her parent's
home - something that may be considered inappropriate in the home of her in-laws.
Another example of re-socialisation is that of a widowed woman. This is particularly marked
in some parts of India where a widow's behaviour has to change very drastically after the
death of her husband. The external marks of a married woman are removed from her body,
that is, she has to wear a particular dress or a saree of a particular colour, all her jewellery
has to be removed, the kumkum and vermilion marks or? her forehead and parting between
her hair have also to be removed ceremoniously through certain rituals which are performed
in these families. Her head is shaven. In addition she has to live in a different part of the
house. The kind of tasks she is to perform in the family also change suddenly. She is
considered inauspicious and cannot participate in marriage rituals and other religious
ceremonies.
8.6.2 Attitudinal Change

Re-socialisation refers to the process through which during their life span, individuals change
or are forced to change their attitudes, values, behaviour and self-conceptions as they assume
new roles and undergo new experiences. Though the long-range change may be profound,
single steps along the way may or may not be gradual. For instance, the new role may be a
continuation of the old role or the past roles or may require discontinuation. Again, it may
need only minor changes or radical changes involving a wholly new set of behaviour patterns.
In addition, it may affect either a part or the whole of the personality or the self of an
individual. It may also involve breaking away from the past values and norms or may just be Nature ofSocirlisation
a pro-jection of the past values and norms.
Thus changes in adulthood that are gradual and partial are called continuous socialisation.
Re-socialisation denotes more basic, rapid and radical changes. It involves giving up one
way of life for another. It is not only different from the former but is at times incompatible
with it. The usual examples giver. are brain-washing or indoctrination or rehabilitation of
criminals. The aim is to iuttdamentally change the person and to effect a break with the past.
Another example would be of persons who have lived all their life in Bombay, Kolkata or
Delhi and are asked to live among tribals in a remote village in Madhya Pradesh or vice-
versa. If you belong to a city, you may also be familiar with the villagers trying to adjust
themselves to city life, by changing their notions of what is proper and what is improper and
by changing their behaviour. Similarly if you belong to a village, you may have seen the
problems faced by the person from the city, for example, school teacher or medical doctors or
nurses or mid-wives and how they adapt to the village life.
I
8.6.3 Extensive and Intensive Socialisation

b Certain occupational and life roles demand extensive and intensive socialisation. This
socialisation approximates to re-socialisation, for example, the role of a Christian priest or a
nun or a Granthi in a Gurdwara or the role for combat only. Cadets are systematically
removed from the society of which they are a part and then they are given assignments
involving new personal and social identities; and a sense of identity with the nation and
solidarity among themselves is instilled into them through the training given in the institutions.
Similarly we have given the example of an Indian girl after marriage or that of a window.
Re-socialisation of a mature individual is difficult to accomplish. Generally speaking it
requires that the conditions of childhood socialisation be reproduced in intense and extreme
form, specially whcn this is done through a very deliberate process as in the case of re-
socialisation of a cadet or a criminal or of a widow. Re-socialisation may be forced upon tile
individual (as in brain-washing or indoctrination) or voluntary (as in the case of an
anthropologist living in a tribe).
The process of re-socialisation, if it contradicts with the initial socialisation and if the individual
is unable to cope with the demand made by the new role, may create conflict in the life of an
individual. This is especially so hhere differing value systems are concerned. For eg. A
person coming from a conservative family background in India finds it extremely difficult to
adjust to a cultural environment where social taboos, sexual taboos, etc. of his or her own
culture do not match at all. In such an environment a person suffers a culture shock and can
end up being a mental patient.
8.7 ANTICIPATORY SOCIALISATION

Anticipatory socialisation refers to the process whereby an individual or a group emulates
the values, norms and behaviour patterns of a group other than to which one belongs, in
anticipation of being accepted as its member. Thus, the concept of anticipatory socialisation
is related to the reference group theory. According to this theory, the behaviour, values and
norms of an individual are determined with reference to a particular group or groups. As the
membership of these groups varies, the individuals who are in the process of moving from
one group to another wil I emulate the behaviour ofthe members of the group or with reference
to the group they wish to belong. An excellent example would be that of individuals who
have acquired sudden wealth and who try to conform to the values, and behaviour of the
upper strata or upper castes of the society. They will change their dress, behaviour, dietary
habits and even their language and customs. For example, those who did not give dowry
may start doing so and those women who did not observe parda may be expected to do so.
Anticipatory socialisation is undergone by individuals as well as groups and it happens or
takes place in situations of social mobility and social change. Lower castes in the villages,
after becoming well-off, try to emulate the upper castes. For example, if the dominant caste
in a village are the Brahimins, the lower caste or castes who attain wealth will become
vegetarian and teetotallers; they will change their caste names, wear the sacred thread to
claim the status of the twice-born, stop sending their women to work for wages and adopt the
Socialisntion and Education rites of Brahmins such as head shaving (Mundan). They may also impose rigid behavioural
norms on their widows.

1) Answer the following questions in 'yes' or 'no' by marking one box:
i) Does a child play only one role in the family. Yes No
ii) Are thirst and hunger the secondary needs of individuals? Yes No
iii) Does a person constantly learn new roles throughout one's life? Yes No
iv) Is it easy to accomplish the re-socialisation of mature individuals? Yes No
8.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied various aspects of socialisation. We began with providing an
understanding of socialisation and its various aspects. It includes the norms and values that
socialisation inculcates. We also studied in this unit the process by which knowledge is
transmitted from one generation to another. The aspects of implicit and explicit socialisation,
re-socialisation, and anticipatory socialisation are also discussed here.

1) Broom, L and Selmick, P. 1973. Sociology. Harper and Row Publishers: New York.
2) White, G. 1977. Socialisation. Longman : London.
8.10 KEY WORDS

Conformity : To absorb certain social rules and regulations in behaviour, e.g., being
appropriately dressed in social gatherings.
Internalisation : To absorb something within the mind so deeply that it becomes part of
one's behaviour, e.g., to internalize good manners.
Re-socialisation : To alter one's behaviour pattern and in the process imbibing new social
values and behaviour pattern.
'socialisee : A person who is being socialised into the ways of society.
811 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK-YOUR

- -
PROGRESS
- -- - - -

1) Socialisation is a learning process whereby oneFimbibes social values and behaviour
patterns.

i) norms, values, belief, attitudes, behaviour pattern
ii) conformity
iii) conscious, unconscious
iv) deliberate explicit conscious

i) No
ii) No
iii) Yes
iv) No
UNIT 9 AGENCIES OF SOCIALISATION
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Agencies of Socialisation
9.2.1 Growing Up
9.2.2 Religion and Socialisation
9.3 Differences in Socialisation

9:3.1 'The Caste Factor
9.3.2 Socialisation in Tribes
9.3.3 Other Institutions: The Ghotul
9.4 Family, Social Class and Socialisation

9.4.1 Behaviour and Family
9.4.2 Socialisation and Communication
9.4.3 School and Socialisation
9.5 Sex and Gender Identity
9.5. l Gender Related Studies
9.5.2 Sexual Discrimination
9.6 Mass Media and Socialisation
9.6.1 Messages in Mass Media
9.6.2 Impact of Television
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Key Words
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to:
a describe different factors in and agencies of socialisation;
a state the differences in socialisation process with the illustrations of some societies;
a assess the impact of family, class, caste and mass media on socialisation; and
a explain the ways in which socialisation process takes care of gender identity formation.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit examines the various agencies of socialisation. These include the family, religious
organisations, Inass media, etc. It also discusses differences in socialisation of boys and
girls. The significance of caste and tribal culture in the process of socialisation in the Indian
context is also discussed. The effect of social class on socialisation and sexual discrimination
in the socialisation process are also examined in detail.
9.2 AGENCIES OF SOCIALISATION

The child is socialised by several agencies and institutions in which he or she participates,
viz.. his or her family, school, peer group, the neighbourhood, the occupational group and by
the social class. The position of the family in the social structure is determined by the social
class, caste, religion, etc., and by the fact that the family lives in the rural or in the urban
areas. We shall also mention some of the other factors which are important. For example,
Socialisationand Education there is variation in the socialisation process, according to whether one is rich or poor,
whether one is tribal or non-tribal, whether one is a boy or a girl or whether one is a child or
an adult. The differentiation in socialisation may also be reflected through music, rituals,
language, art and literature, which form part of one's culture consist~ngof complex set of
variables.
These are the factors and agencies which introduce differentiation in the socialisation process
within different societies. These are very cnicial and should be taken into account to dispel
the impression that socialisation is uniform across all.societies or within a particular society.
We shall first discuss some of the factors responsible for the variation in the socialisation
process namely age, religion, caste, region, etc. In the next section, we discuss the different
agencies of socialisation (namely, family, school etc.) which also prevent cniformity. In the
last section, we outline the role of gender and the mass media (especially television) since
these cut across all boundaries,
9.2.1 Growing Up
The socialisation process in infancy and childhood is different from that during adulthood.
Some social scientists divide socialisation into stages of the life of an individual. Some have
referred to various Hindu rites or samskaras as being equivalent to different stages. In addition,
there are the ashrams, which divide the life of an individual into stages.
There are various traditional Hindu rites or samskaras which divide childhood into several
stages. These are namakarana, nishakarmana, annaprasana, chudakarana or tonsure,
vidyarambha and upanayana. Moreover, traditionally the division of an individual's life
into four stages, namely, brahmacharya, grihasthashrama, vanaprastha and sanyasa are a
direct reflection of the socialisation of a Hindu male.
The agencies of socialisation change as the individual matures. For example, school and the
peer group compete with the family for access to the individual through childhood and
adolescence. The occupational group and the newly established family after marriage become
more important during adulthood.
9.2.2 Religion and Socialisation

Difference in the socialisation processes and practices is noticeable among certain religious
communities. As for example, the rites and ceremonies, customs, dress, sometimes language
and beliefs, attitudes and values and the behaviour patterns of Christians, Hindus, Sikhs or
Muslims are different. These may be at variance with one another although some of the
external symbols such as dress, speech, and deportment have become unifonn for all religious
groups in the big cities during the last few years, so that it has become difficult to distinguish
members of one religious community from another on the basis of dress, etc. In the villages,
a significant section of people are continuing to wear their traditional dresses and can still be
distinguished on the basis of these outward symbols. In addition, and more importantly, the
emphasis on what constitutes a good Hindu or a good Muslim or a good Sikh or a good
Christian, also creates differences in the values and behaviour of members of a larger society.
For instance, a good Muslim must perform prayers five times a day, a Christian must attend
church on Sundays, a Sikh should do service at a Gurdwara and a Hindu must give charity in
the temples. Similarly, further subdivisions can be drawn on the basis of Shaivite and
Vaishnavite Brahmins of southern India. So also the marriage ceremony and rites differ
among those who follow the Arya Samaj and Sanatana Dharma, the two Hindu sects in thr:
Punjab. Thus, the differences are not confined to religious ideology but are reflected in the
socialisation process through the beliefs, attitudes, norms and behaviour patterns of the people
btlonging to these sects and subsects.

1) Write a brief note on the major agencies that socialise a person. Use about five lines.
...............................................................................................-......................................................... Agencies of Socialisation
. ...........................................................................................t .......................................................
,.. ..
2) Select the correct matching

A) Childhood Family
B) Adolescene Professional Group
C) Adulthood Peer-Group
DIFFERENCES IN SOCIALISATION
A city-bred person who comes across a person from the village is likely to notice him or her
because of the differences in their dress, speech and their deportment. The villager is
recognisable not only by the outward symbols mentioned but also by his or her values nonns
and behaviour patterns helshe upholds and considers appropriate. On the other hand, a
person living in a village will be struck by the difference in dress, speech and deportment of
those who belong to the city. You may have often heard that aperson hailing from a village or
a small town feels that people in the city are too involved in their own affairs to be bothered
about their guests or the elders in the family. These differential responses are the outcome of
differential socialisation processes in the rural and urban areas.
Box 9.01
An Indian villager generally believes that a "guest" is to be honoured in the same manner
as God himself and whatever hisher capacity may be will not neglect a guest. But a city
person, especially in the metropolis, may not welcome a guest who has no prior appointment.
Reason for visit becomes an essential criteria.
It is not that a city person does not desire or know how to honour a guest but other life
style factors, such as, living space, expensive everyday expenditure, children's education
often forces people to curtail excessive entertainment of guests. Thus, circumstances
change the values which ideally are believed by most Indians.
9.3.1 The Caste Factor

If you are living in a village or in a small town, you may be aware of the behaviour that is
expected of you as a member of a small town. Thus, there are certain value norms and behaviour
patterns that are common to most villages. Certain rituals and ceremonies may also be common
to all the members of a village. However, a village community is also divided into small groups
called castes. The castes are divided on the basis of birth because people are born into them.
You may be at least able to distinguish a Brahmin from a Harijan or you may even be able to
distinguish a blacksmith from a goldsmith or from a washerman. Therefore, within a village,
there are likely to be subcultures while the culture of a village itself may have something in
cominon which is shared by all its members and bind all the members together. The language
or the dialect also tends to vary. The upper castes speak more refined and sophisticated form
of the language than spoken by the lower castes. Similarly, there are differences in the dress
that is considered appropriate or inappropriate for a particular caste. Again, the behaviour that
is considered proper by one caste may not be so considered by the other. For example,
vegetarianism may not be so considered by the other. For example, vegetarianism may be more
popular among the Brahmins than among other castes.
9.3.2 Socialisation in Tribes
The socialisation process differs according to whether it occurs in a tribe or non-tribe. We
shall give extracts or the socialisation process in a tribe called Muria which inhabits the Bastar
district of Madhya Pradesh in central India. However, this should not give the impression that
the Muria represent the whole tribal culture. There are several tribes in India about which you
have read in Units 5 and 6 . There are tremendous variations in the socialisation process among
them as are in the non-tribal world. Therefore, this example of socialisation process among the
Murias is only one such example. You may be able to think of several others. If you meet
people from different parts of India or have such friends, you may notice the differences.
Socialisation and Education 9.3.3 Other Institutions: The Ghott11.s
Similar institutions are found among communities of Austro-Asiatic cultures. But Bastar
ghotul is highly developed and the most organised in the world. One could think of communes
in contemporary society, as for example, the Kibbutz in Israel where an effort was made to
bring up children on community-basis by taking them away from their families. Similar
institutions are found among other tribals in India, as for example, the village guardroom
among the Nagas and the boys' club among the Oraon. Ghotul for the Murias is the centre
of social and religious life. It also assigns educational tasks among children. All unmarried
Muria boys and girls from the age of five or six years are members of ghotul. They sleep at
night in the ghotul and are directly reponsible for its care and maintenance. During the day,
they go to their parents' home and help them in various tasks. They leave the ghotul after
marriage.
The membership of ghotul is carefully organised. After a period of testing, boys and girls are
initiated and given a special title which carries graded rank and social duty Leaders are
appointed to organise and discipline the society. The boys' leader is Sirdar and the girl's
Belosa. Boy members are known as Chelik and girl members as Motiari. The relations
behveen Chelik and Motiari are governed by the customary rules and regulation of ghotul to
which they belong. Indeed, ghotul teaches discipline and introduces the feeling of fraternity
and friendship among its members.
9.4 FAMILY, SOCIAL CLASS AND SOCIALISATION

These two dimensions are being taken together because 'family' here includes not only the
size, the composition and the type but the social position. The social position of a family is
determined by caste, race and social class, etc. However, it is the last dimension nameby
social class which have received attention of sociologists in the West while race too has been
given some importance. Not many studies on socialisation with reference to family or caste
or any other dimension or agency have been undertaken in India. Therefore, we shall depend
on our own observations to illustrate the relationship between family and socialisation. We
shall also take examples from other countries to substantiate the relationship between social
class, family and socialisation in the context of school.
It has already been mentioned in the sub section 9.2 that a key agency of socialisation in all
human societies is the family which transforms the young infant into a member of a human
community. It is the first prolonged and intimate interaction system the individual encounters
after birth.
However, the things that members of a given family wish to teach or transmit to the child are
limited by that family's unique historical and societal experience. As a result of this, we
observe familial differences in child-rearing practices as well as attitudinal and behavioural
outcomes regarding social relationships and skills. Each child is more or less uniquely
prepared for the cultural reality that his or her family has experienced or wishes to experience.
9.4.1 Behaviour and Family

Family inculcates attitudes relating to proper behaviour, decision-making and obedience to
authority, etc. In addition, children learn the attitudes and skills necessary to play a rol~ein
the production and consumption of goods and services. Each family adopts division of
labour regarding family tasks and prepares its young for the notion of work. Thus, early
socialisation into economic roles also takes place within the family.
As contact with others grows, other alternatives, become available to the child. He or she is
introduced to the new social institutions or agencies such as the school and the peer group in
the neighbourhood. The influence of parents is reduced because new reference groups such
as peer group become more important. Thus, a number of secondary group relationg and
pressures must be coped with by the child alongside the group relations learnt initially in the
family.
A number of studies have been undertaken on the effect of family background on the
educational performance of the child, which are pertinent to socialisation. One of the salient
findings of these studies is the negative impact of a school on a child if he or she belongs to
a working class home with little emphasis on cognitive achievement. This is because the Agencies of Socialisation
school emphasises good results and a behaviour pattern which is alien to the child's family.
Moreover, researchers have also pointed out that middle-class parents more than working-
class parents are likely to put emphasis on the need for success in studies to reinforce the
socialising function of the school and stress, in general, achievement-oriented values. Again,
a relationship is seen between the occupational role of the father and the difference in the
socialisation-orientations of the children. For instance, since a working-class father has less
autonomy and satisfaction in the work situation, he tends to be authoritarian and severe
towards his family members, especially his son.
Activity I
From your own experience, find out whether your socialisation was done in an
authoritarian atmosphere or liberal atmosphere i.e. whether your parents were very strict
disciplinarians, allowing you no opinion of your own or were ready to listen to you and
guide you on the right path with persuasion rather than tyranny. Write one page essay
on "I and my Parents" on this issue. Discuss it with other students at your study centre.
9.4.2 Socialisation and Communication

The importance of language and difference in the pattern of communication between parents
and children according to social class are the other dimensions which have been studied by
sociologists, notable among them being Basil Bernstein. According to him, patterns of
language-use and the teaching styles are class-based. He saw a relationship between social
structure, forms of speech and the subsequent regulation of behaviour in the schools. For
instance, he argued that children from different social classes respond differently to educational
opportunities and an important determinant of their response to the school's cognitive aims
and teacher's style etc., is the language or linguistic code of the child. He also argued that
different social structures produce different types of speech systems. As the child learns his
speech, he learns the requirements of his social structure, which vary according to social
class. Therefore, the language of the working-class child is limited in vocabulary while that
of the middle-class child does not suffer from this limitation. The teacher is, by and large,
from the middle class and can communicate better with the middle-class child since they
share the same linguistic code or language with its vocabulary, meanings, syntax etc. Thus,
the working class child cannot communicate as well with the teacher and begins with a
handicap which affects him or her throughout hislher school career because of this restricted
co-operation.
The same factors can be observed in schools in India, where most teachers came from upper
castelclass backgrounds in schools and students who belonged to scheduled caste or tribes
could not some time even understand the language of the teacher, let alone feel at par with
other upper castelclass students.
Several studies have been undertaken linking different dimensions of schooling with the
family of the child. We have only given some examples to demonstrate the importance of
family and social class in socialisation at home and outside the home, particularly in the
school. However, we may also mention that these studies merely indicate a direction and are
not conclusive.
9.4.3 School and Socialisation

'School' is used here to refer to a whole range of formal educational institutions which are
the characteristics of the contemporary industrial and industrialising, urban complex-societies.
We shall only mention here that schools provide two contexts for the students. The first is
the formal context of the classroom wherein the content of socialisation is determined by the
text books and the cognitive aims of the process of teaching. The second context is informal
and can be perceived in the inter-personal relations of students with teachers and those
among students (peer group).
Social control comes to be exercised by the school and the increased professionalisation of
teaching helps to undermine the authority base of the family as a socialising agency. Again,
the content of socialisation as well as the knowledge to be transmitted become the focus of
the curriculum and syllabi and a set of carefully prescribed practices. What parents did or do
by instinct and with love, professionals must do with clear regulations and justifications.
Socialisationand Education The socialisation process within the school may or may not supplement and reinforce the
process within the family. In fact, it may be in conflict with the socialising values, norms
and behaviour patterns of the family.
Cbeck Your Progress 2

1) Discuss briefly how socialisation occurs in tribes. Use about five lines.
2) Write a comment on the role of school on the socialisation process. Use about five
lines.
9.5 SEX AND GENDER IDENTITY

Every society has a systematic way to deal with sex or gender roles. In other words every
culture has a process by which it prepares the children to play the roles that society expects
and requires of them as adults and these roles vary according to sex, ethnicity and social
class etc. Of course, sex is almost universally the most basic category and refers to biological
differences (i.e. differences in their bodies) between men and women while gender refers to
the social differences assigned to sex. In other words, it refers to the division between
masculine and feminine roles, tasks, attributes, etc. For example, the division of sexual
labour refers to the fact that women bear children and men do not. This division is based on
biological differences. The sexual division of labour or gender-based division, on the other
hand, refers to different tasks, such as agricultural work being masculine and household
work as feminine. This division also includes traits such as aggressiveness being masculine
and submissiveness being feminine. Of course, the sexual division may vary among societies
and social groups.
The success of socialisation process is indicated by the studies which show that gender identity
is the unchanging core of the personality formation and is firmly established in the early
stages of one's life. However, although biological differences between men and women are
universal, there is differentiation of roles by gender, across cultures and societies. This is,
because when biological differences are projected into the social sphere they give rise to
masculine and feminine roles although they are not innate. Anthropologists have given,
examples from different cultures to demonstrate variation in sex roIes from one culture and
society to another. For example, in the hunting societies while the male folk took active role
in the hunting. in making tools and weapons, females are mostly passive. Their females
took active roles in the reproductive activities. On the other hand, in the agricultural society
in Africa women play considerably active role in the productive activities. In spite of the
stereotype of gender roles which exist in all societies, in reality women may be participating
equally in the so-called masculine work, such as, agriculture, unskilled work in factor~esetc
In the same manner, men quite often assist women folk in domestic work, especially amongst
the nuclear families in urban areas where both husband and wife work.
9.5.1 Gender Related Studies Agencies of Socirlisrtion
Systematic interest by social scientists in gender-related studies has been very recent. The
1 most widely researched field is the socialisation process which differentiates between men
>I and women in almost all societies, and produces what are called masculine and feminine
roles, images, behaviour patterns and tasks. In other words, it helps in producing stereotypes
of male and female. For example, in several societies women are considered submissive,
passive and dependent as if these were inborn traits whereas the masculine traits are active,
aggressive and independent. Again, the division of labour is along gender. For example,
housekeeping tasks are assigned to women and most of the external, public and production-
related tasks are given to men. (Yet there may be differences among different tribes, see for
example, Muria.)
I
.I
You may have observed that girls have to be obedient, submissive (not only to parents but
also to their brothers in most Indian families) not outgoing or to take initiative. They are
given elaborate instructions on what dress to wear and on what occasion. There is emphasis
on modesty. They are not expected to laugh loudly although the situation may be changing
. in metropolitan cities. However, the situation goes back to square one at the time of a girl's
marriage even in the most enlightened families. In many families they are discouraged to
take subjects at school which involve hard work (science and mathematics) or which are
likely to lead to a career (for example, medicine or engineering). It may be so even in
families where sons are not doing as well in studies as are the daughters. Even then the sons
will be encouraged to take up courses like science and other professional courses. When
parents can afford to spend only on the education of one child (even in Delhi or Chennai etc.)
the chances are higher that the son will be sent for higher education instead of the daughter.
9.5.2 Sexual Discrimination

This is discrimination based on the social expectation that a girl from the upper and middle
class will not be working even though a large number ofthem are working in the metropolitan
cities these days. Also, that they will get married and become full-time housewives and
leave their families.
Since parents, grand-parents, friends, teachers etc. are agents of socialisation, the situation
is further complicated because it takes place within the home and is very personal. Again, it
takes place through people who are also emotionally involved in the process. It is further
complicated by the fact that boys and girls like to approximate their behaviour to that expected
by parents since it is likely to make the latter happy. They would also not like to offend those
whom they love i.e., the significant others'.
The discussion of socialisation and sex roles is linked to that of stereotypes and discrimination.
When social roles are assigned on the basis of gender, which results in discrimination or puts
unreasonable limitations on women, then it needs to be questioned. The other words, used in
this context are bias, sexism, and stereotyping. Although, each has separate meanings, these
terms underline the discriminatory treatment given to and inferior position assigned to women
in society. For example, (a) men are considered superior to women and (b) women are
denied access to positions of power. Some well-known examples of discrimination are:
paying women less than merl for the same jobs and denying them educational opportunities
and certain jobs because of their sex. It may be illustrated with the fact that in agriculture
women labourers are paid less than their male counterparts. Again boys may be encouraged
to go in for,higher education because they will bring higher income to the family. But this
may not be the case for girls in a majority of the families. Such discrimination is rooted in
stereotyping (mental picture held in common by members of a group). It represents an over
simplified opinion and judgement about the members of a group, be they women, Hindus or
Negroes.
i Therefore, when we said earlier that society socialises the new born infant or that it socialises
the child into becoming fit member of the society, we referred to certain traits which are
I expected of all members of society regardless of whether they are boys or girls. Hindus or
Muslims, villagers or urbanites, tribals or non-tribals. The task of socialisation is undertaken
by various agencies, however, we have focussed on the family since it is the primary agency
of socialisation.
1
9.6 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIALISATION
In contemporary societies, the means of mass communication such as the books radio,
newspapers, films or cinema, records, and video are very potent sources of socialising those
who are either their readers or the listeners or the viewers. These mass media, especially the
films, the radio and the television simultaneously communicate the same message to a nation
wide audience cutting across all boundaries. Therefore, its impact on socialisation is crucial.
Here w t are concerned basically with the message that is conveyed, the images that are
projected because they form the content of the socialisation process through the mass media
and the impact of the message and the images. Thus, for example, the specific questions in
the context of gender and socialisation will be: What are the images of men and women
portrayed on the mass media especially on the television? In the context ofthe rural population
we may ask: What are the images of the rural folk and is the message relevant for the
villagers? Is their image really representative of their experience and if that is so, which part
of village India does it represent? Or, what is the impact of violence in films on the children?
Similar questions can be asked with reference to all the dimensions that cut across Indian
society.
Observe at least 5 children between the age group five to ten years in your
neighbourhood for at least two days. Write a report of about one page on "Impact of
Mass Media (esp. TV) on Children's Behaviour" in your society. Compare your answer
with your peers at your study centre.
Another question which is of general relevance would be: Which islare the most important
mediumi'media and for whom? For example, while television in India has become the most
important medium for almost everyone in India, comics are important for the children in th2
metropolitan cities while the video and now Cable T.V., Computer CD's and Internet
communication has become a rage among the elite families even in the rural areas.
9.6.1 Messages in Mass Media

However, the crucial question in the context of socialisation is related to the message as well
as the image. Scientific studies on media-use and media-impact are few and far between in
our country. Very recently, the images of women in the text books and the comics as well as
in the films and television and their impact on children have attracted the attention of scholars,
and social activists. For instance, most school text-books portray women as being housewives
and men as bread earners. Experts are arguing that this is not true in so far as the lower
income strata are concerned since women in these strata always worked to earn money to
meet the basic necessities of life. Moreover, even the middle class women in big cities are
now-a-days working in order to meet the high cost of living as well as the rising social
expectations arising out of higher education. Thus, the portrayal of women's images should
reflect this reality.
Most studies on media conducted in other countries have either focused on television or have
concluded that television is the predominant medium used by children although other
important media exist (e.g., comics, books, films etc.). Watching television has become a
central bisure time activity all over the world and remains a major source of leisure time
gratification. We shall discuss television as only one example of socialisation through the
mass media. While some of the points raised here will be applicable to other media as well,
certain others may not be relevant.
9.6.2 Impact of Television

Television contacts the viewer directly through its message and does not involve social and
interpersonal interaction. Moreover, it is embedded in another agency, namely, the family
since it is generally viewed at home. It can propagate values in contradiction to those rodted
in a specific social context. Its message may also get distorted because a large proportion of
our population is illiterate and lives in the rural areas while the programmes are oriented to
the urban viewer. Thus, the values and behaviour patterns transmitted through it may be in Agencies ofSocialiss IIOII
conflict with those upheld by the parents. Parents react to this in several ways such as
rigorous control of viewing (especially on Sundays or during the examination) and not
permitting the watching of certain programmes (e.g., late night adult movies). However, the
child's peers or friends at school or in the neighbourhood will influence him or her by
discussing specific programmes. Teachers may also comment on them. In addition, parents
have no direct control over the content of programmes.
What are the dominant concerns of the studies conducted in other countries? Most focus on
children as the audience and the effects of television on children. The most widespread view
of socialisation through the mass media is that it contains harmful experiences, particularly
for children, but also for families in general. Some refer to the hypothesised tendency of
television (and even cinema) to incite young people to crime and violence. Although these
studies are only speculative, they are pointers to further research.
So far, the impression you may get is that the impact of television is only unidirectional or
one way. While it is true that its impact is direct, it is not devoid of the social context.
Viewing is a social activity insofar as it is done within the home and in the presence of family
members. Viewers comment on programmes favourably or unfavourably. The interpersonal
elements of other viewers are important as much as are the timing and the physical
environment. Therefore. television is one element in an interlocking system. It does not
exist in a vacuum and its effects are mediated and modified by the social context of viewing.
In other words, the reaction to the programme is determined to some extent, by the fact that
you are watching it along with your parents or not, and whether you are watching it at home
or outside, and so on.

Note: a) Use the spac,e below for your answer
b) Compare yo'ur answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) Write a description of how gender-based or sexual discrimination occurs in the
socialisation process. Use about five lines.
2) Comment on the effect of mass media on the process of socialisation. Use about five
lines.
9.7 LET US SUM UP

We have seen in this unit that socialisation has many agencies. It works through these
agencies and disseminates different types of behaviour modes. Some of these agencies are
the family, caste group, tribe, school, etc. In fact we have emphasised that even gender
differences (between boys and girls, men and women) are largely learned processes. Very
often the mass media such as cinema and television reinforce ideas and stereotypes of social
behaviour. But sometimes they do not. This unit has also examined the impact of mass
media on the process of socialisation.
Kammeyer, Keaneth C.W. and Yetman, Norman R. 1979, Sociology: Experiencing Changing
society. Mass Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Boston
Mckee James, B. 1981, Sociology: The Study of Society. Holt, Rinehart and Winstion. New
York.
9.9 KEYWORDS - - - - - - -
Ageqcies : The means whereby the process of socialisation (in our case) is
facilitated, e.g. family and school.
Dialect : This is the subordinate form of a language peculiar to a region or a
social group with non-standard vocabulary and pronunciation.
1
Gender : There are two sexes, male and female. It is the social dimension of the
differences in the work roles, behaviour and traits of men and women.
Ghatul : Bachelor's hall of both men and women of the Murias of Bastar in
Madhya Pradesh.
Linguistic Code : Language including vocabulary, speech patterns etc. used and
understood by members of a given social group while communication
through them may be difficult across social groups.

1) The major agencies that socialise a person are the family, school. peer group, the
neighbourhood etc. The examples of factors that influence socialisation are (i)
membership to a social class or caste, and (ii) whether one is a boy or a girl.
2) A) Childhood Family
B) Adolescence Peer-Group
C) Adulthood Professional Group
1) Socialisation occurs in tribes through special institutions like the Ghotuls amongsl
Murias, village guardroom amongst Nagas etc. In these institutions all unmarried
boys and girls from the age of five or six live together. They are assigned educational
tasks and are held responsible for its maintenance. During daytime they go to their
parents home and help them in various tasks but at night they sleep in the Ghotul.
After marriage they leave the Ghotul.
2) The two contexts of socialisation that school provide are formal context and informal
context. Formal context is determined by the text books and the cognitive aims of the
process ofteaching while informal context can be perceived in the interpersonal relations
of students with teachers and those among the students (peer group).
1) During the process of socialisation discrimination occurs. For example, it is assumed
that a girl will not work even though a large number are working in the metropolitan
cities these days.
2) Sexual stereotypes are certain sets of attitudes, values, norms, customs and expectations
based on social differences between men and women but justified on biological grounds,
which shape the differential socialisation of men and women. Men are supposed to be
independent, capable and aggressive and women, to be dependent, timid and submissive.
3) The mass media for example, radio, television, films, books, cinema, newspapers, etc.
cut across all boundaries of region, religion, sex, caste or class. They convey the same
message to a nation-wide population. Therefore, its impact on socialisation is crucial.
It portrays the messages and images; as in the case of video, film and T.V. etc. They
affect the minds of adults as well as children and helps to shape and reshape their
values, behaviours and expectations through their messages and images.
UNIT 10 PROCESSES OF EDUCATION
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning of Education
10.2.1 Life-long Learning and Education
10.2.2 Formal and Non-formal Education
10.3 Historical Development of the Educational System in India
10.4 Education and Inequality
10.4.1 Expansion of Education
10.4.2 Findings on Education
10.5 Women's Education
10.5.1 Schooling and Literacy
10.5.2 Question of Illiteracy
10.5.3 Education and Employment
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Key Words
10.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this lesson you should be able to:
a explain the differences between education and learning processes;
describe various techniques of education such as formal and non-formal;
analyse the historical shifts in the system of education in India; and
a narrate the extent of unequal distribution of educational opportunities in society.
*
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier units (Units 8&9) of this block we have introduced you'with the nature and
agencies of socialisation. In the earlier Units educational institutions have been pointed out
to be the important agencies of socialisation. In the forthcoming two units we shall be
discussing with you the processes of and the features of educational institutions in India.
In this unit we will explore the meaning of education and its usefulness to us throughout our
life. It specifically, focuses upon the formal and non-formal aspects of the educational system.
It describes the history and the development of modem education system in India. It also
explains the inequality inherent in the system of education; in women's education, and
discusses the problem of illiteracy. Problem of education and employment has also been
dealt with. The unit, in fact, presents a broad picture of the educational process in the
context of Indian society.
10.2 MEANING OF EDUCATION

As you sit down t o study and understand the pages of this lesson you are participating in the
organised system of education. Presumably you chose to be educated in this manner because
you had either left school early and not pursued a college degree or had studied some other
subject. These reasons, which may appear to you simple and straight forward, can often be
Socialisationand Education the resblt of several factors. Before we go into an examination of these factors, it is necessary
to see how this form of education is different from others.
To statt with, what do we mean by education? The dictionary meaning stresses "systematic
instruction" for the "development of character and of mental powers " The words systematic
instruction are of significance implying an organised way of conveying specific meanings or
symbols. Instruction is a process where by the learner acquires knowledge from the teacher,
which has been processed and graded according to the age and intelligence levels of the
average student. When a student goes to school, college or university, he or she is participating
in the formal system of education. In your case, you do not have before you a teacher;
instead what you are reading now seeks to provide to you relevant information in a
comprehensive manner so that you do not feel the need for a person to interpret and explain
the material being presented. Nonetheless, the information has been provided to you, and
you cannot really exercise choices on what comprises your course and what does not. This is
where there is an important difference between education and learning.
10.2.1 Life-long Learning and Education

You have probably heard of the phrase 'life-long learning': this means that your capacity or
ability to learn is not limited to a specific phase of your life. Every experience can be a
potedtial learning experience; however, unlike education, it is not necessarily imparted through
any specific agency like the school. for instance, you can learn about people and perhaps the
variety of occupation available to them when you wander through a shopping complex.
Similarly you can learn about the caste system. In fact, your learning experiences are
essentially enriching and perhaps only something which you alone can appreciate. On the
other hand, education in a specific area is something you share in common with a larger
group; participation in it is based on a system, an ordering of various topics in a range of
subjects or disciplines, and finally an assessment or evaluation by the teacher, or a test which
you would have to send in for evaluation. Education is not random and sporadic as learning
may be, but it is regular and regulated. To put it briefly, education involves learning but all
learning is not education, in the sense in which we are now using the terms. The renowned
sociologists Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons believed that the school class, teacher and
the entire school-oriented learning process would help in the integration of the child in
society. In fact, the school was essential for the child's proper adjustment. However, as we
shall see, they did not seem to take into account the social class differences among children
and how these created difficulties in adjustment to school.
Activity 1
There are two situations. 1st. A young girl is doing an experiment in a laboratory
along with her other class-mates and her teacher supervising them.
2nd. A young girl is learning to knit a sweater from her mother along with her two
friends.
Out of these two activities which one is education and which one is learning and why?
Write a note of one page on this and share it with other students at your study centre.
10,2.2 Formal and Non-formal Education

Education can be formal or non-formal, be directly transmitted by the teacher or through a
prepared text such as this one. In reading this text, you are now participating in the technique
of education known as distance-learning. Here your instructional material as well as proposals
for projects, additional reading and other related activities are conveyed to you through the
written word, and perhaps the radio, and visual media such as TV and Video programmes.
You are aiming for a degree in sociology; using the same technique of distance learning, a
busy professional may take time offto get packaged information on art history orthe restoration
of art pieces. This can be done through the written word as well as through audio-visual
modes. This would not be a part of his or her formal training as a lawyer or doctor but
something that he or she may nonetheless have a deep interest in. While a degree or diploma
might not follow, the person concerned would have acquired a certain degree of relevant
information in an area quite unrelated to that in which he or she is formally qualified. Thus
distance learning, can be used to train for a formal degree as well as to increase one's knowledge
in a range of topics. While in some cases evaluations are important and essential, in others Processes of Education
this may not be the case.
Similarly, the non-formal stream in our educational system also aims to give relevant
information without necessarily involving assessments, tests and so on. However, there is an
important difference in the content as well as the methods of distance teaching and those of
non-formal education. In India, non-formal education has had as its target group those
section of the population who, due to poverty andlor other related factors, have not been able
to participate in formal education. In other words they have either not gone to school or have
left or dropped out at an early age. The aim of this programme is to provide hnctional
literacy to those who are left out of the formal educational system. The typical target groups
are children from under-privileged categories such as the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes as well as those living in urban slums and remote rural areas. As we shall see, girls
form a substantial proportion of those out of school. However, a variety of socio-economic
problems limit their participation even in non-formal classes.
I
A major programme entitled Non-Formal Education was launched in India in 1975176 for
those in the age group of 15-25 years. The object of this, as also of the later National Adult
Education Programmes (NAEP), was to provide "meaningful education" to deprived groups.
I The NAEP which was initiated in April 1979 was to reach out to 10 crores illiterates,
particularly in the age group of 15 to 35 years. The curricula, borrowed from Mahatma
Gandhi's nai talim or basic education, stressed on learning through the acqu~\~rron of a skill.
In addition, the programme was to pay attention to the specific needs of the target group
which included, apart from the relevance of the course material, flexibility in timing, duration
and location of the courses. The aim of these programmes which lie outside the formal
educational system, in combination with the latter, is to combat the problem of rampant
illiteracy: even after forty years of independence and well over a century and a half since the
fist school was started in India, only 50 per cent ofthe population is literate. Of the illiterates,
more than half are women and girls. However, some inroad has been made to eradicate
rampant illiteracy In India, in general as well as amongst the special target groups like the
scheduled castes/scheduled tribes; women etc. As per the provisional figures of 2001 Census
(India 2003: pp. 78-79: GOI) during the decade 1991-2001, there has been unprecedented
progress in the field of literacy. For the first time since Independence, the absolute number
of illiterates declined by over 31.9 million. A significant milestone reached during this
period is that while the 7 plus age-groups of population increased by 171.6 million persons
during 1991-2001, 203.6 million additional persons became literate during this decade. It
should be now clear to you then that the process of education is linked not only to the
availability of resources but also to a variety of other socio-economic factors as well. This is
equally applicable in the case of formal and informal education, whether imparted directly in
a classroom, or through a text book, a radio broadcast or a class on how to take care of cattle
and other livestock.
Box 10.01
In order to make the Non-formal Education scheme (NFE) a more viable alternative to
formal education it has been revised as Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative
and Innovation Education (EGS and AIE). The revised scheme is to cover all the
unreserved habitations throughout the country where there are no learning centres within
a radius of one kilometer and is a part of an overall national programme framework for ,
unive7salisation of Elementary Euducation (UEE), the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA).
This revised scheme was made operational w.e.f. 1 April, 2001 with enhanced cost details.
It has became part of the sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) w.e.f 1 April 2002. (India 2003:
pp. 78-100: GOT)
10.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA
If we look briefly at the beginnings of education we find that in India its history can be traced
to the guru-shishya parampara or tradition of a personalised teaching by the guru. While
much of this interaction was based on the rich oral tradition, it later became based on the
understanding and interpretation of text which discussed anything from the techniques of
Socialisation and Education warfare to personal ethics. Necessarily such an education was limited to a tiny minority,
usually young men from the upper castes and privileged social groups. Sparing a child for a
life of prolonged education was possible only among the more affluent. Access to literacy
was a closely-guarded secret, and the owners of this privileged knowledge, usually Brahmins
among the Hindus, were held in great esteem and treated with reverence. By the end of the
eighteenth century, the situation started changing gradually. With the growth of urban areas,
newer occupations and groups learning became more wide spread. This was the basis for the
indigenous primary school or pathshala which soon came into being in a number of homes.
In the early nineteenth century the British rulers turned their attention to the education of
Indians: expanding trade, commerce, business as well as the bureaucracy required local
participation, at least at the lower levels. Prior to the-introduction of the Westem-style
schools, a well-knit network of pathshalas existed in large parts of the country. These primary
schools were established by the landed and trading elite's with the specific purpose oftraining
the next generation for definite roles and functions. Each pathshala had a inale teacher and
the average number of students was a little less than 10. Boys normally began their education
when they were about 8 years old, and continued for four to six years. That teaching in the
pathshala was structured according to very specific rules of pedagogy and discipline. This is
evident from a number of descriptions available in the writings of this time.

I) Explain what is meant by education. Use about five lines
2) What is the distinction between education and learning? Use about five lines.
3) What is formal education and informal education? Use about five lines.
4) Write a note on the education system in India. use about five lines.
Processes of Education
10.4 EDUCATION AND INEQUALITY
We find that when the British left India, there was a well-established network of formal
educational institutions; further, there had been some headway in non-formal education as
well. Yet, a look at the bar chart will make it clear that as yet, there are large sections of the
population which have not been affected by the agencies of education. On the one hand, we
have a fast-growing sector which can compete with the best professionals in the world, on
the other, there is the expanding population of illiterates and non-school-goers.
Bar Chart: 1
Enrollnent at Elementary Stage as Percentage of the Population in the Corresponding Age-Group
Primary Classes I-V (6-1 1)
Middle Classes VI-VIII (1 1-14)
FIGURES ARE ROUNDED OFF TONEAREST WHOLENUMBER
Total
Primary Middle Primary Middle Primary Middle Primary Middle
1950-5 1 1969-51 1970-71 1980-81
There are other Third World Countries which share our problem of illiteracy. In the so-
called developed world, the problem is not of illiteracy, but a search for alternatives to the
formal school and attempts to create greater equality in access to educational opportunities
are important issues. In countries such as the USA, UK, and even the Netherlands, the
presence of immigrant group with a substantial percentage of first generation learners, as
well as a relative lack of resources among sections of the local population, has made
increasingly relevant, the debate on the equality of educational opportunities.
10.4.1 Expansion of Education

During the last few decades, the view that educational institution should play a more active
role in bringing about greater equality among individuals, has led to considerable educational
expansion. It has also resulted in various interpretations of the notion of equality and its
relationship with education. Before we proceed further, it is necessary to have a workable
definition of equality in the context of education. Does it imply equal education for all, or
does it mean equal opportunity to be educated? For, as it has been pointed out, there is a
world of difference between the equal right to education, and the right to equal education. A
commitment to equal education for all is based on the assumption that every one is exactly
alike. This clearly is not the case. In an unequal society like ours, equality of opportunity
means equal opportunity to try for education. In the West, where most of the debates on
equality of educational opportunity have originated, the preoccupation is more with differences
in the kind of education received rather than with the question of access to the facility itself.
In most developed countries raised questions which relate increasingly to what happens to
children who have access to the assorted educational bread basket. Can everyone expect to
have a piece of bread which, in relation to another, is of the same size and quality? Or will
some, because of certain advantages, be able to stake a claim for a bigger and better slice? To
put it more sharply, once within the system, the distribution of bread is determined by causes
which may have nothing to do with the basket itself. There are factors which work in favour
of some children and against others. This is manifested in a higher rate of drop out, and
Soci:~lisationand Education unsatisfactory performance in school, among those from socially and economically under
privileged groups; the better quality bread goes to those with inherent advantages. By 'drop
out' we mean the phenomenon whereby children - or adults - leave a school or a literacy
class before its completion. This is due to a variety of reasons. When we began this lesson
we asked you to think about why you may have opted for this kind of education rather than
the conventional college degree. We also drew your attention to the fact that substantial
percentage of the Indian school-going population leaves school or college without finishing.
Unlike you, they do not, or cannot, look for alternatives. We shall now look briefly at some
of the reasons why individuals cannot or do not stay on to be educated.
10.4.2 Findings on Education

In the nineteen fifties, the work of some British social \scientists established that the working
class child was disadvantaged in relation to its middle class peers. It has been shown that
environmental and socio-economic factors determine the child's ability to adjust to a largely
middle-class school ethos. Other sociologists came to the conclusion that differences in
family background account for more differences in achievement than school background.
The stage was set for state intervention as Britain launched its programmes for the
identification of Educational Priority areas (EPS), and the USA started Project Head start.
Briefly, both aimed at providing disadvantaged children in selected geographical pockets,
with special teaching capsules, psychological enrichment programmes and stress on extra
and co-curricular activities. Started earlier in India, our policy of reservation of seats for the
'Scheduled Castes and Tribes, had the same goal in mind: to enable the under-privileged
needed some extra help so that they have a fair chance to compete against the privileged
students. By the end of the nineteen sixties it was quite clear that such concessions were not
sufficient to cope with an increasingly unequal situation. Further, there was a growing
feeling that educational institutions themselves worked against the integration of the child.
In the rest of this unit we shall briefly examine empirical data from India, which show us
how family background hamper educational progress. In the next unit, we will attempt to
discuss these in the light of the functioning of institutions.

1) Write a note on education and inequality. Use about five lines.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
10.5 WOMEN'S EDUCATION

It is the relatively lower enrolment of girls which accounts for the overall low enrolment
rate. However, these facts only tell us a part of the story: even if all girls were in school in
1990, it is equally important to keep track of where they are in 1995: are they still in school
or are they back at work in the fields or at home? For instance, in 1975-76,66-1 pet cent of
girls in the age group 6 to 11 years were enrolled in primary school classes. Most of them
were in class I; if we look at the corresponding 1980181 figures, namely at the time when
these girls should have been going into class VI, the enrolment figure in this cIass had
dropped to 29.1 per cent. In other words, before primary school is complete, over 50 per cent
of girls leave the system. Latest figures made available by the government, reiterate that out
of the 10 girls who join class I, barely 2 reach class VIII. Most of those who leave or do not
join at all, are from among the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, and from among the urban and
rural poor. Relatively far fewer Muslim girls are in schools.
But this dismal picture of literacy in India has however, begun, to change. As per the
provisional figures of census 2001 there were 562.01 million literate persons in the country
and 3/4 of the male population and more than half of the female population are literate. The Processes of Educatio~~
female literacy rate has increased by 14.87 percentage point (from 39.3% to 54-16%) as
against 11.72%) (from 64.3% to 75.8%) in case of males. Also, the gap between male-
female literacy rate has decreased from 28.84 in 1991 census to 21.70 percentage point in
200 1.
10.5.1 Schooling and Literacy

It has been pointed out that in order to be meaningful, a minimum of four to five years of
schooling is essential so as to ensure that recipients do not lapse back into illiteracy. However,
in a situation where 44 million children comprise the child labour force, and every third
household has an earning child, national educational goals have to contend with individual
strategies for survival. Sociologists as well as economists and educational planners have
been concerned with finding ways to explain, as well as resolve this crisis. It has been
clearly established that the high opportunity cost of education in relation to the poverty of
families, makes schooling unattractive. The returns on education which normally takes as
few years at school are low. Being in school means foregoing, or at any rate, limiting
participation in paid work. When families live at the subsistence level, the costs in real
terms are too high, and schooling is perceived as a poor investment which provides no
definite access to better employment.
A number of studies in urban slums have borne out that formal schooling has a marginal role
to play in the lives of girls. A recent Delhi study of Balmikis a sub-caste of the North Indian
Bhangis or sweepers, found that as girls were expected to combine housework and traditional
employment with marriage, schooling was found to be of little consequence. Almost 75 pert
cent of mothers whose sons were being educated, wanted them to complete school, while 50
per cent with daughters, admitted that their girls had not studied beyond class 111. They left
school because they had secured jobs, were married off or were needed to help with the
housework, look after a younger sibling and so on. Also see Table I, showing the reasons for
low enrolment of girls as reported by headmaster and teachers.
Table 1: Reasons for Low Enrolment of Girls as Reported by Headmasters and Teachers
Reasons Percentage (%) Responsesfrom

of Headmasters Teachers
Economic Backwardness 49 61
Girls engage in domestic/gainful activities 45 37
Indifferencelapathy of parents 4I 49
Another School nearby 16 ' 7
Social backwardness
Social backwardness
Inadequate teaching aids/craft/class equipment/
lack of playgrounds 4 6
Schools at a distance/cominunicationdifficulty - -
No separate girls' schools 1 7
10.5.2 Question of Illiteracy

I Jn a Bombay slum it was found that illiteracy was three times higher since migrant population
were prepared to send their daughters for only a few years to primary school, but hoped that
their sons would finish school. As you know, competition for jobs of all kinds is becoming
more and more intense. Coupled with the urbanisation process, we have a situation where
young men from families with little or no education among the older generation, eagerly
flock to classes and courses of various kinds whether one hopes to become a bus conductor,
office clerk, or join the civil service, certificates, diplomas and degrees are valuable assets.
This increased competitiveness also means that when resources are scarce, families will be
more eager to spend them on a son, the traditional bread-winner, than on a daughter.
Nonetheless across socio-economic classes and religious and ethnic groups, we find that
more and more girls are participating in formal and non-formal methods of education. Among
the growing middle classes an educated daughter is an asset. Often, their earnings are
crucial for the well-being of the family.
Socialisation and Education For the bulk of Indian women however, the question, whether or not to work, is of no relevance:
for generations, working class women have toiled in the fields, tended cattle, cooked meals
for a large family, helped in building roads and so on. It is also among these groups that the
indifference to education for girls is the greatest. Early marriage and restraints on the girls
who are nearing puberty, reinforce this indifference. In the last two units, you have been
introduced to the concept of socialisation; you are therefore familiar with how the family
socialises boys and girls differently. When young girls perform deftly the job of stacking
together large piles of firewood or make cow dung cakes of the right size and consistency, we
know that they have learnt these skills at their mother's side. They do not need to go to
school so as to help their families. The process of socialisation takes care of these functions.
this is also true of the socialisation of young boys who go in to traditional occupations or are
apprenticed early in occupations such as the match-stick making, lock-making and glass
bangle industries.
Activity 2
In your family identify 3 women of different generations (such as, your Grandmother,
mother, sister) and find out from them what level of education they have had (if at all).
What were the reasons for them to dropout. Write a report of one page on "Women's
Education in India" based on your findings. Share it with other students and discuss
wi:h your Academic Counsellor at your study centre.
10.5.3 Education and Employment

Thus, when poor families send their daughters to school, they rarely do so with hopes of
better employment prospects: while it would be incorrect on our part to ignore the fact that
there is a growing consciousness regarding the benefits of schooling, we should also be
aware of the fact that education means different things to different groups. When a share
cropper decided to send his six year old girl to the village school he probably does so because
others in the village have sent their girls to school. Further, in a society where there is
substantial violence against women there is a feeling that if a girl can read and write, she can
at least communicate with her family after marriage. This creates a sense of security in the
minds of many a parent, troubled by thoughts of their daughter's future. Of greater relevance
to p6licy makers, however, is the view that the school can act as a care-taker for a few hours
in the day: in a situation where institutionalised child care facilities are so woefully inadequate,
policy planners are now thinking of ways by which the school can beg made more attractive
to older children as well. Mid-day meals, attaching a balwadi or creche to the primary
school, as well as involving health workers in the process of education, are some of the
measures being considered.
Thus, the process of making school more attractive to groups which have so far been indifferent,
if not hostile, is not always easy. When such efforts have to contend with institutions and
individuals who are not themselves convinced of the need to integrate children from varying
backgrounds, the problems are magnified.
The fast growing higher education sector which caters to only a small segment of the
population, absorbs almost as much, by way of resources, as the primary education sector
meant for a much larger section of Indian society. In one way or another, most societies are
faced with this issue of the demands of the few versus the needs of the many. Put in another
way, quality, and therefore elite education, has to co-exist with mass education. The point at
issue of course is whether enough attention is being devoted to strategies for making primary
education more relevant, and hence popular. While there is no single crisis affecting lndian
education as a whole there are many problem areas in each sector. It is nonetheless true that
the issues arising out of the problem of privilege are of paramount importance. Inequalities
of access to vital resources necessary for survival, render irrelevant and peripheral city-based
discussions on how to increase educational enrolments. In the next unit we shall look at the
internal workings of the educational system; this may help to understand better how the
school or ttie text-book has also internalised tine values of a hierarchical society. We shall
also examine some proposed solutions on how to overcome the problems of illiteracy as well
as the more general question, is the school relevant anymore?
. .-
Check Your Progress 3 Processes of Educatior~

1) Write a note on women's education. Use about five lines.
..................................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the question of schooling and illiteracy. Use about five lines.
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10.6 LET US SUM UP

We have seen in this unit how education implies a particular system of imparting knowledge.
We have seen that this can be done both in formal and informal ways. We have mentioned in
this unit how the system of education in India developed. The unit also informed us clearly
on the development of education including that meant for women. More is being done to
expand education, however, the situation today is much better than ever before.

1) Mckee, James B., 1974, Sociology: The Study of Society Holt, Rinehart and Winston
New York.
2) Worsley, Peter, 1987, The New Introduction Sociology Penguin Books Ltd.. Middlesex.
10.8 KEY WORDS - -
Education : Teaching given through a specific organised system e.g. school and college.
Formal : Where there is a clear cut organisation following specific rules.
Inequality : When there is a lack of balance in distribution of rewards of money, benefit
of education etc.
Literacy : Ability to read, write and comprehend in any language.
Nai Talim : Basic Education

I) Education has been defined as 'systematic instruction" for the "development of charac-
ter and of mental powers". Instruction refers to a process where by the learner acquires
knowledge from the teacher. This knowledge has been processed and graded accord-
ing to the age and intelligence levels of the average student.
2) The distinction between education and learning is that education is conducted in a
formal organised system like school, college or university. In this system the teacher
Socialisation and Education organises the activity of the student. Learning process is one where knowledge is
acquired informally without the need of a teacher. It is not time bound and can be life
long.
3) Formal education is directly transmitted by the teacher in an organised and structured
system. It leads to the acquisition of a formal degree or diploma. In comparison, non-
formal education inspite of providing relevant information does not necessarily in-
volves assessments, tests, etc. It imparts information through unconventional means
such as use of songs, story-telling, etc.
4) The educational system in lndia can be traced back to the guru-shishya parampara or
tradition of a personalised teaching by the guru. Later the understanding and interpre-
tation of the religious texts became the basis of education. It was, thereby, confined to
a minority of elite's who were generally the Brahimns. At the end of eighteenth cen-
tury growth of urban area lead to the development of indigenous primary school or
pathshala. In the early nineteenth century, the British rulers introduced Western style
schools and expanded the field of learning trade, commerce, business, as well as, bu-
reaucracy.

1) It has been universally accepted that educational institutions should play a more active
role in bringing about greater equality amongst individuals. However, there is a differ-
ence between equal right to education and the right to equal education. A commitment
to equal education for all is based on the assumption that everyone is alike. This is not
the case. In an unequal society like ours, equality of opportunity means equal opportu-
nity to try for education

1) The enrolment of girls in schools is very low in lndia. Even those who go to school are
seldom able to complete even their primary education. Girls are the major dropouts in
schools due to certain socio-economic reasons. They are required to learn household
jobs and help in the care of younger siblings.
2) It is essential to have a minimum of four to five years of schooling. This is to ensure
that the recipient of this schooling does not lapse back into illiteracy. The function of
schooling is different for different class and section of people. Amongst the poorer
section the rate of drop outs from school is very high. This is because very little
immediate reward is perceived by them in remaining in school. Going to school means
foregoing paid work or being available at home.
UNIT 11 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Structure
1 1.0 Objectives
1 1.1 lntroduction
11.2 Education and Inequality
1 1.2.1 Primary Schools
11.2.2 Private Schools
1 1.3 Educational Profession
1 1.3.1 Studies on Teachers
1 1.3.2 Education and Teachers
1 1.3.3 Achievement in School
1 1.3.4 Writing Textbooks
11.4 Discrimination in Education

1 1.4.1 Various Disciplines
1 1.4.2 Science and Gender
1 1.4.3 Scheduled Castes and Tribes
1 1.4.4 Education and Voluntary Organisation
11.5 Let Us Sum Up

1 1.6 Further Readings
1 1.7 Key Words
1 1.8 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
11.0 OBJECTIVES
- -
After you have read this unit you should be able to:
explain the factor of inequality in the system of education,
analyse various aspects of the educational profession;
identify factors leading to discrimination in education; and
describe the education of scheduled castes and tribes.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit on educational institutions we are going to teach you about education in various
aspects. This unit begins with aspects of education and inequality. This includes types of
educational institutions. The unit goes on to study the educational profession in some detail.
It touches upon achievement in school, and some comments are made on textbooks that are
used. The next section has a fairly detailed discussion on discrimination in education on
gender basis, class basis and so on. This unit therefore provides fairly a broad idea of
educational institutions.
11.2 EDUCATION AND INEQUALITY

After reading the last unit you may well assume that the hierarchical division within society
make it difficult for education to achieve its stated goals. This is undoubtedly true, it is
equally important to remember that the educational system itself is not free from inequalities.
Over here we shall deal with stratificationis within the school system, biases in text books
and the processes of discrimination in the class. We shall then look at how the non-formal
stream has been affected by the assumptions of the formal system. Finally we shall briefly
examine suggested solutions to some of the issues raised.
Socialisation and Education In Britain there is a link between education in one of the expensive fee-paying public schools,
and admission to the renowned universities of Oxford and Cambridge and access to top
professional and management jobs. A small percentage of Britons control the share market
as well as dominate in a number of other occupational fields. In India, the colonial legacy
has resulted in similar trends: a student from a public school such as Doon School or St.
Paul's or a high fee-paying non-residential private school is much more likely to gain admission
to the country's better-known colleges and universities than his peer in a government school.
The chief reason is that the former not only train students to compete for a limited number of
seats but also to use the English Language fluently. Despite all our attempts at giving the
national languages place in the sun, English remains the language of the elite or those who
occupy dominant positions in society.
11.2.1 Primary Schools

According to recent figures, there are 6.9 lakh educational institutions in the country. Over
70 per cent of these are primary schools. These are funded by the government, municipal
corporations and private bodies. The largest number of these institutions are funded and run
by the government; however ifwe look at the figures ofthose who gain access to the prestigious
institutions for higher education such as the IITs, IIMs, Medical Colleges and the professional
institutions, a majority come from the small percentage of private schools. Clearly, government
support to schools does not guarantee studentsl access to higher education, much of which ic
also funded by the government. Paying relatively low fees the son of a top civil servant or the
daughter of a flourishing doctor train to be architects or engineers in institutions where
public funds heavily subsidise education. In time they are absorbed in well-paid jobs in
established institutions.
The majority of Indian children go to government and municipal schools, but only a few find
their way to college and professional institutions. Again, for many ofthose in school, facilities
are woefully inadequate: government figures indicate that 40 per cent of schools have ncl
proper buildings nor black-boards, while almost 60 per cent have no drinking water facilities.
On the other hand, the fifty-five odd public schools modelled after their British counterparts
teach their students horse riding and archery, chess and photography in picturesque
surroundings, and amidst much luxury. In a somewhat fresh attempt at providing rural and
less privileged children access to similar schools, the government has launched its scheme of
Navoday Vidyalaya or model schools. The aim of these schools is to provide deserving
students, particularly in the rural areas, access to quality education irrespective ofthe economic;
status of their parents.
11.2.2 Private Schools

The government is supposedly opposed to the petpetuation of privilege through high fee-
paying private schools; however, these Navoday Vidyalayas are doing precisely this, except
that their catchment area is somewhat different. The powerful landed elite in rural areas,
who had so far felt discriminated against by the educational system are now being provided
with prestigious education for their children. In principle, while there is nothing wrong
with the establishment of more quality institutions, these do not necessarily spread greater
equality. At best they help in widening somewhat the base of privilege & opportunity. A
report from Maharashtra, where 7 such schools are functioning, indicate that haste in initiating
the programme has resulted in a somewhat uneven beginning. While one of the aims of
these 'pace-setting' institutions is to encourage rural girls to participate in quality education,
it has been shown time and again that parents are reluctant to send their daughters to co-
education institutions. Further, the notion of co-education residential institutions at the
gchool level is itself an innovative one; even the elite would perhaps hesitate to send their
children to such institutions. Consequently, in the school at Amaravati, there were 29 girls
out of a total of 120 students, and 8 out of 74 in the Tuljapur Navoday Vidyalaya. Given the
dismal picture of girlis education, this is quite an encouraging beginning; what remains to
- be seen however, is how long these girls will stay on in these schools. It is more than
possible that these Vidyalayas will soon become an essential part of the selective educational
Structures catering to the sons of the fast-grbwing rural upper and middle classes.
Thus we find that the educational system is not an independent agent of change but rather its
institutions reinforce existing inequalities as well as create new disparities. For instance,
the Navoday Schools are widening the divide in rural society, and even succeeding in
transmitting urban, consumerist norms to those so far protected from the school, namely, the Educational Institujions
attitude of teachers, biases in text books and so on.

1) How does inequality enter into primary educational institutions? Use about ten lines
I for your answer.
11.3 EDUCATIONAL PROFESSION

If we look at the works of the well-known philosophers of education the assumption appears
to be that if the legitimate needs of teachers could be met, they would be successful
professionals. In the late twentieth century, the situation is somewhat different: the social
base of those to be educated is being increasingly widened, while teachers tend to come from
the hard core of the middle classes. In such a situation, a teacheris involvement with the job
is determined by other factors which are almost as important as security of tenure and
reasonable working hours. Essential for teacher-student empathy is the sharing of a common
value code between the teachers and the taught. Further, if this is not possible, there is the
need to appreciate that any culture which is different from that of the teacher is not necessarily
inferior and in need of immediate reform. In India, students in elite privately-run schools
have more facilities than those studying in government and municipal schools. This is also
true of the extent of teacher involvement and identification with students and their problems.
The typical public school product is expected to be truthful, fearless and cultured.
Subsequently, helshe often becomes a member of the country's elite professions or a successful
business person. Boys and girls from the top echleons of society are trained by masters
familiar with the dominant norms ofthat particular culture. There is no basic conflict between
the broad objectives of elite private and public schools and aspirations of the pupilis families.
Both want preparation for high status and well-paid occupations.
11.3.1 Studies on Teachers

Comparative studies of teachers in urban private and government schools have indicated
that the former find it easier to identify with their students. In the government schools,
lower middle class and middle class teachers are keen to maintain their distance from their
studentmost of whom are from the working class. The usual reaction ofteachers interviewed
in the government schools is that their students are stupid, ignorant and cunning. Such
attitudes are strengthened by value systems which stress differences in language, sentence
construction and vocabulary as well as, the teachers perception of decent behaviour. The
British educational sociologist Basil Bernstein has dealt at length with how knowledge is
transmitted in schools. He feels that there are distinct social class-based linguistic codes
which determine class room interaction, either at the level of speech or through the written
word. These codes favour the upper and middle socio-economic groups who consequently
have access to and control over a particular style of life. This style aflife which the sociologists
Socialisation and Education have characterised as the piling up of culture capital, constantly reinforces the relationship
between social class and a particular kind of education: those children who do not follow the
dominant middle class language of the classroom remain isolated, if not alienated.
Studies from the U.S.A. and Britain have shown how race and ethnicity become vital elements
in the teacher assessment of students. Often, these are not borne out by objective intelligence
tests. A British study established that middle class teachers tended to favour the more neatly
d ~ s s e dchildren as well as those whom they felt came from 'better' homes. This labelling
can be harmful as students themselves soon internalise the stereotypes which teachers have
developed of them. A study in an elementary school for black children in the U.S.A. found
that students about whom teachers had high expectations became achievers while the
performance of low-expectation students decline.
11.3.2 Education and Teachers

In the black area of Harlem in New York city it was found that teachers were systematically 1
imposing white values, cultbre and language on the students. If children were unable to
adapt to this essentially alien way of life, they were treated as potential failures. Teachers
who were the primary agents in superimposing this culture were fully convinced of the
importance of their role. The above analysis has highlighted two different pedagogical
approaches: the first relates to deliberate neglect of the working class child and the second to
school reform which attempts to stamp out a subculture and impose another on pupils from
different backgrounds. Critics of American educational reforms in the Sixties found that the
latter was being practised in many schools throughout the country. On the other hand, in
India where the majority of the country's children up to the age of 14 years come from
underprivileged homes and share little in common with either their teacher or the formal
school curriculum, the problem is more of neglect. Iinplicit in this neglect is the belief that
the middle class school curriculum and the culture it professes is superior to that of the pobr
child; hence if the child does not understand, the fault lies with him or her, and not with the
teacher, teaching method or the curriculum. The assumption is that if the child was able to
accept the middle class ways of life, as taught in school, the chances of social and occupational
mobility would perhaps be much greater. The initiative for learning, however, Lies with te
child. On the other hand, in U.S.A., teachers are trained to make children learn an alien
idiom. There are few concessions made to cultural and ethnic differences which may affect a
chi ldis adjustment process.
Activity 1
Visit a Government School in your neighbourhood one day and find out from its teacher(s)
about the class background of their students and whether it is related with their
performance in studies or not. Repeat the same in a PublicIConvent School one day.
Write an essay of two pages on 'Education and Inequality' based on your findings and
share it with other students at your Study Centre. Also, discuss this topic with your
Academic Counsellor.
11.3.3 Achievement in School

It is now accepted that school achievement is the outcome of a wide range of factors.
I
In India, where the problem of school drop-outs is admitted to be 'intractable', it is essential
to carry out further research into the role of the teacher and curricula in the educational
1
system and also the child's alienation from the system. Again, a working class child's,
staying on in school is also dependent on whether the family finds education useful. A high 1i
opportunity cost will take children away from school; so will the attitudes of parents who feell
that teachers and school administration are unsympathetic. Apart from the teacher, textbooks
and work assigned in class tends to be geared to the average middle class child. If you look
at some of the prescribed school books, you will no doubt be struck by the fact that in the
languages, often stories deal with situations and characters with whom children from certain1
homes can hardly have any familiarity: if the aim of education is to promote understanding.,
an obvious method would be through learning situations with which the child is familiar. At:
th~esame time, the perpetuation, or even creation, of stereotypes can, in the long run, be
counter-productive. A case in point is the portrayal of girls and women in textbooks.
Educational institutions
11.3.4 Writing Textbooks
It is now being increasingly recognised that the text-book, whether it teaches English or
Mathematics, can, through the use of characters and symbols in certain situation become a
powerful medium for the perpetuation of stereotypes and role models. For instance, an
NCERT sponsored study in Hindi text books which are widely used in the country found that
the ratio of boy-centred stories was 2 1:O. Again when the books made biographical references,
94 out of 1 10 relate to prominent men. In the thirteen English language text-books published
by the Central Institute of English. Hyderabad, boy-centred stories outnumbered girl-centred
ones by eighty-one to nine. Further, the general tenor in books, in both the languages was to
portray boys as courageous, achieving and interested in science and technology; girls and
women were rarely, portrayed in the role associated with economic activity or independence.
I A study of Marathi text books found that even when girls were seen as being employed, they
were invariably portrayed in menial and subordinate roles.
C Taking note of the fact that such gross deviations from reality could indeed affect self-
perceptions, the women's Education Unit in the NCERT recently undertook projects to devise
handbooks on how text books should be written so as to improve the status of women. The
handbook for Mathematics demonstrates aptly how change in attitudes can be introduced
through a supposedly gender specific subject. Earlier in the text book pro-male gender
biases were depicted. At present gender neutral problems are asked to solve. For example,
suggested problems ask students of class I11 to work out how much Lakshman had in his
bank account before he distributed equal sums to his daughter and to his son. At the middle
school level, ratios, graphs and equations are introduced through the biographical details of
women scientists and mathematicians. Of greater importance than the sums themselves are
the instructions to teachers who are asked to weave in the text while teaching students how
to solve a problem.
1 The originators of these innovative handbooks are well aware of the fact that unless the
teachers are convinced of the need to teach more imaginatively, children will concentrate on
the solution only and not on the text. Clearly this is the crux of the problem: teachers are by
and large a conservative force, who are not easily convinced of the need to teach or preach
greater equality between the sexes through Mathematics, Physics or Hindi. Nor is it easy to
start the process of text books revision or ensure that the same text books are to be taught in
all the schools in the country. Further, text book writers themselves are singularly resistant
to change as they feel that radical deviations would clearly disturb the well-entrenched
expectations of both the school community as well as the family.
1 Check Your Progress 2
I Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
I b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
I 1) Write a'note on education and values. Use about five lines.
I 2) Discuss aspects of achievement in school. Use about five lines for your answer.
~ocialisationand Education
11.4 DISCRIMINATION IN EDUCATION
We find that it is not only text books and teachers who discriminate against certain sections
of the student populations but that the process has grown deep roots within the system.
Irrespective of the level of education being considered, Indian boys have an advantage over
girls in terms of access, retention and the future use of their training. Further, in the case of
the small percentage of the population which can exercise the option of going in for higher
education, girls are invariably concentrated in the lower status, less competitive forms of
education. In this, girls from the upper middle class and middle class share with the first
generation literate son of a farmer or a potter, a common destiny. There is a distinct dividing
line between the high status of relatively few medical colleges, institutes of technology,
management and engineering and the bulk of higher education consisting of the proliferating
degree colleges, polytechnics and technical institutes. While, by and large, the former are
the preserve of boys from privileged background, the latter cater to their sisters as well as to
boys who are unable to succeed in highly competitive selection tests which assume a fluency
and familiarity with a certain sub-culture as well as the English language.
Thus the dual system of higher education which separates a select, self perpetuating elite
from the majority trained in different institutions is divided not only on the basis of socio-
economic status but also on the basis of sex. The relevant difference here is that while boys
from cettain backgrounds often cannot succeed in gaining admission to elite institutions, the
girls in question are not allowed to try to succeed. While middle class boys too have to face
pressures of various kinds when making choices, these are of a qualitatively different nature.
In male-dominated society, the stress imposed on boys by the syndrome of achievement,
examination and selection is not inconsequential; yet there is a commitment to getting into
and in succeeding in wider range of courses through open competition. Theoretically, girls
are supposed to have access to the same courses as boys. In actual fact, if they are allowed to
go to college, they tend to flock to a few, selective 'feminine' areas of study. Boys are
socialised to compete and succeed and girls to accept participation in well demarcated, 'safe'
educational realms. These statements will become a little clearer to you if we examine some
empirical data.
11.4.1 Various Disciplines

There is an assumption that girls are better at somethings than at others. Of equal importance
is the labelling of male-dominated disciplines associated with Science, Mathematics, and
Engineering as more prestigious and requiring a high level of intelligence. A limited number
of institutions specialising in these areas, access to which is determined by highly competitive
entrance examinations, serve to create an elite crops in higher education. Girls as we shall
see, are rarely among the chosen few. In India one major advantage of the 10+2+3 system
(where 10+2 refers to the years in school and +3 to the time spend on a first degree) is that it
makes the learning of Science and Mathematics obligatory for all students up to the class X
(10) level. Yet, though this pattern of education was officially adopted in 1968, it has still to
be accepted in a few states. Consequently, under the old scheme, schools can continue to
offer Hom~eScience and Art for girls rather than Science and Mathematics. However, we also
find that schools under the new scheme find ways of countering the system due to the professed
inadequacy of teaching staff: thus in the Jama Masjid area of Delhi, which caters to a largely
Muslim populations, girls' schools are unable to offer Science and Mathematics because
qualified vomen teachers are not available. It is also not improbable that such schools are in
fact catering to the demands for education of a certain kind for girls from an essentially
purdah society. That the notion of what is right and proper for a girl to study permeates the
education system in general is evident from the kind of choices that girls make at the +2
level, that is for classes XI and XII. A recent study of Delhi Schools indicated that while
girls constituted about 60 per cent of the Art stream and about 30 per cent in the Science and
Commerce stream, over 40 per cent flocked to the relatively new vocational stream. Further,
the subjectrwise breakdown of vocational options showed that girls were concentrated in
typing, weaving, textiles, health care and beauty culture while boys chose ophthalmics and
optics, auditing and accounting in addition to office management. Again, for the socially
useful productive work options in a non-academic area which was offered in classes IX and
X, choices are markedly sex-typed and girls continue to do the same tasks in school as are
assigned to them at home. However, a look at the performance of girls in school-leaving
examinations in various parts of the country indicate that not only is the level of girls higher
than that of boys but also those who have opted for the Science stream often fare as well if not Educational institutions
better; than their male peers. Taking the elh hi Secondary school (class XII) results for 1985,
we find that girls secured a higher pass percentage than boys in all the four groups of Science,
Humanities, Commerce and Vocational Studies. While over 70 per cent of those who opted
for Science were boys, 60 per cent of the Humanities students were girls and the Commerce
stream was evenly divided between boys and girls; the vocational group was more popular
among girls. Interestingly, though a fewer number of girls were in the Science group, their
pass percentage was as high as 83.8 per cent as against 70.7 per cent for boys.
Activity 2
Interview 5 male students and 5 female students about their choice of subject and career
options. Write a page on 'Gender & Education: Pattern and its changes'. Discuss your
answer with other students at your Study Centre, as well as your Academic Counsellor.
11.4.2 Science and Gender

Two important questions need to be asked. Firstly, how many girls who fare well in Science
at the class X examinations do in fact opt for it at the +2 stage? Secondly, how many of those
who offer Science for the final school leaving examination continue with it or with related
subjects at the degree level? While it is difficult to give precise answers, there are indications
that in some of the best s+ools in the country there is one girl to four boys in the Science
section. Further, class room observations of teacher trainees show that these girls are quiet
and, reserved non-participants. While they were diligent about their home work and performed
well in unit tests, they rarely took part in discussions which were dominated by the boys.
The fact that they were in a minority may have accounted for their low degree of participation.
Nonetheless, those who taught classes VI and VII found that adolescent girls were as assertive
and definite in their point of view as boys, indicating that adolescent girls soon intemalised
the need to be submissive and obedient, rather than be questioning and argumentative,
particularly, in a male-dominated environment. A principal of a leading co-educational
school in Delhi commented that most girls who did take up Sciences, hoped to become
doctors. The majority of those who were not successful in the premedical tests, went in for
Home Science, the Natural Sciences, Bio-Chemistry, or switched to Arts subjects. Very few
aspired to be Engineers, Research Scientists or Geo-physicists. With approaching adolescence,
the socialisation of girls stresses docility, obedience and a sense of duty to the family
collectively. docial scientists have pointed out that the inner life of the school reflects a
hierarchy of authority, based on middle class domination; as we have seen, this is evident in
linguistic codes as well as in the text books used.
Boys from underprivileged homes share many of these disabilities with girls. For instance,
if we look at studies conducted among the Scheduled Castes we find that students often
suffer because they are unable to comprehend all that is being taught to them. A more or less
uniform curriculum in the regional language is not always comprehensible to children from
a variety of linguistic and social class backgrounds. Both the language as well as the subject
matter are often alien to some students who then drop out of the system. Further, corruption
within educational institutions acts as furtherdisincentives as families rarely have the resources
to pay for routine "pass karani" and hospitality fee for examiners and others. Even then
Scheduled Caste boys manage to make it to the portals of higher learning.
11.4.3 Scheduled Castes and Tribes

A Case study of thirteen Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribe students admitted to the
B.Tech course at the [IT, Bombay in 1973 found that oi~lyfive were still enrolled at the end
of the second year. Though all had been through a crash course designed to help them
overcome some of their social and educational disadvantages, this was clearly not enough to
make up for the disabilities ofbirth. While half left hec;lrl$cthey found the academic standard
too high, the rest complained of antagonism from t h e ~ rcaste peers. Staying in the hostel,
using cutlery and crockery as well as having to speak and writing English were problematic.
Only a very few qualify for these quality institutions; most are concentrated in colleges for
general education or ITIs or their equivalent.
This is not to suggest that the Scheduled Castes are a homogeneous category and that all are
as fortunate. Here too, some important comments are applicable as we find that some are
Sociatisation and Education more equal than others. Reservation of seats provides the opportunity for a small percentage
of the Scheduled Castes to compete while the large majority remain outside the system. The
distribution of scarce resources within a large community has certain side effects, and the
better organised and politically more powerful Scheduled Castes take the lion's share of
seats. By widening the gap between the underprivileged and the more advantaged within the
community, education creates new inequalities. Of course, we are not arguing against
reservations but merely attempting to make you aware of the fact that even when policy
makers intend otherwise, the beneficiaries of a particular strategy are not always those for
whom it is really meant.
If we are talking about privilege and opportunity, it would be safe to conclude that large .
sections of the population which include girls, members of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes
and those who are otherwise economically and socially deprived, are in fact non-participants
in the formal educational system. In the earlier unit we had mentioned briefly that the non-
formal system too suffers from a number of problems. A major difficulty arises out of the
inability to devise syllabi and course material which are sufficiently relevant to the target
population. Here again, as most text book writers and planning and teaching personnel are
from the middle class, perceptions of what is required is often at variance with actual needs.
In isolation, non-formal or adult education classes can be of limited use: it is essential that
they should be linked to the wider issues of development and skill acquisition. Otherwise
these programmes will remain irrelevant and pointless. As those involved with many such
projects have pointed out, only those immediate requirements such as accessible drinking
water supply, cheaper grain and medical aid when illness keeps them away from work or
regarded as relevant matters. For poverty creates a legitimate indifference to "debating the
fundamentals of citizenship, social integration, the sharing of political power".
11.4.4 Education and Voluntary Organisation

Increasingly, voluntary organisations, women's groups and others have been concerned with
making non-formal education more relevant. This is not always easy in a situation where
the education is barely trained to teach differently. Further, course material, flip charts,
diagrams and so on are not always relevant. In such a situation, much is to be gained by
innovation and enterprise: the experiences of some groups in Maharashtra indicate how a
little imagination and initiative can go a long way in stimulating interest. In a non-formal
class among women of the nomadic Gosavi group, participation was maximised by combining
group singing, story-telling and the dissemination of basic health information with distribution
of the primer.
Not many non-formal centres are run like the above. Both the formal as well as non-formal
sectors suffer from excessive bureaucratisation and lack of imagination. Obsession with
opening institutions without verifying whether existing ones are working as desired has
resulted in Navoday Vidyalayas where the Nav Yug schools have not got off the ground.
This is a problem which, to a greater or lesser extent, has been shared by several countries.
Consequently since the end of the nineteen sixties a period of disillusionment with education
set in, and concerned persons have been speaking and writing about alternatives. Few social
scientists felt that schools should be abolished as they only spread inequality and taught
children to compete excessively in a system based on a hidden curriculum. This curriculum
measured a child's ability in terms of the amount of learning he or she consumed: results
were more important than content. Experts who devised a unique method of educating the
poor in Latin America, believed that it was confusing the issue if we assume that formal,
structured education could help combat the disadvantages of birth.
Box 11.01
Evan Illich (1971) was one of the main proponents of the deschooling society. He wrote
a book with the same title Deschooling Society (1971), Harper $ Row. The aim of
schools, according to Illich, should be to prepare students to make a better society and to
live in the society successfully. This aim, he believes can be fulfilled by getting educated
outside the walls of the formal school.
Other social scientists, such as, John Holt (How Children Fail, Del. Publishing Co.);
Paul Goodman (Compulsory Miseducation, Horizon Press); Everelt Reimer (School is
Dead, Doubleday and Com.), have also led the de-schooling attack on the educational
status quo. They all belong to conflict school of thought.
However, these experiments too have only been partially successful. You are by now familiar Educational Institutions
that education, rather than promote positive change, can often act as a hindrance. For instance,
as we have seen, its role in perpetuating new inequalities is not inconsequential. When you
read the units on socialisation, social structure, status and role and so on, it will be easier for
you to fit these two units into a wider context. Most social institutions change and are
subject to modification as soon as they become a part of the essential interactive process.
When studying sociology we should not have pre-conceived notions on what institutions
should be like; instead we need to constantly remind ourselves that change and modifications
are essential for human growth and survival.

1) Fill in the blanks:
a) Irrespective of the level o f education being considered important
.............................have an advantage over ............................in terms of access.
b) The dual system of .............................which separates a select, self perpetuating
elite from the majority trained in indifferent institutions is divided not only on
the basis of ...............................status but also on the basis of ..............................
2) What is the situation for the education of scheduled caste and tribes? Use about five
lines.
11.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt various aspects of educational institutions. We will mention here
the themes that were tackled. Firstly the theme of education and inequality was discussed.
Secondly various aspects of the educational profession were considered. Thirdly the question
of discrimination in education was taken up. These themes have been discussed in various
aspects. The discussion was both wide ranging and detailed.
11.6 .FURTHERREADINGS
Halsey, A. H. Floud J, and Anderson C.A., 1961. Education, Economy and Society 6A
Reader in the Sociology of Education, New York, The Free Press of Glencoe.
Worsely, P. 1987. The New Introducing Sociology, Penguin Ltd. Middlesex, England.
11.7 KEY WORDS - - -
Achievement : Refers here to performance in academic pursuits e.g. marks in class.

Discrimination : To have an attitude against certain types of student, e.g. poor students.
Gender : There are two genders - male or female.
Innovative : Refers to any new steps in education, e.g. audio-visual aspects to
ordinary printed lessons.
Purdah : A veil which hides the face. Also refers to the social practice by
women of concealing one's face in the presence of certain categories
of male relations.
Socialisation and Education Opportunity Cost : Loosing of particular monetary benefits (opportunity) to gain some
other one. For example a young man gives up an opportunity to join
a service to pursue his study. Here service is the opportunity cost.

I) Inequality enters the primary educational institutions through the kind of educational
facilities that are provided to the students. The majority of Indian students go to gov-
ernment and municipal schools. Out of these only a few find their way to college and
professional institutions. While for a minority of students who come from better off
families, public schools provide educations. These schools have best facilities in term!;
of quality as well as quantity. Students from these institutions generally, go on for
higher education and do well there. They also acquire jobs later. Thus inequality is
perpetuated in our system of education.

1) Values enter into education at every level. Often a student and herhis teacher belong
to different classes of the society. They are brought up in different value-systems.
Therefore, when a teacher tries to change the way of dressing or speaking of a student
he or she is imposing his or her values on the child.
2) School achievement is the outcome of a wide range of factors. The role of teachers, the
curricula and text books play an important part in encouraging a child, Parental initia-
tive and sympathy and understanding of the teacher affects the child's progress. Oth-
erwise the child becomes alienated and loses interest.

1) a) Indian boys, girls
b) Higher education, socio-economic, sex
2) In spite of government support the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students are no~t
able to overcome some of their social and educational disadvantages. This is clearly
evident from the case study conducted in various parts of the country. (referred to in th~e
section 11.4.3)
REFERENCES
References, cited in Block 111. (These are given here for those students who wish to follow certain
points in detail).
Bernstein, B. 1977, Towards a Theory of Educational Transmission, Methuen Ins.: London.
Durkheim, E. 1956, Education and Sociology, Free Press: New York.
Government of India, 1986, National Policy on Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
(Department of Education): New Delhi
Ilhich, I. 1971, Deschooling Society, Harper & Row: New York.
Karlekar, M. 1982, Poverty and Women's Work:A Study of Sweeper Women in Delhi, Vikas Publishing:
New Delhi.
Parsons, T. 1964, Social Structure and Personality, Free Press: New York.
Singhi, N.K., 1979, Edzrcation and Social Change, Rawat Publications: Jaipur
Rao, V.K. & Reddy, R.S., 1997, Contemporary Education, Commonwealth Publishers in Association
with Dr. Zakir Hussain Institute For Non-Formal and Continuing Education: New Delhi.
UNIT 12 ECONOMY AND TECHNOLOGY
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Relationship Between Economy, Technology and Society
12.2.1 Definition of Economy
12.2.2 Definition of Technology
12.2.3 Economy and Society
12.3 Development of Technology in Pre-modern Societies
12.3.1 Simple Societies
12.3.2 Pastoral Societies
12.3.3 Peasant Societies
12.3.3.1 Rise of Agricultural Surplus
12.3.3.2 Emergence of New Social Institution
12.3.3.3 Division of Labour
12.3.4 Growth of Cities
12.4 Development of Technology in Modem Societies
12.4.1 The Industrial Revolution
12.4.2 Models of Development
12.5 Social Aspects of Technological Development
12.5.1 Industrial Corporations
12.5.2 Theses of Karl Marx and Max Weber
12.5.3 Emergence of Affluent Workers
12.5.4 Alienation of Modem Workers
12.6 Modem Technology and Work Relationships
12.6.1 Machines and Production
12.6.2 Job Creation .
12.6.3 Technology and Unionism
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 Key words
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to describe:
the inter-relationships between economy, technology and society
the process of development of technology in pre-modern and modem societies
the impact of technological development on the process of production, and socio-cul-
tural institutions of the society.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit we will study the relation between economy, technology and society. We will
study the technological development in simple societies, pastoral societies, peasant agricultural
societies and urban industrial societies. We will also learn about industrial revolution and
several other aspects of economy. This will include industrially advanced societies. The role
of technology and economy in industrially advanced economies in modem societies. This
a
Ecomomic Processes inctudes a discussion of technology and work relationship including work ethics. Job creation,
role of machines, and unionism are the other issues discussed in this unit.
12.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ECONOMY,

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
In all societies we find people struggling to survive. In this struggle for survival they use
products of nature like wood, stone, mud, grass, metals etc. to create tools and other inventions
to serve their needs. The satisfaction of material, physical and social needs of the people is
what constitutethe economy ofthat society. Now we will tell you what economy and technology
are and how they are related with a distinct type of society.
12,2.1 Definition of Economy

Individuals everywhere in the world experience wants that can only be satisfied by the use of
material goods and the services of others. To meet such wants, human beings rely on the
economic system which consists of the provision of goods and services. Any need related to
physical well-being is a biological want. People must eat, drink, maintain a constant body
temperature, defend themselves and deal with injury and illness. Satisfaction of these needs
requires the use of material goods, food, water, clothing, shelter, weapons, medicine and the
co-operative services of others. In addition, social wants are essential to the maintenance of
social relationships and availability of material goods and services. People identify particular
social roles with special clothing and bodily adornments or tools.
For example, a doctor must wear special clothing, use special medical instruments and work
in a clinic furnished with examination table, X-ray machine, etc. Without these material
items and the services of nurses and technicians the doctor could not play the role successfully.
People also use material goods and services to enhance social solidarity by exchanging them
with others. Gifts, for instance, reaffirm kinship ties at religious and social functions.
12.2.2 Definition of Technology

Technology has been broadly described as practical arts. These arts range from hunting,
gathering, fishing, agriculture, animal husbandry, mining etc., to manufacturing construction,
transportation, provision of food, power, heat, light, etc. It also includes means of
communication, medicine and military technology. Technologies have been described as
bodies of skills, knowledge, and procedures for making, using and doing useful things. It
cehtres on processes that are primarily biological and physical rather than psychological and
social processes. They represent the cultural traditions developed in human communities for
dealing with the physical and biological environment, which includes the human biological
organism itse1f.i (International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 15)
12.2.3 Economy and Society

Economy of any society is related not only to the social standards of the community but it is
al$o a function of tools and technological inventions that have taken place in that society.
This fact is clearly evident when we examine the growth of human societies and the
development oftechnologies from simple, pastoral to agrarian and modem industrial societies.
But before we go on to describe the development of technology in pre-modern and modem
scrcieties, we will like to explain that goods and services do not automatically fulfil biological
and social wants of human beings. Th$re must be some organised system of behaviour that
permits individuals to create and obtain the material items and resources required. The
economic system provides this organisation by defining some fundamental areas of activity
such as production, distribution and consumption.
12.3 DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY IN

PRE-MODERN SOCIETIES
Broadly speaking the study of technological change merges with the general study of socio..
cultural changes. Tools and techniques have developed along with the growth of human
societies from simple societies to modem industrial societies via various stages.
12.3.1 Simple Societies Economy and Technology
In simple societies people survived in the forests, deserts, mountains etc., by hunting and
food gathering. They used simple tools like the bow and arrow for hunting; wore animal
skins as clothes and sometimes domesticated dogs for help in hunting. During this time two
great discoveries were made which gradually replaced the hunting life with new forms of
economic organisations of greater complexities. These discoverieswere, (a) the domestication
of animals, such as cattle, and (b) agriculture. With these discoveries of agriculture and.
domestication of animals came other discoveries and mechanical inventions.
Agriculture led to the private ownership of land. However, there are many agricultural
people whose land is owned by the clan. This is evident when we study the hunting cultures
of the tribals who have plots assigned to each family from this communally owned land. The
crops belong to the individual families working on the same plot. In such cultures, generally
plough was not used. lnstead a digging stick called the hoe was used. Therefore, this culture
is also called hoe-culture.
In lndia we see tribal people practicing 'jhum' cultivation. Each season new plots were
cultivated and the old one left fallow. This was possible when population was less and forest
lands were more.
1 12.3.2 Pastoral Societies
I Domestication of large animals assured a permanent supply of food as compared to the life in
the wild state of nature as well as to the capricious nature of agricultural crops. Thus, we
find several pastoral tribes in India, Africa and some other places.
Herds of cattle symbolise not only food but wealth as well, which can be exchanged and
traded. However, this task was purely a male task and therefore, men assumed dominant
position among pastoral peoples as compared to the hoe-cultures. Use of such animals as
elephants, horses and camels led to the development of military techniques. They were used
for swift transportation as well.
12.3.3 Peasant Societies

I
Agriculture, on a large scale brought stability which led to the building of permanent houses.
I
Handicrafts like pottery-making are correlated with stable agriculture. The weaving of hair,
I or wool, or cotton developed. With cloth, pottery, baskets and crops, property began to
accumulate and became very significant. The advanced skills required for these crafts led to
1
/ further specialisation. The foundation for exchange was thus laid from this early period of
agriculture.
1 12.3.3.1 Rise of Agricultural Surplus

With settled agriculture, plough was added to the domestication of animals and hoe. With
the improvement of tools and techniques more land came under cultivation and the yield of
crops increased. Individual ownership became the rule. This means that a family owns a
plot of land and a family in this context could mean a large group of kins as well.
12.3.3.2 Emergence of New social Institutions

Land became the major basis of wealth in society. Since men desire wealth, there developed
large landholdings by the process of purchase, by marriage alliances, and by force in places
where surplus labour was available. This labour was in some places kinsmen, in others
slaves or serfs, and in still others sharecroppers. This led to the development of social
classes, like peasantry and landed aristocracy. The big landholders fought amongst themselves
for wealth and power and the most wealthy and powerful among them assumed government
functions, including the judicial and military.
/ The wealthy families sometimes sponsored art, architecture, and religious undertakings.
The inception of feudalism took place at this time. Gmdually and sometimes by revolution,
1I family control was wrested away from these authoritarian single family dominations. This
resulted in the birth of states. Villages developed into towns, and towns into cities and
cities into metropolitan centres, etc. with the growth of trade and comierce. (Ogburn &
Nimkoff 1968)
Ecomomic Processes 12.3.3.3 Division of Labour
Development of handicrafts led to the growth of property, as well as increasing demand for
labour. Discovery of metals like copper, tin, gold, sliver and iron led to the development of
tools, weapons, valuable ornaments, etc. Since these metals were relatively rare, only some
people could master the art of making them. Thus specialisation developed. Agriculture on
a mass scale also led to the division of labour in society. In some societies like the Indian, it
took the form of caste which had an elaborate division of people, according to birth into
different occupational groups which were ranked.
12.3.4 Growth of Cities

With the increase of food surplus, handicrafts, etc. trade and commerce developed. Use of
swift transportation led to the development of cities, or metropolitan centres, which gave rise
to industrial urban cultures. In cities people do not grow food for themselves but buy it from
the market. Thus, expansion of market economy occurred and trade and commerce thrived.
Feudalism in Europe gradually gave way to capitalism which we borrowed from the Britishers
during the long period of their rule in India. The great impetus of the process of development
of capitalism in Europe and America has its origin in the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
Let us examine some ofthe technological changes that have taken place during this revolution.
Activity 1
Interview 5 elders in your familylcommunity about the history, population growth,
1
geographical changes economic development, political and cultural involvement of your
villageltown/city where you reside. Write an essay of about one page on 'My village,
townlcity (whichever applicable to you) and its Growth'. Discuss your essay with other
learners at your study centre.
-
12.4 DEVELOPMENT OF' TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN
SOCIETIES -
One way of explaining the industrial revolution which began in England during the later
half of the eighteenth century is to point out that it was made possible by a large number of
inventors. Thus, James Hargreaves who invented the Spinning Jenny in 1764 and Richard
Arkwright who invented the Spinning Frame in 1768 improved the methods of spinni~ng
yam. James Watt who developed the steam engine in the 1780's showed the way to the use
of steam power in the coal mines and textile mills and made it possible for England to
increase her industrial production.
The contributions made by these remarkable persons to the industrial development of England
are commendable, but the social conditions prevalent during the period are more important.
If the social conditions did not encourage the application of these inventions to industrial
production, the industrial revolution would not have occurred. For instance, in an earlier
period Leonardo da Vinci (1452- 15 19), the famous Italian painter was also supposed to ha.ve
been a remarkable engineer and architect who devised new weapons and had even made
drawing of aeroplanes. But his drawings largely remained on paper because at that time the
social and economic conditions were not ripe enough to apply his ideas to practical uses.
12.4.1 The Industrial Revolution

And when we turn to England during the period of industrial revolution, the industrial
workers and craftsmen had formed scientific societies to learn more about science and
engineering so that they could use this knowledge to increase industrial production. Similarly,
when technological developments of great importance occurred in the U.S.A. during the
nineteenth century they could be traced to social and economic conditions prevailing then in
that country. There, the availability of vast agricultural lands and the shortage of people to
work on it led tothe discovery and use ofmachinery in agricultural universities and engineering
colleges. Apart from these circumstances, the freedom, and encouragement that the American
culture gave to entrepreneurship is regarded by some persons as the single most important
factor responsible for the technological development in that country. The operation of a free
market in America encouraged individual mobility. People starting from small beginnings
could make huge fortunes if they worked hard enough and had a good idea to sell. Anybody
who was inventive enough could experiment with his ideas and reap the advantages of his
inventions by acquiring a legal right over the use of his or her invention through the law of
patents.
Change of Technology in
Different Societies
Technology Advancement
12.4.2 Models of Development

While the U.S.A. provides us one model of development, Japan provides another. Since
1868 the year of the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government actively promoted
industrialisation by sending her young men to western countries to learn modem science and
technology and by setting up several industrial units.
Japan's econom.ic miracle has been spectacular especially since the 1950's. Japan became
the first Asian country to be counted among the top ten wealthy nations of the world. The
Japanese have become the technological leaders in various industries including electronics,
iron and steel. automobiles and shipping. Several American industries have been unable to
withstand the competition from the Japanese who are continually improving and upgrading
their products.
The Japanese experience raises very interesting questions about the influence of social factors
in promoting technological and industrial development in the last few years.
Ecomomic Processes
12.5 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
In the western civilisation the individual is given importance and the values and norms of
the society uphold the individual's rights, but in Japan, the 'individual' is subordinated to
the society. The Japanese industrial corporation works like big communities. A corporation
is a big business house which provides employment to a large number of people. It also has
a large production capacity. Once a person joins a corporation he spends the rest of his
working life serving that corporation. Wages and salaries are paid according to the seniority
of the worker concerned and not so much by his qualifications. The production plans of the
corporation are discussed by the workers in advance and approved. Once the plans are
approved, it becomes the duty of everyone in the corporation to do his utmost to attain the
production targets. A strong sense ofcorporate solidarity binds the workers and the managers
into a well knit and efficient productive unit.
In comparison with Japan, the U.S.A. in recent years has not shown its industrial dynamism.
It is argued that the very individualistic orientations of U.S.A. now comes in the way of
gaining an edge in industrial competition. Investment in research and development, especially
in the areas of advanced technology is a highly risky proposition. Such investment becomes
worthwhile if everyone accepts the unspoken understanding that they will all continue to
work together for a long period even if it means that some have to forego attractive
opportunities to make profit.
12.5.1 Industrial Corporations

Thus the workers developing a new product or design may gain very valuable experience and
may learn new ways of doing a job. For instance they may, in the course of their work, learn
how to lower the percentage of defective casting made of some rare alloys. When they gain
this experience, they are likely to be waived by other industrial corporations who will be
willing to compensate them substantially for changing jobs. If the workers accept such
tempting offers the entire investment made in developing the new technology may become
wasteful. It is argued that the fierce individualism of the American society protects those
who leave the corporation rather than those who remain with it. As a result, corporations
and individuals are supposed to be hesitant to take up research and development efforts
requiring heavy initial investments.
The comparison of Japan and the U.S.A. shows that in the U.S.A. the very institutions which
promoted individualism there and in turn contributed to that country's technological and
industrial growth in an earlier period are nowadays, perhaps, preventing it from acquiring
industrial leadership in many spheres. This is all the more interesting because the U.S.A.
continues to be the leading country in the world in terms of basic research in science and
teahnology. This shows that it is not only important to create conditions for the promotion of
modem science and technology but it is also equally important to ensure that these researches
are translated into profitable production ventures.
12.5.2 Theses of Karl Marx and Max Weber

In the discussion above, it is possible to interpret the available evidence on technological
development either from Marx's point of view or from Weber's point of view. It is important
to note here that Weber's ideas on Protestant Ethic and its role in the origin of capitalism
were specific to a particular period in European history. Nonetheless, Weber's thesis has
been employed in explaining development in Japan and other third world countries. Such a
demonstration involves identifying religious ideas of entrepreneurial communities and
showing how similar they are to the Protestant Ethic. Such interpretations have been carried
out on the Japanese technological and industrial development and with regard to several
entrepreneurial communities in different parts of the world. Some of the more important of
these studies have influenced the theories of modernisation which will be discussed later.
With regard to Marx's ideas, it is argued that a proper assessment should test Marx's
predictions regarding the future of capitalism. This would naturally take our discussion to
the study of the effects of technology and industrial production on society.
12.5.3 Emergence of Affluent Workers Economy and Technology
One general remark made by many critics of Marx is that Marx's predictions have not come
true. Instead of capitalism being overthrown, it flourishes with seemingly greater strength
in the industrially advanced countries of the world including the U.S.A. Japan, U.K. and
other West European countries. Instead of bringing about a revolution the working class
seems to have accepted the capitalist system of production. This is attributed to the steady
rise in the standard of living of the industrial workers in these countries. And because they
are getting a better deal, the workers are said to be less interested in joining trade unions to
fight for their interests. One of the more influential research efforts supporting this thesis is
reported in the study on The Affluent Workers in The Class Structure, conducted in England
in 1970's by Goldthorpe, Lockwood and others, to examine the embourgeoisement hypothesis.
This study, has pictured the affluent worker as someone who regards his factory as only a
source of his livelihood. He does not have any sense of pride in belonging to his factory. He
does not develop a sense of friendship or comradery with his fellow workers. Work does not
anymore give him a sense of identity or meaning in life. He seeks his identity in his leisure
time activities. He looks forward to going home and spending time with his family and a
small circle of intimate friends. He leads a very private life and zealously guards his privacy.
He continues to be a member of the trade union but he is not an active participant in the
Union's affairs. He looks upon the union as a mere instrument in his getting higher wages.
Thus instead of becoming an active agent of social transformations the worker is becoming
a passive acceptor of the system and is interested only in getting a better deal for himself
from the system. All this evidence seems to specifically contradict Marx's comments on the
role of the working class in capitalist societies.
12.5.4 Alienation of Modern Workers

In fact, even before hard evidence was brought up by the affluent workers study, some leading
Marxist thinkers had pointed to such a change in the workers attitudes. Marcuse, a highly
influential Marxist theoretician, had commented in the 1960's that in the modem society,
even the workers have become profoundly estranged and alienated. Industrialisation has
robbed them of their individuality and has deadened their sensibilities. The worker has
become a human extension of the machine. Just as a slave who has tasted no freedom cannot
imagine what freedom is, the modern worker leads such a mechanical existence that he or
she does not even want freedom from this slavery. That is why Marcuse considered that
university students who are not yet spoilt by the modem society could be the people who
could bring about the revolution.

Note: a) Use the space below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) How did development of technology lead to accumulation of property? Describe
using about seven lines.
2) Write a brief note on industrial corporation. Use about five lines for your answer.
Ecomomic Processes 3) In what way has Marx's prediction regarding revolution failed? Describe using
about five lines.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
4) What were the main findings of the affluent worker study? Discuss in about seven
lines.
..................................................................................................................................
MODERN TECHNOLOGY AND WORK

. RELATIONSHIPS - -
If we want to understand the nature of modem technology it is important to understand the

distinction between using a machine and using a hand tool. When a worker uses a hand tool
he is controlling the pace of work himself. In a machine, even the simplest of them, this tool
is taken away from the worker's hands and fixed. It can be only moved in a particular
direction in contrast to the tool in the human hand which can be moved in many directions,.
Once the tool is fixed in this manner, the worker has to adjust his speed of work to thle
machine rather than the other way round. But the advantage is that the machine can ID
more work and turn out more items than the human being because the machine does not get
tired from repeated movements while the human hand does.
A machine comes into use when the number of products that need to be produced is large.
Take for instance, the case of a cobbler making shoes. If he has to cut only a pair of leather
shoes, he takes leather and cuts a number of pieces according to the shape and size of the
foot for which the shoe is being made, places them one on top of the other and stitches them
along the edge to make the sole. Then he cuts a large piece of leather to form the upper part
of the shoe and stitches this upper part to the sole. Later he cuts leather again to make the
heel of the shoe and nails the heel on to the sole of the shoe. This is followed by colourir~g
and polishing of the shoe. After making one shoe he may proceed to make another repeating
all the above operations. But if he has to make a large number of shoes, it pays for him to cut
all the soles first, then cut the uppers, make the soles then stitch all the uppers to the soles
and so on. It may prove worthwhile for him now to develop special tools and machines to
undertake the different operations. It pays to standardise the sizes of shoes and use standard
patterns for cutting the shoe uppers and the soles. For stitching, it will help if he can use
special sewing machines. Use of specialised machines will $peed up the work and increase
the number of shoes produced. Further, it will prove advantageous to hire more workers and
put each in charge ofa specialised job. This type of division of labour, into separate operations,
is facilitated by the use of machines.
12.6.1 Machines and Production

Once machines are introduced into the production process, a tendency is set in motion which
gradually gets intensified. The machine at first takes away the tool from the hands of the
worker and forces him to adjust his own motions to the rhythm of machine work. Gradually
the machine not only takes away the tools but also the skills from the worker. This has been
facilitated in recent years by the use of computerised machines. For instance, a computer Economy and Technology
can perform a job today to a greater degree of accuracy than even the most highly skilled
machinist. Once the specifications of the particular job are fed into the lathe, the computer
itself gives directions to the lathe controlling the entire work process. The machinist can be
replaced by an unskilled or a semi-skilled worker who is only required to read a panel and is
called to press certain buttons mounted on it. True, the job of instructing the computer or to
monitor the operation of the lathe is a highly skilled job and the systems analyst who does
that and the engineers who ensure that the machines operate without any hitch, are highly
paid personnel. But if the owner of the factory employs only a few of these highly skilled
personnel he can dispense with several machinists and employ only a handful of semi-skilled
workers at very low wages. This trend is noticed even in office work. For instance,
computerisation has made the task of monitoring telephone calls, of maintaining a diary,
and of reminding the manager of his appointments, a routine task which can be done without
the help of a secretary. Similarly the use of word processors has simplified the task of letter
writing, a task which can now be done by an ordinary typist. Thus the secretary's skill is
broken down into operations which can now be handled by machines and less skilled workers.
This is the process of de-skilling. Modem technology is strengthening this trend towards
de-skilling of jobs.
12.6.2 Job Creation

The impact of modem technology on the creation ofjobs is a controversial topic. Some hold
the view that the new jobs created by modem machines are compensating for the number of
jobs displaced by them but it is certainly true that modem technology is rapidly making
skills redundant, and is thereby creating problems of adjustment for those rendered redundant.
The modem society is getting divided into two classes of workers. On the one hand are a
vast majority of the workers who are getting de-skilled whereas on the other a tiny minority
is monopolising most of the skills. Already a typical modem industrial plant has become a
place which hires only a handful of workers. The management of the company can afford to
pay them high enough wages to keep them satisfied and can ensure that there is no militant
trade union activity, Under these circumstances protests will stem from workers who have
been thrown out of their jobs or those whose jobs have been de-skilled. Such protests, however,
are as futile as the protests of drivers of horse-drawn carriages against the modem railways
or buses.
12.6.3 Technology and Unionism

Modem technology is not only rendering workers redundant, it is sapping their capacity to
collectively fight for their interests. The frustrating end of coal mine workers strike of 1984-
85 in England is a pointer to the relative weakness of the working class. In spite of a long
drawn strike; the mine workers in England had to ultimately capitulate to the decision of the
government to rationalise mining to increase their productivity. Rationalisation means using
modem technological devices extensively. The mine workers of England who were till recently
famous for maintaining the tradition of working class culture and for retaining their autonomy
in work, could not resist the intrusion of computerised machinery which have de-skilled
their work. These industrial workers could not gain public sympathy for their actions because
the government convincingly argued that rationalisation of mining would increase productivity.
It would lead to prosperity for the whole country. The working class has been pushed to a
defensive position rather than adopting an aggressive and assertive posture which is associated
with trade union struggles.
There is some evidence from Japan which also indirectly supports the position that modem
technology is changing the working class consciousness. A recent study of the impact of
modem technology points out that the Japanese workers spend more time away from their
wives and have bound their women even more securely to the home, because of modem
household gadgets and television. The workers do not any more feel the need to come
home because their wives can entertain themselves watching the television. Far from
emancipating women, modem technology seems to have strengthened conservative attitudes
towards women.
Ecomomic Processes
Activity 2
Watch at least one or two television serials that are being shown on the different TV
Channels. Analyse the roles played by women in these serials and write a report on
"Women and Technology : Past and Present" depicting the values and norms that they
are displaying in these serials. Share your answer with other students at your study
centre.
Some people point out that the helplessness of the workers and the general trend towards
conservatism are due to the capitalist system of production that prevails in the advanced
industrial countries. Modem technology, they say is capable of reducing the hours of work
for every worker. Instead of being thrown out of jobs, under a different system of productio~i
the leisure hours of all workers can be increased and indeed it can be ensured that everyonle
gets a decent wage to pursue his or her creative interests during their leisure hours.
Unfortunately, under the capitalist regime, it is argued, an equitable distribution of wealth is
not possible and the tendency to create unemployment cannot be avoided. As against this,
however, those in favour of capitalism point out that is socialist countries, because a fre~e
market did not operate and because there was no profit incentive, the production system
became inefficient and there were always shortages. Socialist systems, it was argued onby
succeeded in redistributing poverty. These critics also point out that the recent policies of
China in giving scope for private enterprise demonstrates the soundness of their argument.
,
1) Discuss briefly the relation between modem technology and work relationships. Use:
about seven lines for your answer.
2) Write a note on technology and Unionism. Use about seven lines for your answer
LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the relationship between economy and technology. We have
examined the development oftechnology in simple pastoral societies and peasant agricultural
societies. Here we have described the various technologies developed during the process a~f
industrial revolution. We have seen in this unit that modem technology has a very powerfill
impact on the production systems and on society. Modem technology has been weakening
the position of workers and it is leading to their estrangement and alienation. But at the
same time it also holds out a promise of creating a world of plenty. This promise, of course,
goes along with the prospect of robbing the workers of their skills and their revolutionary
potential. Instead of modemising societies, modem technology is indirectly strengthening
the forces of conservatism causing alienation of individuals in society and leading to new
social psychological problems of adjustment in societies, like depression, mental tension and
stress, etc. However, it is unmistakable that there is an inherent tendency towards making
the worker and the poor a vulnerable and dependent class.
Economy and Teclinology
Blauner, R. 1964:Alienation and Freedom :The Factoly Worker and His Industry, University
of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Mckee James, B. 1981: Sociology: The Study of Sociefy, Holt Rinehart and Winston,
New Your.
12.9 KEY WORDS

Affluent : A person or group which has great amount of wealth.
Corporation : A big business combine with a large employment and production capacity.
Model : A simplified description of a system which explains its crucial aspects.
Technology : The total sum of the means which provide objects required for human
sustenance and comfort.
Unionism : A grouping together of workers to asseddemand their rights.

PROGRESS
1) When agricultural tools developed from hoe to plough and domestication of larger
animals took place, large plots of land could be brought under cultivation. The yield of
crops increased leading to the increase in food. This led to building of permanent
houses, development of skills like weaving hair, wool and cotton for making clothes,
pottery making, etc. which led to accumulation of property. Ownership of land by
individual families their increasing landholdings and power led to their patronising
art, architecture, religious undertaking, etc.
2) Industrial corporation is an institution where production process takes place. It is a big
business combine with a large employment and production capacity. For example in
Japan the plans for production of a corporation are discussed by the workers in advance
and approved. After this step it becomes the duty of everyone in the corporation to
complete the production target.
3) Marx's prediction regarding revolution by the working classes in industrial society has
failed. Capitalism has not been overthrown, instead it flourishes with greater strength.
The working classes seem to have accepted capitalism due to certain reasons like in-
crease in wealth, standard of living etc.
4)' This study revealed that the affluent worker regarded his factory as only a source of his
livelihood. It did not give him a sense of pride to belong to that factory. He did not
have any friends in the factory. The work in the factory did not give him any sense of
satisfaction of identity or meaning in life any more. He sought identity in his leisure
time and looked forward to spending time at home with his family and a small group of
intimate friends.
1) The relationship between modem technology and work relationship is that modem
technology takes the tedious, repetitive jobs from the worker. But it also creates unem-
ployment by making a large number of unskilled workers redundant. Only a minority
. of skilled workers are required to operate the modem machines like, the computers.
This leads to monopolisation of work by a minority, which is well paid.
2) Development of modem technology is one of the reasons for the weakness of the work-
ing class. It has led to a decline in their revolutionary potential. The coal mine work-
ers strike of 1984-85 ended without any result. Even themine workers of England had
to capitulate to their government's decision to rationalise mines. Thus, technology has
led to the weakening of working class power and unionism.
PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Struature
Objectives
Introduction
Economic Organisation
The Economists' Point of View
Production and Social Factors
13.4.1 Aspects of Land Rights
13.4.2 Social Aspects of Production
13.4.3 Services and Production
13.4.4 Women and Production
Technology and Production
13.5.1 Karl Marx's Views
13.5.2 Material Forces of Production
13.5.3 Economic Structure
Max Weber's Views
13.6.1 Capitalism in Europe
13.6.2 Ideas and Values
Emile Durkheim's Views
13.8 Reconsideration
13.9 Let Us Sum Up
13.1 1 Key Words
13,12 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
13.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to describe:
the economic organisation;
the economists point of view regarding the production process;
production as a social activity; and
how eminent sociological thinkers have studied the inter-relationships between pro-
duction, technology and society.
In this unit you will read about the economic organisation. You will know about production
processes and its various dimensions. This is done by introducing the economist's point of
view. Other related issues such as land rights and social factors in production are also
considered, We have also discussed the relationship between technology and productiom.
The discussion is concerned with the views of Karl Marx regarding material forces of
production. The views of Max Weber on Capitalism in Europe are also explained. The
views of Durkheim are'also discussed in this unit.
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13.2 ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
Economic organisation is defined as the human behaviour by which goods are produced,
allocated, distributed and consumed. This is to say, economic organisation is a planned
action that involves the combination of various kinds of human services, with one another Production Processes
and with non-human goods as such. They in turn satisfy the material wants of human
beings. In other words, economic organisation is a design of human action by which goods
are produced, distributed and consumed. In brief, it is an arrangement that provides the
material means of individual and collective life of every society.
Economic organisation, in one form or another, is a functional prerequisite to the survival
arid continuity of every human society. But every society be it, a simple, a peasant, or an
urban society has a distinct type of economic organisation. The simple tribal societies and
the peasant societies have some basic difference from the monetised, market-oriented or
state directed and industrialised societies of today. The economic organisation of simple and
peasant societies are subsistence type which fall under the broad category of production
consumption economy. In urban industrial societies economic surplus is enough to sustain a
large non-agricultural population. In this unit we are going to discuss the production processes
in all its dimensions.
13.3 THE ECONOMISTS' POINT OF VIEW

Economists define production as the process by which land, labour and capital are
combined to produce articles needed for daily consumption, and the machines, components
of machines and raw materials which are in turn required to produce the articles of daily
consumption. Land refers literally to the land for agricultural activity or land on which a
workshop or a factory needs to be erected. Land is also sometimes used as symbol for nature.
Economists used to regard that different pieces of land are endowed with different qualities
and thought that these qualities are given and could not be appreciably altered.
Labour refers to the work that is put in by labourers. It is labour which rises machinery and
raw materials to produce what the people in a society want. The machinery and raw mqjerials
refer to the capital that is required in production. Land, labour and capital are regarded as
the important 'factors of production' and the behaviour of each of these factors needs to be
studied in order to discover the laws of production. Occasionally economists would add
another factor called organisation or entrepreneurship to the list, but by and large, they
confine themselves to the study of land, labour and capital.
Gradually, however, it dawned on the economists that there is a human component in the
process of production. True, labour is a human component in the process of production, but
by assuming that a unit of labour can be treated as equivalent to another unit of labour like
machines and tools, they overlooked some of the crucial social and human problems that
crop up in the task of increasing production. It fell upon the sociologists to point out that the
working and living conditions of the workers, their values and beliefs regarding work, and
the social institutions and customs prevailing in the society need to be also considered if a
country's production is to be increased. They also pointed out that there should be persons
available who will be willing to risk their wealth in setting up industries to increase production.
Such persons, called entrepreneurs, flourish best in certain societies which value
entrepreneurial activity. This way the sociologists paid attention to the social factors that
affect production which were by and large ignored by the economists.
13.4 PRODUCTION AND SOCIAL FACTORS

Production is affected by social f a c t ~ r because
s production itself is a social activity. In the
process of manufacturing a certain article or growing food grains, people enter into definite
relationships with each other. These relationships are shaped by the rules regarding ownership,
and use of the community's resources. Let us take rha case of the Mundas or the Kols who
live in the forests of Ranchi district in Bihar. The 14undas are now regarded as a Scheduled
Tribe by the government of India. Till recently, they used to practice slash and burn agriculture,
locally known as jara, they used to clear a patch of forest land by burning. They dug the
ground up, spread the ash left from burning and broadcast seeds. Every season the land used
for cultivation earlier was left fallow and a new plot was prepared by the same procedure.
This type of agriculture is now being discouraged by the government as it results in large
scale deforestation. N.K. Bose, an anthropologist, has written about the land rights and
social organisation among the Mundas. Originally the forests where the Mundas lived had
Ecornornic Processes belonged to them, but as the contact with the outsiders increased during the British rule, the
lands came to be controlled by the British Government in India. Middle men, who did not
belong to the tribes entered the picture. They were called the Khuntkattidars.
Bose writes that Khuntkattidars are a class of landowners within the Munda villages who
exercised absolute rights over land. But they allowed individuals to cultivate the tracts of
land they needed and reap the harvest. It is clear here that there were several gradations of
rights over land. Some had only rights to cultivate and harvest, others had more superior
rights. These rights define not only the relationship that members of the society have with
each other, but the Khuntkattidars apparently derived considerable political powers from
their superior rights in land.
13.4.1 Aspects of Land Rights

It Should be stated here that the above mentioned type of land rights among the Mundas got
modified over the years as they came under the political control of local kings and later of the
M ~ g h u rulers,
l followed by the British. The Khuntkattidars now had to acknowledge the
jagirdars and kings to whom they had to pay annual rents and tributes thereby restricting the
Mundas rights and impoverishing them considerably.
Another example is the system of bonded labour that existed in many parts of India and has
continued to survive today despite specific laws which have been enacted to abolish this
ingtitution. In Tehri Garhwal district of Uttaranchal, a labourer, usually belonging to the
untouchable castes of Doms and Koltas borrows a small sum of money from a landowner in
order to get married and subsequently becomes bonded to his landowner-moneylender. He
has to work on the landowner's land till he repays his debt with interest which often takes a
long time. Often, not only is he expected to work on the land, but his wife is expected to
serve the master's household. It is reported that the landless labourers prefer to enter such
bondage rather than remain free because in the former case they are assured of their daily
food which is provided by the master, whereas the price of freedom may be deprivation of
daily food.
13.4.2 Social Aspects of Production

Production is not only as social activity, but also a socially defined activity. In a way it is tht:
s6ciety which determines what production is or is not.
Production involves producing so-me object that is considered to be valuable by society. The
object that is considered valuable is called a product. A procudt has value in use and value in
exchange. Value in use or use value, refers to the value that one derives from using a thing
or object. Sometimes an object may have use value for some and not for others. For a non-
smoker, cigarettes and beedis have no use value but for smokers they have. Besides use
value, goods must also possess exchange value, that is, people must consider the objec,t
worth exchanging with other objects. Only when these two conditions are fulfilled can an
abject or thing be regarded as a product. Hence, if somebody spends his time and money to
produce some object and if the object is not regarded as valuable in the above senses of the
term, then it cannot be regarded as a product. What is regarded as a product in one society
may not be regarded so in another. In lndia cow dung which is used as fuel has value and
cow dung cakes are bought and sold. Hence while taking stock of the country's production,
the value of cow dung cakes will also have to be added up. This will not be the case in other
Societies. Or take the instance of gold in lndia. Gold is considered to be a prestigious metal
associated with the gods and hence it has a higher value in India than in other societies.
Hence the goods that constitute one society's production need not be the same as that of
hother. But it should be stressed that as the markets have expanded and are getting integrated
to encompass the whole world, there is greater agreement among countries as to the goods
that constitute production
13.4.3 Services and Production

Does production only refer to the creation of goods? The answer for this question used to Ibe
yes in the past. Thus Adam Smith, who is regarded as the father of modern economics,
wrote in his book "Wealth of Nations" published in 1776 that only those who are engaged in
the production of goods are productive. Using this criterion, he went on to point out that the
services of statesmen, clergymen, professors, artists and others, however prestigious they
may be considered, are not productive. Many of us still cany this idea in our heads when we Production Processes
talk of production consequences. To ignore the services of scientists, researchers, teachers,
politicians and such others is to overlook the obvious fact that research, teaching and the
framing of proper economic and political policies for the country may substantially contribute
to the task of increasing a nation's production. In the modem world, intellectual activity has
contributed so much to the production of new products and the development of new processes
that the Adam Smithian distinction will be misleading. Moreover, as in the case of medieval
professionals and performing artists. their services, though seemingly unconnected with
productive activity, indirectly contributes to the well-being of the workers and enhances
productivity. Hence services, even those not directly connected with the production of goods
have also to be taken into account in calculating the total production of a country. Like in the
case of goods, these services also have to be regarded as valuable by the society.
Activity 1
Visit your local librarylstudy centre and collect information about Prof. Amartya Sen as
an economist and Nobel Laureate. Write an essay on "Amartya Sen and his Ideas on
Economy and Society" of about 1 or 2 pages. Discuss your essay with other students and
your Academic Counsellor at your study centre.
13.4.4 Women and Production

Even when services are considered, some services are not included in the definition of
production. Many economists point out that the method of calculation of a country's total
production in a given year ignores the contribution of women. Women who work on a
variety of domestic chores, right from helping their menfolk in agriculture to cooking, washing
and nurturing children are treated as dependents, not workers. The statisticians ignore their
services in adding to the total value of production because their services are unpaid. But the
economists rightly paint out that statisticians, however, calculate the value of the amount of
food grains produced by the farmers (generally male) for their own consumption. This
practice shows the inherent bias against women in society. After all, women's work is not
only valuable in itself but household work supports in an important way the entire economy
o f a country. By minding domestic chores, women release their menfolk for work in the
various factories and farms and thus help contribute to a nation's production. This example
dramatically bring out how a society's values define what is productive and what is non-
productive.

1) Write a brief note on the social aspects of production. Use about five lines for your
answer.
2) What is the relationship between services and production? Write a brief note. Use
about seven lines for your answer.
Ecomomic Processes 3) In what ways are the contribution of women in the production process ignored? Give
an example using about seven lines.
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TECHNOLOGY AND PRODUCTION

In the description of production given above, what is mlssing is the mention of the
technological aspects of production and this should not be ignored. The level of production
in a society and the variety of goods and services available will depend on the kinds of tools
and machines used. Knowledge of how to build machines and improve their performance
and the availability of trained technicians and engineers. These are the technological aspects
of production. Technology makes possible new products and processes and nowadays,
economic development of a country depends on the stress it places on technological
development. In modern societies various industrial corporations and government
organisations undertake systematic research so that they can develop new products and
processes. Such research and development efforts have made several products and services
so inexpensive that even common people can now afford to have them whereas in the past
only the rich could have access to them. For instance, modem electronic technology has
made it possible for even the poor to acquire transistor radios or for that matter Black &
White Television. Only a few decades ago even the radio could be found only in the houses
of the well-to-do people in India.
The level of production in any society depends on the technology that is available and on the
social relationships and values of that society. If we refer to the social structure and if we
regard the values as components of the culture of that society, we can say that production is
influenced by technology, social structure and culture. In fact, there are interconnections
between technology, social structure and culture.
13.5.1 Karl Marx's Views

Karl Marx's name is associated with the Russian revolution in 1917 and the spread of the:
communist movement in Eastern Europe, China, Vietnam, Cuba and other countries. Karll
Marx (18 18-1872) wrote on the dominant social and political questions that preoccupied the
intellectual and political circles of Europe during his life time. The contemporary social
scientists and intellectuals of his time did not recognise his contributions to the understanding
of social and economic changes in Europe. But this neglect was more than made up after his
death. Almost all social scientists today have to come to terms with Marx's idea or ideas
inspired by Marxism. This applies to political movements as well. Marx's deep insights and
powerful analysis did provide new ways of understanding social change and development.
13.5.2 Material Forces of Production

Marx gave importance to what he called the 'material forces of production' and 'relations of
production' in explaining the changes that occur in the society. By 'material forces of
production' Marx mainly refers to technology. The technological advances that have occurred
in human history viz., the printing press, the steam engine, machines to produce goods on a
mass scale, all show that these forces of production are continually expanding and sociad
order should be congenial to such technological developments. The printing press or the
steam engine could be developed, a time comes when their further development comes in
conflict with the prevailing social order. Then the social order must change yielding place to
a new order which allows the further development of forces of production. Marx uses the
term social order as a substitute for what he calls 'relations of production'. These are definite
relationships that men enter into with each other in order to enable the society to produce the
goods and services it requires, although these relationships are not entered out of their free
will. These relations of production refer to the relationships between a landlord and his
serfs, in the feudal period or between the capitalists and the workers under capitalism. Th~e
capitalist owns the machines which are the means of production and hires labourers to work
on his capital. The labourers hire themselves out to the capitalist because they do not any
longer own the means of production and they are only free to sell their labour in the market
Mary regards that the relations of production, especially the relations between capital and I'rotl~~rtion
Processer
labour are the last antagonistic or conflicting relations. Here the capitalist is able to obtain a
profit by exploiting the labourer, the wage the worker gets is much lower than the value of
the labour he puts in. When the forces of production under capitalism develop further, a
stage will come when the existing relations of production viz., capital-labour relationship
prove to be obstacles to the further develop~nentof the forces of production. At this stage the
social order will undergo a tratisformation in such a way that the capitalists are eli~ninatcd
and capital is owned by society at large.
13.5.3 Economic Structure

Marx considers that the forces of production together with the relations of production col~stitute
the economlc str~~cture or infrastructure of the society. It is this economic structure that is
the foundation on which legal, political and social structure or super structure of the society
is built. Marx seems to be using the example of a building here. The foundation of building
is not visible but ~tis very important to decide hou many storeys the building can have, the
1 length and width of building and the thickness of its walls. He seems to suggest that it is in
this sense that the economic structure of the society determines social relationsl~ips,legal
and political institutions and the ideas and values that go along with these institutions.
Thus Marx points out that for technology to develop the production relations should be
conducive and production relations in turn mature and develop under conducive technological
conditions. Technology and production relations together determine the scope for the
development of political and social institutions and the ideas and values that accompany
these institutions.
i
I 1
Force\ 01' I'rcdoclion
according to hlarx
Ecomomic Processes
13.6 MAX WEBER'S VIEWS
Max Weber (1864-1920) was a leading German sociologist who wrote extensively on not
only European societies but also on China, India and Japan. He too was interested in the
problems with which Marx was concerned and he took it upon himself to show that the
relationship between the economic structure and the social institutions and ideas could be
seen id reverse. That is, he specifically set about demonstrating that Marx's interpretation of
social change giving the primary role to material conditions rather than ideas or values is at
best a one-sided interpretation. In contrast, according to Weber, ideas and values could be
shown to shape the material conditions.
13.6.1 Capitalism in Europe

To demonstrate his point, Weber takes as his problem the origin and development of capitalism
in Europe. He points out that at the time of the origin of capitalism in Europe there were two
other great civilisations which were in some ways more advanced than Europe. One was
China, the other India, China was a flourishing civilisation - the first printing press and gun
powder had been invented in China. In India, several sciences including mathematics and
astrondmy had advanced considerably. Yet, it was in England, rather than in China or India,
that capitalism took root. To discover the answer, Weber traced the origin of capitalism to
the widespread ideas and beliefs that prevailed among the common people belonging to
certain sects of Protestant Christianity. These Protestants believed in the notion of
predestination, that is the notion that some people had already been chosen by God for
redemption. This belief, he argued, created an intense anxiety in them to be among the elect.
One way of assuring oneself that one is among the elect is to engage intensely in worldly
activities, devotedly working at one's calling or, a task in life that one has been divinely
allocated. Mere engagement in one's calling or. a task in life that one has been divinely
allocated. Mere engagement in ones' calling is, however, not enough. One has to make sure
of success in the calling by working methodically at it. But success should be achieved not
for the prospect of enjoyment alone that it provides, but for the greater glory of God. These
Protestants believed that any time spent in lazing or relaxation is time wasted from being
utilised in working for the greater glory of God. Living in luxury is to practice self-indulgence
and being distracted from God's work. Hence they led a simple, ascetic life. They also
valued honesty in their transactions with others because when one is engaged in God's work
there can be no short-cuts to success. These values, Max Weber argued, were in consonance
with the spirit of capitalism. After all, saving and investment needed frugality combined
with a desire to attain a profit. Methodical hard work, honesty in one's business dealings
with others and meeting one's commitments made for predictability and calculability which
are essential to ensure that one can, through one's own efforts, methodically attain success in
business. True, the world had witnessed. Before the arrival of Protestant businessmen,
several businessmen, traders and usurers who made immense fortunes - but they did so, not
methodically but by gambling with their luck. Chance and the element of luck had played a
major role In their success. Capitalism, however, emphasises rationality - a methodical way
of reduaing the chance element and increasing one's own control over the outcome of one's
efforts. Thus, Weber is quick to point out that this relationship between Protestantism and
capitalism was required only during the time of the origin of capitalism. Once capitalism
matures, the Protestant Ethic may not be required so much for its further development.
13.6.2 Ideas and Values

Thus Weber regards the ideas and values as often being critical in supporting a particular
system of production. Weber also considered the role of technology and the relationship
betweenthe capitalists and the workers but what he found remarkable about both technology
and production was the principle of rationality on the basis of which they were organised.
Technology gets rationalised in a modern factory by developing standardised parts and Gy
dividing work into routine and repetitive actions. The relationship between the capitalist
and the worker is rationalised by the organisation of work Weber finds that this rationality
not only deprives the worker alone in an industrial unit from the means of his production,
but deprives the officer, worker also from the means of his production. It also separates the
office worker from the instruments of the bureaucracy because the office worker too, does not
own the stationery, the furniture and the building that are required for conducting official
work. He goes on to point out that even when relations of production change, and a socialist Production Processes
system of society emerges in which the means of production are owned by the society at
large, the nature of rational organisation of work does not change. The worker continues to
perform repeated monotonous tasks to keep up with the rhythm of machine work. Hence
Weber feels that relations of production are not important in modem society. What is
significant is the spirit of rationality which spreads to every nook and comer of the society.

1) Describe Karl Marx's views on technology and production. Use about five lines for
your answer.
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2) Discuss Max Weber's views on capitalism in Europe. Use about seven lines for your
answer.
13.7 EMILE DURKHEIM'S VIEWS

Durkheim was a leading French sociologist who was a contemporary of Max Weber. Like
Weber, Durkheim also tried to come to terms with Marxist thought but his major concerns
were different from the major issues of Marxist thought. Durkheim was interested in the
problems of morality and social order. But his comments on modem society have relevance
in the context of the relationship between production, technology and society.
Durkheim, in his book The Division of Labour in Society (1893) has given a relatively
optimistic view of division of labour in society. According to him there is a fundamental
difference between the pre-industrial societies and industrial societies. Pre-industrial societies
have a form of social solidarity which he calls 'mechanical solidarity'. Mechanical solidarity
is asolidarity which comes from likeness and in these societies the 'collective conscience' of
1 society envelops the individual members of that society. In these societies division of labow
is based on uniformity and there is relatively little social differentiation, Individual members
share the same beliefs and values, and to a large extent the same roles. Thus removal of any
one segment of society, in an abstract sense, does not affect the rest of the society. These
societies have legal and normative values of restrictive type. A criminal is punished not to
reform him, but to satisfy the society.
In industrial societies solidarity is based not on uniformity but on differences. Here each part
of the society performs a specialised task and the contribution that these tasks do is to maintain
the total society. Thus, this division of labour is the type where all the parts of the society are
interdependent. Therefore, we cannot remove one without affecting the others. In these
societies the legal system is of the restitutive type where reform of the criminal is aimed at
rather than the satisfaction of the society. Individual has more freedom in these societies.
Ecomon~icProcesses Durkheim thinks that the change from mechanical to organic division of labour is like the
evdution of an organism from simple to complex ones. This biological illustration suggests
that he does not regard industrialisation or the production system as a key factor, in the shift
from the mechanical to the organic order. Thus we can see that modern societies are
structurally different from the traditional ones - a point that was implicit in Marx and Weber
but which has been prominently highlighted by Durkheim. Modern technology and modern
production system go along with a differentiated and complex society.
Activity 2
Observe and understand the nature of society you live in such as, your family, kinship
group, school, college etc. and read'about a tribal community located in the remote
forest areas of our country, such as, the Jarwas of Andarnan Nicobar Islands. Now try to
compare these two cultures in the light of Emile Durkheim's distinction between
"Mechanical Solidarity" and "Organic Solidarity" and write a note of about two pages
on this comparison. Compare it with the note of other students at your study centre and
also discuss with your Academic Counsellor.

I
Note: a) Use the space below for your answers. i
1) What is division of labour? Explain in about three lines
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2) What are mechanical and organic solidarity? Explain in about seven lines. I
13.8 RECONSIDERATION 1
From the consideration of the views of M a n , Weber and Durkheim, it is clear that all the
three recognised that important changes are occurring in he modern society. There is broad
1
agreement between them as far as the description of the changes is concerned but in accounting
for them, they differ radically from each other.
Since the time Weber and Durkheim wrote, there have been further social changes in the
present day societies. The markets have expanded to cover the entire world. The whole
world can now be seen as an integrated economy. Societies which have not developed modern
production systems of their own, can import the products of modern technology. Some
societies which were till recently working with primitive technologies and continuing with
traditional social customs have been forcibly sucked into the vortex of modernisation processes
because of the integration of markets. The changes taking place today are so complex that
while each of the three thinkers seem to provide some insights into what is happening, there
is clearly a need to go further than they have gone in order to raise relevant questions regarding
contemporary social changes. In the next unit we therefore, turn our attention to the
contemporary social processes.
Production Processes
13.9 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the production processes. Our discussion has been fairly complete.
We saw how various aspects of production are related to social factors. Closely related to this
were the various facts of technology and production. Among the important discussions in
this unit was that of Karl Marx's views. Both economic structure and material forces of
production were discussed. We also discussed Max Weber and Emile Durkheim's views.
Finally, we have reconsidered the views of Marx, Weber and Durkheim.

Marx, Karl 1970: A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Progress Publishers,
Moscow.
Weber, Max 1930: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Allen and Unwin,
London
Durkheim, E. 1964: The Division of Labour in Society, Free Press, Glencoe.
13.11 KEY WORDS

Bonded : When a labour becomes bound for a long period to a moneylender because
the former owes money to the latter. He works on his land etc.; to pay
back the debt.
Capitalism : The economic system, which tries to maximise profits from the production
process.
Predestination : The doctrine that God in consequence of his foreknowledge of all events
infallibly guides those who are destined for salvation.
Technological : The capital intensive method of production which uses a very high
Development proportion of machinery relative to that of labour.

1) Production is a socially defined activity. It is the society that determines what is pro-
duction and what is not production. The value of the objects produced is socially
determined. The object which is socially valuable is called a product. A product has
value in use and value in exchange.
2) Services and production are intimately related. Earlier it was considered by people,
especially like Adam Smith, that production is creation of goods only. But now we
recognise the immense contribution made by scientists, researchers, political planners,
economists, etc., to the process of production in the modern society. Without the help
of these services the production process will soon decline.
3) Women's contribution in the production process is ignored by the scientists and statis-
ticians. They work in the domestic sphere in a variety of ways, like cooking, cleaning,
helping the men folk in agriculture, looking after children and so on. But inspite of
their immense contribution they are treated as dependants and their services are under-
rated.

1) Karl Marx described the changes that occurred in society in terms of 'material forces of
production' and relations of production. By material forces of production' he meant
the technology, capital etc. The technological advances that have occurred in human
history such as invention of steam engines, printing press, etc., show that technology
keeps changing and advancing according to the needs of society.
2) Weber tried to discover the origin and development of capitalism in Europe. Inspite of
their advanced civilisations, capitalism did not develop in India or China, but in En-
Econionlic Processes gland. He traced the origin of capitalism to the widespread ideas and beliefs that
prevailed among the people who belonged to a certain sect of Protestant Christianity.
These Protestants believed in the notion of predestination of being God's chosen people,
in the concept of calling, etc. These values helped in the origin and development of
capitalism.
Check Your progress 3

1) Division of labour refers to the way in which society gets divided into components, or
segments with each component performing a special task.
2) Mechanical solidarity, present in traditional pre-industrial societies, refers to the divi-
sion of society into segments which are similar in organisation and function. Removal
of one segment does not affect the total society. But organic solidarity, present in
complex industrial societies, is one where each component of society performs a
specialised task thereby, leading to the existence of the total society.
UNIT 14 DISTRIBUTION PROCESSES
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Distribution
14.3 Types of Exchange System
14.3.1 Reciprocal Exchange
14.3.1.1 Value of Goods
14.3.2 Exchange Based on Redistribution
14.3.2.1 The Potlatch Ceremony
14.3.3 Market Exchange
14.3.3.1 Features of Market Exchange
14.3.3.2 Network.of Services
14.4 Let Us Sum Up
14.6 Key words
14.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit you should be able to describe:
various aspects of the distribution system;
different types of distribution and exchange of goods and services in various societies; .
and
about market exchange and its features.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the concepts of distribution. Various types of exchange are
discussed here. The idea of reciprocal exchange and the types of economic reciprocity are
brought out. Exchange based on redistribution, features ofthe market\exchange, and networks
of services are all dealt with in this unit.
14.2 DISTRIBUTION
P
If people kept their products for themselves, the social benefits of co-operation would be lost.
tn every society the fruits of production are unevenly dispersed among people and in relation
C' to time. To cope with this problem, every society manifests a system of distribution or a set
of strategies for apportioning goods and services among the members of a community. The
allocation or exchange of goods and services within a local group or between different local
groups is known as distribution or a system of exchange. By far, the most common way
people distribute goods and services is through economic exchange. It consists ofthe cultural
rules for the transfer of goods and services that we need to survive and to live normal social
lives through exchange. The system of exchange is found in every economy, even the most
primitive. There are six possible kinds of exchange according to the items exchanged: goods
for goods, services for services, goods for services, money for goods, money for services and
money for money. The use of money occurs only in relatively advanced economies. The
most notable fact about exchange is that it requires a transaction between people. Exchange
system provide the rules and the motivation for individuals to give one another material
goods and to provide each other with services.
Ecomomic Processes
14.3 TYPES OF EXCHANGE SYSTEMS
Karl Polanyi, an economic historian, has identified three different modes of allocation or
principles of exchange: reciprocity, redistribution and market exchange. What we should
remember is that every economy is characterised by at least one of these systems of exchange.
However, many economies are based on two or all three of these systems of exchange. Let us
know about each one of these systems one by one. Each mode embodies a particular system
of rules that makes it different from others and each gives the transfer of goods and services
special meaning.
14.3.1 Reciprocal Exchange

This method refers to transfer of goods or services between two people or groups based on b
their role obligations. We visit our grandparents with presents during holidays, offer a
friend a ride to school and so on. We behave according to rules defmed by reciprocal exchange,
revolving around the notion of role obligation. The reason for their reciprocal exchange is
1
not necessarily dictated by the desire for the material goods themselves as it is in the market.
Certainly the mother and the son attempt to give each other items they know will be
appreciated, but the reason for the exchange is their obligation to one another, an obligation
they assume when they take on the status of mother and son. If the son fails to give anything
to his mother, she will be hurt and disappointed. Similarly, a mother who did not give gifts
would also have to face very disappointed children. For this reason, reciprocal exchange
does not usually occur between strangers.
Resiprocal Exchange
Furthq, reciprocal exchange is not dictated by maximisation which is the basic principle Distribution Processes
operatingrin market exchange. When the mother gives her son some gift, she does not
bother about what the son is going to give to her in return, nor will she give the set to the
boy's sister (daughter) because the girl has a more valuable present for her. She simply
makes the exchange because it is a culturally defined obligation associated with her role as a
mother.
Activity 1
Find out from close family members or friends about a marriage held recently which you
attended; as family or friend; about the kinds of gift exchanges or services hired. List
out the kind of economic exchanges of goods and services that took place during the
marriage according to its nature; eg. reciprocal exchange or market exchange, etc.
Compare your list with other student's lists at your study centre.
I 14.3.1.1 Value of Goods

The value of the goods given need not be the same, but there is a tendency for an equality of
value to characterise exchange between individuals of equal rank. As long as the value of
items exchanged reciprocally is within the ran e of what is culturally defined as proper, the
f
obligation of the parties to the exchange is m t. Some forms of reciprocal exchange are
difficult to recognise because they seem one-sided. It is easy to see that Christmas gift-
giving is reciprocal because the two parties to the exchange give present to each other
simultaneously. However, in many circumstances we may only witness a one-way exchange.
For example, when a neighbour or a relative gives some money or an article as a gift to a
bridegroom on the occasion of his marriage, the groom does not immediately return something
of value to the donor. He will wait until the marriage of his friend or a relative. Delayed
reciprocity of this sort places the people in a network of outstanding debts. Thus, we have
seen two kinds of reciprocity:
i) Generalised reciprocity
In which neither the value nor what is given is calculated nor the time ofrepayment specified.
Such transactions do not involve economic or other self-interest. That means generalised
reciprocity is gift-giving without any immediate return or conscious thought of return.
ii) Balanced reciprocity
In which goods and services of commensurate worth are traded within a finite period (direct
exchange). This sort of exchange is motivated by the desire or need for certain objects.
Thus reciprocal exchange serves as the major mode of transfer for members of hunting and
food-gathering societies. For example, the animals caught or killed in the hunting by a
solitary hunter are usually distributed among other members of the camp on the basis of
obligations associated with kinship.
14.3.2 Exchange Based on Redistribution
' This system of exchange refers to the transfer of goods and services between a group of
people and a central collecting source based on role obligation. Like reciprocity, redistributive
exchange occurs because people are obligated to each other. In other words, goods collected
or contributed from members of a group flow to some central point from which they are
redistributed to the society. Redistribution may be voluntary on the part of members for a
t'
society or it may be involuntary in that the collective centre uses agents to force the members
to contribute goods and services to the authorities the redistributive centre varies from the
I
i
head of a band or tribe to the ruler of a kingdom. Redistribution is the process which is
found in all societies but it becomes an important mechanism of distribution only in societies
with a relatively complex system of political organisation and s substantial economic surplus.
In all societies, there is some voluntary redistribution, at least within the family. Members of
the family pool their labour or products or income for their common good. But redistribution
exists in a majority of the hunting and fishing societies, in some horticultural societies, and
in allnost all pastoral and agricultural societies which contain political machinery of one
kind or the other to co-ordinate centralised collection and distribution.
Eco~nomicProcesses
Redistribution
14.3.2.1 The Potlatch Ceremony

Potlatch ceremony among the North-West-Coast American Indians is also a form of
redistribution. It involves ritual display of privileges and title and distribution of goods
among the guests for the purpose of validating and enhancing the host's privileges and
prestige. For example, the house building potlatch is most important, elaborgte and
spectacular. For example, the house building potlatch is most important, elaborate and
spectacular. For about 10 years a man and his wife work hard to accumulate the required
property. One year before the potlatch ceremony, the wife lends furs or blankets from the
common store to various members of her clan.
Her clan members return them at the time of potlatch with hundred percent interests. At the
time of potlatch the guests assemble in the new house and are seated according to their rank.
Through this ritual while the recipients gain in material, the hosts acquire social and political
prestige. While the host gets a dwelling and becomes thereby the house chief, the hostess
gains social status for her children and for her clan. Both the host and the hostess thus gain
political and social rank.
The most obvious example of a redistributive system is government taxation. In our role as
citizens we are obligated to pay taxes to various governments both local and national. These
governments are obligated to return taxes to us in the form of various services. The amount
we pay may not equal the amount we get back and indeed, it is often difficult to determine
the entire value of services that government provide to the people.

1) Write a note on reciprocal exchange. Use about five lines for your answer.
2) Explain the idea of exchange based on redistribution. Use about seven lines for your Distribution Processes
answer.
14.3.3 Market Exchange

It is the exchange of goods and services according to the law of supply and demand. The
predominant feature of market exchange is that goods and services are bought and sold at a
money price which is determined by the impersonal forces of supply and demand. Unlike
reciprocity and redistribution, in which the social and political roles of those who exchange
are important, a market exchange is impersonal and occurs no matter what the social position
of the participants is. Market exchange is thus the most purely economic model of exchange.
In this form of exchange social or political goals are less important than economic goals.
Therefore, market exchange is also known as money exchange or commercial exchange.
These exchange systems involving money emerge when an economy develops to the point
where supplies of food regularly exceed the needs of those engaged in food production.
Market exchange depends on how much people desire particular goods or services, and how
much they must give to obtain them. Every time we speak of selling something or buying
something we need, we are using terms associated with market exchange such as buy, sell,
discount, price, money, cost, profit, loss etc. These words express various aspects of the
many different transactions that characterise our complex market economy.
Market Exchange
14.3.3.1 Features of Market Exchange

Buyers approach the sellers because of their direct need or desire for goods. Similarly, the
sellers wish to exchange their goods because they need the money it will bring. They do so
because they have an immediate nef d for other goods or services.
Ecomomic Processes When individuals conduct market exchange, they try to maximise their profit by getting the
maximum number of goods and services for the least expenditure of their own resources.
This also means that the price of a particular item may change from day to day in relation to
supply and the demand.
The third attribute of market exchange is that it determines the parties to the exchange.
Because a seller and a buyer attempt to get the most for their limited resources, they will
choose to deal with the individual who gives them the maximum value. There is no need to
know the person with whom the transaction occurs. Thus market exchange facilitates the
transfer of goods among strangers and is ideally suited to large and complex societies of
today where most people do not know each other. For example, when we visit a super
market, we need not know the sales girls or packers to buy the food we require, nor must we
be personally be acquainted with the manager ofthe State Electricity Board to pay our monthly
electricity bill.
Market exchange leads to a setting of the value of goods and services in terms of each other.
Over a period of time, the value of each commodity under exchange in the market becomes
related. That is, the worth of any one commodity eventually be stated in terms of the values
of another. Money facilitates such inter valuation immensely. Normally money is a market
device designed to facilitate exchange by acting as a medium for it.
Activity 2
List out the commodities and services that you have purchased during the last week.
Make a chart of their value in money. Prepare another chart of the same commodities
and services based on prices of the previous year. Compare the two charts and write a
report of a page on "Price Fluctuation and the Market". Compare your report with
others at your study centre.
\
14.3.3.2 Network of Services

Two organised networks of services stand out significantly in the modern market economy.
They are (1) Banks and (2) Advertising. Banks serve not only to provide capital to investors,
but also as accounting and frequently as credit agencies for consumers. Bank cheques serve
as an alternative to official currency in financial transactions. In its simplest form advertising
entails a mere announcement of where specified goods and services are available usually
with a stipulation of price. In competitive distributional systems, the producer, wholesaler,
retailer and consumer are aided by advertising agencies. Such agencies in mass society
appeal to any consumer interests or irrational motivation that will lead to a sale. For example,
an advertising agency conducts a survey to find out certain information regarding parent
child relationship. They discover that working parents suffer from guilt and Be1 that they
should compensate their children for leaving them alone at home. They make an advertisement
showing the parents bringing chocolate of their brand for the child. This way the sale of
chocolates of a brand increases as more parents buy it as gift.
Madern industrial economy is integrated around at least three principles that are not normally
found together in primitive economy. These are the economy - wide market, the materially
self-gainful economising, that is, the constant attempt, to gain surplus, that motivates the
people and the monetisation of both internal and external trade. On the other hand, other
principles such as reciprocity and redistribution are important in the movement of goods and
services in primitive societies.
In industrial economy, the technological processes of production are very complex, but the
distribution process is relatively simple as it depends mainly upon the market principle. The
reverse situation is found in the primitive economy where the technological processes of
production are very complex in both the organisation and the principles involved. In the
simplest societies the division of labour is based on age and sex. This means that the members
of each family together control the total production of the whole society. Even in peasant
societies it is common to find that most of the families in any given village are engaged in
the same agricultural activities. Using the same tools and technological skills. Thus, simplicity
in technology is not normally associated with or a cause of simplicity in exchange or
distribution.
Check Your Progress 2 Distribution Processes

1) Define market exchange. Give at least two features of market exchange. Use about
seven lines for your answer.
2) What are the three principles around which modem industrial economy is integrated?
Use about five lines.
LET US SUM UP
The economic system of any society consists of the cultural knowledge people use to provide
goods and services to meet biological and social wants. It defines human productive activity
and the distribution and exchange of goods and services. Once goods are produced, they are
dispersed by a system of distribution which consists of a set of strategies that apportion goods
and services among the members of a group. Distribution is normally effected through
economic exchange which represents the cultural rules for the transfer of goods and services
among people. Exchange takes three basic forms: reciprocity, redistribution and market
exchange. While reciprocal exchange indicated the transfer of goods or services
between two people or groups based on role obligations, redistribution refers to the transfer
of goods or services between a group of people and a central collecting source based on role
obligation. Finally, market exchange refers to a transfer of goods or services based on price,
supply and demand. Each mode embodies a particular system of rules that makes it different
from the others, and each gives the transfer of goods and services special meaning. However,
it is to be noted that all three modes of exchange systems exist together in many economic
systems.

P
Majumdar, D.N. and Madan T.N., 1976: An Introduction to Social Anthroplogy, Asia
Publishing House, Mumbai
I Smelser N.T., 1965: The Sociology of Economic Life, Prentice Hall, New Delhi.
14.6 KEY WORDS -
Distribution : The method by which goods and services reach the

customer(s).
Economic Organisation : The system through which goods are produced, distributed
and consumed.
Network : The interconnection of relationships, which are useful and
reliable.
Reciprocity : To have a relationship in which giving of goods is
accompanied by receiving other goods.
Ecomomic Processes
1) Reciprocal exchange refers to transfer of goods or services between two people or groups
based on their role obligations. This exchange may or may not be directed by the desire
for the material goods themselves as it is in the market. For example exchange of gifts
between motner and son.
2) Redistribution system of exchange refers to the transfer of goods and services between
a group of people and a central collecting source based on role obligation. Redistribu-
tion may be voluntary on the part of members of a society or it may be involuntary. It
may be involuntary in the sense that collective centres may use agents to force the
members to contribute goods and services to the authorities.

1) Market exchange is the exchange of goods and services. According to the law of
supply and demand some of its major features are that here goods and services are
bought and sold at a money price which is determined by the impersonal forces of
supply and demand. In this exchange people try to maximise profit by giving less
resources for more goods and services.
2) Modem industrial economy is integrated around the three principle which are the
economy-wide market, the materially self gainful profit oriented economising which
motivates the people, and the monetisation of both internal and external trade.
UNIT 15 CONSUMPTION PATTERN
Structure
1 5.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Some Fundamental Questions
15.3 The Nature of Consumption
15.3.1 Relationship Between Consumption and Production
15.3.2 Social Aspects of Consumption
f'
15.4 The Definition of Concepts
15.4.1 The Areas of Consumption
15.4.2 The Level of Cansumption
15.5 Patterns of Consumption in Pre-industrial Societies
15.5.1 Social and Cultural Aspects of Consumption
15.5.2 Seasonal Variations in Food Production and Consumption
15.6 Consu~nptionin Industrial Societies
15.6.1 Factors Affecting Consumption in Industrial Societies
15.7 Let Us Sum Up
15.9 Key words
15.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading the present unit you should be able to
describe the concept of consumption as one of the dimensions of the economic
organisation of any society;
discuss the nature of consumption;
elaborate and explain the definitions of variuus concepts that are associated with con-
sumption;
present comparative picture about the nature and patterns of consumption in pre-in-
dustrial and industrial societies; and
outline the various factors affecting the consumption process in contemporary indus-
trial societies.
I
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we are going to discuss some fundamental questions regarding the nature of
consumption, the social aspect of consumption and the relationship that it has with production.
We will examine the patterns of consumption in both pre-industrial and industrial societies.
It includes an account of the factors that affect consumption in technologically advanced
societies.
15.2 SOME FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS

Three fundamental and basic questions will be asked generally in the study of the economic
organisation of any human society. They are:
i) How are the goods and services wanted by human societies produced?
ii) How are the produced goods and services distributed or allocated among the members?
Ecomomic Processes iii) Wow are the goods and services produced and distributed eventually put to use and
consumed and what patterns of behaviour govern this process?
All these three questions involve behaviour networks of goods production and production of
artifacts: distribution, exchange and allocation and utilisation, hoarding and consumption
everything which is concerned with production and utilisation of goods and services. While
the answers to the first two questions were provided in the earlier units of this block the
present unit aims at giving an answer to the last question. The consumer and the process of
consumption have received relatively little attention from the social scientists. From the
earliest times, their interests have been focused more on the production, distribution and
exchange of goods than on this phase of economic cycle, namely, consumptioil. It received
only a passing recognition. However, the economics of consumption in both primitive and
modern societies is a subject to which sociologists and social anthropologists are attracted
only recently.
15.3 THE NATURE OF CONSUMPTION

Consumption involves a broad slice of human activity. It is concerned with all phases of the
using up of goods and services in living. Thus, we may be said to be consuming when we are
eating food, sleeping on a bed, visiting the doctor or going to school. But there are other
aspects of consumption. The choosing or selecting of aparticular basket ofgoods and services
is a part of the consumption process. This in turn involves acquiring information, participating
in transtactions making decisions and so on. Then, it may be suggested that production
involves consumption: many white sheets of paper were consumed, used up, in the production
of this unit, or the worker eating his lunch is consuming in order to acquire the energy to
continue with his production activity.
Consumption
15.3.1 Relationship between Consumption and Production

Consumption is a common feature in human societies. Sometimes even after goods have been
produced, a large amount of it goes waste in our economic system. This waste occurs
due to a poor consumption process. This kind of consumption not only results in a loss of Consumption Pattern
satisfaction on the part of those who consume, but it may also results in a misuse of productive
resources.
A consumption process which gives little satisfaction to consumers produces individuals in
society who lack energy and therefore, the will to work. Whereas a process of production,
with little or no waste of goods produced, is likely to lead to greater satisfaction to consumers.
This, in turn, will produce relatively more healthy individuals, who will be better equipped
to take part in the productive processes in society. In this sense consumption is closely
linked with production.
Activity 1
Prepare a list of items that you have purchased from the market in a week; such as, food
items, soaps, grocery etc. Write a note of about one page on "Consumption and its
Social Nature" where you analyse the nature of your purchase and its utility - was it an
essential item or were you driven by what other's are using. Compare your note with
others at your study centre. Discuss with your Academic Counsellor at the Study Center.
15.3.2 Social Aspects of Consumption

Consumption is not entirely an individual matter but has important social aspects. For
example, much of what we consume is the result of the consumption of others. We often
imitate others because we may not know what to consume or because we wish to avoid being
conspicuous through the omission of certain articles in our consumption. The consumption
problem deals with the final purpose of the products manufactured by society. How much is
consumed relative to the amount saved? If there is conspicuous consumption, what forms
does it take in societies? Of the amount that is saved, whether and how it is invested or
hoarded? These are the basic issues related to the main theme, consumption.
15.4 THE DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

Consumption is generally defined as the use of goods and services to give satisfaction to the
consumer. There is an element of selection in consumption - the selection of a particular set
of goods and services. There is an element of using up in consumption - the using up of
different goods and services in living. And there is an element of obtaining something in
consumption - this output we call satisfaction or utility. Thus selected goods and services are
used up in consumption to produce satisfaction or utility for the consumer.
In this view, consumption is comparable to production - only the nature of product is different.
While the output of a productive activity is so many units of physical goods or services, the
output of consumption is so many units of satisfaction. A consumer is defined as an individual
human being who consumes. in the sense of, using up inputs of goods and services to produce
satisfaction. The choice of goods and services to be consumed is often made within the
family unit and individual members consume in accordance with that chosen pattern.
15.4.1 The Areas of Consumption

It is convenient to distinguish four categories of consumers, although each could be divided
further in terms of such variables as type and volume ofpurchase. They are: (i) The household
or family. (ii) Agencies ofthe government at national, state and local levels. (iii) Manufacturing
and business establishments. (iv) Various non-profit organisations such as voluntary
association, private schools, hospitals, and religious and charitable organisation.
The plane of consumption is described by the list of goods and services acquired in the
market and actually consumed. The plane of living is described by the list of all goods,
services and conditions actually consumed or experienced. It is an inclusive concept in that
it includes all things consumed or experienced in living; goods and services acquired in the
market plus such things as the use of public facilities like parks, schools, location of residence,
etc., which are non-marketable goods, services and conditions.
Ecomomic Processes 15.4.2 The Level of Consumption
The level of consumption is described by a composite or aggregate of the list of goods and
services acquired in the market and actually consumed. It is expressed in one number which
provides a convenient means for ranking different planes of consumption.
The level of living is described by a composite or aggregate of all items which comprise the
plane of living. It is an expression of the plane of living in one number or value.
The standard of consumption is described by the list of goods and services that may be
acquired in the market which people think they should consume. It is a normative concept in
that it refers to what ought to be rather than what is, as in the case of plane or level.
The standard of living is described by a list of goods, services and condition which the
individual or group strives to attain, to maintain if once attained and to regain if lost. It is a
normative concept describing how the individual or group believes he or she ought to be
living.
To summarise these ideas, 'plane of living' is a more inclusive concept than 'plane of
consumption'. But in either case 'plane' and 'level' refer to items actually consumed.
Similarly, 'standard of living' is a broader concept than 'standard of consumption' but in
either case 'standard' refers to some derived performance. A standard of living may be
viewed as a level of living which people feel belongs to them.

1) What are the fundamental questions regarding the study of economic organisation of
any human society? Give two examples. Use about five lines.
2) Tick the correct answer:

i) Consumption is concerned with all phases of the using up of goods and services
in the process of living. yes/No
ii) We often imitate others because we do not want to become conspicuous among
others with whom we live, such as in our way of dressing etc.
Yes/No
iii) Not all human societies have the process of consumption. Yes/No
3) Give the definition of consumption in about three lines.
15.5 PATTERNS OF CONSUMPTION IN PRE-

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
Sociologists and social anthropologists usually classify the economies of the world, into five
types (1) hunting and food gathering, (2) 'herding' (3) horticulture, (4) agriculture and (5)
factory-industrialism. In the fust four types, groups are normally organised for both production
and consumption on the basis of kinship, and.there is consequently little separation of the
two function in organisation, that is, the family is the basic unit of both production and
consumption. In industrial societies, on the other hand, there is a separation of the production Consumption Pattern
and consumption units as they are organised on different principles. The major consumption
unit of final products is still the family although other institutions such as the government
also becomes an important consumer. While markets are of less importance in the first four
types of economics, production and consumption units are linked through the mechanism of
the market under factory-industrialism.
15.5.1 Social and Cultural Aspects of Consumption

A major factor that has rendered the study of consumption difficult in some of the pre-
industrial societies has been the absence of a pecuniary standard of value, whereby the worth
of resources assigned to various ends can be calculated and the resultant planes of living of a
people effectively described. Certain methodological problems were indicated by researchers
in their attempts to calculate the exact quantity of.food the households consumed, how much
was given away or wasted and how much received.
If we turn to the traditions which determine the consumption of goods in non-industrial
cultures, we are confronted with some surprises. Food, the most fundamental necessity of
life offers the most striking case in point. Even the consumption of this elementary necessity
is found to be influenced by ideas of what is and what is not suitable for human nourishment.
A comparable selectivity is found in clothing also by considering the differences not only in
style but also in the materials that differentiate the clothing of the two sexes. It is easy to
recognise how arbitrarily the selections are made from the available supply of goods.
Besides the questions of nourishment and individual taste, patterns of food consumption
involves the factor of prestige also. Foods must be served to guests in order to maintain a
particular social status, regardless of what may be eaten in private. Further, it is held shameful
if a man has to send to the market for food with which to entertain unexpected guests. Also
the utilisation of goods for ritual purpose and, in particular ceremonial consumption so as to
gain prestige, are among the most important and consistent elements in the use of available
foods resources in many pre-industrial societies.
15.5.2 Seasonal Variations in Food Production and Consumption

Further, the food of people in pre-industrial cultures varies with the season of the year and
the region of the country in which they live. Similarly, consumption of certain food stuffs
can effectively be stopped for a time if a chief decides so in order to save food for a social
occasion.
In several agricultural societies domestic food supplies are at the lowest at the time of the
most arduous output of physical labour and highest when there is least agricultural work. In
other words, it would seem that food availabilitj, is inversely correlated with food requirements,
if we assume that more food is needed to sustain the arduous agricultural labour of the rainy
season than the leisure months of the dry season.
The agriculturists lack neither the technique of storing food stuffs nor the concepts of thrift
and frugality. It must also be remembered that besides differences in the amounts of food
available at any given time, the rate of consumption may be affected by the amount of work
done at a given season of the year, or by the sudden arrival of guests or unexpected demands
from kinsmen in the village. Diversity in food resources holds the level of basic subsistence
goods relatively constant and compensates for seasonal variation in supply that can
constitute a serious problem where reliance is placed on a single source and the technology is
simple.
Ecomomic Processes Check Your Progress 2
1) On what basis have the sociologists classified the economies of the world into five
types? List these types. Use about five lines. "'
..................................................................................................................................
i) In hunting and food gathering, herding, horticulture and agrarian societies family
is the basic unit of both production and consumption. Yes/No
ii) In industrial societies there is no separation of production and consumption
units. Yes/No
iii) Patterns of food consumption depend on social variables like prestige and status
besides the question of nourishment. YesiNo
iv) The food of people in pre-industrial cultures remains the same throughout the
year. YesINo
15.6 CONSUMPTION IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES

Many of the things consumed by modem people in industrial societies are no longer produced
at home and the efforts of family members are focused instead on earning a living. Buying
is the process through which the varied output of industries must somehow flow to provide
acceptable standards of health, possessions and happiness to the members of the society. It is
the negotiation of this exchange of money for goods and services that reveal what we call the
problems of consumption. We try and balance our income with the necessary items and
extra comforts that we require in life. Science, technology, improved merchandising, extension
of personal credit facilities. Rising standards of living has created outright, brought into
volume production, or raised to the position of necessities of life, a long list of new goods and
services. These involve new standard of health, child rearing, comfort, convenience,
cleanliness, travel and variety of living. Along with these, there is also a measure of one-up
man ship in most societies where consumption pattern denotes your social status, i.e. one
tries to emulate those who are better-off and higher in status than ourselves. In the Elective
Course, ESO-03 your will learn more about an American sociologist, T. Veblen (1857-1929)
who gave the concept of "Conspicuous Consumption" to explain why people tried to imitate
their neighbours in terms of consumption.
Also, French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu (1991) believes that different classes in a
society make a distinction among themselves not only on the basis of objective reality
but create a demarcation based on symbolic reality. For eg. style of living, model of car one '
uses, etc.
15.6.1 Factors Affecting Consumption in Industrial Societies
i) Availability of Choice
The consumer's problem now is one of selection to a degree never before known. The
production units in turn face the necessity of competing not merely against rival makes of
the same commodity, but against the entire field of alternate goods and services in the ever
widening arena of competition for a share of the consumer's rupee.
ii) Amount of Income Consumption Pattern
*
The consumer's ability to buy goods depends on the money he has. Availability of consumer
credit widens their range and flexibility of buying power. The instalment and small loan
facilities allow a common consumer to buy expensive goods.
iii) Family Size

The size of the family is one of the predominant factors affecting the balance among
expenditures. Studies conducted on family consistently reveal the declining size of the family
unit, particularly in an urban environment, which facilitates a rise in consumption levels
over the rural people. There is a trend in our urban culture towards rearing children as major
economic outlays rather than as the economic assets of an earlier era. In other words, parents
in modern times consider children as economic liabilities rather than assets. Children have
come into direct competition with other consumption goods. As the money available for
house-building decreases, people go for smaller living units. Rising standards of living,
equality between parents and children make it possible to distribute incomes more evenly.
There is a growing margin of leisure time activity in the modem family. These leisure-time
activities are adapted to the needs of separate age and sex groups. They affect the consumption
of a wide group of goods and services in modem 'society' such as cinema, theatre, clubs,
restaurants etc. The steady secularisation of Sunday has made it more than ever before an
occasion for spending money. The annual vacation habit is also spreading.
iv) Availability of Goods

In addition to the amount of income and varying family needs, the differing localities or
regions in which people live exert different pressures to consume. Climatic factors influence
consumption in such matters as clothing, fuel, housing and automobiles. Since standards of
consumption are so largely social rather than private in character, the level of wealth; and
availability of goods in a given community exert powerful pressures on the consumer. For
example, a farmer is under less compulsion to dress up to a; high standard than is a
businessman in a large city; and a family closely surrounded by multiple trading centres with
I elaborate shop networks and high standards of competitive spending tends to be under more
! pressure to buy many types of commodities than is a family served by a single and meagre
trading centre. Thus the differences in the availability of goods to different sections of the
I population operate to increase or restrict the area of choice confronting consumers. However,
it is significant to note that even in geographically remote and socially isolated areas, more
goods are available today as compared with a generation back.
I v) Merchandising Practices
1 The pressure to sell more goods, necessitates the development of merchandising practices
I such as advertising and branding. Advertising goes hand in hand with volume of production
and retail distribution. The general aims of advertising are:
i) to create awareness among consumers,
ii) to break down consumer resistance,
1- iii)
iv)
to create consumer acceptance, and
to create consumer demand.
I Further, the specialisation of commodities and heightened competition of manufacturers in
1 their efforts to create national markets, facilitated the spread of packaged and branded goods.
Accordingly, the value of a brand name has mounted steadily and the number of brands of
selected commodities has gone up For eg. A report by NCAERN.Delhi (1993) found during
;its research that the Nirma brand of washing powder has the highest sale in India which was
about 700,000 tonnes of detergent sold in India. Meanwhile, the consumer is reported to be
shifting at an accelerating rate from brand to brand and retailers are lamenting that customer
loyalty is now not what it used to be. Style, price, quality and convenience shuttle in and out
of the picture as millions of citizens make daily purchases.
vi) Consumer Literacy

The increase in new kinds of goods and services, the decline in home handibraft knowledge,
the increased complexity of mechanical devices and fabricated commodities, new pressures
Ecomomic Processes on the consumer to buy and new tensions within the consumer, all make new demand for
consumer literacy. This problem of literacy involves two things: knowledge of commodities
and bf what one can afford. The growing co-operation of government with industry and the
mounting volume of printed and radio material issued by it to consumers render its role
outstandingly significant in the consideration of consumer habits. In addition, certain
professional and non-profit agencies have emerged to buttress the consumer. Consumer co-
operatives also, play a role in this area of consumer education.
The above analysis, thus, has been concerned with specific factors influencing the consumption
process. None of these factors, however, can be isolated as primary cause of consumer
behaviour, because they are all so closely part of the complex system of family budgeting.
The ways in which individual families allocate their total incomes are revealed to some
extent by budget studies. While shopping is still a pleasure to some consumers, there is
evidence that, with the multiplication of alternate activities, there is a mounting distaste on
the part of both men and women for the labour of buying things. They desire to simplify and
expedite the process as much as possible.
In more developed countries like America, people use the Internet facility to purchase nearly
evetything ranging from jewellery, clothes, plane tickets, cinema tickets to even fruits and
vegetables. This trend is catching up in India, as well especially in the metropolitan cities.
Thus, in terms of consumption, the world has become a global world.

1) What is meant by the problems of consumption in modem societies? Answer in about
seven lines.
2) In relation to consumption what are the consequences of development in science,

technology, improved merchandising, etc. in industrial societies? Use about five lines.
What are the factors that affect consumption in industrial societies? Use about seven
ConsumptionPattern
15.7 LET US SUM UP
Economic organisation can be explained as the human behaviour by which goods are produced,
distributed and used. In non-industrial societies in which the techniques of production and
distribution are simple, the mechanism of consumption is prevalent within a small group.
They produce only to consume. For them, food, clothing, shelter and articles of protection
are the-primary consumption goods. In industrial societies in which the techniques of
production and distribution are complex and surpluses are produced in large quantities, the
mechanisms of consumption have also become complex. The variety of factors which are
involved in the formation of consumer habits in modem societies are traced out and explained
in this unit.

Clifton, J.A., (Ed.) 1968: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Boston, Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Cochrane, W.W., 1956: The Economics ofconsumption, McGraw-Hill New York: McGraw-
Hill, Book Company
Smelser; N.J., 1965: The Sociology ofEconomic Life, New Delhi, Prentice-Hall of India.
15.9 KEY WORDS

Conspicuous : Any consumption which distinguishes one consumer from another
Consumption consumer by such an action as buying two or more cars in order to show
one's wealth.
Transaction : To carry on the exchange of goods and services in a business deal.
Utilisation : To make use of goods and services in the process of consumption.

1) The two fundamental questions regarding the study of economic organisation of any
human society are: i) How are the goods and services wanted by human societies pro-
duced? ii) How the produced goods and services are distributed or allocated among the
mein bers?
2) i) Yes (Check section 15.3)
ii) Yes (Check sub-section 15.3.2)
iii) No (Check Sub-section 15.3.1)
3) Consumption is defined as the use of goods and services to produce satisfaction for the
person who consumes, namely, the consumer.

1) The sociologists classified the economies of the world into five types according to their
main subsistence base. These five types are : i) hunting and food gathering; ii) herd-
ing; iii) horticulture; iv) agriculture; and v) factory-industrialism.
2) i) Yes (Check section 15.6)
ii) No (Check section 15.6)
iii) Yes (Check section 15.6.1)
iv) No (Check section 15.6.2)
Ecomomic Processes Check Your Progress 3
1) In industrial societies the bulk of things that are consumed are produced outside the
home. Therefore, family members concentrate on buying a living. Buying has to take
care of the varied outputs of industries. These outputs have to provide for acceptable
stahdards of health, possessions and happiness. This process of exchange of money for
goods and services constitutes consumption in industrial societies.
2) Development in science and technology, improved merchandising, credit facilities,
etc. have led to the acceptance of large number of products, goods and services as the
necessaries of life. These include new standards of health, child rearing, cleanliness,
etc.
3) The factors that affect consumption in industrial societies are: i) availability of choice;
ii) amount of income; iii) family factors; iv) availability of goods; v) merchandising
practices; and vi) consumer literacy. Family affects consumption in industrial society
as it constitutes the major consumers of the society. There is a direct relationship
between the family size and proportion of consumption in industrial societies.
REFERENCES
References cited in block IV: (These are given here for those students who wish to follow certain
points in detail.)
Bottomore, T.B. and Goode P. Ed 1983: Readings In Marxist Sociology, Clarendon Press. Oxford.
Durkeim, Emile, 1947: The Division of Labour in Society, I he Free Press, New York.
Goldthorpe, J.H., Lockwood, D., Bechhofer, F. and Platt, J., 1960: The Afjuent Worker in the Class
Structure. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Marcuse, H. 1972: One Dimensional Man, Abacus London
Merrill, R.S. 1968: "Technology " Indetrnntional Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. 15:576-86;Edited
by David I. Sills, 'The Macmillan Co. & The Free Press, New York.
Ogburn, W.F. and Nimkoff, M.F. 1968: Handbook ofSociology, 5th Ed. Routledge and Kegan Paul.
London.
Smith, A. 1921: Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations, (Vol. 1 and 2) G. Bell
and Sons, London.
Weber, Max, 1958: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Charles Scribers Sons, New
York.
Polanyi, Karl, et al (Ed.) 1957 L: Trade and markt in the Early Empires: Economics in Ifistory and
Theory, The Free Press, New York,; Chapter XI pp. 218-236.
UNIT 16 STATELESS SOCIETIES
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Politics and Political Organisations
16.3 Political Institutions and Stateless Societies
16.3.1 Sources of Data about Stateless Societies
16.3.2 Types of Stateless Societies
16.3.3 Kinship System as a Form of Political Control
16.4 Political Principles of Stateless Society

16.4.1 An Example : The Tonga
16.4.2 An Example : The Lozis
16.5 Stateless Tribes in India

16.5.1 Political Organisation in Indian Tribes
16.5.2 The Lineage System
16.5.3 Conflict Regulation
16.5.4 Crime and Punishment
16.6 Political Institutions and Development of Society

16.6.1 Emergence of Simple Form of Government in Society
16.6.2 Political Aspect of Religion in Simple Societies
16.7 Let Us Sum Up

16.8 Key Words
16.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you have studied this unit you should be able to:
describe the stateless societies;
explain some key features of stateless societies;
explain the distinction between the stateless society and a society with state;
and
discuss the functions of stateless society.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit in the block “Political Processes”. In this unit you are going to
learn about politics and political organisation. You will learn about the stateless societies
which generally lack a centralised system of authority. Here the significance of kinship
1
organisation is dealt with in relation to political control. We have discussed here the
Political Processes political principles which are present in stateless societies. We have also described
the stateless tribes in India. Finally, we have discussed the emergence of government
in stateless societies.
16.2 POLITICS AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION

Politics deals with the distribution of power in society. Political institutions refer
to certain kinds of social relations which exist within a particular area.
Thus, territorial area is an important aspect in the political process of any
society. The territorial structure provides the framework not only for political
organisation but for other forms of organisation as well. However, when we
study political institutions we deal with the “maintenance and establishing of order
within a territorial framework by the organised exercise of coercive authority through
the use or possibility of use of physical force” (Fortes M. and Evans, Pritchard,
E.E., 1949)
One of the important political institutions in society is state. It has been described as
a human community which successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of
force within a given territory. State is different from government in the sense that
government is the agency which carries out the orders of the state. Thus, we can
say that political organisation consists of the combination and interrelationship of
power and authority in the maintenance of public affairs.
In modern complex societies the police and the army are the instruments by which
public order is maintained. Those who offend are punished by law. Law is one of
the means by which the state carries out its function of social control.
There has been a progressive growth of political organisation in different societies.

As societies have developed from the simple to modern industrial societies, all other
aspects of social organisation, even political institutions have become more complex.
There are stateless societies without any centralised authority. Unit 16 deals with
such societies. Then there are those societies which have some form of centralised
authority and administrative machinery. Unit 17 describes these traditional/pre-
modern societies. In Units 18 and 19 are discussed developed forms of political
institutions in modern societies.
16.3 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND STATELESS

SOCIETIES
Simple societies have very low population in comparison to modern societies. There
exists a very indeterminate political community in these societies. Here, since face
to face relation is possible no formal agency of social control exists. We are now
going to discuss the political organisation in the stateless societies. In all types of
stateless societies, however simple their organisation might be, they generally have
an idea of their territorial rights. These rights are maintained through the notions of
age, and social sanctions and social control.
Here, we must make it clear that we are talking generally about the African tribes.
In these societies various forms of political institutions such as, councils, monarchies,
chiefs, etc., exist. In the stateless societies power and authority are generally diffused
in different groups in society. Political order is maintained through the ties of kinship
and lineage systems.
2
A society is called stateless if it: Stateless Societies
has no rigid boundary or permanent physical territory,

follows oral traditions, and the bureaucratic aspect is absent from it,
has a single person holding several major powers of religious, economic and
political offices within the society,
there is no fixed rigidly spelt out ideology, and
has simple economy
16.3.1 Sources of Data about Stateless Societies
There are three sources of knowledge about simple societies without government.
It is from these that our information is derived:
archaeological records about stateless societies,
literature produced by missionaries, travellers and administrators, and
monographs written by anthropologists.
The archaeological record is very important in the study of stateless societies. This
leads to an important point. All the records of simple societies show that they have
always been involved in a process of change, growth and development. We note
here that there is no static simple society - they are all dynamic.
Anthropologists studying stateless societies have also used literature, produced by
missionaries, travellers and colonial administrators. Last but not the least are the
monographs written by anthropologists on stateless societies. These are our main
sources of information, given in this unit.
16.3.2 Types of Stateless Societies
The stateless societies can be generally divided into four broad types of societies
according to their socio-political organisations:
i) First type of societies are those which usually live by hunting and gathering.
Here the largest social units are the co-operating groups of families or close
kin. There does not exist any other formal grouping besides this. There are
no gradations or stratification’s or even any separate institutions. No specific
political organisation exists in this type of society. The authority rests with the
senior members of these families. But this authority is very limited in scope.
Some of the examples of these societies are the Bushmen of South Africa and
some of the people of South East Asia, Jarwa of Andaman Islands etc.
ii) Second type of society is that which is made up of village communities which
are related to one another by various kinship and economic ties. They have
formally appointed councils to maintain administration. In these councils the
eligibility for membership varies from one society to another. Some of the
criteria for eligibility are descent from either old family or reputed family etc.
or any other social eminence such as economic power. Here we can see that
there is an emergence of political order. Some of these types of societies are
the Ibo and Yako of West Africa.
iii) In the third type, the societies have political control vested in age-set systems.
This is a common feature of the societies in East Africa. In these societies the
allocation of authority is vested in the elders of the society. Thus age-set 3
Political Processes organisation is based on the principle of seniority. An example of such a tribe
is the Cheyenne of America and the Nuer of Africa.
iv) Finally, the fourth type of societies are those in which political functions are
performed through groups organised in terms of unilineal descent. The unilineal
descent is traced along the line of either father or mother. In such societies
there are no specific political offices. There are no political chiefs, but the
elders of the society may exercise a limited authority. In this type of society
the groups within the society may be in a state of balanced opposition. Some
of the example of such type of societies are, the Nuer, the Dinka of Southern
Sudan. This aspect will be explained later.
16.3.3 Kinship System as a Form of Political Control
Kinship system plays a very crucial role in the socio-political and economic
organisation of simple societies. Its functions are extensive and overlapping with
functions of the political and economic institutions. It takes up the task of maintaining
order and balance in society. The principle of fission or conflict and fusion or cohesion
works within the simple societies along the kinship and territorial lines. For example,
the Nuer tribe is divided into segments. The primary sections or segment of the tribe
is the largest and it occupies the largest territory, the secondary section is smaller
than the primary and it occupies the next largest territory and finally the tertiary
section, which is the smallest and occupies the smallest territory. This division of
Nuer society is not just political or territorial but it is also a kinship distribution. In
such a society conflict leads to alliances and opposition along the kinship and
especially lineage lines.
Activity 1
Compare the Nuer society (as described here) with the socio-political order of
your own society. Write a note on this comparison. Compare your note with
other students at your study centre.
In all stateless societies where the society is segmented or divided into sections
alliances take place along the lines of territory, residence, kinship, descent, heritage
and marriage. Conflict leads to cohesion in such societies. For example, in case of
conflict, all the members of a group, descended agnatically from a particular man,
many see themselves as a unit against all the agnatic descendants of that man’s
enemy. The enemy might be a member of one’s own lineage or another lineage.
The segmentation of society maintains itself through the presence of actual or potential
opposition to one another. This opposition is characteristically expressed in the
institution of “blood feud” in these societies. If a person has killed a member of
another section of the society, that other section will not be satisfied until the murderer
or any member of his section is killed. However, these inter-lineage antagonisms
are countered by other cross cutting ties like those of affinity and matrilateral kinship.
Thus there are always people in opposing groups whose interest is to seek peaceful
solution of disputes between lineage’s.
Therefore, we can say that in stateless societies the kinship ties are performing political
roles. The principles of exogamy - where a person marries only outside one’s
community, and endogamy - where a person marries within a particular community
- play an important part. It is these principles which decide the nature of one’s
potential supporters or allies in case of conflict.
4
Stateless Societies
16.4 POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF STATELESS
SOCIETY
Stateless societies are very many, and their traditions have wide variation. Yet it is
possible to distinguish some basic principles to which their organisation adheres.
These principles seem to underlie and appear in all stateless societies:
Society becomes united when different groups or segments unite. They initially
owe loyalty to different groups but come together for some particular cause
such as defence of territory or ‘blood feud’, etc.
Authority, which is delegated or given to a subordinate, becomes independent.

Thus juniors who are given power by seniors in a stateless society become
powerful in their own right.
Mystical symbols also ‘integrate’ and unify stateless societies. This is because
the entire society regards these to be sacred and that which should be protected.
16.4.1 An Example: The Tonga

Let us take the example of the African tribe Tonga. The Tongas live in small villages
in the hope of escaping raids upon them. These raids are performed by unfriendly
tribes to steal food and valuables. In this tribe the headman has little power. This is
one of the key features of stateless societies. This tribe is nomadic (moves its locations
from time to time) due to agricultural needs. In doing so many new friendships are
struck up and often old friendships break. Tongas belong to a matrilineally related
kin group called the mukowa.
Now it is important to note that no marriage may link up two mukowa. This
principle of exogamy is a primary mechanism for establishing the various alliances
and linkages. A very interesting feature is that Tonga clans are related by what are
called joking relations’ between cross-cousins. A ‘joking relationship’ is where
merriment is made into a ritual and is created perforce. The persons cannot talk
normally but must joke and laugh. This institution is very important. Among the
Tonga this joking has important political consequences.
This is because “clan joking” creates a large number of friendships, among all the
people concerned. Further it provides the privileged go-betweens and judges of
morals in a society an opportunity to intervene in the lives of people without looking
authoritative. This is because during joking, ‘counselling’ and ‘warnings’ are allowed
to be given as part of the jokes exchanged. Society functions without the mediations
of political power and authority.
16.4.2 An Example: The Lozis

In some stateless societies there are institutions which protects the rights of all the
members of society where food is scarce or limited. Since in these societies the
concept of accumulation of property and food does not exist, there is always the
problem of distribution. Amongst the Lozis of Africa there exists an institution called
kufunda, which literally means legal theft. It is present in some other tribes also.
Any person of the tribe can take any article or food from one’s kinsmen’s house. It
solves the problem of hunger because one can always get food from one kinsman or
the other. A person in these tribes has to share his or her food with the others. Thus
kufunda or legal theft is a political institution and gives meaning to kinship and economic
structures of the society. 5
Political Processes
Kufunda : Legal Theft
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Explain what is meant by a stateless society? Use about five lines for your
answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
6
2) Stateless societies are also called simple societies. Stateless Societies
Yes No
3) A ‘blood feud’ is a method of making group members donate blood.
Yes No
4) What are the three sources of knowledge about stateless societies?
i) .....................................................................................................
ii) .....................................................................................................
iii) .....................................................................................................
5) A “joking relationship’ is: (Tick the answer)
i) A meeting of humorists.
ii) Competitions of jokes.
iii) A form of institutionalised behaviour.
iv) To make fun of each other.
16.5 STATELESS TRIBES IN INDIA

This section would enable you to explain how the ‘stateless’ tribes of India function
and organise themselves within the Indian nation. This section will show how in
contemporary India certain tribes fit into the category of stateless societies. As you
will see they have a rich and complex life and maintain order. Sociologically speaking,
they have their own inner logic of functioning and to a large extent they still live by it.
However, it should not be assumed that they have not changed with time. In fact,
they are increasingly getting modernised and attempts are being made to help them
to develop.
16.5.1 Political Organisation in Indian Tribes
Political institutions in Indian tribes are based on
i) Clan and lineage
ii) village unit and
iii) group of villages.
Every clan has a common ancestor to which it can trace itself. Over time every clan
“breaks” or “splits” up into several lineages.
Lineage segmentation or division into smaller sections is very important as a principle

of political structure in stateless societies. Among the Bhils the lineage is structured
with a depth of five to six generations as one unit.
16.5.2 The Lineage System

The political functioning and conflict in the lineage system among the Santal, Oraon
7
and Bhil can be illustrated diagrammatically as follow:
Political Processes (1)
(2) (3)
(4) (5) (6) (7)
(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)
Diagram 1 : Political Functioning in Stateless Societies
In this diagram the members represent lineages of different orders. They all claim
descent from (1) The male line goes down from (1) to (2) and (3) and two lineages
are formed. After this the lines segment further into (4)−(5) and (6)−(7) respectively.
In the next generation we find the lineage segmenting into (8), (9), (10), (11), (12),
(13), (14), (15) respectively. This structure is very important for conflict regulation.
Now it often happens that there is enemity between members of (8) and (9) as per
the diagram. In such a case all the members of (8) and all the members of (9) are
potential enemies. All the other branches of the lineage such as (4), (5), (10), (11),
(2), etc., are not involved. This is also true of (12), and (13). It is therefore a
general principle in case of any conflict within a tribe which, apply to all segements.
Now consider carefully a different situation. If a member of (8) or (9) is engaged in
conflict with a member of (10) or (11) then all (8) and (9) “fuse” (unite) or regard
themselves as one group. Thus members of (8) and (9) will be pitted against the
‘fused’ group of (10) and (11).
At a yet higher level of consideration let us see what would happen if a member or
members of (4) or (5) were engaged in hostilities with the members of (6) or (7). In
such a case the whole lineage directly tracing descent from them will be united under
them and be ready to fight for them. That is, lineage members of (8), (9), (10) and
(11) will become enemies of lineage members of (12), (13), (14), and (15).
If there is a conflict at a still higher level between members of (2) and (3), all segments
subsumed under them will become opposed to each other. Finally if clan (1) become
opposed to another clan, all members of the clan (1) would fuse into one group for
feuding with the opposing clan members.
When the hostility is over, then “fission” (division) or return to original position in the
diagram takes place. This process is important not only in India but elsewhere as
well most notably in Africa among the Nuer tribe, discussed in detail by Evans-
Pritchard in his book, The Nuer (1940).
Activity 2
Try to find out from other members of your family or kinship network about a
recent dispute. Write a note about this dispute in about two pages describing the
various factors involved, the reason for the dispute and who all (i.e. their social
status); were the people who managed to resolve the dispute.
8 Compare your answer with those of other students at your study centre.
16.5.3 Conflict Regulation Stateless Societies
The territorial separateness prevents casual conflict occurring with other lineage which
are bigger or of a different generation.
The tribal village is an active political unit. We find that the way of regulating the
village goes downward in authority:
village officer, and
village administration.
The political mechanism functions through its officers who are known by different
designations in various tribes. In minor tribes (Birhor, Juang) all these activities are in
the hands of one man. Among major tribes (Santal, Bhil) authority is rested on two
headmen. One is for secular and the other is for sacred purposes. Very often they
have assistants.
Most tribes have a proper ‘judicial’ machinery to deal with breaches of peace and
social offences. There is usually a village council or an assembly of elders. For
example, among the Malers, the council of elders of the village is presided by Majhi.
The goriat acts as the public prosecutor. The Panchayat is called at the instance of
the majhi by the goriat.
Informal control over behaviour is done in the evening meetings. Here criticism is
very pungent and effective. Public disapproval is also very effective in controlling or
rectifying behaviour. This includes making clear what a member would suffer if he
goes beyond the unwritten tribal laws. In short the evening meetings are called to
keep those going out of line on line. In this way their problem does not become so
severe as to call forth punishment.
16.5.4 Crime and Punishment
However there is no society which does not have criminal cases. These cause a
severe disequilibrium in society. This has to be rectified by punishment.
The evidence that is called for, while deciding a criminal case, is:
Oath, taken on a sacred deity, and
Ordeal, undergone by tribal standards.
Among the Malers the oath taken is of loss of life. The suspect touches the knife at
a sacred centre (holy spot etc.), and swears he will tell the truth or die. Here it is
both society’s pervasive influence as well as the person’s own faith that produces a
result. The result is almost always true and just.
In the case of ordeal the suspect is innocent if he remains unhurt by grasping a red
hot axe or putting his hand in burning oil. Malers have the saveli ordeal, in which a
red hot axe is to be grasped by the accused. In the pochai ordeal ritualistic rice beer
is used. Only the innocent can grasp the axe or drink the ritualistic beer and get
away unscathed. The guilty suffer burns or die of poisoning.
Oath and ordeal are both threatening alternatives as, they serve as a means of voluntary
submission of the accused to law. The fine for the guilty depends upon the seriousness
of the crime. The most serious punishment is excommunication. The tribals with
beating of drums desecrate the house of the accused. They defile it with rubbish and
may burn it down.
This symbolises their dislike and hatred for the crime and the criminal. Bitlaha
(excommunication) occurs in cases where the crime is so severe that the very person
9
Political Processes who has committed it would be intolerable. One of these crimes is that of marrying
among the taboo or forbidden category of persons. Again a person who disrespects
the tribal deity and attacks it, breaks it, spits on it, is liable to be excommunicated.
b) Compare your answers with those at the end of this unit.
1) Describe briefly the process of “fission’ and ‘fusion’ in stateless societies.
Use about five lines for your answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Give the names of three ‘stateless’ tribes of India.
i) ................................................................................................ ......
ii) .................................................................................................... ..
iii) ......................................................................................................
3) Describe briefly the method of ‘informal control’
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) In the saveli ordeal the person is made to fast till death.
Yes No
5) Bitlaha is the name of the Santal God.
Yes No
16.6 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY
Hunting and ‘food gathering’ societies can be divided into “easy” and “hard” hunters.
The easy hunters live almost completely by gathering fruits, vermin, and insects.
They live in temporary tenements of branches and leaves. Apart from the dog they
have no domestic animals. The hard hunters are more evolved and go for larger
animals. They use horses for travelling. Their sense of territory is much more definite.
They keep domestic animals and have secondary arts such as spinning, weaving and
pottery. In these societies we find that some form of complex centralised authority
has emerged. We will examine this aspect now. Diagram 2 shows the levels of
10
development of simple society.
PASTORAL B FURTHER DEVELOPMENT Stateless Societies
TOP AGRICULTURE
PASTORAL A DEVELOPED AGRICULTURE
EARLY AGRICULTURE
HARD HUNTERS
EASY HUNTERS
Diagram 2 : Levels of Development
We would like you to note three important facts. These are:

the anthropologists’ account and the information which comes from archaeology
are in close agreement.
there were no successive stages of pastoral and agricultural development.
These were simultaneous and in different directions of growth from the social
condition of the higher hunters.
it was only from the highest basis of settled and mixed agriculture that large
scale social systems, including state-formation, were able to grow.
That is to say stateless societies, with their hunting and herding can carry the
development of the social system to a point. They cannot go beyond this point. Let
us now consider briefly what emerges from these developments.
16.6.1 Emergence of Simple Form of Government in Society
First we find that there is the emergence of ‘government’ in simple form within each
community. In the easy hunters there is a very simple form of government but at the
top agricultural and pastoral levels settled government is established.
Secondly, there is a clear extension of settled government to embrace wider groupings.
In only twenty-five percent of easy hunters does “government” extend beyond the
primary community which is the family and kinship group. Almost eighty per cent
have proper government with an administrative machinery.
There are several interesting features to note. We find that chieftains usually possess
‘authority’ within the pattern of custom. This type of government also involves a
Council of Elders. All have to observe customary rules. It is called a government by
discussion.
The same development is clear in the organisation of law,. In the stateless societies,
kinship solves disputes. Some customary procedures of retaliation and retribution
such as ‘blood feud’ the ‘customary fight’ and so on as found in some African tribes
like the Nuer, exist. However in these forms of retribution the guilt of the individual
is not involved. There are also forms of compensation where retribution is still visited
upon the guilty kin group but punishment takes the form of restitution. This aspect
has been discussed earlier.
At the highest pastoral and agricultural levels systems of public justice are established.
This is regular with reference to attacks on the social system but sporadic in small- 11
Political Processes scale conflicts. In such cases customary procedures can be applied provided they
do not become socially distruptive. In more complex societies there is regular public
justice.
As a stateless society changes there is a marked movement from tribal concerns and
religious offences by corrective punishment towards claim and counter-claims of
restitutive punishment. Oath and ordeal are used less and less. The matrilineal
principle of descent predominates among the hunters and gatherers. While amongst
pastoralists the patrilineal principle of descent predominates.
16.6.2 Political Aspect of Religion in Simple Societies
The function of religion in the simpler societies is two fold: It serves ecological
functions, by giving men an interpretation of their relationship with nature. It indicates
to them how they should relate with it. Religion also serves social and political
functions. It binds men together, and gives meaning and legitimacy to authority. In
the higher pastoral and agricultural societies higher forms of authority systems appear.
These are the doctrines, rituals and worship.
Though morality is not directly linked with religion, the latter requires regulation of
wide areas of behaviour, including various do's and don’ts. In simple societies,
religion does not hold the individuals responsible for all their actions.
b) Compare your answers with those at the end of this unit.
1) What are the stages of stateless societies?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Easy hunters hunt big animals.
Yes No
3) What functions does religion serve in stateless societies?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
12
Stateless Societies
16.7 LET US SUM UP
We have seen that stateless societies are those which lack centralised power. There
is hardly any administrative machinery in them. There are no judicial institutions.
Sharp cleavages of wealth, rank and status are missing. These societies include the
Nuer and Tallensi, in Africa. They also cover Bhils, Oraons and Santals in India.
In such societies without government, what gives them law and order? We have
considered this in the preceding sections. However it is the segmentary lineage
system which controls political relations between different territorial segments. Kinship
in these societies is very significant in political organisation. This is due to the link
between territorial grouping and lineage grouping.
In such societies political office carries no economic privileges. Wealth can confer
status and help in acquiring political leadership.
This is because wealth itself accrues from superior status in stateless societies. It
was previously held that stateless societies came under the control of those with a
state. They were conquered in war and acquired a state. This theory has been
questioned and is generally not accepted now. Further there is no association, class,
or segment which dominates. It does not control the political system any more than
another group. Force when used is met with opposing force. Again the important
fact is coexistence: if one segment defeats another it does not try to establish political
control over it. Since there is no administrative support, it cannot do so. There is no
person or group with absolute authority. Thus stability is maintained by equilibrium
at every point of separation.
More than this, unity and cohesion come in these societies through common symbols.
These include myths, dogmas, persons, sacred places and so on. These are regarded
as final values in themselves.
Thus we can say that stateless societies have an internal cohesion system that is
strong and effective. They are ‘stateless’ but they do not miss out any component
that creates efficiency. These societies are, in fact, fully formed political units, and
must be treated as such.
16.8 KEY WORDS

Clan : A kin group with a common ancestor
Endogamy : A social practice that prescribes marriage within a specific group
Exogamy : A social practice that prescribes marriage outside a specific group
Kinship : A system of social ties based on matrimonial (i.e. affinal ties) and
system blood ties. (i.e. consanguinal ties)
Lineage : A segment of clan based on ancestral heritage in one line, either
father’s or mother’s
Matriarchal : A social system based on female domination and authority
Matrilineal : A social system where descent is traced through the mother
Patriarchal : A social system based on male domination and male authority
Patrilineal : A social system where descent is traced through the father
13
Sanction : Certain constraints prescribed by the society.
Political Processes
Evans-Pritchard, E.E., 1940. The Nuer.Oxford University Press: Oxford. (Chapter
IV).
Gluckman, Max. 1965. Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society. Basil Blackwell:
Oxford. (Chapters 3 and 4).
Vidyarthi, L.P. and Rai, B.K., 1985. The Tribal Culture of India (2nd Ed.). Concept:
Delhi. (Chapter 2, pp. 25 and Chapter 5, pp. 195-235).

PROGRESS
1) A stateless society has no rigid boundary. It has only oral traditions. Very
often a single person is the chief of the entire tribe. There is no rigid boundary
and economically these societies are primitive.
2) Yes
3) No
4) i) Archaeological record
ii) Literature produced by missionaries, travellers and administrators
iii) Monographs written by anthropologists
1) Stateless societies comprising a single ancestor divide or create fission in the
second or third generation for various purposes. They behave as opposed
units. However when under threat from other stateless societies they ‘fuse’
or join their forces.
2) i) Santal
ii) Oraon
iii) Bhil
3) Informal control is exercised during the evening meetings. The criticism is
very pungent and effective. Public disapproval is another such method for
informal control.
4) No
5) No
1) a) Early Agriculture
b) Developed Agriculture
c) Top Agriculture
2) No
3) Religion serves an ecological purpose. It also serves a social function and
14 binds people together.
Stateless Societies
15
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Social Sciences
ESO - 11
The Study of Society
Political Processes 5
UNIT 17 STATE IN TRADITIONAL
SOCIETIES
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Traditional Societies as Political Systems
17.3 The Nature and Scope of Political Authority
17.3.1 The Central Authority
17.3.2 Scope of Political Authority
17.3.2.1 Patrimonial Authority
17.3.2.2 Delegation and Distribution of Authority
17.3.2.3 Delegation of Authority as the Balance of Forces
17.4 The Basis of Legitimacy of Political Authority

17.4.1 Legitimacy in Primary States
17.4.2 Legitimacy in Conquest-type or ‘Secondary States’
17.4.3 Legitimacy Derived from Myths
17.4.4 Grounds on which People Accept Authority
17.5 Institutions to Prevent Abuse of Authority

17.6 Let Us Sum Up
17.7 Key Words
17.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Distinguish between traditional and modern societies in terms of their politics;
Discuss the nature and scope of centralised authority;
Describe the grounds on which authority is legitimised; and
List the institutions which prevent a ruler from abusing his powers.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit is concerned with centralised authority in societies which lie between the
two poles of stateless societies and modern states with government and executive.
These societies can be called traditional or pre-modem insofar as they lack developed
forms of political institutions which are mostly found in modem nation states. In
traditional or pre-modem societies, we find distinct and permanent political structures
which are clearly dominated by religion and to a lesser extent by kinship.
19
Political Processes After a brief description of various types of traditional societies, the unit discusses
the nature and scope of political authority in such states. We, then, look into the
bases upon which this authority rests and finally we also discuss restraints which are
usually exercised upon the political authority.
17.2 TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES AS POLITICAL

SYSTEMS
In contrast to modern democratic and totalitarian states on the one hand, and the
primitive stateless societies on the other, we have the whole range or pre-modern
societies with political traditions which have shaped the political thought and issues
of modern times. By acquiring an understanding of these traditions it is possible to
follow the complex political institutions of modern states, which are discussed in
Unit 18 of this Block.
17.3 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL

AUTHORITY
Taking the wide range of societies, as we have done within the category of traditional/
pre-modem, it is natural that the nature and scope of political authority in them will
vary to a large extent. The fact of centralisation of political authority is always a
matter of degree. For example, clan-lineage based polities may have only a symbolic
tribal chief, while politically centralised principalities and states with political heads
may exist independent of each other, or, form part of a feudal systems.
17.3.1 The Central Authority
Let us focus on the nature of the political authority, considered to be central.
i) Chief Authority as a Titular Head
By acknowledging a more centralised concentration of power to a chief, a tribal
group may achieve greater productivity without changing its technology. It may still
maintain its segmentary social structure and acquire a political head to express the
group’s unity and identity. Surajit Sinha (1987: xi), an anthropologist, holds that,
‘the chiefdom is a development of the tribal system to a higher level of integration.’
In terms of secular power:, a chief may or may not function as an executive head of
state. He may be only a symbol, representing the entire group. Political implications
of even a titular or symbolic authority are quite significant.
Such a ruler is often invested with a high degree of deference and is much feared by
his people. He is considered almost divine. Politically speaking, a symbolic head of
state is a potential source of becoming an authority with secular power. For example,
among the Shilluk of the Upper Nile, Evans-Pritchard (1962) observed, the Shilluk
king reigned but did not govern. In other words, he was only a titular head. Later,
under the impact of British rule, this institution of a symbolic head turned into a
secular authority, making political decisions.
ii) Secular Authority Endowed with Sacredness
Just as we noted the potential of a symbolic head being invested with real political
authority, the secular authority of a king is also generally endowed with ‘an aura of
sacredness’. Let us take the Indian Rajahs. In Surajit Sinha’s (1987: xv-xvi) words:
‘The Rajas not only ruled over their kingdoms on behalf of the presiding deities of
their lineages, they imbibed in their social being the sacredness of the Deity’. Almost
all over the world, most monarchies reflect this tendency. Myths of divine origin of
20 ruling families justify the ruler’s claim to exercise political authority.
iii) Necessity of Acquiring a King State in Traditional
Societies
The secular authority is ceremonially ritualised in order to raise its status above the
ordinary people. In some cases, the need to acquire a king of the appropriate status
is so strong that persons of royal origin are stolen and reared to become rulers.
Mahapatra (1987: 1-50) has shown that small-scale polities in ex-princely states of
Orissa felt so insecure in the face of pressures from larger kingdoms that they were
compelled to sponsor kingship. According to a legend, in 1200 A.D., Jyotibhanj of
the Bhanja dynasty, reigning over Khijjings mandala, was stolen from his palace by
the Bhuiyan tribals of Keonjhar in Orissa. This shows that they needed to acquire
the necessary aura of sacredness in their ruler. Successors of such kings, then, had
to enact the myth of origin through rituals and ceremonies.
iv) Territory and Demography in Relation to the Range of Political Authority
Both the territory and people are basic components of the nature of political authority.
The area, in which the residents acknowledge the power of a king, defines the range
of his political authority. The territorial aspect of a chief’s power demarcates the
geographical limits of his administrative and judicial measures. Except the political
organisation in stateless societies, all other polities are bound by a territorial reference.
In India, the forces of conquest and co-operation always mediated through the
principle of territory. The separate units within the state always tried to lay claims to
a tiny piece of territory in order to break away from the control of a paramount ruler.
Demography, or, the numerical size of a population, and not the special size, generally
introduces elements of complexity in a polity. However, Fortes and Evans-Pritchard
(1940: 7) warn us not to confuse size of population with density of population. Writing
about two African tribes, they observe: ‘It might be supposed that the dense permanent
settlements of the Tallensi would necessarily lead to the development of a centralised
form of government, whereas the wide dispersion of shifting villages among the Bemba
would be incompatible with centralised rule. The reverse is actually the case.
v) Economy and Centralisation of a Polity
Research findings on tribal politics and state systems in India point to an important
link between the level of surplus growth and development of a centralised polity.
Amalendu Guha (1987: 147-76) writes: ‘…in India, it was the use of the cattle-
driven plough that ensured a relatively large surplus and therefore, also a higher form
of political organisation. Larger the surplus, more developed was the state’.
On the other hand, research in Africa show that subsistence economy in most parts
of the country provided little scope for surplus growth. Fortes and Evans-Pritchard
(1940: 8) report : “Distinctions of rank, status or occupation operate independently
of differences of wealth”. In such societies, the political authority has economic
rights to tax, tribute and labour. In fact, through economic privileges the centralised
authority is able to maintain the political system.
Activity 1
Visit a local governing body, such as, the Municipal, Civil, Electrical, or a Panchayat
office (if you are in a village). Discuss the various aspects of administration with
one or two officers working there and write a report of a page on “Political /Civil
Authority and its Structure in My Area”. Discuss it with other learners at your
study centre.
17.3.2 Scope of Political Authority
The extent, to which a ruler exercises his authority over his people, defines the scope
of his political power. It is actually the scope rather than range of power that makes
a polity more or less centralised. 21
Political Processes Sometimes, the head of state command only respect and recognition of his subject.
In other cases, the ruler may also demand tribute or ritual acceptance of his authority
from subsidiary vassals. In feudatory states of Orissa in India, the territory controlled
by the king was surrounded by segmentary clan-lineage based units. These units
acted as vassals and participated in the main rituals and ceremonies of the central
kingdom. But besides this token acceptance of centralised authority, the extent of
the political authority power exercised on them was almost nil.
In order to find the scope of a central authority, it is necessary to find what aspects
of the people’s lives are controlled by the political power. If the individuals are free
to resort to force or violence, it is a clear indication of the minimal scope of the
central authority. On the other hand, a political head, if he is powerful enough, will
not allow the use of force. In other words, people cannot take the course of law in
their own hands.
Among the Shilluks of the Upper Nile, the king’s powers are minimal, as is clear
from the fact that blood feud occurs commonly among them and the king has no say
in its operations. On the other hand, in most feudal type of politics, homicide is
considered a punishable offence by the state.
17.3.2.1 Patrimonial Authority
Scope of a centralised authority can also be discussed in terms of it being diffuse or
specific. In many polities, the ruler’s authority is quite diffuse, covering almost all
aspects of his subject’s lives. Max Weber (1964) has described this form of authority
as patrimonial, which means that the scope of this kind of authority is not clearly
specified, rather it subsumes all kinds of protective measures and cares of his people
by the ruler. The ruler considers his subjects as his children and protects them.
Mahapatra (1987: 25) remarks: ‘The pata-rani or senior most queen was held in the
highest affection and solicitousness by the tribal people as their ‘mother’ and she
looked upon the tribesmen as her children’. Sometimes, even in modern context,
vestiges of these expectations are found on the part of both the ruler and the ruled.
17.3.2.2 Delegation and Distribution of Authority
In polities with wider scope of authority of the ruler, we also notice the mechanism
of delegation of authority. The ruler may seem to possess absolute power, but he
distributes it among others. This system gives us a pyramidal formation of authority,
i.e. the king on the top and successive grades of subordinate officials below. Each
person in the official hierarchy functions under the authority above him. We may
mention here the Meiteis of Manipur state, during the first phase of state formation in
18th century R.K. Saha (1987: 214-41) says: Under the kingship the services became
institutionalised under distinct categories, famdon (prestigious posts), lalup (non-
menial service) and loipot (menial service). We can clearly see the gradation of
function, performed by the officials. This delegation of power among the state
functionaries takes two forms:
a) Delegation of Authority among the Relatives of the Ruler
Quite often, the ruler selects men from among his kinsmen for higher posts. To take
again the example of the Meitei of Manipur State. R.K. Saha (1987: 272) reports
that the office bearers were recruited at all the three levels of prestigious posts from
the genealogically senior most persons. We may say that in such political systems,
governing becomes a kind of family affair. From Africa, we can give the example of
some Southern Bantu states, such as the Swazi, which follow this pattern (see
22 Kuper 1947).
b) Delegation of Authority among the Loyal Subjects State in Traditional
Societies
In many states, relatives of the ruler are considered as rivals and therefore
not trustworthy. They cannot be invited to share the ruler’s authority, lest they
conspire and usurp all of it. The distribution of power is then among the trusted
and loyal friends. Great value is placed on one’s personal loyalty to the ruler.
The loyalty is rewarded by the king in the form of a share in his authority. The fact
that power is not shared with kinsmen but with loyalists, does not preclude the
possibilities of subordinate chief becoming too powerful and eventually deposing the
ruler himself.
17.3.2.3 Delegation of Authority as the Balance of Forces
The power of the central authority is reinforced by the institutions of hereditary

succession to kingship, distribution of power to kinsmen, and supernatural sanctions
of king’s status. However, other institutions, such as king’s council, royal priest,
queen mother’s courts, impose checks on the king.
Once the power is distributed between the central authority and regional chiefs, the
balance mechanism begins to operate. If a ruler becomes autocratic in his ways,
subordinate chiefs may secede. On the other hand, if a subordinate chief becomes
too powerful the king may decide to remove him or suppress his power with the help
of other subordinate chiefs. In trying to keep all his vassals very much under his
control a paramount ruler may also set one against the other. Thus, we can see that
delegation of power to regional chiefs is not simply an administrative mechanism. It
is also concerned with the representation of various groups and interests in the
machinery of government. Or, in other words, we can say that there is always a
balance between authority and responsibility. Though abuse of power is noticeable
in the forms of constitutional arrangements in practice, in every political system the
balance of forces is recognised and instituted in theory. So also in traditional societies,
each centralised authority is subject to these forces of balancing mechanism which
characterise its nature and scope.

1) How do we define the scope of political authority? Use two lines for your
answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) Among whom does a king delegate his powers? Use two lines for your answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 23
Political Processes
17.4 THE BASIS OF LEGITIMACY OF POLITICAL
AUTHORITY
In discussing the question of the basis of political authority, we study the process of
state formation to see if the state developed as an endogenous growth or came into
existence as a result of an interaction with exogenous state systems. This kind of
inquiry provides us with a historical dimension. Ethnographic data at our disposal is
full of both types of state formations.
States endogenously come into being as a result of evolutionary process from within,
without outside influences. These are sometimes also called ‘primary states’.
Exogenous state systems are built by conquests. Or, their particular formations are
affected by systems from earlier periods or from outside their own territories.
As mentioned earlier, some tribal groups in Orissa, lacking the mechanisms of a
centralised authority, took the extreme step of stealing not the idea of kingship but
the king himself. Southall (1956) has described how, among the Alur people of
Western Uganda, centralised political authority was instituted by peaceful means
among uncentralised tribals.
17.4.1 Legitimacy in Primary States
A state based on endogenous evolutionary process reflects a kind of homogeneity
in society which is found to be lacking in states of conquest type. The process of
state formation among the Meitei of Manipur state, described by R.K. Saha (1987),
seems to be the result of inter-clan feuds within the tribal groups in Manipur valley.
This case can be given as an example of a primary state. The basis of legitimacy of
power in a primary state is rooted in its indigenous traditions. Political relations in
such a society are perceived in terms of common structural principle. It may be
unilineal kinship, or, it may be military and political groups of states, coming together
yet remaining independent in internal affairs.
17.4.2 Legitimacy in Conquest Type or ‘Secondary States’
The conquest type, also known as ‘secondary state’, emerges after smaller political
units are conquered by more powerful people. The conquest may be in the form of
an actual warfare. When the political institutions of neighbouring states influence the
process of state formation in an area, even without an actual conquest, a secondary
state is born.
Invariably, non-indigenous political institutions are superimposed on conquered
groups. In some cases, super imposition of foreign political traditions is quite
superficial, that is, the values and ideas behind it are not fully accepted by the
conquered people. Subsidiary principalities are therefore able to maintain older
polities along with the imposed political order.
However, in most cases, kinship-based community relationships of the peasant groups
(e.g. in Indian villages) come in sharp contrast to the feudal type political relations,
which are associated with the foreign government. In such a situation, the centralised
authority has only the legitimate power to collect taxes and carry out public works.
This then, is, the scene of subordinate units trying to break away at the first possible
opportunity. Any student of Indian history can see this process at work in the
development of political unity in India. Attempts to unite India as a political unit
were made from time to time by the Hindu empires, the Muslim dynasties and also
by the British colonial powers. During the entire span of Indian history, the control
24
authority was constantly challenged by smaller political entities. In fact, Wittfogel State in Traditional
Societies
(1957: 98) has shown that a political authority in Asiatic societies has to be coupled
with religious sanction in order to gain legitimacy. A king, advised by a priest (purohit)
was the Indian ideal of legitimate political authority.
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA AND CHANAKYA
State in Traditional Societies
Then, there is also the element of two levels of political organisation and process. At
the first level, lacking a basic political integration, the central authority acts, as a tax
collecting and public works body. At the second level, the unity of subsidiary states
is maintained according to the obligations of local community membership. In the
case of India, the caste system and religion remained as constant factors of unity of
the society, no matter how many types of polities were superimposed on its people.
Generally, even the people are conscious of the opposition and conflict between two
levels. These factors obviously influence the grounds on which people accept the
claims of political powers over their lives.
17.4.3 Legitimacy Derived from Myths
All political systems have stories about their origin. Such myths basically reflect the
attitudes and values of the society. Stories about the genesis of the system of
political authority can be considered as its ‘mythical charter’.
Generally, myths show the divine origin of the ruling line. The effect of such myth is
to legitimise the existing political authority. In a closed system of stratification, such
as the caste system, the political role of priests required religious validation. In
India, the law books were created by the priestly class and law in India has
always maintained a religious base.
Not only this, as Surajit Sinha (1987 : xi) observes, the ideology of caste system,
more than any other feature of Indian society, provided a broad frame of state
formation in the tribal regions. It can be said that in India and perhaps so also in
Byzatium, the Inca Empire and ancient Egypt, the political role the priestly class has
shaped political thought and religion. 25
Political Processes 17.4.4 Grounds on which People Accept Authority
Max Weber (1964) speaks of three bases upon which the authority can be accepted
by people. According to him, there are three types of authority: i) traditional, ii)
charismatic and iii) rational-legal. We find that in most of pre-modern political systems
the authority is accepted on traditional grounds. When people accept a ruler because
of his personal qualities of leadership and they are attracted to him because of his
personal charm, he may be described as having charismatic authority. Of course,
where such authority becomes institutionalised, it becomes an integral part of
traditional authority.
The last type of authority, which Weber called rational legal, is based on the assumption
that people recognise a need of being governed and submitting to a rule of law
Many myths and proverbs, in pre-literate societies, reflect this attitude of faith in
orderly life. In literate societies, usefulness of a government and its machinery’ is
discussed at length in their law books. Material components of political relations are
mostly expressed by people in terms of their utilitarian and practical functions.
17.5 INSTITUTIONS TO PREVENT ABUSE OF

AUTHORITY
Maintenance of kingship rests on a constant adherence to its constitutional principles.
A king’s powers may appear to be absolute but, in practice, their various components
function through different offices. The co-operation of all these parts enables the
king to govern his people. Thus, it is necessary to recognise that it is not easy for a
ruler to disregard certain social institutions which check and control the centralised
authority. This does not mean that there are no despots. In fact, history of many
political systems is full of such figures. In that sense, no constitution can really
prevent a ruler from becoming an oppressor. All the same, tendencies towards
despotism are checked by well-recognised mechanisms in most traditional societies.
Some of them are given below:
i) The transmission of power from one to the other ruler is ether by inheritance
according to patrilineal or matrilineal principles or election/ popular choice.
Both ascribed and achieved criteria may be combined when the subject selects
a particular son of the king as his successor. On the other hand, not following
the rules of proper behaviour may have quite tragic consequences.
J.B. Bhattacharjee (1987: 190) mentions in his article on Dimasa State
Formation in Cachar that Govindachandranarayan (1813-30) became
unpopular because he married the widow of his elder brother. This was
allowed by neither Hindu nor Dimasa rule in Cachar. That is why the ruler
was deposed and when the British reinstated him, he was assassinated in
1830 and the Dimasa rule came to an end in Cachar.
ii) Ceremonies of oath-taking and exhortations by the councillors to the new
king also act as guide-lines for proper conduct on the part of the new ruler.
For example, Busia (1951) describes how the Ashanti chief was exhorted by
his councillors at the time of his accession. In tribal societies, it is common for
councillors to reprimand the ruler and even fine him. Interestingly enough, in
pre-colonial Jaintia state in north-east India, ‘the role of a raja was much
despised in the eyes of the people. The office of the raja was viewed with
such disdain as a lowly office which no respectable person would occupy’
(Pakem 1987: 287).
iii) Lastly, the subject had the right to appeal against the subordinate officials.
26 Many a Muslim rulers have been known to keep a bell at the gates of their
palaces for any one to ring in order to get justice from the king.
State in Traditional
Activity 2 Societies
Do you know a folk tale where a despotic ruler was brought to his senses by
the people whom he ruled. If so, write down the story and its analysis and
share it with other students at your study centre. Focus on the political power
aspect of the story.
Having looked at mechanisms through which rulers were to be prevented from abusing
their powers, we need also to consider what happens when a ruler does not pay
attention to these social institutions and abuses his authority. Those who know the
story of Shaka, the Zulu ruler in South Africa, and his tyrannical rule, would also
know how popular disapproval of his rule by the people prompted his brother to
assassinate Shaka. To escape a tyrannical political authority, the following set of
institutions can be activated:
i) The people may decide to migrate to another area, outside the jurisdiction
of the existing ruler.
ii) The paramount ruler may depose his subordinate who has abused the power
delegated to him.
iii) The king may be made to feel scared of sorcery or assassination by disgruntled
people.
iv) Lastly, there may be a revolt against the intolerable government of a despot.
Such a revolt is generally in the form of a rebellion, in which the tyrant is
replaced by a just ruler. As no change is brought in the basic values of the
society, the revolt does not amount to revolution. It is simply reinstatement
of a lawful authority.
1) Define the primary and secondary state. Use three lines for your answer.
................................................................................................................
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2) Distinguish, in two lines, between rebellion and revolution.
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17.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed main aspects of political authority in traditional or pre-
modern societies. We looked at symbolic and secular aspects of centralised authority
and described its range and scope in terms of territory, demography and economy.
Then we discussed the grounds on which authority is accepted and finally listed
those institutions which restrain and prevent the political authority from abusing its
powers.
Viewed as historical forms of modern political institutions, these dimensions of state
in traditional societies throw light on the political processes in modern context. Today, 27
Political Processes our life is dominated by politicisation of social issues and in order to fully understand
the implications of this process, this unit will provide us with some categories to
systematise our information.
17.7 KEY WORDS

Blood feud : Hostility between two tribes/lineages with murderous
assaults in revenge for previous homicide
Clan : Group of people recognising common ancestry
Demography : Vital statistics, showing numerical condition of communities
Despot : Absolute ruler, tyrant, oppressor
Feudal : Polity based on relations of vassal and superior arising from
holding of lands in feud.
Homicide : Killing of a human being
Kingship : The institution of sovereign ruler
Legitimacy : Lawfulness
Lineage : Group of people with identifiable ancestors of independent
state
Segmentary Social : Social formation of many parts form a single unit
Structure
Titular Head : Holder of office without corresponding function
Vassals : Holder of land by feudal tenure

Beattie, J. 1964, Other Cultures: Aims and Methods and Achievements in Social
Anthropology. Cohen and West: London (Ch. 9, pp. 139-64)
Bottomore, T.B. 1972. Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature Vintage
Books: New York (Ch. 9 pp. 151-67).
Mair, L. 1985. An Introduction to Social Anthropology. (Second Edition and
Impression) Oxford University Press: New Delhi. (Chs. 7 and 8, pp. 109-138)

PROGRESS
1) The scope of political authority is defined by the extent to which it exercises
control over the lives of people.
2) A king delegates his powers among either his kinsmen or loyal subjects.
1) A primary state evolves from within, without outside influences. A secondary
state is built by conquests or is affected by political systems from outside.
2) In a rebellion, a tyrant ruler or authority is replaced by instituting a just and
lawful authority while in a revolution, basic values of a society are challenged
and sought to be changed.
28
UNIT 18 STATE IN MODERN SOCIETIES
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Modern Societies
18.3 Political System in Modern Societies
18.4 Elements of a Political System
18.4.1 Ideology
18.4.2 Structure and Oligarchy
18.5 Function of the Political System

18.5.1 Political Socialisation and Recruitment
18.5.2 Interest Articulation
18.5.2.1 Institutional Interest Groups
18.5.2.2 Associational Interest Groups
18.5.2.3 Non-associational Interest Groups
18.5.2.4 Anomic Interest Groups
18.5.3 Interest Aggregation
18.5.4 Political Communication
18.5.5 Government Functions
18.6 Political Processes

18.7 Basis of Legitimacy
18.7.1 Traditional and Charismatic Authority
18.7.2 Legal Rational Authority
18.7.3 Legitimacy of Modern Political System
18.8 Let Us Sum Up

18.9 Key Words
18.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit introduces you to the political processes of modern society and thereby
aims to:
describe a modern society;
explain political modernisation;
discuss the political systems of modern society; and
analyse the major components of a political system.
29
Political Processes
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The political system of a modern society is very complex one. A lucid description of
this system, indeed, requires coverage on a wide range of items pertaining to society
and polity. Here the unit describes a modern society and political system in society.
A political system incorporates a few important elements. While explaining these
elements of a political system the unit highlights the ideology, the structure and function,
the political processes and the basis of legitimacy of a political system. In discussing
the structure of a political system the unit explains various forms of the same, viz.
traditional oligarchies, totalitarian oligarchies, modernising oligarchies, tutelary
democracies, and political democracies. The major area of discussion on the function
of the political system has been that of political socialisation and recruitment, interest
articulation (institutional interest groups, associational interest groups, non-association
interest groups, anomic interest groups), interest aggregation, political communication
and the function of the government. The unit also covers traditional authority,
charismatic authority, legal rational authority and the legitimacy of modern political
systems. The unit, lastly, summarises the economic and social indicators of
modernisation and the elements of political system.
18.2 MODERN SOCIETIES

In this section we intend to familiarise you with the political system and political
process in modern societies. A modern society may be defined as one with a
comparatively high per capita income, high rate of literacy, urbanisation and
industrialisation, considerable geographical and social mobility, extensive and
penetrative mass-communication media and wide-spread participation of the citizens
in the social and political processes. Some scholars have included a few more items
to measure the level of modernisation. They are quality of life index, per capita
availability of doctors and hospital beds, road length, number of vehicles,
consumption of electricity etc.
Box 18.01
A developed Country like America uses about 14,000 K whr per capita of
electricity which is about 30 times more than the Indian average of 415 K whr
per capita. America also produces eight times more electricity i.e. 3235 billion
kilowatt hours; than India for a population that is about one-fourth of India’s.
(TOI, Aug. 16, 2003)
Based on the position which a country has achieved on the above items, one can
determine the extent of modernisation of the country. Using the same indices, one
can also prepare a ranked list of countries on the modern scale and tell whether one
country, for example, India, is more or less modern than another country, for instance,
Bangladesh.
The idea of modernisation has a profound appeal in the developing countries of the
world. Even traditional societies, which are against modernisation, for example
some of the Arab countries, have introduced elements of modernisation in different
areas. They have modernised their armies and started industrialisation in a big way.
Even in tribal societies, modern items of consumption and modern technologies of
agriculture have become popular. An important point to remember in the context of
modernisation is that one cannot hold up modernisation in one sector for a long time
when other sectors are getting modernised, except at a great strain to the social
30 system. For example, with the modernisation of Indian economy the traditional joint
family system has broken down in many parts of the country. Again, when State in Modern
Socieites
modernisation takes place in a society, its political set-up also is bound to get
modernised. For example, as an impact of modernisation popular movement began
in Nepal for the decentralisation of power. This movement challenged the traditional
hereditary authority of the King of Nepal. It however, ended with the formation of
Rastriya Panchayat, which handed over considerable power to the hand of peoples
representatives. As a matter of fact, the process of modernisation has influenced
political development in all societies. The state has been exposed to the influence of
modernisation and has found it a useful tool for effective transaction of business at
both internal and external levels.
18.3 POLITICAL SYSTEM IN MODERN SOCIETIES

The conventional approach to the study of polities was through the “State”. Politics
in this sense is a set of activities centering in the state. According to Max Weber, a
state is a human community which successfully claims, within a given territory, the
monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force. Hence politics means the striving to
share power or to influence the distribution of power either among states or among
groups within a state. However, this definition cannot adequately define political
process in societies which are apparently stateless or where a regime capturing
power through revolutionary means or a coup d’etat is still struggling for obtaining
legitimacy for its action and position. Political writers, therefore, prefer to use the
term “political system” instead of the term “state” to discuss the various agencies
and their relationships that were earlier studied under the blanket term politics. A
political system, in this sense, may be defined as a sub-system of the general social
system. Unlike other sub-systems in society, the political sub-system is characterised
by the monopoly of coercive power over citizens and organisations. The political
system can therefore force a citizen to behave in the general good. In the case of
such force the question some times arises whether this is legitimate or not. The
possession of coercive power by an individual or group over the entire societies, the
monopoly of power held by the state is in dispute and voluntary organisation pose a
challenge to the arbitrary and monopolistic use of power by the state.
A political system in this sense is a system with structures, functions and transactions,
which are directed towards the control of individuals and groups within an identifiable
and independent social system. It also covers the transactions between different
political systems.
A modern political system is characterised by a high degree of differentiation,
explicitness and functional specificity of governmental and non-governmental
structures. In a modern political system each of these sub-systems plays its assigned
role and acts as a mutually regulative mechanism. Since modernisation in different
societies shows different levels of attainment, this is reflected in the political
development of these societies also.
We have discussed several features of a modern society and the features of the
political system of a modern society. We hope you have read and understood this
section on the modern society and political system. You will know the level of your
understanding by doing the exercises given below.
Activity 1
Have you ever visited the Parliament when it is in session or watched the
proceedings on T.V. If so, write a page on “Indian Democracy”. Compare
your answer with those of other students at your study centre. You may also
discuss this topic with your Academic Counsellor. 31
Political Processes Check Your Progress 1
1) What is meant by a modern society? Use about five lines for your answer.
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2) What is meant by a political system? Use about five lines for your answer.
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3) A modern political system is characterised by a high degree
of differentiation. Yes No
4) The political system is not a sub-system of the society. Yes No.
18.4 ELEMENTS OF A POLITICAL SYSTEM

The political system of modem society can be best described in terms of (1) Ideology,
(2) Structure, (3) Function, (4) Process and (5) Basis of Legitimacy.
18.4.1 Ideology
Ideology may be defined as an integrated system of beliefs and symbols which have
an appeal to the followers beyond their rational and objective meaning. It has the
power to sway the sentiments of the followers. It is accepted as an article of faith by
the followers. A political system in general and political parties within that system, in
particular may have their own ideologies which will define to the members the nation’s
or parties’ goals and means. By implication, the followers not only accept the goals
without question, but become committed to the means and to adopt them’ with all
the risks involved. The degree of internalisation of an ideology and of its goals and
means, are dependent on political socialisation of individual and the party’s capacity
for disciplining its members. That is to say that the degree to which an ideology is
understood differs from individual to individual. The degree to which it is absorbed
depends on political exposure of the party members and the extent to which the
party considers it important.
Ideology may be based on political, economic or religious elements. Sometimes,
ethnic and cultural elements also may provide the necessary basis for ideology.
Democracy is a political ideology, communism is an economic ideology and theocracy
is a religious ideology. However, none of them can be considered as falling within a
single realm alone. Since politics, economics and religion overlap in many areas,
especially in the developing societies where the relationship is highly diffuse, a political
32 ideology will have economic and religious overtones. An ideology like democracy
will call for the welfare of all citizens (an economic ideology). In a multi-religious State in Modern
Socieites
society, it will also call for secularism. Communism is the best example of an ideology
which extends to political and other fields. Communism is against religion and, at
least in the early stages, calls for a totalitarian social structure. However, communism
as an ideology in its purest form, as visualised by Karl Marx, has not been found in
practice, anywhere in the world.
A characteristic feature of modern political process is the entry of non-political issues
and factors into the political arena in a big way. Thus ethnic, religious and regional
considerations have begun to weigh heavily in the ideology of many political parties
in the world including India. Religious fundamentalism also has formed a fertile soil
‘in many countries’. Another tendency for political parties is to follow extremist
methods in most cases terrorism, to achieve their goals. These are becoming more
and more the pattern in political process in many of the countries of the world.
The implication of the rise of fundamentalism as a political ideology and terrorism as
a means to achieve goals is the potential for destruction of the socio-political basis of
the state and unpredictability in the pattern of political modernisation. In India for
example, both religious fundamentalism and ethnic and linguistic movements for example
the developments in Punjab, Kashmir, Nagaland, Manipur and in North Bengal,
Karnataka and many parts of Assam which are often backed by terrorism, has
posed a serious threat to its democratic structure. Political elites belonging to dominant
ethnic groups in ethnically pluralistic societies are finding ethnicism as a convenient
ideology for achieving their political ambitions.
18.4.2 Structure and Oligarchy
Another component of a political system is its structure. The political structure of
society at any point of time will be influenced by prevailing dominant ideology, i.e.,
the ideology of the rulers or ruling party. In turn, this will be influenced by the social
structure, values and stage of development of a society. Actually structure and values
reinforce each other and influence development. Traditional social structure and
authoritarian values go together while modern social structure and democratic values
go hand in hand. Of course, permutations are possible and do exist in some societies
but they are exceptions. In many cases social structure and values have acted as
constraints to development. At least they have slowed down the tempo of
development. And dampened modernising efforts in some countries. From the
political point of view, they have moulded the political cultures of societies and the
orientation of their political elites. These, in turn, have influenced the political system
of societies. It should be kept in mind that when we speak of oligarchies no time bar
is evident. An oligarchy comprising a small power group may go on indefinitely.
Depending upon the political culture and orientations of political elites, political
structures have been divided into the following categories.
i) Traditional Oligarchies
ii) Totalitarian Oligarchies
iii) Modernising Oligarchies
iv) Tutelary Democracies
v) Political Democracies.
i) Traditional Oligarchies
This is usually monarchic and dynastic in form and is based on custom rather than
33
any constitution. The ruling elite and the bureaucracy are recruited on the basis of
Political Processes kinship or status. The goal of the ruler is stability and maintenance of the system. In
its own interest it may launch schemes of modernisation - like modernisation of the
army and bureaucracy and may even launch welfare programmes, but the primary
aim continues to be the perpetuation of the dynastic rule.
ii) Totalitarian Oligarchies
Here, there is a total penetration of the society by the polity. There is a high degree
of concentration of power in the hands of the ruling elite and a high tempo of social
mobilisation. The Chinese regime is a good example of this type of oligarchy.
iii) Modernising Oligarchies
These are characterised by the concentration of political functions in a ruling clique
and in the bureaucracy. There is an absence of competitive political parties.
Associations and interest groups exist with limited activity. The media are controlled
by the government. Generally the ruling elite is committed to development and
modernisation. Some of the Latin American states are examples of modernising
oligarchies.
iv) Tutelary Democracies
The dominant characteristic of this system is that it has accepted the formal norms of
democracy, viz., universal suffrage, freedom of association and speech and the
structural forms of democracy. But there is a concentration of power in the executive
and the bureaucracy. The legislature tends to be relatively powerless and the judiciary
is not always free from interference. The executive wants to establish democracy
only piecemeal. The assumption is that people are not ripe for the democratic
process, otherwise the political system may go out of gear and there will be instability.
Until the end of 1988 Pakistan was the best example of this system.
v) Political Democracies
These are systems which function with autonomous executives, legislatures and
judiciary. Political parties and the media are free and competitive. There are
autonomous interest groups and pressure groups. Examples are U.S.A. and U.K.
some of the developing countries such as India, are examples of political systems
which are moving in that direction.
As stated earlier, political structures in the five political systems will differ considerably.
It is only in political democracies that the three organs of the state, the executive, the
legislature and judiciary, have autonomy and political parties and the media are
relatively free and competitive. In the majority of cases, there will be a written
constitution which defines the powers and duties of these bodies. In all other political
systems, either there is no autonomy for these bodies, or when autonomy exists, it is
limited. The non-government structures also will have to fall in line with the wish of
the rulers.
1) Describe briefly the major elements of a political system. Use about five lines
for your answer.
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...............................................................................................................
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34
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2) Name the major categories of political structures: State in Modern
Socieites
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
3) In democracy the executive, legislature and the judiciary
are autonomous. Yes No
4) In traditional oligarchies the bureaucrats are selected on merit. Yes No
5) India, is an example of tutelary democracy. Yes No
18.5 FUNCTION OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

A political system usually performs some well defined functions. The major functions
of a political system may be categorised into two broad headings: The input functions
and the output functions.
Input functions:
i) Political Socialisation and recruitment
ii) Interest articulation
iii) Interest aggregation
iv) Political communication
Output functions:
v) Rule making
vi) Rule application
vii) rule adjudication
Actually, the first set of (input) functions is reflected in the non-governmental sub-
systems and the second set of (output) functions is reflected in the government sub-
systems.
18.5.1 Political Socialisation and Recruitment
Political socialisation is the process of inducting an individual in the political culture.
It is a part of general socialisation but with a different focus and objective. Unlike
general socialisation, political socialisation starts later in childhood. There are two
main components of political socialisation. One is the inculcation of general values
and norms regarding political behaviour and political matters and the other is the
induction of the individual into a particular political party and the imparting of the
party’s ideology and action programmes to her or him.
The first is done by the general educational system and by the other agencies of the
state. The second is done by different political parties. In democratic countries and
those which are experimenting with democratic models, the two components of
political socialisation are different. Whereas the first aims at some general
understanding of the what he should and should not do, the second may differ from
party to party both in goal and is means adopted. In oligarchies, the socialising 35
Political Processes agencies will be more or less, identical, if not the same. The ruling elite would take
up the political education of the masses in a manner that will perpetuate their (elite’s)
power and influence over the masses. This tendency of the ruling elite is in its own
interests. Thus the theory that is forwarded will show the ruling elite in a good light.
Another aspect of political socialisation is the socialisation that takes place
within the non-political sub-systems which make frequent inroads into polities.
These are ethnic, religious, linguistic and other particularistic associations and
organisations which play upon the inner feelings of members and enter or try to enter
politics in order to enforce their ideology. Actually, they are a threat to the smooth
political development of a society, but in so far as they are assuming importance all
over the world, they have to be reckoned with. This is more so in the developing
societies where they are being used by clever politicians to sway the sympathies of
the masses.
Political recruitment means recruitment into political areas and political roles. In a
modern political system, all citizens are involved in the political process and even
when they are not active workers of any political party, they are aware of the political
process to participate in it passively. In the oligarchic type of political systems,
elections may be only a ritual even so the citizen will have to undergo the procedures
of election with all the political overtones involved. While all persons in a society are
thus politically socialised, the actual recruitment to political roles and authorities will
be limited to only those who qualify. This is inevitable, as general socialisation itself
follows such patterns.
36 Elections
The social base for entrants into the political file could be broad or narrow. In the State in Modern
Socieites
Arab countries, the base is narrow, patriarchic and oligarchic, whereas in India it is
broad-based and competitive. In the first category, leaders are recruited from social
groups which have been historically predominant (wealthy and aristocratic families
or clans or classes). Other categories such as civil servants, army officers and
professional and business groups may come from the urban educated class. In the
patriarchal societies, professional and business elites and other modern groups are
largely non-participant but their increase which follows modernisation is bound to
make them competitors in the political arena. Social change is bound to enable
these groups to come to the forefront, eclipsing the traditional elements.
Broad-based societies are characterised by competition in the political arena but it is
mostly the urban, educated middle-class persons, who are increasingly attracted to
the catchment area of politics and it is they who are potential material for recuritment
by political parties. Social mobility which is a characteristic of competition and
which is a part of social change is bound to upset the balance, so that it is possible
for non-middle-class persons to be inducted into politics.
18.5.2 Interest Articulation
Interest articulation means the expression of interest in a political system, for the
attention of the government. In all political systems, the needs and problems of the
citizens are, in the final analysis, to be taken care of by the state. Due to the complex
and interdependent nature of modern societies, even small problems of individuals,
may have a bearing beyond the area of their occurrence, and may require solutions
by an agency located elsewhere. Many of the problems of an individual are beyond
his control and need the help of the state for their solution. While the problems may
not be political, their solution would require political (state) action. However, for a
need to be taken care of, it has to be expressed. Usually since it is difficult to get
individual demands heard or attended to by decision-making agencies, they are
collectively expressed; persons who have the same problems join together. Depending
upon the mode of their articulation, they can be divided into the following institutional
interest groups, associational interest groups, non-associational interest groups and
economic groups.
18.5.2.1 Institutional Interest Groups
These are duly constituted, stable and institutionalised structures such as the Church,
the bureaucracy, the army and the legislature. Though their official functions are
clearly spelled out, they, or, an active group among them. may take up the cause of
reform or social justice, and use the formal structure for airing their views, even
though this is not in the permitted categories of functions. In many developing countries,
the elite among the bureaucracy or army may espouse the cause of the underdog or
the poor and the down-trodden.
18.5.2.2 Associational Interest Groups
Examples of these are trade unions, associations of managers, businessmen and
traders and various agencies organised for non-economic activities such as ethnic,
cultural and religious groups or civic groups, youth organisations etc. They will have
their own established procedures for formulation of interests and demands, and further
transmission of these demands to other political structures such as political parties,
legislatures, bureaucracies, etc. In most of the developing countries, many of these
associations will have political leanings and some of them, like trade unions and
youth organisations, may actually be front organisations of political parties. However,
the special feature of these associations or organisations is that they have established
goals and means. 37
Political Processes 18.5.2.3 Non-associational Interest Groups
These are groups that are not formally established, but are nonetheless important
due to their caste or religious or family positions. An informal delegation may be
formed to meet the official or minister concerned, about some problem, for example,
the mode of collection of a certain levy or alterations of a government rule, etc. It is
not necessary that the interest is articulated through a delegation. It is possible that in
a formal or informal get-together, the spokesmen of a group could air its grievances
before the official. In any case the occasion serves the purposes of articulation of
the demand.
18.5.2.4 Anomic Interest Groups
These are groups that are spontaneously formed and may be relatively unstable and
short-lived, such as in a riot or demonstration. Here we do not include the violent
political demonstrations .and show of strength at rallies and route marches of political
parties and their front organisation. We have in mind groups that are formed ad hoc
and that may find other forms of articulation ineffective. Sometimes they will remain
stable for a relatively long period, in which case, they will become associations.
18.5.3 Interest Aggregation
Aggregation is the sorting out and combination of the demands articulated by the
different interest groups. Aggregation may be achieved by means of the formulation
of general policies in. which interests are combined, accommodated or otherwise
taken account of. This could be done by political parties or by the ruling elite or by
the government itself. It is also possible that the interest articulation agencies
themselves could aggregate these interests and present them to those in charge of
policy formulation. It can be exemplified that issues pertaining to the lower status of
women in the society were articulated by the women’s organisations, and other
associations they pressurised the government to formulate policies on women’s
development. The government, however, realising the urgency of the issue formulated
the National Perspective Plan for Women’s Development. In societies where political
functions are not so clearly divided, the functions of articulation and aggregation will
generally be combined. This is because tasks have not been sufficiently specialised.
As political functions develop, aggregations and articulation functions, become
divided. In modem societies, associations at the national level aggregated the demands
of the local units, and present them to the authoritative body for consideration.
Here, these apex bodies also act as an interest articulation as well as interest
aggregation only. However, it has to be remembered that the two functions are
different. The first is the expression of interest while the second is the combination
of different interests in an implementable form.
Actually, the aggregative functions could be performed by other systems within the
polity. Thus the institutions and associations could, articulate their demands, and
put them in an organised form and present them to the political system. They even
take up the demands of individuals and groups and incorporate them in their
manifestos. Alternatively, in such a political system. Associations which have
sympathies with one or the other or the political parties would seek the latter’s help
in aggregating their demands for action.
This is more so if the associations find it difficult to get their demands accepted by
the government. We have many such examples in our own country. Many apparently
independent trade unions affiliate themselves with the labour fronts of the political
party in power, some trade unions which have their own political learning also would
38 go over to the ruling party. Interest aggregation is an important function in the
political system. It enables the different and, in many cases conflicting, demands of State in Modern
Socieites
groups to be sorted out and consolidated into a single set or different sets of demands
which are pragmatic if the political authority takes them up seriously. In multi-party
systems where there is competition between parties it serves the purpose of all
important demands being taken care of.
In a political system where there is one dominant party and opposing small parties,
interest aggregation is a difficult task. There will be trouble if there is a strong traditional
element in the party, for this element is sure to oppose all modernisation efforts. The
same would be the case even if the traditional elements were weak or non-existent
but heterogeneity among the people is strong. Thus, a society composing of a
population which is divided on ethnic, linguistic and communal lines, poses a big
problem for the dominant political party to aggregate the interests of groups. In that
case, party cohesion is in trouble. The situation could result in splits within the party
and in the formation for new parties. Even then, this would not achieve better
aggregation of interests. On the other hand, it would strengthen the hands of another
subsystem (e.g. bureaucracy) to which the interest groups will turn for help.
18.5.4 Political Communication
Communication is the life-blood of any social system. It is through communication

that interpersonal and elite mass relationships are maintained. In a political system
this is equally important since all the political functions-socialisation, recruitment,
articulation, aggregation and the entire rule-making, enforcement and adjudication
process rest on it. Information, which is an essential input in any rational action, is
supplied through communication. Again, it is the means of communications that
makes the political system work efficiently and in a responsible manner.
An autonomous, neutral and thoroughly penetrative communication system is essential

to the development and maintenance of an active and effective electorate and
citizenship. This is possible only in a mature democracy. In the developing countries
the government will be controlling many of the means of communication, especially
the electronic media (radio and television). In these countries, the press will be
controlled by interest groups so the information coming out of it will be selective and
biased. Low literacy level and poor means of transport will restrict the spread of the
newspapers and other print media while poverty will restrict the spread of
communication through the radio and television. In many modern political systems,
political parties run their own newspapers to educate and inform their followers but
the information that flows through them will be selective.
Even in a modern society where there is widespread penetration of the mass-

communication media, the role of person-to-person communication is very important.
In the developing societies, opinion makers and elites assume great prominence in
screening the available information and passing the desired one to other followers.
This is one reason where government seeks the support of the opinion leaders to
help the Family Welfare Programmes of the Government in India. Political parties in
developing countries have used the person-to-person communication in reaching
the rural masses who are illiterate and who are beyond the pale of the mass media.
In the modern societies, the political information that flows from the government to
the people is much larger in volume than that flowing from the citizen to the government.
The government therefore makes extensive use of the communication network-be it
the electronic media controlled by government, or newspapers, or official
communications sent as circulars and orders through the bureaucracy. 39
Political Processes 18.5.5 Government Functions
Under this head there are three items which cover all the functions of modern
governments. They are: rule making, rule application and rule adjudication.
A characteristic of modern political systems is the increasing tendency to specialise
government functions. Thus, rule making is done mostly by the legislature and party
by the executive, while rule enforcement is done by the executive with the help of the
bureaucracy. Rule adjudication is done by the judiciary which, in modernised
countries, is free from the executive and legislature. However, there are two factors
which contribute to a difference in the situation. In most modernising societies, there
is a wide difference between the formal and informal arrangements in the government
functions. While the formal arrangement is embodied in the Constitution of the
country, this is seldom observed in actual practice. This, in turn, is because of the
political culture and the type of government that a country may have.
Activity 1
Do you think mass media in India, which includes radio, T.V., Newspapers, etc.
are effective in educating the masses in the political process of voting and electing
a suitable Government? Write a report of two pages on “The Role of Mass
Media in Spread of Political Education in India.” Share your report with other
learners and your Academic Counsellor at your study centre.

1) Describe briefly the major functions of a political system. Use about five lines
for your answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Name the major interest groups of a political system.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
3) Political socialisation is the process of induction of individual
in the political system of the society. Yes No
4) Political socialisation starts as soon as a child is born. Yes No
5) Describe briefly the functions of the government.
40
State in Modern
18.6 POLITICAL PROCESSES Socieites
The transactions that take place within a political system and between political systems
may be called political processes. These include interactions between individuals
and groups within the polity, viz., the executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy,
political parties, the communication media and other agencies within a state. Interest
groups whose activities influence political decisions also form part of the political
system. Depending on the type of political structure, these processes would differ.
In democracies, for example, the executive will be responsible to the legislature,
law-making will be the responsibility of the legislature and the courts will function
without interference from the executive or the ruling group. The political parties and
the mass media will act with great freedom and could penetrate deep into the society.
On the other hand, in a controlled or guided democracy, the freedom that exists
under full democracies will not be available. The different agencies may be existing
but will be controlled by and be sub-servient to, the whims of the ruling elite or, more
often, a single ruler. The three types of oligarchies also will reflect different political
processes. In a totalitarian state, for example, there will not be much difference
between executive, legislative and judicial functions. All merge together in the hands
of the ruling group or individual.
18.7 BASIS OF LEGITIMACY

Use of coercive power is the distinguishing mark of the state. This means that the
state possesses the power to coerce individuals and organisations under its jurisdiction
to accept its authority and to impose all kinds of punishments, including imprisonment
and death, on erring members. The individuals and organisations will have to submit
to the authority of the state. This makes the state the final authority. It can authorise
any punishment on the members. It is the final collective authority. Otherwise the
citizens will not feel obliged to submit themselves legally or even morally to their
authority. All holders of power of this kind therefore are anxious to legitimatise their
power.
According to Max Weber there are three ways of legitimising authority. They are
(1) Traditional, (2) Charismatic and (3) Legal-rational ways.
18.7.1 Traditional and Charismatic Authority
Traditional Authority: This authority is sanctioned by custom and practice. The
authority was there from the very beginning and nobody has challenged it so far. The
authority of the parents over children and of kings over subjects has rested on such
claim.
Charismatic Authority: This is derived from charisma, that is, the extraordinary power
of some of the leaders to influence their followers. According to these followers,
their leader possesses certain powers which will enable him or her to take them out
of a critical situation or give them what they want. They consider their leader as a
saviour. The extra-ordinary power attributed to a leader or claimed by him/her may
be-real or imaginary, but for the followers it is real. The followers submit to all her/
his authority without questioning. Mahatma Gandhi and Napolean were charismatic
political leaders.
Activity 2
List out at least five charismatic leaders of India and write an essay on “Charisma
as a basis of Social Change.” Discuss your answer with your peer group at your
study centre. 41
Political Processes 18.7.2 Legal Rational Authority
Legal rational authority is the authority based on law. The person who uses authority
is duly appointed as per rules to the office concerned and this entitles him to exercise
all the authority vested in that office. The President or Prime Minister of a State who
comes to power through the constitutionally established methods is the legitimate
ruler of the country and the subjects consider him or her to be legitimate ruler. Since
the rules and regulations are based on reason, they are rational. In fact, law is
considered to be an embodiment of reason.
18.7.3 Legitimacy of Modern Political System
Modern political system work on the basis of legal rational authority. All the parts
within the system function on the basis of clearly established rules and the persons
holding office are entitled to discharge all the functions that are assigned to their
offices. Those affected by their action are legally bound to obey them. If anybody
has any complaint or grievance that an official has acted arbitrarily or beyond the
power vested in his office, there are again, legal and constitutional remedies for him
i.e., he can go to a court. But if the court also decrees that the official concerned is
right, he has to accept the decision.
In the modern political system, there are instances of persons coming to power
through revolutions or coup d’ etats. Such methods are not permitted by law and
the persons who come to office by using these methods are not considered legitimate
rulers. These persons, therefore, are under increasing anxiety to legitimise their
position. They may either claim themselves to be saviours (invocation to charisma)
or if this is not convincing to people, they will offer to stand for election so as to
come to power through legitimate means. In the long run, none of these leaders feel
secure without giving some cloak of legitimacy to their claim to hold power.
1) Describe briefly the basis of legitimatising authority. Use about five lines.
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2) Describe the basis of legitimacy of a modern political system. Use about five
lines
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...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
42
3) In modern democracies executive is responsible to the State in Modern
Socieites
legislature. Yes No
4) Charismatic authority of a leader is derived from traditional
rules and regulations. Yes No
5) The legal-rational authority is based on the law. Yes No
18.8 LET US SUM UP

A modern society is characterised by a comparatively high per capita income, and a
high rate of literacy. It has high rates of urbanisation, industrialisation, geographic
and social mobility. It also uses mass communications and its citizens actively
participate in the social and political processes. The political set-up of a modern
society gets modernised as modernisation takes place in society.
The political system is a sub-system of the social system. A modern political system
is characterised by a high degree of differentiation, effectiveness and functional
specificity of government and non-government structures.
A political system possesses five elements viz ideology, structure, function, process
and the basis of legitimacy. Ideology defines a political system’s goals and means.
The political structure of a society is also influenced by the prevailing ideology. However
depending upon the political culture the political system of a society may have any of
the following forms: traditional oligarchy, modernising oligarchies, tutelary democracies,
and political democracies.
A political system is to perform certain functions for the maintenance of the systems.
The major functions of a political system are political socialisation and recruitment,
interest articulation, interest aggregation, political communication, rule making, rule
application and rule adjustment.
Political processes that emerge out of the interaction between and within the political
system is an important element of a political system. Depending upon the types of
political structures these processes indeed differ.
There are three distinctive ways of legitimatising political authority. These are: i)
traditional ii) charismatic and iii) rational-legal.
A modern political system is based on a rational-legal authority. Here people hold

office of the government and discharge all of their functions based on the established
rules and laws.
18.9 KEY WORDS

Anomic : A social condition without any rules of law.
Authority : One’s legitimised capacity to impose his or her influence on
others. The legitimacy can be derived from traditional, rational-
legal and charismatic basis.
Elite : People who have excelled themselves in the field of their activity:
social, political, economic, religious, etc.
Coup d’ etat : A regime capturing power through extra legal military means.
43
The capturing of power may or may not be violent.
Political Processes Charisma : An extra-ordinary power of some leaders to influence
followers.
Interest group : Groups formed especially for the attainment of certain common
interests of its members.
Ideologies : A system of beliefs and symbols which have an appeal to the
followers.
Modernisation : A process of achieving the composite features of a modernised
nation through high per capita income, high rate of literacy,
urbanisation, industrialisation, social mobility, extensive
penetration of mass communication, and wide-spread
participation of the citizen in the social and political processes
etc.
Power : One’s capacity to impose his/her influence on others.
Structure : Network of relationships between the individuals, groups,
institutions or organisations.

Kornblum, William, 1988. Sociology in a Changing World. Holt, Renehant and
Winston Inc. New York (Ch. 16)
Macionis, John J. 1987, Sociology, Prentice Hall: Inc. New Jersey. (Ch. 16 and
17)

PROGRESS
1) A modern society may be defined as one with comparatively high per-capita
income. It has a high rate of literacy, urbanisation, industrialisation, geographical
and social mobility. It also has extensive mass-communication and wide-
spread participation of the citizens in the social and political processes.
2) A political system is a sub-system of the social system and is characterised by
the monopoly of coercive power over citizens and organisations. A political
system is directed towards the control of individuals and groups within an
identifiable and independent social system.
3) Yes
4) No
1) The principle elements of a political system are: i) ideology, ii) the structure,
iii) function, iv) the process and (v) the basis of legitimacy. These elements,
have their coherent meanings specific to a particular political system.
2) a) Traditional Oligarchies:
b) Totalitarian Oligarchies:
44
c) Modernising Oligarchies: State in Modern
Socieites
d) Tutelary Democracies: and

e) Political Democracies.
3) Yes
4) No
5) No
1) The vital functions performed by a political system may be enlisted as follows:
political socialisation and recruitment, interest articulation, interest aggregation,
political communication, rule making, rule application and rule adjustment.
2) a) Institutional Interest groups.
b) Associational Interest groups.
c) Non-associational Interest groups and
d) Anomic Interest groups.
3) Yes
4) No
5) Rule-making rule-enforcement and rule-adjudication are the major functions
of government. For rule-making there is legislature, while rule enforcement
and rule adjudication are looked after by the executive and the judiciary.
1) There are three main bases of legitimatising authority: Traditional basis,
charismatic basis and rational legal basis. The traditional basis is sanctioned
by the traditional customs and practices of a society. The charismatic basis by
the extraordinary quality of the leadership and rational legal by the law of the
land.
2) A modern political system works on the basis of rational legal authority. On
the basis of the established rules all the persons in the government office
discharge their duties. The Indian political system works on the basis of rational
legal authority.
3) Yes
4) No
5) Yes
45
Political Processes
UNIT 19 STATE AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS
Structure
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 The State
19.2.1 Population
19.2.2 Territory
19.2.3 Government
19.2.4 Sovereignty
19.3 State and the Government

19.4 State and Society
19.5 State and other Associations
19.6 State and the Nation
19.7 Institutions Under the Political System
19.7.1 The Government Organisation
19.7.1.1 The Legislature
19.7.1.2 The Executive
19.7.1.3 The Judiciary
19.7.1.4 The Bureaucracy
19.7.2 The Non-Government Agencies
19.7.2.1 Political Parties
19.7.2.2 Interest Groups
19.7.2.3 The Press
19.8 The Individual and the State

19.9 Democracy and Individual
19.10 Let Us Sum Up
19.11 Key Words
19.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit introduces you to the state and other institutions of the society and specifically
aims to:
describe a state;
explain the interrelationships between the state and other organisation of the
society;
discuss the major institutions of a political system; and
46 highlight the position of individual in the state and democracy.
State and other
19.1 INTRODUCTION Institutions
In this unit we shall describe the state and other institutions of the political system.
The institutions discussed here are the government institutions, that is, the executive,
legislature, judiciary and bureaucracy and the non-governmental institutions, that is,
political parties, interest groups and the press. The press is included as part of the
political system because of the unique role it plays in influencing the other elements
of the political system. The role of the individual in the state and in the democratic
system is also given.
19.2 THE STATE

The term “political system” has been preferred by political sociologists instead of
the conventional term “state” in order to accommodate several sub-systems that do
not form a direct part of the state in the strict sense of the term. However, it is
important to recognise the supremacy of the state, in an analysis of political system,
as the state alone possesses coercive power in society. The term state has a different
meaning in political science from the one given to it in ordinary parlance. In common
talk, the term state is used for a variety of things. Thus we speak of Uttar Pradesh
as a state, we speak of “state support”, etc., we have in mind the word government
instead of the word “state”. Political scientists do not agree on a common definition
for the term “state”. We may therefore give a few definitions that bring out all the
attributes of the state.
Greek philosophers have viewed the state as a natural and necessary institution
coming out of the needs of human beings as a political animal. Marxists have viewed
the state as an instrument of exploitation in the hands of the ruling class. Sociologists
have defined the state as an association which legally maintains social order within a
community. The state has also been viewed as society, divided into government and
subjects, claiming, within the allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other
institutions. Some political scientists maintain that the state is the people organised
for law within a given territory.
The marks of an independent state are that the community constituting it is
permanently established for a political end, that it possesses a defined territory, and
that it is independent of external control. Taking all the accepted elements of the
state, the state could be defined as a community of persons, more or less in number,
permanently occupying a fixed portion of territory, independent of external control
and possessing an organised government to which the vast majority of people render
obedience.
From the above definitions certain essential properties of the state emerge, viz., (i) a
population, (ii) a territory, (iii) a government and iv) sovereignty. We may briefly
examine these attributes.
19.2.1 Population
The state arises out of the gregarious instinct of human beings combined with his or
her political instinct. The state comes into existence originating in the bare needs of
life, and continues in existence for the sake of a good life. Here people are basic to
the state. Without people, no state can exist. However, one single family or a group
of families does not make a state. There should be a viable number of people in a
state. China with over 100 crores of people and Maldives with a little over one
lakh of people are both states. States with large populations have certain political
advantage over states with very small populations. 47
Political Processes 19.2.2 Territory
Some writers feel that territory is not an indispensable attribute of a state. They say
that nomadic people have political arrangements but they have to move from place
to place in search of food. As such they cannot afford to have a fixed territory.
However, the widely accepted view is that a state should have a fixed territory, the
boundaries of which can be identified. There is no state at present which has no
proper territory and no mechanism to enforce authority over citizens. Such a state
cannot carry on relationship with other nations.
There is also another need for the state to have its territory. All states require
revenue which will not be forthcoming. The economic base is provided by the land
(including water) under the authority of the state. The state can establish authority
over its subjects only if they live in a territory. Territory is very important because it
identifies a certain population within it. As such it provides physical limits. It is quite
evident that the Government of India cannot have any control over citizens staying
outside its territory except with the help of the state of their residence. Territory is
therefore a pre-requisite. Again, as in the case of population, there cannot be any
rule regarding the minimum area required for a state. There are states like the Soviet
Union with an area of 12.4 million sq. km. And there are small states such as Maldives
with an area of only some hundred square kilometres.
An argument is sometimes advanced that small states are more conducive to

democracy than big states. The abode of direct democracy, Switzerland, is cited as
an example. But with rapid developments in the means of transport and
communication, it has been possible to make democratic systems of government
work efficiently in bigger states. At the same time, states with large territories have
the advantage of mobilising huge natural resources which small states do not have,
especially when resources dry over time.
19.2.3 Government
As stated earlier, there is a confusion in common language between the state and
government. Actually the government is the agency of the state, and exists for
carrying out the will of the state. Without a government a state cannot function. As
a matter of fact, the very justification for a state is that it provides people with a
machinery for orderly life. The state does this through a government. A state cannot
be conceived of without a government.
19.2.4 Sovereignty
The word sovereignty means ultimate power. The distinguishing character of a state
is the monopoly of coercive power over all individuals and institutions within its
territory. No one can question this power of the state. But sovereignty is not
confined to the area within the state. It extends to the relationship with other sovereign
states. No state has power to impose restriction on another state and this is
recognised by international law. Indeed, all writers on the state agree that sovereignty
is the outstanding characteristic of a state.
From the foregoing discussion it is evident that in order to be called a state, the
institution should have all the four attributes referred to above. If it misses any of
them, it ceases to be a state.
It is necessary at this point to give a few clarifications which are related to the state.
These are given in sub-sections 3 to 6 below.
48
We have discussed several features of the state. We hope you have read and State and other
Institutions
understood this section. You will know the levels of your understanding by doing the
exercises given below:
Activity 1
“Is India a state or a Nation” write an essay of one page on this topic. You can
take the help of other books or articles, if possible. Compare your essay with
those of other learners at your study centre, and discuss the topic with your
Academic Counseller.

1) What are the essential attributes of a state? Use five lines for your answer.
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2) Is sovereignty an essential criterion of a state? Give reasons for your answer.
Use about five lines for your answer.
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3) Uttar Pradesh is a State with all the attributes of an
independent State. Yes No
4) A government has control over the population even
outside the territory. Yes No
19.3 STATE AND THE GOVERNMENT

In everyday language, the terms state and government are often used interchangeably.
But they are, by no means, the same. Government can exist independent of the state
as in the so called stateless societies. Historically the family preceded the state. But
while a government can exist without a state, a state cannot exist without a government.
Government, as we have seen earlier is an element of the state. It is created to
achieve the goal of the state. Without government, a population would be a mass of
incoherent, unorganised anarchic people with no means of collective action.
Government is an instrument of the state to carry out its will. For this purpose it is
vested with sovereignty. Government can take different forms such as democratic,
totalitarian etc., and can have different goals such as communism, socialism,
capitalism, welfare ideology, etc. 49
Political Processes The difference between the state and the government may now be summarised.
i) The state is an abstraction, but the government is a concrete element of the
state.
ii) The state is a supreme body, but the government is an element of the state.
iii) The state is more or less permanent, whereas the government’s authority is
derived and limited by the terms of the Constitution. Sovereignty is an attribute
of the state and not of the government.
19.4 STATE AND SOCIETY

The state is the agency which performs the political function in society and as such is
a sub-system of the society. The political function is different from the functions
performed by other agencies in a society but is functionally integrated with those
functions. Thus, while the society is concerned with the functions of procuring food
and meeting other economic needs, related integration needs, and security and related
political needs, the state is invested with ensuring the satisfaction of all these needs in
a smooth and continuous manner. The state does this by using the coercive power
vested in it. This coercive power, further, enables the state to ensure that all individual,
institution, associations and agencies within its territory, perform their appropriate
roles. Besides this the state has also to protect the citizens from external interference.
The state has also to pursue its interests in the international field. For this, the state
is endowed with the additional attribute, the sovereignty, which the society does not
have. Indeed, it is this attribute that differentiates the state from the society and it is
this that enables the state to rule over the members of the society. It is possible that
the territorial boundary and population of a state may be coterminous with the territory
and population of the society as in many of the countries of the world (e.g. England
and France).
19.5 STATE AND OTHER ASSOCIATIONS

There are other associations which perform important roles within the state. But for
them, the citizens will be denied many things that enrich their life. While they are
important, each in its own way, the overriding power of the state enables it to control
and regulate them and even to dissolve them at will. However, in some states the
associations have become so strong that they are able, to put a break on the state’s
arbitrary use of power. These associations argue that the state is only one among
them. Though they are willing to grant it the primacy of place. This argument is
called Political Pluralism. In countries such as U.K. and U.S.A. where democracy
has reached some level of maturity, pluralism has become a very strong challenge to
the state’s arbitrary use of power. Because of the threat from these associations,
many states with oligarchic forms of government do not encourage the growth of
associations, especially if they develop into interest groups. However, it is admitted,
even by pluralists, that the state has, and should have, the ultimate and coercive
power which alone will, in the last analysis, enable the associations to function properly
and settle disputes among them. In the days of multi-national organisations, the
need for the state’s help in pursuing their activities abroad is more strongly felt.
19.6 STATE AND THE NATION

There is a difference between the state and nation. The word nation is derived from
50
the Latin word nation which means “born”. This means that a nation is a people
descended from a common stock. The ethnic attribute of nation is seen in most of State and other
Institutions
the definitions of nation. The nation has been defined as a population of an ethnic
unity, inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity. By ethnic unity, we mean a population
having a common custom and a common consciousness of rights and wrongs. Actually
the ties that bind people together into a nation are more psychological and spiritual
than ethnic, linguistic or religious. A nation is the people’s consciousness of
unity. Once this consciousness is achieved, ethnic difference lose their importance.
Switzerland is a good example. It is inhabited by three ethnic groups.
We may now examine the distinction between state and nation. The theory of one-
nation-one state, or the creation of states on the basis of self-determination, became
practical politics after World War I. New nation-states were created and the term
nation and state began to be accepted as synonymous. Even now we hear and read
of countries being described as nations when the word ‘states’ should have been
more appropriate. The United Nations Organisation (UNO) is a union of sovereign
states and not of nations. The state is different from the nation in the following respects.
i) The state is a people organised for law within a definite territory, whereas a
nation is a people psychologically bound together..
ii) Statehood is objective, nationhood is subjective.
iii) Statehood is an obligation enforceable by law, whereas nationhood is a
condition of the mind, a spiritual possession.
iv) A state may consist of one nation (Rumania, Albania, France) or different
nations, (India, Canada). For the same reason, a nation may be split into two
or more states (North and South Korea, People’s Republic of China and
Republic of China).
Related to the word nation are two other words, nationality, and nationalism.
Nationality is a spiritual or psychological identification among people having common
affinities like common origin, race, language, tradition or history and common political
aspirations. It is a way of feeling, thinking and living together. Nationalism is the
growth of a feeling of oneness among people based on the same attributes that
contribute to nationhood and nationality. Nationalism brings together people into a
nation by creating in them a sense of identity (nationality).
In conclusion, we may say that states will be more viable if they are formed on the
basis of single nations but many of the pluri-national states have also proved to be
viable, showing that nationalism is only one aspect of a state’s strength.
1) What are the fundamental differences between the sate and a government?
Use five lines for your answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................ 51
Political Processes 2) Political pluralism recognises the state to be the only
important association. Yes No
3) Self-determination means right of self-development of
the citizens. Yes No
4) United Nation’s Organisation is a union of only sovereign
states of the world. Yes No
19.7 INSTITUTIONS UNDER THE POLITICAL

SYSTEM
In this section, we shall describe two sets of institutions that enable the state to
function in modern societies:
i) Government organisations, and
ii) Non-government organisations.
Government organisation are:
i) Executive,
ii) Legislature,
iii) Judiciary, and
iv) Bureaucracy.
The non-governmental organisations are:
i) Political parties,
ii) Interest groups, and
iii) The press.
19.7.1 Governmental Organisation

Depending upon the number of persons sharing authority, we can speak of rule by
one or rule by many persons. The former can be a monarchy or a dictatorship.
Rule by many can take different forms. If power is in the hands of a few persons, it
is called oligarchy, if it is in many hands, it is a democracy. These descriptions are
not precise but only approximations. Democracy can take different forms
Parliamentary and Presidential, the former means that the Parliament is the supreme
body in the state. United Kingdom and India are examples of Parliamentary
democracy. In fact India borrowed its democratic set-up from the United Kingdom.
Presidential democracy is one where the President holds supreme power and is not
answerable to the legislature. United States of America is the best example of
Presidential democracy. In India, the Prime Minister, who heads the Union Cabinet,
can be removed by a vote of Parliament. In the United States of America, the
President can be removed only by impeachment by the two-third majority of the
Congress (American equivalent of Parliament). Yet another distinction in the form
of government is whether it is of the Unitary or the Federal type. The Unitary type
exists where the government is centralised and there is local autonomy (e.g. Sri
Lanka). In the Federal type, the local governments have autonomy over limited
52 area of power (e.g. U.S.A., India).
19.7.1.1 The Legislature State and other
Institutions
The legislature is one of the three branches of the government. It is the law-making
body of a state. In parliamentary democracies, the legislature has unlimited power
to make or annul any law, but in states where the Presidential form of government
prevails, or in oligarchies or dictatorships, the legislature’s power to make or annul
laws is limited. Even in democracies where the Constitution safeguards the
legislature’s supremacy in law-making, the ruling elite can, in several ways, undermine
this and install its laws through the backdoor.
Thus legislatures differ both in type and composition. The two major types are uni-
cameral and bi-cameral; whereas in the former there is only one law-making house
in the state (e.g. Norway, Israel) in the latter the legislature consists of two houses,
generally called the Assembly (lower house) and the Council (upper house). Almost
all the states in the world, including India, have the bi-cameral system. In India, the
lower house is called Lok Sabha and the upper house, Rajya Sabha. In England
they are respectively called the House of Commons and the House of Lords. In
both India and England, the two houses are together called the Parliament In U.S.A.,
the House of Representatives is the lower house and the Senate is the upper house.
Together, they are called the Congress. Many Indian States have the bi-cameral
system (e.g. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar) but many other states (e.g. Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh) have house.
The composition of the legislature also differs from state to state. In some states
which are under the dictatorial rule, all the members of the legislature, or at least, a
majority of them will be the nominees of the ruler. Sometimes the members of the
upper house will be elected by the people directly. In India, the Lok Sabha consists
of members directly elected by the people while the Rajya Sabha members are
elected by the members of State Legislative Assemblies. In the United Kingdom,
the House of Lords (Upper House) consists of hereditary nobles (except the Church
officials). In U.S.A. members of both houses of the Congress are directly elected.
When there are two houses for making law, the upper house will have lesser power
than the lower house (except in U.S.A.). Both in India and the United Kingdom, the
upper house has only limited powers.
It has to be mentioned that even though the main purpose of legislatures is law-
making, in almost all states of the world, they have financial as well as judicial functions.
As all of us know, the annual budget of the government has to be passed by it. A
large part of the time of the legislature is spent on deliberations or discussion of the
work of the government.
19.7.1.2 The Executive
This is the second branch of the government. The term is used to designate all those
officers of the government, whose business is to execute or put into effect the laws
passed by the enforcement of the law alone. The formulation of policy and its
implementation through programmes are also the work of the executive. These
activities vest in the executive’s enormous power and, as a result, many of the
legislators will look towards the executive for patronage.
The executive can be one person such as a dictator or king or several persons such
as a Council or Cabinet. Even when the latter form exists, the executive is still
known by the person who is its chief-the King, President, Prime Minister, Chairman
etc.
53
Political Processes An important question regarding the executive is the mode of appointment. The
following are the ways through which the chief executive comes to power.
a) Hereditary Principle
This is the way Kings come to power. There are only very few monarchs as heads
of state in modern times and even though they rule with limited power, most well-
known hereditary rulers are the Queen of England, the King of Saudi Arabia, the
King of Nepal, the King of Thailand, the King of Japan etc.
b) Election
Prime Minister of India is elected. So also are the Presidents of the United States of
America, France and most of the democratic countries of the world. Elected
executives rule only for a limited period, as prescribed by the Constitution and the
country concerned.
In some cases the chief executive comes to power through unconstitutional means,
a revolution or coup d’ etat. For example. Zia-ul-Haq, the late President of
Pakistan, came into power through coup d’etat.
19.7.1.3 The Judiciary
The Judiciary is the body which adjudicates the laws made by the legislature. The
judiciary consists of a hierarchy of courts. Usually at the lower level, there are two
parallel systems of courts-the civil courts and criminal courts. The highest court is
usually called Supreme Court. In England, it is the Privy Council. In India, the
highest court at the state level is called High Court. There are district (Zilla) and
Munsiff or Magistrates Courts at the lower levels.
Courts at the lower level have original jurisdiction while courts at higher level have
appellate jurisdiction (hearing of appeals on the judgement) of lower courts. The
High Courts and the Supreme Court in India take up both original and appellate
petitions. They have also the power of dealing with constitutional issues.
On democracies, the courts are free from the interference of other branches of the
government. To ensure their freedom, judges, once appointed, cannot be removed
except for very grave offences. In totalitarian states, the judiciary is a wing of the
executive as is the legislature, and will have to obey the command of the dictator.
19.7.1.4 The Bureaucracy
This is an arm of the executive. In modern times, the functions of the state have
increased by leaps and bounds, and many of these functions (e.g. planning and
programming) have become highly technical. Under this circumstance, the executive
will have neither the time nor the expertise to perform its role efficiently. Therefore,
the civil service has stepped in to fill the gap. The Civil Service, in the modern state,
is recruited on modern lines. Officials are recruited through competitive examinations,
usually by an impartial agency such as, the Public Service Commission – which
enables the appointment of the person maximally suited for the job. Elaborate rules
are framed for guiding the officials in their work. The whole system has been highly
professionalised. This system is called bureaucracy – rule by bureaucrats. The
bureaucrats are not just servants of the executive. In many cases, they perform the
functions of the executive in their limited area. The ordinary citizen generally sees
the bureaucrat as a person wielding enormous power. In some states such as France,
recruitment to the executive is mostly from the top bureaucracy so that the difference
between the two gets blurred. It is the unique role of the bureaucracy in policy
54
making and programme implementation (though next only to the executive), that has State and other
Institutions
enabled it to consider as a vital part of the political system.
19.7.2 The Non-Government Agencies
We have listed three agencies – political parties, interest groups and the press as
important units of this sub-system. Let us cover these three important areas. This
will make their functioning clear.
19.7.2.1 Political Parties
These are organised groups of citizens who hold common views on public issues
and, acting as political units, seek it obtain control of the government with a view to
further the programme and policy which they profess. A political party has been
defined as an association organised in support of some principle or policy which, by
constitutional means, it endeavours to make the determinant of government.
Political parties are indispensable for the working of a democratic government. They
are the connecting link between the people and the government. They are the vehicle
through which individuals and groups work to secure and exercise political power.
They make people politically conscious of their role as citizens. They are the agencies
that maintain a continuous link between the people and those who represent them in
government or in the opposition.
Political parties may differ on ideologies, and consequently, on their goals and means.
The modern trend is to divide them broadly into two categories - right and left. The
rightist parties are conservative and status quo oriented whereas the leftist parties are
revolutionary and change-oriented. In many European countries there are centrist
parties which do not belong either to the right or to the left. Of late, religious
fundamentalism has also entered the arena of political parties. Several states in the
world today are under the grip of religious fundamentalism (e.g. Iran). In India
religious fundamentalism is gathering strength every day among all major communities
(Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs)
The number of political parties functioning within a state is also an important aspect
of a political system. There are states with only one political party (For eg. China).
There are also states with a number of parties. A few states have only two parties
(e.g. U.K. and U.S.A.). The number of parties does not affect a political system in
any serious manner even though a two-party system can be more healthy for a
democracy. In states with multiple parties, political coalition have emerged. Parties
with similar ideologies may decide to make a common front to achieve their common
objectives. In a multiparty system where the coalition government consists of a
number of small parties, there can be political instability as some parties may withdraw
their allegiance from the ruling coalition and join the opposition on flimsy grounds.
The chances for such change of allegiance are greater when the differences between
parties are less ideological and when party loyalties are based on personal
considerations and loyalties. France, before the coming of Charles de Gulle, is a
good example. Till then in France, the ministries used to come and go within months.
Currently, Italy is an example.
In India, we have a multiparty system. In some states there are coalition cabinets. In
the Centre, at present in Sept. 2004. Congress and its allies i.e. the UPA is at the
Centre. But in some of the states such as Uttar Pradesh, the alliance of BJP and the
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) headed by Chief Minister Mayawati who belongs to
BSP, had existed. Each faction followed a separate leader. Transfer of loyalty by
members of the legislature is quite common in these states as this has led to the
55
instability of cabinets.
Political Processes In fact Communist countries and non-communist totalitarian states do not tolerate
any opposition. They have only one political party. Pakistan, a non-communist
country, until recently had one political party. Other parties then worked under
severe restrictions.
A multiparty system is a basic requirement for the survival and growth of democracy.
The presence of several parties competing for the loyalty of the citizens and acting
as a control on one another is the strongest safeguard for democracy. If there is
only one party, it can become indifferent to the needs of the people and can use its
power arbitrarily, there is no check on the ruling party as it does not have to face any
opposition either from the legislature or from the people.
Political parties play a very important part in the political system of a country. They
socialise the people into political behaviour, sort out the needs and aspirations of the
people and place them before the people in the form of a party programme
(manifesto), present the people’s needs and demands before the government and
provide a link between people and their elected representatives. The citizens pick
up the parties of their choice and the ambitious among them use the party as a
channel for mobility and for fulfilling their political aspirations.
19.7.2.2 Interest Groups
These are associations or groups which have objectives different from those of
political parties. Some times members of these groups may join political parties but
this is much more to further their particularistic interests then out of conviction in the
party’s ideology or action programme. Interest groups may be based on economic,
ethnic, linguistic, religious, regional or other considerations. Sometimes they would
convert themselves into political parties or win over some members of the government
(ruling party) and pressure the government to concede their demands. In this case,
the group could be considered as a pressure group. Within the legislature, their
friends and fellow-travellers could form an informal (or even formal groups and may
lobby their cause. Such groups are called pressure lobbies. The Federation of
Indian Chamber of commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the All India Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (AIMA) are examples of interest groups. At times, when
the government introduces a bill or the budget proposal in Parliament, the interest
groups will use their influence and lobby the Parliament members to use pressure on
the government either to withdraw or to amend it in a form acceptable to them.
Interest groups and pressure groups use a number of strategies to influence the
government and to get their demands accepted. These strategies include threats of
direct action like boycott, threat of holding back essential services, protest closure
of shops and agitation’s such as street demonstrations and strikes. However, the
strategy is decided by the probability of success. Interest groups play an important
part in government decision-making.
19.7.2.3 The Press
We have taken only the press from among the mass communication media and
avoided the ratio and television in our discussion because the latter are controlled
by the government in almost all countries. In some totalitarian countries, the press
also is controlled. By and large, the press has become an important part of all
political parties. A free press is the strongest safeguard of democracy. In fact a free
press has become synonymous with real democracy. The press enables the citizens
to know what is really happening in the country, especially what the government
does or does not, for them. In this way, they could mould the citizens’ attitude and
56
behaviour towards the government and the party in power, and show their support
or opposition at the next election. For a political party, the press is a sure medium State and other
Institutions
for propagating their programmes. Since the press itself may have political leaning,
each newspaper may become partisan, but since all parties have the freedom to
have their own media of communication, the disadvantages of this will be. to a great
extent, neutralised. In any case, the citizen would be best informed about the political
developments and political processes in the state through the press and other mass
media like, Radio & T.V., Internet, etc.
Non Government Agencies

1) What are the major institutions of a political system? Use about five lines for
your answer.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) In parliamentary democracy parliament is supreme. Yes No
3) Name major types of legislatures with examples:
a)
b) 57
Political Processes 4) Tick mark the correct answer
Multi-party system is indispensable in:
a) Democracy
b) Oligarchy
5) Opposition parties are not tolerated in the Communist countries. Yes No
6) Free press is dangerous to the democracy Yes No
19.8 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE STATE

Some political writers were of the view that the individual exists for the state. This
view was also advocated by Fascism and Nazism. Both Mussolini in Italy and
Hitler in Germany advocated this view. However, from early times, the opposite
view also was voiced. According to this view, the state came into existence to meet
the needs of life and continues to exist to assure a good life. Modern welfare theories
have accepted this view. The declared goal of all government is the welfare of their
citizens. While the state has the responsibility to cater to the needs of the individual,
the individual, in turn, also has the responsibility to enable the State to perform its
task by discharging his or her duties towards the state. The relationship is reciprocal.
The modern democratic state confers the following rights on the individual: right to
life, liberty and (limited right to) property: right to freedom of speech and religion,
right to equality, right to education and right to public offices. These rights to education
and right to public offices are sometimes called “Fundamental Rights” and are
embodied in the Constitution. The Indian Constitution contains a chapter on
fundamental rights. In return for these rights, the individual has the following duties
to the state: (i) duty to obey the law, (ii) duty to pay taxes and, above all, (iii) duty to
by loyal to the state.
Activity 2
List out at least five duties that you have as a citizen of the state to which you
belong and to the Indian Nation. Write a note of one page on these duties and
your performance of these duties. Compare your answer with those of other
learners at your study centre. You may further discuss your rights and duties as
a citizen with your Academic Counsellor.
19.9 DEMOCRACY AND INDIVIDUAL

We are living in a democratic state and it is necessary to know what democracy
brings to us. Many of us have a tendency to take democracy for granted, and very
few of us realise that democracy is a form of government whose continuance can be
guaranteed only by a vigilant citizenry. Democracy is most vulnerable to ills like
mobocracy (rule by the mob) or dictatorship (rule by one person). In either case,
the majority (mobocracy) or arbitration of a single person (dictatorship) will replace.
It is very necessary that the two extreme forms of democracy are avoided. This
can be best ensured only if the citizens are enlightened. Enlightenment has
several attributes. These are participation in the political process, especially exercise
of voting rights, tolerance of, if not respect for, the opposition and other points of
view, knowledge about one’s rights and duties and honest exercise of rights and
performance of duties and avoidance of unconstitutional or extra-constitutional
58 methods to achieve one’s goals. All these could be subsumed in the term civic
responsibilities. Democracy ideally is a government of the people, by the people State and other
Institutions
and for the people. All people in a democracy have to realise that the rules of the
game of democracy have to be honestly observed not only to achieve the goal but to
keep the game going.

1) What are the fundamental rights conferred on the citizens by modern

democratic state? Use about five lines for your answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) What are the civic responsibilities of the citizen of democracy. Use about five
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) Democracy can be safeguarded by:
a) Vigilant citizenry
b) Strong Military power
c) Strong Executive
d) Vigilant bureaucracy
(Tick mark the correct answer)
4) In a democracy a citizen should have knowledge about:
a) Rights only
b) Duties only
c) Both rights and duties
d) None of the above
(Tick mark the correct answer) 59

Political Processes
19.10 LET US SUM UP
The state is a distinguishing social organisation. The state has been defined as a
community of persons. More or less in number permanently occupying a definite
part of a territory. It is independent of external control and possesses an organised
government to which the majority of citizens remain obedient. Political scientists,
however, recognise the following essential properties of the state viz. a population, a
territory, a government and sovereignty. Sovereignty, indeed, confers the ultimate
power on the state.
Nationalism is the growth of a feeling of oneness among people based on the same
attributes to contribute to nationality. The nation is the peoples consciousness of
unity.
Government is an essential element of a state as the day to day function of the state
is carried out by the government. Though the terms government and the state are
used interchangeably, to speak of differences: (i) the government is concrete while
the state is an abstraction: (ii) the state is supreme while the Government is an element,
(iii) the state is permanent, but government is not, (iv) the authority of the state is
unlimited, but for the government it is limited (v) the states have common attributes,
while types of government vary. The state performs the political functions as the
political sub-system of the society. There are some other organisations in the society
looking after the welfare and other activities. Though the political pluralists claim the
state to be one of the associations of the many associations of the Society, but the
State stands to be a distinctive organisation because of its sovereign power.
A state, however, carries on its function through two main types of organisations; (i)
Governmental organisation viz, executive, legislative, judiciary and bureaucracy (ii)
Non-government agencies viz-political parties, interest groups and the press & other
mass media. These organisation, indeed, perform distinctive functions in their
respective fields of specialisation.
The relationship between the individual and the state is not uniform all over the
world as there are different forms of governments. A modern democratic state
confers certain fundamental rights on its citizens viz the right to life, property, liberty,
expression, equality and education. In return citizens are also expected to perform
certain duties of the state viz, obey law, pay taxes, to be loyal to the state, exercise
voting rights, avoidance of unconstitutional means to achieve one’s goal. It also
expects citizens to be knowledgeable about their rights and duties.
19.11 KEY WORDS

Fundamental : Certain rights guaranteed by the state to its citizens and given in
Rights the Constitution. These include civil liberties like freedom of
expression, freedom of speech and religion, equality before law
Nationalism : Growth of a feeling of oneness among the people based on some
common attributes to contribute to nationhood or nationality.
These could include religion, economics, politics, language culture
and so on.
Political : Political thought of a group of thinkers who propagate that there
Pluralism are multiple social organisation in the society and the state is only
one of them.
60 Sovereignty : The supreme power of the state over individuals and organisation.
State and other
19.12 FURTHER READINGS Institutions
Kornblum, William, 1988. Sociology in a Changing World. Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc. New York: (Ch. 16 pp. 450-456).
Smith, R.W. and Preston, F.W. 1977. Sociology An Introduction. Martin’s Press:
New York (Part 3 Chapter II pp. 216-279)

PROGRESS
1) a) a population b) a territory c) a government and
e) sovereignty.
2) Yes
It confers ultimate power to the state in exercising its monopoly of power over
all individual and institutions within its territory. Again, it extends to the
relationship with other sovereign states and formulates its own policy avoiding
external interference.
3) No
4) No
1) The state is an abstraction while the government is concrete; (ii) the state is
supreme but the government is an element of the state only; (iii) the states have
similar attributes, but types of government vary, (iv) the state is permanent but
the government can change and (v) authority of the state is unlimited but that
of the government is limited.
2) No
3) No
4) Yes
1) Executive, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy are the major governmental
organisations of the state. Besides these, there are several non-governmental
organisations viz. political parties, interest groups and the press.
2) Yes
3) a) Uni-cameral b) Bi-cameral
4) a) Democracy
5) Yes
6) No
The fundamental rights are:
1) Right to life, right to liberty and (limited rights to) property, right to freedom of
speech and religion, right to equality, right to education and right to public
offices. 61
Political Processes The civic responsibilities are:
2) Duty to obey law, paying taxes, loyalty to the state, exercising voting rights,
tolerance of the opposition, performing duties and avoidance of unconstitutional
methods to achieve one’s goal.
3) a) Vigilant citizenry.
4) c) Both rights and duties.
62
State and other
REFERENCES Institutions
References. cited in block V: (These are given here for those students who wish to
follow certain points in detail.)
Bhattacharjee, J.B. 1987. Dimasa State Formation in Cachar in S. Sinha (ed.),

Tribal Politics and State System in Pre-colonial Eastern and North Eastern
India. K.P. Bagchi and Compary: Kolkata, (pp. 177-212).
Busia, K.A., 1951. The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of
Ashanti, Alen & Unwin: London.
Evans-Pritchard, E.E., 1940, The Nuer, Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Evans-Pritchard, E.E., 1962, Essays in Social Anthropology, Oxford University

Press: Oxford (Ch. 4).
Fortes, M., and Evans-Pritchard, E.E., (ed.), 1940. African Political Systems.
Oxford University Press : London (Introduction, pp. 1-24)
Gluckman, Max., 1965. Politics Law and Ritual in Tribal Society, Basil
Blackwell: Oxford (Chapters 3 and 4).
Guha, A., 1987. The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into State Formation
in Medieval Assam: 1228-1800. In S. Sinha (ed.), Tribal Politics and State
System in Pre-colonial Eastern and North Eastern India. K.P. Bagchi and
Company: Kolkata, (pp. 143-176)
Johnson A.W., and Earle, T., 1987. The Evolution of Human Societies Stanford
University Press: Stanford. (ch. 12, pp. 271-301 Ch. 123, pp. 302-312). W
Kornblum, William, 1988. Sociology in a Changing World. Holt Rinehart and

Winston Inc., New York. (Ch. 16, pp. 437-467).
Kuper, H., 1947. An African Aristocracy: Rank among the Swazi. Mac Gibbon
& Kee, London.
Macionis John, J., 1987. Sociology. Prentice-Hall Inc.: New Jersey. (Ch. 16,
pp. 447-479, and Ch. 17, pp. 481-514).
Mahapatra, L.K. 1987. Ex-princely States of Orissa: Mayurbhanj, Keonijhar

and Bonai. In S. Sinha (ed.), Tribal Politics and State System in Pre-colonial
Eastern and North Eastern India. K.P. Bagchi and Comapny: Kolkata (pp. 1-
50 (b))
Pakem, B., 1987. State Formation in Pre-colonial Jaintia. In S. Sinha (ed.),

Tribal Politics and State System in Pre-colonial Eastern and North Eastern
India. K.P. Bagchi and Company: Kolkata (pp. 243-260).
Saha, R.K., 1987. State Formation among the Meitei in Manipur. In S. Sinha
(ed.), Tribal Politics and State System in Pre-colonial Eastern and North Eastern
India. K.P. Bagchi na Comapny: Kolkata. (pp. 213-242).
Sinha, S., (ed.), 1987. Tribal Politics and State Systems in Pre-Colonial Eastern
and North-Eastern India. K.P. Bagchi and Company., Kolkata (Introduction
pp. ix-xxvi, Ch. 1, pp. 1-50(b), Ch. 4,5,6,7, pp. 143-260). 63
Political Processes Southall, A., 1956. Alur Society. Oxford University Press: London. (Introduction
pp. 1-24)
Vidyarthi, L.P., and Rai, B.K., 1985. The Tribal Culture of India. Concept: Delhi.
(Chapter 2, pp. 25-92, Ch. 5 pp. 195-235, Ch. 12 pp. 411-453 Ch. 13, pp. 454-
474).
Weber, Max, 1964. The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation (eng. Trans.)
Free Press: New York (Ch.. 3)
64
State and other
Institutions
65
UNIT 20 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND
PRACTICES
Structure
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Religion : An Aspect of Social Organisation
20.2.1 Religion and Society
20.2.2 Religion and Faith
20.2.3 Link Between Faith and Religious Life
20.3 Culturally Diverse Forms of Religion

20.3.1 Simple Forms of Religion.
20.3.1.1 Varieties of Explanations Regarding Religious Forms
20.3.2 Complex forms of Religion
20.3.2.1 Buddhism : An Example
20.3.3 Mixed Forms of Religion
20.3.3.1 Hindu Religion and Caste System
20.3.3.2 Notions about Dharma, Karma and Moksha
20.4 Religion and Social Change

20.4.1 Simple to Complex Forms
20.4.2 Complex to Simple Form
20.4.3 Mixing of Multiple Forms
20.4.4 Sects and Cults
20.4.5 Conversion
20.5 Let Us Sum Up

20.6 Key Words
20.8 Model Answer to Check Your Progress
20.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit you should be able to:
z describe the meaning of religion;
z analyse religion as part of the social organisation and its relation to the concept
of faith;
z explain the simple, complex, and mixed forms of religion; and
z examine the changing aspects of religion in society.
20.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you are going to learn about the meaning of religion and various ways in
which religion affects society and how it leads to the maintenance of the social order.
Here we have also mentioned the negative aspects of religion such as superstition, 5
Culture and Religion fanaticism, etc. In this unit you will also learn about the culturally diverse forms of
religion like the simple, complex and mixed forms. Finally, in this unit you will learn
about the changing aspects of religion.
20.2 RELIGION : AN ASPECT OF SOCIAL

ORGANISATION
Religion is concerned with the shared beliefs and practices of human beings. It is the
human response to those elements in the life and environment of mankind which are
beyond their ordinary comprehension. Most religions deal with the attempt of human
beings to understand something or some power which is supernatural and
suprasensory. It is pre-eminently social and is found in nearly all societies. Majumdar
and Madan (1956 : 151) explain that the word religion has its origin in the Latin
word rel (1) igio. This is derived from two root words. The first root is leg,
meaning ‘to gather, count, or observe’. The second root is lig, meaning ‘to bind’.
The first root refers to belief in and practice of ‘signs of Divine Communication’.
The second root refers to the carrying out of those activities which link human beings
with the supernatural powers. Thus, we find that the word religion basically represents
beliefs and practices which are generally the main characteristics of all religions.
20.2.1 Religion and Society
Religion has also been characterised as that aspect of human social and personal life
which embodies the most sublime of human aspirations. It is the foundation on
which the normative structure of society stands. It is the upholder of all values,
morality and ethics of society. In this sense, it is the source of public order in society
and provides the source of inner individual peace to men and women. It has both
ennobling, as well as, civilising effect on mankind. Yet, it has also led to the creation
of obstacles in the path of progress. Its negative effects amongst mankind have
been of promoting fanaticism and intolerance, ignorance, superstition and
obscurantism (O’Dea 1966 :20).
Religion has led to the unification of the members of a society. But, it has also led to
religious wars and communal tensions. However, we must keep in mind that often
non-religious issues and conflicts of interests are the root causes of communal tensions
in a plural society such as India.
While most people consider religion as a universal and, therefore, a significant
institution of societies, Marxist scholars do not see it as necessary component of
society. In Karl Marx’s words : “Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the
sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of
the people”. He believed that religious beliefs act as an opiate which reduces the
pain of poverty and oppression from the minds of the exploited masses. It is,
therefore, required by human beings only so long as they are oppressed and exploited
by a dominant class. It will cease to exist in the communist society which will be the
ultimate stage of social development, according to him.
20.2.2 Religion and Faith
Central to all religions is the concept of faith. Religion in this sense is the organisation
of faith which binds human beings to their temporal and transcendental foundation.
By faith human being is distinguished from other beings. It is essentially a subjective
and private matter. We share the belief of others. This elevates us to a wider human
plane. Thus, faith is something which binds us together and is, therefore, more
important than reason.
6
According to the classical Indian thought. “Man is made by faith : As the faith so the Religious Beliefs and
Practices
Man” (The Bhagvad Gita). The Buddhist scriptures recognise faith as one of the
five faculties of Man (the other faculties are energy, mindfulness, concentration and
full knowledge). Faith is the foundation and guarantee of human relations. It is also
a condition for love. Through faith the believer ‘communicates’ and fraternises with
the non-believer. It makes possible the unity of life in one’s daily existence.
20.2.3 Link Between Faith and Religious Life
Using the Biblical metaphor, we can say: faith is the bridge that links the termporal
with the transcendental, the exterior with the interior. But how? Let us consider the
mechanism.
All traditional societies constitute their faith in such order as may make interaction
between individuals possible, and the movement from temporal to transcendental a
reality. What follows is an inverted triangle ABC (Illustration 1), where:
A represents the transcendental value
B represents the temporal element
C represents the human response of ethical value
R stands for religion
What links B to C to A is faith.
Illustration I
Let the significance of this triangle be elaborated further (Illustration 2).
(B) (C) (D)
Temporal element Human response Transcendental
Self Reverence Liberation
FAITH Marriage Fidelity Love
Family Ancestor Unity
Society Tolerance Perfection

Illustrations 2
Self, marriage, family and society refer to the basic constitutions of social life. These
correspond to human response and transcendental value, through faith. The individual
(self) in deep faith develops reverence for life, the condition which liberates him from
suffering. A married person endowed with faith observes fidelity, which is the state
of highest love. A faithful man is duty-bound not only for the living members but also 7
Culture and Religion for the deceased kins. Hence, performs ancestor-worship, the act of divine unity.
He also cultivates ideological tolerance, whereby the society rests in peace and he
himself reaches the highest stage of perfection. Now, if you recollect the experiences
and sayings of your own tradition, you will find that what we have just explained is
nothing very new. Such interpretations of religious life are available in all traditions,
may be in many different ways. But in essence they all agree that faith is the foundation
of religion. In other words, the thread that binds all forms of religious organisation is
invariably the faith.
Activity 1
Talk to at least three people of different religious faiths about their religion.
Identify the common features in all these religions and write a note of one page
on “Religion: Belief and Practices”. Compare your answer with other learners at
your study centre.

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Define religion using about three lines.
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2) What are the negative aspects of religion? Give an example. Use about three
lines.
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3) In what way is faith central to all religions? Describe in about three lines.
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20.3 CULTURALLY DIVERSE FORMS OF

RELIGION
Human cultures in time and space have envisioned various articles of faith. So there
are different forms of religion. Broadly we can classify them into three classes: (i)
simple form of religion; (ii) complex form of religion; and (iii) mixed form of religion.
Sociologically speaking category (ii) has evolved from the category (i); however,
this development need not be unidirectional. It can be in the opposite direction too,
just as it can be a mixture of both as in the case of (iii). In this part of the unit, you are
going to learn about the characteristic features of all the three forms of religions.
20.3.1 Simple Forms of Religion
The simple forms of religion can be distinguished from the complex forms of religion.
There are some important characteristic features which are found in the simple forms.
8 These characteristic features of the simple form of religion are as follows:
i) The archaic form of religion is ahistorical, that is timeless. It is believed as a Religious Beliefs and
Practices
divinely given form of life, which has been in existence since the appearance,
or creation, of human being, the beginning of the World.
ii) As it is ahistorical, it is not founded or formalised by human being.
iii) In this form of religion, the knowledge of belief and ritual is trans,mitted orally
from one generation to the next.
iv) In it, the religious experience is also an aesthetic experience, shared collectively
in such performances as ritual dance and festivity.
v) It is essentially descriptive, not explanatory. It is practised in ‘good faith’ a
faith that needs no interpretation, no philosophical debate, no dialectical
discussion.
In this description of simple forms of religion we can see that the tendency to
philosophise does not exist here. The practical aspect of religion and magic are
present. Therefore, there are no scriptures or Holy books present in such religions.
According to Emile Durkheim (1912) the simple form of religion forms the inner ring,
as of a tree, of which the complex forms of religions form the outer, more evolved,
ring. He says that in primitive societies there generally exist two
component elements in the supernatural field. One is the sacred element and the
other is the profane. Durkheim calls the sacred element as religion and the profane
element as magic or primitive science. As a contrast to Durkheim, Malinowski (1948)
has classified religion and magic as the sacred part and science as the profane part.
Every society possesses its own set of religious myths. Myths actually are the carriers
of beliefs from one generation to another in a simple sense. These beliefs are shared
by the group in general whether this be a simple society or a modern society. However,
the conception of the exact nature of the supernatural varies from one society to
another. In the belief system of some societies “the supernatural may consist of ghosts
and spirits, for others it may be a belief in the impersonal power which pervades
everything in this world, while for some other people the supernatural may be
manifested through a pantheon of anthropomorphic Gods and Goddesses, or through
a simple God” (Majumdar and Madan 1956 : 152).
20.3.1.1 Varieties of Explanations Regarding Simple Religious Forms
It has been a major concern of evolutionary anthropologists to examine the content
of various conceptions of the supernatural element found in different societies. Some
of the major explanations are as follows:
i) One of the first attempts to explain religious beliefs and its origin in the primitive
society was made by Tylor (1871). He formulated the theory of animism which
is the belief in the soul (anima). Therefore, he called this theory animism. He
says that there can be multiple sources through which religion has originated
but belief in the soul is crucial.
Tylor visualised the following phases in the evolution of simple form of religions:
a) Lower Animism: It tends to be amoral, that is, the soul is continued
after death in a condition which does not depend on its death during life.
b) Higher Animism: It is based on the “retribution doctrine”, that is, there
are rewards and punishments for the soul, depending on the lifetime
performance. 9
Culture and Religion ii) According to the critics of Tylor, animism is a later development in the history
of religion. Scholars like Preuss and Max Mueller propogated a pre- animistic
theory or religion called Animatism. Animatism is the belief that everything in
Nature has life and is animate. Manaism is a special form of animatism.
According to Majumdar and Madan (1956: 156) this theory is based on the
notion that the primitive religion is based on belief in an all- pervad1ng
supernatural power. Though ‘beyond the reach of the senses’, it exists in all
objects, including human beings and expresses as physical force or such other
power. According to Marett, such -belief can be called Manaism after the
Polynesian term ‘mana’ to represent this power.
To take an Indian example, amongst the Hos of Singhbhumi, Bihar, there

exists a similar kind of religious belief which Majumdar ( 1956) has called
‘Bongaism’. These people believe in the concept of ‘bonga’ which resides in
trees, natural objects and sometimes in manmade articles like bi-cycles, etc.
It is the manifestation of a vague supernatural power which is, according to
believers, the cause of all energy.
iii) According to Frazer, religion and magic are the two ways of dealing with the
major crises of life. In primitive societies men adopted two ways of facing the
realities of life. One was through magic which is the belief in the superior
supernatural power, which coerces it into service. For example, through
chanting magical words supernatural spirits are made to obey the demands of
the magician. The other way is to become subservient to the supernatural
powers and worship it. This subservience to the supernatural forces is called
religion. However, in Frazer’s opinion, magic and religion existed together in
primitive societies in simpler forms of religions. There is the last stage in the
progress of knowledge called science which, like magic is based on the
principles of cause and effect, but unlike magic is based on true correlations
which can be proved. Thus, magic, religion and science- are the three phases
of the same reality in society.
20.3.2 Complex Forms of Religion
This form of religion has the following main features, which are radically different
from the simple form of religion.
i) It is historical, that is, its origin can be traced.
ii) It is also a founded religion. The founder is attributed with divine powers,
recognised as the Incarnation of God, the Son of God, or the Messenger of
‘God. The adherents look upon the founder as saviour.
iii) The knowledge of belief and ritual is codified and textualised. The scriptures
are considered holy and believed to contain the sacred words of God, or of
his representative, and worshipped as a deity.
iv) In this form of religion there is a large measure of personalism. The emphasis
is on personal experience of religious phenomena. Faith is organised around
the personality of the founder.
v) This is a highly intellectualised form of religion. It possesses a body of doctrine

which the adherents are required to believe and follow. The new doctrines
are added in course of scholastic development. New interpreters belong to
10 the same spiritual lineage. This leads to the formation of cults and sects. To
continue the doctrinal system and to propagate a’ particular ideology there Religious Beliefs and
Practices
comes up a class of specialists, preachers, monks and ascetics. who devote
their lives exclusively for this purpose.
Religious Beliefs
20.3.2.1 Buddhism: An Example

Buddhism as a complex form of religion has the following features which put it in this
category.
i) Historical Origin: 6th - 5th centuries B.C. First preached at Sarnath (near
Varanasi).
ii) The Founder: Siddhartha Gautama or Sakyamuni Buddha, the son of King -
Suddhodana and Queen Maya Devi of Kapilavastu (Nepal).
iii) Main Tenets: The Middle Path or the Eightfold Path: the practices of right
view: right aim, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness and right meditation. These are the means of Nirvana, the release
from the Wheel of Life. Those desirous of setting foot on the Eightfold Path
have to take refuge in the Triple Gem: the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha
(community of monks).
iv) Distinguishing Features: (i) Materialism, the doctrine of nonsoul : man is
an aggregate of material factors and processes which at death, disintegrate
without residue, (ii) Atheism, a religion without the concept of God (in practice
its followers worship the gods who are lesser than the Buddha), (iii) Nihilism,
the doctrine of impermanence, (iv) Renunciation, a religion of other wordly
asceticism.
v) Sects: Main divide: (i): Theravada or Hinayana with Arhat ideal, emphasising
salvation of the spiritually advanced individuals. Main concentration in Sri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand. (ii) Mahayana with Bodhisatva ideal, preaching
attainability of enlightenment by all, the householder as well as the recluse.
Mahayana or Tantric Lamaism, further subdivided into Kadampa, Kargyupa,
Sakyapa and Ningmapa. The sects of Kargypa (with two offshoots: Norpa
11
Culture and Religion and Jonanpa) are regarded as semi-reformed. Main concentration in Tibet
and the Himalayan region of India, especially Ladakh, Lahaul-Spiti and
Arunachal Pradesh.
vi) Scriptures: The most important ones: Dhammapada, Tipitaka of the early
school, and a large collection of Mahayanist scriptures called Tanjur.
20.3.3 Mixed Forms of Religion
This type of religion is characterised by the elements of both the simple and the
complex forms. In particular, it is a religion with scholastic explanation but without
history. One of the best examples of this type of religion is Hinduism, traditionally
called. Sanatana Dharma or the Eternal Religion.
Hinduism as a mixed form of religion does not have a historical origin as found in
Islam, Buddhism or Christianity. It has no founder and its source is not in space and
time. Unlike the complex forms of religions, it does not possess an organised,
bureaucratic religious order of the type present in Christianity or Islam. Even its
sects are without ties. Though they are founded like Christianity, Islam, or any other
historical religion, they do not form a self-governing system. Each sect defines its
boundary, but all are together in Sanatana Hinduism. The basis upon which the
Sanatana Hinduism and its sects are related is the principle of one-and-many.
20.3.3.1 Hindu Religion and Caste System
Hindu religion can not be understood apart from the caste system. It does not have
an organised clergy or religious order as in the case of Christianity.
Therefore, the system of caste acts as a means of maintaining order in society.
This system derives its legitimacy from the Hindu religion, especially the Manu Smriti.
The caste system consists of about 3,000 castes which are separated from each
other in marriage practices, food habits, linguistic differences, etc.
The Indian caste system was originally derived from the four Varnas, but territorial,
linguistic and occupational factors gave rise to numerous hereditary groups which
came to be known as castes. Each caste has a set of beliefs and rituals. These
differences are marked in the observance of domestic rites (marriage, funeral etc.).
For the Hindu, there are two important guides for practice: The Dharmasutra and
Grihyasutra. These are the parts of the Vedas dealing with the rules or procedures
for religious activity. The Grihyasutra (domestic rites) incorporate a number of specific
features of the castes. Hence, the rules relating to domesticity are very elaborate.
Many of the rituals are preserved in memory rather than recorded: The women are
the repositories of informal rituals. So, apart from the priest who recites mantra
there are family elders-mainly women who perform rites for the new born child, the
newly-wed couple, for the dead members of the family, etc. Hence, Hindu religious
practices contain both formal and informal rites. In the formation of informal rites the
castes are a major source.
20.3.3.2 Notions About Dharma, Karma and Moksha
For the Hindus, and also Buddhists and Jains, the notions dharma, karma and
moksha are important.
i) Dharma stands for the balance between social and cosmic orders; in ordinary
terms it stands for justice or fairplay. Both for individuals and groups, it is the
guiding socio-religious principle. It is the first of the four Hindu principles, the
12
others being artha, kama and moksha. The two middle terms mean pursuit Religious Beliefs and
Practices
of material and social goals. Together, they are called the purusharthas.
These four principles are for individual’s guidance. On the social plane, any
imbalance in this system results in adharma or disturbance of social order.
The demons in Purana are the forces which create adharma, hence the gods
and goddesses incarnate on this earth, often in human form, to destroy adharma
and restore dharma.
ii) Karma is the consequence of the individual’s or group’s action. It can be bad
or good depending on the actions. Human beings pass through a long cycle of
births and deaths during which they accumulate karma or the consequences
of actions in one’s life. The present status of an individual, good or bad, high
or low, is the result of actions performed in the past life. If an individual
accumulates punya (merit) through good actions then he enjoys happiness in
this life, but if he accumulates papa (sin) through evil doing he suffers as a
result. Karma is not fatalism. The individual can improve his destiny through
his or her actions. An important outcome of Karma theory is that the individuals
do not blame gods or blind fate or the society for their sufferings; they alone
are responsible for their present status.
iii) Moksha or liberation means cessation of births and deaths. Hindus, Buddhists
and Jains firmly believe in karma. Usually Buddhist and Jain monks take
more rigorous steps than lay people, to overcome karmic bondage and escape
from the cycle of births and deaths to attain moksha or nirvana.
Therefore, dharma, karma and moksha are dynamic principles motivating people to
action. Hence, in Bhagvad Gita, Krishna advises Arjuna to act firmly and dutifully.
In caste system, all castes, high or low, had a sphere of duties. The performance of
the duties in the prescribed manner conferred on individuals a better rebirth in the
next round. Therefore, low caste members performing their duties correctly were
regarded as worthy human beings. In the Mahabharata, there is a reference to the
low caste hunter who was proud of his life style rather than regret it. For the upper-
caste members also, ethical and religious norms were binding. Whether born high or
low, all individuals were required to follow the caste rules and practices. Otherwise
they were punished by suffering in this life or next.
Thus, in Hinduism, an example of a mixed form of religion, we see a combination of
the features of simple forms of religion, as well as, complex forms of religion. It is
complex in terms of its foundation in higher philosophical thinking. Its scriptures like
the Veda, Upanishad, Bhagvad Gita, etc. are highly sophisticated.
Note: a) Use the space given for your answer .
i) Simple forms of religion are historical and creative. Yes No
ii) Animism is a form of simple religion. Yes No
iii) Simple forms of religions have an elaborate philosophical
foundation. Yes No
iv) Complex forms of religion are ahistorical. Yes No 13
Culture and Religion v) The knowledge of belief and ritual is codified and
textualised in complex, form of religion. Yes No
vi) Hinduism is an example of complex form of religion. Yes No
2) Give an example each of a simple form, a complex form and a mixed form of
religion in India.
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20.4 RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Change is the very essence of a living thing. A living religion must grow, must advance
and must change. No form of religion is static. In some cases the change may he
slow and minor, in others relatively rapid and major. Every religion claims its first
principle supreme, original and eternal. Hence, there is also an element of censure
for change. Change in religion may be compared with a growing tree. The dead
branches wither away and new offshoots of fresh sap come up from the same tree.
Change of religion is, on the other hand, an entirely different process. It implies
rejection of the old form and acceptance of the new. It is technically known as
conversion.
Broadly, there are three types of change in religion: (i) from simple to complex, (ii)
from complex to simple and (iii) mixing of forms.
20.4.1 Simple to Complex Form
Contact with complex form of religion adds many new elements in the simple form
of tribal religion For example. with” the gradual spread of Vaisnavism in Chotanagpur,
the Oraons, a tribe which lives in that region, began to re-organise their traditional
faith.
The consequences were as follows:
i) The Oraons lost faith in the powers of their old spirits. , ..
ii) A few of the spirits such as the ancestor spirits and the clan-spirits, came to
be shorn of much of their maleficence and came to be regarded as ordinarily
beneficent.
iii) The original conception of the Spirit of Good developed into a small pantheon,
which in turn evolved elaborate rites and ceremonies, actions and observations
to please different grades of supernatural powers.
iv) The Oraons aspiring for a higher spiritual life imposed upon themselves the
restrictions against the use of alcoholic liquors as drink or libation, and of
fowls, pigs and oxen as food or sacrifice.
v) The institutions of temple and guru or spiritual guide, and loving adoration of
a personal deity (bhakti) became acceptable.
vi) Religious life began to find expressions through different denominations. Some
turned into Bhuiput Bhagat, some into Nemha Bhagat, some into Visnu Bhagat,
some into Kabirpanthi Bhagat, and some into Tana Bhagat.
14
To take another example, the impact of Vaisnavism on the Meitei religion of Manipur Religious Beliefs and
Practices
has been much deeper. There were three distinct stages which marked the introduction
of Vaisnavism into Manipur. The first emissaries of the new faith, which arrived in
l704, belonged to the school of Nimbarka. The second quarter of the 18th century
marked the arrival of the Ramanadi, and finally the school of Chaitanya replaced the
earlier schools. There has been a remarkable coexistence of the old and the new
forms of religion. This needs illustrations.
i) Some of the tribal gods, called lai, which were not very significant, disappeared
from the scene. Household lai continue to be worshipped; but the public lai,
those which were the common property of all the Meitei, became fewer.
ii) New Brahmanical gods became identified with the traditional deities. Panthoibi,
the Meitei goddess, has become identified with Durga; Nongpok Ningthou
with Shiva.
iii) Traditional lai came to be worshipped according to Brahmanic ritual
prescription (for example in the substitution of bloodless offerings of animal
sacrifice).
iv) The worship of the Vaisnava deities has developed and deepened. Krishna, in
his cowherd aspect of Sri Govind, has become the dominant deity. This has
caused strong emphasis on cow protection.
v) Growth in the Radha cult. Introduction of the Ras Lila, enacting the relationship
of Krishna and the Gopis. This has caused the development of the most
beautiful form of religious dancing; generally known as Manipuri dance.
(vi) Reading of the Bhagavat Purana and the Mahabharata, and singing Kirtana.
vii) Emphasis on Brahmanic purification rites, and puritanical sexual ethics.
20.4.2 Complex to Simple Form
There are also examples of simplification of the complex form of religion, specially of
rituals and ceremonies. Buddhism, for instance, came as a revolt against the Vedic
ritual which was both complex and expensive, .and also beyond the reach of ordinary
people. It also required the services of the specialists, and knowledge of Sanskrit.
The Buddha showed a path far simpler than this. He spoke to the people in everyday
language and prescribed the Eightfold Noble Path. It is a different matter that in
course of time his disciples, especially the Mahayanist, gave themselves up to the
mystical Tantric form of complex religion. Later, the 19th century Brahmo Samaj
again tried to simplify the complex nature of Brahmanic Hinduism. Its impact has
been limited to Bengal. The Arya Samaj had also made a similar venture. It denied
the Pauranic rituals and tried to establish the Vedic fire-sacrifice in a simple form. The
impact of Arya Samaj can still be seen mainly in the western parts of north India.
20.4.3 Mixing of Multiple Form
Mixing of more than one form has caused development of new religious organisations.
The most excellent example is of Sufism. It has evolved from Persian Zoroastrianism
and Arab Islamism. The sublimity of this faith lies in its conception of the unity of
Eternal Spirit and the intimate association of the Divine with the manifest. The Arab
Muslims believe in a personal God. They also hold that mankind and the world are
mere objects upon which the will of God is exercised. The Sufis approached nearer
to the Christian sentiment embodied in the phrase “Christ in us”. The Persian
conquerors of India carried ‘with them the mysticism and spirituality of Sufism.
15
Culture and Religion Sikhism, Kabirpanth and many other Santa-Sampradayas of their kind are Sanatan
Hinduism, modified by Buddhism and Sufism. In these forms of religion, the prime
object of attainment is not Paradise but the total cessation of individual existence, or
what is called Nirvana in Buddhism. Also there is no personal God. The Sufi idea of
the unity of God is well-founded in most of the medieval religions. Guru Govind
Singh, the last Guru of the Sikh Panth, was a staunch devotee of the goddess Durga.
He established khalsa by which he bound his disciples into an army and conferred
upon each of them the name Singh, or Lion. He asked his followers that after his
death the Granth Sahib or “the Lord of the Book” was to be their guide in every
respect. This holy scripture contains the devotional songs sung by practically all the
Hindu saints of medieval India. It also contains 142 stanzas composed by Shaikh
Baba Farid, the most celebrated Sufi . saint who accompanied Nanak, the illustrious
founder of Sikhism, for more than twelve years.
The Bisnois of Rajasthan claim that their religious organisation is composed of twenty
Hindu and nine Muslim tenets, and hence “Bisnoi” (Bis = twenty + nau = nine).
Activity 2
Find out whether in your region there exists worship of a Sufi Saint or Baba who
is worshiped by people of more then one religion. Write a report on the religious
practice and nature of religion of this Saint/Baba.
Compare your answer with those of your peers at your study centre and discuss
with your Academic Counsellor.
20.4.4 Sects and Cults
Sects are like the various branches of a tree, which is a religion. They are a reaction
to what is not acceptable in a religion. In fact, the sects rise as a protest movement
against established religions. Protestant Christianity is a sect of Catholic Christianity;
just as Jainism and Buddhism are some of the sects of Hinduism.
Sects often reject many of the norms and values of the main religion and replace
them with beliefs and practices which appear to. be unusual to the people who are
not members of that sect. They are insular to, and closed to others who have not
gone through the initiation procedures for membership. In most sects a strict pattern
of behaviour for members to follow is present. Membership demands extreme loyalty
to the sect and it becomes the most dominant factor in the member’s life.
Cult is another aspect of religion, which is an offshoot but unlike a sect it does not
arise as a protest movement but remains part of the main religion. It is an acting out
of feelings, attitudes, and relationships which are an end in themselves. For example,
the cult of Devi, or the cult of Krishna etc. have a following of a large number of
people who believe in it and sing the devotional songs, etc. for its own sake.
Sects and cults are the processual aspects of religion i.e., religion in the process of
being practiced. Sect is much more formalised and definite, while cults are only
minor expressions of variety within a religion.
20.4.5 Conversion
Conversion is the chief end of all teaching and preaching in some religions. It is a
process of growing up in spiritual life. In protestant theology it is called “the rebirth
16
of the soul”. As a constant challenge of faith, conversion is an ongoing discovery of Religious Beliefs and
Practices
the real nature of religion. In practice, however, such personal freedom of experience
is hardly attainable. For, one is either born in a religious tradition to follow the
prescribed way, or alternatively may give up ‘the inherited tradition to adopt another
prescribed way. In either case he is not involved in the discovery of faith. Religious
missions are motivated by a desire to convert others to their faith. The supreme task
of the Christian Church is the conversion of the World, making disciples from all
nations. That is the objective of Islam also. The ethics of conversion grants moral
rights to seek for more followers to one’s way of religious beliefs. The missionaries
believe that theirs is the best form of religion received from God and that it is their
religious duty to impart to others who are not yet within it. When this pious motive
gets distorted the method of coercion is employed only with a view to increasing the
number of fellow religionists. It is no longer then a real conversion.
Many Hindus embraced Islam under different situations. The Mopla fisherfolk of
Kerala were the first Indians to have accepted Islam. The Sufi saints and other
religious faqirs or darwesh converted a large number of Hindus to Islamic faith. The
Muhammadan rulers were also instrumental in conversion but more often than not
they exercised force. Conversion to Christianity has generally been through
missionaries, and largely among the tribes of India. Kerala again is the home of the
first Indian converts to Christianity. Traditions die hard. Most converts to Islam and
Christianity continue to follow some of their old beliefs and practices which are even
against the tenets of the new faith. This they do either secretly, or openly. A
proselytising religion wanting to hold on to the neophytes or new converts cannot do
anything in this regard. Like Islam and Christianity, Buddhism also practises
conversion. The Buddha had asked his mendicants to convert their adversaries to
the Path not by reasoning but by reduction to the sublime. Sanatan Hinduism does
not believe in proselytising, because in its view there are different paths to the Ultimate,
each equally valid and worthy to follow: As there is no conversion, so also no
reversion. The Arya Samaj theory of conversion was never accepted by the orthodox
followers of Hinduism.
Note: a) Use the space given for your answer.

1) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:
i) …………………… with…………………… form of religion has

added many new elements in the simple form of tribal religion.
ii) The impact of …………………… on the Meitei religion on Manipur

has been very deep.
iii) Buddhism came as a revolt against the …………………… ritual which

was complex and beyond the common peoples reach.
iv) Sects and cults depict the …………………… aspects of religion.
v) In Protestant theology conversion is called “the rebirth of the

……………………”.
17
Culture and Religion
20.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have explained the social nature of religion and how religion forms a
part of the social organisation of all societies? Here we have discussed the concept
of faith and its relationship with religion and society. We have discussed the intimate
relationship between the transcendental values, temporal elements arid human
response which forms the basis of religion and which are linked with each other by
the element of faith.
We have also described the crucial features of simple, complex and mixed forms of
religions with some examples of each. Finally, we have discussed the concept of
change within religion. We have analysed the process of change from simple to
complex, from complex to simple, and the mixed forms found in the religions in
India. The nature of sects and cults, and religious conversions have also been explained
in this unit.
20.6 KEY WORDS

Ahistorical : anything which does not “have any history’’.
Dialectical : a logical discussion by question and answer as means of investigating

truths in philosophy.
Embody : to include.
Fraternise : to associate with people to make friends.
Normative : that aspect of social order which deals, with the norms of the society,
such as the do’s and don’ts.
Opiate : anything which acts like a drug or alcohol which either deludes ‘you
or puts you to sleep.

Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan, 1956. An Introduction To Social Anthropology.
Asia Publishing House: Bombay-Calcutta.
O’Dea, Thomas F. 1966. The Sociology of Religion, Prentice Hall, Inc.: Englewood
Cliffs.
Prabhu, P,N. 1971. Hindu Social Organisation. Popular Prakashan : Bombay

PROGRESS
1) Religion is an organisation of faith. It deals with the shared beliefs and practices
of human beings.
2) Some of the negative aspects of religion are that sometimes they create
obstructions in the path of progress of a society. They promote fanaticism,
ignorance and superstitions also.
18
3) Faith is central to all religions as it binds human beings to their temporal and Religious Beliefs and
Practices
transcendental foundation. It is faith which distinguishes human beings from
all other living beings.

1) i) No (See section 20.3.1)
ii) Yes (See section 20.3.1.1)
iii) No (See section 20.3.1)
iv) No (See section 20.3.2)
v) Yes (See section 20.3.2)
vi) No (See section 20.3.3)
2) Religion of some of the tribes in India, eg. “Bongaism” of Ho’s of Kolhan,
Bihar is an example of simple religion. Buddhism is a complex religion and
Hindusim is a mixed form of religion.
1) i) Contact, complex
ii) Vaisnavism
iii) Vedic
iv) Processual
v) Soul
19
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Social Sciences
Block
6
CULTURE AND RELIGION
UNIT 20
Religious Beliefs and Practices 5
UNIT 21
Culture I : Main Characteristics 20
UNIT 22
Culture II : Diversity and Change 32
UNIT 23
Values 47
UNIT 24
Norms 60
REFERENCES 71
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Social Sciences ESO - 11
The Study of Society
Culture and Religion 6

UNIT 21 CULTURE I : MAIN
CHARACTERISTICS
Structure
21.0 Objectives
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Characteristics of Culture
21.2.1 Role of Culture
21.2.2 Features of Culture
21.3 Culture and Human Nature

21.3.1 Human Beings and Other Animals
21.3.2 Uniqueness of Human Beings
21.4 Culture and Biology

21.4.1 Culture and the Satisfaction of Hunger
21.4.2 Food Taboos and Rituals
21.4.3 Patterns of Sexual Gratification
21.4.4 Culture in Relation to Health and Sickness
21.4.5 Culture and Sex Roles
21.4.6 Culture and Race
21.5 Let Us Sum Up

21.6 Key Words
21.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit you should be able to understand:
z the concept of culture, as used in anthropology and sociology;
z that culture as a distinctively human phenomenon, rooted in human being’s
unique nature; and
z that culture is closely inter-related to biological process.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
If you have been to a zoo or a circus, and have observed the behaviour of monkeys
and chimpanzees, you must have been struck by the similarities between their gestures
and ours. Some of you might have wondered whether we are just like these animals,
albeit a little more developed.
In recent years, a number of sciences have devoted attention to animal behaviour.
As a result of extensive researches and investigations, we now. know a good deal
20 about what we share with other animals, as well as the ways in which we differ from
them. The concept of culture has greatly expanded our understanding of the nature Culture 1 : Main
Characteristics
and behaviour of human beings in all its richness and diversity, as well as in relation to
the behaviour of animals. It has greatly helped us in understanding the diverse ways
in which the basic biological needs of human beings are satisfied. It has brought to
our awareness the differences among the various communities and groups of mankind,
and the manner in which these differences are continued and passed on from one
generation to another .
The concept of culture is immensely helpful in that it offers us a truly broad
perspective on mankind, and thereby expands our intellectual horizons. It liberates
us from the chains of prejudice and groups-centredness, and thus humanizes our
consciousness.
21.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

We sometimes describe an individual as “a highly cultured person”, meaning thereby
that the person in question has certain features such as his or her speech, manners,
taste for literature, music or painting, which distinguish him/her from others. Culture,
in this sense, refers to certain personal characteristics of an individual. However, this
is not the sense in which the word culture is used and understood in social sciences.
Sometimes, culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a celebration or an evening
of entertainment, as when one speaks of a “cultural show”. In this sense, culture is
identified with aesthetics or the fine arts, such as dance, music or drama. This also is
different from the technical meaning of the word culture.
Culture is used in a special sense in anthropology and sociology. It refers to the sum
total of human beings’ behaviour, feelings, beliefs, thoughts; it connotes everything
that is acquired by them as social beings. One of the most comprehensive definition
of the term culture was provided by the 19th century British anthropologist, Edward
Tylor. He defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as
member of society.”
21.2.1 Role of Culture
Culture has two distinctive, but inter-related aspects. On the one hand, it is an
expression of human beings ingenuity; it cannot be adequately understood without
reference to certain characteristics which are unique to human beings. These unique
characteristics include rationality and imagination, capacity for self-awareness and
self-reflection, and capacity for symbolic communication or language.
On the other hand, culture has played a crucial role in the fulfilment of capacities and
potentialities. Their survival in the evolutionary process was made possible due to
culture. Such factors as co-operations, the domestication of plants and animals, the
discovery and use of fire, the making of tools and implements, and the invention and
use of language greatly facilitated their adaptation to the natural environment. Modern
biologists point out that, unlike animals, human beings played an active role in their
own evolutionary career.
Co-operation among human beings provided security from wild animals and external
threats. It facilitated the hunting of wild animals by making it a group activity. The
domestication of plants and animals helped in the adaptation of human groups and
communities to the environment. Obtaining food through gathering, fishing and hunting
was made easier by the use of tools and implements. The discovery and use of fire
provided security from wild animals. Language made possible the sharing, 21
Culture and Religion accumulation and transmission of experience and skill. If not for culture, human
beings would have probably perished in the long and arduous process of evolution.
21.2.2 Features of Culture
Culture is used in two senses, a general and a specific sense. Used in a general
sense, it implied the sum total of those characteristics which are unique to mankind
and which have no parallel in the animal kingdom. When used in a specific sense, it
refers to the totality of the life ways and behaviour patterns of a community or a
group. One may speak, for example, of Chinese culture, Eskimo culture, Hindu
culture, etc.
Culture is characterised by the following features:
i) It is shared in common by the members of a given society or community.
Culture therefore, refers not to beliefs and activities of individuals, but to those
of groups of people who are organised in communities. It is fundamentally a
social, rather than personal or individual, phenomenon.
ii) Culture is learnt and acquired by human beings in interaction with others. An
individual acquires the characteristics of his parents and his group in two ways.
On the one hand, she or he acquires the physical characteristics and features
of her or his parents, such as skin colour, stature, texture of hair and colour of
the eyes, through genetic transmission, over which he or she has no control.
On the other hand, he or she learns and acquires the thoughts, attitudes,
language and habits of his or her parents, and through them, of his or her
group, by way of cultural transmission.
It follows from the above observation that differences among various groups
and communities in regard to language, beliefs, customs and rituals are to be
understood and explained not in terms of physical or racial differences, which
are biologically inherited, but in terms of learnt and acquired cultural differences.
iii) Culture is not only learnt and acquired by individuals in a social context, but it
is also accumulated and transmitted from generation to generation, through
the mechanism of symbolic communication or language. In other words, a
society or a community accumulates, over long periods of time, experiences,
knowledge and skill, which are shared in common by its members, and it
passes from one generation to another.
Activity 1
Interview one member of your Grandparent’s generation, one of your own
generation and one of a child’s generation in your family on what they think
about the role of men, women and children in your family/community and society.
Write a report on “Social and Cultural Changes in my Society” of about 2 pages.
Compare your note with others students and discuss the topic with your
counsellor at your study centre.
21.3 CULTURE AND HUMAN NATURE

You have learnt in the foregoing sections that culture is essentially an expression of
certain characteristics which are unique to human beings. A comparison between
animal nature. In recent years, several disciplines such as physiological psychology,
neuro-physiology, ethology (which is concerned with the study of animal behaviour
in the wild) and sociology (which studies animal and human behaviour in a comparative
22 framework) have provided us with valuable information on animal behaviour.
Consequently, we are now in a better position to know what human beings share Culture 1 : Main
Characteristics
with other animals, and what is unique to them.
21.3.1 Human Beings and Other Animals

A few decades ago, it was commonly believed that animals can neither learn to
make and use tools, nor can they plan ahead or count. Modern researches in animal
behaviour have established that all these assumptions about animals are not correct.
The fact that animals are capable of learning has been known to animal trainers and
zoo keepers for a long time. You too must have observed this fact if you have pets
such as parrots or dogs or cats at home. Researches in ethology and ornithology
(the systematic study of the behaviour of birds) indicate that a number of animal
species are capable of learning patterns of behaviour. For example, the young one
of a bird learns the song pattern of its species during the first spring of its life. A
young chimpanzee learns from its mother how to identify poisonous fruits and berries
in the forest.
Many species of birds have a remarkable sense of direction and planning. This is
evident in their seasonal migration. When the freezing cold of the Arctic becomes
too harsh, the Siberian cranes cross a distance of several thousand miles and fly
over to places like Bombay, Mysore, where the weather is more pleasant for them.
They go back to their native habitat soon after the cold subsides.
The higher primates, such as monkeys and apes, make and use crude tools. The
chimpanzees in the wild feed on white ants, which breed in the hollow recesses of
tree trunks, when the chimpanzee’s hand cannot reach right inside, he plucks the
branch of a tree, inserts it inside the trunk and waits. When the white ants cling to
the branch, he takes it out and gobbles up the ants.
The emu is an Australian animal which lays big eggs. The Australian buzzard, who
is very fond of the eggs, drives the emu from its eggs, and then flies aloft with a stone
in its claws. It drops the stone on the eggs and when they break, it swoops down
and swallows the contents.
There are striking similarities between human beings and the chimpanzees in the
number and form of chromosomes, the proteins of the blood, and the structure of
the genetic material DNA. Jane Goodall, an ethnologist, studies the behaviour of
chimpanzees in their natural setting in Tanzania. She found interesting similarities
between certain aspects of chimpanzee behaviour and human behaviour. She found
that, much like human beings, the chimpanzees have a lengthy childhood; they form
close family attachment; they make and use primitive tools, and hunt in a collective
manner. She also found similarities in respect of communication, such as facial
expressions and gestures.
21.3.2 Uniqueness of Human Beings

In certain respects, human beings are part of the animal kingdom, in that certain
biological and physiological processes are commonly shared between them and
animals. Yet, they differ from the other species of animals in several crucial aspects,
which set them apart from the rest of the animal world.
1) In animals, the satisfaction of basic biological urges, such as hunger, thirst and
sex, is determined by instincts. In human beings, instincts have almost
disappeared. Consequently, the satisfaction of biological needs in them takes
place through culture. Animal responses to the environment are fixed and 23
Culture and Religion stereotyped, whereas human beings responds to his or her environment in a
flexible manner and in a variety of ways.
2) Though some species of animals make and use tools of a primitive nature,
human beings’ tool making ability is of a qualitatively superior kind. In animals,
tools are made and used only for the present; as soon as their purpose is
served, they are thrown away. Human beings on the other hand, make tools
not only for the present, but also in anticipation of their future use.
Furthermore, culture makes it possible for men and women to accumulate
their experience and skill in regard to tool making and pass it on from generation
to generation. Thus, over several thousand years there has been a continuous
improvement in their tools making ability.
3) Human being is the only species in which the female is sexually receptive
throughout the year. This has important consequences for marital and social
behaviour.
4) The human child is dependent, physically and emotionally on the mother for a
much longer period, as compared to other species of animals. This has a
significant bearing on woman’s roles, on the mother-child relationship, as well
as on the network of kinship in human society.
5) There are certain characteristics of human beings, which are described as
‘species-specific’. The human brain has developed certain devices such as
control of hand and speech, foresight and planning. The main organisation of
the brain is located in the frontal and the pre-frontal lobes, which enable people
to think of actions in the future.
6) Human being is essentially a symbolic animal. She/He is the only animal capable
of self consciousness, of self-reflection. The rational and imaginative faculties
enable them to create concepts, meanings and values which have universal
significance. Their symbolic nature enables them to transcend the immediate
environment of which they are a part.
7) Human beings capacity for symbolic communication or language is unique to
them. The development of the vocal cords in human beings and the close
location of the speech and hearing centres in the brain made possible the
emergence of language.
Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Discuss the main characteristics of culture. Use about five lines.
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24
2) Give some examples of the uniqueness of human beings. Use about four lines Culture 1 : Main
Characteristics
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21.4 CULTURE AND BIOLOGY

Human being shares with animals certain basic biological urges, such as hunger,
thirst and sex, which press for satisfaction. However, there is a significant difference
in the manner in which the satisfaction of basic biological needs takes place in them
and in animals. Among the animals, the basic needs are satisfied through the
mechanism of instincts, whereas in human beings they are fulfilled and regulated
through culture.
21.4.1 Culture and the Satisfaction of Hunger
There are tremendous variations in the manner in which the biological urge of hunger
is satisfied among human groups and communities in different parts of the world.
The Bushmen, who live in the hot, sandy Kalahari desert in Southern Africa, survive
on wild plants, insects, locusts, scorpions, bustards and ostriches. The Eskimos,,
who live in the freezing cold of the Arctic, survive on the meat and fat of the walrus.
The Lapps of Scandinavia survive on the milk and meat of the reindeer. The Andaman
Islanders in the Bay of Bengal live by means of fruits and roots gathering, fishing, and
hunting. The Semang hunters of Malaysia, who survive on yams, berries, roots and
nuts, supplement their diet with squirrels, monkeys and lizards. The Australian
aborigines hunt the kangaroo and relish its meat.
21.4.2 Food Taboos and Rituals
Culture defines what types of food are worthy of consumption by a given people or
a community, and what food items are to be avoided. Consequently, a given food
item, which is relished by one people may be abhorred by another. The aphorism a
short sentence packed with meaning, “one man’s food is another man’s poison” is
very true in a cultural sense. Pork, which is forbidden to Jews and Muslims is eaten
with relish by the Christians. Milk and milk products are regarded as luxury food by
the Baganda of East Africa, and the people of West Africa and the Chinese consider
them as inedible and nauseating. The Navahos and the Apaches of New Guinea
and Arizona consider fish nauseating and unfit for human consumption. Dog meat,
which will be nauseating to most modern people, is eaten with relish by the Mexican
Indians and some Naga tribals in India. The American Indians, until recently,
considered tomatoes poisonous and refused to eat them. Certain types of fish are
considered a delicacy and eaten raw in Japan. Eating raw meat is widely prevalent
in several parts of Africa.
Various shades of vegetarianism and non-vegetarianism exist side by side in the
Indian society. Thus, you find some strict vegetarians in South India (Vira Saiva)
and Gujarat (Jain), who consider meat, eggs and fish as taboo. There are strict Jains
who do not eat tubers. Many traditional families forbid elderly ladies and widows of
all ages from eating onions and garlic.
25
Culture and Religion Many cultures prescribe that certain types of food are not to be combined with
others. Orthodox Jews, for example, do not combine meat and milk products in the
same meal. Orthodox Muslims avoid eating dairy products immediately after
eating fish. The Eskimo keep the sea foods separate from foods obtained from
land animals.
Rituals are invariably associated with the consumption of food. In India for example,
one is supposed to have a ritual bath before taking one’s meal, which is followed by
wearing ritually clean clothes. Thereafter, the person is to sit in a ritually clean place,
and then eat the food. The Brahmans of Nepal can take their food only while
wearing unsewn garments.
Activity 2
List at least two items of food which are considered to be auspicious in your
culture/religion/society and why? Write a note of one page on “Food and its
Social Nature”. Discuss your note with your peers and Academic Counsellor at
your study centre.
Food Culture
The rules of ritual purity and pollution in India are particularly observed in regard to
food. Some foods such as milk are regarded as having inherent purity; other foods
are made pure with frying. Food that has been fried in oil or ghee is less likely to be
polluted. Such fried food called pukka food, in contrast with kaccha food cooked
in water, can be exchanged between different communities in North India. In North
India, cooking or eating in an earthen vessel is considered ritually clean. However,
in South India, a Brahman will never eat from an earthen vessel, as it is considered
polluting.
Many cultures prescribe fasting and abstinence from food. Devout Jews fast every
Thursday and Monday in addition they fast for 24 hours on Yom Kippur. The early
Christians observed Lent which lasted for forty days. The Muslims fast for a whole
month during Ramzan (the 9th month of the Muhammadan Year) Hinduism considers
fasting a meritorious act, to be observed on auspicious occasions. It is important to
note that the act of fasting represents a symbolic transcendence of the biological
26 urge of hunger and thirst.
21.4.3 Patterns of Sexual Gratification Culture 1 : Main
Characteristics
There are infinite variations among groups of mankind in regard to the fulfilment of
the sexual impulse. In almost all cultures, sexual mating is institutionalised in marriage.
Furthermore, every culture has rules of incest, which prohibit marital relations among
close relatives. The incest taboo is a universal cultural invention which is aimed at
regulating sexual behaviour. There are great diversities in respect of incest regulations
from one culture to another, and even within a single society. In North India, for
example, cross-cousin marriages are not allowed, whereas they are preferred in
south India. In some south Indian castes, an elder sister is expected to ask her
younger brother to marry her own daughter. This would be considered incestuous in
North India.
Furthermore, there are rules of endogamy in many cultures, which prescribe that one
should marry within one’s own kin group lineage. Rules of exogamy, on the other
hand require an individual to marry outside the group of gotra. In many parts of
North India, the system of village exogamy exists, which requires that an individual
may marry a girl only from another village.
Great diversities exist among groups of mankind in respect of partners in marriage.
Polygyny (the union of one man and more than one woman) is a favoured form of
marriage in Africa, the Near East, China, Melanesia, Polynesia and among the tribal
communities in North and South America. King Mtessa of Uganda is said to have
had 7000 wives. Among the Trobriand Islanders, who are generally monogamous,
a chief may have as many as 60 wives. Polyandry (the union of one woman and
several men) is prevalent among the Marquesans of Polynesia, the Todas in India,
the Kandyans of Sri Lanka, the Da-la of Indo-China and the Paviotso Indians of
North America. Among the Khasas of Jaunsar-Bawar in Himachal Pradesh, there
exists a system of fraternal polyandry, in which a woman is married to two or more
brothers at the same time.
Certain religious traditions, such as ancient and medieval asceticism and Roman
Catholicism encourage celibacy. Thus, cultural factors regulate the satisfaction, or
wilful negation of the sexual impulse among human beings to a remarkable extent.
21.4.4 Culture in Relation to Health and Sickness
Cultural factors significantly influence health and sickness in society. Certain types
of ailments are significantly correlated with such factors as class, occupation, ethnicity
and food habits. Hypertension, diabetes and ulcers may be regarded as urban
diseases, generally connected with sedentary occupations. Environmental pollution,
brought about by technological advancement, is now identified as one of the major
causes for the growing incidence of cancer.
Food habits, particularly the consumption of fatty foods and high salt intake, are
significantly correlated with cardiovascular diseases. Several tribal communities in
the South Pacific islands, the Kirghiz of Turkey, certain African tribes, the Australian
aborigines, and the Eskimos use no salt in their diet. Consequently, diseases such as
high blood pressure are unknown among them. On the other hand, one-fourth of the
diet of Eastern Finlanders consists of animal fat; consequently, they are most prone
to heart attacks.
A culture generally defines what diseases are to be considered as illness, and therefore
requiring treatment. Intestinal worms are regarded as necessary for digestion among
the Thonga of Africa and the Yap Islanders. In most primitive societies, diagnosis
and treatment of diseases are invariably associated with magical beliefs and rites and 27
Culture and Religion shamanistic practices. In some cultures, diseases are associated with the violation
of taboos. Among the Ojibwa Indians, a person who is guilty of violating food
taboos, invites sickness on himself and his family members.
21.4.5 Culture and Sex Roles

Men and women differ not only in anatomical and physical features, but also in
respect of behaviour, role and attitudes. It is generally held that men and women
behave differently because nature has prescribed different roles and behaviour patterns
for them. This is a mistaken view.
The differences between the roles and behaviour patterns of men and women, though
related to certain anatomical and physical processes, are not entirely determined by
them. Sex roles and traits, in other words, are not biologically given, they are
conditioned by culture.
In India and in many other cultures, men are supposed to be dominant, aggressive
and rational, while women are supposed to be submissive, impulsive emotional and
delicate. Margaret Mead, a distinguished American anthropologist, made a
comparative study of the respective roles of men and women in three primitive
societies in New Guinea. She found that in each of these cultures, the sex roles
were radically different from those of Western culture. For example, in the Tehambuli
tribe, women are masculine and men feminine, in terms of Western cultural standards.
Women are dominant, responsible and are engaged in gardening and fishing activities.
Men, on the other hand, are concerned with aesthetic matters, and with being
charming. Among the Arapesh, both men and women show feminine traits; they do
not indulge in aggressive behaviour. Among the Mundugumor, both men and women
exhibit masculine traits. Their behaviour reflects violence and aggressiveness. Mead,
therefore, concluded that sex roles are culturally conditioned.
21.4.6 Culture and Race

Differences in physical characteristics and features among people belonging to different
countries of groups are often confused with differences in culture and behaviour.
One hears, for example, of Jewish race, Negro race, Aryan race, etc. When the
term race is used in this manner, it combines a set of unrelated features, such as
physical characteristics, language, religion, cultural traditions and behaviour patterns,
which differentiate a given people from others. Furthermore, there is invariably an
implicit value-judgement in this sense of the term race. Some races are regarded as
being naturally and inherently superior to the others.
This is a wholly fallacious view. There is no necessary connection between race,

language, culture and nationality. Racial features are largely determined by genetic
and biological factors, whereas culture and language are learnt, acquired and
transmitted through training and education.
Race prejudice is based on false and irrational premises. In fact, racism has proved
to be one of the most dangerous myths of modern times. Hitler’s belief in the
superiority of the Nordic race led to the most inhuman massacre of six million Jews
in Nazi Germany. Race prejudice has been responsible for the persecution and
harassment of thousands of Negroes in the United States. The obnoxious
phenomenon of apartheid in South Africa, whereby a small white minority had
ruthlessly ruled over a vast black population, is an expression of the ideology of
racism.
28
Check Your Progress 2 Culture 1 : Main
Characteristics
1) Bring out the relationship between culture and biology. Use about eight lines.
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2) Distinguish between race and culture. Use about six lines.
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21.5 LET US SUM UP

i) Culture, which differentiates human beings from other animals, refers to the
sum total of their activities, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and all that is characteristic
of them as social beings.
ii) Culture is shared by the members of a group or community. It is learnt and
acquired by individuals through language. It is transmitted from one generation
to another through training and education.
iii) Culture is an expression of human beings’ unique capabilities and potentialities.
On the other hand, it plays an active role in the fulfilment of these potentialities.
Culture has been instrumental in the evolutionary survival of human race.
iv) Culture is significantly related to biological processes. It regulates the manner
in which basic biological urges, such as hunger, thirst and sex, are satisfied.
Consequently, there are tremendous variations in respect of satisfactions of
these urges.
v) Cultural processes have a significant bearing on health and sickness in society.
Factors such as class, occupation, urbanisation and food habits are significantly
correlated with certain types of diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes and
ulcer.
29
Culture and Religion vi) The respective roles of men and women are not determined by biological
processes, but are defined and influenced by cultural conditions. In other
words, a culture defines what roles and activities are appropriate for men and
women.
21.6 KEY WORDS

Cultural Transmission : The process whereby elements of culture, such as
language, attitudes and beliefs, are passed on from
one generation to another through training and
education.
Endogamy : The system of marrying within one’s own group or
caste.
Exogamy : The system of marriage which requires that a person
may marry only in another group or village.
Fraternal Polyandry : A system of marriage in which a woman is married to
two or more brothers in the same household.
Genetic Transmission : The mechanism whereby the parents pass on
their hereditary physical characteristics to their
offspring.
Gotra : A Hindu clan which traces descent from a common
ancestor.
Lineage : A group of people who are related by blood
ties, and who trace their descent from a common
ancestor.
Polyandry : A system of marriage in which a woman is married to
two or more men at the same time.
Polygyny : A system of marriage in which a man is allowed to
have more than one wife.
Race : A human population whose members share some
hereditary biological characteristics which separate
them from other groups.
Rules of Incest : Universally prevalent rules in human society which
prohibit marital or sex relations among close relatives,
such as between father and daughter, mother and son,
brother and sister.
Shamanism : The widely prevalent belief among privitive
people in the power of medicine men and
sorcerers, who act on behalf of spiritual forces
and heal the sick.
Species Specific : Those characteristics and features, mainly of a
biological and physiological nature, which are unique
to human beings or any other organisation.
Symdolic Communication : Communication through language which is unique to
human beings.
30
Culture 1 : Main
21.7 FURTHER READINGS Characteristics
Bose, N.K. 1971, Cultural Anthropology. Asia Publishing House; Mumbai.,

Bronowski, Jacob, 1977. The Ascent of Man. BBC : London.
Hammond, Peter B., 1971 An Introduction to Cultural and Social Anthropology.
Macmillan : New York.
Honigmann, J.J., 1959. The World of Man, Harper and Brothers : New York.
Kluchohn. C., 1940. Mirror for Man. McGraw-Hill : New York.
Kluckhon, C. and Kelly W., 1945. The Concept of Culture. In Ralph Linton (ed.),
The Sciene of Man in the World Crisis. Columbia University Press : New York.
Thorpe W.H., 1974. Animal Nature and Human Nature, Methuen & Co. : London.

PROGRESS
1) Culture has three major features. It is commonly shared among the members
of a group or community. It is the attribute of a group, rather than an individual
and therefore a social phenomena. It is learnt and acquired by individual human
beings in the course of growing up in a social milieu largely through language.
It is transmitted, through education, from one generation to another.
2) Human being is a unique animal in the animal kingdom because unlike other
animals they do not behave by instinct but according to the cultural pattern of
their society. They use tools of increasing complexity and functionality than
any animal, Culture is unique to the human species.
1) Culture and biological processes are closely related. Culture regulates the
satisfaction of basic biological urges, such as hunger, thirst and sex.
Consequently, these urges are satisfied in scores of ways by various groups
of mankind.
There is a significant correlation between certain types of diseases (such as
hypertension, diabetes and ulcer) and certain cultural factors, such as food
habits, urbanisation, occupation and class. Roles of men and women are not
determined by biological factors. These are conditioned by cultural processes.
2) Race constitutes the differences in physical features and characteristics which
are transmitted generically from one people to another. The racial features
have nothing to do with cultural or linguistic features, although culture is often
confused with them. Culture, as a contrast, is the sum total of human beings
life ways, their behaviour, feelings and thoughts. It constitutes everything that
is acquired by them as social beings.
31
UNIT 22 CULTURE II : DIVERSITY AND
CHANGE
Structure
22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Culture and Environment
22.3 Culture and Society
22.4 Culture and Language
22.5 Structure of Culture
22.5.1 Cultural Patterns
22.5.2 Cultural Traits and Cultural Complex
22.5.3 Cultural Symbols
22.5.4 Cultural Ethos
22.5.5 Cultural Areas
22.5.6 Major Components of Culture
22.6 Cultural Diversity

22.6.1 Cultural Diversity in India
22.6.2 Cultural Diversity and the Unity of Mankind
22.7 Cultural Conditioning

22.7.1 Purity and Pollution in India
22.7.2 Cultural Relativism
22.8 Cultural Change

22.8.1 Acculturation and Diffusion
22.8.2 Diffusion of Paper Making
22.8.3 Story of the Alphabet
22.8.4 Diffusion and Language
22.9 Let Us Sum Up

22.10 Key Words
22.12 Model Answer to Check Your Progress
22.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to describe that:
z Culture and environment are closely related;
z Language is one of the most important agencies through which elements of
culture are shared among the members of society, and through which cultural
32 traditions are transmitted from generation to generation;
z Though culture constitutes a unity of whole, it can be analytically separated Culture II :
Diversity and Change
into its constituent elements, such as traits, patterns, symbols and ethos;
z Cultural diversity and cultural conditioning are the two major dimensions of
the concept of culture; and
z Culture is subject to changes over time.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 21, you have learnt about the main characteristics of culture, You have learnt
how culture has played a crucial role in the survival of human race, and how it
represents the fulfilment of human beings’ unique capacities.
You have also learnt about the relations between culture and biology; the diverse
ways in which human beings basic needs are satisfied; the manner in which the
processes of health and sickness are influenced by cultural factors; and the extent to
which the roles of men and women are defined by culture,
In this unit, we shall carry the discussion further and bring out the relation between
culture and environment, as well as, between culture and language. In this unit you
will learn about the manner in which human behaviour is organised and regulated in
terms of traits, symbols and ethos.
This unit will provide you with a better understanding of the variations and differences
which exist in groups of mankind in all aspects of life, as well as the ways in which
these differences persist and are passed on from generation to generation.
You will also learn how cultural artefacts, traits, inventions and innovations spread
from one region to another. The processes of cultural change are explained with
concrete illustrations.
It is hoped that the two units 21 and 22 will considerably enrich and expand your
understanding of human behaviour. By sharpening your perception and sensitivity,
these units will hopefully provide you with a broader and truly human perspective on
mankind.
22.2 CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

You have learnt in the foregoing unit that culture played a crucial role in the successful
adaptation, and thereby evolutionary survival of mankind. Such innovations and
inventions as the discovery and use of fire, the domestication of plants and animals,
the making of tools and implements, and the use of language greatly helped human
beings in meetings the challenges of the environment.
Both human beings and animals have to adapt themselves to the natural environment.
The adaptation of animals is governed by instinctual mechanisms. Hunan being, on
the other hand, adapts herself or himself to the environment in a variety of ingenious
ways. The great apes, who are zoologically the nearest to human beings, can survive
in tropical conditions and on specialised diets only in very limited numbers. Human
being is capable of living and multiplying on various sorts of diets in all kinds of
environmental conditions. Thus the Eskimos have lived in the freezing cold of the
Arctic; the Lapps who move with the reindeer and live on its milk and meat, have
survived and multiplied in the Iceland of Scandinavia; similarly, the Bushmen, who
live on wild roots, berries and plants, have managed to survive in the hot, sandy
deserts of South Africa. 33
Culture and Religion The environment may be seen as a dependent or an independent variable in different
situations. A harsh habitat, such as the Arctic or desert regions offers a strong
challenge to human communities, particularly when their economic and technological
resources are limited and simple. Consider, for example, the Bushmen of the Kalahari
desert in South Africa, who hunt ostriches in an ingenious manner. The Bushmen
hunter with his small bow and arrow, disguises himself under the skin of an ostrich,
which is mounted on a frame. Then he cautiously joins the herd of ostriches, and
imitates their movements so cleverly that the ostriches do not suspects his presence
at all. When he comes closer to an ostrich, he quietly throws his arrow at it, killing
the animal.
Water is of paramount importance to the Bushmen since the Kalahari desert is one
of the most inhospitable desert regions in the world. They store water in ostrich egg
shells. In addition, they suck roots, bulbs and fruits which contain moisture or liquids.
The interplay between culture and environment is best illustrated through what
anthropologists refer to as transhumance. The pastoral nomads move about with
their livestock from one region to another in search of fresh pastures. The pastoral
Fulani of West Africa, for example, move with their animals almost constantly in
search ;of fresh grazing lands. The Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir and the pastoral
nomads of Nepal move in late spring and summer to pastures at hills where they live
in camps.
The failure of monsoon in certain regions for two or more successive years sometimes
forces the farmers to abandon their villages. They come to be heavily dependent on
their flocks of sheep, goats and other animals, and quite often move with their herds
in search of water and grazing land. In the course of time, many of them shift from
agriculture to pastoral nomadism.
Different groups, who live under the same environmental conditions, sometimes adapt
themselves to the environment in different ways. Consider for example, the Eskimos
of North America. They build their snow houses, called igloos, with blocks of
snow. The igloo provides shelter and comfort in the freezing cold of the Arctic. The
Eskimos hunt the walrus and survive on its flesh and fat. The walrus ivory is used for
sledge runners and for the water-proof boats, known as kavaks, in which the Eskimos
go out on hunting expeditions.
When we compare the Chukchi and the Yukaghir of the Siberian Arctic, who live
under the same harsh climate, as the Eskimos, we find a different pattern ;of adaptation.
The igloo is unknown to them. Skins are attached to a wooden frame, which serves
as a shelter. Unlike the Eskimos, who are hunters, the Siberian tribes are herders,
depending on the reindeer. The reindeers feed on the tundra, and when there is
hardly; any tundra left for the reindeers to graze on, the Chunkchi and the Yukaghir
drive off their herd to a new grazing ground. The women, who are left behind along
with the children, dismantle the skin tents, pack them on the reindeer, and follow the
group.
22.3 CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Society is perceived as a chain of social relations among groups of individuals who
are held together by commonly shared institutions and processes. All processes of
human life-cycle are carried out and regulated in society. Thus, there is an integral
reality of the individual, culture and society. All these are mutually inter-dependent,
34 so that any one of them cannot be adequately understood without reference to the
other. Culture depends for its existence and continuity on groups of individuals whose Culture II : Diversity
and Change
social relations form society.
Human being is generally defined as a social animal. However, their social nature is
not particularly unique to them. A society can exist at the sub-human level. Ants
and bees, for example, have genuine societies. The chimpanzees and Gorillas in the
wild live in their society much like human beings: they form stable relationships; they
move about and hunt in groups.
Culture exists only in human societies. There can be an animal society without culture,
but no human society is found without having to own culture. Consequently, what
differentiates men and women qualitatively from other species of animals is not their
social nature, but their culture. Human being is essentially a cultural or symbolic
animal.
In actual life, society and culture cannot be separated. Even though culture is a
broader category, it cannot exist and function without society. Society, in other
words, is a necessary pre-condition for culture. Similarly, neither society nor culture
can exist independent of human beings.
In the same way culture and civilisation are closely related. Civilisation refers to a
historical phase of culture. A civilisation is characterised by certain distinctive features,
such as cities and urbanisation, occupational specialisation, monumental structures
such as temples, places and tombs, classes and hierachies, and above all, the art of
writing. Civilisation emerged for the first time in human history in ancient Mesopotamia
during the 4th millennium B.C.
22.4 CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

You have learnt in Unit 21 that human beings capacity for symbolic communication
or language sharply differentiates them from other animals. Language plays a crucial
role in the process of enculturation, whereby the individual acquires and imbibes the
values, beliefs, customs and habits of his society. Language facilitates the sharing
and accumulation of experiences and skills; it is also instrumental in the transmission
of cultural traditions from one generation to another. Language has played a pivotal
role in the evolutionary survival of homo sapiens and the continuity of human society.
Language is learnt and acquired by the human child in a social and inter-personal
context. A human being’s mind is especially programmed for learning language, and
a child of average ability can master any complex language of the world, be it Chinese,
Sanskrit or Arabic. The primates, such as monkeys and apes, have quite an elaborate
repertoire of gestures and sounds, which serve as the basis of primate communication.
A rhesus monkey has a vocabulary of somewhere between forty and hundred sounds
and gestures, which are understood by the members of the tribe. They all share the
same vocabulary and use it in exactly the same way, without any variations or re-
combinations. Human languages, on the other hand, are characterised by infinite
variations in respect of vocabulary, usage and expression. The Oxford English
Dictionary, for example contains 2,50,000 words, many of which are derived from
scores of other languages.
Language reflects the cultural patterns and traditions of people. The Eskimo language,
for example, has twelve different words for different kinds of snow, which cannot be
adequately rendered into English or any other language. This is because snow
occupies a central place in the life of the Eskimo. Similarly, the Arabic language has
scores of words for the camel, for which there could be no exact equivalents in 35
Culture and Religion English. The life of the Bedouin nomad in the Arabian desert is centred around the
camel. The Navaho Indians, who are pastoral nomads, move continually from one
pasture to another with their flock of sheep. Their cultural life is reflected in their
language, folklore, myths and legends: their gods and heroes move restlessly from
one place to another. The caste system occupies a central place in the Indian society.
Aspects of caste, such as ritual ranking and notions of purity and pollution, are
reflected not only in behaviour patterns but also in the vocabulary and usage of
Indo-European and Dravidian languages. Thus, aspects of culture, which are of
central importance to a people, find an extensive elaboration in their language.
Language not only reflects the cultural traditions of a people, but it also influences
their perception and thinking. Linguistic patterns in other words, condition, perception
and thought. The Zuni language has a common term for orange and yellow;
correspondingly the Zunis make no distinction between these two shades. The
Hopi language has two grammatical categories, which do not exist in English and
many other languages. The first category has names only for temporary events,
such as thunder, lightning. The second category has names only for long term events,
such as stars, man. The distinction in the Hopi language between these two categories
is indicative of the manner in which the Hopi people organise their experience. Many
Dravidian languages and also a few contiguous Indo-Aryan languages like Marathi
have two First Person Plural Pronouns called Inclusive (of the listener) and Exclusive
(of the listener). The distinction is culturally important for them. Thus, the relationship
between culture and language is one of mutual interaction and influence.
Activity 1
List at least two differences in linguistic usage which have cultural connotation,
such as, dating in the West, in our own Indian language (Hindi, your Mother
tongue/Father tongue). Compare your list with those of other students at your
Study Centre.
22.5 STRUCTURE OF CULTURE

Culture is constituted by inter-related parts of elements. The internal organisation of
culture comprises its structure. The term culture is essentially an abstraction which
is derived from an observation of human behaviour. Human behaviour is organised
and ordered in terms of traits and patterns. Similarly every culture possesses a
unifying principle, a philosophy of life, which permeates every aspect of it. In what
follows, we shall examine the structure of culture in terms of patterns, traits, symbols
and ethos.
22.5.1 Cultural Patterns
A cultural pattern refers to an ordered sequence of behaviour. It represents a form

of behaviour which is shared among the members of a given community or group.
In western society, for example, a man is expected to raise his hat while greeting a
lady on the street. This is a cultural pattern. In Indian society, one touches the feet
of his/her parents, elders and teachers as a mark of respect towards them. This is
also an example of a cultural pattern.
Cultural patterns are of two types; ideal cultural patterns and actual behaviour patterns.
Ideal cultural patterns define how the people of a society should behave in particular
36 situations. But people do not always behave according to the ideal patterns as
defined by their society, they sometimes deviate from them. Actual behaviour patterns Culture II : Diversity
and Change
refer to the manner in which people actually behave in particular situations.
A cultural pattern generally combines two or more elements in a given culture. The
pattern of plough agriculture, which first originated in Western Asia, comprises the
following elements: the plough, animals to draw the plough, domestication of these
animals, grains of rice or wheat to be sown, and fertilisation with dung.
The tradition of untouchability which has been abolished way back in India at the
time of framing of our Constitution in India comprised the following elements: the
notion of inequality among human beings, the ranking of individuals and groups in
terms of high and low, the association of ritual purity and pollution, birth and occupation,
food and touch.
22.5.2 Cultural Traits and Cultural Complex
A cultural trait is the smallest identifiable unit of a culture, such as bow and arrow.
The system of primogeniture, which is prevalent in most parts of India and other
countries and according to which the eldest son succeeds his father after his death, is
an example of a cultural trait.
A cultural complex, on the other hand, is an aggregate of traits. The jajmani system,
which was prevalent in many parts of rural India, provides an illustration of a cultural
complex. The jajmani system refers to a complex network of economic, social and
cultural relationship ‘say’ between a food producing family and an artisan family. ; A
farming family, for example, get its agricultural tools and implements made and repaired
by the former a part of the crop at harvest-time. Thus, the jajmani system, which
represented a reciprocity of relationship, functioned as a cultural complex. However,
in recent times this cultured complex has more or less disappeared even from our
rural societies.
22.5.3 Cultural Symbols
Every culture bestows a special meaning and significance on certain objects and
things. Material objects, colours, figures, and gestures thus assume special importance
for the members of a given culture. They represent cultural symbols.
A flag, for example, is the symbol of a nation. The bindiya or bottu on the forehead
of some Indian women is a traditional symbol of her married status. The use of
sindoor or vermilion in the parting of her hair is also a symbolic index of the same.
The sacred thread worn by Hindu men in India is a symbolic index of the same. It is
a symbolic pointer to their dwija or twice-born status. The vertical or horizontal
marks made with ash or coloured powder on the forehead of an Indian is a symbolic
mark of his/her caste and sect. The Nagas of Assam believe that the forehead is the
special seat of the soul, which needs to be guarded from the evil effect of strangers.
This is done by pasting on the forehead a small fragment of the leaf of wormwood.
This cultural symbol is believed to be efficacious in warding off evil influences.
22.5.4 Cultural Ethos
A culture has two distinctive, but inter-related, aspects. One can be described as
eidos or the external form of a culture, and the other as ethos or the world-view of
a people, their conception of the world and of man’s relationship with the world.
The eidos includes the formal structure of a culture, such as its institutions, customs,
habits, rituals and behaviour patterns. The ethos of a culture refers to its total quality,
the system of ideas and values which permeates and dominates the whole culture.
37
Culture and Religion The ethos of Indian culture is expressed in terms of the concept of dharma which
refers to moral duty or right conduct. It is often described as “the Foundation of the
Universe” in the Indian philosophical thought. The concept of dharma finds
expression in the four life-stages (varnashrama dharma): student, householder, forest
dweller and ascetic. Each of these stages is associated with a distinct set of duties
and obligations.
22.5.5 Cultural Areas
The area in which similar cultural traits are found is called a cultural area. The great
regions of the pacific, such as Australia, Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia and
Indonesia are described as cultural areas, because each one of them is marked by a
concentration of distinctive cultural traits and features.
The present boundaries of states in India, which have been drawn on the basis of
languages, generally represent cultural areas. For example, Rajasthan, Kashmir,
Assam and Tamil Nadu are distinguished from each other not only in respect of the
languages but also in regard to certain distinctive cultural traits and characteristics.
The north-eastern region, in a general sense, may be regarded as a cultural area.
Similarly, the Dravidian south could be broadly regarded as a cultural area, which
differs from North India in respect of temple architecture, kinship system and language.
However, it should be kept in view that a large cultural area also possesses internal
variations.
22.5.6 Major Components of Culture
A culture constitutes a structural unity, in that its various elements or constituent
parts are mutually inter-related and inter-dependent. However, it is possible, for the
purposes of analysis and understanding to delineate the major components or divisions
of culture.
The major components of culture, which are universal in nature, can be analytically
separated into the following units:
i) Technology : it refers to the system of tools, implements and artifacts, made
and used by a people to meet their basic needs.
ii) Economic organisation : it includes the techniques which are employed by
a people in organising the production and distribution of goods and services.
iii) Social organisation : it refers to the framework of social and inter-personal
relations.
iv) Political organisation : it refers to the ways and methods of controlling
conflict, and deals with the maintenance of the social order.
v) Ideology : it includes a guiding set of beliefs, values and ideals.
vi) Arts : that is the forms which ensure the fulfilment of human beings’ aesthetic
urges.
vii) Language : it is the medium through which all the above operate.
38
1) Bring out the relationship between culture and environment in a paragraph of Culture II : Diversity
and Change
about ten lines.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Tick the correct answer
i) Language has played a pivotal role in the evolutionary
survival of homosapiens. Yes No
ii) A cultural trait is one of the largest identifiable unit of
a culture. Yes No
iii) Technology refers to the system of values and beliefs
in society. Yes No
22.6 CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Mankind is characterised by tremendous diversities not only in regard to observable
features but also in respect of languages, religious beliefs and practices, customs and
traditions, and rituals and ceremonies.
You have learnt in Unit 21 that human beings basic needs are satisfied and regulated
through culture. Infinite variations exist in the ways in which these needs are satisfied,
in the manner in which human groups and communities adapt themselves to the
environment, as well as in the expression of universal cultural patterns such as religion,
language technology and art. We shall explain cultural diversity with some illustrations.
There are great variations among different human groups in regard to the disposal of
the dead. The Jews, Muslims, Christians and several other communities bury their
dead. The Hindus cremate the dead. The Parsis in India expose the dead bodies to
vultures. The ancient Egyptians mummified the dead bodies of kings, queens and
other important individuals. In India, dead bodies are sometimes set afloat in the
river Ganga. In addition to these there are other methods of the disposal of the
dead, which are practised by human communities in various parts of the world.
These include, seafold burial, simple abandonment, dismemberment and setting away
in vaults or canoes.
Likewise, religious beliefs, practices and rituals exhibit great variations. Most primitive
people believe that natural objects and phenomena such as trees, rivers and the
stars, have souls. This is known as animism. Others believe in totemism, in which
39
certain species of animals are ritually associated with a clan or a tribe and worshipped
Culture and Religion as its ancestor. The Australian aborigines, for example, trace their descent from an
ancestor, who is symbolically identified with a honey, ant or kangaroo. Many primitive
people also worship the souls of their dead ancestors. On the other hand, there are
religions such as Hinduism which believe in a multiplicity of gods and goddesses,
and which hold that the divine essence permeates the whole universe. Monotheistic
religions such as Judaism and Islam believe in supreme God who is the master and
creator of the universe. Buddhism has no notion of a supreme being.
22.6.1 Cultural Diversity In India
Cultural variations exist in all groups of people world wide. Consider, for example,
Indian society, which has scores of languages and dialects, beliefs and rites, customs
and traditions, habits and behaviour patterns. We shall provide a couple of examples
to illustrate the extent of cultural diversity in India.
The Brahmin constitute a single varna. However the Brahmin in different parts of
the country are not a culturally homogeneous group. They are divided into hundreds
of castes and sub-castes called jatis who marry only among themselves. There are
great variations among the various Brahmin sub-castes in respect of language, food
habits, customs and rituals. The Brahmin sub-castes are divided into two major
sects, the Vaishnava and the Shaivite. These sects are divided into numerous smaller
sects. For example, in South India, the Vaishnava are divided into Madhava and
Shri Vaishnava. The Shri Vaishnava in turn are sub-divided into northern and southern
sects. In North India, the Vaishnava are divided into worshippers of Rama and
worshippers of Krishna. the worshippers of Rama are sub-divided into Madhava
and Ramanandi. The worshippers of Krishna are sub-divided into Chaitanya and
Radha-Vallabha.
There are significant variations among the various Brahmin sub-castes in respect of
food habits. The Kashmiri pandits eat meat, but not fish. The Maithili Brahmin of
Bihar eat meat and fish, but not chicken. Similarly, the Bengali Brahmin and the
Saraswat Brahmin eat fish. The Punjabi, Gujarati and South Indian Brahmin on the
other hand are strictly vegetarians.
There are differences in the various regions of India in respect of dress pattern. In
eastern India the ritual wearing of unsewn garments is widely prevalent. Similarly,
one can enter the inner sanctum of a Jain temple only while wearing an unstitched
piece of cloth. The Brahmin of eastern Nepal eat their food only while wearing
unsewn garments. However, as one moves from Bengal to Western and Northern
India, unsewn garments are replaced by stitched garments.
22.6.2 Cultural Diversity and the Unity of Mankind
Cultural variations among the various peoples of the world may appear to be confusing
and mind-boggling. However behind the facade of diversity lies the fundamental
unity of mankind. All human beings, regardless of social and cultural differences,
belong to a single biological species homo sapiens. All human groups and
populations can inter-breed and produce their own kind. Moreover all human
communities share the cultural universals: the capacity for learning and acquiring
culture, the capacity for language, incest rules, funerary rites, institutions such as
marriage, family and religion, among others.
22.7 CULTURAL CONDITIONING

Human beings, as individuals and as members of groups think, feel, and behave in
40 certain ways because they have been brought up under certain conditions in a given
society or community. The culture of a people influences their perception and attitudes, Culture II : Diversity
and Change
their values and beliefs their habits and customs. In other words, it is largely our
culture which forms our character and builds our personality. This fact is known as
cultural conditioning.
A culture influences and conditions people to attach a special meaning to certain
objects, things and colours. Certain colours, for example, are regarded as auspicious
and are used during festive occasions, ceremonies and rituals. Red is considered
auspicious in most parts of India. Brides are dressed in red in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and several other regions. Green has a special cultural
significance in Maharashtra. When a girl reaches puberty, the first sari presented to
her by her parents is green. The bridal dress is green. A woman wears a green sari
during pregnancy. When her son is married, she receives a green sari as a gift from
the bride’s mother. In South India, particularly Andhra, yellow is considered auspicious
at marriages, house warming ceremonies, and religious functions.
You have learnt in unit 21 that food habits are influenced by cultural factors. This
conditioning manifests itself in strange but interesting ways. Mushrooms, which are
considered a delicacy in the west, are avoided by many vegetarians in India because
they are supposed to resemble meat in texture and taste. Similarly, the Jain vegetarians
have an initial aversion to tomatoes and beetroot because their colour resembles that
of blood.
22.7.1 Purity and Pollution in India
An interesting illustration of the manner in which culture influences and conditions
behaviour is provided by an aspect of the caste system which is known as ritual
purity and pollution.
Pollution is supposed to be brought about by birth, unclean occupation and contact
with death and bodily emissions such as blood, excreta, urine, saliva, nail pairings
and hair. Any contact with these things renders a person impure. Pollution is believed
to be transferable by physical contact. A more interesting aspect of ritual defilement
is known as distance pollution, which is particularly prevalent in South India. It is
believed that pollution or impurity can be transmitted by the mere shadow of an
untouchable, or by his or her proximity within a certain distance.
In Tamil Nadu and Kerala, certain castes in earlier time had to keep a certain distance
between themselves on the one hand and the Brahmins and other higher castes, on
the other so as not to defile the latter. Thus, the Shanar, of the toddy-tapper caste of
Tamil Nadu, contaminates a Brahmin if he approached him within 24 paces. In
Kerala, a Nayar may approach a Brahmin but must not touch him. A Tiyan was
allowed to keep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the Brahmin and a Pulayan
was not permitted to approach him within 96 paces.
22.7.2 Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism is the view that one’s way of life, religion and ideals are to be preferred
to others. This is a narrow, but widely held, view, and antidote to it is provided by
the idea of cultural relativism. Cultural relativism refers to the view that the values,
ideals and behaviour patterns of a people are not to be evaluated and judged in
terms of our own values and ideas but must be understood and appreciated in their
cultural context.
The idea of cultural relativism emphasises the point that we should try to transcend
our own cultural conditioning and make an attempt to understand another culture the
way it is understood by the individuals who participate in it. This requires a measure 41
Culture and Religion of imagination, understanding and breadth of vision. It is only when we set aside our
prejudices and stereotypes about a given people that we can understand them in a
realistic and humane manner.
22.8 CULTURAL CHANGE

Human society is characterised, on the one hand, by the persistence and continuity
of cultural forms and, on the other, by change and innovation. No society can be
totally static or isolated for long periods of time. Changes in a given culture may
come about from its internal dynamics, such as revolutions or upheavals, or from
contact with other cultures. The coming into contact of two or more cultures generally
leads to changes, in different measures, in the interacting cultures. Quite often,
cultural traits and patterns spread from the important centres of civilisation to the
smaller regions. Since the dawn of civilisation in ancient Mesopotamia during the
4th millennium B.C. to the present, the process of cultural borrowing has been going
on in all parts of the world.
22.8.1 Acculturation and Diffusion
When groups of individuals, having different cultural traditions, come into contact,
changes take place in their original cultural patterns. This is referred to as acculturation
or culture contact. Diffusion on the other hand, refers to the spread of cultural traits
and patterns from major centres of civilisation to smaller cultures and occasionally
the other way round. Acculturation and diffusion involve one another.
Diffusion generally refers to the spread of specific cultural traits or elements, whereas
acculturation refers to the changes brought about in whole cultures.
The processes of acculturation and diffusion have been going on in human society
since very ancient times. Thus as far back as the third millennium B.C. we find trade
and cultural relations between the Mesopotamian civilisation and the Indus civilisation.
An interesting illustration of the diffusion of cultural traits is provided by the

mathematical symbol of zero. The zero can increase the value of symbol one to ten,
hundred, thousand and million. The zero was invented, along with the system of
numerals, for the first time in India. This system of numerals was adopted by the
Arabs during the 5th century. Earlier, in Arabic writing only letters were used in
place of numbers. The Arabs, in turn, transmitted the Indian system of numerals to
Europe. Interestingly enough, in English the system of writing numerals is still referred
to as Arabic numerals whereas in Arabic it is described as Indian numerals.
22.8.2 Diffusion of Paper Making
Paper was invented in china during the beginning of the first century A.D. In A.D.
751, the Chinese attacked Samarkand which was under the control of Muslims.
The Arabs repulsed the attack and a number of Chinese were held by them as
prisoners of war. The Arabs were aware of the fact that the Chinese knew the
technique of paper making. They told the Chinese prisoners that they could secure
their release if they taught the Arabs how to make paper. The Chinese prisoners
agreed to the condition and taught the technique of paper making to the Arabs.
42 Within two centuries paper mills were set up in Baghdad and Cairo. Paper making
spread through the Muslim world from Samarkand and reached Europe in 1189. In
the course of time, it spread from Muslim Spain to Italy, France, Germany, England Culture II : Diversity
and Change
and the U.S.A. The following figure brings out the diffusion of paper making from
China through the Muslim world to the West.
The Spread of Paper Making
22.8.3 Story of the Alphabet

Writing originated in ancient Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. Systems
of writing are divided into two main categories, non-alphabetical and alphabetical.
The Mesopotamian system of writing, known as cuneiform or wedge- shaped, was
non-alphabetical. The first alphabetical system of writing emerged during the 18th
century B.C. in Syria and Palestine. It is known as the North Semitic script. It was
written from right to left, and it had 22 characters.
During the 9th century B.C., the Greeks borrowed the North Semitic alphabet from
the Phoenicians. They improved the system. The Greek alphabet is the mother of all
modem European alphabets, including English. The word alphabet comprises the
first two letters of the Greek alphabet, namely, alpha and beta, which in turn were
derived from the first two letters of the Semitic alphabet, namely Aleph and Beth.
The following chart brings out the evolution of the English alphabet from the 18th
century B.C. to the present.
Evolution of English Alphabet
22.8.4 Diffusion and Language

A comparative study of languages provides an interesting illustration of the dimensions
of cultural diffusion. The English language has borrowed and adopted hundreds of
words from Chinese. Indian, Semitic, African and other languages of the world in
the course of its development. Consider, for example, the following words which
are widely used in English but which are of Indian origin: bungalow, chit, loot, jungle,
bamboo, bandicoot, verandah. The following words are of Arabic origin: sofa, 43
Culture and Religion cotton, tamarind, algebra, admiral, cipher, tarrif, alcohol, atlas, arrack. English has
contributed a large body of vocabulary related to technology, industry and mechanics.
Another interesting illustration of cross-cultural diffusion is provided by the manner
in which certain words are borrowed and modified in different languages. The
following chart provides the origin of some English words.
English Arabic Sanskrit
Sandal (wood) Sandal Chandan

Ginger Zanjabil Shrangaver
Camphor Kafur Karpur (which in turn was
drived from the Chinese)

1) Show how the concepts of cultural diversity and cultural conditioning broaden
our understanding of human behaviour. Use about ten lines.
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2) Fill in the blank in the given space.
i) Cultural variations exist not only world-wide but within the same
........................ also.
iii) In the South of India, the Vaishnavas are divided into .................... and
....................
22.9 LET US SUM UP

1) Culture and environment are closely inter-related. The environment may be
seen as an independent or a dependent variable in different situations.
2) There is a close relationship between society and culture. A society may exist
at the sub-human level, but only human society possesses culture. Thus, what
differentiates human beings from other animals is culture.
3) Language reflects the culture of a people; it also influences and conditions
their perception and thinking.
44
4) Though culture constitutes a unity, it can be analytically separated into its Culture II : Diversity
and Change
constituent elements, such as patterns, traits, symbols, and ethos.
5) Communities and groups of mankind in all parts of the world are characterised
by tremendous variations not only in respect of physical and racial features,
but also in regard to religious beliefs and practices, customs and traditions,
rituals and ceremonies.
6) The cultural differences among groups of mankind persist and are passed on
from one generation to another through training and education.
7) No culture can remain static or totally isolated for long periods of time. Cultural
traits, inventions and innovations often spread from the major centres of
civilisations and find their way, often in modified forms, into other cultures.
21.10 KEY WORDS

Acculturation : The coming into contact of two cultures, as result of
which one is influenced by the other.
Cultural Area : The area in which similar cultural traits are found.
Cultural Complex : An aggregate or collection of cultural traits.
Cultural Conditioning : The process whereby the thought and behaviour of
individuals in a given society are influenced by its culture.
Cultural Ethos : The world-view of a people.
Cultural Relativism : The view that the values and ideals of a culture are to be
judged in their own terms.
Cultural Symbols : Objects and things which are endowed with a special
meaning or significance by people.
Cultural Trait : The smallest identifiable unit of a culture.
Cultural Universals : Institutions and cultural patterns which are universally
found in all human regions.
Ritual Pollution : The belief that contact with unclean occupations,
untouchable persons, death and bodily emissions
renders a person impure.
Transhumance : The regular movement of pastoral nomads with their
livestock in search of fresh pasturage.
Tundra : A treeless plain, comprising black mucky soil and a
dense growth of dwarf herbs.

Beals, Ralph L. and Harry Loijer, 1956. An Intorduction to Anthropology,
Macmillan : New York.
Herskovits, Melville J. 1969. Cultural Anthropology, Oxford and IBH : Delhi.
Honigmann, J,G, 1959. The World of Man, Harper and Brother : New York.
45
Culture and Religion Kroeber, A.L. 1953. Anthropology Today : An Encyclopaedic Inventory,
University of Chicago Press : New York.
Sills, David L. (De.) 1968. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,
Macmillan and Free Press : New York.

PROGRESS
1) Culture and environment are closely related. Human communities and groups
adapt themselves to their environment in a variety of ingeneous ways.
Environmental conditions facilitate, as well as block, the fulfilment of human
potentialities in different situations. A harsh environment, such as the Arctic
or desert regions, creates greater problems of adjustment, especially when
the economic and technological resources of a people are limited.
A community or group may relate differently to the same milieu at different
times. In the same way, different groups in the same environment may adapt
themselves to their habitat in different ways.
2) i) Yes. (See Section 22.4)
ii) No. (See Section 22.5.2)
iii) No. (See Section 22.5.6)
1) The concept of cultural diversity makes us aware of the tremendous differences
which exist among groups of mankind in respect of languages, religious beliefs
and practices, customs and traditions. It also makes us aware of the diverse
ways in which human beings adapt themselves to the environment, and the
different ways in which their basic needs are satisfied.
The concept of cultural conditioning, on the other hand, brings to our awareness
the fact that the differences among groups of mankind in respect of values,
ideas and behaviour are neither biologically given, nor are they genetically
transmitted from parents to children.
Human beings think, feel and behave in certain ways because they have been
brought up in a given social and cultural milieu. These distinct ways of thinking
and behaviour are acquired by individuals through the cultural process.
2) i) Country
ii) Madhavas, Shri Vaishnavas.
46
UNIT 23 VALUES
Structure
23.0 Objectives
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Values in Social Sciences
23.2.1 Definition of Values
23.2.2 Nature of Values
23.3 Distinction Between Values and Norms

23.4 Values in Personality and Socio cultural Systems
23.4.1 Human being as a Value-creating and Value-fulfilling Animal
23.4.2 Hierarchy of Values
23.4.3 Values as Core of Culture-Personality
23.4.4 Values and Environment
23.5 Change in Systems of Values In Indian society

23.5.1 Values in the Vedic Period
23.5.2 Values in the Post-Vedic Period
23.5.3 Values in the Buddhist Period
23.5.4 Manusmriti : Veda of the Brahmanical Revival
23.5.5 Values in the Islamic Period
23.5.6 The Modern Value System
23.6 Let Us Sum Up

23.7 Key Words
23.0 OBJECTIVES
On studying this unit you should be able to:
z describe what values are;
z distinguish between values and norms;
z explain how values integrate personalities and cultures; and
z discuss how they change from time to time in the same society.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
By now you are familiar with the fact that cultures differ from one another and a
person belonging to the same culture behaves more or less in the same way.
Underlying such differentiation and similarities are values and norms. In this unit you
will learn about the meaning of values and how values can be distinguished from
47
Culture and Religion norms. You will also learn about the role of values in the personality formation and
the socio-cultural system. In this unit we have discussed the process in which values
change within a society from one period to another. As an example we have discussed
the change of values in Indian society from the Vedic period to the modern times.
23.2 VALUES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

It is not easy to define social values. Like most terms employed in the social sciences,
the term value too has been taken from common parlance. And in common parlance
the same word is used by various people in a number of different senses. However,
when we use a word in scientific discussion, we should do our best to make its
meaning as precise and well-defined as possible. Otherwise statements would
become loose, and discussions are likely to be confusing. Unless crucial terms are
properly defined, it would be difficult to make headway in understanding and analysis
and in furtherance of knowledge through research work.
23.2.1 Definition of Values
Broadly speaking, values are conceptions of the desirable, which influence selective
behaviour. Values may be defined as the criteria and moral judgement or certain
subjective standards through which individuals or groups distinguish between good
or bad, true or false and between ought to be or not to be etc. It shapes individual
personality, social morality and guides individuals to be a part of or function within
distinctive socio-cultural system.
23.2.2 Nature of Values
Values are the generally accepted basic assumptions about what is right and important.
They define the purposes of life and the means of achieving them. According to
International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences (ISSS: 1968) all “purposive actions
fall within the boundaries of evaluative action. Within purposive actions we can
identify three main kinds of value: conative (desire, liking), achievement (success
versus frustration), and affective (pleasure versus pain or unpleasantness)”.
Some writers take such view of this concept that for them anything good or bad is a
value, or a value is anything of interest to a human subject. However, it seems
inappropriate to extend the meaning to the terms so widely as to make it meaningless.
Activity 1
In what ways do you think values are changing in society today? Observe
different relationships, such as, between father and son, daughter and mother,
teacher and the taught in you family/community. Write an essay of two pages on
“The changing Values in My Society.”
Discuss your essay with other students and your Academic Counsellor at your
Study Centre.
23.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN VALUES AND

NORMS
Values and norms are deeply related to each other; both are concerned with accepted
assumptions about what is considered to be right or wrong, or desirable or
undesirable. Values constitute the basis of norms. Norms depend upon values and
48
are justified through standards of “true”, “good” and “beautiful”.
Relatively speaking, values are more general and abstract then norms. Norms are Values
relatively more specific: they refer to sets of expected behaviour associated with a
particular situation or with a given position in the social order. Widely shared values
such as truthfulness, loyalty or respect for elders find expression through (relatively)
concrete norms which vary with different situations; strata and professions.
Values : Touching the Fect of Elders
Norms themselves are sometimes evaluated. Behaviour conforming to two different

norms (both of which may be acceptable) may be regarded as better or worse in
terms of values which are more fundamental.
Norms provide specific rules about what should be done or should not be done by
various kinds of actors in particular situations. On the other hand values are abstract
standards of desirability, so that they are relatively independent of specific situation.
Since values are more general, the same value may be embedded in a wide variety
of norms. For instance, the values of respect and obedience to superiors underline
various sets of norms related to widely different institutions such as the family, military,
schools, and administrative, political or religious organisation.
On the other hand, it is not unusual for a particular norm to embody simultaneously
a number of separable values. For example, the norms which forbid cheating in an
examination are based on several values such as those of honesty, achievement,
equality of opportunity and pursuit of knowledge.
Apart from the differences in the levels of generality and specificity, another useful
basis of distinction exists between values and norms.
This is the field of value inquiry which refers to attitudinal directives like choice
preference, likes and dislikes while the field of normative inquiry refers to those
attitudinal directives which consist of obligations and prescriptions. We can also
define values as the preferred mode of orientation to specified categories of human
experience. The characteristics of norms can be best explained in comparison with
categories of values. Therefore, since values involve preferences whereas norms 49
Culture and Religion involve prescriptions, there are higher degrees of freedom and more room for
deviance in the realm of value orientation.
Values provide standards for judging a wide variety of aspects of socio-cultural life:
actions, goals, means, ideas, attitudes, qualities, objects, persons and groups.
Dominant values have been found to involve (i) extensiveness, (ii) persistence
(duration), (iii) intensity (iv) prestige of value carriers.
1) Define values and describe its nature. Use about five lines.
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2) How are values different from norms? Give an example. Use about five
lines.
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23.4 VALUES IN PERSONALITY AND SOCIO-

CULTURAL SYSTEMS
Values play an important part in the integration of the personality and the socio-
cultural systems. They serve as the means of forestalling, resolving or minimising
conflict both at the level of personality and that of the system of social interaction.
23.4.1 Human Being As a Value-creating and Value-fulfilling Animal
As Radhakamal Mukerjee (1960: 10), whose contribution to the study of values is
widely recognised, points out that human beings create values and also fulfil them.
This particular ability affects both the formation of personality and the formation of
groups and institutions in society. In this sense human beings are not only the source
of values but also those who judge the behaviour involved in day to day functioning
of society.
A difference is sometimes drawn between personal and social values. However,
even those values which are regarded as personal, are largely acquired by the
individual from the society, or a segment of it, to which he/she belongs. A human
infant is hardly a social being or person at the time of its birth, though it does possess
50
the potentiality to become one. It is through the process of socialisation that it Values
becomes a social being or a person. Internalisation of the values of the group is an

integral and important part of this process of socialisation.
23.4.2 Hierarchy of Values

A person does not attach equal importance to all his or her values. There is a
hierarchy of values. In a situation of competing claims, the lower values must yield to
the higher one. Thus, when the examinations are close, a student would rather study
than go to see a movie. Undoubtedly, in many situations the individual is faced with
a conflict of values. But these conflicts are resolved or kept to a minimum through
the hierarchical ordering of values. In the absence of such hierarchy of values, the
integration of an individual’s personality is likely to be seriously threatened, and his
actions may become chaotic.
A socio-cultural system too is integrated through a degree of coherence among its
diverse values and the general consensus about their hierarchical ordering. According
to Radhakamal Mukerjee (1960: 13) the values pertaining to various aspects of life,
such as economic, political, moral or religious, form a network. The values of all
social groups and institutions like political, economic, religious, etc., also affect each
other in the process of interaction and they overlap with each other.
23.4.3 Values as Core of Culture - Personality

Sets of values form the core and ethos of every culture. People belonging to a
culture, however, are often not conscious of many of the values, for, values are
internalised and become a part of their personality. Radhakamal Mukerjee (1960 :
13) says that a normal person is one who successfully obtains a balance between the
various conflicting values and goals faced in life. When a person is unable to resolve
the value conflicts it leads to severe mental strain and imbalance in his or her personality.
Therefore, he considers that in all normal human beings the person should be a
“whole” person just as a normal society is that which is an integrated whole.
23.4.4 Values and Environment

Values also reflect a society’s adjustment to environment. Those activities and objects
which promote adjustment are assigned a higher value. For example, the tribals
who are dependent on hunting and gathering assign high degree of value to their
bows and arrows and to the preservation of the forest as well. Indeed different
aspects of life and spheres of activity have different kinds of value.
1) How is a human being a value-creating and a value-fulfilling animal? Describe
in about four lines.
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51
Culture and Religion 2) In what way people resolve conflicts of values in their daily life? Use about
five lines.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) Tick the correct answer.
i) Social values and personal values are both acquired
by the individual from its society. Yes No
ii) Hierarchy of values leads to conflict of values
in an individual’s personality. Yes No
iii) Values have much to do with the environment and
culture of a society. Yes No
23.5 CHANGE IN SYSTEMS OF VALUES IN

INDIAN SOCIETY
Though systems of values are quite stable and tenacious, they do undergo basic
changes in course of time. Values are strongly bound to other aspects of the social
system to which they belong; and change in the value system goes hand in hand with
changes in the social system as a whole. Whether it is the change in the value system
that causes social change, that is, the change of the social system; or it is some other
factors which bring about basic social change, including a change in the value systems
- is a question on which opinion is sharply divided. Let us have a glimpse of the
change in the system of values of the civilisation to which we ourselves belong.
It is customary to talk of “Indian Values” in a way as if all sections of Indian people
share the very same values in all historical eras. This is obviously not so. Besides
variations in the value systems of the people of different strata and other segments of
Indian society, the values of the dominant elites themselves have undergone
tremendous changes over various socio-cultural eras, about which we have ample
evidence from textual and other sources.
Since socio-cultural systems are wholes, attempts to study particular values in isolation
from the dynamics of the system as a whole tend to remain superficial. Sometimes
they are even misleading. This is all the more true in the case of traditional socio-
cultural systems, such as that of India, which have grown over long periods of time;
when their structural and cultural elements have developed a high degree of
consistency. We shall therefore view the changes in the Indian value system in the
perspective of the dynamics of the traditional socio-cultural system as a whole from
the Rigvedic times onwards. This would illustrate how the systematic values of a
civilisation which has maintained remarkable continuity have undergone numerous
changes in the course of time.
23.5.1 Values in the Vedic Period
Rigveda, the earliest literary source, provides us a good deal of information about
the people who migrated and settled in India around 1500 B.C.
52
It tells us that the militant Aryans destroyed ninety nine cities and overpowered their Values
inhabitants, who are referred as “dasa”. After the victory, the following pattern
appears to emerge.
i) Conflict of Values Between the Conquerors and the Vanquished
The vanquished people are referred to as dasa (slave) and pani. The pani are
portrayed as wealthy traders. The cattle wealth of the pani was a great attraction
for the Aryan. Being traders the pani did not want to part with their cows and other
wealth without compensation. The tendency of pani to expect something in exchange
for everything that they gave, appeared absurd to the semi-nomadic Aryan.
Such a clash of race and culture between the Aryan and the non-Aryan contributed,
in a myriad subtle ways, to the shaping of the Indian traditions of culture and patterns
of values. The varna stratification, the distinctiveness of the elite and the folk streams
of culture, and the double standards that prevail in the sacred and the secular law -
all these owe a good deal to this clash, and the consequent patterns of adjustment
that came into being .
ii) Duality of Norms and Values
The hatred towards the racially distinct subjugated people found expression in social
values and norms. In Rigveda, we find two sets of norms, one for the Aryan and the
other for the non-Aryan. The poet, Samvanana, exhorts Aryans to live together in a
spirit of harmony and unity. He says, “May you go together, speak together, may
your minds know together just as the gods of earlier times take their portions together”.
But none of the poets of Rigveda ever expressed the desirability of the Aryan living
peacefully with the dasa.
It would appear thus that the foundations of the valuational patterns that have persisted
till the present day were laid long ago, perhaps in the Vedic era itself. The facts
briefly mentioned above indicate how the Aryan priests and warriors had begun to
look upon the non-Aryan traders (Pani) as a perennial source of wealth for extortion
and the dasa as the people whose only duty was to serve the Aryan master. The
elaborate legal system found in the Smriti, which prescribes different codes of conduct,
privilege and penalties for persons of different Varna. This also has its roots in the
double standards of morality and law for the Aryan and the non-Aryan laid down in
the Veda.
However, after the Aryan settled down in the Indo-Gangetic plains and established
a working relationship with the pre-Aryan people, their militant spirit declined. They
took over many non-Aryan values and beliefs. Conflicts within the Aryan elites also
began to take shape. Through the Brahmana Grantha, the priestly Brahmana asserted
their superiority over the Kshatriya who were kings and warriors. Many elaborate
and expensive yajna were prescribed for which the Kshatriya had to pay. The
Kshatriya revolted against this dispensation. Their protest found expression in the
Upanishad.
23.5.2 Values in the Post-Vedic Period
In the Upanishad, the knowledge of the Self is considered the ultimate aim of life.
Persons from all walks of life participated and made contribution to it. The language
of Upanishad was easy to understand and therefore attracted people. People
belonging even to the younger generation of the priestly elite had lost their interest in
the intricate sacrifice and rituals. This wave gave a strong blow to the supreme position
of the priestly elites as well as to the Varna hierarchy.
53
Culture and Religion It appears that by the time of the Upanishadic era, the notion of racial purity was
compromised to such an extent that it became a part of the ritual purity. Thus for
getting formal entry into the community, it was made obligatory for each child to
undergo certain sacraments or Sanskara. From conception to death, these
sacraments are to be performed to mark the turning points in a person’s life.
It seems that in all traditional societies, whenever the elites want to get rid of the
immediate past, they try to revive the ancient past. Due to the long interval of time,
a complete revival of the bygone age is never possible. Usually what is revived is
only some outer form of the ancient past. During the Upanishadic era the values of
Varna-hierarchy lost their hold. The lower castes, women and the younger generation
of elites revolted against the traditional social order. During this era many popular
non-Aryan values got entry into the elite stream. The stronghold of the priestly elites
loosened to such an extent that even the priests had to get acquainted with the newly
emerging metaphysical ideas.
23.5.3 Values in the Buddhist Period
The social values sought to be re-established in the Post-Vedic period were challenged
again by Buddhism. The impact of Buddhism was very great. Unlike Brahmanical
elites, Buddha preached in the common man’s language. He preached equality of
all human beings. The Brahmanical lore was in Sanskrit. It was the preserve of the
elite only. Buddha’s teachings were open to all castes. Buddha attacked the great
Vedic sacrifices and declared them wasteful and futile. Buddhism became popular
among rulers, well-to-do merchants, artisans and peasants.
The value of equality among castes and the stress on hard work and frugality
propagated by Buddhism, promoted industrial and business activity. People made
remarkable progress in trade and industry during this era. Many industries and
crafts are mentioned in Buddhist literature. The Jataka mentions eighteen types of
guilds of artisans and workers. They are mentioned as sheni or puga (seni and
puga in Sanskrit). The royal court recognised these guilds. There used to be a
head craftsman in each guild. He is called Jethaka or pamukha (jyeshtha or
pramukha in Sanskrit). He was an important member of the royal court. Gradually
there developed a prosperous commercial class.
Buddhism disturbed the caste hierarchy and the division of society entirely on the
basis of birth. The racial factor which was the basis of colour doctrine got another
jolt from foreign hordes who continually came to India. They fulfilled very well the
criteria of white complexion and blond hair propounded by Patanjali as the physical
qualities of a Brahmana.
23.5.4 Manusmriti: Veda of the Brahmanical Revival
Therefore in order to maintain the uniqueness of the Brahman the criteria of racial
purity had to be replaced by ritual purity. The Brahman too had lost their racial
purity to some extent, despite theoretically emphasising the colour/doctrine. Still
another threat was from the pre-Aryan darker people who were at the lower rungs
of the social hierarchy. They constituted the majority in the society. Their norms
and culture were basically different from the Aryan.
In order to survive, the priestly elites had to meet all these challenges, and at the
same time revive the flickering Brahmanical tradition. In this period of crisis
Manusmriti, the Veda of the Brahmanical revival, appeared on the horizon. Unlike
the Sutra of the Post-Vedic period which were recognised to be creations of human
54 being, Smriti were presented as the dictates of mythical seers. It is indeed appropriate
to attribute the Manusmriti, the grand treatise of revivalist era, to Manu, the primeval Values
father, since work really laid the foundations of the social and moral order supposed
to be based on Vedic tradition.
23.5.5 Values in the Islamic Period
Impact of Islam in India can be traced back to the Arab conquest of the Sind in the
beginning of the eighth century. The Muslim, population in India was sixty million in
1973. In 1991 (Census 1991) the population of Muslim in India was about 101
million which is about 12.1% of total population of India. Historically and sociologically
speaking Islamic values play a very important role in the cultural tradition of India.
When we talk about the values in the Vedic period, in the Upanishadic period, and
so on, we are basically talking about the Hindu Great tradition. In contrast, the
Islamic Great tradition is founded on a world-view which more or less “is non-
hierarchical, is purely monotheistic, and messianic-historical in ethos” (Singh 1973 :
68). It is non-hierarchical in the sense that according to Islam all men are equal in the
eyes of God, unlike the Hindu tradition. In the Hindu tradition, as Manu has accorded,
the Brahmin are at the top; the Kshatriya are next to them, followed by the Vaishya
and at the lowest rung are the Sudra.
Islam is monotheistic in the sense that its people believe in the existence of one
supreme God, unlike Hinduism where multitude of Gods and Goddesses are
worshiped. It is messianic-historical in ethos because its origin is traced to the time
of Abrahim, or Ibrahim. From the sons of Abrahim the three religions of Christianity,
Islam and Judaism are traced. It believes in the notion of messiah who will redeem
the world and that there will be the day of judgement when the world ends.
Islamic values, like Hindu values, or for that matter any other values, have not remained
constant. There has been a lot of intermixture between Hinduism and Islam. Sufism,
a sect of Muslim religious mystics, has the elements of ‘bhakti’ of Hinduism. Similarly,
Sikh religion has values of both the great traditions, Hindu, as well as Islam. Because
of a long period of socio-cultural interaction the Muslim population of India had
elements which are not present amongst the Muslims of other countries. They have
caste-like structures in their society. Certain customs are also borrowed from the
Hindu population. Similarly, the Hindu communities have borrowed the custom of
‘purdah’ or veil in North India from the Muslims.
23.5.6 The Modern Value System
The traditional value system of India, which formed the basis of its social structure
and institutions for more than fifteen hundred years, began to show signs of rapid
change and decline as a result of the impact of modern social forces. These forces
were brought about, for the most part, by the British rule. The change did not come
merely because the rulers were foreigners. It came about primarily because the
British represented a radically different type of society - the modern, industrial-capitalist
society in all its economic-technical, political-legal, and cultural-ideological dimensions.
Moreover, the industrial-capitalist civilisation is an expanding one. It cannot leave
the traditional societies to continue as they have been. Because of its own dynamics,
it tends to bring about structural and valuational changes in the traditional societies.
i) The British Rule and Indian Value System
The impact of the British rule on the Indian society gave birth to an urban middle
class which had values that were not only different but even opposed to the traditional
values. It became imbued with the values of modern capitalist society such as
55
Culture and Religion individualism, rationality, competitiveness, acquisitiveness, and activeness. This was
a far cry from the unified life of the traditional society where the values of co-operation
and contentment prevail. In India the concept of individualism never existed, except
in the case of the ‘sanyasi’ otherwise family group was the basic unit of society to
which every person belonged.
Impact of the British rule also opened the channels of communication between the
Indian elites and the Western society. The English language became the window
through which, the Indians could view the changes in Western society. They imbibed
the values of freedom. The notions of equality, liberty and fraternity came to be
understood and internalised by them. Notion of democracy and self-rule or swaraj
became a popular ambition for our leaders during the national movement for freedom
in India. In fact, we can see the impact of western values on our national leaders
such as, from Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Vivekanand, Gandhi, Nehru and Tagore.
ii) Impact of Modern Values on Indian Villages
Modern values did not remain confined to the cities. Modern forces brought about
a basic transformation in the relationship between urban centres and the villages; and
thus the life and values in the countryside also began to change. It was not that
because of the new means of transport and communication, peasant villages were
connected with transport and communication, for the first time. In peasant civilisations
villages are always related with towns. Unless a stable relationship existed between
the villages and the towns the latter could not have survived as they did not produce
such essential things as food and cotton. The fact is that a certain kind of relationship
always existed between the villages and the towns belonging to the peasant civilisation;
but the modern economic, technological, political and cultural factors have brought
about a qualitative change in the nature of this relationship, thereby beginning a process
of transformation of the village life itself.
In the traditional peasant civilisations, towns thrive on the revenue collected from the
villages. Apart from getting such surpluses from the villages, the towns people are
not interested in transforming the countryside or in manipulating its life in any way.
This picture changes dramatically when towns become centres of commerce and
industry. Now the towns people make an all out effort to sell the mass-produced
goods in the country side, and to acquire cheap labour and raw material from there.
This has important consequences for the traditional way of life in the villages. The
village industries decline, and together with mass-produced commodities which are
pumped into the villages, modern attitudes and values also invade the rural areas.
The production in the villages also is motivated more and more by the desire for
earning the maximum profit, rather than primarily fulfilling one’s requirements.
Together, with this, the values of individualism, competition, and unlimited
acquisitiveness also has gathered strength.
Activity 2
Are the values of idealism, patriotism, humanism still important to us in India or
the values of “Money mindedness” or achievement oriented behaviour along
with consumption orientation become important to us? Comment on this in
about one page and share your views with other students and Academic
Counsellor at your Study Centre.
Modern forces dealt a blow to folk values, as well as to the folkway of life. In
56
traditional, peasant civilisations, the basic values underlying the elite and the folk
traditions of culture were the same. The difference between the two traditions was Values
primarily that of the degree of refinement, systematisation, and self-consciousness.

It was because of the sharing of the basic values and worldview that the traditional
elite culture did not damage or weaken the folk cultures, even though they were in
constant interaction with each other. The modern elite culture on the other hand is
imbued with values which are not only different from folk values but are opposed to
them. It is not surprising, therefore, that the influence of modern elite culture poses
a threat to the very existence of folk culture and folk values. We find thus that
although the values of a social system tends to form a coherent and relatively stable
pattern, they do not remain static.
1) In what way were the values of the Aryans different form the Pani? Explain in
about six lines.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
i) Social values and norms in the Vedic period reflected
the hatred felt by the subjugated people. Yes No
ii) Poets of Rigveda expressed the desirability of the Aryan
to live peacefully with the Dasa. Yes No
iii) In the Upanishad, the knowledge of the self is
considered to be the ultimate aim of life. Yes No
iv) Buddha attacked the great Vedic sacrifices and
declared them wasteful and futile. Yes No
v) The concept of hierarchy is central to Islamic values. Yes No
23.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt about the meaning of values in social sciences and how
values are different from norms in several ways. You have also come to know about
the role of values in the personality structure and socio-cultural systems of society.
The unit has also explained the process in which the values change with time in the
same society and how the historical circumstances shape and reshape the values of
a society.
57
23.7 KEY WORDS
Achievement : a result brought about by resolve, persistence or endeavour.
Acquisitiveness : the behaviour which implies a strong desire to acquire or possess.
Affective : belonging to the sphere of emotions.
Attitudinal : according to the personal attitudes or feelings or judgements.
Cognitive : that which can be known, including both the processes of
awareness and judgements, such as good and bad, ugly and
beautiful etc.
Conative : an inclination (such as an instinct, a drive, a wish or a craving) to
act purposefully.
Concreteness : something which is definite, factual and real.
Generality : something which is present in all cases, that is which is common
to all.
Psychic : which belongs to the sphere of the mind or that which is mental.
Specificity : the condition of being peculiar to a particular individual or group
of organisms.

Arrow, Kenneth J., 1951. Social Choice and Individual Values, Wiley : New
York.
Deva, Indra, and Shri Irama, 1986. Traditional values and Institutions in Indian
Society. S.Chand : New Delhi.
Kluckhohn, F.R. and Fred, L.S., Variations in Value Orientations, Row, Peterson,
New York, 1961.
Morris, Charles W., 1956. Varieties of Human Value. University of Chicago Press :
Chicago.
Pepper, Stephen C., 1958. The Source of Value. University of California Press :
Berkeley.
23.9 MODEL ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Values are conceptions of the desirable which influence selective behaviour.
They are deeply associated with the human personality and the socio-cultural
system of the society. They are the generally accepted basic assumptions of
what is right and important in society and what is not. Values define the
purposes of life and the means of achieving them.
2) Values are intimately related to norms since they constitute the basis of norms.
Norms depend upon values and are justified through standards of values like
“true”, “good” and “beautiful”. However, norms are more specific in
58 comparison with values which are more general and abstract. Norms are
more prescriptive or prohibitive and therefore, involves lesser freedom than Values
values.
1) Human being is a value-creating and a value-fulfilling animal in the sense that
she or he is not only the fountain of values but also makes value judgements
which are embodied in all inter-personal goals, relations and behaviour in the
normal functioning of groups and institutions.
2) People resolve the conflicts of values which they face in their daily life by
placing these values in a hierarchy. According to the priority of their goals in
life and actions required to fulfil those goals, they follow these values. Therefore,
value conflicts are resolved through the process of selection of each value.
3) i) Yes (See section 24.4.1)
ii) No (See section 23.4.2)
iii) Yes (See section 23.4.4)
1) the Aryan were the conquerors, robust and lively in spirit. They were militant
and being semi-nomadic they did not believe in accumulation. They readily
shared their food with their guests. While the Pani were the vanquished people
who were the wealthy traders of that time. Being traders they did not like
parting with their wealth, including cattle, without getting something in
compensation.
2) i) Yes (See section 23.5.1.2)
ii) No (See section 23.5.1.2)
iv) Yes (See section 23.5.3)
v) No (See section 23.5.5)
59
UNIT 24 NORMS
Structure
24.0 Objectives
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Nature of Social Norms
24.2.1 Changing Nature of Social Norms
24.2.2 Gesellschaft and Gemeinschaft Norms
24.2.3 Discord in Norms
24.3 Aspects of Norms

24.3.1 Folkways and Mores : Kindred Concepts
24.3.2 Types of Norms
24.3.3 Integration and Conflict of Norms
24.3.4 Diversity of Norms in Different Cultures
24.4 The Function of Norms in Socialisation and Social Control

24.4.1 Deviance
24.4.2 Anomie
24.5 Let Us Sum Up

24.6 Key Words
24.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
z describe the characteristics of norms;
z discuss the different types of norms;
z analyse the role played by norms in the integration of society;
z describe the diversity of norms in different cultures; and
z list the function of norms in socialisation and social control.
24.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you are going to learn about the nature of social norms. The ways in
which social norms are changing and the differences between the various types of
norms. Here the diversity of norms in different cultures has been discussed. You
will also learn about the function of norms in the process of socialisation and social
control. The unit discusses the problem of deviance and anomie in society.
24.2 THE NATURE OF SOCIAL NORMS

the use of “norms” as a technical term in the social sciences is rather new. This is
60 shown by the fact that the 1930 edition of the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences
did not even include this term. The word “norm” is derived from the Latin “norms”, Norms
which is a carpenter’s square or rule.
Social norms are standards of behaviour shared by the members of a social group,
to which they are expected to conform. Norms refer to accepted and required
behaviour for a person or a group in a particular setting. They are rules for social
living.
No social structure can survive without social norms; for social structure is made up
of patterned social behaviour, and unless the behaviour of people is regulated by a
vast variety of prescriptive and prohibitive norms, human society is bound to be
thrown into unthinkable chaos.
24.2.1 Changing Nature of Social Norms
Unlike physical reality, human society is sustained by laws that are normative. While
the laws of the physical world operate by themselves and are not disobeyed, the
norms of various kinds which regulate social relationships, and ultimately the social
structure, can be violated and also changed.
Social norms are standards of a group for controlling the conduct of its members in
relation to each other and to the community as a whole. Norms are both prescriptive
and prohibitive. In other words, norms require people to do certain things, and
forbid them from doing certain other things.
Norms surely regulate the conduct of people, but it does not mean that this is
necessarily achieved through physical coercion. As we shall see, there are numerous
kinds of norms and the mechanisms of punishment and reward through which they
control behaviour vary considerably. It may be mentioned, however, that physical
coercion is not really required in most of the cases, because the members of a group
usually take for granted the norms upheld by the group and do not consider it proper
to deviate from them.
Activity 1
List two norms and two values which are part of your society and culture. Write
a note of one page on “Values and Norms : Nature and Distinction”. Share your
answer with other students at your Study Centre and also discuss it with your
Academic Counsellor in your counselling session, if possible.
24.2.2 Gesellschaft and Gemeinschaft Norms

Not all the norms of a society are written down. In fact many of them are not even
specifically spelt out. For example, the rich variety of customs and manners which
govern the behaviour of various members of a joint-family towards each other are
not coded or written down. We learn them by watching the behaviour of our elders
from ever since our childhood. The same is more or less true of other familistic or
primary groups. On the other hand, the norms of the contractual and secondary
groups or associations are more formally laid down. Often the norms or rules which
regulate the associations are written down. On the basis of this difference, Gesellschaft
and Gemeinschaft norms have been distinguished. According to Earl Bell (1961),
the action norms which belong to the Gesellschaft category are both rational and
efficient where the achievement of goals in society is concerned. Only the efficiency
of achieving one’s aims counts in this sphere. Whereas, in Gemeinschaft category
the society or community will follow the traditional ways and habits of doing things
even though they may not achieve results. In spite of the evidences which show the 61
Culture and Religion inefficiency of their methods and procedures, the people keep on following their old
ways.
However, Bell believes that in Gemeinschaft organisation or systems, it is very difficult
to measure the efficiency of the action norms because they are multipurpose. They
are more geared towards the satisfaction of the needs of the members rather than
towards attaining specific goals or ends.
24.2.3 Discord in Norms
Norms are based on values. They prescribe through relatively specific rules what is
considered to be good or desirable by the society as a whole, or by a particular
group. There is a diversity of norms belonging to various groups, and these sometimes
come in variance with each other. For instance, the norms of the family and the
broader kin-group require that one should help his or her kinsmen in every way.
If someone holds a position of power in a government or some other organisation,
he/she is expected to help and provide employment to his or her kinsmen but the
norms of the organisation require a person to select the most efficient candidate.
This is only one example of discord in norms. They arise not only in the norms of
different groups, but also between various norms of the same group. These
disagreements are sought to be reconciled with reference to values which are
considered higher and are more generally accepted. Norms themselves are ordered
as higher or lower in terms of the more general and fundamental values.
1) What are social norms? Explain in about five lines.
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
vi) Social norms are crucial to the survival of any social
structure. Yes No
vii) Physical coercion is often required to make people
follow the social norms of their society. Yes No
viii) All the norms of a society are written and coded. Yes No
ix) The norms which are contractual and formally
laid out are called Gemeinschaft norms. Yes No
24.3 ASPECTS OF NORMS

There are many concepts which are close to the concept of norm, or can be looked
62 upon as its types. For a clear understanding of social norms it is necessary to be
familiar with various terms and concepts that are related to the concept of norm, and Norms
are frequently employed in sociological literature. Among these, “folkways” and

“mores” are used more or less as equivalents of social norms. There are other
widely employed terms such as manners, fashions, customs, institutions, and laws
that represent norms of different types that are supported by various kinds of sanctions
of reward and punishment which go with each of them. In order to be conversant
with the whole array of social norms we must be clear about these also.
24.3.1 Folkways and Mores: Kindred Concepts
It was W.G. Sumner who made popular these concepts through his book Folkways
which was first published in 1906. The terms folkways is so broad that it encompasses
all kinds of social usages and social codes. According to Sumner (1906) folkways
often “are like products of natural forces which men unconsciously set in operation”,
and “are developed out of experience”. He again points out that folkways are “handed
down by tradition and admit of no exception or variation, yet change to meet new
conditions. From this results that all the life of human beings, in all ages and stages of
culture, is primarily controlled by a vast mass of folkways.: Now, we look at the
relations and distinctions between folkways and mores.
i) Relations between folkways and mores
Mores are those folkways which are viewed as regulators of the society. Thus
“folkways” is a wider concept, and those folkways which are considered to be
important for the sustenance of the society are “mores”. In this sense mores are a
kind of folkways, which are more binding than the latter.
ii) Distinctions between folkways and mores
However, some writers treat folkways and mores as separate categories. For
example, Kimball Young and Raymond Mack (1972) observe that in Sumner’s own
work the concept of folkways is employed in a general sense while mores are defined
as a particular kind of folkways but it would help clarity of thought if the two are
distinguished. Young & Mack (1972) have drawn a distinction between folkways
and mores. They say that folkways are more general in comparison to mores; while
mores are folkways which have been given greater importance by the society. To
have a clear conceptual idea about them, it is essential to treat the less important or
significant norms as folkways and more crucial norms as mores. The violation of
folkways is lightly judged while the violation of the morally judged norms or mores is
punished severely.
In comparison to Young & Mack, Broom and Selznick (1963 : 69) believe that the
intensity of feelings and the procedure for enforcing them distinguishes the folkways
from the mores. They say that in the scale of norms, the mores find their place at the
top and the folkways at the bottom. The folkways concerned with such things as
dress, fashion, table manners, etc., do not evoke much emotion. If somebody wears
the wrong clothes at a formal occasion, at the most that person will be asked to
leave or will be ridiculed. However, the dress or uniform of such positions as the
clergy, the military etc., are different since they are not merely clothes. They are
badges of membership and rank which cannot be substituted by other clothes, as in
the case of civilians. These authors maintain that though folkways are considered to
be right proper and rational, objectively they may not be rational.
Koller and Couse (1965 : 665) also treat folkways and mores as distinct concepts.
To them folkways are “customary ways of doing things, but they are not vital to a 63
Culture and Religion society’s well being. Consequently, an individual who fails to conform to a folkway
usually suffers only a mild disapproval”. Mores on the other hand, are viewed as
“essential to a society’s well being. Consequently, they are strictly enforced”.
However, there is much to be said in favour of regarding “folkways” as the broad

category of which mores are the more effective manifestation. The difference between
them is only that of degree; for, all folkways regulate socio-cultural life in some way,
to a greater or a lesser extent.
24.3.2 Types of Norms
Customs, fashions, institutions (in the sense of established procedures) and laws
embody different types of social norms. Different types of norms are upheld by
their particular kinds of sanctions - that is ways of punishment and reward. In fact,
the nature of social sanctions that go with various kinds of norms are good indicators
of the types of norms.
i) Customs as Norms
The primary sanction against the violation of the norms of custom is social disapproval.
Deviation from the norms of prevailing fashions is prevented or minimised through
the fear of ridicule or contempt. And institutions (such as marriage) are procedures
which are established so strongly that they become necessary conditions of behaviour.
Law or legal norms have the power of the state behind them. The violation of law or
legal norms, is punished through fine, imprisonment and even with death penalty.
Customs regulate most of our day-to-day behaviour. They underlie the more formal
order of legal and institutional norms. Customs are socially accredited ways of
action. They are so deeply rooted in the way of life of a society, that people conform
to them almost by force of habit, without being conscious about it. Customs are
seldom coded or written down by the people who are governed by them. They are
group procedures that emerge gradually. They are not enacted by any established
authority. They are spontaneous and yet they are perhaps the most pervasive and
effective of all social norms.
ii) Fashion as Norms
While customs hold sway in traditional societies, modern societies are marked by
the rise of fashions. Fashion is a term which applies to a wide variety of aspects of
life as opinions, beliefs, recreation, dress, jewellery, furnishing, architecture, etc. It
is according to Maclver and Page (1949 : 181) “the socially approved sequence of
variation on a customary theme”. They see fashions changing in a cyclical way with
time. Fashions are cultural factors which are not very much concerned with the
basic values of society, although they do not go beyond the customs. They rather
supplement the customs of the society.
A fashion which is the latest, tends to be the most preferred, even when it may be
ugly or uncomfortable. On the other hand, the older a custom is believed to be,
stronger is its grip on the people, even though it may be unjust or repressive. It
appears thus that a major difference between traditional and modern societies is that
while the traditional societies tend to value whatever is old, modern societies tend to
place a value on whatever is new.
64
Norms
Activity 2
Interview a person from your Grandparents generation, one from your parents
and one from your own generation on the style of dress worn during their times.
Ask them to draw the shape and designs which were fashionable then, today
and during your parents’ generation and the latest style worn by today’s teenagers.
Do you think fashion is linear, cyclical or haphazard. Discuss your findings with
other students at your study centre.
Changing Fashions and Dress Styles
iii) Institutions as Social Norms

The term institutions has been employed in various ways. Some sociologists use it in
such a broad sense that it includes almost anything that is socially established. Maclver
(1949 : 15), however, has defined institution in a narrower sense. According to him,
institutions are “established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group
activity”. In this sense institutions too constitute social norms. These social norms
are so compelling that they become the necessary conditions of behaviour. Institutions
embody more social recognition and compulsion than customs.
iv) Legal Norms
As mentioned already legal norms have the power of the state behind them. In
modern society the state alone wields the ultimate sanction of physical enforcement
through imposition or threat of imposition of fine, imprisonment, or death. Laws are
often derived from customs, but norms become a part of law only when they are
upheld by the state.
24.3.3 Integration and Conflict of Norms
In stable societies, even though there are diverse kinds of social norms, these are
ordered and integrated through values which are unanimously accepted by almost
everyone. In no society there is complete conformity to norms by all the people.
But in stable traditional societies, there tends to be a high degree of unanimity about 65
Culture and Religion basic values and the propriety of social norms that they underline. Yet, even in such
societies, conflict between various norms is not totally absent.
However, in modern complex societies which are marked by unprecedented social
differentiation and a fast rate of social change, conflict of norms reaches new heights.
Such societies tend to have subgroups whose particular norms violate the norms of
the larger social system. For example, there are criminal subcultures. There is also
deviance which does not necessarily come within the perview of criminality. These
lead to deviant subcultures.
A high pace of social change also tends to enhance the conflict of norms, and deviance.
When values are changing fast, it is difficult to judge what is right and what is wrong.
The simultaneous existence of diverse systems of values and norms weakens the
spirit of conformity because of rapid social change as well as vastly increasing contact
between different cultures and ethnic groups. When people know only one set of
values and norms, they tend to adhere to them steadfastly. But when they are aware
of numerous alternative values and norms, they no more consider any of these as
sacred and inviolable. Prime example of role conflict experienced is by women in
contemporary urban life. Women as mothers, as wives, as working women, as
daughters and daughters-in-law experience role conflict in their everyday lives since
the values attached to each role they perform tend to conflict with each other. Even
men in today’s society face role conflict since traditional male superiority expected
from them may conflict with their modern value of treating their women as their
equals.
24.3.4 Diversity of Norms in Different Cultures
Innumerable variations are found in the norms of different cultures. Sociological and
anthropological literature is replete with illustrative material regarding the variety of
norms in different societies, and different strata of the same society. The variety in
norms is so large that it would be difficult even to classify them.
As Maclver and Page (1949 : 20-21) point out, that there are very few universally
prohibited behaviours in society, exception being the taboo on mother-son incest.
There are wide variations in cultural practices. In some societies we find people
covering their heads to show respect, in others uncovering. Some people prohibit
marriage within their community while others prohibit outside the community. In
some societies a strict sex code exists for the married but not the unmarried, while in
others the strictness applies to the unmarried but not the married. Thus, we see that
a great variation in the crucial norms exists from one society to another, from one
social group to another. Maclver and Page, therefore, warn the student of sociology
that to be scientific in our investigations we must develop an unbiased approach to
the study of other cultural systems.
Even in the face of such wide diversity of social norms, ethnocentrism is far from
non-existent. Wide variation in the norms of different societies underscores the
need of viewing social phenomenon in relation to their cultural setting. However,
there is often a tendency to evaluate the ways of other people in terms of our own
norms. This is ethnocentrism. Much of the prevailing social science itself seems to
suffer from deep western ethnocentrism.
66
1) Describe the nature of folkways. Use about five lines. Norms
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Give an example of folkway and mores of society to make a distinction between
the two. Use about six lines.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
i) While customs and institutions are social norms the
fashions are not. Yes No
ii) People conform to the customs of their society
because otherwise they will have problems with
the police. Yes No
iii) Customs are seldom coded or written down by
the people who are governed by them. Yes No
iv) Marriage is an institution found in most societies. Yes No
24.4 THE FUNCTION OF NORMS IN

SOCIALISATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL
Socialisation refers to the processes through which human infants develop into social
beings. Socialisation inevitably involves the internalisation of the social norms of the
group to which the individual belongs. In other word, social norms become a part of
the personality of the individual through the process of socialisation.
Thus an adequately socialised individual does not look upon social norms of his or
her community as outside objects that hinder him or her. On the other hand one
believes them to be right and proper, and tends even to think that one is acting
according to the dictates of one’s own conscience when one conforms to the norms
and values of one’s society.
By social control we mean the way in which the social order is organised and
sustained. In the process of social control, norms play the most crucial part for it is
norms that regulate social behaviour. And without such regulation no stable patterning
of social relationship is possible. Thus social groups; which embody distinctive
patterns of social relationships, cannot survive. The maintenance of social organisation
is unthinkable without the operation of norms. 67
Culture and Religion 24.4.1 Deviance
Norms provide the standards for the control of behaviour of individuals towards
each other, and in relation to various groups and the community as a whole. This
does not mean, however, that there is absolute conformity to social norms by all the
members of a society at any time. Deviance from norms does exist, and there are a
variety of reasons for deviance which merit serious study in terms of general theory
and also with reference to particular societies. Such study would inevitably imply
better understanding of the nature and functioning of social norms.
24.4.2 Anomie
Anomie literally means the lack of norms or normlessness. But the situation of
complete normlessness seldom exists. Sometimes there is lack of clarity about
norms. But the term anomie is more frequently used to indicate ambivalent orientation
towards norms. R.K. Merton has explained anomie in terms of the gap between
culturally defined goals and the legitimate means to reach them.
1) How does a person conform to the social norms of his/her society. Describe
in about five lines.
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What is anomie? How does R.K. Merton describe anomie? Use about two
lines.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
i) When social change occurs very fast, it leads to change of
values at a fast pace giving rise to conflict of norms Yes No
ii) Norms of all societies are the same. Yes No
24.5 LET US SUM UP

You have learnt in this unit about the nature of social norms. You have also learnt
about the kindred concepts and types of norms like the folkways and mores.
Integration and conflicts of norms have also been explained. In this unit the function
of norms in the process of socialisation and social control has been discussed. We
have described the problem of deviance and anomie in society. Finally, diversity of
68
norms in different cultures has also been discussed.
Norms
24.6 KEY WORDS
Ethnocentrism : The attitude that one’s own group is superior.
Fundamental : Anything which forms the basis or the crux of a system or

organisation.
Gemeinschaft : Strong reciprocal bonds or sentiment and kinship within a

common tradition.
Gesellschaft : Impersonally contracted association between persons.
Kindred : Any concept which is related to the given concept or similar

to it.
Oppressive : Any custom which is coercive in nature.
Penalties : Disadvantages imposed on a person or persons for breaking

any rule or norm.
Prohibitive Norms : Any norm which stops a person from doing some thing.
For example, touching one’s husband’s elder brother, in
some parts of India is prohibited.
Regulate : An action which leads to establishment of order.
Sanction : Approval given to an action etc., by custom or tradition.

Bell, Earl H., 1961. Social Foundations of Human Behaviour. Harper : New
York.
Broom, Leonard and Philip Selznic, 1963. Sociology : A Text With Adapted
Readings. Harper and Row : New York.
Sumner, W.G., 1906. Folkways. Ginn & Co. : Boston.
Young, Kimball and Raymond, W. Mack, 1972. Systematic Sociology : Text and
Readings. Affiliated East-West Press : New Delhi.
24.8 MODEL ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Social norms are standards of behaviour shared by the members of a social

group, to which they are expected to conform. The word “norm” is derived
from the Latin “norma” which is a carpenter’s square or rule. Thus, social
norms refer to accepted and required behaviour for a person or a group in a
particular setting. They are rules for social living.
2) i) Yes (See section 24.2)

69
Culture and Religion iii) No (See section 24.2.2)
iv) No (See section 24.2.2)

1) Folkways are described as products of natural forces which people
unconsciously set in operation. These products of natural forces reach a final
form of maximum adaptation to an interest which is then handed down from
one generation to another by tradition. These folkways do not vary much
from one period to another. Yet, they do shape themselves to meet new
conditions within a certain limit.
2) In India to touch the feet of one’s elders is a folkway but if a person refuses to
do that, he or she is not thrown out of the community. One of the mores of
Hindu society is not to eat beef and even now if a Hindu in a village eats beef,
he will be excommunicated from his community. Therefore, to refuse to
conform to a folkway is easy but to refuse to conform to a mores of one’s
society is very difficult.
3) i) No (See section 24.3.2)
ii) No
iv) Yes (See section 24.3.2)
1) A person conforms to the social norms of his or her society through the
process of internalisation of these norms. This internalisation takes place
through the process of socialisation of a person from early childhood to
adulthood status. They become part of a person and his or her habit. They
are also associated with rewards and punishments according to the nature of
the norms.
2) Anomie literally means the lack of norms. Merton has described anomie as
the gap between culturally required goals and the legitimate means to reach
them.
3) i) Yes (See section 24.3.3)
70
Norms
REFERENCES
References cited in Block VI (These are given here for those students who wish to
follow certain points in detail.)
Bell, Earl H. 1961. Social Foundations of Human Behaviour. Harper : New
York.
Bromm, L. and P. Selznick, 1963. Sociology : A Test with Adapted Readings.
Harper and Row : New York.
Durkeim, Emile, 1912. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life : A Study
in Religious Sociology. Allen & Unwin : London.
ISSS, 1968. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. The Macmillan
Co. & Free Press : New York.
Koller, Marvin R. and Couse, Hardd, C. 1965. Modern Society. Holt, Reinhert
and Winston : New York.
Maclver, R.M. and C. Page, 1949. Society. Macmillan : New York.
Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan, 1965. An Introduction To Anthropology.
Asia Publishing House : Mumbai-Kolkata
Malinowski, B., 1948. Magic, Science and Religion and other Essays. Free
Press : Glencase III.
O. Dea, Thomas F. 1966. The Sociology of Religion. Prentice Hall, Inc.:
Englewood Cliffs.
Singh, Yogendra, 1973. Modernisation of Indian Tradition. Thomson Press
(India) Ltd. : Delhi.
Sumner, W.G. 1906. Folkways. Ginn & Co. : Boston.
Tylor, E.B. (1987). Primitive Culture. Room Smith : Gloucester.
Young, K. and Raymond, Mack W., 1972. Systematic Sociology : Text and
Readings. Affiliated East-West Press : New Delhi.
71
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1.2 What is sociology?

1.3 Major Concerns of Sociology

1.4 Some Founding Fathers

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.2 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

1.2.1 Concept of Society and Culture

1.2.2 Emergence of Sociology

Box 1.1: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

1.2.4 Kinds of Social Groups

Check Your Progress 1

1.3 MAJOR CONCERNS OF SOCIOLOGY

1.3.1 Concept of Culture

1.3.2 Sociology and Science

Check Your Progress 2

1.4 SOME FOUNDING FATHERS

1.4.2 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

1.4.3 Max Weber (1864-1920)

1.4.4 Karl Marx (1818-1883)

1.5 SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

1.5.1 Social Psychology and Sociology

1.5.2 Sociology and Anthropology

1.5.3 Sociology and Economics

1.5.4 Basic and Applied Sociology

Check Your Progress 3

1.6 LET US SUM UP

1.7 FURTHER READINGS

1.9 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

Check Your Progress 3

2.2 KEY SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

2.2.1 The Concept of Society

2.2.2 Types of Society

2.3 SOCIAL GROUPS

2.3.1 Primary Groups

2.3.2 Secondary Groups

2.4 STATUS AND ROLE

2.4.1 Types of Status

2.4.2 Multiple Statuses

2.4.3 The Concept of Role

2.5 SOCIAL INSTITUTION -

Check Your Progress 1

2.7 SOCIAL CHANGE

2.7.1 Agents of Change

2.7.2 Rate of Change

2.8 SOCIAL CONTROL

1 Check Your Progress 2

2.10 LET US SUM UP

culture, and so on. These concepts are basic to a S0~iologicalstudy. Finally, we

2.1 1 FURTHER READINGS

2.12 KEY WORDS

2.13 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

3.6 Let Us Sum Up

3.2 ECONOMIES IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES

Simple Society : Making a Fire

3.2.3 Shifting Cultivation

3.2.4 Settled Cultivation