Ciesla 15264

Copyright © 2007 by F. A. Davis.
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Hematology
in Practice
Betty Ciesla, MS, MT(ASCP)SH

Faculty, Medical Technology Program
Morgan State University
Baltimore, Maryland
Assistant Professor
Villa Julie College
Stevenson, Maryland
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ciesla, Betty.
Hematology in practice / Betty Ciesla.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8036-1526-7
ISBN-10: 0-8036-1526-4
1. Blood—Diseases. 2. Hematology. I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Hematologic Diseases. 2. Case Reports. 3. Hematologic Tests—methods. WH 120 C569h 2007]
RB145.C5444 2007
616.1’5—dc22 2006028917
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For my daughters, who changed my life
For my husband, whom I cherish
For my mother and sisters, who challenged my imagination
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Preface
In its most fundamental form, hematology is the study of blood in health and in disease.
Blood is the window to the body; it is the predictor of vitality and long life. In ancient
times, blood was worshipped. Men were bled to obtain a cure and blood was studied for
its mystical powers. It was an elevated body fluid. The discipline of hematology was an
outgrowth of this fascination with blood. As we practice it in the clinical laboratory
today, this discipline encompasses skill, art, and instinct.
Hematology is about relationships; the relationships of the bone marrow to the sys-
temic circulation, the relationship of the plasma environment to the red cell life span and
the relationship of hemoglobin to the red cell. In this textbook, you, the student, are a
vital part of this relationship. I have queried many students over my two decades of
teaching and asked them what it is they want to see in a textbook. I have asked, What
helps? What gets in the way? What makes you feel more comfortable? Students
answered honestly and in great detail, and I even managed to have one of my students
review each chapter, so that the student perspective would not be minimized.
Hematology is a difficult subject to master because it forces students to think in an
unnatural way. Educators are always asking why, well before students can cross the intel-
lectual bridge between the marrow and the peripheral smear. Many students begin a
hematology course with little foundation in blood cell morphology, physiology, or med-
ical terminology. With this is mind, I have built several helpful strategies within this text.
Each chapter contains readable text that engages the students to learn, master, and then
apply the critical concepts in hematology. Medical terminology is absorbed through a
designated Word Key section, defining terms to which student may not have been
exposed. End of chapter summaries and multiple levels of case studies illustrate the key
principles of each chapter. Additionally, there are unique troubleshooting cases in each
chapter which encourage each student to role play as a working professional to develop
and refine problem solving skills in practice. An Instructor’s Resource Disk is available to
adopting educators. The CD includes a Brownstone electronic test generator, a Power-
Point presentation with lecture points, and a searchable Image Ancillary.
I hope that this text travels with you as you continue your career in the laboratory
professions and I hope that the information motivates you and arouses your intellectual
curiosity. Two year and four year students can benefit from the chosen topics within the
text and perhaps it may even find a home on the shelves of working laboratories nation-
ally and internationally. I welcome your comments (bciesla@jewel.morgan.edu) and
encourage you to assist me in creating a memorable textbook.
Betty Ciesla, MS, MT (ASCP)SH
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Contributors
Barbara Caldwell, MS, MT(ASCP)SH Kathleen Finnegan, MS, MT(ASCP)SH
Manager, Clinical Laboratory Services Clinical Assistant Professor
Montgomery General Hospital School of Health Technology and Management
Olney, Maryland Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Stony Brook University
Donna D. Castellone, MS, MT(ASCP)SH Stony Brook, New York
Technical Specialist, Department of Special
Coagulation Lori Lentowski, BS MT(ASCP)
New York Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center St. Joseph Medical Center
New York, New York Towson, Maryland
Betty Ciesla, MS, MT(ASCP)SH Mitra Taghizadeh, MS, MT(ASCP)

Faculty, Medical Technology Program Assistant Professor
Morgan State University Department of Medical and Research Technology
Baltimore, Maryland University of Maryland School of Medicine
Assistant Professor, MLT Program Baltimore, Maryland
Villa Julie College
Stevenson, Maryland
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Reviewers
Hassan Aziz, PhD, CLS(NCA) Cindy Handley, PhD, MT(ASCP)
Department Head Instructor
Medical Technology Medical Laboratory Technology
Armstrong Atlantic State University Seward County Community College
Savannah, Georgia Liberal, Kansas
Linda Collins, MS, MT(ASCP) Debbie Heinritz, MT(ASCP), CLS(NCA)

Instructor Instructor
Medical Laboratory Clinical Laboratory Science
Delaware Tech Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
Georgetown, Delaware Green Bay, Wisconsin
Sharon T. Columbus, MEd, MT(ASCP) Sheryl Herring, MSA, BS, MT(ASCP)

Program Coordinator Program Coordinator, Assistant Professor
Medical Laboratory Technology Clinical Laboratory Technology
Clinton Community College Louisiana State University
Plattsburgh, New York Alexandria, Louisiana
Susan Conforti, MS, MT(ASCP)SBB Judy A. Horton, DA, MT(ASCP)

Chairperson, Program Director Interim Dean
Medical Laboratory Technology Allied Health
Farmingdale State University Northern Virginia Community College
Farmingdale, New York Springfield, Virginia
Sandra Cook, MS, MT(ASCP) Jeanne M. Isabel, MSEd, MT(ASCP), CLSpH(NCA)

Coordinator, Adjunct Instructor Associate Professor
Clinical Laboratory Science Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Ferris State University Northern Illinois University
Big Rapids, Michigan DeKalb, Illinois
Kozy Corsaut, MS, MT(ASCP), CLS(NCA) Arthur Keehnle, MS, MT(ASC), CLS(NCA)
Program Director, Associate Professor Program Director
Medical Laboratory Technology Medical Laboratory Technology
Stark State College Beaufort County Community College
North Canton, Ohio Washington, North Carolina
Veronica Dominguez, MEd, MT-NCA Susan J. LeClair, PhD, CLS(NCA)

Program Coordinator Chancellor Professor
Medical Laboratory Technology Medical Laboratory Science
El Paso Community College University of Massachusetts
El Paso, Texas Dartmouth, Massachusetts
Andrea G. Gordon, MEd, MT(ASCP)SH Sandra Paynter, MT(ASCP)(AMT)

Program Director Coordinator
Clinical Laboratory Science Medical Laboratory
New Hampshire Community Technical College Maria Parham Medical Center
Concord, New Hampshire Henderson, North Carolina
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Terry Piatz, MS, MT(ASCP) Lauren Strader, MEd, MT(ASCP)

Program Director, Assistant Professor Program Director, Department Chair
Medical Laboratory Technology Medical Laboratory Technology
Presentation College North Georgia Technical College
Aberdeen, South Dakota Clarkesville, Georgia
Kelly Ryan AAS, MLT(ASCP) Kathleen Wagner, MT(ASCP)

Student Adjunct Faculty
Villa Julie College Clinical Laboratory Technology
Stevenson, Maryland Elgin Community College
Elgin, Illinois
Yasmen Simonian, PhD, MT(ASCP), CLS(NCA)
Department Chair, Professor
Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Weber State University
Ogden, Utah
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Acknowledgments
Writing a textbook is a collaborative exercise, and it takes a collective group of support-
ive individuals to bring a project to completion. I consider myself extremely fortunate to
have Christa Fratantoro of F. A. Davis and Keith Donnellan of Dovetail Content Solu-
tions to guide me through this writing endeavor. Their patience, counsel, good humor,
and psychology were invaluable. I am indebted to Dr. Diane Wilson of Morgan State
University, who gave me the time and encouragement to pursue and complete this proj-
ect. I am humbled by her gentle spirit and deeply grateful for her friendship. A special
note of thanks goes to my talented contributors, whose manuscripts came in on time
and in good form. Without them, this text would have been much less complete. With
regard to the procedures chapter, Kathy Finnegan and Joyce Feinberg offered me much
needed help within an extremely short time frame and I am so grateful. And many
thanks to Candi Grayson and Dr. Robert Palermo from Greater Baltimore Medical Cen-
ter for providing the expertise to shoot the digital selections. I appreciate the efforts of
Lori Lentowski and St. Joseph Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, in augmenting the case
study and procedures sections. In addition, thanks to Kelly Ryan who was my student
reviewer and author of the PowerPoint section.
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Contents
PART I BASIC HEMATOLOGY PRINCIPLES Alterations in the M:E Ratio, 18

The Role of Stem Cells and Cytokines, 18
CHAPTER 1 Erythropoietin, 20
Introduction to Hematology and Basic The Role of the Laboratory Professional in
Laboratory Practices, 3 the Bone Marrow Procedure, 21
Betty Ciesla Bone Marrow Procedure, 21
Introduction to Hematology, 4 Bone Marrow Report, 21
The Microscope, 4 The Complete Blood Count, 22
Significant Parts of the Microscope, 4 The Morphological Classification of the
Care of the Microscope, 5 Anemias, 23
Corrective Actions in Light Microscopy, 6 Calculating Red Cell Indices and Their
Innovations in Microscopy, 6 Role in Sample Integrity, 25
Standard Precautions, 6 The Value of the Red Cell Distribution
Personal Protective Equipment, 6 Width, 25
Safety Features Other Than Personal Critical Values, 26
Protective Equipment, 7 The Clinical Approach to Anemias, 26
Chemical and Environmental Hazards, 8 The Value of the Reticulocyte Count, 26
Basic Concepts of Quality Assurance
Plans in the Hematology Laboratory, 8 CHAPTER 3
Quality Control Monitoring in the Red Blood Cell Production, Function, and
Hematology Laboratory, 9 Relevant Red Cell Morphology, 33
Normal, or Reference, Intervals, 9 Betty Ciesla
Delta Checks, 10 Basic Red Cell Production, 34

Reflex Testing, 10 Red Cell Maturation, 34
Preanalytic Variables, 10 Red Cell Terminology, 34
Postanalytic Variables, 10 Maturation Stages of the Red Cell, 35
Critical Results, 11 Pronormoblast, 35
Basophilic Normoblast, 36
CHAPTER 2 Polychromatophilic Normoblast, 36
From Hematopoiesis to the Complete Orthochromic Normoblast-Nucleated
Blood Count, 15 (nRBC), 36
Betty Ciesla Reticulocyte, 36
Hematopoiesis: The Origin of Cell Mature Red Cell, 36
Development, 16 Red Blood Cell Membrane Development
The Spleen as an Indicator Organ of and Function, 37
Hematopoietic Health, 17 Composition of Lipids in the Interior and
The Functions of the Spleen, 17 Exterior Layers, 37
Potential Risks of Splenectomy, 17 Composition of Proteins in the Lipid
The Bone Marrow and the Bilayers, 38
Myeloid:Erythroid Ratio, 18 The Cytoskeleton, 38
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Red Cell Metabolism, 38 Hereditary Hemochromatosis, 72

Abnormal Red Cell Morphology, 39 The Thalassemia Syndromes, 74
Variations in Red Cell Size, 39 Brief History and Demographics, 74
Variations in Red Cell Color, 41 The Pathophysiology of the Thalassemias,
Variations in Red Cell Shape, 41 75
Red Cell Inclusions, 43 The Alpha Thalassemias, 75
Beta Thalassemia Major: Cooley’s Anemia,
CHAPTER 4 Mediterranean Fever, 77
Hemoglobin Function and Principles of Thalassemias Intermedia and Beta
Hemolysis, 51 Thalassemia Trait, 79
Betty Ciesla
Hemoglobin Structure and Synthesis, 52 CHAPTER 6

Types of Hemoglobin, 52 The Macrocytic Anemias, 85
Hemoglobin Function, 53 Betty Ciesla
Abnormal Hemoglobins, 54 The Macrocytic Anemias and the

The Hemolytic Process, 55 Megaloblastic Process, 86
Types of Hemolysis, 55 The Red Cell Precursors in Megaloblastic
Laboratory Evidence of Hemolysis, 56 Anemia, 86
The Physiology of Hemolysis, 57 Ineffective Erythropoiesis in
Terminology Relevant to the Hemolytic Megaloblastic Anemia, 86
Anemias, 58 Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid: Their Role in
DNA Synthesis, 87
Nutritional Requirements, Transport, and
PART II RED CELL DISORDERS Metabolism of Vitamin B12 and Folic
Acid, 87
CHAPTER 5 Incorporating Vitamin B12 Into the Bone
The Microcytic Anemias, 65 Marrow, 88
Betty Ciesla Clinical Features of Patients With
Iron Intake and Iron Absorption, 66 Megaloblastic Anemia, 88
Iron Storage and Recycled Iron, 66 Hematological Features of Megaloblastic
Iron Deficiency Anemia, 68 Anemias, 88
Pathophysiology and Symptoms, 68 Pernicious Anemia as a Subset of
Tests Used to Diagnose Iron Megaloblastic Anemias, 89
Deficiency, 68 Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid Deficiency,
Causes of Iron Deficiency, 70 89
Treatment for Iron Deficiency, 70 Laboratory Diagnosis of Megaloblastic
Anemia of Chronic Disease and Anemias, 90
Inflammation: Pathophysiology, Treatment and Response of Individuals
Diagnosis, and Treatment, 70 With Megaloblastic Anemia,
Anemias Related to Iron Overload 90
Conditions, the Sideroblastic Macrocytic Anemias That Are Not
Anemias, 71 Megaloblastic, 91
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CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8
Normochromic Anemias, Biochemical and The Normochromic Anemias Due to
Membrane Disorders, and Miscellaneous Red Hemoglobinopathies, 113
Cell Disorders, 97 Betty Ciesla
Betty Ciesla General Description of the
The Role of the Spleen in Red Cell Hemoglobinopathies, 114
Membrane Disorders, 98 Sickle Cell Anemia, 114
Hereditary Spherocytosis, 98 Genetics and Incidence of Sickle Cell
The Genetics and Pathophysiology of Anemia, 114
Hereditary Spherocytosis, 98 Pathophysiology of the Sickling
Clinical Presentation in Hereditary Process, 115
Spherocytosis, 98 Clinical Considerations for Sickle Cell
Laboratory Diagnosis of Hereditary Anemia, 115
Spherocytosis, 100 Disease Management and Prognosis, 117
Treatment and Management of Hereditary Laboratory Diagnosis, 117
Spherocytosis, 100 Sickle Cell Trait, 120
Hereditary Elliptocytosis, 100 Hemoglobin C Disease and Trait and
Common Hereditary Elliptocytosis, 101 Hemoglobin SC, 120
Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis, 101 Variant Hemoglobins of Note, 121
Spherocytic Hereditary Elliptocytosis, Hemoglobin S-beta Thalassemia, 121
101 Hemoglobin E, 121
Hereditary Pyropoikilocytosis, 101 Hemoglobin DPunjab/Hemoglobin Gphila,
Hereditary Stomatocytosis and Hereditary 122
Xerocytosis, 102 Hemoglobin OArab, 122
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
Deficiency, 102
The Genetics of Glucose-6-Phosphate PART III WHITE CELL DISORDERS
Dehydrogenase Deficiency, 102
Clinical Manifestations of Glucose-6- CHAPTER 9
Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency, Leukopoiesis and Leukopoietic Function, 129
103 Betty Ciesla
Diagnosis of Glucose-6-Phosphate Leukopoiesis, 130
Dehydrogenase Deficiency, 105 Stages of Leukocyte Maturation, 130
Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency, 105 Features of Cell Identification, 130
Miscellaneous Red Cell Disorders, 105 Myeloblast, 130
Aplastic Anemia, 105 Promyelocyte (Progranulocyte), 131
Fanconi’s Anemia, 105 Myelocyte, 131
Diamond-Blackfan Anemia, 106 Metamyelocyte, 131
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria, Band, 132
106 Segmented Neutrophil, 132
Cold Agglutinin Syndrome, 107 Eosinophils and Basophils, 132
Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria, 108 The Agranular Cell Series, 133
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Lymphocyte Origin and Function, 134 Pelger-Huët Anomaly, 149

Lymphocyte Populations, 136 Chediak-Higashi Syndrome, 149
The Travel Path of Lymphocytes, 136 Reactive Lymphocytosis in Common
Lymphocytes and the Development of Disease States, 150
Immunocompetency, 137 Other Sources of Reactive Lymphocytosis,
The Response of Lymphocytes to Antigenic 150
Stimulation, 137 The Effect of Human Immunodeficiency
Lymphocyte Cell Markers and the Cluster Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency
Designation (CD), 137 Syndrome on Hematology Parameters,
Leukocyte Count From the Complete 151
Blood Cell Count to the Differential, Lipid Storage Diseases (Briefly), 152
137 Common Features of a Few of the Lipid
Manual Differential Versus Differential Storage Diseases, 152
Scan, 138 Bone Marrow Cells in Lipid Storage
Relative Versus Absolute Values, 139 Disorders, 152
Bacteria and Other Unexpected White
CHAPTER 10 Cell Changes, 153
Abnormalities of White Cells: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and the Lipid Storage Diseases, CHAPTER 11
143 Acute Leukemias, 159
Betty Ciesla Barbara Caldwell
Introduction to the White Cell Disorders, Definition of Leukemia, 160

144 Comparing Acute and Chronic Leukemia,
Quantitative Changes in the White Cells, 160
144 Leukemia History, 160
Conditions With Increased Neutrophils, Acute Myeloid Leukemia, 161
144 Epidemiology, 161
Conditions With Increased Eosinophils, Clinical Features, 162
144 Laboratory Features, 163
Conditions With Increased Basophils, 144 Classifications, 166
Conditions With Increased Monocytes, Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, 175
144 Epidemiology, 175
Specific Terminology Relating to Clinical Features, 175
Quantitative White Cell Changes, 144 Classifications, 176
Stages of White Cell Phagocytosis, 145 Prognosis in Acute Lymphoblastic
Qualitative Defects of White Cells, 145 Leukemia, 179
Toxic Changes in White Cells, 146
Nuclear Abnormalities: Hypersegmentation, CHAPTER 12
148 Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders, 187
Hereditary White Cell Disorders, 149 Kathy Finnegan
May-Hegglin Anomaly, 149 Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia, 189

Alder’s Anomaly (Alder-Reilly Anomaly), Disease Overview, 189
149 Pathophysiology, 189
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Clinical Features and Symptoms, 189 Sézary Syndrome, 208

Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow, 190 Prolymphocytic Leukemia, 208
Diagnosis, 191 Hodgkin’s and Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Treatment, 191 (Briefly), 208
Prognosis, 191 Plasma Cell Disorders, 209
Chronic Neutrophilic Leukemia, 192 Normal Plasma Cell Structure and
Chronic Eosinophilic Leukemia, 192 Function, 209
Polycythemia Vera, 192 Multiple Myeloma, 210
Disease Overview, 192 Waldenström’s Macroglobulinemia, 214
Pathophysiology, 192
Clinical Features and Symptoms, 192 CHAPTER 14
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow The Myelodysplastic Syndromes, 219
Findings, 192 Betty Ciesla
Diagnosis, 193 Pathophysiology, 220
Treatment, 193 Chromosomal Abnormalities, 220
Prognosis, 194 Common Features and Clinical
Myelofibrosis With Myeloid Symptoms, 220
Metaplasia, 194 How to Recognize Dysplasia, 220
Disease Overview, 194 Classification of the Myelodysplastic
Pathophysiology, 194 Syndromes, 221
Clinical Features and Symptoms, 195 Specific Features of the World Health
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Organization Classification, 221
Findings, 195 Prognostic Factors and Clinical
Diagnosis, 195 Management, 222
Treatment, 195
Prognosis, 196
Essential Thrombocythemia, 196 PART IV HEMOSTASIS AND DISORDERS
Disease Overview, 196 OF COAGULATION
Pathophysiology, 196
Clinical Features and Symptoms, 196 CHAPTER 15
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Overview of Hemostasis and Platelet
Findings, 197 Physiology, 229
Diagnosis, 197 Donna Castellone
Treatment, 197 History of Blood Coagulation, 230
Prognosis, 198 Overview of Coagulation, 230
Vascular System, 231
CHAPTER 13 Overview, 231
Lymphoproliferative Disorders and Related Mechanism of Vasoconstriction, 231
Plasma Cell Disorders, 205 The Endothelium, 231
Betty Ciesla Events Following Vascular Injury, 231
Lymphoid Malignancies, 206 Primary Hemostasis, 232
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia, 206 Platelets: An Introduction, 232
Hairy Cell Leukemia, 207 Platelet Development, 232
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Platelet Structure and Biochemistry, 232 CHAPTER 17

Platelet Function and Kinetics, 233 Defects of Plasma Clotting Factors, 257
Platelet Aggregation Principle, 234 Betty Ciesla
Secondary Hemostasis, 235 Evaluation of a Bleeding Disorder and
Classification of Coagulation Factors, 235 Types of Bleeding, 258
Physiological Coagulation (In Vivo), 237 The Classic Hemophilias, 258
Laboratory Model of Coagulation, 237 The Factor VIII Molecule, 258
Extrinsic Pathway, 237 Symptoms in the Hemophilia A Patient,
Intrinsic System, 238 258
Activated Partial Thromboplastin Laboratory Diagnosis of Hemophilia
Time, 238 Patients, 260
Common Pathway, 238 Treatment for Hemophilia A Patients, 261
Formation of Thrombin, 238 Quality of Life Issues for Hemophilia A
Feedback Inhibition, 239 Patients, 261
Fibrinolysis, 239 Hemophilia B or Christmas Disease, 262
Coagulation Inhibitors, 240 Congenital Factor Deficiencies With
Kinin System, 240 Bleeding Manifestations, 262
Complement System, 240 Congenital Factor Deficiencies Where
Bleeding Is Mild or Absent, 262
CHAPTER 16 Factor XIII Deficiency, 263
Quantitative and Qualitative Platelet Bleeding Secondary to a Chronic Disease
Disorders, 245 Process, 263
Betty Ciesla
The Role of Vitamin K in Hemostasis, 263
Quantitative Disorders of Platelets, 246 Vitamin K Deficiency and Subsequent
Thrombocytopenia Related to Sample Treatment, 264
Integrity/Preanalytic Variables, 246
Thrombocytopenia Related to Decreased CHAPTER 18
Production, 246 Fibrinogen, Thrombin, and the Fibrinolytic
Thrombocytopenia Related to Altered System, 269
Distribution of Platelets, 246 Betty Ciesla
Thrombocytopenia Related to the Immune The Role of Fibrinogen in Hemostasis,
Effect of Specific Drugs or Antibody 270
Formation, 246 Disorders of Fibrinogen, 270
Thrombocytopenia Related to Consumption Afibrinogenemia, 270
of Platelets, 247 Hypofibrinogenemia, 270
Thrombocytosis, 249 Dysfibrinogenemia, 271
Inherited Qualitative Disorders of The Unique Role of Thrombin in
Platelets, 249 Hemostasis, 271
Disorders of Adhesion, 249 Physiological Activators of Fibrinolysis, 272
Platelet Release Defects, 251 Naturally Occurring Inhibitors of
Acquired Defects of Platelet Function, 251 Fibrinolysis, 272
Vascular Disorders Leading to Platelet Measurable Products of the Fibrinolytic
Dysfunction, 252 System, 273
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Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation, Specimen Collection and Storage, 299

274 Quality Control, 299
The Mechanism of Acute Disseminated Procedure, 299
Intravascular Coagulation, 274 Interpretation, 299
Clinical Symptoms and Laboratory Results Calculating Red Blood Cell Indices,
in Acute Disseminated Intravascular 300
Coagulation, 275 Normal Average Values, 300
Treatment in Acute Disseminated Modified Westergren Sedimentation
Intravascular Coagulation, 276 Rate, 300
Principle, 300
CHAPTER 19 Reagents and Equipment, 301
Introduction to Thrombosis and Specimen Collection and Storage, 301
Anticoagulant Therapy, 281 Quality Control, 301
Mitra Taghizadeh Procedure, 301
Physiological and Pathological Normal Ranges, 301
Thrombosis, 282 Limitations, 301
Pathogenesis of Thrombosis, 282 Conditions Associated With…, 302
Vascular Injury, 282 Manual Reticulocyte Procedure, 302
Platelet Abnormalities, 282 Principle, 302
Coagulation Abnormalities, 283 Reagents and Equipment, 302
Fibrinolytic Abnormalities, 283 Specimen Collection and Storage, 302
Antithrombotic Factors (Coagulation Quality Control, 302
Inhibitors), 283 Procedure, 302
Thrombotic Disorders, 284 Normal Values, 302
Inherited Thrombotic Disorders, 284 Conditions Associated With…, 302
Acquired Thrombotic Disorders, 286 Limitations, 303
Laboratory Diagnosis for Thrombotic Reticulocyte Procedure With Miller Eye
Disorders, 288 Disc, 303
Anticoagulant Therapy, 288 Principle, 303
Antiplatelet Drugs, 288 Reagents and Equipment, 303
Anticoagulant Drugs, 289 Specimen Collection and Storage, 303
Thrombolytic Drugs, 289 Quality Control, 303
Procedure, 303
Normal Values, 304
PART V LABORATORY PROCEDURES Conditions Associated With…, 304
Limitations, 304
CHAPTER 20 Peripheral Smear Procedure, 304
Basic Procedures in a Hematology Principle, 304
Laboratory, 297 Reagents and Equipment, 304
Lori Lentowski and Betty Ciesla Specimen Collection and Storage, 304
Microhematocrit, 298 Quality Control, 304
Principle, 298 Procedure, 304
Reagents and Equipment, 298 Limitations, 305
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Performing a Manual Differential and Prothrombin Time and Activated

Assessing Red Blood Cell Morphology, Partial Thromboplastin Time:
305 Automated Procedure, 315
Principle, 305 Principle, 315
Reagents and Equipment, 305 Reagents and Equipment, 315
Specimen Collection and Storage, 305 Specimen Collection and Storage, 316
Quality Control, 305 Quality Control, 316
Procedure, 306 Procedure, 316
Unopette White Blood Cell/Platelet Results, 317
Count, 309 Limitations, 317
Principle, 309 Qualitative D-Dimer Test, 318
Reagents and Equipment, 310 Principle, 318
Specimen Collection and Storage, 310 Reagents and Equipment, 319
Quality Control, 310 Specimen Collection and Storage, 319
Procedure, 310 Quality Control, 319
Cell Counts and Calculations, 311 Procedure, 319
Normal Values, 311 Interpretation, 320
Limitations, 312 Results, 320
Sickle Cell Procedure, 312 Limitations, 320
Principle, 312 An Approach to Interpreting Automated
Reagents and Equipment, 312 Hematology Data, 320
Specimen Collection and Storage, 312 Principle, 321
Quality Control, 312 Instruments, 322
Procedure, 312 Flow Cytometry: The Basics in
Interpretation of Results and Result Hematology Interpretation,
Reporting, 312 326
Limitations, 312 Overview, 327
Cerebrospinal Fluid/Body Fluid Cell Principles, 327
Count and Differential, 313 Data Interpretation: One Role for the
Principle, 313 Medical Technologist, 327
Reagents and Equipment, 313 Flow Cytometry Case Studies, 328
Specimen Collection and Storage, 313 Answers to Chapter Review Questions,
Quality Control, 314 331
Procedure, 314 Index, 337
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Pa r t I
Basic
Hematology
Principles

1 Introduction to Hematology
and Basic Laboratory
Practice
Betty Ciesla
Introduction to Hematology Objectives

The Microscope After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Significant Parts of the Microscope 1. Describe the significance of the field of hematol-
Care of the Microscope ogy in relation to sickness and health.
Corrective Actions in Light Microscopy 2. List the basic parts of the compound microscope.
Innovations in Microscopy
3. Discuss the function and magnification of each
Standard Precautions of the microscope objectives.
Personal Protective Equipment 4. Identify appropriate corrective actions when
Safety Features Other Than Personal Protective encountering routine problems with the opera-
Equipment tion of a microscope.
Chemical and Environmental Hazards 5. Define standard precautions as related to biologi-
Basic Concepts of Quality Assurance cal hazards.
Plans in the Hematology Laboratory 6. Describe safe work practices for personal pro-
Quality Control Monitoring in the Hematology tective equipment and disposal of biological
Laboratory hazards.
Normal, or Reference, Intervals 7. Describe the components of quality assurance in
Delta Checks the hematology laboratory.
Reflex Testing 8. Define the terms preanalytic and postanalytic vari-
Preanalytic Variables ables, delta checks, accuracy, precision, reproducibil-
ity, and reference intervals.
Postanalytic Variables
Critical Results 9. Formulate a plan of action based on the trou-
bleshooting scenarios presented within the text.
3
4 PART I • Basic Hematology Principles
In its most fundamental form, hematology is the study observations helped describe and quantify cells, cellu-
of blood in health and in pathological conditions. Blood lar structure, and function. Much of what has been
is the window to the body; it is a predictor of vitality, of learned concerning the etiology of hematological dis-
long life. In ancient times, blood was worshipped. Men ease has been discovered since the 1920s, and therefore
were bled to obtain a cure, and blood was studied for its hematology, as a distinct branch of medicine, is in its
mystical powers. It was an elevated bodily fluid. The early stages.1
discipline of hematology was an outgrowth of this fasci-
nation with blood. As we practice it in the clinical labo-
ratory today, this discipline encompasses skill, art, and
THE MICROSCOPE
instinct. For those of us who are passionate about this The microscope is an essential tool to the hematology
subject, it is the art of hematology that so intrigues us. laboratory professional. It is a piece of equipment that is
To view a peripheral smear and to have the knowledge stylistically simple in design, yet extraordinarily com-
not only to correctly identify the patient’s hematological plex in its ability to magnify an image, provide visual
condition but also to predict how the bone marrow may details of that image, and make the image visible to the
have contributed to that condition is an awesome feel- human eye.2 Most commonly used today are com-
ing. Hematology is about relationships: the relationship pound microscopes, which use two lens systems to
of the bone marrow to the systemic circulation, the rela- magnify the image. The ocular devices on the micro-
tionship of the plasma environment to the red cell life scope provide an initial ⫻10 magnification, and then
span, and the relationship of the hemoglobin to the red additional magnification is obtained through the use of
cell. For most students, hematology is a difficult subject three or four different powered objectives.3 A light
to master because it forces students to think in an source is located within the microscope base. Light is
unnatural way. Instructors are always asking, Why? beamed to the image directly, or filters are used that vary
Why does this cell appear in the peripheral smear? the wavelength. In addition, a diaphragm apparatus is
What relationship does it have to the bone marrow? usually located in the base of the microscope. Opening
How was it formed? Many students begin a hematology or closing the diaphragm can optimize or reduce the
course with little foundation in blood cell morphology. volume of light directed toward the image.4 This is most
They have no real grasp of medical terminology and few useful when examining cellular structures in the
facts concerning blood diseases. They are not equipped nucleus that need more light to be properly visualized.
to answer Why? As instructors, our goal is to guide the Below is a brief description of the most significant parts
student toward an appreciation of his or her role as a of the microscope
clinical laboratorian in hematology. Certainly we can
help the student to develop the morphological and ana-
lytic skills necessary for adept practice in the hematol- Significant Parts of the Microscope
ogy laboratory. Yet, to be truly notable in this field, keen The eyepieces, or oculars, are located laterally to the
instincts concerning a set of results, a particular cell, or microscope base (Fig. 1.1) and function as an additional
a patient history play a defining role. magnification component to the objective magnifica-
Blood has always been a fascinating subject for tion. Most microscopes are binocular and contain two
authors, poets, scholars, and scientists. References to eyepieces, each of which will magnify the diameter of an
blood appear in hieroglyphics, in the Bible, in ancient object placed on the stage to the power of the eyepiece,
pottery, and in literature. Hippocrates laid the founda- usually ⫻10.
tion for hematology with his theory of the body’s four The objectives of the compound microscope are
humors—blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile— ⫻10, ⫻40, or ⫻100. Often, a ⫻50 (oil) magnification
and his concept that all blood ailments resulted from a will be incorporated. Each objective has three numbers
disorder in the balance of these humors. Unfortunately, inscribed on the objective: a magnification number, an
these principles remained unchallenged for 1400 years! aperture number (NA), and a tube length number. The
Gradually, men of science such as Galen, Harvey, van NA refers to the resolution power of the objective, the
Leeuwenhoek, Virchow, and Ehrlich were able to ele- ability of the objective to gather light. The higher the
vate hematology into a discipline of medicine with basic NA number, the higher is the resolution. Tube length
morphological observations that can be traced to a dis- refers to the distance from the eyepiece to the objective.
tinct pathophysiology. It is to these men that we owe a Magnification refers to how large the image will appear,
huge debt of gratitude. Although they had little in the as well as how much of the viewing field will be
way of advanced technology, their inventions and observed. Objectives on modern microscopes are com-
CHAPTER 1 • Introduction to Hematology and Basic Laboratory Practice 5
Eye piece
Adjust to eye width
Move adjustable eye piece
for optimal focus
Objectives
10x = Low power
40x = high dry
100x = Oil immersion
Course adjustment
Stage
Use for preliminary
Secures glass focus
slides
Fine adjustment
Use for fine tuning
Iris diaphragm
Left to right
to maximize Substage
or minimize condenser
light Stage adjustment knobs
Move stage left to right
or front to back
Base
10
89
67
45
12 3
Figure 1.1 Compound microscope. Light source
posed of many lenses and prisms that produce an bring the image into focus through movement of the
extremely high quality of optical performance. stage, which is either raised or lowered according to the
The iris diaphragm, located below the microscope level of focus needed.
stage, increases or decreases light from the microscope
light source. If the diaphragm is opened to its full capac-
ity, the cell or structure is viewed with maximum light. Care of the Microscope
If the diaphragm is minimally opened, the cell or struc- The microscope is an essential piece of equipment to the
ture is much less illuminated, which may be desirable practice of hematology and must be handled with care
depending on the source of the sample (i.e., hematolog- and respect. Hematology instructors owe it to them-
ical cells versus urine casts). selves to teach the care and maintenance of the micro-
The stage is a flat surface with an opening created scope in hopes that these “best practices” can be
for light to pass through. Two flat metal clips have been adopted and practiced in the workplace. The micro-
mounted in which to secure the glass slide. Below the scope should be on a level, vibration-free surface. If it
stage surface are two control knobs that move the slide needs to be lifted from a storage cabinet to another loca-
in a horizontal or vertical fashion. tion, the microscope must be secured on the bottom by
Coarse and fine adjustment knobs are located on one hand and held by the neck with the other hand.
either side of the microscope base. These adjustments Additionally, users must be instructed on how to move
objectives from one position to another without drag- tivity, and reduced technologist time are making this an
ging non–oil objectives into oil from a slide left on the attractive option for larger laboratories.
stage. The high-dry objectives must never be used with
oil, only with coverslipped slides. Objectives are easily STANDARD PRECAUTIONS
scratched or damaged by careless handlers; conse-
quently, they must be cleaned with lens paper after each The clinical laboratory presents an environment with
use. Oil objectives should be wiped free of oil when not many potential risks from biological hazards to chemi-
in use, and eyepieces must be cleaned with lens paper cal or fire hazards. Safety training has become a manda-
from dust, dirt, or cosmetic debris with each viewing. tory part of responsible employee practice, not only for
Good microscopy habits should always be cultivated, employees themselves but also for their colleagues.
practiced, and communicated. Microscopy guidelines Safety training sessions are an essential part of employee
should be posted in each area where microscopes are training. These sessions represent a lifeline toward opti-
used. The guidelines should include mal behavior should an employee encounter an unex-
pected hazard. Biological hazards constitute one of the
• General use of the microscope more major risk areas, and this section focuses specifi-
• Instructions for transporting the microscope cally on this area. Chemical and environmental hazards
• Instructions for proper cleaning of the micro- are briefly summarized. Most of the patient samples
scope used in the hematology laboratory are derived from
• Storage guidelines that include proper position human body fluids (blood, organ or joint fluids, stools,
of microscope cording urine, semen, etc.). Each of these is a potential source of
bacterial, fungal, or viral infection; consequently, each
Corrective Actions in Light Microscopy sample is potentially hazardous. Laboratorians must
Many of the problems that are encountered when using protect themselves from contamination by observing
a microscope can be easily corrected by using common practices that prevent direct contact with body fluids or
sense. Some of the most common “problems” in light a contaminated surface, contamination, or inhalation.
microscopy are as follows: In 1996, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
issued a set of standard precautions aimed at creating a
• Image cannot be seen at any power—Try turn- safe working environment for laboratory practice. These
ing the slide over; perhaps the wrong side of standard precautions combine principles of body sub-
the slide has been placed on the microscope stance isolation and universal precautions. The main
stage. features of standard precautions that relate to safe hema-
• Fine details cannot be detected in immature tology laboratory practice include personal protective
cells—For immature cells, use the ⫻100 lens equipment (PPE) and safety features other than PPE.6
and open up both diaphragms to the maximum
width, for maximum light.
• The ⫻40 objective is blurred—Try wiping off Personal Protective Equipment
the ⫻100 lens; perhaps the ⫻100 lens was oil PPE includes gloves, eye and face shields, countertop
filled and was dragged across the slide. shields, and fluid-resistant gowns or laboratory coats.
• Dustlike particles appear on the slide but they
are not large enough to be platelets—- Perhaps Gloves
mascara has been left on the eyepiece; use lens
cleaner to clean the eyepieces. Gloves must be worn during any activity with potential
for contact with bodily fluids. Gloves must be changed
Innovations in Microscopy immediately if contaminated or damaged. When patient
contact is initiated, gloves must be changed with each
Digital microscopy is gaining in popularity as a routine patient. Gloves are removed before exiting the labora-
piece of equipment in hematology laboratories. Simply tory for any purpose (Fig. 1.2).
stated, these microscopes scan blood smears for cells,
identify them, calculate a white blood cell differential
count, and then store the cellular images of the cells for Gowns and Laboratory Coats
future review. Slides are then reviewed for red cell mor- Gowns and laboratory coats must be fluid resistant
phology and abnormalities by a trained operator.5 The with long sleeves or wrist cuffs. They may not be worn
initial purchase cost is expensive, yet the speed, sensi- outside of the laboratory and must be changed if con-

From MarketLab, Kentwood, MI, with permission.

Figure 1.2 Gloves.
taminated or torn. Disposable coats are treated as bio-

hazardous material and discarded, whereas cloth coats
are laundered by the hospital service. Figure 1.4 Eye protection.
Splash Shields (Face, Eye, Surface) must be used, and the handwashing procedure
Goggles, face shields, masks, and Plexiglas countertop should include the wrists and at least a 10- to
shields are used to minimize the risks of aerosol and 15-second soap application. This soap appli-
specimen splashes. Although most automated instru- cation represents significantly more time than
mentation is cap piercing, there are many laboratory most individuals spend in handwashing. It
operations in which these precautions are vital to cannot be stressed enough that proper hand-
employee safety (Figs. 1.3 through 1.5; Table 1.1). washing using the recommended times is the
first step in the decontamination protocol.
Safety Features Other Than Germicidal soaps are suggested. Hands must
Personal Protective Equipment be washed with every patient contact, after
1. Handwashing is a basic yet most effective tool gloves are removed, and if gloved or ungloved
to prevent contamination. Soap and water hands have been contaminated with a bodily
fluid sample.
2. Care must be taken with contaminated sharps;
needles, blades, pipettes, syringes, and glass
Figure 1.3 Face shield. Figure 1.5 Biohazard shield with flexible arm.
• Electrical hazards—Be aware of frayed cords,

Table 1.1 ¢ Personal Protective unsafe practices such as wet hands on electrical
Equipment sockets, and whether all electrical equipment is
grounded.
• Gloves • Radioactive hazards—There are areas in the
• Fluid-resistant gowns laboratory where radioactive materials are
• Laboratory coats used; persons in this area should wear a
• Goggles radioactive badge.
• Face shield • Physical hazards—Dangling jewelry should be
• Mask avoided, hair should be pulled back and con-
• Plexiglas countertop shield tained, and close-toed shoes must be worn.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUALITY

slides must be placed in a leak-proof, punc- ASSURANCE PLANS IN THE
ture-proof, properly labeled biohazard con- HEMATOLOGY LABORATORY
tainer. Quality assurance is a comprehensive and systematic
3. Mouth pipetting is never permitted, and other process that strives to ensure reliable patient results.
objects, such as pens, pencils, and so on, This process includes every level of laboratory opera-
should be kept away from the mouth and tion.7 Phlebotomy services, competency testing, error
mucous membranes. analysis, standard protocols, PPE, quality control, and
4. Eating, drinking, and smoking in the labora- turnaround time are each a key factor in the quality
tory area are strictly forbidden. Food or drink assurance system (Table 1.2). From the time a sample
items should not be kept in the laboratory. arrives in the laboratory until the results are reported, a
5. Notebooks, textbooks, and loose papers are rigorous quality assurance system is the key feature in
not allowed in the laboratory work area. ensuring quality results. Each part of the quality assur-
6. Regarding issues of personal hygiene, long hair ance plan or process should be analyzed, monitored,
must be tied back, beards must be trimmed to and reconfigured as necessary to emphasize excellence
no more than 1 inch in length, fingernails at every outcome. Although many hospitals and
must be no longer than 1/4 inch beyond the end research facilities have “quality” professionals who pro-
of the finger, and with no jewelry ornamenta- vide oversight for quality assurance plans for their facil-
tion of the fingers. ities, an elemental understanding of terms related to the
7. Dangling jewelry (earrings or necklaces) is not total quality assurance plan is required of all staff tech-
allowed. nologists and students.
8. Cosmetics or lip balm cannot be applied.
Chemical and Environmental Hazards

Table 1.2 ¢ Short List of Quality
The clinical laboratory is an area in which chemicals are Assurance Indicators
handled and maintained. Clothing, body parts, and sur-
face areas are all potential spill areas for hazardous • Number of patient redraws
chemicals. Each employee should understand and • Labeling errors
adhere to the chemical spill action plan. Additionally, • Patient and specimens properly identified
employees who routinely handle chemicals should use • Critical values called
goggles, avoid splashing, and stringently follow mixing • Pass rate on competency testing
guidelines. Environmental hazards are hazards such as • Test cancellation
fire hazards, electrical hazards, radioactive hazards, and • Integrity of send-out samples
physical hazards. The details of the corrective actions • Employee productivity
• Errors in data entry
are listed next:
• Testing turnaround times
• Fire hazards—Be familiar with the fire evacua- • Delays due to equipment failures or maintenance
tion route, fire blanket location, fire and extin- • Performance on proficiency testing
guisher location.
Quality control is a large part of the quality assur- median are nearly the same for the control values, the
ance program at most facilities. Students will be intro- data have a normal distribution.7
duced to the term quality control early and often. It is an The standard deviation and coefficient of variation
essential function in the clinical laboratory. The infor- are a measure of the spread of the data within the distri-
mation that follows provides a brief overview of the bution about the mean. Standard deviation is a preci-
quality control procedures used in promoting quality sion measurement that describes the average “distance”
assurance in the hematology laboratory. It is not of each data point from the mean in a normal distribu-
intended to be comprehensive but introduces terminol- tion. This measurement is mathematically calculated
ogy and concepts pertinent to the entry-level profes- for a group of numbers. If the measured control values
sional. follow a normal distribution curve, 68.6% of the meas-
ured values fall within the mean and one standard devi-
Quality Control Monitoring ation (SD) from the mean, 95.5% falls within the mean
in the Hematology Laboratory and two standard deviations (2SD) from the mean, and
The analytical component, or the actual measure- 99.7% fall within the mean and three standard devia-
ment of the analyte in body fluids, is monitored in tions (3SD) from the mean. The 95.5% confidence
the laboratory by quality control, a component of interval is the accepted limit for the clinical laboratory.
the laboratory quality assurance plan. Similar to the Coefficient of variation (CV) is the standard devia-
chemistry laboratory, the analytic method in the hema- tion expressed as a percentage. The lower the CV, the
tology laboratory primarily includes instrumenta- more precise are the data. The usual CV for laboratory
tion and reagents. Standards, or calibrators, are solu- results is less than 5%, which indicated that the distri-
tions that have a known amount of an analyte and bution is tighter around the mean value.8
are used to calibrate the method. A standard, or calibra- Clarifying accuracy and precision is usually a trou-
tor, has one assigned, or fixed, value.7 For example, blesome task as these terms are often used interchange-
the hemoglobin standard is 12 g/100 mL, meaning ably. When a test result is accurate, it means that it has
that there is exactly 12 g of hemoglobin in 100 mL of come closest to the correct value if the reference or cor-
solution. Conversely, controls, or control materials, are rect value is known. In most cases, once a methodology
used to monitor the performance of a method after cali- has been established for a particular analysis, standard
bration. Control materials are assayed concurrently or reference material is run to establish a reference inter-
with patient samples, and the analyte value for the val. Accuracy is defined as the best estimate of the result
controls is calculated from the calibration data in the to the true value.9
same manner as the unknown or patient’s results are Precision relates to reproducibility and repeatabil-
calculated.7 ity of test samples using the same methodology. Theo-
Control materials are commercially available as retically, patient results should be repeatable if analyzed
stable or liquid materials that are analyzed concurrently a number of times using the same method. If there is
with the unknown samples. The control material meas- great variability of results around a target value, then the
ured values are compared with their expected values or precision is compromised8 (Fig. 1.6).
target range. Acceptance or rejection of the unknown
(patient) sample results is dependent on this evaluation Normal, or Reference, Intervals
process. Normal, or reference, intervals are values that have been
A statistical quality control system is used to established for a particular analyte, method, or instru-
establish the target range. The procedure involves ment and a particular patient population. To establish a
obtaining at least 20 control values for the analyte to be reference interval, the size of the sample must be at least
measured. Ideally, the repeated control results should 25 and should represent healthy male and female adults
be the same; however, there will always be variability in as well as the pediatric population. Once the test sam-
the assay. The concept of clustering of the data points ples have been analyzed under predetermined condi-
about one value is known as central tendency. The tions, a set reference value is determined from which
mean, mode, and median are statistical parameters used reference limits and reference intervals may be estab-
to measure the central tendency. The mean is the arith- lished according to statistical methods. Subsequent
metic average of a group of data points; the mode is the patient samples will be compared to the reference inter-
value occurring most frequently; and the median is the val to determine if they are normal or outside of the ref-
middle value of a dataset. If the mean, mode, and the erence interval.10
Reflex Testing
If automated complete blood count (CBC) results pre-
sent a flagging signal, operations must be performed by
the technologist to validate this sample. Usually flags
are displayed next to a specific result. For example, an
“H” indicates high results, while an “L” indicates low
results. However, multiple flags may be generated for
the entire CBC. Manual methods may be needed, or
additional tests (e.g., adding a differential count or
manual slide review) may need to be performed on the
A
sample to present accurate test results. Technologists
should be vigilant when hematological data are flagged,
because it almost always means that the sample has
some abnormality.
Preanalytic Variables
Preanalytic variables refer to any factors that may
affect the sample before testing. Some issues to be
considered are whether the sample was properly
identified, properly collected in the correct anti-
coagulant, and delivered to the testing facility in a
B
timely fashion. See Table 1.3 for a list of preanalytic
variables.
Postanalytic Variables
This term refers to operations that ensure the integrity
of sample results. Some examples are proper documen-
tation of test results, timely reporting of results to a des-
ignated individual if a critical result was observed, and
proper handling of samples that may involve calcu-
lations or dilutions. See Table 1.4 for postanalytic
C
variables.
Figure 1.6 Is it accurate or precise? (A) Shots are neither

accurate nor precise. (B) Shots are precise but miss the
mark, not accurate. (C) Shots are accurate and precise. Table 1.3 ¢ Preanalytic Variables
• Proper patient identification

Delta Checks • Properly labeled tubes
Delta checks are a function of the laboratory infor- • Proper anticoagulant
• Proper mixing of sample
mation system. This function allows the operator
• Timely delivery to laboratory
to perform a historical check on the sample from the
• Tubes checked for clots
previous results. If the variation in patient sample • Medications administered to the patient
exceeds the established standard set for delta checks, a • Previous blood transfusions
cause must be identified. Preanalytic problems, • Intravenous line contamination
misidentified samples, analytical errors, or changes in • Blood sample properly collected (proper tube, proper
the patient condition may contribute to erratic delta anticoagulant)
checks.
Critical Results
Critical results are those results that exceed or are Table 1.4 ¢ Postanalytic Variables
markedly decreased from the reference range or the
• Delta checks
patient’s history of results. These results are usually
• Results released
flagged by the automated instrument. It is essential that
• Critical results called
either the physician or the appropriate designee be noti- • Reflex testing initiated
fied immediately by a member of the reporting labora- • Specimen check for clots
tory, as many critical results involve immediate medical
or patient care decisions.
CONDENSED CASE
A purple top tube was received from the emergency occurred—a clotted sample. Name three reasons for a
department on a 24-year-old man with a possible gas- clotted sample.
trointestinal bleed. A hemoglobin and hematocrit were
Answer
ordered. Once the sample was run through the auto-
Clotted samples may occur if (A) the phlebotomy was
mated instrumentation, a clot was detected. A redrawn
difficult, (B) the sample was not inverted at least eight
sample was ordered and again the same thing
times, or (C) the tube was expired.
Summary Points • Handwashing is the most important element of stan-

• Hematology is the study of blood in health and dis- dard precautions.
ease. • Quality assurance is a set of laboratory practices that
ensure reliable outcomes for patient results.
• Morphological and analytical skills are needed in the
practice of hematology. • Quality control is part of the quality assurance plan
and consists of standards, controls, normal distribu-
• Compound microscopes have a two-lens system to tion, and statistical parameters.
magnify the image.
• Accuracy and precision are measured by the mean
• The objectives of the microscope are ⫻10, ⫻40, and standard deviation around a set of data points.
⫻100; a ⫻50 oil immersion lens may be added. • Patient identification is the essential first step in
• Proper care of the microscope is essential for main- ensuring the quality of laboratory results.
taining microscopic quality. • Preanalytic variables refer to events or circumstances
• Standard precautions involve behaviors that prevent that occur to the unknown sample before analysis.
contact with bodily fluids, aerosol contamination, or • Postanalytic variables refer to laboratory practice
contaminated surfaces. after the sample has been analyzed.
• PPE includes gloves, eyewear, laboratory coats, face • Critical results are those results that exceed or are
shields, and fluid-resistant gowns. markedly decreased from the reference interval.
CASE STUDY
A technologist in the hematology laboratory has been observed wearing blood-spattered gloves. Her colleagues in the
laboratory are uncomfortable working with her, and they have confronted her on this issue. Her explanation for her
behavior is that gloves are expensive and that frequent changing leads to excessive spending on gloves and other dispos-
ables. Her colleagues are concerned for their safety, and because they have been unsuccessful in changing her behavior,
they consult the hematology supervisor for guidance. How should this employee be counseled?
(continued on following page)
(Continued)
Insights to the Case Study
The employee is jeopardizing the health of her co-workers because of her noncompliance. Standard laboratory precau-
tions clearly state that she is to remove soiled or contaminated gloves and replace them with clean gloves. She should be
counseled as such. Although her concern for the laboratory budget is commendable, issues of finances are under the
auspices of administration and not a matter for her concern. The employee needs to review the safety manual, a manda-
tory document that she has already signed stating that she understands and will comply with all of the safety require-
ments of the laboratory.
Review Questions
1. Standard precautions involve c. Bone
a. behavior that prevents contact with virally d. Skin
infected patients.
b. behavior that prevents direct contact with bod- 4. Which setting(s) on the microscope is (are) used
ily fluids or contaminated surfaces. for focusing?
c. behavior that prevents contact with pediatric a. Oculars
patients. b. Stage
d. behavior that prevents contact with terminally c. Diaphragm
ill patients. d. Coarse and fine adjustments
2. Which one of the following is considered personal 5. Which one of the following is a postanalytic factor?
protective equipment? a. Calling results when a critical value is noticed
a. Operating room attire b. Tube checked for clots
b. Head nets c. Patient identification
c. Laboratory coats d. Sample mixing
d. White shoes 6. The proper definition for a standard is
3. What types of samples are used primarily in the a. materials used to monitor a method.
clinical laboratory? b. normal distribution curve.
a. Blood and bodily fluids c. a target range.
b. Solid organs d. solutions with a known amount of the analyte.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When the Results Fail the Delta Check?
A sample was received into the laboratory on a patient who has been admitted 70 hours earlier. Several results on the
patient, a white man, had changed dramatically since the last CBC results were evaluated in the hematology laboratory.
The results in questions are marked by an asterisk. Please refer to Chapter 2 for definitions of abbreviations.
Test Saturday Sunday Unit of Measure Reference Range
WBC 18.1* 13.7 ⫻109/L 4.8 to 10.8

RBC 3.55* 4.94 ⫻1012/L 4.7 to 6.1
Hgb 11.4* 15.4 g/dL 14 to 18
Hct 32.1* 44.5 % 37 to 47
Test Saturday Sunday Unit of Measure Reference Range
MCV 90.3 90.1 fL 80 to 100

MCH 32.0 32.0 pg 27 to 31
MCHC 35.4 34.7 % 31 to 36
RDW 13.0 12.1 % 11.5 to 14.5
Platelets 152 261 ⫻103/μL 150 to 350
The parameters that are marked with an asterisk (*) have failed the delta check. What can account for the variation
in the patient’s results in a 24-hour period? An investigation was begun. There are two likely possibilities. Is there a med-
ical explanation for the change in results, or is this a preanalytic variable (mislabeling; i.e., wrong patient results)? The white
blood cell count, red blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit have dramatically changed from Saturday to Sunday.
A frequent explanation for this is blood transfusions being administered to the patient and causing an increment in red
blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. This patient had no transfusion history and the previous results do not
indicate transfusion need; therefore, this is not considered a factor in the dramatically increased values. The technologist
requested that the blood bank ABO type both samples. Both samples typed as O positive. No new information was
obtained from this procedure. The laboratory then began another line of investigation. The floor was called and the labo-
ratory was informed that the patient whose laboratory results were being called (the Sunday sample) had been discharged
the previous day. The sample in question (the Sunday sample) was incorrectly identified. How could the mislabeling take
place? The patient’s name had not been removed from the room or from the computer system. The labeling had not taken
place at the bedside, with voice confirmation by the patient. Instead, the sample had been labeled based on the room
number alone. Due to the diligence of the laboratory staff, the mistakes were identified and any further adverse complica-
tions were prevented. The sample that the laboratory has received was actually the blood from the new patient who now
occupied the room.
WORD KEY 5. Patton M. Advances in microscopy. ADVANCE for Med-

ical Laboratory Professionals 15:21–23, 2003.
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sis and Bodily Fluids, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
Pathophysiology • Study of how normal processes are
2001; 2–5.
altered by disease
7. Koepke JA. Quality control and quality assurance. In
Protocols • Formal ideas, plan, or scheme concerning Steine-Martin EA, Lotspeich-Steininger CA, Koepke JA,
patient care, bench work, administration, or research eds. Clinical Hematology: Principles, Procedures and
Correlation, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1998;
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Melville, NY: Olympus America Inc, 2003; 1.25. 9. Kellogg MD. Quality assurance. In: Anderson SK, Cock-
3. Wallace MA. Care and use of the microscope. In: Rodak ayne S, eds. Clinical Chemistry: Concepts and Applica-
B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and Applications, tions. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003; 47–49.
2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002; 32–34. 10. Sasse EA. Reference intervals and clinical decisions lim-
4. Strasinger SA, Di Lorenzo MS. Use of the microscope. In: its. In: Kaplan LA, Pesce AH, eds. Clinical Chemistry:
Strasinger SA, Di Lorenzo MS, eds. Urinalysis and Body Theory, Analysis and Correlations, 3rd ed. St. Louis:
Fluids, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2001; 73. Mosby, 1996; 366–368.

2 From Hematopoiesis
to the Complete
Blood Count
Betty Ciesla
Hematopoiesis: The Origin of Cell Objectives

Development
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
The Spleen as an Indicator Organ 1. Define the components of hematopoiesis.
of Hematopoietic Health
The Functions of the Spleen 2. Describe the organs used for hematopoiesis
throughout fetal and adult life.
Potential Risks of Splenectomy
3. Define the microenvironment and the factors
The Bone Marrow and the Myeloid: affecting differentiation of the pluripotent stem
Erythroid Ratio cell (PSC).
Alterations in the M:E Ratio 4. Discuss the four functions of the spleen.
The Role of Stem Cells and Cytokines 5. Differentiate between intramedullary and
extramedullary hematopoiesis.
Erythropoietin
6. Define the myeloid:erythroid ratio.
The Role of the Laboratory Professional
in the Bone Marrow Procedure 7. Review the bone marrow procedure, methods
and materials, and the technologist’s role in
Bone Marrow Procedure ensuring that bone marrow was recovered.
Bone Marrow Report 8. List the components of the complete blood
count (CBC).
The Complete Blood Count
9. Calculate red blood indices.
The Morphological Classification
of the Anemias 10. Describe clinical conditions that cause valid
shifts in the mean corpuscular volume.
Calculating Red Cell Indices and Their
Role in Sample Integrity 11. Recognize normal and critical values in an
automated CBC.
The Value of the Red Cell Distribution
12. Describe ineffective and effective erythro-
Width
poiesis.
Critical Values 13. Define the importance of correlation checks in
The Clinical Approach to Anemias a CBC.
The Value of the Reticulocyte Count 14. Describe the clinical conditions that may pro-
duce polychromatophilic cells and elevate the
reticulocyte count.
15. Define the morphological classification of ane-
mias.
16. Summarize the symptoms of anemia.
15
HEMATOPOIESIS: THE ORIGIN development. The yolk sac, liver, and spleen are the
OF CELL DEVELOPMENT focal organs in fetal development. From 2 weeks until 2
Hematopoiesis is defined as the production, develop- months in fetal life, most erythropoiesis takes place in
ment, differentiation, and maturation of all blood cells. the fetal yolk sac. This period of development, the
Within these four functions is cellular machinery that mesoblastic period, produces primitive erythroblasts
outstrips most high-scale manufacturers in terms of and embryonic hemoglobins (Hgbs) such as Hgb Gower
production quotas, customs specifications, and quality I and Gower II and Hgb Portland. These Hgbs are con-
of final product. When one considers that the bone structed as tetramers with two alpha chains combined
marrow is able to produce 3 billion red cells, 1.5 billion with either epsilon or zeta chains. As embryonic Hgbs,
white cells, and 2.5 billion platelets per day per body they do not survive into adult life and do not participate
weight,1 the enormity of this task in terms of output is in oxygen delivery. During the hepatic period, which
almost incomprehensible. Within the basic bone mar- continues from 2 through 7 months of fetal life, the liver
row structure lies the mechanism to and spleen take over the hematopoietic role (Fig. 2.1).
White cells and megakaryocytes begin to appear in small
1. constantly supply the peripheral circulation numbers. The liver serves as an erythroid-producing
with mature cells. organ primarily but also gives rise to fetal Hgb, which
2. mobilize the bone marrow to increase produc- consists of alpha and gamma chains. The spleen, thy-
tion if hematological conditions warrant. mus, and lymph nodes also become hematopoietically
3. compensate for decreased hematopoiesis by active during this stage, producing red cells and lym-
providing for hematopoietic sites outside of phocytes; from 7 months until birth, the bone marrow
the bone marrow (non-bone marrow sites, the assumes the primary role in hematopoiesis, a role that
liver and spleen). continues into adult life. Additionally, Hgb A, the major-
The bone marrow is extremely versatile and serves ity adult Hgb (alpha 2, beta 2), begins to form. The full
the body well by supplying life-giving cells with a multi- complement of Hgb A is not realized until 3 to 6 months
plicity of functions. Various organs serve a role in postpartum, as gamma chains from hemoglobin F are
hematopoiesis, and these organs differ from fetal to adult diminished and beta chains are increased.
FETUS ADULT
Yolk sac Axial

skeleton
Hematopoiesis
Liver
and
spleen
Distal
long
bones
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
Month Year
Figure 2.1 Marrow formation in fetus (left) versus the adult (right)
CHAPTER 2 • From Hematopoiesis to the Complete Blood Count 17
Hematopoiesis within the bone marrow is termed examines each red cell and platelet for abnormalities
intramedullary hematopoiesis. The term extramedullary and inclusions. Older red cells may lose their elasticity
hematopoiesis describes hematopoiesis outside the bone and deformability in the last days of their 120-day life
marrow environment, primarily the liver and spleen. span and are culled from the circulation by splenic
Because these organs play major roles in early fetal phagocytes. Bilirubin, iron, and globin byproducts
hematopoiesis, they retain their hematopoietic memory released through the culling process are recycled
and capability. The liver and spleen can function as through the plasma and circulation.
organs of hematopoiesis if needed in adult life. Several Red cells that are filled with inclusions (Howell
circumstances within the bone marrow (infiltration of Jolly bodies, Heinz bodies, Pappenheimer bodies, etc.)
leukemic cells, tumor, etc.) may diminish the marrow’s are selectively reviewed and cleared. Inclusions are “pit-
normal hematopoietic capability and force these organs ted” and pulled from the red cell without destroying the
to once again perform as primary or fetal organs of cellular integrity, and red cells are left to continue their
hematopoiesis. If extramedullary hematopoiesis devel- journey through the circulation.2 Antibody-coated red
ops, the liver and spleen become enlarged, a condition cells have their antibodies removed and usually reap-
known as hepatosplenomegaly. Physical evidence of pear in the peripheral circulation as spherocytes, a
hepatosplenomegaly will be an individual who looks smaller, more compact red cell structure with a short-
puffy and protrusive in the left upper abdominal area. ened life span. One of the least appreciated roles of the
Hepatosplenomegaly is always an indicator that hema- spleen is the immunologic role. As the largest secondary
tological health is compromised. lymphoid organ, the spleen plays a valuable role in the
promotion of phagocytic activity for encapsulated
organisms such as Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococ-
THE SPLEEN AS AN INDICATOR cus pneumoniae, or Neisseria meningitidis. The spleen
ORGAN OF HEMATOPOIETIC HEALTH provides opsonizing antibodies, substances that strip
Few organs can match the versatility of the spleen. This the capsule from the bacterial surface. Once this is
small but forgotten organ is a powerhouse of prominent accomplished, the unencapsulated bacteria is more vul-
red cell activity such as filtration, production, and cellu- nerable to the phagocytic reticuloendothelial system
lar immunity. Under normal circumstances, the organ (RES)3 and less able to mount an infection to the host
cannot be felt or palpated on physical examination. This system. Without a functioning spleen, this important
fist-shaped organ, located on the left side of the body function is negated and can lead to serious conse-
under the rib cage, weighs about 8 ounces, is soft in tex- quences, including fatality, for the infected individual.
ture, and receives 5% of the cardiac output per minute. The final function of the spleen is its hematopoietic
The spleen, a blood-filled organ, consists of red pulp, function, discussed earlier in this chapter.
white pulp, and the marginal zone. The function of the
red pulp is primarily red cell filtration, whereas the
white pulp deals with lymphocyte processing and the Potential Risks of Splenectomy
marginal zone with storage of white cells and platelets. Spleens that are enlarged, infarcted , or minimally func-
tioning can cause difficulty for patients and these condi-
tions are discussed in later chapters. Traditionally, the
The Functions of the Spleen spleen was seen as an inconsequential organ, easily dis-
There are four main tasks of the spleen that relate to red carded and one that was not necessary to life function.
cell viability and the spleen’s immunologic capability. While it is true that the splenectomy procedure may
The first function is the reservoir, or storage, function of provide hematological benefit to patients who have
the spleen. The spleen harbors one third of the circulat- problems with their spleen, it is equally true that indi-
ing mass of platelets and one third of the granulocyte viduals who do not have spleens have additional risks,
mass and may be able to mobilize platelets into the as mentioned earlier. There have been reports in the lit-
peripheral circulation as necessary. In the event of erature of overwhelming postsplenectomy infections
splenic rupture or trauma, large numbers of platelets (OPSIs) that may occur years after the spleen has been
may be spilled into the peripheral circulation. This removed. In most cases, these infections occur within 3
event may predispose to unwanted clotting events, years, but they have been reported as long as 25 years
because platelets serve as catalysts for hemostasis. The after the splenectomy. Many individuals die from OPSIs
second function of the spleen is the filtration function. or at the very least have multiorgan involvement. As an
The spleen has a unique inspection mechanism and organ of the hematopoietic system, the spleen has
larity, there is a unique ratio in the bone marrow termed

Table 2.1 ¢ Functions of the Spleen the myeloid:erythroid (M:E) ratio. This numerical des-
ignation provides an approximation of the myeloid ele-
Hematopoietic function Can produce white cell, red ments in the marrow and their precursor cells and the
cells, and platelets if necessary erythroid elements in the marrow and their precursor
Reservoir function One third of platelets and granulo- cells. The normal ratio of 3 to 4:1 reflects the relation-
cytes are stored in the spleen ship between production and life span of the various
Filtration function Aging red cells are destroyed, cell types. White cells have a much shorter life span
spleen removes inclusion from red cells, if red cell than red cells, 6 to 10 hours for neutrophils as opposed
membrane is less deformable or antibody-coated to 120 days for erythrocytes,5 and thus need to be pro-
spleen presents a hostile environment leading to duced at a much higher rate for normal hematopoiesis.
production of spherocytes
Immunologic function Opsonizing antibodies pro-
ALTERATIONS IN THE
duced, trapping and processing antigens from encap-
MYELOID:ERYTHROID RATIO
sulated organs
The M:E ratio is sensitive to hematological factors that
may impair red cell life span, inhibit overall production,
or cause dramatic increases in a particular cell line. Each
immense capability and provides a high value and ver- of these conditions reflects bone marrow dynamics
satility (Table 2.1). If splenic removal is decided upon, through alterations of the M:E ratio. Many observations
the surgeon should leave some splenic tissue in place in the peripheral smear can be traced back to the patho-
and carefully manage the asplenic patient; asplenic physiological events at the level of bone marrow. A per-
individuals represent a more vulnerable population. fect example of this is the bone marrow’s response to
anemia. As anemia develops and becomes more severe,
THE BONE MARROW AND THE the patient becomes symptomatic and the kidney
MYELOID:ERYTHROID RATIO senses hypoxia due to a decreased Hgb level. Tissue
hypoxia stimulates an increased release of erythropoi-
The bone marrow is one of the largest organs of the
etin (EPO), a red cell-stimulating hormone, from the
body, encompassing 3% to 6% of body weight and
kidney. EPO travels through the circulation and binds
weighing 1500 g in the adult.4 It is hard to conceptual-
with a receptor on the youngest of bone marrow precur-
ize the bone marrow as an organ, because it is not a solid
sor cells, the pronormoblast. The bone marrow has the
organ that one can easily touch, measure, or weigh.
capacity to expand production six to eight times in
Because bone marrow tissue is spread throughout the
response to an anemic event.6 Consequently, the bone
body, one can visualize it only in that context. It is com-
marrow delivers reticulocytes and nucleated red blood
posed of yellow marrow, red marrow, and an intricate
cells to the peripheral circulation prematurely if the kid-
supply of nutrients and blood vessels. Within this struc-
ney senses hypoxic stress. What will be observed in the
ture are erythroid cells (red cells), myeloid cells (white
peripheral blood smear is polychromasia (stress reticu-
cells), and megakaryocytes (platelets) in various stages
locytes, large polychromatophilic red cells) and nucle-
of maturation, along with osteoclasts, stoma, and fatty
ated red cells. Both of these cell types indicate that the
tissue.5 Mature cells enter the peripheral circulation via
bone marrow is regenerating in response to an event.
the bone marrow sinuses, a central structure lined with
This dynamic represents the harmony between bone
endothelial cells that provide passage for mature cells
marrow and peripheral circulation.
from extravascular sites to the circulation (Fig. 2.2). The
cause and effect of hematological disease usually find
root in the bone marrow, the central factory for produc- THE ROLE OF STEM
tion of all adult hematopoietic cells. In the first 18 years CELLS AND CYTOKINES
of life, bone marrow is spread throughout all of the A unique feature to the bone marrow microenviron-
major bones of the skeleton, especially the long bones. ment is the presence of stem cells. These multipotential
Gradually, as the body develops, the marrow is replaced cells resemble lymphocytes and are available in the
by fat until the prime locations for bone marrow in the bone marrow in the ratio of one stem cell for every 1000
adult are the iliac crest, located in the pelvic area, and non-stem cell elements.1 Stem cells were demonstrated
the sternum, located in the chest area. In terms of cellu- in the classic experiment of Till and McCullugh in

Adapted from Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide Based on Proficiency Testing. Northfield, IL: College of American Pathologists, 1998, with permission.
Erythroblastic
island
Lipocyte
Sinus
Lipocyte
Platelets
Megakaryocyte
Artery Central
Sinus vein
Endothelial cells
Figure 2.2 Internal structure of

the bone marrow.
1961. These investigators irradiated the spleens and through proliferation, differentiation, and maturation.
bone marrows of mice, rendering them acellular, and Chemical signals such as cytokines and interleukins are
then injected them with bone marrow cells. Within uniquely responsible for promoting a specific lineage of
days, colonies appeared on the spleens of the mice cell. Most of these substances are glycoproteins that will
and were referred to as colony-forming units-spleen target specific cell stages. They control replication,
(CFU-S), with cells capable of regenerating into mature clonal or lineage selection and are responsible for matu-
hematopoietic cells. In present-day terminology, CFU-S ration rate and growth inhibition of stem cells.8 Many
are the pluripotential stem cells (Fig. 2.3). Multipoten- cytokines are available as pharmaceutical products.
tial stem cells are capable of differentiation into non- Recombinant technology has made it possible to purify
lymphoid or lymphoid precursor committed cells.7 and produce cytokines such as EPO, granulocyte-
Nonlymphoid committed cells will develop into the colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), and granulocyte-
entire white cell, red cell, or megakaryocytic family macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF).
(CFU-GEMM). The lymphocytic committed cell (LSC) These products are used to stimulate a specific cell pro-
will develop into T cells or B cells, which are of different duction to yield therapeutic benefit for the patient. Spe-
origins. T cells are responsible for cellular immunity cific conditions in which recombinant cytokines have
(cell-to-cell communication), whereas B cells are been useful are as follows9:
responsible for humoral immunity, the production of
circulating antibodies directed by plasma cells. Each of 1. Recovery from neutropenia resulting from
these committed cells evolves into their adult form myelotoxic therapy
2. Graft versus host disease after bone marrow ERYTHROPOIETIN

transplant therapy
Erythropoietin (EPO), a cytokine, is a hormone pro-
3. To increase white counts in patients with AIDS
duced by the kidneys that functions as a targeted ery-
on antiretroviral therapy
throid growth factor. This hormone has the ability to
An abbreviated list of cytokines and the cell lines stimulate red cell production through a receptor on the
they stimulate is included in Table 2.2. pronormoblast, the youngest red cell precursor in the
Reproduced from Sandoz Pharmaceuticals Corporation and Schering-Plough.
Figure 2.3 Blood cell formation from stem cells to mature cells. Notice the differentiation and maturation path from
stem cells, through the CFU-GEMM to the LSC, terminating in mature cells into the peripheral circulation. IL, interleukin;
CFU, colony-forming unit, GEMM, granulocyte, erythrocyte, monocyte, macrophage; LSC, lymphoid stem cell.
There are few anemias for which a bone marrow proce-

Table 2.2 ¢ Abbreviated List of Cytokines dure is necessary for diagnostic purposes. However,
and Growth Factors diagnosing white cell disorders such as leukemia or
lymphoma relies on a baseline bone marrow evaluation.
Cytokine Cell Modifier
IL-2 T cells, B cells, NK cells BONE MARROW PROCEDURE
IL-3 Multilineage stimulating factor In the adult patient, the iliac crest is the site of choice,
IL-4 B cells, T cells, mast cells and the patient is usually face down while the physician
IL-6 Stem cells, B cells chooses an appropriate area. The area is anesthetized
IL-7 Pre-B cells, T cells, early granulocytes with local anesthesia for an appropriate amount of time
and the physician proceeds to advance the aspirate nee-
IL-11 Megakaryocytes
dle with a twisting, downward motion11 (Fig. 2.4). Once
GM-CSF Granulocytes, macrophages, fibro-
the needle has seeded into the marrow, its position is
blasts, endothelial cells
solid and not moveable. The stylus is removed and a
EPO Red cell progenitor cells syringe is placed at the end of the needle. With a quick
motion, a small amount of bloody fluid (approximately
IL, interleukin; GM, granulocyte-monocyte; CSF, colony-stimulating
factor; EPO, erythropoietin; NK, natural killer; fibroblast, connective 1 mL) and marrow spicule material is obtained. The
tissue support cell; endothelial cells, lining cells of blood vessels. technologist/technician assesses the sample for bone
marrow, communicates to the physician whether mar-
row is observed, and then proceeds to prepare slides
bone marrow. EPO is secreted on a daily basis in small
from the aspirate material, fishing out bone marrow
amounts and functions to balance red cell production.10
spicules with a microbiologic loop or pipette. If a biopsy
If the body becomes anemic and Hgb levels decline, the
sample is requested, the cutting blade is introduced into
kidney senses tissue hypoxia and secretes more EPO;
the bore of the needle and advanced until the medullary
consequently, red cell production is accelerated and
cavity is entered. A very small core of bone, 3/4 in., is
younger red cells are released prematurely. Normal red
obtained, and the biopsy sample is removed by insert-
cell maturation from the precursor cell the pronor-
ing a stylus into the cutting blade and pushing the sam-
moblast takes 5 days; with accelerated erythropoiesis,
ple through the open end. The procedure is terminated
the maturation is decreased to 3 to 4 days. Human
as the physician withdraws the needle and applies pres-
recombinant erythropoietin (r-HuEPO) is available as a
sure to the area. Touch preparation of the core biopsy is
pharmaceutical product and can be used for individuals
made by the technologist by gently applying the biopsy
experiencing renal disease, for individuals who have
sample to several coverslips with the use of sterile
become anemic as a result of chemotherapy, or for
tweezers. In the event that an aspirate cannot be
individuals who refuse whole blood products on reli-
obtained, this may present a viable option. The remain-
gious grounds.
ing aspirate and biopsy material are placed in a 5%
Zenker’s fixative and processed in the histology labora-
THE ROLE OF THE LABORATORY tory. The patient should remain in bed for the next hour
PROFESSIONAL IN THE BONE so that pressure is applied to the aspirate location.
MARROW PROCEDURE Patients with decreased platelet counts may need to be
Obtaining a bone marrow aspirate or biopsy is an inva- monitored more closely and have pressure exerted on
sive and potentially painful procedure, and for this rea- the biopsy site for longer periods once the procedure is
son, this procedure is carefully evaluated before completed.
proceeding. The technologist has multiple roles in the
bone marrow aspirate and/or biopsy procedure. Funda-
mentally, the technologist acts as an assistant to the BONE MARROW REPORT
pathologist/hematologist in the preparation of materials Once the slides from the biopsy and/or aspirate material
for the procedure. Next, the technologist informs the are stained, the physician will evaluate the bone marrow
pathologist/hematologist if the sample is acceptable or for overall cellularity, M:E ratio (300 to 500 cells are
unacceptable. This judgment of the technologist deter- scanned), maturation of each cell line, marrow-to-fat
mines whether the procedure is repeated or completed. ratio, and presence of abnormal or tumor cells. The
Aspiration needle
Posterior iliac crests Stylet
Hub
Guard
Skin
Marrow
Biopsy
Hip bone needle
Figure 2.4 Bone marrow aspiration.
bone marrow iron store will be evaluated by the use some are calculated. Generally, most automated instru-
of Prussian blue stain, and the marrow architec- ments directly read the WBC, RBC, Hgb, and MCV. The
ture will be observed for abnormalities in the stromal Hct is a calculated parameter. Correlation checks
structure (necrosis, fibrosis, etc.).12 These results between the Hgb and Hct are a significant part of quality
combined with the patient’s complete blood count assurance for the CBC and are known as the “rule of
(CBC) will enable the physician to reach a diagnosis. A three.” The formulas for correlation checks/rule of three
copy of a sample bone marrow report is included in are as follows: Hgb × 3 ⫽ Hct ± 3 and RBC × 3 ⫽ Hgb.
Figure 2.5. As a matter of practice, each operator of any automated
instrumentation should be able to quickly and accu-
rately establish a correlation check for each sample.
THE COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT Failure to fall within the correlation check is usually the
The complete blood count (CBC) is one of the most fre- first indicator of preanalytic error and may indicate cor-
quently ordered and most time-honored laboratory rective actions such as reviewing a peripheral smear,
tests in the hematology laboratory. This evaluation con- tracing the origin of the samples, or other investigation.
sists of nine components and offers the clinician a vari- Additionally, each instrument presents a pictorial repre-
ety of hematological data to interpret and review that sentation of the hematological data registered as either a
directly relate to the health of the bone marrow, repre- histogram or a scatterplot, and most now offer an auto-
sented by the numbers and types of cells in the periph- mated reticulocyte count. This is discussed in the Proce-
eral circulation. The nine components of the CBC (Fig. dure section. Table 2.3 presents normal values for a CBC
2.6) are the white blood cell count (WBC), red blood cell from the adult, and Table 2.4 gives selected red cell val-
count (RBC), Hgb, hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular ues for the newborn. These data are also presented on
volume (MCV), mean corpuscular Hgb (MCH), mean the inside cover of this text.
corpuscular Hgb content (MCHC), platelet count, and Not all data on the CBC are viewed with equal
red cell distribution width (RDW). Depending on the importance or usefulness. Indeed, in an informal study
type of automated instrumentation used, some of these at the University of Cleveland conducted by Dr. Linda
parameters are directly read from the instrument and Sandhaus (Director, Core Laboratory for Hematology,
Figure 2.5 Sample bone marrow report.
2004), most physicians reported that the most pre- pathophysiological approach refers to the cause of
ferred information was the Hgb, Hct, platelet count, anemias—whether the anemia is caused by exces-
and WBC. The MCV was generally viewed as impor- sive destruction or diminished production of red
tant by primary care physicians. The RDW and auto- cells. Although this is certainly a respected approach,
mated reticulocyte count were used primarily by more clinicians are familiar with the morpholog-
“newer” clinicians. ical classification of anemias that relies on the red
blood cell indices. This classification is readily avail-
THE MORPHOLOGICAL able using CBC data and can be acted on fairly
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANEMIAS quickly as a means to start an investigation into
Generally, anemias are classified either morpholog- cause. There are three morphological classifications of
ically or according to pathophysiological cause. The anemia:
Figure 2.6 Sample CBC.
• Normochromic normocytic anemia 32%. In this blood picture, the red cells are micro-
• Microcytic hypochromic anemia cytic and smaller and lack Hgb, having an area of central
• Macrocytic normochromic anemia pallor much greater than the usual 3-μm area. A macro-
cytic normochromic anemia implies an MCV of greater
A normocytic normochromic anemia implies a than 100 fL. Red cells are larger than 8 μm with an
normal red cell MCV (80 to 100 fL) and normal Hgb Hgb content in the normal range. If an anemia is sus-
content of red cells (MCHC of 32% to 36%). Although pected and confirmed by a CBC, the peripheral smear
the red cell and Hgb values may be reduced in this picture should reflect the morphological classification
anemia, the size and Hgb content per cell are in the nor- generated by automated results. For example, a patient
mal range. Red cells are normal size with a normal Hgb sample with an MCV of 67 fL and an MCHC of 30%
content. A microcytic hypochromic anemia implies should have red cells that are small and pale. If the
an MCV of less than 80 fL with an MCHC of less than peripheral smear results do not correlate with the auto-
explanations for a shift in MCV include the presence of

Table 2.3 ¢ Normal Values Using SI Units cold agglutinins (red cells coated with cold antibody,
causing a false increase in size), transfusion therapy
WBC 4.8 to 10.8 ⫻ 109/L (newly transfused cells are larger), and reticulocytosis
RBC Males 4.7 to 6.1 ⫻ 1012/L (presence of polychromatophilic macrocytes). Speci-
men or preanalytic factors that may account for a shift-
Females 4.2 to 5.4 ⫻ 1012/L
ing MCV include the following14,15:
Hgb Males 14 to 18 g/dL
Females 12 to 16 g/dL 1. Contamination by drawing through the intra-
Hct Males 42% to 52% venous lines or in-dwelling catheters
Females 37% to 47%
2. Specimens from hyperglycemic patients
3. Patients on some chemotherapy drugs or
MCV 80 to 100 fL
zidovudine (AZT) therapy
MCH 27 to 31 pg
MCHC 32% to 36% Any shift in MCV that cannot be explained as a
RDW 11.5% to 14.5% result of the circumstances listed should prompt the
laboratory to investigate a possible sample mismatch or
Platelet count 150,000 to 350,000 ⫻ 109/L
misidentification. As a delta check parameter, the MCV
has a high value when determining sample integrity. See
Table 2.5 for causes of MCV shifts.
mated results, an investigation should be initiated to The MCH and MCHC provide information con-
determine the cause of the discrepancy. A detailed cerning red cell hemoglobinization. The MCH can be
explanation of anemias under each morphological clas- calculated by the following formula:
sification follows in the subsequent chapters. MCH ⫽ (hemoglobin/red cell count) ⫻ 100
CALCULATING RED CELL The normal value is 27 to 31 pg, which implies

INDICES AND THEIR ROLE that the average weight of Hgb in a given amount of red
IN SAMPLE INTEGRITY cells is in the appropriate range. The MCHC content can
be calculated using the following formula (expressed in
The red cell indices provide information concerning the percentage):
size and Hgb content of red cells by providing the MCV,
MCH, and MCHC. The MCV is one of the most stable MCHC ⫽ (hemoglobin/hematocrit) ⫻ 10
parameters in the CBC, with little variability over a
The normal value is 32% to 36%, which implies
period of time: less than 1%.13 For this reason, the MCV
that the amount of Hgb per red cell is in the appropriate
plays an extremely valuable role in monitoring the pre-
concentration.
analytic and analytic qualities of the sample. The MCV
is either directly read by the instrumentation method,
or it is a calculated value. If it is calculated, the formula THE VALUE OF THE RED
is as follows: CELL DISTRIBUTION WIDTH
MCV ⫽ (hematocrit/red cell count) ⫻ 100 The eighth parameter of the CBC is the RDW, a mathe-
The normal value is between 80 and 100 fL and matical calculation that gives insight into the amount of
implies a red cell that has a size of 6 to 8 μm. Legitimate anisocytosis (variation in size) and, to some degree,
Table 2.5 ¢ Conditions Relating to

Table 2.4 ¢ Selected Red Cell Values
Shifts in MCV
for the Newborn
• Cold agglutinins
RBC 4.4 to 5.8 ⫻ 1012/L
• Transfusions
Hgb 17 to 23 g/dL • Chemotherapy—not all drugs
Hct 53% to 65% • AZT therapy
MCV 98 to 108 fL • Hyperglycemia—transient shifts
poikilocytosis (variation in shape) in a peripheral ence ranges have been established. Many anemias
smear. The RDW is derived as follows: develop secondary to other conditions; yet there are
(Standard deviation of RBC those that are primarily a result of diseased red cells.
volume/mean MCV) ⫻ 100 Establishing a diagnosis of anemia requires a care-
ful history and physical examination, as well as an
The normal value for RDW is 11.5% to 14.5%. The assessment of the patient’s symptoms. A thorough
standard deviation of red cell volume is derived from family history can provide information on diet, ethnic-
size histogram data that plot red cell size after a large ity, history of bleeding or anemia, and medical history
number of red cells has been analyzed by the instru- of relatives. Patients with moderate anemias, having
ment. The usefulness of the RDW is that in many cases a Hgb of between 7 and 10 g/dL, may show few phys-
the RDW will become abnormal earlier in the anemia ical symptoms because of the compensatory nature
process than the MCV. Because many anemias (like iron of the bone marrow. Yet once the Hgb drops below
deficiency anemias) develop over a period of time, this 7 g/dL, symptoms invariably develop. Pallor, fatigue,
parameter may provide a sensitive indicator of red tachycardia, syncope, and hypotension are some of
blood size change16 before the red cell indices become the most common signs of anemia. Pallor and hypo-
overtly abnormal. tension are associated with decreased blood vol-
The final item in the CBC is a platelet count. Infor- ume, while fatigue and syncope are associated with
mation regarding platelet estimates and platelet mor- decreased oxygen transport, and tachycardia and heart
phology is given in Chapter 20. murmur are associated with increased cardiac output
(Table 2.7).
CRITICAL VALUES
As mentioned in Chapter 1, critical values are those that THE VALUE OF THE
are outside the reference range and that demand imme- RETICULOCYTE COUNT
diate action by the operator or technologist. A list of
The reticulocyte count is the most effective means of
critical values is given in Table 2.6. If a patient presents
assessing red cell generation or response to anemia.
with a critical value on a CBC, the physician or unit
Reticulocytes are red cells that are nonnucleated and
must be notified immediately. Records of this commu-
that contain remnant RNA material, reticulum. Reticu-
nication are essential and are a major part of quality
lum cannot be visualized by Wright’s stain; to be
assurance. All technologists should realize the impor-
counted and evaluated, reticulocytes must be stained
tance and urgency of acting appropriately once a critical
with supravital stains, like new methylene blue or bril-
value has been obtained.
liant cresyl blue. On Wright’s stain, reticulocytes are
seen as polychromatophilic macrocytes, or large, bluish
THE CLINICAL APPROACH cells. The normal reticulocyte rate is 0.5% to 1.5 % in
TO ANEMIAS the adult and 2.0% to 6.0% in the newborn. Because the
Anemia is defined as a reduction in Hgb, red cell count, bone marrow has the capacity to expand its production
and Hct in a given age group and gender where refer- up to 7 times the normal rate, an elevated reticulocyte
count or reticulocytosis is the appropriate response in
anemic stress. Reticulocytes will be seen in the periph-
eral smear as polychromatophilic macrocytes; nucle-
Table 2.6 ¢ Sample Critical Values
WBC
Low 3.0 ⫻ 109/L Table 2.7 ¢ Symptoms of Anemia Linked
High 25.0 ⫻ 109/L to Pathophysiology
Hgb
Low 7.0 g/dL • Decreased oxygen transport leads to fatigue,
dyspnea, angina pectoris, and syncope
High 17.0 g/dL
• Decreased blood volume leads to pallor, postural
Platelets hypotension, and shock
Low 20.0 ⫻ 109/L • Increased cardiac output leads to palpitation, strong
High 1000 ⫻ 109/L pulse, and heart murmurs
ated red blood cells may also be visualized in the condition where red cell precursors are destroyed
peripheral smear as the bone marrow races to deliver before they are delivered to the peripheral circulation,
cells prematurely at a rapid rate. EPO production is or if the bone marrow is infiltrated with tumor or abnor-
increased in response to hypoxia (anemia), and ery- mal cells, etc. A decreased reticulocyte count may also
throid hyperplasia in the bone marrow (the condition in be seen in aplastic conditions, where the production of
which there are more red cell precursors than white cell either white or red cells or both is seriously impaired. In
precursors being produced) is clear evidence of rapid any event, the level of reticulocyte response or lack of
generation. Failure to produce the expected reticulo- reticulocyte response is an important indicator of bone
cyte increase may occur in ineffective erythropoiesis, a marrow function.
CONDENSED CASE 1
It was a busy day in the pediatric ambulatory clinic. At the change of shifts, a nurse discovered a labeled purple top
tube sitting on the countertop with doctor’s orders attached. The nurse had no idea when the sample was drawn, and
neither did any of the other personnel. A CBC and differential were ordered. What is the next course of action?
Answer
This sample needs to be redrawn if in fact the physician is still interested in the results. CBC testing is best done within
a 4-hour time period, and within 24 hours if the sample is refrigerated. Red cell morphology will be significantly
affected within 2 to 3 hours at room temperature. Peripheral smears made within 12 hours on a refrigerated sample
will still be viable. Testing personnel need to be aware of time limits and their effect on sample integrity.
CONDENSED CASE 2
A 47-year-old man on a surgical floor was having daily CBCs ordered. A sample was received at 8 a.m. in the morning
with the morning draw specimen. The results were delta checked and reported to the floor. Later in the day, the tech-
nologist received another sample for the same patient at 2 p.m. The results on this sample were vastly different and
failed the delta check. On a hunch, the technologist retrieved the sample from the a.m. draw and took both samples
to the blood bank for an ABO type. The ABO on the morning sample was type O; the ABO on the 2 p.m. sample was
type A. The patient has a history of receiving O blood from the blood bank. What is the next course of action?
Answer
Proper patient identification is essential for accurate test results in the clinical laboratory. Extreme care must be taken
by everyone involved in drawing and labeling a specimen to be analyzed. Samples may be drawn by the nursing staff,
the physician, the infusion team, and the phlebotomist. Each of these individuals must never allow distractions or
interruptions to interfere with the essential job of patient identification. In this case, the technologist called up to the
surgical floor, explained the situation, and determined that the 2 p.m. sample had been mislabeled. The results on the
afternoon sample were voided.
Summary Points the bone marrow, it is termed extramedullary

hematopoiesis.
• Hematopoiesis is defined as the production, devel-
opment, and maturation of all blood cells. • The bone marrow is one of the largest nonsolid
organs of the body.
• Erythropoiesis in the fetus takes place in the yolk
• The M:E ratio (3 to 4:1) reflects the amount of
sac, spleen, and liver.
myeloid elements in the bone marrow compared
• Erythropoiesis in the adult takes place primarily in with the erythroid elements in the bone marrow.
the bone marrow. • Multipotential stem cells are capable of differentiat-
• Hematopoiesis within the bone marrow is ing into nonlymphoid or lymphoid precursor com-
termed intramedullary hematopoiesis; outside mitted cells.
• EPO is a hormone produced by the kidneys that reg- • Red cell production is effective when the bone mar-
ulates erythroid production. row responds to anemic stress by producing an
• A bone marrow aspirate and biopsy are invasive pro- increased number of reticulocytes and nucleated
cedures usually performed at the location of the iliac red cells.
crest in adults. • Ineffective red cell production is described as
• The CBC consists of nine parameters: WBC, RBC, death of red cell precursors in the bone marrow
Hgb, Hct, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW, and platelet before they can be delivered to the peripheral
count. circulation.
• The MCV is one of the most stable CBC parameters • Morphological classification of anemias is deter-
over time. mined by the red cell indices.
• Increases in MCV can occur as a result of transfusion, • Microcytic, hypochromic anemias are characterized
reticulocytosis, hyperglycemia, and methotrexate. by an MCV of less than 80 fL and an MCHC of less
• The RDW may be an early indicator of an anemic than 32%.
process. • Macrocytic, normochromic anemias are character-
• Critical values are those that are outside the refer- ized by an MCV of greater than 100 fL.
ence range and that need to be immediately reported • Normocytic, normochromic anemias are character-
and acted on. ized by an MCV between 80 and 100 fL and an
• The reticulocyte count is the most effective means of MCHC of 32% to 36%.
assessing red cell regeneration in response to anemic • Normal red cells are disk-shaped flexible sacs filled
stress. with Hgb and having a size of 6 to 8 μm.
CASE STUDY
A 50-year-old woman was referred to a hematologist for recurring pancytopenia. At present, her WBC was 2.5 × 109/L;
RBC, 3.0 × 1012/L; Hct, 30%; platelet count, 40 × 109/L; MCV, 68 fL; MCH, 26 pg; and MCHC, 36.5%. In addition to
pancytopenia, she has been experiencing shortness of breath and fatigue for the past 3 weeks, and lately these symptoms
had gotten worse. Her family history was unremarkable, but she explained that she has had excessive menstrual bleed-
ing for the past 4 months. A CBC and differential were ordered, as well as a bone marrow examination. What is the likely
cause for this patient’s pancytopenia?
This patient has a microcytic, hypochromic anemia characterized by small cells lacking Hgb. The MCV and MCHC are
both outside of the normal range and are decreased. Additional studies such as serum iron, total iron binding capacity,
and serum ferritin need to be initiated to determine the cause of her anemia, but with a history of menorrhagia for
approximately 3 weeks, iron deficiency anemia is the most likely diagnosis. Other diagnostic possibilities include hered-
itary hemochromatosis, thalassemia minor, or the anemia of inflammation, all of which present with hypochromic
microcytic indices. Additionally, the patient’s bone marrow showed 60% myeloid elements and 20% erythroid elements.
A normal level of megakaryocytes was noted. The M:E ratio was designated as 3:1. No atypical cellular formations or
abnormal changes to the bone marrow architecture were noted. No specific diagnostic cause for the pancytopenia was
determined, and the patient will be followed with a CBC every 3 months.
Review Questions
1. What are the organs of hematopoiesis in fetal 2. How does the bone marrow respond to anemic
life? stress?
a. Bone marrow a. Production is expanded, and red cells are
b. Thymus and thyroid gland released to the circulation prematurely.
c. Spleen and liver b. Production is expanded, and platelets are
d. Pancreas and kidneys rushed into circulation.
c. Production is diminished, and the M:E ratio is 7. Which one of the red cell indices reflects the
increased. amount of hemoglobin per individual red
d. Production is diminished, and the M:E ratio is cell?
unaffected. a. Hgb
3. Which chemical substances are responsible for dif- b. MCV
ferentiation and replication of the pluripotent stem c. MCHC
cell? d. MCH
a. Cytokines 8. Given the formulas below, which formula indi-
b. Insulin cates the correlation check between hemoglobin
c. Thyroxin and hematocrit?
d. Oxygen a. (Hgb/Hct) ⫻ 100
4. A hormone released from the kidney that is unique b. Hgb ⫻ 3 ⫽ Hct
for the erythroid regeneration is c. Hct ⫽ MCV ⫻ RBC
a. estrogen. d. (Hgb/RBC) ⫻ 100
b. erythropoietin.
c. progestin. 9. Which of the following CBC parameters may pro-
d. testosterone. vide an indication of anemia before the MCV indi-
cates an overt size change?
5. In the adult, the usual location for obtaining a bone
a. RDW
marrow aspirate is the
b. MCH
a. sternum.
c. WBC
b. iliac crest.
d. MCHC
c. long bones.
d. lower lumbar spine. 10. Which of the following tests is the most effective
6. What is the most stable parameter of the complete means of assessing red cell generation in response
blood count? to anemia?
a. White blood cell count a. RDW
b. Mean corpuscular volume b. Reticulocyte count
c. Red cell distribution width c. Platelet count
d. Platelet count d. CBC
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When the Red Cell Indices Are MCHC 41.1%*
Extremely Elevated? RDW 14.5 %
A specimen from a 36-year-old man with a history of Platelets 85 ⫻ 106/L
HIV infection was received in the clinical laboratory.
The patient had a history of multiple admissions and In this sample, the Hgb and Hct have failed the
was being admitted this time for hyponatremia and correlation check, and the red cell indices in this indi-
severe anemia. The initial results are as follows: vidual are astronomically high and have been flagged
by the automated instrument. The most likely explana-
WBC 2.3 ⫻ 109/L tion for these results is the development of a strong cold
RBC 2.02 ⫻ 1012/L agglutinin in the patient’s sample. Cold agglutinins or
Hgb 7.8 g/dL cold antibodies were first described by Landsteiner in
1903 and are usually IgM in origin. These agglutinins
Hct 19.0%
may occur as a primary anemia or a secondary develop-
MCV 102.5 fL* ment to a primary disorder. Individuals who have
MCH 38.8 pg* cold agglutinin disease are usually elderly and have a

¢ TROUBLESHOOTING (continued)
chronic hemolytic anemia combined with extreme sen- col. The sample is then recycled through the automated
sitivity to cold temperatures leading to Raynaud’s syn- instrument, and the results are compared and then
drome. These individuals may bind complement at reported. If the cold agglutinin persists, the sample may
colder temperature and hemolyze, causing a decreased need to be warmed for a second time to allow the results
Hgb and Hct. Agglutination in the digits and extremi- to equilibrate within reportable range. The CBC results
ties may cause vascular obstruction and lead to acro- show the patient’s results after a 30-minute warming:
cyanosis. In many cases, relocation to a warmer WBC 2.2 ⫻ 109/L
climate results in far fewer hemolytic episodes. Sec-
RBC 2.69 ⫻ 1012/L
ondary cold agglutinins are observed in individuals
with infectious mononucleosis, anti-mycoplasma anti- Hgb 7.8 g/dL
bodies, cytomegalovirus antibodies, malaria, anti-hep- Hct 22.9%
atitis antibodies, and HIV antibodies. In each of these MCV 85.1 fL
cases, the immune system is compromised and sets the MCH 29.0 pg
conditions for the development of an autoantibody
against the patient’s cells. The resolution of the CBC is MCHC 34.1%
to warm the sample in a 37⬚C water bath for a pre- RDW 20.4%
scribed amount of time according to laboratory proto- Platelets 87 ⫻ 106/L
(*Refer to reference values on front inside cover of this text.)
WORD KEY 2. Tablin F, Chamberlain JK, Weiss L. The microanatomy

of the mammalian spleen. In: Bowdler AJ, eds. The
Acrocyanosis • Blue or purple mottled discoloration of the Complete Spleen: Structure, Function and Clinical Dis-
fingers, toes, and/or nose order, 2nd ed. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2002; 18–20.
3. Dailey MO. The immune function of the spleen. In:
Angina pectoris • Oppressive pain or pressure in the
Bowdler AF, ed. The Complete Spleen: Structure, Func-
chest
tion and Clinical Disorders, 2nd ed. Totowa, NJ:
Chemotherapy • Drug therapy used to treat infections, Humana Press, 2001; 54–56.
cancers, and other diseases 4. Singer SJ, Nicholson L. The fluid mosaic of the structure
of cell membranes. Annu Rev Biochem 43:805, 1974.
Dyspnea • Shortness of breath
5. Eshan A. Bone marrow. In: Harmening D. Clinical
Hepatosplenomegaly • Enlargement of liver and spleen Hematology and Fundamentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed.
Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002.
Hypoxia • Decreased oxygen
6. Crosby WH, Akeroyd JH. The limit of hemoglobin
Myelotoxic • Chemicals that destroy white cells synthesis in hereditary hemolytic anemia. Am J Med
13:273–283, 1952.
Palpitation • Sensation of rapid or irregular beating of the
7. Herzog EL, Chai L, Krause DS. Plasticity of marrow
heart
derived stem cells. Blood 102:3483–3493, 2003.
Postural hypotension • Change in blood pressure from 8. Roath S, Laver J, Lawman JP, et al. Biologic control
sitting to standing mechanism. In: Gross S, Roath S, eds. Hematology:
A Problem-Oriented Approach. Baltimore: Williams
RES system • Reticuloendothelial system, the mononu- & Wilkins, 1996; 7.
clear phagocytic system
9. Bell A. Morphology of human blood and marrow cells.
Syncope • Fainting In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Funda-
mentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
Tachycardia • Fast and hard heartbeat
2002; 30–32.
10. Lappin TRJ, Rich IN. Erythropoietin: The first 90 years.
References Clin Lab Hematol 18:137, 1996.
1. Wallace MS. Hematopoietic theory. In: Rodak B, ed. 11. Jamshidi K, Swaim WR. Bone marrow biopsy with unal-
Hematology: Clinical Procedure and Applications, tered architecture: A new biopsy device. J Lab Clin Med
2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002; 73. 77:335, 1971.
12. Krause J. Bone marrow overview. In: Rodak B, ed. frequency of hyperglycemic osmotic matrix errors pro-
Hematology: Clinical Procedures and Applications, ducing spurious macrocytosis. Am J Clin Pathol
2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002; 188–195. 80:861–865, 1983.
13. Lombarts AJPF, Leijsne B. Outdated blood and redun- 15. Pauler DK, Laird NM. Non-linear hierarchical models
dant buffy-coats as sources for the preparation of for monitoring compliance. Stat Med 21:219–229,
multiparameter controls for Coulter-type (resistive- 2002.
particle) hemocytometry. Clin Chim Acta 143:7–15, 16. Adams-Graves P. Approach to anemia. In: Ling F, Duff P,
1984. eds. Obstetrics and Gynecology: Principles for Practice.
14. Savage RA, Hoffman GC. Clinical significance of New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
osmotic matrix errors in automated hematology: The

3 Red Blood Cell Production,

Function, and Relevant Red
Cell Morphology
Betty Ciesla
Basic Red Cell Production Objectives

Red Cell Maturation After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Red Cell Terminology 1. Outline erythropoietic production from origin
to maturation with emphasis on stages of red
Maturation Stages of the Red Cell cell development.
Pronormoblast 2. Describe immature red cells with regard to
Basophilic Normoblast nucleus:cytoplasm ratio, cytoplasm, nuclear
Polychromatophilic Normoblast structure, and size.
Orthochromic Normoblast-Nucleated (nRBC) 3. Clarify the role of erythropoietin in health and
Reticulocyte disease.
Mature Red Cell 4. Differentiate between American Society of Clin-
ical Pathology and College of American Pathol-
Red Blood Cell Membrane ogists terminology for the red cell series.
Development and Function 5. Review red cell metabolism with regard to
Composition of Lipids in the Interior and Exterior energy needs.
Layers 6. Describe the composition of the red cell mem-
Composition of Proteins in the Lipid Bilayers brane with regard to key proteins and lipids.
The Cytoskeleton 7. Describe the components necessary for main-
Red Cell Metabolism taining a normal red cell life span.
8. Outline the plasma factors that affect red cell
Abnormal Red Cell Morphology life span.
Variations in Red Cell Size
9. Define anisocytosis and poikilocytosis.
Variations in Red Cell Color
10. Differentiate between microcyte and macrocyte.
Variations in Red Cell Shape
11. Indicate the clinical conditions in which varia-
Red Cell Inclusions tions in size are seen.
12. Indicate the clinical conditions in which the
variations in hemoglobin content are seen.
13. Describe the clinical conditions that show poly-
chromatophilic cells.
14. Identify the pathophysiology and the clinical
conditions that may lead to target cells, sphero-
cytes, ovalocytes/elliptocytes, sickle cells, and
the fragmented cells.
15. List the most common red cell inclusions and
the disease states in which they are observed.
33
BASIC RED CELL PRODUCTION become anucleate. This remarkable development takes
place in the bone marrow over a period of 5 days as each
Red blood cell production is a dynamic process that
precursor cell goes through three successive divisions,
originates from pluripotent stem cells, a phenomenal
yielding smaller and more compact red cells.1 Several
structure whose cells can give rise to many tissues,
features of the red cell change dramatically: the cell size
including skin, bone, and nerve cells. Next to the map-
reduces, the nucleus:cytoplasm (N:C) ratio reduces,
ping of the human genome, the use of stem cells as
nuclear chromatin becomes more condensed, and the
agents of therapy is one of the paramount discoveries of
cytoplasm color is altered as hemoglobinization
the 20th century. What makes stem cells so appealing is
becomes more prominent (Table 3.1). In the bone mar-
their versatility. They will respond to a programmed
row, erythrocytes at various stages of maturation seem
chemical environment in bone marrow or in cell cul-
to cluster in specific areas, the so-called erythroblastic
ture, replicating and eventually producing the tissue
island, easily identified in the bone marrow aspirate by
that corresponds to their chemical menu. Red cells
the tell-tale morphological clues of erythropoiesis—
derive from the committed stem cells, the CFU-GEMM
extremely round nuclear material, combined with
described in Chapter 2. This cell, derived from the
basophilic cytoplasm. The main site of adult erythro-
pluripotential stem cell, is under the influence of chem-
poiesis is the bone marrow located in the sternum and
ical signals, the cytokines that orchestrate the differenti-
iliac crest, whereas erythropoiesis in children takes
ation and maturation of the cell to a committed
place in the long bones and sternum.
pathway. Red cells are under the control of erythropoi-
etin (EPO), a low-molecular-weight hormone produced
by the kidneys, which is dedicated to red cell regenera- RED CELL TERMINOLOGY
tion. EPO makes its way through the circulation and Several nomenclatures are used to describe the matura-
locks onto a receptor on the pronormoblast, the tion stages of the red cell. Both are presented here
youngest red cell precursor, stimulating the production because many textbooks use them interchangeably.
of 16 mature red cells from every pronormoblast pre- There seems to be little advantage in using one termi-
cursor cell (pluripotent stem cell) (Fig. 3.1) .1 nology over the other; however, the original intent of
creating the terminologies was to clarify the terms cre-
ated in the 1800s to describe red cell maturation and
RED CELL MATURATION make the stages of maturation easier to remember and
Mature red cells are one of the few cellular structures in master. The College of American Pathologists (CAP)
the human body that begin as nucleated cells and uses the word “blast” in the description of maturation
Pluripotent
stem cell
ERYTHROPOIESIS
Mature erythrocytes
Figure 3.1 Through the erythropoietic process, a single pluripotent stem cell will yield 16 mature erythrocytes.
CHAPTER 3 • Red Blood Cell Production, Function, and Relevant Red Cell Morphology 35
• There are no granules in the cytoplasm of red

Table 3.1 ¢ Key Features of Red cells.
Cell Development • The cytoplasm in younger cells is extremely
basophilic and becomes more lavender tinged
• Nuclei are always “baseball” round. as hemoglobin is synthesized.
• Basophila of cytoplasm is an indicator of immaturity. • Size decreases as the cell matures.
• Cell size reduces with maturity. • Nuclear chromatin material becomes more
• As hemoglobin develops, the cytoplasm becomes condensed in preparation for extrusion from
more magenta. the nucleus.
• The N:C ratio decreases as the cell matures. • The N:C ratio decreases as the nuclear material
• The cytoplasm of the red cell does not contain spe-
becomes more condensed and smaller in rela-
cific granulation.
• Nuclear chromatin becomes more condensed with
tionship to the entire red cell.
age. In the bone marrow and in the peripheral smear,
• Nucleated red cells (orthochromic normoblasts) are each of these clues is helpful in enabling the technolo-
not a physiological component of the normal periph- gist to stage a particular red cell. Identification of imma-
eral smear. ture red cells should be systematic and based on reliable
morphological criteria. Each red cell maturation stage
will be described using size, N:C ratio, nuclear chro-
matin characteristics, and cytoplasm descriptions. N:C
stages, whereas the American Society of Clinical Pathol-
ratio implies the amount of nucleus to the amount of
ogists (ASCP) incorporates “rubri” into the first four
cytoplasm present; the higher the N:C ratio, the more
maturation stages (Table 3.2). Throughout this textbook,
immature is the cell. Nuclear chromatin will be
CAP terminology is used.2
described with respect to chromatin distribution, chro-
matin texture, and color.
MATURATION STAGES
OF THE RED CELL Pronormoblast (Fig. 3.2)
There are six stages of maturation in the red cell series: Size: 18 to 20 μm, the largest and most immature,
pronormoblast, basophilic normoblast, polychro- the “mother cell”
matophilic normoblast, orthochromic normoblast, N:C ratio: 4:1
reticulocyte, and mature red cell. In general, several Nuclear chromatin: Round nucleus with a densely
morphological clues mark the red cell maturation series: packed chromatin, evenly distributed, fine tex-
• When the red cell is nucleated, the nucleus is ture with deep violet color, nucleoli may be
“baseball” round. present but are hard to visualize
Cytoplasm: Dark marine blue definitive areas of
clearing
Table 3.2 ¢ College of American

Pathologists (CAP) vs.
American Society for
Clinical Pathology (ASCP)
Terminology for Red Cells
© 1967 American Society of Clinical Pathologists.
CAP ASCP
Pronormoblast Rubriblast
Text/image rights not available.
Basophilic normoblast Prorubricyte
Reprinted with permission.
Polychromatophilic normoblast Rubricyte

Orthochromic normoblast Metarubricyte
Reticulocyte Reticulocyte
Erythrocyte Erythrocyte
Figure 3.2 Pronormoblast.


Reprinted with permission

Figure 3.3 Basophilic normoblast. Figure 3.5 Orthochromic normoblast.
Basophilic Normoblast (Fig. 3.3) Orthochromic Normoblast-

Nucleated (nRBC) (Fig. 3.5)
Size: 16 μm
N:C ratio: 4:1 Size: 8 μms
Nuclear chromatin: Round nucleus with crys- N:C ratio: 1:1
talline chromatin appearance, parachromatin Nuclear chromatin: Dense, velvet-appearing
underlayer may be visible, red-purple color to homogenous chromatin
chromatin Cytoplasm: Increased volume, with orange-red
Cytoplasm: Cornflower blue with indistinct areas color tinges with slight blue tone
of clearing
Reticulocyte (Fig. 3.6)
Size: 8 μm
Polychromatophilic Appearance: Remnant of RNA visualized as reticu-
Normoblast (Fig. 3.4) lum, filamentous structure in chains or as a sin-
Size: 13 μm gle dotted structure in new methylene blue
N:C ratio: 2:1 stain: seen in Wright’s stain as large bluish-red
Nuclear chromatin: Chromatin is condensed, cells, polychromatophilic macrocytes
moderately compacted
Cytoplasm: A color mixture, blue layered with Mature Red Cell (Fig. 3.7)
tinges of orange red, “the dawn of hemoglo- Size: 6 to 8 μm
binization” as hemoglobin begins to be synthe- Appearance: Disk-shaped cell filled with hemoglo-
sized bin, having an area of central pallor of 1 to 3 μm

Figure 3.4 Polychromatophilic normoblast. Figure 3.6 Reticulocyte.

• The red cell membrane must be deformable.

• Hemoglobin structure and function must be
adequate.
From The College of American Pathologists, with permission.
• The red cell must maintain osmotic balance

and permeability.
The mature red blood cell is an anucleate structure
Text/image rights not available. with no capacity to synthesize protein, yet it is capa-
ble of a limited metabolism, which enables it to survive
120 days.3 An intact, competent, and fully function-
ing red cell membrane is an essential ingredient to a
successful red cell life span. The membrane of the red
cell is a trilaminar and three-dimensional structure
containing glycolipids and glycoproteins on the outer-
Figure 3.7 Normal red blood cell. Note discocyte shape most layer directly beneath the red cell membrane sur-
and small area of central pallor.
face. Cholesterol and phospholipids form the central
layer, and the inner layer, the cytoskeleton, contains
the specific membrane protein, spectrin, and ankyrin
RED BLOOD CELL MEMBRANE (Fig. 3.8).
DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION
The mature red blood cell is a magnificently designed
instrument for hemoglobin delivery. As a hemoglobin- Composition of Lipids in the
filled sac, the red cell travels more than 300 miles Interior and Exterior Layers
through the peripheral circulation, submitting itself Fifty percent of the red cell membrane is protein, while
to the swift waters of the circulatory system, squeez- 40% is lipid and the remaining 10% is cholesterol. The
ing itself through the threadlike splenic sinuses, lipid fraction is a two-dimensional interactive fluid that
and bathing itself in the plasma microenvironment. serves as a barrier to most water-soluble molecules.
Cellular and environmental factors contribute to Cholesterol is equally distributed through the red cell
red cell survival. In order for the red cell to sur- membrane and comprises 25% of the membrane lipid;
vive for its 120-day life cycle, these conditions are nec- however, plasma cholesterol and membrane cholesterol
essary: are in constant exchange. Cholesterol may accumulate
Antigen
Protein Membrane
surface
Lipid
bilayer
Membrane
cytoskeleton
Spectrin Adducin Actin

Spectrin
dimer-dimer Protein
interaction
Figure 3.8 Red blood cell membrane. Note placement of integral proteins (glycophorins—in purple) versus
peripheral proteins (spectrin, ankyrin).
on the surface of the red cell membrane in response to The Cytoskeleton

excessive accumulation in the plasma. Increased
The cytoskeleton is an interlocking network of proteins
plasma cholesterol causes increased deposition of cho-
that play a significant role in the deformability and elas-
lesterol on the red cell surface. The red cell becomes
ticity of the red cell membrane. The third layer of the
heavier and thicker, causing rearrangement of hemo-
red cell membrane supports the lipid bilayer and also
globin. This may be one pathway to the formation of
supplies the peripheral proteins. Spectrin and ankyrin
target cells and acanthocytes, red cell morphologies that
are peripheral proteins that are responsible for the
exhibit decreased red cell survival. Acanthocytes may
deformability properties of the red cell. Deformability
also develop subsequent to cholesterol depositions in
and elasticity are crucial properties to the red cell,
patients with liver disease and lecithin cholesterol
because the red cell with an average diameter of 6 to 8
acetyltransferase (LCAT) deficiency.
μm must maneuver through vascular apertures like the
splenic cords and capillary arterioles, which have diam-
Composition of Proteins eters of 1 to 3 μm. Indeed, the intact and deformable
in the Lipid Bilayers red cell can stretch 117% of its surface area as it weath-
ers the turmoil of circulation, squeezing through small
The protein matrix of the red cell membrane is sup- spaces. Inherited abnormalities of spectrin can lead to
ported by two types of protein. The integral proteins the production of spherocytes, a more compact red cell
start from the cytoskeleton and expand through the with a reduced life span. Spectrin-deficient red cells are
membrane to penetrate the other edge of the red cell normal size and shaped once they exit the bone marrow.
surface. Peripheral proteins are confined to the red cell It is only when they are pushed into the systemic circu-
cytoskeleton. The integral proteins provide the back- lation and are subjected to the rigors of the spleen that
bone for the active and passive transport of the red cell the outer layer of the red cell membrane is shaved, lead-
as well as provide supporting structure for more than 30 ing to the more compact and damaged cell, the sphero-
red cell antigens.3 Ions and gases move across the red cyte. This particular spherocyte mechanism, which
cell membrane in an organized and harmonious fash- occurs in hereditary spherocytosis, best illustrates the
ion. Water (H2O), chloride (Cl), and bicarbonate progressive loss of membrane that occurs in hereditary
(HCO3) diffuse freely across the red cell membrane as a spherocytosis. Once the spherocyte is reviewed by the
result of specialized channels, like aquaphorins. Other spleen, the membrane is removed, leaving a remodeled
ions like sodium (Na⫹), potassium (K⫹), and calcium red cell. Other mechanisms for the formation of sphero-
(Ca2⫹) are more highly regulated by a careful intracellu- cytes may occur, but these are discussed later.
lar-to-extracellular balance. For sodium, the ratio is
1:12, and for potassium, 25:1,4 the ratio that represents
the amount of sodium and potassium transport in and RED CELL METABOLISM
out of the cell. This ratio is the optimum ratio for red
Because the mature red cell is an anucleate structure, it
cell survival and is controlled by cationic energy pumps
has no nuclear or mitochondrial architecture for metab-
requiring ATP for Na⫹ and K⫹ and by calmodulin,
olizing fatty or amino acids. Consequently, it derives all
which regulates calcium migration through the cal-
of its energy from the breakdown of glucose. Within this
cium-ATPase pumps. If the membrane becomes more
framework, the red cell must maintain its shape, keep
permeable to Na⫹, rigid red cells may develop leading
hemoglobin in the reduced (Fe2⫹) state, and move elec-
to spherocytes, which have a decreased life span. Red
trolytes across the membrane. There are three metabolic
cells, which are more water permeable, may hemolyze
pathways that are essential for red cell function, as fol-
and burst prematurely, again leading to reduced life
lows:
span. Glycophorins A, B, and C are additional integral
membrane proteins, containing 60% carbohydrates 1. The Embden-Meyerhof pathway provides 90%
and most of the membrane sialic acid, which imparts a of the cellular ATP because red cell metabolism
net negative charge to the red cell surface. Many red cell is essentially anaerobic. The functions of ATP
antigens are located on this portion of the membrane. are multifactorial and include maintenance of
Red cell antigens M and N are located on glycophorin membrane integrity, regulation of the intracel-
A, while red cell antigens S and s are located on gly- lular and extracellular pumps, maintenance of
cophorin B. Glycophorin C provides a point of attach- hemoglobin function, and replacement of
ment to the cytoskeleton or inner layer of the red cell membrane lipids.5 This pathway also generates
membrane. NAD⫹ from NADH, an important structure in
the formation of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, a 1. Is the morphology in every field?

key element to oxygen loading and unloading. 2. Is the morphology artificial or pathological?
2. The hexose monophosphate shunt provides Technologists review approximately 10 well-
5% to 10% of the ATP necessary so that stained and well-distributed fields in a peripheral smear
NADPH is produced and globin chains will and then make a judgment as to whether anisocytosis
not be degraded when subjected to oxidative (variation in size) and poikilocytosis (variation in
stress and the accumulation of hydrogen shape) are present. If these are present, technologists
peroxide. If this pathway is deficient, globin proceed to record and quantitate those shape and size
chains may precipitate, forming Heinz body changes that are responsible for anisocytosis and poik-
inclusions in the red cell. Heinz body inclu- ilocytosis observation. A numerical scale or qualitative
sions will lead to the formation of bite cells remarks are used to grade the specific morphology.
in the peripheral blood as Heinz bodies are Numeric procedures for assessing red cell morphology
pitted from the cell by the spleen. can be reviewed in Chapter 20 “Hematology Proce-
3. The methemoglobin reductase pathway, which dures.” What is most important in the assessment of red
maintains hemoglobin iron in the reduced cell morphology is the discovery of the physiological
ferrous state, Fe2⫹, so that oxygen can be cause for the creation of that morphology so that the
delivered to the tissues, is dependent on the patient can be treated and his or her hematological
reduction of NAD to NADPH (Fig. 3.9). If health restored.
this enzyme is absent, methemoglobin accu-
mulates in the red cells. Oxygen transport
capabilities are seriously impaired because Variations in Red Cell Size
methemoglobin cannot combine with oxygen. The normal red cell is a disk-shaped structure that is
approximately 6 to 8 μm and has an MCV of between 80
and 100 fL and an MCHC of between 32% and 36%.
ABNORMAL RED CELL MORPHOLOGY Variations in size are seen as microcytes (less than 6 μm)
Automated instrumentation in hematology has rede- or macrocytes (greater than 9 μm). Microcytic cells
fined the level of practice in most hematology laborato- result from four main clinical conditions: iron defi-
ries. Along with the complete blood count (CBC), most ciency anemia, thalassemic syndromes, iron overload
instruments offer an automated differential count. conditions, and the anemia of chronic disorders.
When values from the differential or CBC are out of the Microcytic cells are part of the clinical picture in iron
reference range, results are flagged. If a result is flagged, deficiency anemia and result from impaired iron metab-
the operator or technologist must make a decision to olism as a result of either deficient iron intake or defec-
perform reflex testing or pull a peripheral smear for tive iron absorption.6 Iron is an essential element to the
review or complete differential in order to resolve the formation of the hemoglobin molecule. The heme por-
abnormal result. Therefore, far fewer peripheral smears tion of hemoglobin is formed from having four iron
are being reviewed or given a complete differential atoms surrounded by the protoporphyrin ring. Two
count. Those smears that are scanned or reviewed, how- pairs of globin chains are then assembled onto the
ever, are from patients who are more seriously ill and molecule with the heme structure lodged in the pockets
may have illness with multiple pathologies. For this of the globin chains. Iron needs to be incorporated into
reason, proficiency in normal and abnormal identifica- the four heme structures of each hemoglobin molecule,
tion of red cells is a desirable skill and one that must be and also needs to be absorbed from the bloodstream
practiced as a student or an employee. This section con- and transferred, via transferrin, to the pronormoblasts
centrates on defining abnormal red cell morphology of the bone marrow for incorporation in the heme struc-
and the pathologies that are causative to that morphol- ture. Iron-starved red cells divide more rapidly than
ogy. Automated cell counting and differential counters normal red cells, searching for iron, and are smaller
have not yet replaced the well-trained eye with respect because of these rapid divisions. The thalassemic condi-
to the subtleties of red cell morphology. tions give rise to microcytes owing to decreased or
There is no substitute for a well-distributed, well- absent globin synthesis. When either alpha or beta
stained peripheral smear when assessing red cell mor- chains are missing or diminished, normal adult hemo-
phology. Once this is established, there are two globin is not synthesized and hemoglobin configuration
principal questions that must be asked when an abnor- is impaired, leading to microcytic cells that have an
mal morphology is observed: increased central pallor, known as hypochromia. The
PENTOSE-PHOSPHATE SHUNT
EMBDEN-MEYERHOF PATHWAY
Glucose
Antioxidant
ATP activity
Hexokinase
ADP
G6P NADP GSH H20 2
G6P
dehydrogenase
G-P-isomerase 6-PG NADPH GSSG H 20

ATP ADP
Glutothione Glutothione
reductase perioxidase
F6P Phophogluconate
dehydrogenase
Phosphofructokinase
Transketolase
Pentose-5-P
FDP Transaldolase
Aldolase
DHAP
Triosephosphate
isomerase
G3P
NAD
NADH
Adapted from Hillman RF, Finch CA. Red Cell Manual, ed 7. FA Davis, Philadelphia, 1996, p 15, with permission.
1,3-DPG
ADP
Phosphoglycerate 2,3-DPG
kinase ATP
3-PG
Diphosphoglycerate
phophotase
2-PG
PEP ATP
Pyruvate
kinase
Pyruvate
Lactate
dehydrogenase
Lactate
Figure 3.9 Anaerobic breakdown of glucose in red cell metabolism.
third microcytic mechanism occurs in red cells from with macrocytes, some red cells exhibiting normal
individuals who have iron overload disorders like hemoglobin levels, and some showing hypochromia.
hereditary hemochromatosis. These individuals will The final microcytic mechanism is from those individu-
show a dimorphic blood smear, some microcytes mixed als who have the anemia of inflammation. Approxi-
mately 10% of these individuals who have the anemia of at times, orthochromic normoblasts (nucleated red
inflammation arising from renal failure or thyroid dys- blood cells [nRBCs]) prematurely. What is seen in the
function also show microcytic red cells in their periph- peripheral smear is increased polychromasia, red cells
eral smear as iron delivery to the reticuloendothelial that are gray-blue and larger than normal. Polychro-
system is impaired. matophilic macrocytes are actually reticulocytes; how-
All immature red blood cells are nucleated struc- ever, the reticulum can be visualized only when these
tures, and nuclear synthesis depends on vitamin B12 cells are stained with supravital stain. The presence of
and folic acid. If either of these vitamins is unavailable polychromasia is an excellent indicator of bone marrow
or cannot be absorbed through the gastrointestinal sys- health. Polychromasia will be observed
tem, a macrocytic cell evolves. More information con- • When the bone marrow is responding to
cerning vitamin B12 and folic acid is available in Chapter anemia.
6. Macrocytic red blood cells have a diminished life • When therapy is instituted for iron deficiency
span, and a megaloblastic anemia develops with an anemia or megaloblastic anemia.
MCV in excess of 110 fL. In the bone marrow, the ery- • When the bone marrow is being stimulated
thropoiesis is ineffective as the red cell precursors are as a result of a chronic hematological condition,
prematurely destroyed before they are released into the such as thalassemia or sickle cell disorders.
peripheral circulation.7 Additionally, an asynchrony
develops between the nuclear structure and the cyto- Hypochromic red cells exhibit a larger than nor-
plasm, as nuclear development and hemoglobin devel- mal area of central pallor, greater than 3 μm, and are
opment become unbalanced. The nuclear age appears usually seen in conditions in which hemoglobin synthe-
to be out of sync with the cytoplasm development. A sis is impaired. Most hypochromic cells will have
pancytopenia develops in the CBC and hyperseg- an MCHC of less than 32%. The development of
mented neutrophils, and macro-ovalocytes are also part hypochromia is usually a gradual process and can be
of the megaloblastic picture. In individuals who have seen on the peripheral smear as a delicately shaded area
borderline increased MCV, large cells may be generated of hemoglobin within the red cell structure. Any starkly
subsequent to alcoholism and liver disease, or the defined area of red cell pallor is usually artifactual and
increase in MCV may be as a result of high reticulocyte not true hypochromia. Not all hypochromic cells are
counts where polychromatophilic macrocytes are seen microcytic, but all microcytic cells are hypochromic.
in the peripheral smear (Fig. 3.10). Hypochromia of varying degrees can be seen in iron
deficiency anemia, in the thalassemic conditions, and in
the sideroblastic, iron-loading processes (Fig. 3.11).
Variations in Red Cell Color
Color variations in the red cells are observed as poly-
chromasia or hypochromia. Polychromasia occurs sub- Variations in Red Cell Shape
sequent to excessive production of red cell precursors in Shape variations in the red cell are always linked to a
response to anemic stress. When the bone marrow defined red cell pathophysiology. Abnormal red cell
responds to anemic stress, it releases reticulocytes and, morphology presents the morphologist with visual

Figure 3.10 Polychromatophilic macrocyte. Figure 3.11 Hypochromia.

clues as to what might be the source of the patient’s spherocyte, that is left to traverse the circulation is
hematological problems, whether they are hemolysis, smaller, denser, and more fragile in its microenviron-
anemia, or defective splenic function. Five distinct mor- ment.
phologies will be discussed. While these are not all
inclusive, they represent the majority of abnormalities Sickle Cells
seen in a metropolitan population. Sickle cells are a highly recognizable red cell morphol-
ogy, with their crescent shape and pointed projections
Spherocytes at one of the terminal ends of the red cells (Fig. 3.13).
Spherocytes are compact red cells with a near normal Individuals who possess sickle cells have sickle hemo-
MCV and an elevated MCHC, usually above 36%. They globin as one component of their adult hemoglobin
are easily recognized from the rest of the red cell back- complement. Sickle hemoglobin, hemoglobin S, is an
ground on the peripheral smear because they are dense, abnormal hemoglobin. Red cells containing this hemo-
dark, and small (Fig. 3.12). Spherocytes arrive in the globin homozygously have a dramatically reduced life
peripheral circulation via three distinct mechanisms. span owing to the fact that sickle hemoglobin is
Individuals who have inherited abnormalities in spec- intractable and forms tactoids under conditions of
trin will have the condition hereditary spherocytosis hypoxic stress. When red cells containing hemoglobin S
(HS). Mature red cells in HS individuals arrive in the try to maneuver through the spleen and the kidney, the
peripheral circulation with a normal appearance, but as hemoglobin lines up in stiff bundles. This makes the red
they try to negotiate the splenic sinuses, the spleen, cell less elastic and unable to squeeze through the
sensing the membrane imperfections, shears the exte- microcirculation of the spleen. The cell deforms, takes
rior membrane, leaving a more compact structure, the the sickle shape, and is permanently harmed. Many
spherocyte, which is osmotically fragile. The restruc- sickle cells may revert to normal disk shape upon oxy-
tured red cell has a reduced life span, and the patient genation, but approximately 10% are unable to revert
has a lifelong moderate anemia. As red cells age, pieces and these are labeled as irreversible sickle cells.
of membrane are lost in the senescent, or aging, process. Reversible sickle cells, on the other hand, appear in the
Because red cells pass through the spleen hundreds of peripheral smear as thicker, more rounded, half
times in their 120-day life cycle, older and less perfect moon–shaped cells with no pointed projections. When
red cells are trapped by this organ and rendered as properly oxygenated, they resume the normal disk-
spherocytes, where they are eventually removed by the shaped structure of the red cells. Sickle cells may appear
reticuloendothelial system. The final pathophysiology in combination with other hemoglobinopathies like
producing a spherocyte is antibody-coated red cells hemoglobin SC and hemoglobin S-thalassemia.
formed subsequent to an autoimmune or immune
process. As antibody-coated cells percolate through the Ovalocytes and Elliptocytes
spleen, the antibody coating is removed and small Ovalocytes and elliptocytes are red cell morphologies
amounts of red cell membrane are lost. The cell, the that are often used interchangeably, yet these two dis-
Figure 3.12 Spherocyte. Note the density of spherocytes

in comparison to the red cell background. Figure 3.13 Sickle cell. Note pointed projection.
globin is affected qualitatively, target cells will appear

(Fig. 3.16).
Fragmented Cells
The fragmented cells represent a group of variant mor-
phologies ranging from the schistocytes to the helmet
cell. Regardless of the pathophysiology, these cells
appear fragmented; indeed, pieces of the red cell mem-
branes have been sheared and hemoglobin leaks
through the membranes, causing anemia. Physiological
events that may cause this situation are the formation of
large inclusions (Heinz bodies) or the predispositions of
Figure 3.14 Elliptocyte. thrombi. Heinz bodies are large inclusions formed in
the red cell as a result of oxidative stress, usually in
patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase defi-
tinct morphologies have several recognizable differ- ciency (see Chapter 7). As the inclusion-rich red cells try
ences (Fig. 3.14). Ovalocytes are egg shaped and capable to negotiate the spleen, the inclusion-rich cell is pitted,
of many variations of hemoglobin distribution. These leaving a helmet cell (Fig. 3.17). Schistocytes may be
cells may appear macrocytic, hypochromic, or nor- encountered as a result of shear stress from systemic
mochromic. Ovalocytes—more specifically, macrooval- thrombin disposition resulting from disseminated
ocytes—may be observed in the megaloblastic process. intravascular coagulation or thrombotic thrombocy-
Normochromic ovalocytes are typically seen in thal- topenic purpura.8 They may also occur in burn patients
assemic syndromes. Elliptocytes, on the other hand, are or in individuals with heart valve surgery. Burr cells, on
a distinct morphology derived from abnormal spectrin the other hand, are usually seen in conditions of uremia
and protein 4.1 component, both red cell membrane or dehydration, both conditions that result from a
proteins. In the primary condition, hereditary elliptocy- change in tonicity of circulating fluids (Fig. 3.18). Addi-
tosis, elliptocytes are the predominant morphology, yet tionally, burr cells may occur as artifacts in blood smears
this condition is fairly benign with little consequence to that have forced to dry through repeated shaking.
the red cell. The other two genotypes of this disorder,
hereditary pyropoikilocytosis and spherocytic hered- RED CELL INCLUSIONS
itary elliptocytosis, are a much more serious mor-
phology with severe anemia and are discussed in a The cytoplasm of all red cells is free of debris, granules,
subsequent chapter. Elliptocytes may also be present in or other structures. Inclusions that find their way into
the peripheral smear of iron-deficient individuals as the cytoplasm are the result of distinctive conditions.
well as in patients with idiopathic myelofibrosis. This section summarizes four of the most common red
cell inclusions (Table 3.3): Howell-Jolly bodies, siderotic
granules/Pappenheimer bodies, basophilic stippling,
Target Cells
and Heinz bodies.
Target cells appear in the peripheral smear as a bull’s Howell-Jolly bodies are remnants of DNA that
eye–shaped cell. They are seen in the peripheral blood appear in the red cell as round, deep purple, nonde-
due to three mechanisms: (a) as an artifact, (b) due to formable structures 1 to 2 μm in size. They are eccentri-
decreased volume because of loss of hemoglobin, and cally located in the cytoplasm and are seen when
(c) due to increased red cell surface membrane (Fig. erythropoiesis is rushed. It is thought that the Howell-
3.15). As cholesterol increases in the plasma, the red cell Jolly bodies represent remnants of the orthochromic
surface expands, resulting in increased surface area. normoblast nucleus as it is extruded from the cyto-
Target cells appear as hypochromic with a volume of plasm. The spleen usually pits these inclusions from the
hemoglobin rimming the cells and a thin layer of hemo- cytoplasm, yet when the bone marrow is responding to
globin located centrally, eccentrically, or as a thick band. anemic conditions, the spleen cannot keep pace with
As a morphology, target cells appear in iron deficiency Howell-Jolly body formation. In post splenectomy
anemia, hemoglobin C disease and associated condi- individuals, however, large numbers of Howell-Jolly
tions, liver disease, and post splenectomy. When hemo- bodies may be observed, because the spleen is not avail-
How Target Cells Are Formed
As a result of artifacts, air-drying and hemoglobin precipitation:

Examples: High humidity, slow drying, and hemoglobin C
Humid conditions
and/or quick drying
Hemoglobin collects in Crystal Target cell

thicker areas of cell precipitation
As a result of decreased volume:

Examples: Iron deficiency, thalassemia, and hemoglobinopathies (Hb S,E)
Decreased hemoglobin
content in
αββ
hemoglobinopathies αα
Loss of hemoglobin Poorly hemoglobinized Globin chain Target cell
leads to an increase of cells (IDA) imbalance
surface volume ratio in thalassemia
As a result of increased surface membrane:

Examples: Liver disease (obstructive jaundice), LCAT deficiency, and asplenism
Rare LCAT deficiency:

-accumulation of cholesterol
Liver disease:
-excess cholesterol in plasma
Decreased rate and extent Target cell
of membrane lipid loss
or After splenectomy, reticulocytes
Plasma contains retain extra surface membrane
increased free cholesterol relative to hemoglobin content
in the mature RBC.
Figure 3.15 Three possibilities for target cell formation.

Figure 3.16 Target cell. Figure 3.17 Bite cells (helmet cells).



Figure 3.18 Burr cells. Figure 3.19 Howell-Jolly bodies.
able to inspect and remove them from the cell cyto- fine focusing, but red cell–containing basophilic stip-
plasm (Fig. 3.19). pling will often be polychromatophilic. Whenever ery-
Siderotic granules/Pappenheimer bodies are thropoiesis is accelerated, basophilic stippling is likely
seen in the iron loading processes such as hereditary to be found as well in individuals with lead poisoning
hemochromatosis and iron loading anemias subsequent (Fig. 3.21).
to transfusion therapy. They appear as small beaded Heinz bodies result from denatured hemoglobin
inclusions, light purple and located along the periphery and are defined as large structures approximately 1 to 3
of the red cells. Prussian blue staining is the confirma- μm in diameter located toward the periphery of the red
tory staining in determining whether these inclusions cell membrane (Fig. 3.21). Although they cannot be
are iron in origin; consequently, these inclusions are visualized by Wright’s stain, bite cells in the peripheral
termed siderotic granules in Prussian blue staining and smear are evidence that a Heinz body has been formed
Pappenheimer bodies in Wright’s stain. Siderotic gran- and removed by the spleen. To visualize the actual
ules may also be viewed in thalassemic conditions and Heinz body inclusion, staining with a supravital stain
in patients post splenectomy (Fig. 3.20). such as brilliant cresyl blue or crystal violet may be nec-
Basophilic stippling is a result of RNA and mito- essary. Heinz bodies are seen in glucose-6-phosphate
chondrial remnants. These remnants appear as diffusely dehydrogenase deficiency or in any unstable hemoglo-
basophilic granules located throughout the cytoplasm binopathy such as hemoglobin Zurich (Fig. 3.22). See
and are either dustlike or coarse in appearance. They Figure 3.23 for a schematic representation of Heinz
are difficult to visualize in the peripheral smear without body formation.
Table 3.3 ¢ Summary of Inclusions
Inclusion Composition
Howell-Jolly body DNA in origin

Basophilic stippling RNA remnants
Siderotic granules/ Iron
Pappenheimer bodies
Heinz bodies Denatured hemoglobin
Figure 3.20 Siderotic granules.


Oxidant drugs
( e.g. Dapsone or
Phenylthydrazine
overdose)
with or without
G-6-PD deficiency
Adapted from Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide Based on Proficiency Testing.
Normal hemoglobin Unstable hemoglobin
Figure 3.21 Basophilic stippling.
Spontaneous
Northfield, IL: College of American Pathologists, 1998, with permission.

Denatured breakdown
hemoglobin of unstable
hemoglobin
Precipitation
Heinz bodies Heinz bodies
Figure 3.23 Heinz body formation.
Figure 3.22 Heinz bodies.
CONDENSED CASE
At a local physician office lab (POL), one technologist cells were artifactual. What are the potential causes for
was assigned to do complete differentials or to review artifactually induced burr cells?
smears depending on the automated count. She noticed Answer
that in every smear she reviewed, burr cells were a Burr cells can be artifactual if (1) the blood smears that
prominent part of the red cell morphology. She began to are made are forced to air dry through repeated shaking
get suspicious and consider the possibility that the burr or (2) the buffer used in staining is not at the proper pH.
Summary Points orange tinge of hemoglobin, and lose their

nucleus.
• Red cell production is under the control of ery-
• Another name for an orthochromic normoblast is a
thropoietin (EPO), a hormone released from the
nucleated red blood cell (nRBC).
kidney
• The red cell membrane is a trilaminar structure con-
• The main sites of adult erythropoiesis are the ster-
taining glycolipids, glycoproteins, cholesterol, and
num and iliac crest.
proteins that anchor the cell and provide deforma-
• Each pronormoblast produces 16 mature red cells. bility such as spectrin and ankyrin.
• As they mature, red cells decrease in size, become • Integral proteins start from the cytoskeleton and
less basophilic in their cytoplasm, develop the expand through the entire red cell membrane.
• Peripheral proteins are confined to the red cell of sickle cells: irreversible or reversible or oat-
cytoskeleton. shaped sickle cells.
• Sodium and potassium migrate from the plasma • Spherocytes are seen in hereditary spherocytosis, in
across the red cell membranes in an organized fash- autoimmune hemolytic anemias, or as a part of red
ion controlled by cationic pumps. cell senescence.
• Deformability and elasticity are crucial properties • Target cells are seen in any condition affecting
of the red cell membrane, which must be able to hemoglobin function and also in liver disease or
extend is surface area up to 117% to accommodate other processes where cholesterol is loaded in the
its passage through arterioles and capillary space. circulation.
• The Embden-Meyerhof pathway provides 90% • Fragmented cells occur as a result of membrane loss
of cellular ATP necessary for anaerobic red cell and may be seen in heart valve disease, in burns, or
metabolism. in conditions where there is a predisposition of
thrombi.
• Microcytes and macrocytes represent size changes
in the red cells determined by abnormal pathologies. • Ovalocytes can be seen in thalassemic processes
and in the megaloblastic anemias where macro-
• Microcytes are seen in iron deficiency anemia, tha- ovalocytes are seen.
lassemic conditions, iron loading processes, and,
• Elliptocytes are seen in iron deficiency anemia, here-
in some individuals, with the anemia of inflamma-
ditary elliptocytosis, and idiopathic myelofibrosis.
tion.
• Howell-Jolly bodies are DNA in origin and seen
• Macrocytes are associated with megaloblastic
in conditions of accelerated erythropoiesis:
processes, liver disease, and high reticulocyte
basophilic stippling is RNA in origin and is seen
counts.
in lead poisoning and accelerated erythropoiesis.
• Polychromasia is the peripheral cell response to • Heinz bodies are formed from denatured hemoglo-
accelerated erythropoiesis. bin, usually from individuals with glucose-6-
• Hypochromia is a color variation in the red phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.
cell determined by lack of hemoglobin synthesis. • Pappenheimer bodies/siderotic granules are iron in
• Sickle cells are observed when hemoglobin S is part origin and seen in iron loading process or in patients
of the hemoglobin component; there are two types who are hypertransfused.
CASE STUDY
A 55-year-old woman complained to her physician that Her symptoms related to her fingers and toes suggest
her finger and toes became blue during cold weather. Raynaud’s syndrome, and her physician proceeded to
When she warmed them up, her digits became painful. order a direct antiglobulin test battery using all three anti-
She also noted that she has been feeling extremely human globulin reagents. This test was positive with
fatigued, with tachycardia and dyspnea. There was no agglutination in the complement anti-human globulin
family history of anemia or any other inherited hemato- reagent, indicating complement coating of the red cells.
logical condition, but there has been a history of vascular Her physician diagnosed cold agglutinin syndrome in the
disease in her paternal side. A CBC and differential were early stages. Cold agglutinin syndrome is a hemolytic
ordered with the following results: WBC 8.0 ⫻ 10 9/L, anemia most often associated with cold reactive autoanti-
RBC 3.04 ⫻ 1012/L, Hgb 9.0 g/dL, Hct 28.0%, MCV 82 bodies, which are complement binding. This syndrome
fL, MCH 28 pg, and MCHC 30.2%. A reticulocyte count accounts for approximately 16% to 23% of all cases of
was ordered once the CBC was performed. Which ane- immune hemolytic processes. Patients experience hemol-
mic condition can lead to this patient’s unusual symp- ysis and hemoglobinuria at cold temperatures as well as
toms? the physical symptoms indicated in this case. Many indi-
viduals move to warmer climates to prevent hemolytic
episodes or if symptoms exacerbate. In addition, our
This patient is showing signs of anemia with a low RBC,
patient’s peripheral blood smear showed occasional sphe-
Hgb, and Hct. Additionally, she is showing the physical
rocytes and moderate polychromasia, and her reticulo-
symptoms of anemia, which include shortness of breath
cyte count was 3.0% (normal value, 0.5% to 1.5%).
(dyspnea), heart palpitations (tachycardia), and fatigue.
Review Questions
1. What is a significant morphological difference c. Pappenheimer bodies
between irreversibly sickled cells and reversible d. Malarial parasites
sickled cells?
a. Puddled hemoglobin 5. In which conditions can you see elliptocytes?
b. Crystal formation central to the sickle cells a. Iron loading processes
c. Pointed projections to the sickle cell b. Sickle cell anemia
d. Fragmentation of the red cell membrane c. Iron deficiency anemia
d. Thalassemia
2. What are two integral proteins in the red cell
structure that house red cell antigens? 6. Which red cell morphology may form as a result
a. Glycoproteins and glycolipids of excess cholesterol taken upon the red cell mem-
b. Glycophorin A and glycophorin B brane?
c. Cholesterol and spectrin a. Macrocytes
d. Sodium and potassium b. Target cells
c. Schistocytes
3. All of the following are characteristic of the red cell
d. Ovalocytes
in stages of development except
a. nuclei are “baseball” round. 7. Hypochromia is used to define
b. immature cells are larger. a. color change in the red cell.
c. N:C ratio decreases as the cell matures. b. variation in shape of the red cell.
d. distinct granulation in the cytoplasm. c. variation in size of the red cell.
4. Which red cell inclusions originate as a result of d. decrease in hemoglobin content of the red
denatured hemoglobin? cell.
a. Howell-Jolly bodies
b. Heinz bodies
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When There Is a Drastic Change in a Patient’s Differential Results During the Same Shift?
A 47-year-old male patient recovering from bacterial meningitis was having his blood drawn on a daily basis for CBCs. His
sample was received in the morning with the morning draw at 8 a.m. (see the chart). Later in the day, the technologist
received another request for a CBC on the same patient and noticed quite a difference in the automated differential. The
RBC, Hgb, Hct, MCV, and RDW all resembled the first sample from the a.m. draw. The technologist suspected that the sec-
ond sample has been mislabeled. She retrieved both samples and asked the blood bank to perform ABO grouping on the
samples. Results are as follows.
8 a.m. Draw 2 p.m. Draw
CBC Differential CBC Differential
WBC 11.1 Neutrophils 86% 12.4 Neutrophils 66%

RBC 3.97 Lymphocytes 8% 3.82 Lymphocytes 20%
Hgb 12.7 Monocytes 5% 12.5 Monocytes 12%
Hct 38.0 Eosinophils 1 36.0 Eosinophils 2%
MCV 95.6 Basophils 0 94.3 Basophils 0%
MCH 32.0 32.7
MCHC 33.5 34.7
RDW 13.9 12.6
Platelets 224 313
Blood Banking Report

8 a.m. sample: O pos
2 p.m. sample: A pos
The CBCs of both samples were fairly equal with no cause for alarm, however, there were some disparities in the dif-
ferential of the two samples. Even though both sets of results were acceptable and no result was flagged, the technologist
had a nagging suspicion that the second sample was mislabeled. She took both samples, the a.m. and p.m. samples, to the
blood bank to be ABO typed. The blood types on these samples did not match, but the patient has a history of type O
blood from blood bank files. The floor was notified that the sample was mislabeled, the sample was discarded, and the
afternoon results on that patient were negated. Putting all of the pieces of this puzzle together led to a confirmation of the
patient’s original suspicions of the p.m. sample. Rather than verify the p.m. results, the technologist chose to investigate
the possibility of a mislabeled sample. Discovering an error in patient sample collection provides an opportunity for the
laboratory to remind the hospital units that accurate patient collection and identification procedures are tantamount to
accurate patient results.
WORD KEY 2. Schwabbauer M. Normal erythrocyte production, physi-

ology and destruction. In: Steine-Martin E, Lotspeich-
Anaerobic • Able to live without oxygen Steininger C, Koeple JA, eds. Clinical Hematology:
Asynchrony • Failure of event to occur at the same time Principles, Procedures and Correlations, 2nd ed.
Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1998; 61.
Cytoskeleton • Internal structural framework of the cell
3. Hubbard JD. A concise review of clinical laboratory sci-
Disseminated intravascular coagulation • Pathological ences. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1997;
condition in which the coagulation pathways are hyper- 139–140.
stimulated, either excessive fibrin disposition or excess 4. Harmening D, Hughes V, Del Toro C. The red cell: Struc-
fibrinolysis ture and function. In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hema-
tology and Fundamentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed.
Pathology • Study of the nature and cause of disease Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002; 62.
which involved changes in structure and function 5. Besa E. Hemolytic anemia in hematology. Besa E, Cata-
lano P, Kant JA, eds. Philadelphia: Harwal Publishing,
Splenectomy • Removal of the spleen
1992; 98–99.
Thrombi • Plural of thrombus; a blood clot that obstructs 6. Hussong JW. Iron metabolism and hypochromic ane-
a blood vessel or a cavity of the heart mias. In Harmening, D: Clinical Hematology and Funda-
mentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
References 2002; 105.
1. Bell A. Morphology of human blood and marrow cells. 7. Ciesla B. Pondering red cell morphology. ADVANCE for
In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Funda- Medical Laboratory Professionals 15:10–11, 2003.
mentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 8. Womack EP. Treating thrombotic thrombocytopenic pur-
2002; 10. pura with plasma exchange. Lab Med 30:279, 1999.

4 Hemoglobin Function
and Principles of Hemolysis
Betty Ciesla
Hemoglobin Structure and Synthesis Objectives

Types of Hemoglobin After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Hemoglobin Function
1. Identify the components of hemoglobin.
Abnormal Hemoglobins
2. Define the normal structural elements related
The Hemolytic Process to hemoglobin synthesis.
Types of Hemolysis
3. Describe hemoglobin function.
Laboratory Evidence of Hemolysis
4. Describe the origin of hemoglobin synthesis in
The Physiology of Hemolysis
erythroid precursors.
Terminology Relevant to the 5. List the normal adult hemoglobins.
Hemolytic Anemias
6. Describe the chemical configuration and
percentages of the normal adult hemoglobins,
Hgb A, Hgb A2, and Hgb F.
7. Relate the shift from fetal hemoglobin to
adult hemoglobin in terms of fetal to adult
development.
8. Outline the steps involved in oxygen delivery
and the elimination of carbon dioxide.
9. Describe the oxygen dissociation curve in
general terms.
10. Differentiate the abnormal hemoglobins in
terms of toxicity and oxygen capacity.
11. Describe hemolysis in terms of its effect on
the bone marrow, blood smear, and blood
chemistry.
12. Define extravascular hemolysis with respect
to organ of origin and laboratory diagnosis.
13. Define intravascular hemolysis with respect
to organs affected and laboratory diagnosis.
14. Recall the terminologies used to classify the
hemolytic anemias.
51
HEMOGLOBIN STRUCTURE synthesized at the polychromatic normoblast stage of

AND SYNTHESIS red cell development. This synthesis is visualized by the
change in cytoplasmic color from a deep blue to a laven-
Hemoglobin is the life-giving substance of every red der-tinged cytoplasmic color. Sixty-five percent of
cell, the oxygen-carrying component of the red cell. hemoglobin is synthesized before the red cell nucleus is
Each red blood cell is nothing more than a fluid-filled extruded, with an additional 35% synthesized by the
sac, with the fluid being hemoglobin. In 4 months, or reticulocyte stage.2 Normal mature red cells have a full
120 days, red cells with normal hemoglobin content complement of hemoglobin, which occupies a little less
submit to the rigors of circulation. Red cells are than one half of the surface area of the red cell.
stretched, twisted, pummeled, and squeezed as they
make their way through the circulatory watershed.
Each major organ in the human body depends on oxy- Types of Hemoglobin
genation for growth and function, and this process is There are three types of hemoglobin that are synthe-
ultimately under the control of hemoglobin. The hemo- sized: embryonic hemoglobins, fetal hemoglobin, and
globin molecule consists of two primary structures: the adult hemoglobins. Each of these types of hemoglo-
• Heme portion. This structure involves four iron bins has a specific arrangement of globin chains and
atoms in the ferrous state (Fe2⫹ because iron each globin chain is under the influence of a specific
in the ferric state, Fe3⫹, cannot bind oxygen) chromosome. Chromosome 11 contains the genes for
surrounded by protoporphyrin IX, or the por- the production of epsilon, beta, gamma, and delta
phyrin ring, a structure formed in the nucleated chains. Each parent contributes one gene for the pro-
red cells. Protoporphyrin IX is the final product duction of each of these chains. Therefore, each individ-
in the synthesis of the heme molecule. It results ual has two genes for the production of any of these
from the interaction of succinyl coenzyme A chains. Chromosome 16 is responsible for the alpha
and delta-aminolevulinic acid in the mitochon- and zeta genes. There are two genes on the chromosome
dria of the nucleated red cells. Several interme- for the production of alpha chains and one gene for the
diate by products are formed: porphobilinogen, production of zeta chains (Fig. 4.2). Thus, each parent
uroporphyrinogen, and coproporphyrin. contributes two genes for the production of alpha
Once iron in incorporated, it combines with chains and one for the zeta chains. Thus, each individ-
protoporphyrin to form the complete heme ual has four genes for the production of alpha chains
molecule. Defects in any of the intermediate and two for zeta chains. Alpha chains are a constant
products can impair hemoglobin function. component of adult hemoglobin; therefore, each hemo-
• Globin portion. These consist of amino acids globin has two obligatory alpha chains as part of its
linked together to form a polypeptide chain, chemical configuration. The epsilon and zeta chains are
a bracelet of amino acids. The most significant
chains for adult hemoglobins are the alpha
and beta chains. Alpha chains have 141 amino β1
acids in a unique arrangement, and beta chains β2
Heme
have 146 amino acids in a unique arrangement.
The heme and globin portions of the hemoglo-
bin molecule are linked together by chemical
bonds.
• An additional structure that supports the
hemoglobin molecule is 2,3-diphosphoglyce-
rate (2,3-DPG), a substance produced via the
Embden-Meyerhof pathway during anaerobic
glycolysis.1 This structure is intimately related
to oxygen affinity of hemoglobin and is
explained in that section.
Each heme molecule consists of four heme struc- α1
tures with iron at the center and two pairs of globin α2
chains (Fig. 4.1). The heme structure sits lodged in the Figure 4.1 The hemoglobin molecule: note four heme
pocket of the globin chains. Hemoglobin begins to be molecules tucked inside globin chains.
CHAPTER 4 • Hemoglobin Function and Principles of Hemolysis 53
reserved for the production of embryonic hemoglobins. Hemoglobin Function

As the embryo develops, hemoglobins Gower I and II
Oxygen delivery is the principal purpose of the hemo-
(α2, ε2) and hemoglobin Portland (γ2δ2), are synthe-
globin molecule. Additionally, it is a structure capable of
sized and remain in the embryo for the 3 months.
pulling CO2 away from the tissues, as well as keeping the
Hemoglobin F (α2γ2), fetal hemoglobin, begins to be
blood in a balanced pH. The hemoglobin molecule loads
synthesized at approximately 3 months in fetal develop-
oxygen on a one-to-one basis, one molecule of hemoglo-
ment and remains as the majority hemoglobin at birth.
bin to one molecule of oxygen in the oxygen-rich envi-
Between 3 and 6 months post delivery, the amount of
ronment of the alveoli of the lungs. Hemoglobin
gamma chains declines and the amount of beta chains
becomes saturated with oxygen, oxyhemoglobin, and
increases, making hemoglobin A (α2β2) the majority
has a high affinity for oxygen in this pulmonary environ-
adult hemoglobin, 95% to 98%. Hemoglobin A2 (α2δ2),
ment, because the network of capillaries in the lungs
1% to 3%, and hemoglobin F, less than 1%, are also part
makes the diffusion of oxygen a rapid process. As the
of the normal adult hemoglobin complement. Amino
molecule transits through the circulation, deoxyhemo-
acids are an essential component of each of the globin
globin is able to transport oxygen and unload to the tis-
chains. The unique position of amino acids in each
sues in areas of low oxygen affinity. As hemoglobin goes
chain, as well as the specificity of the amino acid itself, is
through the loading and unloading process, changes
essential to the normal function of the hemoglobin mol-
appear in the molecule. These changes are termed
ecule. Synthetic or structural abnormalities of the pro-
allosteric changes, a term that relates to the way hemo-
tein chains may lead to hemoglobin defects.
globin is able to rotate on its axis, determine the action of
salt bridges between the globin structures, and dictate
5' 5' the movement of 2,3-DPG. The hemoglobin molecule
appears in a tense and a relaxed form.3 When tense,
hemoglobin in not oxygenated, 2,3-DPG is at the center
ζ2
of the molecule, and the salt bridges between the globin
ε2
ζ Hb2 Gower I ε chains are in place. When oxygenated, the relaxed form
is in place; 2,3-DPG is expelled, salt bridges are broken,
and the molecule is capable of fully loading oxygen.
The binding and release of oxygen from the hemo-
α2 ε2
globin molecule are defined by the oxygen dissociation
Hb2 Gower II
curve (OD curve) (Fig. 4.3). This curve is represented as
a sigmoid shape, an “S” shape, not the straight-line
ζ2 Gγ2 Gγ shape familiar to most students. The curve is designed
α
to illustrate the unique qualities of oxygen dissociation
ζ2 Aγ2 and to attempt to graphically demonstrate how the
Hb Portland
Aγ
hemoglobin molecule and oxygen respond to normal
and abnormal physiologies.4 What is essential when
α2 Gγ2
considering the hemoglobin molecule is that when the
α2 Aγ2
molecule is fully saturated, it has all of the oxygen it
α needs and a high level of oxygen tension. As it travels
Hb F
from the pulmonary circulation to the venous circula-
α2 δ2 tion, it has more of an inclination to give up its oxygen
Hb A2 δ in response to the oxygen needs of the tissue it is serv-
ing. Figure 4-3 demonstrates the following5:
α2 β2
β
1. There is a progressive increase in the percent-
Hb A age of the hemoglobin that is bound with oxy-
gen as the blood PO2 increases.
2. In the lungs in which the blood PO2 is 100 mm
3' 3' Hg, hemoglobin is 97% saturated with oxy-
gen.
Chromosome 16 Chromosome 11 3. In venous circulation, in which the PO2 is
Figure 4.2 Specific chromosomes relative to human 40 mm Hg, 75% of the hemoglobin molecule
hemoglobin formation. is saturated with oxygen and 25% of the oxy-
100 ing to release oxygen to the tissues. In a right-

shifted OD curve, at 40 mm Hg, hemoglobin is
90
50% saturated but willing to give up 50% of its
80 oxygen to the tissue because of need.
• When the curve is left shifted, hemoglobin
70
has more of an attraction for oxygen and is
60 less willing to release it to the tissues. In a left-
shifted OD curve, at 40 mm Hg, hemoglobin
% Hb O2
50 is 75% saturated but willing to release only

12% to the tissues.
40
Physiological conditions that will shift the curve to
30
the right are
20 a. Anemia
b. Decreased pH (acidosis)
10
c. Increase in 2,3-DPG
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Therefore, in the anemic state, even though there
are fewer red cells and less hemoglobin, the cells act
Tissue PO2 (mm Hg)
more efficiently to deliver oxygen to the tissues. In fact,
the compensatory mechanism of the OD curve works
= Normal 7.4 quite adequately if the hemoglobin level is between
= Right shift 7.2 8 and 12 g/dL. It is only when the hemoglobin level
= Left shift 7.6 drops below 8 g/dL that symptoms start to develop, for
the most part. Conditions that shift the OD curve to the
Figure 4.3 The oxygen dissociation curve. In the normal left are
curve (blue) at 40 mm Hg, 75% of the hemoglobin mole-
cule is saturated with oxygen, leaving 25% capable of being a. Decrease in 2,3-DPG
released to tissue. Note the right-shifted curve (red). At 40 b. Higher body temperatures
mm Hg, hemoglobin is 50% saturated but willing to give
up 50% of its oxygen to the tissues. Note the left-shifted c. Presence of abnormal hemoglobins or high
curve (black). At 40 mm Hg, hemoglobin is 75% saturated oxygen affinity hemoglobins
but willing to release only 12% to the tissues. d. Multiple transfusions of stored blood where
2,3-DPG is depleted by virtue of the storage
process
gen is capable of being released when the e. Increased pH (alkalosis)
hemoglobin level is normal. Less oxygen is released to tissues under these con-
Two things are demonstrated by this relationship: ditions when 2,3-DPG is lower. Consider this analogy
depending on the need of tissues for oxygen, the hemo- for the OD curve. The OD curve is like a roller coaster.
globin molecule will either hold onto oxygen, oxygen As you start up the incline, you are holding on tight, and
affinity, or it will release more oxygen as physiological then as you roll down the hill, you are more willing to
circumstances dictate. throw your arms up in the air and release or relax your
grip. So it is with the right-shifted OD curve.
• When referring to the OD curve, we speak
about it in terms of having a “shift to the right”
or a “shift to the left.” Abnormal Hemoglobins
• Shifting the curve means that physiological Normal hemoglobin is a highly stable protein, which
conditions are present in the body that will can be converted to cyanmethemoglobin, a colored
impact the relationship of oxygen and hemo- pigment. This conversion is the basis for most of the
globin. In most cases, the hemoglobin mole- colorimetric procedures used to measure hemoglobin,
cule will compensate by holding or delivering and it depends on a versatile and viable hemoglobin
oxygen depending on tissue need. This com- compound. Hemoglobins that are physiologically
pensatory mechanism can be demonstrated abnormal have a higher oxygen affinity and produce
through the OD curve. conditions that are usually toxic to the human body.
• When the curve is right shifted, hemoglobin Three abnormal hemoglobins are methemoglobin,
has less attraction for oxygen and is more will- sulfhemoglobin, and carboxyhemoglobin. Increasing
the amounts of any of these abnormal hemoglobins in

the bloodstream can be potentially fatal. Often, the pro- Table 4.2 ¢ Relationship of Hemolysis
duction of abnormal hemoglobins results from acciden- and Clinical Events
tal or purposeful ingestion or absorption of substances,
drugs, and so on that are harmful. At times, abnormal Clinical Events Physical Symptoms
hemoglobins are produced as a result of inherited ↓ RBC, Hgb, Hct Symptoms of anemia: pallor,
defects. In the abnormal hemoglobin methemoglobin, fatigue, tachycardia
iron has been oxidized to the Fe3+ state, which is no
↑ Bilirubin Jaundice
longer capable of binding oxygen. Methemoglobin
builds up in the circulation and if the level is above Hemoglobinemia Blood-tinged plasma
10%, individuals appear cyanotic, having a blue color, Hemoglobinuria Blood-tinged urine
especially in the lips and fingers.6 Aniline drugs and
some antimalarial treatments may induce a methemo-
globinemia in individuals who are unable to reduce for hemolysis in the bone marrow, in the peripheral cir-
methemoglobin. Hemoglobin M, an inherited condi- culation, and in the blood plasma. The bone marrow
tion arising from an amino acid substitution, may also will show erythroid hyperplasia, meaning an increase
result in cyanotic conditions. Carboxyhemoglobin lev- in red blood cell precursors and premature release of
els are increased in smokers and certain industrial reticulocytes and young red cells. The normal M:E ratio
workers. As a hemoglobin derivative, carboxyhemoglo- of 3 to 4:1 will be shifted toward the red blood cell, giv-
bin has an affinity for carbon monoxide that is 200 ing a ratio of perhaps 1:2. The peripheral smear will
times greater than for oxygen; therefore, no oxygen is provide visual clues of hemolysis by showing an
delivered to the tissues. For this reason, carbon monox- increase in polychromasia and the presence of nucle-
ide poisoning, either deliberate or accidental, is efficient ated red cells and possibly spherocytes. Spherocytes
and relatively painless. Sulfhemoglobin can be formed may appear in the peripheral circulation if red cells
on exposure to agents such as sulfonamides or sulfa- become coated with antibody. As antibody-coated red
containing drugs. The affinity of sulfhemoglobin for cells travel through the spleen, the spleen subsequently
oxygen is 100 times lower than that of normal hemoglo- shears off the antibody as the red cell percolates through
bin. It may be toxic at a very low level (Table 4.1). this organ.7 None of these visual indicators are likely to
be observed in the normal peripheral smear. They are
THE HEMOLYTIC PROCESS seen in the peripheral smear in response to a hemolytic
Red cell senescence or death is a natural process for red event. Plasma changes are discussed later in the chapter.
cells at the end of their 120-day life span. As a natural
byproduct, the contents of the red cell are released and Types of Hemolysis
returned to various parts of the circulation to be recy- Hemolysis can be an extravascular or an intravascular
cled in the process of red cell regeneration. When red process. Ninety percent of all hemolysis is extravascular
cell death occurs in an orderly fashion, the hematologi- and occurs in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and
cal balance is maintained. Hemoglobin is kept at nor- the bone marrow, the organs of the reticuloendothelial
mal levels, and the bone marrow maintains a steady system. Red cells are destroyed and their contents
production of red cells. If premature red cell death or are phagocytized with hemoglobin released into the
hemolysis occurs, a series of events begin to cascade, macrophages. Extravascular hemolysis is a well-estab-
which provide laboratory evidence that red cells are lished pathway in which red cell breakdown leads to the
dying faster than their normal 120-day life cycle (Table release of the internal products of hemoglobin, prima-
4.2). When this happens, the body’s peripheral circula- rily heme and globin (Fig. 4.4). The amino acids of the
tion begins its intervention process. There is evidence globin chains are recycled into the amino acid pool,
while the products of heme are taken through different
pathways. Iron is transported via transferrin; the trans-
Table 4.1 ¢ Abnormal Hemoglobins port protein to the bone marrow or storage sites to be
used in erythropoiesis, while the rest of the hemoglobin
• Sulfhemoglobin molecule reacts with hemoxygenase, yielding a byprod-
• Carboxyhemoglobin uct biliverdin, which is reduced to unconjugated biliru-
• Methemoglobin bin. This bilirubin product attaches to albumin and is
then transported to the liver.
RBC Globin
Hemoglobin α - β dimers Hemoglobin tetramers Methemoglobin

Albumin
Heme
KIDNEY Haploglobin
Hemopexin Methemalbumin
Hemoglobin-haploglobin
Heme-hemopexin
Urine
Urobilinogen
Heme Iron Transferrin
LIVER
Hemoglobin PARENCHYMAL
CELL Globin Developing
erythroblasts
Bilirubin in marrow
Methemoglobin
Amino acid Amino acids diglucuronide
pool
Hemosiderin
RENAL EPITHELIAL BILE DUCTS

CELLS
GI TRACT
Enterohepatic al
Bacteri
circulation
es
enzym
Intravascular
Urobilinogen
Fecal urobilinogen
Figure 4.4 Intravascular hemolysis: increased bilirubin, decreased haptoglobin, but free hemoglobin present.
Ten percent of hemolysis is intravascular, and it are obtained in the hematology and chemistry laborato-
occurs as hemoglobin is lysed directly in the blood. ries by routine laboratory procedures. There is no
Intravascular lysis takes place directly inside the vessel, need to consider expensive reference procedures. The
and hemoglobin is released into the plasma (Fig. 4.5). first consideration is to establish whether the patient
Hemoglobinemia, red-tinged hemoglobin seen directly is hemolyzing. The second consideration is to estab-
in the plasma after the blood sample is centrifuged, is an lish the cause and type of hemolysis. If the patient is
unusual finding seen only in intravascular lysis. Blood experiencing intravascular lysis, these conditions are
in the urine, hemoglobinuria, may also be a byproduct present:
of direct intravascular lysis that may be complement
mediated. If complement is activated as in the case of • Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red cell count are
ABO transfusion reaction, a complex of proteins are low.
introduced that cause additional damage to the red cell • Serum bilirubin is elevated.
membrane.8 Evidence of intravascular lysis indicates a • Serum haptoglobin is low.
serious condition that must be acted on promptly. • Hemoglobinemia (free hemoglobin in plasma)
may be present.
• Hemoglobinuria (hemoglobin in urine) may be
Laboratory Evidence of Hemolysis present.
Hemolysis can be distinguished in the laboratory by • Reticulocyte count is elevated.
a variety of methods. Most of these measurements • Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is elevated.
RBC
Hemoglobin
Transferin Iron Heme Globin Amino Amino acid

acids pool
Heme
oxigenase Biliverdin
Developing
erythroblasts
in marrow Bilirubin
(unconjugated)
CO
Unconjugated bilirubin; albumin PLASMA

Lungs
Bilirubin
Glucuronyl
transferase LIVER
Glucuronic
acid PARENCHYMAL
CELL
Bilirubin diglucuronide
(conjugated)
BILE DUCTS
KIDNEY
GI TRACT
Enterohepatic al
Bacteri
circulation
es
enzym
Urobilinogen
Urine
Urobilinogen
Fecal
Figure 4.5 Extravascular hemolysis: increased urobilinogen
bilirubin and decreased haptoglobin. Extravascular
Under conditions of extravascular lysis, these con- tion to laboratory data. Yet, it is imperative for a student
ditions are present: to understand why each of these events is taking place.
When considering intravascular lysis, conditions that
• Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red cell count are
may predispose to rapid and volatile lysis within vessels
low.
may activate complement, an efficient accessory to the
• Serum bilirubin is elevated.
hemolytic process. Red blood cells burst, releasing their
• Reticulocyte count is elevated.
contents, and the alpha and beta dimers of hemoglobin
• Haptoglobin is low.
are released immediately into the plasma. From the
• Hepatosplenomegaly may be seen.
plasma they are bound to haptoglobin. The hemoglo-
• LDH is elevated.
bin-haptoglobin complex is too large to be filtered by
the kidneys, so it is not excreted but rather transported
The Physiology of Hemolysis to the liver, where it is destroyed and broken down. The
Distinguishing between intravascular and extravascular actual haptoglobin measurement of the plasma is lower
hemolysis can be accomplished by paying careful atten- in a hemolytic event, indicating that there are no sites
left for this molecule to be bound with hemoglobin. The

CBC will show reduced hemoglobin, hematocrit, and Table 4.3 ¢ Hemolytic Anemias Classi-
red cell count in response to excessive red cell destruc- fied by Intrinsic or Extrin-
tion, and the reticulocyte count is elevated in response sic Defects (Modified List)
to the erythroid hyperplasia of the bone marrow. Retic-
ulocytes are released prematurely in response to the red Intrinsic Red Cell Defects Extrinsic Defects
cell need in anemic conditions; therefore, the reticulo- Leading to Hemolysis Leading to Hemolysis
cyte count is almost always elevated. Additionally, LDH Hemoglobinopathies: Autoimmune hemolytic
is increased. LDH is a red blood cell enzyme that will structural and synthetic anemia
increase in the plasma as red blood cells are lysed pre- Red cell membrane defects Parasitic infection
maturely. Hemoglobinemia may appear as red-tinged
Red cell enzyme defects Microangiopathic
plasma, because the red cells have burst directly inside
hemolytic anemia
the vessels; consequently, centrifuged blood samples
may have a red or pink-tinged plasma component. Stem cell defects Environmental agents,
including venoms and
Hemoglobinuria is a direct representation of free hemo-
chemical agents
globin being filtered by the kidney into the urine; there-
fore, urine samples may be blood tinged. Intravascular
events may take as long as 48 hours to manifest through
laboratory results. Many of the same processes that hemolytic anemias in terms of those that result from
occur in intravascular events may occur in extravascular intrinsic defects of the red cell as opposed to those that
hemolysis, with the exception of hemoglobinuria and result from extrinsic events that are not necessarily
hemoglobinemia. Additionally, the spleen may become related to the structure of the red cell but affect its life
enlarged in extravascular hemolysis because damaged span. Intrinsic defects of the red cell relate to inherited
red cells may become sequestered in this organ. deficiencies of the red cell membrane, hemoglobin
structure or synthesis, or biochemical components.
Extrinsic defects relate to those events that are sec-
TERMINOLOGY RELEVANT ondary to red cell structure and function but may still
TO THE HEMOLYTIC ANEMIAS result in a hemolytic event. Regardless of the classifica-
The hemolytic anemias are classified according to many tion, it is paramount that the hemolytic anemias be
different schemes. In this chapter, we have classified recognized, evaluated, and managed so that life-
the hemolytic anemias according to the site of hemoly- threatening sequelae do not arise.9 See Table 4.3 for a
sis by classifying hemolytic events as either extravascu- modified list of those anemias classified by intrinsic or
lar or intravascular. Yet many textbooks discuss the extrinsic defects.
CONDENSED CASE
An 80-year-old woman visited the emergency department at 9 p.m. with complaints of dizziness of 3 days’ duration
and right-sided abdominal pain. Once in the treatment room, three tubes of blood were drawn from the patient: a pur-
ple top, a blue top, and a tiger top. The samples were not inverted, and they remained unlabeled in the treatment room
for at least 1 hour, sitting in an emesis basin. The patient was subsequently admitted to the hospital at 3 a.m. and all of
her blood work was redrawn. What was the probable cause for the second stick?
Answer
This scenario represents two important breakdowns of phlebotomy protocol—lack of inversion of anticoagulated
tubes and lack of labeling. Tubes that are anticoagulated should be inverted no less than six times for proper mixing of
blood and anticoagulant. Failure to do so could easily result in clotted tubes. Proper labeling of tubes should take place
at the bedside, immediately after the sample has been drawn. The patient should identify himself or herself verbally,
and this identification should be verified through the identification bracelet. Rigorous efforts must be taken for proper
patient identification.
Summary Points • 2,3-DPG is intimately related to the oxygen affinity

• Hemoglobin has two main components: heme and of hemoglobin.
globin. • The OD curve schematically represents the sat-
• Heme consists of iron and the protoporphyrin uration of hemoglobin with oxygen and the
ring. release of oxygen from the hemoglobin molecule
under normal and abnormal physiological condi-
• Globin consists of amino acid chains of specific
tions.
lengths and specific amino acids; alpha and beta
chains are the two most significant amino acid • Hemolysis is the premature destruction of the red
chains. cell before its 120-day life cycle.
• Alpha chains have 141 amino acids, and beta chains • Hemolysis may be classified as intravascular or
have 146 amino acids. extravascular, which relates to the site of hemolysis.
• Hemoglobins Gower and Portland are embryonic • Intravascular hemolysis takes place inside the blood
hemoglobins; hemoglobin F is fetal hemoglobin, vessels; extravascular hemolysis takes place outside
and the adult hemoglobins are hemoglobins A, A2, the blood vessels, primarily in the RES system.
and F. • Hemolytic anemias may be classified by intrinsic
• Oxygen delivery is the primary purpose of the defects of the red cell or extrinsic defects that affect
hemoglobin molecule. the red cell.
CASE STUDY
Eight-year-old twin boys were brought into the emergency department with complaints of intermittent fevers and
lethargy. The boys had not been feeling well for the last 2 weeks. They had recently returned from a trip to Nigeria with
their parents. All members of the family had been treated with antimalarial medication before the trip. Neither parent
exhibited any of the symptoms of the children. A CBC with differential was ordered as well as a peripheral smear for
malarial parasites. The children were slightly anemic, with hematocrits at 33%, and both boys had elevated white
counts of around 15.0 ⫻ 109/L.

Both of these young boys had malaria, and ring forms were observed in the thin preparation on the peripheral smear.
Plasmodium falciparum was identified. Additionally, they had begun to show slight hemolysis as evidenced by their
slightly abnormal hematocrits. Drug-resistant strains of malaria are becoming increasingly common in the world,
and cases of malaria are on the rise not only in endemic areas in Africa but also in countries like Peru and Tajikistan,
areas where malaria infections were unlikely. When one considers that malaria is still killing 1.1 million individuals
a year and still infecting up to a half-billion people a year,10 this health situation is of major impact and significance.
Hardest hit are the most vulnerable populations like young children in remote villages who may not have access to
vaccine or treatment. Death or life-changing neurological manifestations are common in this population. Many strains
of the malaria parasite have also become resistant to chloroquine, once the panacea for malarial protection. Factors
such as noncompliance with drug protocol (not taking the drug as long as is necessary) and the indiscriminant use
of this drug have led the malarial parasite to adapt to the drug and become resistant to the more common remedies.
Our patients were thought to have a drug-resistant strain of malaria, were placed on Fansidar, and made a good
recovery.
Review Questions
1. Which of these hemoglobins is an embryonic c. reticulocyte count
hemoglobin? d. basophil count
a. Hemoglobin A
5. If 2,3-DPG increases, then the hemoglobin mole-
b. Hemoglobin Gower
cule will release more oxygen. This is known as a
c. Hemoglobin F
________________OD curve.
d. Hemoglobin A 2
a. left-shifted
2. How many total genes does a person possess for b. normal physiological
the production of alpha chains? c. right-shifted
a. One d. neutral
b. Two
6. Which of the following statements regarding
c. Four
2,3-DPG is correct?
d. Three
a. It catalyzes porphyrin synthesis.
3. Name one condition that may shift the OD curve to b. It controls hemoglobin affinity for oxygen.
the left. c. It prevents oxidative penetration of hemoglo-
a. Inheriting a high oxygen affinity hemoglobin bin.
b. Metabolic acidosis d. It converts methemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin.
c. Anemia
7. When the iron in the hemoglobin molecule is in
d. Increased hemoglobin concentration
the ferric (Fe3⫹) state, hemoglobin is termed
4. If polychromasia is increased in the peripheral a. carboxyhemoglobin.
smear, the __________ should be elevated. b. methemoglobin.
a. white cell count c. ferrihemoglobin.
b. red cell count d. sulfhemoglobin.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When There Is a Discrepancy in noticed that the hemoglobin and hematocrit failed the
the Hemoglobin Value? correlation check by not adhering to the rule of three:
A 50-year-old man presented to the emergency depart- hemoglobin ⫻ 3 ⫽ hematocrit ⫾3%. Because the
ment with chest pain, shortness of breath, and tight- hemoglobin was significantly elevated in comparison
ness in the chest area. He was immediately moved to to the hematocrit, the hemoglobin value was suspect.
the treatment room, where cardiac enzymes, troponin, The patient sample was spun and observed for lipemia.
CBC, cholesterol, and triglycerides were ordered. For The plasma was cloudy and grossly lipemic, and when
illustrative purposes, only the results of the CBC are remixed, a milky appearance could be seen in the
given, as follows: mixed sample. Lipemia interferes with the optical
WBC 12.0 ⫻ 109/L measurement of hemoglobin, giving a false elevation of
hemoglobin, and all subsequent measurements that
RBC 4.83 ⫻ 1012/L depend on a hemoglobin value in the calculation,
Hgb 15.0 g/dL namely MCH and MCHC. It became clear that correc-
Hct 39.0% tive action needed to be taken to provide valid results.
Corrections for lipemia can occur via one of two meth-
MCV 84 fL ods: the plasma blank correction method or the plasma
MCH 31 pg by dilution replacement method. The most frequently
MCHC 39% encountered method is the plasma blank correction
method, in which the sample is spun, a plasma aliquot
Platelet 340,000 ⫻ 109/L is removed, and then the spun plasma is recycled
While the other results were pending, the CBC through the instrument. This plasma value is used in
was run on automated instrumentation. The operator the following formula to correct the hemoglobin result
Corrected hemoglobin ⫽ Initial whole blood spun sample is carefully removed and replaced by an
hemoglobin–(Plasma hemoglobin blank ⫻ equal amount of saline or other diluent. The removal of
[1 ⫺ Initial whole blood hematocrit/100]) plasma and replacement with saline are critical in this
procedure. If this step has been done accurately, there
When our plasma blank was run, we obtained a will be little difference in the red cell count and this will
value of 3.0. serve as a quality control for the accuracy of pipetting in
Therefore, our correction would be as follows: this method. Too wide a variation in the red cell counts
⫽ 15.5 – (3.0 ⫻ [1 ⫺ 0.39]) will indicate poor pipetting. Once an accurate replace-
⫽ 15.5 ⫺ 1.83 ment has been established, the saline sample is cycled
⫽ 13.7 and the hemoglobin can be reported directly from this
This hemoglobin value is now used in the calcula- sample and used to recalculate indices.
tion for MCH and MCHC, to yield corrected MCH and Either of these methods involves labor-intensive,
MCHC results of 28.3 and 35.1, respectively. yet essential, steps in reporting an accurate CBC. The
The second corrective method is the diluent operator must first recognize the discrepancy between
replacement method. Once the whole blood has been hemoglobin and hematocrit and then be familiar with
cycled through the automated instrument, an aliquot of the corrective steps that need to be taken to provide a
the sample is removed and spun. The plasma from the reliable CBC.11
(Refer to normal values in Chapter 2.)
WORD KEY 3. Ludvigsen FB. Hemoglobin synthesis and function.

In: Steine-Martin EA, Lotspeich-Steininger CA, Koepke
Acidosis • Increase in the acidity of blood (as in diabetic JA, eds. Clinical Hematology: Principles, Procedures
acidosis) due to an excessive loss of bicarbonate (as in renal and Correlations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott,
disease) 1998; 75.
Alkalosis • Increase in blood alkalinity due to an accumu- 4. Hillman RS, Finch CA. General characteristics of the
lation of alkaline or reduction in acid erythron. In: Hillman R, Finch C, eds. Red Cell Manual,
7th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 1996; 17–19.
Allosteric • Shape change 5. Harmening DM, Hughes VC, DelToro C. The red
Amino acid • One of a large group of organic compounds blood cell: Structure and function. In: Harmening D,
marked by the presence of both an amino group (NH2) and a ed. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of Hemo-
carboxyl group (COOH); the building blocks of protein and stasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002; 66–67.
the end products of protein digestion 6. Bunn HF. Human hemoglobins: Normal and abnor-
mal: Methemoglobinemia. In: Nathan SH, Oski A,
Complement • Group of proteins in the blood that play a eds. Hematology of Infancy and Childhood, 4th ed.
vital role in the body’s immune defenses through a cascade of Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1993; 720–723.
interaction 7. Wright MS, Smith LA. Laboratory investigation of
Cyanosis • Blue tinge to the extremities (lips, fingers, toes) autoimmune hemolytic anemias. Clin Lab Sci
12:119–122, 1999.
Hyperplasia • Excessive proliferation of normal cells in
8. Nemchik L. Introduction to anemias of increased
the normal tissue of an organ erythrocyte destruction. In: Steine-Martin EA,
Polychromasia • Blue tinge to the red cells indicating pre- Lotspeich-Steininger CA, Koepke JA, eds. Clinical
mature release Hematology: Principles, Procedures and Corre-
lations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1998;
References 245.
1. Brown BA. Hematology: Principles and Procedures, 9. Ucar K. Clinical presentation and management of
6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, hemolytic anemias. Oncology 10:163–170, 2002.
2003; 42–43. 10. Birch D. Malaria: Quest for a Vaccine. Baltimore Sun,
2. Turgeon ML. Normal erythrocyte lifecycle and physiol- June 18, 2000.
ogy. In: Turgeon ML, ed. Clinical Hematology: Theory 11. Lemery L, Ciesla B. Why Did this Sample Fail the Corre-
and Procedures, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott lation Checks? American Society of Clinical Pathologists
Williams and Wilkins, 1999; 66. Tech Sample 1997 G-12. Chicago, Ill.

Pa r t I I
Red Cell
Disorders

5 The Microcytic Anemias
Betty Ciesla
Iron Intake and Iron Absorption Objectives

Iron Storage and Recycled Iron After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Iron Deficiency Anemia 1. Describe the red blood cell indices related to the
microcytic anemias.
Pathophysiology and Symptoms
2. List the microcytic anemias considered in a differ-
Tests Used to Diagnose Iron Deficiency ential diagnosis of microcytic processes.
Causes of Iron Deficiency 3. Describe iron transport from ingestion to incorpo-
Treatment for Iron Deficiency ration in hemoglobin.
Anemia of Chronic Disease and Inflammation: 4. List the three stages of iron deficiency.
Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment 5. Describe the physical symptoms of an individual
with iron deficiency anemia.
Anemias Related to Iron Overload Conditions, 6. Identify the iron needs of children and adults.
the Sideroblastic Anemias 7. Identify the laboratory tests for an individual with
Hereditary Hemochromatosis iron deficiency anemia.
The Thalassemia Syndromes 8. Describe the iron overload conditions.
Brief History and Demographics 9. Define the pathophysiology of hereditary
hemochromatosis.
The Pathophysiology of the Thalassemias
10. Outline the symptoms of individuals with heredi-
The Alpha Thalassemias tary hemochromatosis.
Beta Thalassemia Major: Cooley’s Anemia, 11. Describe the diagnosis and clinical management
Mediterranean Fever of individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis.
Thalassemia Intermedia and Beta Thalassemia Trait 12. Describe the basic pathophysiological defect in
the thalassemia syndromes.
13. Describe the alpha thalassemic conditions with
regard to gene deletions and clinical symptoms.
14. List the three types of beta thalassemia.
15. Discuss the clinical manifestations of the beta
thalassemias with regard to bone marrow changes,
splenic changes, skeletal changes, and hematolog-
ical changes.
16. Correlate the morphological changes in the red
cell with the defect in the alpha and beta tha-
lassemias.
17. Describe the major hemoglobin in each of the
thalassemic states.
18. Describe the transfusion protocols of thalassemia
major patients and their contraindications.
65
66 PART II • Red Cell Disorders
Anemia is a significant health issue in the world popula- Table 5-1. For the infant, iron-fortified formulas and
tion, affecting every ethnic class and social strata. The breast milk are major sources of iron. As the infant
clinical laboratory plays a decisive role in supplying the develops and rapidly gains weight, there is a high
physician with clinical data in defining the cause and demand for iron. Most infants and young children will
determining the treatment of this condition. Broadly need some dietary supplementation to maintain iron
defined, when red cells are no longer able to supply balance (see Table 5.7).
oxygen to the body’s tissues, the individual becomes Once iron is ingested, it is absorbed in the gas-
anemic. Anemias may be classified according to their trointestinal (GI) tract and then transported into the
physiology or their morphology. The morphological circulation. The main portion of the GI tract involved
classification is based on red blood cell indices, while is the duodenum and jejunum of the small intestine,
the physiological classification is determined based on where on average only about 10% of ingested iron
symptoms and bone marrow response. This chapter is absorbed. This absorption rate is not static, however,
will stress the morphological classification of anemias. and it decreases or increases relative to iron stores
Normal red cell indices are MCV of 80 to 100 fL, MCH and the body’s needs. Once absorbed, the iron molecule
of 27 to 31 pg, and MCHC of 32% to 36%. If a micro- is converted from the Fe3 (ferric) to the Fe2 (ferrous)
cytic process is present, then hemoglobin synthesis is state by stomach acid, and then the iron molecules
disrupted and the MCV is less than 80 fL and the MCHC are transported through the circulation to the bone
is less than 32%. The red cells are termed microcytic, marrow via transferrin. Transferrin, the transport
hypochromic and appear as small red cells, deficient vehicle, is a plasma protein formed in the liver that
in hemoglobin. The laboratorian can be instrumental assists iron delivery to the erythroblasts in the bone
in helping the physician to recognize that a microcytic marrow. Transferrin receptors on the pronormoblast
anemic process is occurring, determine the cause, bind iron, so that iron molecules can immediately start
and decide on a management or therapeutic plan. The being incorporated into the heme molecule during
microcytic anemias are iron deficiency anemia (IDA), erythropoiesis. The willingness for the transferrin
sideroblastic anemias (acquired and inherited), the receptor to bind iron is influenced by the iron being
thalassemias, and a percentage of anemia of inflamma- delivered, the pH of the body, and, on the molecular
tion that transcend into IDA. level, the influence of an iron regulatory factor, ferritin
repressor protein.4 An essential ingredient to seam-
less iron absorption and transport is a healthy GI tract.
IRON INTAKE AND Procedures such a gastrectomy or gastric bypass,
IRON ABSORPTION atrophic gastritis, or celiac disease may compromise
Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the world, iron absorption.5 There are dietary substances that
yet IDA continues to be one the most prominent nutri- enhance or diminish the absorption of iron from the
tional disorders worldwide.1 Many factors contribute to diet (Tables 5.2 and 5.3), as well as foods with a high iron
this situation and they need to be understood to have a value (Table 5.4).
fuller appreciation of iron balance. Iron balance is regu-
lated by several conditions: (a) the amount of iron
ingested, (b) the amount of iron absorbed, (c) red blood IRON STORAGE AND RECYCLED IRON
cell formation using recycled and new iron, (d) iron Ferritin and hemosiderin are the primary storage forms
stores, and (e) iron loss through blood loss or other of iron. These compounds are harbored in the liver,
sources (Fig. 5.1). spleen, bone marrow, and skeletal muscle. Ferritin can
The amount of iron that needs to be obtained be measured in plasma, while hemosiderin is more
through the diet varies according to age and gender. often identified in the urine or stained through the bone
Males need to absorb about 1 mg/day, premenopausal marrow. Iron stores in men are generally 1.0 to 1.4 g of
females about 0.2 to 2.0 mg/day, and children approxi- body iron, and for women, 0.2 to 0.4 g. Given these fig-
mately 0.5 mg/day.2 For perspective, if an adult male ures and with the realization that the iron absorption
eats a 2500-calorie diet, he will ingest about 15 mg of requirement is on average 1 mg/day, it is easy to under-
iron of which only 10% will be absorbed, giving him 1.5 stand why in adults with iron-poor diets anemia may
mg/day of iron that can be used for red cell production take years to develop. Specifically, body stores in men of
or stored in the reticuloendothelial system (RES).3 Iron 1 g.would last 3 to 4 years before iron depletion takes
in the diet is available as heme iron through meats or as place.6 Indeed, most cases of iron deficiency are directly
nonheme/nonmeat iron. For a listing of sources, see related to external blood loss, especially menorrhagia
CHAPTER 5 • The Microcytic Anemias 67
The Iron Cycle: Ingestion, Absorption, Storage
Bone marrow
Fe2+ and Fe3+
for hemoglobin
synthesis or Fe2+(Fe3+)
stored in in erythrocyte
histocytes as hemoglobin and
Fe2+ and Fe3+ ferritin and recycled iron as
bound to transferrin hemosiderin red cells die
or ferritin in whole
blood plasma
Storage Fe
Fe dietary in cells as
intake ferritin and
heomsiderin
Minimal loss
of Fe through
feces, urine
daily
Skeletal System Circulatory System
Iron Profile:
Digestive System -Serum Fe Muscular System
-Serum ferritin
-TIBC
-Transferrin saturation
Figure 5.1 The iron cycle: Ingestion, absorption, and storage.
or slow GI bleed. Blood lost outside the body has no

chance of being recycled into the usable byproduct of Table 5.1 ¢ The Multiple Forms
heme and globin. of Iron in the Body
The recycling of iron from heme and amino acids
from globin following the lysis of aged red cells is a very Iron in Food
efficient process. Heme is returned to the bone marrow, Heme sources: Meat
and the amino acids of the globin chain are returned to Nonheme sources: Beans, clams, vegetables
the amino acid pool. Each of these products will later be Iron in Storage
recruited for hemoglobin formation and red cell pro- Ferritin: Found in liver, spleen, skeletal muscle, bone
duction. In the adult, approximately 95% of recycled marrow
iron is used for red cell production, whereas in the Hemosiderin: Found in excreted urine
infant, only 70% is used for this purpose (Fig. 5.2). Iron in Circulation
Because of this relationship, it is easy to understand the Iron and globin are recycled as a result of red cell senes-
significance of adequate iron sources in the early years cence
of development.
Table 5.2 ¢ Enhancers of Iron Table 5.4 ¢ Foods With High

Absorption Iron Value
• Orange juice • Clams
• Vitamin C • Soybeans
• Pickles • Lentils
• Soy sauce • Pinto beans
• Vinegar • Liver
• Alcohol • Garbanzo beans
• Tofu
• Packaged oatmeal
IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA

Pathophysiology and Symptoms There are many symptoms that mark an individual
as being iron deficient. Some of these symptoms are
IDA can be a primary condition due to blood loss or
unique to iron deficiency and some are general symp-
inadequate iron intake. It may also be a secondary con-
toms of anemia. Clinically, a patient with anemia may
dition due to a disease process or conditions that
present with
deplete iron stores, such as GI bleed or pregnancy. In
either case, IDA will manifest itself as a microcytic, • Fatigue
hypochromic process, where the red cells are small and • Pallor
deficient in hemoglobin (Table 5.5). The CBC will be • Vertigo
characterized by a low red count, hemoglobin, hemat- • Dyspnea
ocrit, MCV, and MCHC. The development of IDA is a • Cold intolerance
three-stage process: • Lethargy
• Stage I: Continuum of iron depletion from the Additionally, these patients may experience
marrow (Prussian blue stain will show absence cardiac problems such as palpitations and angina (see
of iron) Table 2.7). Symptoms unique to the IDA patient are pica
• Stage II: Iron deficient erythropoiesis (an abnormal craving for unusual substances such as
• Stage III: Finally, a frank case of IDA in the dirt, ice, or clay), cheilitis (inflammation around the
peripheral circulation lips), and koilonychias (spooning of the nail beds) (Fig.
5.3). Additionally, evidence suggests that iron defi-
In most cases, the patient will not present with ciency in infants may result in developmental delays
overt symptoms until anemia develops (stage III); how- and behavioral disturbances.7 In pregnant women, iron
ever, serum ferritin will be decreased at every stage. deficiency in the first two trimesters may lead to an
Diagnostic laboratory tests such as serum iron and increase in preterm delivery and an increase in deliver-
serum ferritin may be used by the physician to diagnose ing a low-birth-weight child.7 Anemia affects 3.5 mil-
an individual well before anemia develops. Individuals lion individuals in the United States, with
in high-risk groups should be periodically monitored approximately 50% of these cases being IDA.1 Sensitiv-
for iron status (Table 5.6). ity to the possibility of iron deficiency backed by good
diagnostic data is the best weapon to eliminate IDA in
the Western world.
Table 5.3 ¢ Inhibitors of Iron Tests Used to Diagnose Iron Deficiency

Absorption
From a clinical standpoint, if iron deficiency is sus-
• Tea pected, testing for iron deficiency must analyze the
• Coffee patient’s red cell status and iron status. In terms of the
• Oregano CBC, all parameters except the white cell and platelet
• Milk counts will be below the normal reference range (see
Table 2.3). In some cases, if a patient is actively bleeding,
ADULT
Dietary
Iron 5% Table 5.5 ¢ Stages of Iron Deficiency
Anemia Matched
to Diagnostic Signals
Stage 1: Iron Stores Depleted. Test for
RBC Absence of stainable bone marrow iron
Decreased serum ferritin level
Increased TIBC
Loss Stage 2: Iron-Deficient Erythropoiesis. Test for
Slight microcytosis
Slight decreased hemoglobin
Recycled Decreased transferrin saturation
Iron 95% Stores
Stage 3: Iron Deficiency Anemia. Test for
Decreased serum iron
Decreased serum ferritin
Increased TIBC
INFANT 1YR Dietary
Iron 30% Decreased transferring saturation
one of the most sensitive indicators of iron stores, with

a normal value of 20 to 250 μg/L for men and 10 to 120
RBC μg/L for women. Ferritin is an acute phase reactant,
and conditions such as chronic inflammation or
chronic infection may falsely elevate the serum ferritin
level. In these cases, an accurate assessment of iron
Loss
stores will be difficult. The TIBC measures the avail-
ability of iron binding sites on the transferrin molecule.
Recycled
If an individual is iron deficient, there will be many
Iron 70% binding sites available searching for iron and the TIBC
Stores
Figure 5.2 Iron need versus amount of recycled

iron available. Table 5.6 ¢ Causes of Iron Deficiency
Anemia
the platelet count will be elevated. The MCV and Related to Increased Iron Demands
MCHC will be markedly lower than normal, the RDW Growth spurts in infants and children
may be mildly elevated, and the peripheral smear will Pregnancy and nursing
show small red cells, which are deficient in hemoglobin. Related to Lack of Iron Intake
Target cells and elliptocytes may occasionally be seen Poor diet
(Fig. 5.4). The reticulocyte count will be low in compar-
Conditions that diminish absorption
ison to the level of anemia, indicating a slightly ineffec-
Related to Blood Loss
tive erythropoiesis.
Menorrhagia
Tests to assess a patient’s iron status include serum
iron, serum ferritin, transferrin or total iron binding Gastrointestinal bleeding (GI bleed)
capacity (TIBC), and transferrin saturation. Serum iron Hemolysis
is a measure of the total amount of iron in the serum Other physical causes of bleeding
with a normal value of 50 to 150 μg/L. Serum ferritin is
Causes of Iron Deficiency

There are many populations that are vulnerable to IDA.
Infants and pregnant women may suffer from nutri-
tional deficiency, young children may develop IDA
when their growth and development rate outstrip their
iron intake, and young women who have increased iron
need due to menstruation or pregnancy may develop
IDA (see Table 5.6). But the primary cause of iron defi-
ciency in the Western world is GI bleeding for males and
excessive menses for females. In both of these cases,
blood is lost from the body. External blood loss presents
a significant challenge to the body because millions of
Figure 5.3 Koilonychia. shed red cells can never be used for recycling new red
cells. Slow GI bleeds and dysfunctional uterine bleeding
over time will lead to a depletion of iron stores and IDA
value will be increased. This value is elevated in iron- will commence. Storage iron, represented by ferritin,
deficient patients (reference range, 250 to 450 μg/L) represents a primary reservoir of iron that can be used as
but subject to fluctuations in patients who use oral con- other iron sources are depleted. The average ferritin
traceptives or have liver disease, chronic infections, or concentrations in males are 135 μg/L, females, 43 μg/L,
nephrotic syndrome. The TIBC is less sensitive to iron and children, 30 μg/L.7 Barring any other external loss
deficiency and must be evaluated in terms of the of blood, iron deficiency solely due to lack of dietary
patient’s other health issues. Transferrin saturation (% sources would develop over a protracted period of time.
saturation) is derived as the product of the serum iron
concentration divided by the TIBC and multiplied by Treatment for Iron Deficiency
100. The normal value is 20% to 50%.
Treatment for iron deficiency is given orally in the form
There are occasions when a diagnosis of IDA is
of drops (good for infants and children) or tablets. Iron
made too casually and is based on a patient’s age group,
preparations are in the form of ferrous sulfate, ferrous
gender, or vague complaints. Young women who give a
gluconate, and ferrous fumerate and are readily avail-
history of fatigue or menstrual problems are often sim-
able over the counter in most places.8 Side effects from
ply given a trial of iron therapy with no supporting lab-
oral iron therapy may include constipation, stomach
oratory workup. A diagnosis of IDA should be made
discomfort, or diarrhea. Most side effects can be over-
ONLY with the supporting laboratory data that reflect
come with consultation from the pharmacist for a gen-
the patient’s red cell and iron status. The patient should
tler preparation. What is essential is to remain
insist that this work be done before therapy is initiated
compliant and to continue on iron therapy despite side
as unnecessary iron use has the potential for serious
effects. Laboratory evaluations such as the CBC and the
consequences.
reticulocyte count should show marked improvement
in a few weeks. Additionally, the microcytosis and
hypochromia seen in the peripheral smear will eventu-
ally be replaced by normocytic and normochromic red
cells. Although oral iron will normalize the hematologi-
cal picture, an investigation should commence as to the
source of the anemia and whether there are any under-
lying causes that are contributory. Table 5.7 provides

recommendations to prevent and control iron defi-
ciency in the United States.
ANEMIA OF CHRONIC DISEASE AND

INFLAMMATION: PATHOPHYSIOL-
OGY, DIAGNOSIS, AND TREATMENT
The anemia of chronic disease or the anemia of inflam-
Figure 5.4 Microcytic and hypochromic red cells. mation is one of the most common anemias in hospital
Table 5.7 ¢ Recommendations to Table 5.8 ¢ Conditions Leading to

Prevent and Control Anemia of Inflammation or
Iron Deficiency in the Anemia of Chronic Disease
United States
• Rheumatoid arthritis
For infants (0 to 12 months) and children (1 to 5 years) • Chronic renal disease
• Encourage breastfeeding or • Thyroid disorders
• Iron-fortified formula • Malignancies
• Serve one serving of fruits, vegetables, juice by • Inflammatory bowel disease
6 months
• Screen children for anemia every 6 months
School-age children (5 to 12 years) and adolescent boys
(12 to 18 years) mal MCHC. The peripheral smear will be essentially
• Screen only those with history of IDA or low iron normal with slight variation in size and chroma. Serum
intake groups iron will be low, serum ferritin will be normal or
Adolescent girls (12 to 18 years) and nonpregnant increased, and serum TIBC will be decreased. Although
women of childbearing age this is NOT the profile for a patient with IDA, in both
• Encourage intake of iron-rich food and foods that conditions the patient will have a low serum iron. There
increase iron absorption are several theories to account for these data. In the ane-
• Screen nonpregnant women every 5 to 10 years mias of inflammation, iron is blocked from reaching
through childbearing years erythroid precursors because of impaired release from
Pregnant women macrophages; there is impaired EPO production; and
• Start oral doses of iron at first prenatal visit the pronormoblasts are not as responsive to EPO from
• Screen for anemia at first prenatal visit patients with chronic disease.9 Few individuals require
• If hemoglobin is 9 g/dL, provide further medical a blood transfusion for treatment of their anemia. On
attention
most occasions, once the underlying disease is success-
Postpartum women fully managed, symptoms of anemia seem to resolve.
• Risk factors include continued anemia, excessive Recently, a new hormone, hepcidin, was discovered.
blood loss, and multiple births
Hepcidin is linked to the immune response and has
Males older than 18 years/postmenopausal women been identified as a regulator of iron transit. As more
• No routine screening is recommended information unfolds, undoubtedly this discovery will
have major implications for iron use and the inflamma-
Modified from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recom-
mendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United tory process.10
States. April 1998. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmnr/preview/
mmwrhtml/100051880.htm. Accessed September 24, 2006.
ANEMIAS RELATED TO IRON
OVERLOAD CONDITIONS,
populations and second only to iron deficiency in terms THE SIDEROBLASTIC ANEMIAS
of frequency. The disorders in this category are either inherited
Many individuals with chronic disorders such col- or acquired. There is an excessive accumulation of
lagen vascular disease, chronic kidney disease, thy- iron in the mitochondria. This leads to the presence of
roid disorders, malignancies, and so on may show an iron deposits in the red cell precursors in the marrow
anemia that will eventually develop into a microcytic called ringed sideroblasts (Fig. 5.5), a dimorphic blood
anemia (Table 5.8). When this occurs, most physicians picture, as well as increased serum ferritin. If the iron
will order laboratory testing to establish whether there loading is an acquired process, it may result from
is also an iron deficiency process. This is termed differ- diseases such as thalassemia major or sickle cell
ential diagnosis. Differential diagnosis is a process by anemia that require a high transfusion protocol. Addi-
which a physician examines a group of laboratory val- tionally, acquired iron loading may occur from alco-
ues and symptoms and tries to correlate them to a par- holism, lead poisoning, or chloramphenicol use.
ticular physiology. Patients with the anemia of chronic Inherited sideroblastic anemias will be the result of
disease will show a borderline low red cell count, hemo- inherited abnormal genes, which is discussed later in
globin, and hematocrit, a slightly low MCV, and a nor- the chapter.



Figure 5.5 Ringed sideroblast in the bone marrow.
Figure 5.7 Pappenheimer bodies.
In any case, the patient’s peripheral smear will

show a microcytic process, with dimorphism (some it is almost always a diagnosis of exclusion. HH is an
microcytes and some normal cells, some hypochromic autosomal recessive disorder carried on chromosome 6
and some normochromic) (Fig. 5.6) and the presence of that is closely linked to HLA-A3. It may be inherited
Pappenheimer bodies (Fig. 5.7), red cells with precipi- homozygously or heterozygously with homozygotes
tated iron inclusions that look like grape clusters in the more prone to iron overload. However, 10% of het-
periphery of the red cell. An iron profile will reveal an erozygotes will also show signs of excessive iron load-
increased serum ferritin and an increased serum iron. ing.12 Because of this inheritance, individuals with HH
As can be expected, once the underlying condition is begin to load iron excessively from a young age and
successfully managed, the iron overload conditions will continue iron loading with every decade. Most are diag-
be resolved. nosed accidentally, as a result of blood screening for a
totally unrelated issue. In these individuals, the custom-
Hereditary Hemochromatosis ary process of iron absorption and storage become
Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is one of the most unbalanced due to the inheritance of an abnormal gene,
common genetic disorder in persons with European HFE, the gene that regulates the amount of iron
ancestry and a major inherited sideroblastic anemia. absorbed from the diet. Two mutations, C282Y and
More than a million persons are affected in the United H63D, have been described.12 The complete role of
States.11 Caucasians, African Americans, and Hispanics these mutant variations in the HFE gene is not fully
are particularly at risk. Yet this disorder has a low pro- understood, yet it is known that the normal product of
file, relative to other blood disorders, partially because these genes does not bind to the transferrin receptor in
the normal iron delivery process. As a result of this
faulty mechanism, iron is constantly loaded into the
storage sites and leads to multiorgan damage and symp-
toms over the decades.13
Symptoms and Laboratory Diagnosis

of Hereditary Hemochromatosis
HH is a great impersonator with a myriad of symp-

Text/image rights not available. toms that usually serve to confuse rather than lead to
a direct diagnosis. A few of the more common symp-
toms are
• Chronic fatigue and weakness
• Cirrhosis of the liver
• Hyperpigmentation
Figure 5.6 Dimorphism in the red cells: Two cell popula- • Diabetes
tions and different levels of hypochromia. • Impotence
• Sterility Treatment for Hereditary Hemochromatosis

• Cardiac arrhythmias
Untreated HH can be fatal, and advanced iron overload
• Tender swollen joints
frequently leads to liver cancer (Fig. 5.8). The treatment
• Hair loss
of choice for individuals newly diagnosed with HH is
• Abdominal symptoms (Table 5.9)
aggressive therapeutic phlebotomy, or bloodletting, as it
As can be imagined, each of these symptoms alone used to be termed. The goal of this procedure is to
could point a physician in a direction other than HH, reduce the serum ferritin level to less than 10 μg/dL and
yet when these symptoms are combined with a micro- to keep the patient’s hematocrit at around 35%. For
cytic process, a screening for iron status will provide rel- most patients, there will be one or two phlebotomies
evant information. As has already been indicated, performed per week as long as the patient can tolerate
screening for iron status would include the procedure. Once the patient serum ferritin has
returned to near normal, phlebotomies will occur three
• Serum iron
• Serum transferrin level
• TIBC
• Possibly transferrin saturation Pituitary gland
Affects growth, organs,
thyroid gland, and
In patients with HH, serum iron, serum ferritin, adrenal glands.
and transferrin saturation will be elevated, while TIBC Thyroid gland

4 Parathyroid glands Not usually affected
and transferrin will fall in the normal reference range. May be affected.
Control blood calcium level.
It should be noted that symptoms may not be seen
and blood values may not be elevated in younger indi-
viduals. Serum ferritin levels above 150 μg/L and trans-
ferrin saturation levels of greater than 45% are indicative Heart
of HH. Genetic testing would be appropriate for these Most important organ
to be damaged by iron.
individuals to establish if they possess the G282Y
and the H63D mutation present in 80% to 95% of Liver
May become enlarged,
patients with HH, yet this testing is expensive and cancer possible
should be ordered judiciously. The laboratory is critical

in the diagnosis of HH and its value cannot be under- Pancreas
Patients may develop
estimated in providing definitive data for this crucial diabetes
diagnosis.
Table 5.9 ¢ The Confusing Symptoms

of Hereditary Hemochro- Genitals
matosis May have difficulty in
development or
functioning
Symptom Possible Other Cause

Chronic fatigue weakness Could be seen in IDA
Cirrhosis of the liver Could be seen in
alcoholism
Cardiac arrhythmias Could be seen in valve
problems, congestive
heart failure
Tender swollen joints Could be seen in colla-
gen vascular diseases
Hair loss, hyperpigmentation Could be seen in
endocrine disorders
Figure 5.8 Organs of the body damaged by iron overload.
or four times a year to keep the serum ferritin in range. THE THALASSEMIA SYNDROMES
Symptoms will lessen and in some cases disappear com-
Brief History and Demographics
pletely once the iron level is reduced. Excess iron lowers
the immune system, and it has been suggested that iron Over 2 million Americans carry the gene for thal-
overload causes a significant amount of diabetes. For assemia,14 yet most have never heard of the word thal-
patients who cannot tolerate phlebotomies or are assemia, which comes from the Greek word thalassa,
unwilling to go through the procedure, desferrioxamine meaning “from the sea.” Relatively few individuals
(Desferal), an iron-chelating agent, can be used. In this develop severe forms of thalassemia, but for those who
procedure, the dose of Desferal matched to body weight do, there is a lifetime of transfusions and medical man-
is delivered through a continuous 12- to 16-hour infu- agement of multiorgan problems. The thalassemic gene
sion pump. Patients usually use a subcutaneous injec- is ubiquitous, yet it has a particular penetration in
tion site for infusion and infuse during the nighttime Mediterranean areas and in Middle Eastern, Northern
hours. Excess iron is chelated and then excreted in the African, Indian, Asian, and Caribbean populations.
urine. Infusion sites need to be rotated often to avoid More cases are being seen and treated in the United
infections and irritation (Fig. 5.9). Patients who are non- States as more diverse populations enter the country.
compliant in ridding themselves of iron through either Fortunately, laboratory professionals seem to be more
phlebotomy or Desferal will significantly shorten their aware of the possibility of thalassemic conditions when
life span. Early diagnosis of HH disorder can easily be faced with a patient who presents with microcytic
accomplished by adding blood tests such as serum fer- process and normal iron status. Physicians and medical
ritin and transferrin saturation to the menu of tests students, interns, and residents often fail to consider the
offered during yearly physical examinations. Slowly, the thalassemias as reasons for a microcytic process, most
medical community is becoming aware of this “silent likely due to lack of in-depth training or exposure. A
killer” as individual consumers become more knowl- respectful relationship between the laboratory and
edgeable of this disease and as organizations like the medical staff can be tremendously beneficial in diagnos-
Iron Overload Disease Association (www.ironover- ing and treating new cases of thalassemia.
load.org) become more aggressive in outreach and Dr. Thomas Cooley and Dr. Pearl Lee described
education. HH is preventable, but it will take the efforts the first cases of thalassemia disease in North America
of many individuals—nutritionists, physicians, labora- in 1925. Clustering together five cases, these clinicians
tory personnel, and patients—to raise awareness and described four children who had anemia, hepato-
expand educational outreach. splenomegaly, skin discoloration, jaundice, and pecu-
liar facial features and bone changes. Their bone mar-
rows showed erythroid hyperplasia (Fig. 5.10), and their
peripheral smear showed many nucleated red cells, tar-
get cells, and microcytes (Fig. 5.11). Not much has
R L
changed in the initial presentation of an individual with
thalassemia disease or thalassemia major. The mode of
Day 2 X X Day 1
X X
X X X X
Day 3
Adapted from Cooley’s Anemia Foundation, with permission.
X X X X
Day 4 X X X X
X X X X
X X Day 5
X X
X X
Figure 5.10 Erythroid hyperplasia: the bone marrow’s

Figure 5.9 Rotation chart for subcutaneous injections. response to anemic stress.
the B0 individuals, there is a complete lack of synthesis

of the beta chain, and in B+ individuals, a limited
amount of the beta chain is synthesized. Both of these

mutations affect specific populations (Table 5.10). On
the molecular level, beta chain defects result from faulty
transcription of messenger RNA.
The Alpha Thalassemias

Symptomatology
The alpha thalassemias have a high incidence in
the Asian populations (e.g., Thailand, Vietnam, Cam-
bodia, Indonesia, and Laos).15 They are also seen in
Figure 5.11 Thalassemia major, showing a high degree of Saudi Arabian and Filipino populations. As you may
poikilocytosis and nRBCs. recall, the alpha chain is the critical building block for
construction of all normal adult physiological hemoglo-
bins, because each adult hemoglobin depends on the
inheritance for this disorder was described by Dr. W. N. production of the alpha chain. The alpha chain is also
Valentine in 1944, and since 1960, the genetic interac- critical in the development of hemoglobin in the fetus;
tions and the cloning of the thalassemic genes have without alpha chain development, there is no Hgb F
been accomplished. Yet there has been no cure. formed. There are four clinical states of alpha thal-
assemia that are related to the number of alpha genes
The Pathophysiology of the Thalassemias deleted (Fig. 5.12).
Unlike the other microcytic processes discussed, the
thalassemias have nothing to do with iron. The thal- Gene States of Alpha Hemoglobin
assemias are globin chain disorders that are concerned The most severe state is Barts hydrops fetalis, in which
with the lack of production of alpha or beta globin there is a total absence of alpha chain synthesis: no
chains. The thalassemias are hemoglobin synthesis hemoglobin A is formed, only hemoglobin Barts (γ 4), a
defects. Failure to synthesize either the alpha or the beta high oxygen affinity hemoglobin. Because this hemo-
chain impairs the production of the normal physiologi- globin is an abnormal tetramer and oxygen loving
cal adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin A (α2,β2), hemoglo- (hemoglobin Barts holds onto oxygen and resists deliv-
bin A2 (α2,δ2), and hemoglobin F (α2,δ2). The ering oxygen to the tissues), the anemia that develops is
construction of each of these normal hemoglobins severe and usually leads to stillbirth or spontaneous
depends on alpha and beta chains being synthesized as abortion. Hemoglobin H disease is the next most severe
part of their normal tetramer. When this synthesis is condition. Here, there is only one functional alpha gene,
impaired, the hemoglobins are formed as a result of the and the other three genes are deleted. Little hemoglobin
unbalanced chain production that negatively affects red A is produced; instead, a new hemoglobin H is formed,
cell life span. Additionally, there are multiorgan compli- which is also a fairly unstable tetramer (4) and repre-
cations, the development of a microcytic anemia, and a
peripheral smear with many red cell morphological
abnormalities. There are two major types of thal-
assemias: alpha thalassemia and beta thalassemian. Put Table 5.10 ¢ Gene Expression in
simply, the alpha thalassemias result from gene dele- Population
tions. Each individual inherits four alpha genes, two
maternal and two paternal. Each of the four clinical pre- B0 B
sentations of alpha thalassemia results from one or more
Northern Italy Mediterranean region
of the alpha genes being deleted. The beta thalassemias
revolve around the inheritance of a defective beta gene, Greece Southeast Asia
either from one parent (heterozygously) or from both Algeria Middle East
parents (homozygously). To date, 200 mutations of the Saudi Arabia Indian subcontinent
beta gene have been described, and these mutations West Africa
have been broadly divided into the B0 or the B+ gene. In
Normal chromosome 16
α α
Alpha chain loci
α α
Clinical Conditions of Alpha Thalassemia
Hydrops Barts fetalis Hemoglobin H Disease Alpha Thalassemia Disease Silent Carrier
α α
OR
α α α α α α
No functioning One functioning Two functioning Three functioning

alpha genes alpha gene alpha genes alpha genes
Figure 5.12 Clinical states of alpha thalassemia.
sents 5% to 40% on alkaline electrophoresis (see Chap- cytic, and therefore the patient may be unaware of his or
ter 8). Hemoglobin levels are less than 10 g/dL (average, her alpha gene status. Since diagnosing patients from
6 to 8 g/dL), and reticulocyte counts are in the range both of these alpha thalassemia subsets (alpha thal-
of 5% to 10%. There is a microcytosis and hypochromia
observed in the peripheral smear with red cell fragments
(Fig. 5.13). An unusual inclusion, hemoglobin H
inclusion, is formed. On supravital staining, with bril-
liant cresyl blue or crystal violet, it looks like a pitted
golf ball (Fig. 5.14). In peripheral circulation, this inclu-
sion is usually pitted from the red cell, leaving the
cell more fragile and less elastic with a shortened life

span. Individuals with hemoglobin H disease have
a lifelong anemia with variable splenomegaly and bone
changes.
The final two clinical conditions are less severe: the
two-gene deletion state, alpha thalassemia trait, and the
one-gene deletion state, the silent carrier. The individ-
ual with the alpha thalassemia trait possesses only two
viable hemoglobin A genes and may only have a mild
anemia with many microcytic, hypochromic cells.
Some hemoglobin Barts will be formed. The silent car- Figure 5.13 Peripheral smear from an individual with
rier will be hematologically normal or slightly micro- hemoglobin H.
Treatment for hemoglobin H disease is supportive,

Guide Based on Proficiency Testing. Northfield, IL: College of Amer-
Adapted from Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated
with transfusions given only if necessary. Iron defi-

ciency must be eliminated as a reason for the microcytic
indices so that the patient will not be given iron unnec-
essarily.
ican Pathologists, 1998, with permission.
Beta Thalassemia Major: Cooley’s

Anemia, Mediterranean Fever
This inherited blood disorder affects million of individ-
uals worldwide. In the United States alone, over 2 mil-
H Bodies in mature red cell
lion individuals are carriers of the thalassemic gene,
resulting in significant penetrance of this gene, which
Figure 5.14 Hemoglobin H inclusions as seen after bril- often results in disease. In beta thalassemia major, there
liant cresyl blue staining. is little or no beta chain being synthesized; conse-
quently, there is no (or a very minor amount of) hemo-
globin A being synthesized. This condition results from
assemia trait/silent carrier) may be difficult, it is impor- a union between two carriers, and according to
tant to note that the presence of elliptocytes and target Mendelian genetics, there is a one-in-four chance for a
cells in their peripheral smears can present a high pre- severely affected individual to be born (Fig. 5.15). The
dictive value, if smears are carefully reviewed for these other offspring may be carriers. Beta thalassemia major
findings.16 is a serious genetic blood disorder, affecting multiple
organs, quality of life, and longevity. Most infants born
Diagnosis and Treatment with thalassemia major will not be ill for the first 6
If the most severe alpha thalassemic condition is sus- months. Because fetal hemoglobin is the majority
pected, especially in pregnancy, amniocentesis fluid or hemoglobin at birth, infants do quite well. But, in the
chronic villi sampling may be obtained and examined normal sequence of events, gamma chains are silenced
for the presence of alpha genes through molecular diag- and beta chains increase, forming hemoglobin A some-
nostic procedures. In the case of hydrops Barts fetalis, where between 3 and 6 months. As there are no beta
most of these pregnancies are terminated or individuals chains to combine with the alpha chains, hemoglobin
are delivered of severely edematous fetuses that are not F continues to be made; but there is an imbalance of
viable. Cord blood is usually tested for hemoglobin alpha chains. When alpha chains cannot combine, they
electrophoresis, which usually shows a high percentage are unpaired and precipitate inside the red cell, causing
of hemoglobin Barts. For these individuals and individ- a markedly decreased life span (7 to 22 days). Between
uals in high-risk ethnic groups, genetic counseling 2 and 4 years old, most young children with beta thal-
is strongly advised. Hemoglobin H may be suspected assemia major begin to show a failure to thrive, irritabil-
if CBCs show slightly elevated red blood cell counts ity, enlarged spleens, symptoms of anemia, jaundice,
combined with extremely low MCVs, less than 60 fL, and transfusion requirement.
and RDW results that are extremely elevated (normal
value, 11% to 15%) owing to the misshapened red
Living With Thalassemia Major
cells and fragments in comparison to the more homoge-
neous microcytic hypochromic population as seen in Patients and families with thalassemia major balance
IDA. Although hemoglobin H may be present at 5% to multiple health issues on a daily basis as they struggle to
40%, failure to demonstrate an abnormal hemoglobin maintain a normal life. Medical management of this
band by electrophoresis should not eliminate the disease is continuous, frustrating, and disruptive for
patient as suspect.17 Hemoglobin H, a fast-moving children who have the disease and parents who are care-
hemoglobin on alkaline electrophoresis, may be missed givers and carriers. Severe anemia underlies most of the
by traditional methods. The final two conditions— other complications, with hemoglobin values, although
alpha thalassemia trait and the silent carrier condi- variable, often in the range of 6 to 9 g/dL, about one-half
tion—may not be recognized on peripheral smear the normal level. The patient’s peripheral smear shows a
analysis because their hematological pictures are not severe microcytic hypochromic process with a high
that abnormal. number of nucleated red blood cells, marked polychro-
IF..... Both parents carry the beta thalassemia trait
β β
THEN.....
Adapted from Colley’s Anemia Foundation, with permission.
β β β
25% 50% 25%
Normal hemoglobin Beta thal trait Cooley's anemia Figure 5.15 Genetics of beta thalassemia.
masia, and a high degree of red cell morphology. blood once every 2 to 5 weeks, so iron accumulation is
(See Fig. 5.11.) Because this chronic anemic state has expected and needs to be medically monitored and
led to chronic overexpansion of the capable bone mar- managed. The author refers the reader to the Cooley’s
row, (the bone marrow increases its output up to 20 Anemia Foundation Website for more information
times), the quality of bone that is laid down is thin and (www. cooleysanemia.org).
fragile. Pathological fractures and bony changes in
the facial structure (thalassemic facies) and skull are
Treating and Managing Thalassemia Major
normally seen and give the thalassemic individual
a strange look. Bossing or protrusion of the skull Thalassemia major patients will be on either a low-
is prominent, as is orthodontic misalignment. The transfusion or a high-transfusion protocol. A low-
spleen reaches enormous proportions because abnor- transfusion protocol treats the patient symptomatically,
mal red cells have been harbored and sequestered administering transfusion when symptoms warrant. A
on a daily basis. Enlarged spleens cause excessive high-transfusion protocol aims to keep the patient’s
hemolysis and discomfort. Many patients have splenec- hemoglobin level close to 10 g/dL; the patient is trans-
tomies and this does ameliorate some of the anemia fused every 2 to 5 weeks. There are good arguments for
issues, but it presents the patient with other challenges, both, bearing in mind that transfusion exposes the indi-
because splenectomy is not a benign procedure vidual not only to excess iron but also to foreign red
(see Chapter 2). Yet one of the gravest problems is iron cell antigens and other blood-borne diseases. A high-
overload. Patients with beta thalassemia major absorb transfusion protocol gives the patient the best hope for a
more iron through diet because of increased erythro- normal quality of life, by increasing his or her hemoglo-
poiesis, and they accumulate iron as a result of taking bin and providing better bone quality, better growth, less
in 200 mg additional iron with each transfusion of iron, and near-normal spleen size. Yet, iron overload
packed cells.18 Thalassemia major patients in the looms as a major outcome of the high-transfusion proto-
United States have an average transfusion regimen of col and is the major focus of clinical management.
Patients need to be assessed for liver, pancreatic,

endocrine, and cardiac iron. Although noninvasive pro-
cedures are available, they are specialized and not avail-

able at every clinical facility. Iron overload poses
significant risk to cardiac function and leads to hepatic
and endocrinological complications. Iron chelation is
recommended once the serum ferritin level has reached
about 1000 μg/L, and this usually correlates with about
10 to 20 transfusions from the onset of diagnosis.19 The
procedure for chelation with Desferal has been
explained earlier in this chapter. Compliance is critical
in thalassemia major patients, yet difficult to maintain,
as the patient moves from childhood to adolescence and
becomes less willing to be hooked up to the infusion Figure 5.16 Microcytic hypochromic blood smear in
pump. In late 2005, an oral chelating agent, Exjade or thalassemia minor.
ICL670 (Novartis), became available to this patient pop-
ulation. Despite compliance with chelating therapy, car-
diac complications continue to be the leading cause of often been confused with IDA (Fig. 5.16), but a close
death in patients with thalassemia major. examination of the CBC will show an individual with an
Bone marrow transplantation and stem cell trans- increased red count. Above all other values, the
plantation are therapeutic modalities that are also avail- increased RBC is significant in this condition because it
able for the severe thalassemic patient. For patients represents that the bone marrow is compensating for
considering bone marrow transplant, finding a compat- having only one half the complement of beta chains.
ible donor is the necessary first step. If this can be This change, although subtle, is often unrecognized by
accomplished, then bone marrow transplant should be clinicians, and for this reason, many beta thalassemia
considered early before the patient develops too many minor patients have been put on iron protocols that
complications of thalassemia. The transplant procedure offer no therapeutic value. Iron is not the problem in
itself is rigorous and not without risks. Stem cell trans- beta thalassemia minor (Table 5.11). Although a thera-
plantation, although a viable alternative, takes much peutic trial of iron may not harm the patient in the long
forethought and is often limited by the fact that stem run, it is not good medical management. Patients who
cells have not been collected from the umbilical cord have microcytic indices may easily represent the largest
post delivery. number of anemia patients. A careful diagnosis that
considers broader possibilities for a microcytic presen-
tation is in the best interest of the patient and the health
Thalassemia Intermedia care system as a whole (Table 5.12).
and Beta Thalassemia Trait
Individuals with thalassemia intermedia are not a well-
defined subset of thalassemia major patients. As a clini-
cal group, they develop problems later in life than do Table 5.11 ¢ Differential Diagnosis
thalassemia major individuals and they may not need of Microcytic Disorders
transfusions. They do develop larger spleens, but their
Serum %
transfusion requirements, if present, are less frequent.
Diagnosis Iron TIBC Saturation Ferritin
Bone changes may be present, but they are mild. Indi-
viduals with thalassemia intermedia may need to be iron AOI/ACD ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑
depleted with Desferal therapy, but this is much less fre- HH ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑
quent than their thalassemia major counterparts.
IDA ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
Beta thalassemia trait is the heterozygous con-
SA ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑
dition, in which only one abnormal beta gene is inher-
ited from the parent. This condition mimics IDA with Thalassemia ↑/N N ↑ ↑
individuals presenting with microcytic hypochromic minor
indices and moderately low hemoglobin and hemat-
HH, hereditary hemochromatosis; IDA, iron deficiency anemia; SA,
ocrit values.20 Hemoglobin A2 will be increased to sideroblastic anemia; AOI, anemia of inflammation; ACD, anemia of
approximately 5% to 10%. Beta thalassemia minor has chronic disease.
Table 5.12 ¢ Diagnostic Clues for the Thalassemic Conditions
If you are suspecting the two- or three-gene deletion alpha • Presence of targets, fragments on smear
thalassemic state • Microcytosis and hypochromia
• The MCVs are much lower than in IDA • Hgb F is major hemoglobin on electrophoresis
• RDW is much more severe in alpha thalassemias If you suspect beta thalassemia minor state
If you suspect the silent carrier alpha thalassemic state • MCV is lower than in IDA
• MCV is in normal or low-normal range • RBC count is elevated
• Presence of elliptocytes on the smear is an indicator • Microcytosis and hypochromia
If you suspect beta thalassemia major state • May see basophilic stippling, targets on smear
• MCVs are low • Hgb A2 is elevated
• High numbers of nRBCs on smear
CONDENSED CASE
A South Vietnamese adolescent girl is seen in the student health clinic for complaints of shortness of breath. Her labo-
ratory results reveal WBC 9.0 × 109/L, Hgb 9.0 g/dL, Hct 27%, MCV 62 fL, and MCHC 30.2. The periph-
eral smear revealed moderate target cells, microcytes, hypochromic, and some fragments. Hemoglobin electrophoresis
at pH 8.6 indicates three bands: a heavy band in the A position, a lighter band in the F position, and a moderate band
that is faster than Hgb A. What is your clinical impression?
Answer
This patient most likely has hemoglobin H disease and is showing signs of anemia. She has done a good job of
compensating and probably never needed transfusion. Her peripheral smear abnormalities combined and her
electrophoresis results are fairly conclusive for this alpha thalassemia.
Summary Points • Multiple organs are affected in HH, because indi-

viduals with HH have been iron loading for
• An anemia classified as microcytic, hypochromic
decades.
means that there is a decreased MCV and decreased
MCHC. • The serum iron and serum ferritin are high in HH.
• The most common microcytic anemias are IDA, • Therapeutic phlebotomy is the therapy of choice
sideroblastic anemias, hereditary hemochromatosis, for HH.
and anemia of chronic disease. • The thalassemia syndromes are globin chain syn-
• Iron is ingested, absorbed from the duodenum and thetic defects.
jejunum, and then moved to the bone marrow by • There are four clinical conditions of alpha thal-
transferrin, the transport protein. assemia, each caused by gene deletions.
• Individuals with IDA will experience symptoms of • Beta thalassemia major is the most severe of the beta
anemia and perhaps cheilitis, koilonychia, or pica. thalassemic conditions.
• Individuals with iron deficiency will have a • Individuals with beta thalassemia major will have
decreased serum iron and serum ferritin and a severe anemia, splenomegaly, and thalassemic
increased TIBC. facies.
• The anemia of chronic disease or the anemia of • The majority hemoglobin in beta thalassemic major
inflammation is one of the most common anemias is hemoglobin F.
in the hospital population. • Beta thalassemia minor is similar to IDA with the
• Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is an inherited exception of an elevated RBC and an elevated
iron loading anemia. hemoglobin A2.
CASE STUDY
A physician came into the clinical laboratory during the evening shift requesting to review the peripheral smear on one
of his patients. This particular 40-year-old patient had been particularly confusing for him because she came into the
clinic with a CBC that indicated IDA, with MCV of 76 fL, Hgb 11.3 g/dL, Hct 34%, and RBC 5.8 1012/L. She had com-
plaints of fatigue and lethargy. The physician had put her on a trial therapy with iron supplementation, but 3 weeks later
her laboratory results were virtually the same. What inherited hematological condition shows a clinical picture sim-
ilar to IDA?
This case illustrates a frequent problem in the diagnosis and management of a patient with microcytic indices. This
patient was diagnosed with IDA with no clear indication of her iron status and begun on a therapeutic trial of iron. She
did not respond, since her CBC remained virtually the same. When a hemoglobin A2 was ordered, the results were found
to be 8.5% (normal value, 2% to 3%), and these results are indicative of beta thalassemia trait. This condition is an inher-
ited disorder in which only one normal beta gene is present. An abnormal beta gene is inherited from one parent; conse-
quently a full complement of hemoglobin A is not formed and hemoglobin A2 is elevated. The patient has a lifelong
moderate microcytic anemia, with an elevated red count. Patients lead a normal life, but conditions such as pregnancy or
illness may cause the anemia to worsen, and transfusion in these cases may be warranted. If the information is available,
individuals who carry the beta thalassemic trait should identify themselves to their supervising physician.
Review Questions
1. The morphological classification of anemias is c. hereditary hemochromatosis.
based on the d. beta thalassemic trait.
a. red cell count.
b. cause of the anemia. 5. The most cost-effective therapy for a patient with
c. red cell indices. hereditary hemochromatosis is
d. reticulocyte count. a. Desferal chelation.
b. bone marrow transplant.
2. Which of these symptoms is specific for c. therapeutic phlebotomy.
IDA? d. stem cell transplant.
a. Fatigue
b. Koilonychia 6. List two sets of laboratory data that can distin-
c. Palpitations guish IDA from beta thalassemia trait.
d. Dizziness a. Serum iron and red count
b. Hemoglobin and hematocrit
3. Which of the following laboratory tests will c. White count and RDW
be abnormal through each stage of iron defi- d. Red cell indices and platelets
ciency?
a. Serum iron 7. What is the majority hemoglobin in thalassemia
b. Hemoglobin and hematocrit major?
c. Red cell count a. Hemoglobin A
d. Serum ferritin b. Hemoglobin A2
c. Hemoglobin F
4. A patient presents with a microcytic hypochromia d. Hemoglobin H
anemia with ragged-looking red cells in the periph-
eral smear and a high reticulocyte count. A brilliant 8. Of the four clinical states of alpha thalassemia,
cresyl blue preparation reveals inclusions that which is incompatible with life?
appear like pitted golf balls. These inclusions are a. Alpha thalassemia silent carrier
suggestive of b. Alpha thalassemia trait
a. hemoglobin H disease. c. Hemoglobin H disease
b. beta thalassemia major. d. Hydrops Barts fetalis
9. Which of the following hemoglobins has the 10. Although there are many complications in
chemical confirmation 4? thalassemia major individuals, which of the
a. Hemoglobin Barts following is the leading cause of death?
b. Hemoglobin Gower a. Splenomegaly
c. Hemoglobin H b. Cardiac complications
d. Hemoglobin Portland c. Hepatitis C infection
d. Pathological fractures
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When Red Cell Inclusions Have together to try to identify which inclusion was present.
Been Misidentified? The student preliminarily identified the inclusions as
A 36-year-old chronic alcoholic with liver disease and Howell-Jolly bodies, which are single inclusion, DNA
pneumonia was admitted to the hospital. Her admis- in origin, and usually located in the periphery of the
sion was for treatment of the pneumonia. Routine red cell. Basophilic stippling was another possibility,
CBCs including differential were ordered daily to mon- but stippling is RNA in origin and seen throughout the
itor her white count during the treatment process. Dur- red cells; the new employee noted that the inclusion
ing evaluation of her peripheral smear, a shift to the left was located toward the periphery of the cell. The next
was observed. This is a term used to describe the pres- possibility was Pappenheimer bodies, small inclusions
ence of younger white cells from the bone marrow in that look like grape clusters. Pappenheimer bodies
response to infection and inflammation. On the second are usually iron deposits either in the form of ferritin or
day after admission, the patient’s smear was being hemosiderin. If they are suspected, an iron stain (Pruss-
examined on the evening shift by a new laboratory ian blue) will confirm the presence of iron. A Prussian
graduate. She noted red cell inclusions and identified blue stain was performed, and the inclusions were con-
them as Howell-Jolly bodies, but she felt insecure firmed to be siderocytes, iron-containing inclusions.
about the identity of the inclusion and no one was These inclusions can be found in hemochromatosis,
available to observe the inclusion. After consulting alcoholism, hemolytic anemia, and post splenectomy.
with the lead technologist, they reviewed the smear
WORD KEY 2. Hillman RS, Finch CA. Differential diagnosis of anemia.

In: Hillman RS, Finch CA, eds. Red Cell Manual, 7th ed.
Chelation • To remove a heavy compound, like a heavy Philadelphia: FA Davis, 1996; 71.
metal 3. Hussong JW. Iron metabolism and hypochromic ane-
mias. In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hematology and
Collagen vascular disease • Disorder that affects prima- Fundamentals of Hemostasis. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
rily the joints and mobility 2002; 100.
Dyspnea • Shortness of breath 4. Coleman M. Iron metabolism. In: Rodak B, ed. Hematol-
ogy: Clinical Principles and Applications, 2nd ed.
Gastrectomy • Removal of a portion of the stomach Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002; 118–119.
5. Annibale B, Caparso F, Delle Fave G. The stomach and
Jaundice • Increase in bilirubin leading to a yellow discol-
iron deficiency anemia: A forgotten link. Liver Dis
oration in the mucous membranes of the eyes and a yellow 35:288–295, 2003.
tone to the skin 6. Gross S. Disorders of iron metabolism. In: Gross S, Roath
Menorrhagia • Excessive menstrual bleeding S, eds. Routine Hematology: A Problem-Oriented
Approach. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1996; 118.
Vertigo • Dizziness 7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommen-
dations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the
References United States. April 1998. Available at http://www
1. Ogedegbe HO, Csury L, Simmons BH. Anemias: A clini- .cdc. gov/mmnr/preview/mmwrhtml/100051880.htm.
cal laboratory perspective. Lab Med 35:177, 2004. Accessed September 24, 2006.
8. Gross S. Disorders of iron metabolism. In: Gross S, 15. Panich V, Pornpatku M, Sriroohgrueng W. The problem
Roath S, eds. Routine Hematology: A Problem-Oriented of the thalassemias in Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop
Approach. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1996; 125. Med Public Health Suppl:23, 1992.
9. Spivak JL. Iron and the anemia of chronic disease. 16. Teshima D, Hall J, Darniati E, et al. Microscopic erythro-
Oncology 9(Suppl 10):25–33, 2002. cyte morphologic changes associated with alpha thal-
10. Roy CN, Weinstein DA, Andrews NC. The molecular assemia. Clin Lab Sci 6:236–240, 1993.
biology of the anemia of chronic disease: A hypothesis. 17. Hall RB, Haga JA, Guerra CG, et al. Optimizing the
Pediatr Res 53:507–512, 2003. detection of hemoglobin H disease. Lab Med
11. Kaplan LA, Pesce AJ. Iron, porphyrin and bilirubin 26:736–741, 1995.
metabolism. In: Kaplan LA, Pesce AJ, eds. Clinical 18. Vullo R, Moddel B, Georganda E. What Is Cooley’s Ane-
Chemistry Theory, Analysis, Correlations, 3rd ed. mia? 2nd ed. Nicosia, Cyprus/Geneva: Thalassaemia
St. Louis: Mosby, 1996; 700–701. International Federation/World Health Organization,
12. Weinberg ED. Laboratory contributions to the diagnosis 1995; 17.
of common iron loading disorders and anemias. Lab 19. Eleftheriou A. Compliance to Iron Chelation Therapy
Med 32:507–508, 2002. with Desferrioxamine. Nicosia, Cyprus: Thalassaemia
13. Galhenge SP, Viiala CH, Olynyk JK. Screening for International Federation, 2000; 15.
hemochromatosis: Patients with liver disease, families 20. Nuchprayoon I, Sukthawee B, Nuchprayoon T. Red cell
and populations. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 6:44–51, indices and therapeutic trial of iron in diagnostic
2004. workup for anemic Thai females. J Med Assoc Thai
14. Cooley’s Anemia Foundation. Leading the Fight Against 86(Suppl 2):S160–S169, 2003.
Thalassemia. Available at www.cooleysanemia.org.

6 The Macrocytic Anemias
Betty Ciesla
The Macrocytic Anemias and the Megaloblastic Objectives

Process
The Red Cell Precursors in Megaloblastic 1. Define megaloblastic anemia as a macrocytic
Anemia anemia.
Ineffective Erythropoiesis in Megaloblastic 2. Compare and contrast the morphological char-
Anemia acteristics of megaloblasts and normoblasts in
Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid: Their Role in DNA the bone marrow.
Synthesis 3. Differentiate red cell and white cell changes in
the peripheral smear that are seen in the mega-
Nutritional Requirements, Transport, and loblastic anemias.
Metabolism of Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid
4. Describe ineffective hematopoiesis as it relates
Incorporating Vitamin B12 Into the Bone to the megaloblastic process.
Marrow
5. Describe the pathway of vitamin B12 and folic
Clinical Features of Patients With Megaloblas- acid from ingestion through incorporation into
tic Anemia the red cell.
Hematological Features of Megaloblastic 6. Describe the clinical symptoms of a patient
Anemias with megaloblastic anemia.
Pernicious Anemia as a Subset of Megaloblastic 7. List the causes of vitamin B12 and folic acid defi-
Anemias ciency.
Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid Deficiency 8. Define pernicious anemia and its clinical and
laboratory findings.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Megaloblastic
9. Describe the Schilling test and its use in diag-
Anemias nosing megaloblastic anemia.
Treatment and Response of Individuals With 10. Describe the treatments for the megaloblastic
Megaloblastic Anemia anemias.
Macrocytic Anemias That Are Not 11. Differentiate the anemias that are macrocytic
Megaloblastic but are not megaloblastic.
85
THE MACROCYTIC ANEMIAS AND

THE MEGALOBLASTIC PROCESS
The macrocytic anemias are a morphological classifica-
tion of anemias that have an MCV of greater than 100 fL.
The MCH is also elevated but the MCHC is within nor-
mal range, and these anemias are termed macrocytic/
normochromic. Broadly defined, the macrocytic ane-
mias are divided into two categories: megaloblastic and
nonmegaloblastic processes. If the source of the anemia
is a vitamin B12 or folic acid deficiency, the anemia
is termed megaloblastic. If the source of the anemia is
unrelated to a nutritional deficiency, the anemia is
macrocytic but not megaloblastic. Vitamin B12 or folic Figure 6.1 Megaloblastic precursors, showing the asyn-
chrony between the nucleus and the chromatin; the cyto-
acid deficiency leads to impaired DNA synthesis, a seri- plasm of most cells is extremely basophilic.
ous condition, and will affect all readily dividing cells,
skin cells, hematopoietic cells, and epithelial cells. The
effects on the bone marrow, peripheral smear, and the tion and condensation of a nucleus ready to be deliv-
patient’s quality of life are dramatic and substantive. ered from the cell. Likewise, the cytoplasmic material in
the early megaloblastic precursors is extremely baso-
philic, much bluer than normal precursors (Fig. 6.2).
THE RED CELL PRECURSORS IN Students usually have a difficult time observing the dif-
MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA ference between the normal red cell precursors and
the megaloblastic precursors. A careful study of the
Because megaloblastic processes damage DNA synthe-
nucleus/cytoplasm (N:C) ratio, size of the cell, nuclear
sis, nucleated cells will be the most affected. There are
material, and cytoplasm color in each stage of each cell
multiple white cell and red cell changes in the bone
will help to differentiate one from the other.
marrow structure that should be recognized and appre-
ciated. The megaloblastic red cell precursors are larger,
the nuclear structure is less condensed, and the cyto- INEFFECTIVE ERYTHROPOIESIS IN
plasm is extremely basophilic or much bluer. There is MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA
asynchrony between the age of the nuclear material and The bone marrow is hypercellular in the megaloblastic
the age of the cytoplasm, but this can best be appreci- conditions and the white cell precursor cells are large,
ated by making a serious comparison of the nuclear and especially the metamyelocytes. The myeloid-to-
cytoplasmic material in megaloblastic precursor cells erythroid (M:E) ratio is 1:1 or 1:3, reflecting erythroid
versus normoblastic precursor cells (Fig. 6.1). When a hyperplasia as you would see in the bone marrow
cell stage is asynchronous, the nuclear age and the cyto-
plasmic age do not correspond. Recall that the normal
red cell series is programmed for two specific functions:
hemoglobin synthesis and nuclear expulsion. In order
for the nucleus to be expelled, certain changes must
occur in the size of the nucleus and the consistency of

the nucleus structure. Therefore, the chromatin that
begins as fine, reticular, and smooth must take on a dif-
ferent texture and conformation before it is expelled
from the orthochromic normoblast. In megaloblastic
erythropoiesis, the texture and condensation of the
nuclear material are disrupted. Megaloblastic chro-
matin in the megaloblastic pronormoblast and mega-
loblastic basophilic normoblast is open-weaved with a
clockface arrangement of chromatin, easily imagined if
you closely look at the chromatin pattern. The nuclear Figure 6.2 Normoblastic erythropoiesis with a polychro-
(or chromatin) material is fragile and lacks the composi- matophilic normoblast (arrow).
CHAPTER 6 • The Macrocytic Anemias 87
VITAMIN B12 AND FOLIC ACID:

Table 6.1 ¢ Consequences of THEIR ROLE IN DNA SYNTHESIS
Ineffective Erythropoiesis DNA synthesis is dependent on a key structure, thymi-
dine triphosphate (TTP). This structure cannot be
• Bone marrow destruction of erythroid precursors
formed unless it receives a methyl group from methyl
• Lack of regeneration of bone marrow elements
during anemic stress tetrahydrofolate or folic acid. Vitamin B12 is the cofactor
• Lack of nRBCs in peripheral smear responsible for transferring the methyl group to methyl
• Lack of polychromasia in peripheral smear tetrahydrofolate.1 Sufficient quantities of vitamin B12
• Reticulocytopenia and folic acid are key to the formation of TTP. If TTP
• Intramedullary hemolysis cannot be synthesized, then it is replaced by deoxyuri-
• Increased bilirubin and LDH dine triphosphate (DTP). The synthesis of this compo-
nent leads to nuclear fragmentation and destruction of
cells and impaired cell division. For this reason, vitamin
B12 and folic acid are essential elements in the DNA
responding to anemia. However, in the megaloblastic pathway.
processes, there is an ineffective erythropoiesis, which
means destruction in the bone marrow of red cell pre-
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS,
cursors before they even reach the peripheral circula- TRANSPORT, AND METABOLISM
tion (Table 6.1). Megaloblastic precursor cells, especially OF VITAMIN B12 AND FOLIC ACID
at the polychromatophilic and basophilic states,
hemolyze before their maturation cycle is completed. Microorganisms and fungi are the main producers of
Orthochromic normoblasts and/or reticulocytes do not vitamin B12, a group of vitamins known as cobalamins.
have the opportunity to be delivered from the bone This vitamin may also be embedded in liver, meat, fish,
marrow as they NORMALLY would in response to ane- eggs, and dairy products. The recommended daily
mic stress. Consequently, the reticulocyte count is inap- allowance of vitamin B12 is 2.0 μg/day with the daily
propriately low. The peripheral smear does not show diet providing approximately 5 to 30 μg/day and stor-
polychromasia or nucleated red cells, and bilirubin and age of 1 to 2 mg, in the liver. Dietary requirements will
LDH are elevated. The last two clinical developments increase during pregnancy and lactation. Depletion of
signal intramedullary hemolysis. If the erythropoiesis vitamin B12 stores takes years to develop. Folic acid, on
was effective and the bone marrow was responding to the other hand, is readily available in green leafy vegeta-
anemic stress, the peripheral smear would show evi- bles, fruit, broccoli, and dairy products. The minimum
dence of a regenerative marrow process. Polychromasia daily requirement is 200 μg/day, a much higher require-
and the presence of nucleated red cells would be self- ment than that of vitamin B12, with body stores of 5 to
evident (Table 6.2). 10 mg. in the liver. Folic acid is quickly depleted in a
matter of months because the daily requirement is so
much higher (Table 6.3). Pregnant women are encour-
Table 6.2 ¢ Bone Marrow Response

to Anemic Stress
• The production of red cell precursor cells is acceler- Table 6.3 ¢ Sources of Vitamin B12
ated. and Folic Acid
• The M:E ratio is adjusted to reflect erythroid
hyperplasia. Vitamin B12
• Precursor cells, orthochromic normoblasts, are pre- • Meat, liver, kidney, oysters, clams, fish
maturely released from the marrow. • Eggs, cheese, and other dairy products
• Reticulocytes are prematurely released from the Folic Acid
marrow. • Green leafy vegetables
• Polychromasia is seen in the peripheral smear. • Broccoli
• nRBCs are present in the peripheral smear. • Fruit
• If the reticulocyte count is high, then a slight macro- • Whole grains
cytosis might develop. • Dairy products
aged to increase their folic acid intake because inside the tissues, the methyl group is released to com-
decreased folate may lead to neural tube defects. bine with homocysteine, an early precursor to DNA
synthesis. Homocysteine is converted to methionine, an
INCORPORATING VITAMIN B12 amino acid. If folate or vitamin B12 metabolism is
INTO THE BONE MARROW flawed, homocysteine will accumulate and can poten-
tially lead to thrombosis,3 a potential consequence to
The incorporation of vitamin B12 into bone marrow and the hemostatic system that is just being realized.
other tissues is a multistep process. Initially, the vitamin
is taken in from the diet and separated from food by
hydrochloric acid, synthesized by gastric cells. Next B12 CLINICAL FEATURES OF PATIENTS
WITH MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA
is transported to the stomach and combines with intrin-
sic factor, a substance secreted by the parietal cells of the Megaloblastic anemia is usually a disease of middle-
stomach. Intrinsic factor and B12 form a complex that aged to older age with a high predilection for women.
proceeds to the ileum. Vitamin B12 is absorbed through Severe anemia, in which the hemoglobin drops to 7 to 8
the brush borders of the ileum, and intrinsic factor is g/dL, is accompanied by symptoms of anemias such as
neutralized. Once the vitamin leaves the ileum, it is car- shortness of breath, light-headedness, extreme weak-
ried across the stomach wall and into the plasma to ness, and pallor. Patients may experience glossitis (sore
form a complex with transcobalamin II (TCII), which or enlarged tongue), dyspepsia, or diarrhea. Evidence of
transports it to the circulation.2 From the circulation, neurological involvement may be seen with patients
vitamin B12 is transferred to the liver, the bone marrow, experiencing numbness, vibratory loss (paresthesias),
and other tissues (Fig. 6.3). difficulties in balance and walking, and personality
Moving folic acid into the circulation and tissues changes. Vitamin B12 deficiency causes a demyeliniza-
occurs with a little more ease. Once folic acid is ingested tion of the peripheral nerves, the spinal column, and the
and absorbed through the small intestine, it is reduced brain, which can cause many of the more severe neuro-
to methyl tetrahydrofolate through dihydrofolate logical symptoms such as spasticity or paranoia. Jaun-
reductase, an enzyme available in mucosal cells. It is the dice may be seen, because the average red cell life span
reduced form that is delivered to the tissues. Once in megaloblastic anemia is 75 days, a little more than
one half of the average red cell life span of 120 days. The
bilirubin level is elevated, and the lactate dehydrogenase
Stomach (LDH) level is high, signifying hemolysis.
lining
Ileum HEMATOLOGICAL FEATURES

OF MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIAS
Diet
B12 + IF B12 + IF The CBC shows a pancytopenia (low white count, low
red count, and low platelet count), although the platelet
count may be only borderline low (see normal values on
Plasma
the front cover of this textbook). Pancytopenia in the
Ileum CBC combined with macrocytosis should raise the
B12 IF index of suspicion toward a megaloblastic process
B12 because few other conditions (aplastic anemia, hyper-
TC II splenism) show this pattern.4 Red cell inclusions such
as basophilic stippling and Howell-Jolly bodies may be
observed. Howell-Jolly bodies formed from mega-
Liver loblastic erythropoiesis are larger and more fragmented
in appearance than normal Howell-Jolly bodies. There
B12 + TC II Bone marrow
is a low reticulocyte count (less than 1%) and the RDW
is increased, owing to schistocytes, targets, and
Other tissues
teardrop cells. The blood smear in megaloblastic ane-
mia is extremely relevant in the diagnosis and shows
Figure 6.3 Vitamin B12 absorption and transport. Vitamin macrocytes, macro-ovalocytes, hypersegmented multi-
B12 must be combined with intrinsic factor (IF) before it
enters the blood circulation: transcobalamin II (TC II) is the lobed neutrophils, and little polychromasia with
transport protein that carries vitamin B12 to the tissues. respect to the anemia (Fig. 6.4). The presence of hyper-
to intrinsic factor are present in 56% of patients with

pernicious anemia, with 90% of patients showing pari-
etal cell antibodies, and this suggests a strong autoim-
mune component to this disorder. Additionally, there is

a higher frequency of pernicious anemias in individuals
with diabetes, thyroid conditions, and other autoim-
mune processes.6 Pernicious anemia may occur geneti-
cally as an autosomal recessive trait in children before
the age of 2. Cubilin, a receptor for vitamin B12 and
intrinsic factor, has been identified since 1998, but its
role in juvenile-onset pernicious anemia is still being
researched.7 Adult forms of congenital pernicious ane-
mia do occur and are associated with achlorhydria or
Figure 6.4 Peripheral smear from a patient with mega-
malabsorption in relatives.
loblastic anemia. Note the hypersegmented neutrophils Pernicious anemia is more common in individuals
and the macro-ovalocytes. with Irish and Scandinavian ethnicity. Pernicious ane-
mia patients will experience all of the symptoms of a
segmented neutrophils (lobe count of more than five patient with megaloblastic anemia, but they have a
lobes) in combination with macrocytic anemia is a mor- higher tendency for neurological involvement includ-
phological marker for megaloblastic anemias. This ing those already mentioned as well as degeneration of
qualitative white cell abnormality appears early in the peripheral nerves and the spinal column. Neurological
disease and survives through treatment. It is usually the symptoms may be slow to develop but include a vast
last morphology to disappear. The MCV initially is array of symptomatology. Patients may experience
extremely high and may be in the range of 100 to 140 paresthesias in the limbs, an abnormal or clumsy walk-
fL. A bone marrow examination is not necessary for the ing pattern or stiffness in the limbs. Treatment will usu-
diagnosis of megaloblastic anemia, because the diagno- ally reverse these symptoms.
sis of this disorder can be adequately made without this
time-consuming, costly, and invasive procedure. VITAMIN B12 AND FOLIC
ACID DEFICIENCY
PERNICIOUS ANEMIA AS A SUBSET Dietary deficiencies are rarely the cause of vitamin B12
OF MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIAS
deficiency, except for individuals who are strictly vege-
Intrinsic factor is the single most important ingredient tarians or infants nursed by vegetarian mothers who are
to the absorption of vitamin B12 and subsequent deliv- not supplementing their diets. Other potential sources
ery of vitamin B12 to the circulation. When problems of a deficiency in vitamin B12 are the malabsorption syn-
with intrinsic factor develop, the condition is called dromes, which include any condition that affects B12
pernicious anemia. Drs. George Minot and William absorption. Lack of intrinsic factor may occur if a gas-
Murphy of Boston were awarded the Nobel Prize in trectomy or partial gastrectomy has occurred, and the
1934 for their discovery that ingestion of liver success- parietal cells that secrete IF would invariably be affected,
fully treated patients with pernicious anemia. Several thereby affecting vitamin B12 absorption. Added to this
factors may account for the lack of intrinsic factor in the is a condition called blind loop syndrome, in which
stomach, including physical factors such as partial or there is an overgrowth of bacteria in a small pocket of
whole gastrectomy, or genetic and immune factors. malformed intestine. The microorganisms take up the
Whatever the cause, either intrinsic factor is not being vitamin B12, and it is not available to be absorbed.
secreted or it is being blocked or neutralized in some Although unusual, the fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium
fashion. Atrophic gastritis may occur in which gastric latum may compete for vitamin B12 when it attaches to
secretions are diminished and therefore intrinsic factor the intestine. Individuals who have this parasite exhibit
fails to be secreted. The reasons for this remain unclear signs of megaloblastic anemia, which can be corrected
but age may play a role.5 Immune factors may arise that once the parasite is discovered and destroyed.
cause antibodies to be produced against intrinsic factor, Dietary deficiency is a serious consideration in
thyroid tissue, and parietal cells, all of which will folic acid deficiency and may occur in pregnancy or
decrease the production of intrinsic factor. Antibodies infancy because of increased requirement or in the
elderly or alcoholic persons because of lack of availabil- endocrine disorders. Intrinsic factor antibody evalua-
ity. Folic acid is depleted from body stores within 3 to 6 tions are cost effective, reliable, and highly specific for a
months, and in vulnerable populations, folic acid defi- diagnosis of pernicious anemia.9 There are two classifi-
ciency continues to be one of the most common vitamin cations of intrinsic antibody: blocking antibodies and
deficiencies in the United States. Tropical spue is one of binding antibodies. Blocking antibodies inhibit the
the most common malabsorption syndromes that con- binding of vitamin B12 to intrinsic factor, while binding
tributes to folic acid deficiency. This syndrome is usu- antibodies prevent the attachment of the intrinsic fac-
ally seen in individuals from tropical or subtropical tor–B12 complex to receptors in the small intestine.
climates like Haiti, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Although Radioimmunoassay testing can delineate the nature of
rare, this condition affects overall digestion and is the intrinsic factor antibody. The reference procedure
thought to be a result of infection, overgrowth of bacte- for the determination of pernicious anemia, however,
ria, or poor nutrition. Normally, the villi that line the continues to be the Schilling test, which measures the
digestive tract are fingerlike projections whose job is to intestinal absorption of vitamin B12. This test is per-
promote absorption from ingested food. The villi from formed in two parts, and although it is costly and labor
individuals with tropical sprue are flattened, leading to intensive, it provides valuable information on the cause
poor absorption activity. Individuals with sprue will of pernicious anemia. The procedure in part 1 is to give
manifest this disease with diarrhea, indigestion, and the patient an oral dose of vitamin B12 and then, within 2
weight loss. Last, folic acid deficiency may be expected hours, a flushing dose of vitamin B12 via intramuscular
in individuals taking methotrexate or other chemother- injection. The flushing dose saturates all of the liver B12
apy drugs, because many of these directly affect DNA binding sites. The urine is collected in a 24-hour period
synthesis of dividing cells, normal and abnormal. and the amount of vitamin B12 is measured. If intrinsic
factor was present and vitamin B12 was absorbed, then
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS 5% to 30% of the initial radiolabeled B12 will be
OF MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIAS excreted. If less than this amount is excreted, some type
of malabsorption has taken place. In part 2 of the test,
The megaloblastic anemias show striking similarities in intrinsic factor is added to the oral vitamin B12 dose and
their clinical and hematological presentations. Com- the test proceeds as in part 1, including the flushing dose
mon features of the megaloblastic anemias include of B12. If the excretion of B12 is in the proper amount,
• Pancytopenia then intrinsic factor is determined as the deficiency. If
• Increased MCV and MCHC the excretion of B12 is less than expected, then the
• Hypersegmented neutrophils (five lobes or patient is diagnosed with a malabsorption syndrome.
more in segmented neutrophils) Normal kidney function and conscientious urine collec-
• Increased bilirubin tion are essential for the correct interpretation of this
• Increased LDH test. Once the results are analyzed, the physician will
• Hyperplasia in the bone marrow have a clear picture as to whether the lack of vitamin
• Decreased M:E ratio B12 absorption is due to intrinsic factor deficiency or
• Reticulocytopenia malabsorption syndrome (Fig. 6.5).
The differential diagnosis of these disorders
depends on a more sophisticated battery of laboratory TREATMENT AND RESPONSE
tests that can help determine if the patient is lacking OF INDIVIDUALS WITH
vitamin B12, folic acid, or intrinsic factor. Several tests are MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA
used to distinguish between these possibilities; they Therapeutic vitamin B12 is available in the cyanoco-
include serum B12, folic acid, or red cell folate determi- balamin or hydroxycobalamin form. The vitamin can
nation by radioimmunoassay, gastric analysis to deter- be administered orally, intramuscularly, or subcuta-
mine achlorhydria or lack of hydrochloric acid in neously. If a patient is simply lacking in vitamin B12, this
the stomach, or tests to denote intrinsic factor or parietal vitamin can be taken orally at a daily dose of 1000 μg.
cell antibodies performed by enzyme-linked immu- Oral cyanocobalamin offers a substantial cost sav-
nosorbent assay (ELISA). Parietal cell antibodies are seen ings to the patients compared with intramuscular vita-
in 90% of individuals at the time of initial diagnosis,8 min B12 injections, which need to administered by a
although the presence of these antibodies is not specific health professional.10 Therapy is lifelong. For a patient
for a diagnosis of pernicious anemia, because parietal with pernicious anemia, about 6000 μg of vitamin B12
cell antibodies are seen in some individuals with over a 6-day period is used as an initial dose. At this
Co57
Co57 Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
IF
Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12
B12 B12
B12 B12
IF
Co57B12 Co57B12
B12 B12
Co57B12 Co57B12
Normal Malabsorption Syndrome IF deficiency Malabsorption Syndrome

(excretion of B12) or (excretion of B12 (nonexcretion of B12
IF Deficiency with IF added) with IF added)
(nonexcretion of B12)
Figure 6.5 Parts 1 and 2 of the Schilling test. See text for explanation.
dosage, all of the body stores are saturated. If the therapy range, the anemia is resolved, and some of the clinical
is successful, the patient’s symptoms will begin to dimin- symptoms abate. Dual therapy may be started in those
ish, and a rapid reticulocyte response will commence in individuals who have a combined deficiency; however,
2 to 3 days. Maintenance therapy of vitamin B12 will the folic acid will resolve the hematological abnormali-
need to be given every 1 to 2 months for life, and the ties long before the neurological abnormalities are
patient should be monitored by hematological assays. resolved.
Folic acid deficiency is fairly easy to treat with oral
folate at 1 to 5 mg/day for 2 to 3 weeks. Short-term ther-
apy is usually all that is required, and patients are coun- MACROCYTIC ANEMIAS THAT
seled to increase their dietary intake of folic acid.
ARE NOT MEGALOBLASTIC
Changes in the peripheral circulation will be noticed When macrocytes appear in the peripheral smear, it is
fairly quickly as the MCV comes back into the reference important to observe them carefully for shape, color, or
hypochromia, because these morphological clues can Differential Diagnosis of Macrocyte

aid in determining if the macrocytosis is megaloblastic
or nonmegaloblastic. Megaloblastic macrocytes are Seen in:
large and oval, with a thicker exterior membrane and - Folic acid deficiency
lacking hypochromia. Macrocytes in the peripheral - Vitamin B12 deficiency
- Pernicious anemia
smear that lack any of these characteristics are usually
not of megaloblastic origins. Several conditions can
contribute to a macrocytic blood picture without a defi- Oval macrocyte
ciency in vitamin B12 and folic acid. The most frequently
seen conditions are a compensatory bone marrow
Seen in:
response to hemolytic anemia, in which case a reticulo- - Alcoholism
cytosis will be seen. Because reticulocytes are polychro- - Hypothyroidism
matophilic macrocytes and because reticulocytes will - Liver disease
be prematurely delivered from the bone marrow in

response to hemolysis, it is easy to understand how a Round hypochromic
macrocyte
macrocytic blood picture would develop. Usually, in
these cases, the MCV is only slightly elevated, up to 105
fL. Macrocytosis may also be seen in conditions such as
Seen in:
hypothyroidism, chronic liver disease, alcoholism, -Neonate response to
chemotherapy treatment, or a myelodysplastic disor- anemic stress
der. Often, in patients with chronic liver disease and -Response to anemic stress
alcoholism, the macrocytes are targeted or hypochro- Blue-tinged
mic. Additionally, a macrocytic blood picture is noted in macrocyte
newborns because their bone marrow is immature and Figure 6.6 Not all macrocytes are the same. This drawing
rapidly delivering nucleated cells and reticulocytes. For depicts three types of macrocytes, each differentiated by
a differential diagnosis of macrocytes, see Figure 6.6. how they are produced with respect to the clinical condition.
CONDENSED CASE
The patient in this study is a 73-year-old woman who has anemia of long standing. She had always been a poor eater.
Peripheral smears have consistently shown hypochromia with target and many Howell-Jolly bodies. She has no surgi-
cal history and she shows no blood loss through either the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tract. Her lab results are
WBC of 2.7 ⫻ 109/L, RBC 2.25 ⫻ 1012/L, Hgb 7.8 g/dL, Hct 23%, and MCV 111 fL. Based on these findings, what is
your initial clinical impression?
Answer
This patient most likely has a megaloblastic anemia. Her age, dietary habits, and complete blood count can lead to
that impression. With her dietary history, she may have initially had an iron deficiency condition, and her peripheral
smear results seem to verify that. However, it seems as if her condition has shifted toward a vitamin B12 or folic acid
deficiency. Serum vitamin B12 and folic acid assays should be ordered, and a Schilling test may be considered to rule
in or rule out an intrinsic factor deficit.
Summary Points • Not all macrocytic anemias are megaloblastic.

• Macrocytic anemias have an MCV of greater than • Vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiencies lead to
100 fL and a normal MCHC. impaired DNA synthesis.
• Megaloblastic anemias are macrocytic anemias in • The bone marrow in megaloblastic anemias
which vitamin B12 and/or folic acid is deficient. is hypercellular with the red cell precursors
showing distinct chromatin and cytoplasmic • Intrinsic factor deficiency may develop because
changes. intrinsic factor is not being secreted or because it is
• Megaloblastic anemias show ineffective erythropoie- being blocked or neutralized.
sis in the bone marrow: premature destruction • Ninety percent of individuals experiencing perni-
of red cell precursors before delivery into the cious anemia have parietal cell antibodies.
circulation. • Folic acid deficiency is the most common vitamin
• The peripheral smear in megaloblastic anemia deficiency in the United States.
shows macrocytes, oval macrocytes, and hyperseg- • Serum B12, folic acid, and red cell folate can be
mented neutrophils. determined by radioimmunoassay.
• Pancytopenia and reticulocytopenia are prominent • Individuals with vitamin B12 deficiency will require
features of the megaloblastic processes. lifelong therapy.
• Patients with megaloblastic anemia may exhibit • Folic acid deficiency requires short-term therapy.
symptoms of anemia as well as neurological • The Schilling test is used to determine whether
symptoms, such as numbness or difficulty there is faulty absorption of vitamin B12. Deficiency
walking. is the result of intrinsic factor or malabsorption
• Intrinsic factor, secreted by the parietal cells of syndrome.
the stomach, is necessary for vitamin B12 to be • There are causes of a macrocytic anemia other than
absorbed. megaloblastic processes.
• Intrinsic factor deficiency can lead to pernicious • Macrocytes may be seen in reticulocytosis, alco-
anemia, a subset of megaloblastic anemia. holism, or liver disease.
CASE STUDY
Mrs. C., a 79-year-old woman, presented to the emergency department barely able to walk. She said that she had gotten
progressively weaker in the past couple of weeks and that she has noticed that her appetite was failing. She had seen
some yellow color to her eyes and skin, and that worried her. She had no desire to eat but she did crave ice. Mrs. C. was
thin, emaciated, and pale, and she had difficulty walking and seemed generally confused. A CBC and peripheral smear
were ordered, with more tests pending the initial results. The initial results are WBC of 4.5 ⫻ 106/L, RBC 2.12 ⫻ 109/L,
Hgb 7.5 g/dL, Hct 22%, MCV 103 fL, MCH 35.3 pg, MCHC 34.9, and platelet count 105 ⫻ 106/L. The peripheral smear
showed a mixture of microcytes and macrocytes, with target cells, schistocytes, few oval microcytes, rare hyperseg-
mented neutrophils, and occasional hypochromic macrocytes. Because of mixed blood picture, an iron profile was
ordered as well as serum folate and serum B12. Which conditions show hypersegmented neutrophils?
This case study presents a confusing morphological picture because no one red cell morphology leads to any single clini-
cal conclusion. The follow-up blood work showed serum iron of 25 μg/dL (reference range, 40 to 150), TIBC 500 μg/
dL (200 to 400), red cell folate 100 ng/mL (130 to 268), and serum B12 200 pg/dL (100 to 700). Clearly, there are multi-
ple nutritional deficiencies at work here. Mrs. C. is in a vulnerable age range, prone to poor dietary habits and noncom-
pliance to health or food suggestions. Yet as can be seen from her laboratory values, she is iron and folic acid deficient.
Folic acid deficiency is one of the most common vitamin deficiencies in the United States and easy to develop because
folic acid stores are moderate and the folic acid daily requirement is high. Add to this her iron deficiency, and you have a
set of symptoms and a blood smear picture that represents a mixture of morphologies. She clearly showed a pancytope-
nia, but she did not show the blatantly elevated MCV. Her elevated MCH could have been a clue to the megaloblastic
process because in the megaloblastic anemias, the MCV and MCH are usually high. Her peripheral smear shows micro-
cytes and macrocytes, with a few target cells and an occasional hypersegmented neutrophil. She was immediately started
on oral iron and oral B12 supplementation, and her physical symptoms began to diminish. Once her mental capacity was
cleared, she began nutritional counseling, and she began to receive visits from Meals on Wheels, to ensure that she had a
balanced and varied diet.
Review Questions
1. Which bone marrow changes are most prominent a. Pallor and dyspnea
in the megaloblastic anemias? b. Jaundice and hemoglobinuria
a. M:E ratio of 10: 1 c. Difficulty in walking and mental confusion
b. Hypocellular bone marrow d. Pica and fatigue
c. Asynchrony in the red cell precursors
5. Which one of the following substances is necessary
d. Shaggy cytoplasm of the red cell precursors
for vitamin B12 to be absorbed?
2. Which morphological changes in the peripheral a. Transferrin
smear are markers for megaloblastic anemias? b. Erythropoietin
a. Oval macrocytes and hypersegmented neu- c. Intrinsic factor
trophils d. Cubilin
b. Oval and hypochromic macrocytes
6. Which of the following clinical findings is indica-
c. Pappenheimer bodies and hypochromic micro-
tive of intramedullary hemolysis in megaloblastic
cytes
processes?
d. Dimorphic red cells and Howell-Jolly bodies
a. Increased red count
3. Which is the most common vitamin deficiency in b. Increased hemoglobin
the United States? c. Decreased bilirubin
a. Vitamin A d. Increased LDH
b. Folic acid
7. Which of the following adequately describes the
c. Calcium
pathophysiology of the megaloblastic anemias?
d. Vitamin B12
a. Lack of DNA synthesis
4. Which of the following group of symptoms is b. Defect in globin synthesis
particular to patients with megaloblastic c. Defect in iron metabolism
anemia? d. Excessive iron loading
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Clinical Possibilities Should I Con- slightly increased MCV with round microcytes and per-
sider in a Patient With an Increased MCV? haps siderocytes. A thorough review of the patient his-
What Preanalytic Variables May Increase tory should give insights into the nature of the
the MCV? macrocytic anemia. An often forgotten but fairly con-
When a patient presents with a macrocytic blood pic- sistent reason for a slightly increased MCV is regenera-
ture, there are several clinical possibilities to consider. tive bone marrow. Patients who have inherited blood
The most obvious reason for an increased MCV is a disorders such as sickle cell anemia, thalassemia major,
patient with a megaloblastic process. Supporting labo- or other hemolytic processes are transfused on a regu-
ratory data for this possibility would include a pancy- lar basis as part of their disease management. Not only
topenia, a reticulocytopenia, increased LDH, and a do the transfused cells lend some size variation to their
peripheral smear with macro-ovalocytes, hyperseg- clinical process, but also the chronic anemia in these
mented neutrophils, and other poikilocytes. Follow-up patients leads to a premature release of reticulocytes,
testing should initially include an assessment of the which are immature cells that are larger than normal
vitamin B12 and folic acid levels, as well as testing for red cells. When reticulocytes are stained with Wright’s
intrinsic factor antibodies. stain, polychromatophilic macrocytes appear in the
A second patient population to consider when peripheral smear. In a peripheral smear with increased
assessing a macrocytic anemia would be those who polychromasia, a slightly macrocytic blood picture is
have liver disease, alcoholic cirrhosis, hypothyroidism, often seen. A simple assessment for the reticulocytes
or chemotherapy. These patients would NOT show a will show an increased value, which is contributory to
pancytopenia but would show a moderate anemia with the source of the increased MCV.
The MCV is a highly stable parameter, yet several flushed with anticoagulant. Another condition capable
preanalytic variables can alter the MCV. If a sample fails of raising the MCV is high glucose volume either as a
a delta check as a result of a rise in MCV, several consid- result of a diabetic episode or coma or as a result of
erations are in order. Sample contamination may blood drawn through the intravenous glucose infusion
increase the red cell size, especially if the sample is line. A quick check of the glucose level in the sample
drawn through an intravenous line or line that has been should reveal the source of the erratic MCV.
WORD KEY 3. Morrison HI, Schaubel D, Desmeules M, et al. Serum

folate and the risk of fatal coronary heart disease. JAMA
Achlorhydria • Lack of hydrochloric acid in the gastric 275:1893–1896, 1996.
contents 4. Ishtiaq O, Baqai HZ, Anwer F. Patterns of pancytopenia
in a general medical ward and a proposed diagnostic
Intramedullary hemolysis • Premature hemolysis of red approach. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabod 16:8–13, 2004.
cell precursors in the bone marrow 5. Carmel R. Cobalamin, the stomach and aging. Am J Clin
Myelin • Fatty substance around a nerve Nutr 66:750–759, 1997.
6. Taghizadeh M. Megaloblastic anemias. In: Harmening
Paranoia • Mental conditions characterized by systematic D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of
delusions Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002; 118.
7. Kozyraki R, Kristiansen M, Silahtaroglu A, et al. The
Spasticity • Involuntary muscular contractions
human intrinsic factor, vitamin B12 receptor, cubilin:
Paresthesias • Abnormal tingling or prickling sensation Molecular characterization and chromosomal mapping
of the gene to 10 p within the autosomal recessive
References megaloblastic anemia (MCA 1) region. Blood 91:
1. Doig K. Anemias caused by defect of DNA metabolism. 3593–3600, 1998.
In: Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and 8. Tejiani S. Pernicious anemia: Vitamin B12 to the rescue.
Applications, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, ADVANCE for Medical Laboratory Professionals 10:
2002; 229. 16–18, 1998.
2. Lotspeich-Steininger CA. Anemias of abnormal nuclear 9. Ingram CF, Fleming AF, Patel M, et al. The value of
development. In: Steine-Martin EA, Lotspeich-Steininger intrinsic factor antibody test in diagnosing pernicious
CA, Koepke CA, eds. Clinical Hematology: Principles, anemia. Cent Afr J Med 44:178–181, 1998.
Procedures and Correlations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: 10. Nyhols E, Turpin P, Swain D, et al. Oral vitamin B12 can
Lippincott, 1998; 156. change our practice. Postgrad Med J 79:218–220, 2003.

Normochromic Anemias:
7
Biochemical and Membrane
Disorders and Miscellaneous
Red Cell Disorders
Betty Ciesla
The Role of the Spleen in Red Cell Membrane Objectives

Disorders
Hereditary Spherocytosis 1. Review the functions of the spleen as they relate
The Genetics and Pathophysiology of Hereditary to red cell membrane integrity.
Spherocytosis
2. Identify the red cell membrane defect in heredi-
Clinical Presentation in Hereditary Spherocytosis tary spherocytosis.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Hereditary Spherocytosis
3. Describe the clinical findings and laboratory
Treatment and Management of Hereditary data in patients with hereditary spherocytosis.
Spherocytosis
4. Describe the relevant red cell morphology in
Hereditary Elliptocytosis patients with hereditary spherocytosis.
Common Hereditary Elliptocytosis
5. Describe the osmotic fragility test and its clini-
Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis cal usefulness.
Spherocytic Hereditary Elliptocytosis
6. Identify the red cell membrane defects in
Hereditary Pyropoikilocytosis hereditary stomatocytosis, hereditary elliptocy-
Hereditary Stomatocytosis and Hereditary tosis, and hereditary pyropoikilocytosis.
Xerocytosis 7. Compare and contrast the clinical and periph-
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase eral smear findings from hereditary stomacyto-
sis, hereditary elliptocytosis, and hereditary
Deficiency
pyropoikilocytosis.
The Genetics of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydroge-
nase Deficiency 8. Define the pathophysiology of the red cell bio-
chemical disorders.
Clinical Manifestations of Glucose-6-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase Deficiency 9. Describe the mutations and ethnic distinctions
Diagnosis of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase defi-
Deficiency ciency.
Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency 10. Describe Heinz bodies with respect to their
appearance in supravital and Wright stain.
Miscellaneous Red Cell Disorders
11. Define the defect in the rare membrane disor-
Aplastic Anemia ders of hereditary xerocytosis and Southeast
Fanconi’s Anemia Asian ovalocytosis.
Diamond-Blackfan Anemia 12. Discuss the characteristics of aplastic anemia,
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, parox-
Cold Agglutinin Syndrome ysmal cold hemoglobinuria, Fanconi’s anemia,
Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria and Diamond-Blackfan syndrome.
97
THE ROLE OF THE SPLEEN IN RED European origin, with an incidence of 1:5000.1 The
CELL MEMBRANE DISORDERS mode of inheritance in 75% of individuals is autosomal
The spleen plays a vital role in red cell health and dominant, while the other 25% have an autosomal
longevity. Because 5% of cardiac output per minute is recessive presentation. The defect in the disorder is a
filtered through the spleen, this organ has ample oppor- deficiency of the key membrane protein, spectrin, and,
tunity to survey red blood cells for imperfections. Only to a lesser degree, a deficiency of membrane protein
those red cells that are deemed “flawless” are conducted ankyrin (see Chapter 3) and the minor membrane pro-
through the rest of the red cell journey. The four func- teins band 3 and protein 4.2. The red cell membrane
tions of the spleen have been explained in Chapter 2, disorders have been clearly defined genetically, with five
but when considering red cell membrane defects, it is gene mutations implicated in HS: ANK1 (ankyrin),
the splenic filtration function that is the most relevant. SPTB (spectrin, beta chain), SLC4A1 (band 3), EPB42
As each red cell passes through the spleen, the cell is (protein 4.2), and SPTA1 (spectrin, alpha chain).2 Spec-
inspected for imperfections. Now imperfections may trin and ankyrin are part of the cytoskeletal matrix pro-
take many forms from inclusions to parasites to abnor- teins that supports the lipid bilayer of the red cell. These
mal hemoglobin products or an abnormal membrane. proteins are responsible for the elasticity and deforma-
Inclusions may be removed from the cell, leaving the bility of the red cell, crucial properties, because the
membrane intact and allowing the red cells to pass average red cell with a diameter of 6 to 8 μm must
through the rest of circulation unharmed. But if the red maneuver through circulatory spaces of much smaller
cell has abnormal hemoglobin (such as seen in thal- diameter. The normal red cell is capable of stretching
assemia) or abnormal membrane components, then red 117% of its surface volume (see Chapter 3) only if spec-
cell elasticity and deformability are harmed. Some trin and ankyrin are in the proper amount and fully
degree of hemolysis usually results. In the case of sphe- functioning. The red cell membrane in patients with HS
rocytes from hereditary spherocytosis, those red cells is stretchable, but it is less elastic and can only expand
are less elastic and therefore the exterior membrane of 3% before it ruptures.3 The spleen is a particularly caus-
the cell is shaved off, leaving a smaller, more compact tic environment for spherocytes, with its low pH, low
red cell structure, a spherocyte. A spherocyte represents ATP, and low glucose. Spherocytic red cells also exhibit
abnormal red cell morphology with a shortened life problems with membrane diffusion. The active passive
span and a low surface area to volume ratio (Fig. 7.1). transport system of normal red cells allows ions and
gasses to pass across the red cell membrane in a bal-
anced and harmonious fashion. As a result of the defec-
HEREDITARY SPHEROCYTOSIS tive membrane proteins, the active passive transport
The Genetics and Pathophysiology system is disrupted and spherocytes accumulate
of Hereditary Spherocytosis sodium at a higher rate than for normal red cells in the
Hereditary spherocytosis (HS) is a well-studied disor- splenic microenvironment. They are less able to tolerate
der and fairly common among individuals of northern changes in their osmotic environment before they swell
and lyse.4 Once an individual with HS has been
splenectomized, red cell survival is more normal, giving
fewer complications from chronic hemolysis. There is
no evidence of spherocytes in the bone marrow envi-
ronment indicating that this phenomenon occurs
strictly at the level of the peripheral circulation.
Clinical Presentation
in Hereditary Spherocytosis
Clinical presentations in HS are heterogeneous and
range from disorders of lifelong anemia to those with
subtle clinical and laboratory manifestations. Typically
the patient with HS will manifest with anemia, jaun-
dice, and splenomegaly. Splenomegaly of varying
Figure 7.1 Spherocyte. Note the density of the cell with degrees will be the most common presenting symptom,
respect to the other red cells in the background. followed by a moderate anemia and recurrent jaundice,
CHAPTER 7 • Normochromic Anemias: Biochemical and Membrane Disorders and Miscellaneous Red Cell Disorders 99
usually in younger children.5 Older individuals will Patients with HS will show a moderate anemia, and 50%
have a well-compensated hemolytic process with little will show an elevated MCHC of 36% or greater, a signif-
or no anemia. Compensated hemolytic processes indi- icant finding in the CBC. The MCV will be low normal
cate that the bone marrow production and destruction and RDW will be slightly elevated. Taken together, an
have reached equilibrium and that the peripheral indi- increased MCHC combined with an elevated RDW adds
cators of hemolysis may not be present. Reticulocytosis strong predictive value in screening for HS.7 Increased
will be a standard feature of individuals with HS as evi- bilirubin is a frequent finding, owing to continued
denced by polychromatophilic macrocytes on the hemolysis, and younger patients tend to form gallstones.
peripheral smear and reticulocyte counts ranging from Cholelithiasis, or the presences of gallstones, is a com-
3% to 10%.6 The peripheral smear will also show sphe- mon complication of patients with HS8 and occurs with
rocytes in most patients with HS; however, the number greatest frequency in adolescents and young adults.
of spherocytes varies considerably from field to field. Documentation of spherocytes on a peripheral
Spherocytes are a distinctive morphology and are recog- smear considerably raises the index of suspicion of a
nized as dense, small, round red cells lacking central hemolytic process. Spherocytes, however, result from
pallor. With careful observation, the trained eye should four mechanisms: HS (already discussed), autoimmune
be able to isolate and recognize spherocytes from the hemolytic anemia, thermal damage, or natural red cell
normal red cell population on the peripheral smear. death (Fig. 7.2). Spherocytes produced from an autoim-
Spherocyte Formation
Adapted From Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide Based on Proficiency Testing. Northfield, IL: College of American Pathologists, 1998, with permission.
Thermal Injury Spherocyte forms as

largest fragment re-seals
Microspherocyte
Intrinsic Abnormalities
Spherocyte forms as
surface area decreases
Hereditary
Deficiency of spectrin, Uncoupling of spherocytosis
ankyrin or band 3 lipid bilayer Microvesicle formation
and skeleton
leading to membrane loss
Immune Hemolysis Spherocyte forms from

fragmented membrane
Fc Microspherocyte
receptor
Antibodies
attach to
red cell
Antigen-antibody
complex, fragmenting
Fc receptor binds red cell membrane
to antibody
Figure 7.2 Three mechanisms of spherocyte formation.

mune process are the result of an antibody being 100 Hereditary spherocytes
attached to the red cell and then removed or sheared Normal
90 Thalassemia
as the coated red cell passes through the spleen. As
this occurs, the exterior membrane of the red cell is 80
sheared and a spherocyte produced. A more moderated
spherocyte-producing process is senescence, or natural 70
red cell death. As the cell ages, it progressively loses 60
% Hemolysis
membrane, leading to the production of spherocytes.
However, in the normal peripheral smear, spherocytes 50
are not seen because they are removed by the spleen 40
under normal circumstances of cell death.
30
Laboratory Diagnosis 20
of Hereditary Spherocytosis
10
The laboratory diagnosis of HS is relatively easy in an
individual with elevated MCHC, RDW, and the pres- 0
ence of spherocytes. Because most individuals have 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
mild or moderate disease and share a common clinical % NaCl
laboratory picture, additional laboratory testing is usu- Figure 7.3 Osmotic fragility curves. Normal patient’s plot
ally not necessary. The confirmatory tests, though, are is shown in the shaded area. The curve to the right shows a
labor intensive and usually not offered as part of a regu- decreased fragility as seen in patients with sickle cell anemia.
The curve to the left shows an increased fragility as seen in
lar laboratory menu of test items. The osmotic fragility patients with hereditary spherocytosis.
test, incubated and unincubated, is the test of choice to
confirm a diagnosis of HS. Red blood cells from patients
suspected of having HS are subjected to varying salt this disease. Removal of the spleen will diminish the
solutions ranging from isotonic saline (0.85% NaCl) to anemia by allowing the spherocytes to remain in the cir-
distilled water (0.0% NaCl). Under isotonic conditions, culation longer, thus reducing the need for blood trans-
normal red cells reach equilibrium and have little fusion, and in some cases minimizing gallbladder
hemolysis. As the solutions become more hypotonic disease. Splenectomy is a procedure that demands seri-
(less salt and more water), hemolysis occurs and is ous consideration before approval. Splenectomy in
observed at the initial appearance of hemolysis and after younger children poses serious risks to those child-
complete hemolysis. The level of complete hemolysis is ren by making them more vulnerable to infections
usually the only data reported on the patient sample. with encapsulated organisms. Prophylactic penicillin
Normal red cells initially hemolyze at 0.45% NaCl. Red should be offered postsurgery to this age group, or a par-
cells from patients with HS have a decreased surface to tial splenectomy surgical procedure should be consid-
volume ratio and an increased osmotic fragility. They ered. Partial splenectomy is known to reduce hemolysis
are less able to tolerate an influx of water and therefore while preserving important immune splenic function.9
lyse at 0.65% (Fig. 7.3). An increased osmotic fragility If symptoms return as a result of remaining splenic tis-
curve will be seen in conditions other than HS such as sue, a total splenectomy may be considered once the
autoimmune hemolytic anemia or any of the acquired patient has the appropriate management and support.
hemolytic processes. Conditions such as thalassemia
and iron deficiency anemia will show a reduced osmotic HEREDITARY ELLIPTOCYTOSIS
fragility (hemolysis at 0.20%) owing to the high num-
Hereditary elliptocytosis (HE) is a highly variable red
ber of target cells, a red cell morphology with a capacity
cell membrane disorder with many clinical subtypes. Its
to intake a high influx of water before hemolysis.
occurrence is 1:4000 in the population, affecting all
racial and ethnic groups.10 The inheritance is usually
Treatment and Management autosomal dominant. At the heart of this membrane
of Hereditary Spherocytosis defect is a disordered or deficient spectrin and proteins
It should come as no surprise that because the spleen is commonly associated with the alpha and beta spectrin
the offending organ in HS, splenectomy is often sug- regions. A decreased thermal stability occurs in each of
gested as a remedy for moderate to severe hemolysis in the clinical subtypes.
Elliptocytes are present to varying degrees in

each of the following subtypes, and their red cell Table 7.1 ¢ Variants of Common
deformability is affected with degrees of hemolysis. Four Hereditary Elliptocytosis
clinical subtypes are discussed: common HE, Southeast
Asian ovalocytosis, spherocytic HE, and hereditary • Silent carrier
pyropoikilocytosis. • Mild common HE, either chronic hemolysis or mod-
erate hemolysis
Common Hereditary Elliptocytosis • Common HE with severe infant pyropoikilocytosis
shows moderate hemolysis
The clinical variants under this subheading range from
those individuals who are silent carriers to those who
are transfusion dependent. Individuals with the silent
carrier state of HE are hematologically normal but are somal dominant disorder has a well-defined band 3
known to be related to individuals with HE and heredi- molecular defect (Fig. 7.5).
tary pyropoikilocytosis through family studies. Com-
mon HE has two clinical presentations. In mild Spherocytic Hereditary Elliptocytosis
common HE, 30% to 100%1 of the cells are elliptical This defect is a cross between HE and HS. The red cells
and most patients show no clinical symptoms (Fig. 7.4). of affected individuals will show more spherocytes and
Some patients may show slight hemolysis with ellipto- oval elliptocytes. This defect is common in individuals
cytes and fragmented cells. The more severe variant of with northern European ancestry and shows a mild
common HE, common HE with infantile pyropoikilo- hemolysis and red cells of increased osmotic fragility.
cytosis, shows fragmented and bizarre red cell shapes Gallbladder disease is a common feature, and splenec-
from birth with a moderate hemolytic component and tomy may be indicated if the hemoglobin drops
jaundice. As the patient ages, the disease converts to a quickly.
mild HE in presentation (Table 7.1).
Hereditary Pyropoikilocytosis
Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis This rare recessive disorder of the red cell membrane
A common red cell condition in many of the Melanesian affects African American individuals primarily. Two
and Malaysian populations, the red cells of this particu- mechanisms are at work in the red cells of HPP: a
lar subgroup are spoon-shaped and appear to have two reduced assembly of alpha and beta spectrin on the
bars across their center. Hemolysis may or may not be membrane and increased susceptibility of mutant spec-
present, and this shape may give mild protection trin to degrade.12 Hemoglobin values are extremely
against all species of malaria.11 The red cells with this low, less than 6.5 g/dL, and the red cell morphology is
disorder are strongly heat resistant and rigid and are incredibly bizarre with red cell budding, rare ellipto-
able to maintain their shape under temperatures that cytes, and spherocytes. What makes these defective red
cause normal red cells to crenate or burst. This auto- cells unique is their heat sensitivity. Normal red cells will
Figure 7.5 Photomicrograph of Southeastern Asian

Figure 7.4 Elliptocytes. Note these cells are pencil shaped. ovalocytosis.

Figure 7.6 Stomatocytes. Figure 7.7 Hereditary xerocytosis.
show crenation and hemolysis at 49ºC, but red cells Red cells are markedly dehydrated and show an irre-
from patients with HPP will fragment at 46ºC. Some versible potassium loss and formation of xerocytes, a
may even fragment at 37ºC, body temperature, with peculiar red cell morphology where the hemoglobin of
prolonged heating. Individuals with this disorder will red cells seems puddled at one end of the red cell. The
have severe hemolysis, poor growth, and facial abnor- etiology of this disorder is unknown.
malities due to the expanded bone marrow mass. The
MCV is extremely low with a range of 50 to75 fL.13 GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE
DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY
HEREDITARY STOMATOCYTOSIS There are a limited number of inherited disorders of red
AND HEREDITARY XEROCYTOSIS cells related to biochemical deficiencies. Glucose-6-
Hereditary stomatocytosis is a rare hemolytic disorder phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency represents
in which the red cells have an intrinsic defect related to a fascinating and far-reaching disorder that has at its core
sodium and potassium permeability. The defect, which a metabolic misstep. G6PD is the catalyst in the first
is autosomal dominant, is identified as a deficiency in stages of the oxidative portion of the red cell’s metabo-
the membrane protein, stomatin, thought to regulate lism and a key player is the phosphogluconate pathway,
ions across the red cell channel.14 Because of this trans- whose role it is to keep glutathione in the reduced state.
port lesion, the intracellular sodium content increases, Glutathione is the chief red cell antioxidant and serves to
leading to increased water content and a mild decrease protect the red cell from oxidant stress due to peroxide
in intracellular potassium. The red cell swells and take buildup and other compounds or drugs. The pathway to
on a morphology that appears as if the red cells have reduced glutathione is initiated when NADP (nicotin-
slits or bars in the center, as if the cell is “smiling.” amide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) is converted to
Peripheral smears show 10% to 30% stomatocytes NADPH by the action of G6PD, an essential enzyme in
(Fig. 7.6) with an elevated MCV and decreased MCHC. the hexose monophosphate shunt. Once this occurs,
Patients will show a mild, moderate, or marked anemia NADPH converts oxidized glutathione to reduced glu-
that can be corrected by splenectomy, a dangerous pro- tathione and the red cell is protected.
cedure in this disorder because many patients have
thrombotic complications.15 Stomatocytes may also be The Genetics of Glucose-6-Phosphate
seen in individuals with Rh null disease—those individ- Dehydrogenase Deficiency
uals who lack Rh antigens. These patients show a mod- G6PD deficiency is the most common human enzyme
erate anemia with a combination of spherocytes and deficiency in the world, present in over 400 million
stomatocytes. people.17 This is a staggering number of affected indi-
Hereditary xerocytosis (Fig. 7.7) is a rare autosomal viduals, yet this disease has an extraordinarily low pro-
dominant condition in which red cells have an increased file for reasons we will soon understand. G6PD was
surface-to-volume ratio, leading to moderate to severe discovered in America in 1950, when healthy black sol-
anemia, a decreased osmotic fragility, and high MCHC.16 diers developed hemolysis as a result of primaquine
antimalarial drugs. The populations most affected are in and if a diagnosis is made, it becomes part of their med-
West Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and other ical record. Affected individuals are then made aware of
Mediterranean ethnicities. G6PD is inherited as an X- a growing list of drugs that may cause hemolysis if
linked recessive disorder with mother-to-son transmis- injected or ingested. In a drug-induced process or an
sion. Women are conductors of the aberrant genes, and infection-induced hemolytic process, the patient expe-
if they pass this gene to their male children, the child riences nausea, abdominal pain, and rapidly decreasing
will inherit the disease. In heterozygous females, two hematocrit within a 24- to 48-hour period. The level of
populations of cells have been observed: a normal cell hemolysis is alarming as the hemoglobin and hemat-
population and a G6PD cell population. The expression ocrit drop quickly and the intravascular lysis manifests
of G6PD deficiency is highly variable among heterozy- as hemoglobinuria in which the urine has the color of
gotes and may at times cause disease. Homozygous Coca Cola, port wine, or strong tea.20 The LDH and
females will manifest the disease. The human purified reticulocytes are increased, while the anemia is nor-
G6PD gene has 531 amino acids and is located near the mochromic and normocytic with the bone marrow
genes for factor 8 and color blindness. Over 400 vari- showing erythroid hyperplasia. The peripheral smear
ants have been named, and many of the variants are shows marked polychromasia and a few bite cells. Bite
caused by amino acid substitutions.18 There are five cells (Fig. 7.8) are formed as Heinz bodies and are pitted
known genotypes: two are normal and three are abnor- from the red cells by the spleen. Heinz body inclusions
mal with varying amounts of hemolysis (Table 7.2). (Fig. 7.9) are large inclusions (0.2 to 3 μm) that are rigid,
G6PD-deficient individuals are also afforded protection distort the cell, and hang on the cell periphery (see
during malarial infections.19 For a Web-accessible data- Chapter 3). These inclusions are formed from dena-
base that details locus-specific mutations, see http:// tured or precipitated hemoglobin that occurs in the
www.bioinf.org.uk/g6pd/. G6PD-deficient individual on exposure to the oxidizing
agent, because the lack of the G6PD enzyme causes
Clinical Manifestations of Glucose- oxidative destruction of the red cell. Heinz bodies are
6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency not visible on Wright’s stain but may be seen when
blood cells are stained with supravital stains such as
Acute Hemolytic Anemia crystal violet. The formation of Heinz bodies may be
Four clinical conditions are associated with G6PD defi- induced experimentally with phenylhydrazine. As the
ciency: drug-induced acute hemolytic anemia, favism, inclusion-laden red cells pass through the spleen, the
neonatal jaundice, and congenital nonspherocytic ane- Heinz bodies are pitted from the cell surface and what
mia. Classically, individuals with G6PD are hematologi- remains are bite or helmet cells (Fig. 7.10). Heinz bodies
cally normal and totally unaware that they possess a and subsequently bite cells are a transitory finding in
variant G6PD genotype. For whatever reason, they G6PD-deficient individuals. The absence of this partic-
become exposed to a drug or have an infection and ular morphology cannot be used as a definitive argu-
develop a self-limited but frightening hemolytic ment against this diagnosis. Fortunately, for individuals
episode. Eventually, their G6PD status is investigated, who have a drug-induced hemolytic event, the hemato-
Table 7.2 ¢ Genotypes of G6PD
GdB⫹ Normal genotypes

GdA⫹ Normal genotype but mutated gene
GdA⫺ Abnormal genotype in 11% of American
black males
Gd Med Abnormal genotype seen in whites, those
of Mediterranean origin, Kurdish Jews
Gd Canton Abnormal genotype seen in Thailand,
Vietnam, other Asian populations
Figure 7.8 Bite cells.
Table 7.3 ¢ Modified List of Com-

pounds That May Cause

Hemolysis in G6PD-
Deficient Individuals
• Aspirin
• Phenacetin
• Chloroquine
• Chloramphenicol
• Sulfacetamide
• Naphthalene
• Vitamin K
Figure 7.9 Heinz bodies.
logical consequences are self-limiting; however, indi- who unknowingly transmitted fava bean metabolites in
viduals with G6PD variants must be cautioned about their milk. Fava beans, however, trigger hemolytic
their drugs or chemicals known to provoke a hemolytic episodes in only 25% of those deficient individuals.
episode in susceptible individuals (Table 7.3).
Neonatal Jaundice
Favism Neonatal jaundice (NNJ) related to G6PD deficiency
The second most severe clinical condition is favism. occurs within 2 to 3 days after birth. In contrast to
Favism is usually found in individuals of the G6PD hemolytic disease of the newborn, patients with neona-
Mediterranean or Canton type. Hours after ingesting tal jaundice show more jaundice than anemia. Early
young fava beans or broad beans, the individual usually recognition and management of the rising bilirubin are
becomes irritable and lethargic. Fever, nausea, and essential to prevent neurological complications (such as
abdominal pain follow, and within 48 hours gross kernicterus) in these infants. Data on infants from
hemoglobinuria may be noted. Heinz bodies may or Malaysia, the Mediterranean, Hong Kong, and Thailand
may not be observed. Patients present with a nor- have shown the incidence of NNJ to be quite frequent.
mochromic, normocytic process with polychromasia, Of note also is the increased sensitivity of these individ-
decreased haptoglobin, and increased bilirubin. There uals to vitamin K substitutes, triple dye used to treat
have been incidents of favism from individuals inhaling umbilical cords, and camphorated powder. These sub-
fava beans pollen or from babies nursed by a mother stances may cause a deterioration of the hematological
ciency Testing. Northfield, IL: College of American Pathologists, 1998, with permission.
Adapted From Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide Based on Profi-
Basement
membrane
of spleen
Splenic cord Splenic sinus
Red cell with Resealing of red cell

Heinz bodies membrane, leaving
bite out deformity
Red cell Undeformable
squeezes Heinz bodies
through torn away
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of bite cell formation.

state. Phototherapy (intense light therapy) and transfu- marked polychromasia and a few nRBCs. A fluorescent
sion support are used to treat affected infants. screening test is used followed by a specific assay for PK
activity.
Congenital Nonspherocytic Hemolytic Anemia
The final clinical condition is congenital nonspherocytic MISCELLANEOUS RED
hemolytic anemia (CNSHA). Patients who have this CELL DISORDERS
condition have a history of neonatal jaundice compli- Aplastic Anemia
cated by gallstones, enlarged spleen, or both and may be
investigated for jaundice or gallstones in their adult life. Aplastic anemia is one of a group of hypoproliferative
The anemia varies in severity from minimum to transfu- disorders in which there is cellular depletion and a
sion dependent. Splenectomy may be considered pro- reduced production of all blood cells, pancytopenia.
vided the appropriate management is in place, that is, Discovered in 1888 by Dr. Paul Ehrlich, this syndrome
prophylactic therapy and management. The clinical pic- is usually idiopathic but thought to be a result of two
ture suggests a chronic hemolysis that is mainly possible mechanisms: an antibody directed against an
extravascular with hyperbilirubinemia, decreased hap- antigen on stem cells or an immune mechanism that is
toglobin, and increased reticulocytes. at play, in which T lymphocytes suppress stem cell pro-
liferation.23 Several situations seem to predispose an
individual to an aplastic episode:
Diagnosis of Glucose-6-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase Deficiency a. Radiation
b. Chemotherapy or chemicals
The detection of G6PD deficiency in an individual is
c. Benzene either directly or indirectly and
complicated by the many genetic variants, the heterozy-
d. Viruses, especially Epstein-Barr and hepatitis
gosity of the disorder, and the fact that young red cells
B and C
show an increased enzyme level just by virtue of age.
Several technical considerations must be kept in mind Clinical characteristics of this syndrome include a
when determining a person’s enzyme status. Appropri- decreased marrow cellularity, pancytopenia, and reticu-
ate timing of the test is critical for accurate results. If locytopenia. Aplastic anemia is an insidious process,
G6PD deficiency is considered during an acute and the syndrome progresses in a slow but orderly fash-
hemolytic episode, reticulocytes will be pouring from ion with symptoms reflective of the depressed cellular
the bone marrow into the peripheral circulation. There- elements. When red cells significantly deplete, patients
fore, testing should be performed once the hemolytic will show fatigue, heart palpitations, and dyspnea. As
episode has resolved and the counts have returned to platelets deplete, ecchymosis and mucosal bleeds
normal. Enzyme assay of older red cells are recom- develop and white count depletion leads to infections.
mended. The entire picture, including clinical presenta- In many cases, the peripheral smear shows lymphocy-
tion, CBC, peripheral smear, and the enzyme status, tosis. Treatment for this normochromic normocytic
must be analyzed before a diagnosis is made. anemia includes transfusion support and steroids, with
a few patients recovering spontaneously.
Occasionally, stem cell transplantation is used to
PYRUVATE KINASE DEFICIENCY
treat severe aplastic anemia presentation.24
Pyruvate kinase deficiency (PK) is a rare enzyme disor-
der of the Embden-Meyerhof pathways. Red cells lack-
ing this enzyme are unable to generate adenosine Fanconi’s Anemia
triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) Characterized by Dr. Fanconi in 1927, Fanconi’s anemia
for red cell membrane function. The result is rigid, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder affecting physical
inflexible cells that are sequestered by the spleen characteristics as well as bone marrow development.
and hemolyzed. Both sexes are affected in this autoso- Over 400 cases have been reported worldwide, and
mal recessive disorder. There is a high incidence in there is a database, the International Fanconi Anemia
individuals of northern European origin and in the Registry, that provides current information concerning
close-knit Amish population of Mifflin County, Penn- this disorder. There are numerous chromosomal abnor-
sylvania.21 Patients show a moderate hemolysis with malities in this disorder, as well as defective DNA repair
hematocrits of between 18% and 36%,22 with little and many chromosomal breaks.25 The bone marrow
abnormal morphology on the peripheral smear, save for often shows a macrocytic process with thrombocyto-
penia and leukopenia, developing before red cell deple- binuria has been described by patients as having urine
tion. Hemoglobin F values are increased. The physical samples that range in color from strong tea to tar.
characteristics of a Fanconi’s anemia patient reveal short PNH patients have a variable presentation with an
stature, hyperpigmentation on the trunk and neck, unexpected onset in 30% of cases. Marrow failure is part
microcephaly, broad nose, and structural abnormalities of the clinical picture, yet its onset and its prevalence are
of the kidney.26 Life span is shortened with a mean sur- not yet fully appreciated.30 Patients may have a mild to
vival of 16 years, and these individuals have a tendency severe anemia. Most are pancytopenic with reticulocyte
toward the development of leukemia and other cancers. levels that are elevated but not appropriate with respect
Treatment is supportive as complications from aplasia to the level of anemia. Neutropenia is always present,
develop. The only curative therapy is a bone marrow but there is usually the absence of stainable iron due to
transplant. continued lysis. Many patients have a tendency toward
thrombosis, especially in unusual sites like the dermal
Diamond-Blackfan Anemia vessels, brain, liver, and abdomen.31 In these patients,
anticoagulant therapy may need to be considered,
Diamond-Blackfan anemia, discovered in 1938 by Dr. because thrombosis can account for considerable mor-
Diamond and Dr. Blackfan, shows dominant and reces- tality. Treatment for patients with PNH includes transfu-
sive inheritance patterns. This congenital hypoplastic sion support and, in selected younger patients, bone
disorder is usually diagnosed in early infancy; 80% of marrow transplant.32 Iron therapy may also be included
individuals are severely anemic by age 6 months.27 once the patient’s iron status has been assessed. A new
Several physical abnormalities have been observed, drug, eculixumab, blocks complement activity by bind-
including short stature, low birth weight, head and ing to C5 and thus preventing hemolysis. This new
facial abnormalities, and a tendency for children with monoclonal antibody treatment is well tolerated and has
Diamond-Blackfan anemia to look more like each other been effective in clinical trials in improving hemolysis
than family members. The bone marrow is usually lack- and relieving symptoms.33 Screening procedures usu-
ing in red cell precursors with a slightly decreased num- ally employed in the diagnosis of PNH are the sugar
ber of leukocytes. The average hemoglobin is 7 g/dL water test, the Ham’s test, and flow cytometry.
and hemoglobin F is increased. Treatment includes
steroids and transfusional support with careful atten-
tion to the possibility of hemosiderosis. Twenty-five The Sugar Water Test
percent of patients spontaneously recover.28 In the sugar water test, a 50% solution of the patient’s
washed EDTA red cells are mixed with ABO/Rh-
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria compatible serum and sugar solution is added. The
solutions are incubated for 30 minutes and then cen-
The rare hemolytic anemia paroxysmal nocturnal trifuged. The percent hemolysis is determined by spec-
hemoglobinuria (PNH) is notable because the increased trophotometer. Normal cells show less than 5%
susceptibility of the red cells to complement lysis is hemolysis and suspect cells will show between 10% and
directly related to a clonal membrane defect. Classically, 80% hemolysis.
red cells are destroyed while patients sleep because of
their increased sensitivity to complement lysis, and
upon arising the patient notices bloody urine or hemo- The Ham’s Test
globinuria. PNH occurs because of a somatic mutation The Ham’s test is used to confirm a diagnosis of PNH.
in the hematopoietic stem cells designated as phos- The patient’s serum is acidified using 0.2N HCl. A 50%
phatidylinositol glycan class A (PIGA). The X-linked solution of the patient’s cells is added to tubes contain-
mutation PIGA is essential for the synthesis of the glyco- ing the patient’s acidified serum, unacidified serum,
sylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins pres- and normal ABO-compatible serum. A normal red cell
ent in all cell lines. As a result of this mutation, nine cell control is run. Normal red cells will not hemolyze, but
surface proteins are missing from cells.29 Two proteins in cells from patients with PNH will hemolyze with
particular, CD55 decay accelerating factor and CD59 acidified serum from the patient and from normal ABO-
membrane inhibitor, offer protection to red cells against compatible serum (Fig. 7.11).
lysis by complement. Therefore, intravascular lysis is (Note: These tests are rarely performed in the labora-
a primary manifestation of red cells missing these tory, because so few individuals have PNH, but they are
proteins. The intensity of lysis in the form of hemoglo- simple and direct and yield some value.)
Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3
Normal serum Normal serum Patient serum

Patient cells Dilute acid Dilute acid
Patient cells Patient cells
Trace hemolysis 3+ Hemolysis 2+ Hemolysis
Tube 4 Tube 5 Tube 6 Tube 7
Figure 7.11 Ham’s test. Note varying degrees

Heat inactivated Normal serum Normal serum Heat inactivated
of hemolysis in tubes 1, 2, and 3. Hemolysis occurs serum Normal cells Dilute acid serum
in tubes containing patient cells, patient serum, Dilute acid Normal cells Dilute acid
and acidified serum. Hemolysis does not occur in Patient cells Normal cells
tubes with heat-inactivated serum and control
cells, because heat inactivates complement. No hemolysis No hemolysis No hemolysis No hemolysis
Flow Cytometry in the Diagnosis of PNH caused by an IgM autoantibody of wide thermal range.
Complement is fixed on the red cells during cold
Currently, flow cytometry procedures are available that
temperatures, 0⬚ to 5⬚C and then red cells agglutinate
can test white cells for the presence or absence of GPI-
and hemolyze as body temperature rises, 20⬚ to 25⬚.
linked proteins. White cells can be examined for reac-
Patients experience acrocyanosis or numbness and a
tivity to anti-CD48, CD55, and CD59, all of which are
bluish tone to the fingertips and toes and will experi-
anchored proteins.34 A new diagnostic procedure,
ence weakness, pallor, and weight loss. The lysis
FLAER (fluorescent-labeled aerolysin) has proved effec-
is intravascular with a positive direct antiglobulin
tive in detecting smaller populations of abnormal
test (with polyclonal antihuman globulin reagent or
leukocytes in PNH.35 This technique may prove useful
anti-C3d). Some hemoglobinuria may be present. If the
in determining PNH cell clones in individuals present-
antibody is strong, the CBC will need correcting because
ing with varying levels of bone marrow failure.
the antibody coats the red cells, causing agglutination
and falsely elevated red cell indices and hematocrit.
Cold Agglutinin Syndrome The sample should be warmed at 37⬚C for 15 to 30 min-
Cold agglutinin syndrome (CAS) is another of the rare utes and then recycled through the instrument for
hemolytic disorders that affect primarily individuals accurate results. After warming, all parameters should
over 50 years of age. Also known as cold hemagglutinin be accurate. Treatment is circumstantial, depending
disease (CHAD), the hemolysis in this disorder is on the level of hemolysis; many individuals change loca-
tion and opt for warmer climates to avoid hemolytic transfusion.33 The screening test for PCH is the Donath-
episodes altogether. Landsteiner test, which is rarely performed in the clini-
cal laboratory.
Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria
Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH) is a rare The Donath-Landsteiner Test
hemolytic anemia caused by anti-P, which attaches to The patient’s anticoagulated blood sample is split into
the red blood cells at lower temperature and then acti- two parts. The first aliquot is the control and should be
vates complement at warmer temperatures. Lysis occurs incubated at 37⬚C for 1 hour. The second aliquot is
at body temperature. The lysis is intravascular and placed at 4⬚C for 30 minutes and then incubated at
severe, with hemoglobinemia, hemoglobinuria, and 37⬚C for 30 minutes. Both aliquots should be cen-
increased bilirubin. The symptoms are similar to a trifuged and then observed for hemolysis. The control
hemolytic transfusion reaction with back pain, fever, should show no hemolysis. If the second aliquot shows
chills, and abdominal pain. Some patients may require hemolysis, that is evidence for PCH.
CONDENSED CASE
A 2-year-old African American boy was seen in the sick baby clinic with vomiting, fever, and red-colored urine staining
his diapers. His initial lab results showed hemoglobin of 5 g/dL and hematocrit of 15%. The most remarkable chem-
istry value was an LDH of 500 IU/L (reference range, 0 to 100 IU/L), which is extremely elevated. His peripheral smear
revealed polychromasia and occasional bite cells.
When the mother was questioned as to whether the baby had ingested anything out of the ordinary, she stated
that the baby has been chewing on mothballs in her closet. The baby was transported to the intensive care unit.
What is happening to the baby?
Answer
The baby is suffering from severe intravascular lysis as evidenced by the LDH value and the extremely low hemoglobin
and hematocrit. Most likely, the baby has G6PD deficiency brought on by chewing on naphthalene, the active ingredi-
ent of mothballs. Naphthalene is an oxidizing drug and in this case has put the baby’s red cells under oxidant stress.
Occasional bite cells in the smear suggest the formation of Heinz bodies and their subsequent removal by the spleen.
Summary Points • HE is a membrane disorder of spectrin showing

decreased thermal stability.
• The spleen plays a vital role in red cell health and
longevity. • There are several clinical variants of HE, including
• HS is an autosomal dominant disorder of several common HE, Southeast Asian ovalocytosis, and
membrane proteins, the key protein being spectrin. spherocytic HE.
• Spherocytes are less deformable and are more • Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis is a recessive mem-
osmotically fragile. brane disorder with a bizarre red cell morphology
that shows hemoglobin budding.
• Patients with hereditary spherocytes show
splenomegaly, jaundice, and increased tendency • Hereditary stomatocytosis is a membrane disorder in
for gallstone disease. which red cells have an intrinsic defect to sodium
• The osmotic fragility test is a labor intensive but and potassium permeability.
valuable test to assess red cell viability in different • G6PD deficiency is the most common enzyme defi-
hypotonic salt solutions. ciency in the world.
• G6PD is an X-linked recessive disorder with over • Fanconi’s anemia and Diamond-Blackfan syndromes
400 variants. are rare hypoproliferative disorders with congenital
• The drug- or infection-induced hemolysis in G6PD malformations.
is intravascular, brisk, and self-limiting. • PNH is a hemolytic anemia that is caused when
• Most individuals with G6PD deficiency are totally nine red cell surface proteins are absent and red
unaware of their hematological condition until they cells become increasingly sensitive to complement
are challenged by a drug that produces oxidant lysis.
stress. • CAS is a disease of the elderly and caused by an IgM
• Pyruvate kinase deficiency is a enzyme deficiency of autoantibody of wide thermal range.
the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. • Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria is an extremely
• Aplastic anemia is a hypoproliferative disorder in rare hemolytic disorder caused by anti-P of a wide
which there is cellular depletion and a reduced pro- thermal range.
duction of blood cells.
CASE STUDY
A 28-year-old man presents to the emergency department Insights to the Case Study
with a complaint of abdominal pain. He appeared quite ill This case is an example of a patient with G6PD deficiency.
with nausea, cold sweats, and tachycardia. He had taken He has suffered a violent hemolytic episode as a result of
aspirin when he started feeling sick. The patient appeared exposure to drugs—aspirin in this case. This previously
slightly jaundiced and upon further questioning admitted healthy individual has no idea that he has an abnormal
that his urine has been dark and discolored that day. The G6PD variant. He is very ill, and his red count, hemoglo-
preliminary impression was of acute appendicitis. bin, and hematocrit are extremely depressed. Notice that
Pertinent Hematology Results (refer to cover for his MCV is macrocytic and his MCH and RDW are also
normal values) elevated. The indirect bilirubin, SGOT, and LDH are
WBC 6.3 ⫻ 109/L each increased, and these serum chemistry elevations
RBC 1.00 ⫻ 1012/L are indicative of a hemolytic episode of monumental
Hgb 4.4 g/dL proportions.
Hct 12.6% The MCV is increased due to increased reticulocyto-
MCV 126 fL sis that manifests in the peripheral circulation as poly-
MCH 43.9 pg chromasia and nRBCs, as seen in this patient’s peripheral
MCHC 34.8% smear. A Heinz body preparation was performed by
The white cell differential was essentially normal; allowing equal volumes of EDTA blood to mix with crys-
however, the red cell morphology was abnormal, show- tal violet stain for 20 minutes. Several Heinz bodies were
ing basophilic stippling, slight polychromasia, moderate observed in this preparation. The hemolysis in G6PD defi-
teardrop cells, and occasional schistocytes and ovalo- ciency is primarily intravascular as noted by the hemoglo-
cytes. binuria and hemoglobinemia. However, because most
individuals have enlarged spleens, not all of the cell lysis is
Pertinent Chemistry Results of the intravascular type; some will be extravascular. Most
Direct bilirubin 0.7 mg/dL (0.0 to 0.4 mg/dL) individuals who have G6PD deficiency remain in a steady
Total bilirubin 7.9 mg/dL (0.1 to 1.4 mg/dL) state and are hematologically normal; they hemolyze only
Indirect bilirubin 7.2 mg/dL (0.1 to 0.8 mg/dL) when exposed to an oxidative drug. Fortunately, for these
SGOT 567 IU/L (0 to 100 IU/L) individuals, these events are self-limiting and, while trou-
LDH 2844 IU/L (0 to 100 IU/L) bling, their hematological status will return to normal.
Review Questions
1. Which of the following inclusions cannot be a. Elliptocytes with spherocytes intermixed in the
visualized by the Wright-stained peripheral peripheral smear
smear? b. Spherocytes with polychromasia and low MCV
a. Basophilic stippling c. Elliptocytes, spherocytes, and budding red cells
b. Hemoglobin H inclusion bodies d. Mostly elliptocytes with few other morphologies
c. Howell-Jolly bodies
5. Which red cell morphology is formed as a result
d. Heinz bodies
of Heinz bodies being pitted from the red cell?
2. Which of the following functions most affect sphe- a. Acanthocytes
rocytes as they travel through the circulation? b. Bite cells
a. They tend to form inclusion bodies. c. Burr cells
b. They are less deformable and more sensitive to d. Stomatocytes
the low glucose in the spleen.
6. Which of the following hemolytic disorders has
c. They tend to be sequestered in the spleen
red cells that are especially sensitive to lysis by
because of abnormal hemoglobin.
complement?
d. They form siderotic granules and cannot navi-
a. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
gate the circulation.
b. Fanconi’s anemia
3. Many individuals with hereditary spherocytosis are c. Aplastic anemia
prone to jaundice because of: d. Hereditary spherocytosis
a. EBV
7. In the osmotic fragility test, normal red cells
b. pathologic logical fractures
hemolyze at which level?
c. gallstone disease
a. 0.65%
d. skin pigmentation
b. 0.45%
4. Which of the following are characteristics of hered- c. 0.20%
itary pyropoikilocytosis? d. 0.30%
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Kinds of Clinical Situations Come to Mind During his 3-day stay, the patient’s red cell indices
When the MCHC Is Above 36.0%? began to fluctuate (MCH and MCHC) and his hemo-
A 72-year-old man was seen in the emergency depart- globin results showed variability. The CBC results on
ment for gastrointestinal bleeding and sepsis, and was day 3 were:
subsequently admitted. He had the usual emergency WBC 15.9 ⫻109/L
department tests ordered: chemistry panel, PT/aPTT,
RBC 2.80 ⫻ 1012/L
urinalysis, and CBC. His CBC showed:
Hgb 9.3 g/dL
WBC 10.8 ⫻ 109/L
Hct 23. 9%
RBC 3.58 ⫻ 1012/L
MCV 85.5 fL
Hgb 10.7 g/dL
MCH 33.4 pg
Hct 30.5%
MCHC 39.0%**
MCV 85.3 fL PLT 79 ⫻ 109/L
MCH 29.8 pg RDW 15.1%
MCHC 34.9% Several indices in the CBC were flagged (asterisks)
PLT 16 ⫻ 109/L and warranted further investigation. At first, when the
RDW 13.7% technologists noticed these increases, several scenarios
came to mind: 1) cold agglutinins, 2) lipemia, or 3) longer, cells settle away from the plasma and the tech-
spherocytes. The technologist followed standard oper- nologist can observe the plasma for the presence of
ating procedures (SOP) for an elevated MCHC. First, lipemia. The observations revealed a slight increase (or
the sample was warmed in a 37⬚C water bath for 30 cloudiness), but not true lipemia, which interferes with
minutes and then reanalyzed on the Coulter LH750. the MCHC. The final step was to look for spherocytes
The results remained unchanged. At times, cold agglu- on the peripheral smear. The smear was negative for
tinins require longer incubation in a water bath to cor- spherocytes. At this point the technologist could not
rect. This was not the case with this particular account or explain the MCHC, and reported the results
specimen, since it was incubated for 30 minutes longer. commenting under the MCHC: no hemolysis, no pres-
The MCHC refused to budge even after longer incuba- ence of cold agglutinins, and no spherocytes.
tion. When a sample is incubated for 30 minutes or
WORD KEY children and young adults with hereditary spherocyto-

sis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 25:952–954, 2003.
Antiglobulin test • Test used in immunohematology to 9. deBuys Roessingh AS, de Laguasie P, Rohrlich P, et al.
determine if a patient has made an alloantibody present in Follow up of partial splenectomy in children with
the serum or an antibody that is coating the red cells hereditary spherocytosis. J Pediatr Surg 37:1459–1463,
2002.
Cholelithiasis • Gallbladder disease 10. Gallagher PG, Forget BD, Lux SE. Disorders of the ery-
Crenation • Term used to describe the edges of red cells throcyte membrane. In: Nathan DG, Oski SH, eds.
that seem to have ridges Nathan and Oski’s Hematology of Infancy and Child-
hood, 5th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1998;
Ecchymosis • bruising 544–664.
Jaundice • Yellowish color usually seen in the mucous 11. Cattani JA, Gibson FD, Alperes MP, et al. Hereditary
membranes of the eyes and noticed as an overall skin color ovalocytosis and reduced susceptibility to malaria in
Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg
Prophylactic • Preventive 705–709, 1987.
12. Hanspal M, Hanspal JS, Sahr KE, et al. Molecular basis
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1. Lux SE, Becker PS. Disorders of the red cell membrane Blood 82:1652–1660, 1993.
skeleton: Hereditary spherocytosis and hereditary ellip- 13. Palek J. Hereditary elliptocytosis and related disorders.
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The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, 6th ed. New 14. Fricke B, Argent AC, Chetley MC, et al. The “stomatin”
York: McGraw-Hill, 1989; 2367. gene and protein in overhydrated hereditary stomatocy-
2. Iolascon A, Perrotta S, Stewart GW. Red blood cell tosis. Blood 102:2268–2277, 2003.
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2003. embolic disease after splenectomy for hereditary stoma-
3. Evans EA, Waugh R, et al. Elastic area compressibility tocytosis. Br J Hematol 93:303–310, 1996.
modules of red cell membrane. Biophys J 16:585, 1976. 16. Glader BE, Fortier N, et al. Congenital hemolytic ane-
4. Vives Corrons JL, Besson I. Red cell membrane Na+ mia associated with dehydrated erythrocytes and
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5. Panigrahi I, Rhadke SR, Agarwal A, et al. Clinical profile Chronic non-spherocytic hemolytic disorders associ-
of hereditary spherocytosis in North India. J Assoc Phys ated with glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase variants.
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6. Payne MS. Intracorpuscular on defects leading to 18. Beutler E. Red cell enzyme defects. Hematol Pathol
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Hematology: Clinical Principles and Applications, 19. Mehta A, Mason PJ, Vulliam TJ. Glucose 6 phosphate
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21. Valentine WN, Koyichi RT, Paglia DE. Pyruvate 29. Lawrence LW, Harmening DM, Green R. Hemolytic ane-
kinase and other enzyme deficiency disorders of mia: Extracorpuscular defects and acquired intracor-
the erythrocyte. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly puscular defects. In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical
WS, Valle D, eds, The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Hematology and Fundamentals of Thrombosis, 4th ed.
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1606–1628. 30. Young NS. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria: Cur-
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(Suppl 12):163–166, 2002. 32. Meyers G, Parker CJ. Management issues in paroxysmal
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8 The Normochromic
Anemias Caused by
Hemoglobinopathies
Betty Ciesla
General Description of the Hemoglo- Objectives

binopathies
Sickle Cell Anemia 1. Recall the general characteristics of the hemo-
Genetics and Incidence of Sickle Cell Anemia globinopathies.
Pathophysiology of the Sickling Process 2. Describe the pathophysiology of the sickle dis-
Clinical Considerations for Sickle Cell Anemia orders.
Disease Management and Prognosis 3. Identify the amino acid substitution in sickle
cell disorders.
Laboratory Diagnosis
4. Identify the amino acid substitution in hemo-
Sickle Cell Trait globin C disease.
Hemoglobin C Disease and Trait and 5. Describe the inheritance patterns of the sickle
Hemoglobin SC disorders.
6. List the clinical and laboratory features of sickle
Variant Hemoglobins of Note
cell anemia, sickle cell trait, hemoglobin C dis-
Hemoglobin S-beta thalassemia ease, hemoglobin C trait, and hemoglobin SC
Hemoglobin E disease.
Hemoglobin DPunjab/Hemoglobin G phila 7. Review the physiological conditions that most
Hemoglobin OArab typically affect individuals with sickle cell ane-
mia.
8. List conditions that may precipitate a sickle cell
crisis.
9. Recognize normal hemoglobin patterns on
hemoglobin electrophoresis at pH 8.6 and 6.2.
10. Recognize abnormal hemoglobin patterns on
electrophoresis at pH 8.6 and 6.2.
11. Describe the treatment protocol for patients
with sickle cell anemia.
12. Differentiate the clinical and laboratory features
of other abnormal hemoglobins such as hemo-
globin E, OArab, D, and Gphila.
13. List the key features of sickle hemoglobin in
combination with thalassemias.
14. Calculate the white blood cell correction for-
mula when nucleated red blood cells (nRBCs)
are noted in the peripheral smear.
15. Summarize the general principles of acid and
alkaline electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing.
113
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE 4. Extension of an amino acid chain (i.e., hemo-

HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES globin Constant Spring)
Disorders of the globin chain of the hemoglobin mole- Single amino acid substitutions in the beta chain
cule have stirred the curiosity of scientists and hematol- account for most of the hemoglobinopathies that pre-
ogists for generations. When Linus Pauling discovered sent with a hemolysis and clinical symptoms.
in 1949 that the altered hemoglobin migration pattern
of sickle cell patients was due to a change in globin, the SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
excitement among the scientific community was palpa- Genetics and Incidence
ble. Dr. Pauling won The Nobel Prize for his discovery. of Sickle Cell Anemia
Here was a description of the first molecular disease.
Because proteins form the basis of the globin chain, The genetics of sickle cell anemia are not complicated.
there must be some abnormality in the chain to account Sickle cell anemia is a beta chain variant and inheritance
for what was seen in the hemoglobin electrophoresis of of the beta chains is located on chromosome 11. Chro-
sickle cell anemia individuals. Ingram et al.1 discovered mosome 11 has one location on each chromosome for
the specific amino acid substitution located on the glo- the inheritance of a normal beta chain or an abnormal
bin chain (valine substituted for glutamic acid or gluta- beta chain; therefore, the sickle cell anemia is autoso-
mine) and the specific abnormal codon responsible for mal codominant, inherited in simple Mendelian fash-
this substitution has been characterized. In molecular ion (Fig. 8.1). At present, there are 80,000 Americans
terms, the nucleotide triplet guanine-adenine-guanine who have sickle cell disorders spread among 65% with
codes for the amino acid glutamine in the sixth position sickle cell disease, 24% with hemoglobin SC disease,
of the normal beta chain. In sickle cell patients, adenine and 10% with sickle cell beta thalassemia.4 Individuals
is replaced by thymine coding for the amino acid valine. born with sickle cell trait were not included in the per-
When valine is substituted for glutamine, an abnormal centages. African American babies born with sickle cell
hemoglobin, hemoglobin S, is produced. Presently over disease occur with a frequency of 1:375. The sickle gene
600 hemoglobin variants exist worldwide and most are is especially prominent in African populations near
beta chain disorders.2 To appreciate the magnitude of areas endemic for malaria including Central and West
this statement, a brief review of the hemoglobin mole- Africa, some parts of the Mediterranean, Asia, and
cule is in order. All normal adult hemoglobins consist of India. The sickle gene is seen frequently in African
two alpha chains, which have 141 amino acids in American populations and with increasing frequency in
sequence, complemented by two non-alpha chains: nonblack populations.5 The presentation of symptoms
beta, gamma, or delta. The non-alpha globin chains in individuals with sickle cell anemia is highly variable,
have 146 amino acids with amino acids linked together a direct result of the different haplotypes of hemoglobin
in sequence. Hemoglobinopathies occur as a result of S that are inherited. Each haplotype differs from the
one of four abnormal functions3: other by possessing different sequences of some
nucleotides in the DNA strands, but they are all located
1. A single amino acid substitution in one of the in the same gene cluster. There are four primary haplo-
chains, usually the beta chain (i.e., sickle cell types of the sickle beta gene: Asian, Senegal, Benin, and
trait or disease) Bantu.6 Haplotypes may be inherited homzygouosly or
2. Abnormal synthesis of one of the amino acid heterozygously. Each of these haplotypes differs in
chains (i.e., thalassemia) the amount of hemoglobin F the red cell possesses.
3. Fusion of hemoglobin chains (i.e., hemoglobin Higher hemoglobin F concentrations mean a less severe
Lepore). clinical presentation. The Asian haplotype is seen in
A S A S S S
A AA AS A AA AS A AS AS
Figure 8.1 Mendelian genetics by
Punnett square. Three scenarios are
presented; AA ⫻ AS, AS ⫻ AS, and
A AA AS S AS SS A AS AS AA ⫻ SS. Note the percentage of trait
individuals (AS) as opposed to those
affected individuals (SS).
CHAPTER 8 • The Normochromic Anemias Caused by Hemoglobinopathies 115
a pointed projection. These misshapen and inflexible

Table 8.1 ¢ Haplotypes of the Sickle red cells obstruct small vessels and adhere to vascular
Cell Gene endothelium, increasing the viscosity of the blood as cir-
culation is slowed. Less oxygen is available to the tissues,
Haplotype Location the pH of the blood drops, and this combination of
Asian Saudi Arabia, Asia
events quickly escalates the sickling process. Sickling is
also induced by hypoxia, acidosis, dehydration, fever,
Senegal West Africa Coast
and exposure to cold. Once red cells exit the spleen, they
Benin West Africa, Mediterranean may return to the oxygenated environment of the lung
Bantu Central South Africa and may be able to revert to the discoid shape or wheat
Senegal/Bantu have Benin is the haplotype from shape (RSC). But for many hemoglobin S red cells,
Hgb F levels between the most seriously affected repeated sickling terminates their life span and they are
5% and 20%/Benin patients trapped in the splenic graveyard. The extent to which a
⬍10%/Asian ⬎20% red cell will sickle depends on the amount of hemoglo-
bin S, the amount of hemoglobin F, and the physiologi-
cal conditions present that may advance sickling.
Saudi Arabia and Asia; the Senegal haplotype, the west
African coast; the Benin haplotype, West Africa; and the Clinical Considerations
Mediterranean and Bantu haplotype, Central and South for Sickle Cell Anemia
Africa (Table 8.1). Levels of hemoglobin F greater than Patients with sickle cell anemia are usually diagnosed
10% serve to lessen the clinical severity for sickle cell through neonatal screening programs or between 6
anemia patients.7 months and 2 years of age. Prior to this time, red cells
are protected from sickling with high levels of hemoglo-
Pathophysiology of the Sickling Process bin F, because the switch from the production of hemo-
globin F to hemoglobin A occurs between 3 and 6
The beta chain has a carefully sequenced group of amino
months of age. Young children will manifest with symp-
acids with glutamine or glutamic acid in the sixth posi-
toms of chronic hemolytic anemia, failure to thrive,
tion from the terminal end. If a person inherits the sickle
infection, or dactylitis, painful swelling of hands and
gene, then valine is substituted for glutamic acid in the
feet by sickled cells in the microcirculation. Basic clini-
sixth position of the beta chain and the abnormal hemo-
cal considerations for sickle cell patients fall under five
globin S is present in the person’s red cells. Homozygous
categories:
inheritance results in sickle cell disease, with most of the
hemoglobin being hemoglobin S. Heterozygous inheri- • Chronic hemolytic anemia
tance results in sickle cell trait, in which hemoglobin S • Recurrent painful attacks
and hemoglobin A are present. The inheritance of one • Bacterial infections
single abnormal amino acid means that the individual • Deterioration of tissue and organ function
inherits hemoglobin S (␣2␤26glu→val) and sets in motion a • Shortened life expectancy
myriad of events that alter the patient’s quality of life and Taken together, these conditions represent a com-
life span. Lives change when sickle cell disease is pres- plicated set of guideposts for medical management of a
ent, and the changes are dramatic and at times over- patient with sickle cell disease. Primary care physicians
whelming. As we have already determined, it is essential who treat sickle cell patients must be familiar with these
for the hemoglobin in the red cells to remain soluble and particular complications. Each patient will have a
pliable as the red cell passes through the oxygenated and unique presentation of their sickle state. Some will have
deoxygenated rigors of circulation. Red cells possessing a lifetime of complications and hospitalizations, and
hemoglobin S as the majority hemoglobin are insoluble others will not be affected until later in life. Neverthe-
or rigid in areas of low oxygen concentration like the less, possessing hemoglobin S homozygously is not to
spleen, liver, kidneys, joints, and extremities. Instead of be ignored or trivialized.
having a fluid hemoglobin content, hemoglobin S forms
liquid tactoids or polymers of hemoglobin that appear as
The Anemia
long, thin bundles of fibers under electron microscopy.8
Because of this, affected red cells become rigid and Most patients with sickle cell anemia have a chronic
inflexible and form an irreversibly sickled cell (ISC) with hemolytic process, characterized by a hypercellular
bone marrow, red cells that live only 10 to 20 days,9 a time these may lead to impaired pulmonary function
marked reticulocytosis (8% to 12%), increased biliru- and pulmonary hypertension in 20% to 40% of
bin, and cholelithiasis. The anemia is usually compen- patients, which carries a high risk of death.13 Children
sated with hematocrits in the range of 20% to 25%, and with sickle cell anemia are 100 times more susceptible
patients do well even with these low numbers. Compli- to pneumonia than are other members of the pediatric
cations occur in the form of aplastic anemia or splenic population.14 Acute chest syndrome is characterized by
sequestration crisis. Acute aplastic anemia may develop fever, chest pain, hypoxia, and pulmonary infiltrates.
as a result of infection, usually parvovirus, when the These patients are critically ill with an average hospital-
already overworked bone marrow simply fails to pro- ization of 10 days. Older patients tend to have a more
duce cells. The hematocrit may fall by 10% to 15% per severe course of disease. Multiple causes are suggested,
day.10 Transfusion is essential because there is no including pneumonia and other infectious agents and
backup therapy for bone marrow aplasia and death may possible fat embolism, although pulmonary infarction
occur without transfusion intervention. underlies each of these possibilities. Acute chest syn-
drome represents the leading cause of death and hospi-
The Spleen talization in patients with sickle cell disease and should
be considered in any sickle individual who is admitted
This organ bears the burden of the sickle process. Many for pain.15
patients will have an initial splenomegaly, but by 5 to 6
years of age,11 this organ drastically changes. Functional
Vaso-occlusive Episodes and Complications
asplenia occurs within the first 2 years as the spleen
loses its ability to clear abnormalities from red cells. Painful crisis is the trademark of patients with sickle cell
Howell-Jolly bodies and other inclusions are evident in disease. In African cultures, the descriptive words asso-
the peripheral smear, and there is increased incidence of ciated with this condition translate as “body biting” or
severe infections, due to the weakened immune func- “body chewing.”16 Tissue infarctions and sickling in
tion of the spleen. Repeated infarctions and congestion small vessels produce several painful target points.
of the spleen will lead to autosplenectomy, producing a Patients do not experience crisis episodes on a daily
fibrosed and shriveled organ. This scarred organ is dys- basis; for the most part they are able to live reasonably
functional, lacking the basic and most important normal lives. Yet, several features may predispose to a
splenic functions. Two consequences may develop: crisis event including fever, dehydration, cold, and
overwhelming sepsis and splenic sequestration. In an stress. When a crisis occurs, the pain is described as
historical study performed in 1986, the incidence of gnawing, throbbing, and overwhelming with few
infection dropped 85% with the use of oral penicillin moments of relief. If the crisis is centered in the bones,
compared with a placebo study in patients of the same patients experience tenderness, warmth, and swelling
age range.12 Streptococcus pneumoniae infections are and some bone necrosis. Infarctions at the joint level
especially grave in this age group, yet other encapsu- lead to swelling, pain, and loss of mobility. What may
lated organisms, such as Haemophilus influenzae and also result from joint infarction and poor circulation in
Neisseria meningitidis, pose serious hazards. Acute the limbs are large, pitting ulcers that are slow to heal
splenic sequestration is most often a complication of and difficult to treat. The pain of sickle cell crisis is
young children. The onset is sudden, as large volumes intense and unrelenting and only temporarily relieved
of blood pool in the spleen. Distention of the abdomen by analgesics. Clinicians may need to reevaluate the
and hypovolemic shock occur because of the rapid protocols and analgesics necessary for pain manage-
pooling. Recovery is not guaranteed as often the condi- ment in the child and adult sickle population, with a
tion goes unrecognized and treatment is delayed. goal of providing some relief and comfort.17
The Lungs Priapism, Retinopathy, and Stroke

Sickling can occur in any organ of the body, yet the Priapism, an unfortunate complication of vaso-occlu-
lungs are particularly susceptible to occlusions in sion, is the persistent painful erection of the penis that
the microenvironment of the pulmonary space. During usually occurs around 15 years of age, the age of
the course of disease, patients may experience clinical puberty. The condition may persist for hours, days, or
lung conditions that are chronic or acute. Often, minute even weeks with analgesics and sedation as the main
pulmonary infarctions may go undetected, but over course of treatment. Repeated episodes may resolutely
alter sexual activity or the desire for sexual activity and Management of patients with sickle cell anemia
lead to erectile dysfunction. There is a high incidence of revolves around prevention of complications and
priapism in males with sickle cell anemia, 35%, yet this aggressive treatment if they occur. For children, pro-
complication needs additional attention in the overall phylactic antibiotics and pneumococcal vaccines are
management of this disease.18 encouraged, as well as stroke prevention techniques
Retinopathy refers to the ophthalmological com- already outlined. Patients may need transfusions every
plications that sickle patients experience resulting from 3 to 5 weeks to maintain a hemoglobin of 9 to 11 g/dL
sickling lesions and stasis of small blood vessels during and a hemoglobin S concentration of less than 50%,4
the course of their disease. These may begin at 10 years optimum standards to avoid complications. While a
of age and can include retinal detachment, retinal worthy goal, this treatment may lead to iron overload
lesions, and possibly blindness.19 Eye assessments need and the development of alloantibodies that could make
to be conducted regularly for sickle cell patients, so that future transfusions difficult. Both of these occurrences
appropriate treatment can be initiated and imple- need to be carefully monitored by laboratory screening.
mented. Serum ferritin levels and antibody screening should be
Strokes are an infrequent complication of sickle done routinely on this patient group. Perhaps one of the
cell anemia, affecting only 7% of children, yet they may most auspicious developments for sickle cell patients
yield serious and unpredictable setbacks to this patient was use of the drug hydroxyurea. Hydroxyurea
group. Young patients who experience a stroke may increases the level of hemoglobin F in sickle cells,
have some degree of paralysis, coma, or seizure.20 Pre- thereby reducing vaso-occlusive episodes and dramati-
ventive measures include identifying children at risk cally improving clinical outlooks in this patient group.
through transcranial Doppler imaging, which may dis- First proposed by Samuel Charache in 1995, hydrox-
close the narrowing of arteries causing a blockage and yurea was found to be successful in reducing crisis
hypoxia to the brain.21 An additional strategy is to intervals and acute chest syndrome at a reasonable drug
maintain hemoglobin S levels close to 30% through dose and with few reversible side effects.24 This was a
transfusion therapy. This method has been shown to major breakthrough for this needy patient group and
reduce the recurrence of strokes or prevention of first- the multicenter clinical study was halted earlier than
time events from 80% to 10%.22 usual to offer this promising drug to more patients. At
long last, sickle cell patients had a reason to be opti-
mistic about their future. An additional, albeit more
Disease Management and Prognosis complex treatment is bone marrow transplantation
Although sickle cell anemia was first described by Dr. from a well sibling or allogeneic match. Limited studies
Herrick in 1910, interest in sickle cell disease was slug- have suggested this as a viable alternative, but the pro-
gish and progress for patients with sickle cell anemia cedure itself has considerable risks.
was tentative at best. Two events have signaled a signifi- Patients with sickle cell anemia have considerable
cant advance in the disease profile: the passage of the needs on multiple levels. For this reason, a thoughtful
national Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act of 1972 and the management plan should be developed and attended to
establishment of the Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell so that this patient group may maximize their quality of
Disease (CSSCD) in 1979 under the auspices of the life. Table 8.2 is presented as a table of interest for the
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The study reader. Additional help and advocacy can be obtained
aims to provide a central database to analyze treatment from the Sickle Cell Disease Association of America
trends, social issues faced by patients, and disease data. (www.sicklecelldisease.org) located in Baltimore, Mary-
Several key issues have been gleaned from 16 years land.
of data23:
1. Hospital visits are not the norm and are used Laboratory Diagnosis
only for crisis emergencies. Patients with sickle cell anemia will have a lifelong nor-
2. From 5% to 10% of patients account for 40% mochromic, normocytic anemia with decreased hemo-
to 50% of hospital visits. globin (between 6 and 8 g/dL), hematocrit, and red cell
3. The average age of death for men was 42 years, count. The reticulocyte count is always elevated leading
and women, 48 years. to a slightly increased MCV in many cases. Bilirubin
4. Longer-lived patients had a higher level of and LDH are increased, while haptoglobin is decreased,
hemoglobin F. indicating extravascular hemolysis. During crisis
Table 8.2 ¢ Clinical Management

Scheme for the Sickle

Cell Patient
Set 1: 0 to 5 years monitor for
• Penicillin prophylaxis
• Splenic sequestration
• Fever or infection
• Stroke
• Pain
• Dental care
• Complete blood count
• Red cell antigen typing
• Pneumococcal vaccine Figure 8.2 Irreversibly sickled cells. Note one pointed
Set 2: 5 to 10 years monitor for projection.
• Pain
• Dental care management. Most newborn blood samples are
• Add urinalysis and liver function test to lab obtained by heel stick and the blood is applied onto
• Pulmonary function dried filter paper ready to be processed for analysis, but
• Chest radiograph cord blood samples are also acceptable. The samples are
• Ultrasound then analyzed by hemoglobin electrophoresis at either
• Ophthalmologic examination alkaline or acid pH or both, isoelectric focusing, or
Set 3: 10 years and beyond
high-performance liquid chromatography. If elec-
• Include all from Set 2
• Family planning/self-help groups
trophoretic techniques are used, two bands, hemoglo-
• Leg ulcers bin F and hemoglobin S, will be seen in patients with
sickle cell anemia because hemoglobin F is predomi-
nant in neonates. The healthy neonate will show two
bands at hemoglobin A and hemoglobin F, while the
episodes, the peripheral smear will show marked poly- individual with sickle cell trait will show three bands:
chromasia, many nRBCs, target cells, and the presence one at F, one at A, and one at S. Table 8.3 shows the rel-
of irreversible and reversible sickle cells (Fig. 8.2). ative concentration of hemoglobins A and F at different
Peripheral smears from sickle cell patients not in crisis ages. Challenges in neonatal screening involve identify-
show minimal changes, a few oat-shaped reversible ing unexpected bands as well as small amounts of
sickle cells, and some polychromasia (Fig. 8.3). White hemoglobin A or S.25
cell counts may need to be corrected for nRBCs by
applying the correction formula if automated instru-
mentation lacks this correction function (Fig. 8.4).
First-level screening procedures for adults include
the dithionite solubility, a solubility test based on
the principle that hemoglobin S precipitates in high-
molarity buffered phosphate solutions. The amount of

hemoglobin S is insignificant in this screening proce-
dure because the purpose of this procedure is to detect Text/image rights not available.
the presence of hemoglobin S in the test sample. The
end point is easy to read as a turbid solution in the pres-

ence of hemoglobin S and a clear solution if hemoglobin
S is not present (Fig. 8.5). Newborn screening for hemo-
globinopathies occurs in most states and for all ethnic
groups in the United States, and provides the opportu-
nity for early diagnosis and intervention for sickle cell Figure 8.3 Reversible sickle cell. Note the blunted ends of
anemia patients, key ingredients for successful disease the sickle cell.
Correct white count ⫽ original white count

ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ ×100
100 ⫹ nRBCs Table 8.3 ¢ Normal Hemoglobin A
Figure 8.4 White cell corrections based on number of
and Hemoglobin F
nRBCs. Concentrations by Age
Age Hgb F (%) Hgb A (%)
Hemoglobin Electrophoresis
1 day 77.0 ± 7.3 23 ± 7.3
Hemoglobin electrophoresis is a time-honored quanti-
Up to 12 months 1.6 ± 1.0 98.4 ± 1.0
tative procedure for isolating hemoglobin bands. This
technique is based on the principle that hemoglobins Adult ⬍2.0 98
migrate at different positions depending on pH, time of
migration, and media used. Cellulose acetate and citrate
agar are the media most often selected. Hemoglobin is
isolated from a patient sample using a variety of lysing
C S F A
agents such as saponin or water. A small amount of
sample is applied to the media and electrophoresed for A
the prescribed amount of time, and then each band is
quantified using densitometry. Figure 8.6 is a compari- AS
son of cellulose acetate and citrate agar electrophoresis.
What will become immediately noticeable for both CC
media is that several bands have the same migration
point. In analyzing each group of patterns, several fea- AC
tures must be kept in mind to properly identify the
abnormal hemoglobin (Table 8.4). On cellulose acetate SC
at alkaline electrophoresis, hemoglobins E, C, OArab, Thal. major/
and A2 migrate in the same position and hemoglobins S, infant
D, and G travel together. On citrate agar at acid pH,
Control
hemoglobins A, O, A2, D, G, and E migrate to the same
point. Yet, this medium provides excellent separation pH 8.6
for hemoglobins S and D and hemoglobins C from E. In Application
practice, most laboratories use a screening technique
followed by a known quantitative method that has been
C S F A
AS
CC
AC
SC
Thal. major/
infant
Control
pH 6.0
Application
Figure 8.5 Sickle solubility test. An insoluble solution indi-
cates the presence of Hemoglobin S. Clear solution is from a Figure 8.6 Hemoglobin electrophoresis at pH 8.6
normal patient. and pH 6.2.
lives. In a perfect world, every African American indi-

Table 8.4 ¢ Points to Consider vidual would know their hemoglobin S status, because
When Analyzing Alkaline a union with another individual carrying sickle cell trait
Electrophoresis could produce a child affected with sickle cell anemia
(1 in 4 chance). Generally, all health educators should
• What is the MCV of your patient? encourage their African American students to be tested
• What is the strength of the band? for the presence of sickle cell gene as part of their nor-
• What is the age of your patient? mal health screening.
• Does your patient have a transfusion history?
HEMOGLOBIN C DISEASE, TRAIT,

AND HEMOGLOBIN SC
carefully developed for their hospital setting. Equip-
ment costs, technologist time, and the number of sam- Hemoglobin C has a substitution of lysine for glutamic
ples to be evaluated factor into the decision as to acid (␣2␤2glu→lys) in the sixth position of the N-terminal
whether the quantitative technique will be performed end of the beta chain. If hemoglobin C is inherited
on site or sent out to a reference laboratory. homozygously, the individual has hemoglobin C dis-
ease; if heterozygously, then hemoglobin C trait. Hemo-
globin C disease has milder clinical symptoms than
Isoelectric Focusing
sickle cell anemia and has a much lower prevalence in
Isoelectric focusing (IEF) is the method of choice for the African American population (only 2% to 3%). In
most newborn screening in the United States. This northern Ghana, however, the incidence of this particu-
refined electrophoretic procedure uses a pH range of lar hemoglobin is 17% to 28%.2 The anemia is nor-
between 3 and 10 in polyacrylamide gel. Within this pH mochromic and normocytic, yet there is some increase
range, hemoglobins will achieve their isoelectric point, in the MCHC because red cells from homozygous indi-
their point of no net negative charge, and they will focus viduals are denser. Most homozygous individuals show
into sharp distinct bands. Because each hemoglobin is a a moderate anemia with a hemoglobin value of between
protein with a distinct amino acid composition, clearly 9 and 12 g/dL. There is a moderate reticulocytosis and
defined points are achieved. This procedure is espe- splenomegaly. The red cell life span is 38 days, yet few
cially useful when small amounts of abnormal hemo- patients exhibit any symptoms. Of particular interest is
globin need to be detected.26 The cost of equipment for the possible presence of crystalline structures in the red
IEF is prohibitive in most community hospital settings, cells that appear as blocks or “bars of gold” (Fig. 8.7).
but this technique has great value for large-batch analy- These peculiar crystals obstruct the microvasculature
sis such as newborn screening performed in state health but melt in the splenic microenvironment. Conse-
laboratories. quently, splenic function is preserved and little pitting
occurs. Target cells (50% to 90%) are the predominant
Sickle Cell Trait
Sickle cell trait is achieved through heterozygous inher-
itance of hemoglobin S, in which an individual pos-
sesses hemoglobin A at approximately 60% and
hemoglobin S at approximately 40%. These individuals
are hematologically normal. The prevalence of sickle
cell trait is 8% to 10% in the African American popula-

tion. Approximately 2.5 million people in the United Text/image rights not available.
States carry the sickle gene.27 Population penetrance in
parts of western Africa are as high as 25% to 30%, and

the protection against malaria is considered to be a large
factor for the frequency of this gene in parts of Africa.
Several circumstances may put a sickle cell trait individ-
ual in jeopardy of having a crisis episode, such as air
travel in an unpressurized cabin and high altitudes. Figure 8.7 Hemoglobin CC. Note the presence of crystals
Other than this, sickle trait individuals lead normal shaped like “bars of gold” and many target cells.
red cell morphology, and variations of targeting may hemoglobin A present. The anemia will be microcytic
include folded or “pocketbook”-shaped cells. Sphero- hypochromic, showing the influence of the thalassemia
cytes may be present. Alkaline electrophoresis will gene, with nRBCs, target cells, polychromasia, and
show a single slow moving band in the same position as sickle cells. The RDW will be increased as well as the
hemoglobin A2. reticulocyte count. As opposed to the usual presenta-
The heterozygous condition is termed hemoglobin tion of sickle cell anemia, splenomegaly is usually pres-
A-C trait, with a ratio of 60% hemoglobin A and 40% ent. The severity of the condition overall depends
hemoglobin C on alkaline electrophoresis. There are on the beta thalassemia genotype inherited; patients
no clinical complications for individuals with this inheriting B0 have a more severe presentation. On alka-
condition, and they may never be noticed except for line electrophoresis, two bands are present, one at the
the presence of 40% target cells on their peripheral location of hemoglobin S and one at the location of
smear, an extremely abnormal finding (see Fig. 3.16). hemoglobin A2.
Individuals who inherit hemoglobin C should be aware
of their hemoglobin status and that of prospective Hemoglobin E
mates.
Hemoglobin SC disease is a combination of two This abnormal hemoglobin has an extremely high
abnormal hemoglobins, hemoglobin S and hemoglobin occurrence in individuals from southeast Asian coun-
C. Affected individuals have a moderate anemia, with an tries. Individuals may inherit the hemoglobin either
average hemoglobin of 8 to 10 g/dL, with a slight reticu- heterozygously and homozygously. Surprisingly, the
locytosis. Red cell life span is reduced to approximately homozygous conditions of this abnormal hemoglobin
29 days. Although the disease is less severe than sickle presents no clinical complications. Individuals show a
cell anemia, an individual may experience a painful cri- marked microcytic hypochromic picture, with some
sis. Pregnant individuals may be severely affected. The target cells and slight polychromasia, but are asympto-
peripheral smear shows high numbers of target cells; matic. On alkaline electrophoresis, there is a strong
few reversible sickled cells, and folded cells, with a band located in the same position as hemoglobin
peculiar crystal shaped like the Washington Monument C , while the heterozygous condition shows 70% hemo-
or a gloved hand showing in some cells (Fig. 8.8). The globin A and 30% hemoglobin E. Hemoglobin E is
hemoglobin distribution on alkaline electrophoresis is the second most common hemoglobin variant world-
50% hemoglobin S and 50% hemoglobin C. wide and is being seen with increasing frequency due to
large numbers of southeast Asians emigrating to North
America (Fig. 8.9).
VARIANT HEMOGLOBINS OF NOTE
Hemoglobin S-Beta Thalassemia
This combination hemoglobin may produce a clinical 100
picture as severe as sickle cell anemia, with virtually no Worldwide
90
US
80
70
Frequency (%)
60
50
40
Text/image rights not available. 30
20
10
0
Hgb Hgb Hgb Hgb
S E D C
Figure 8.8 Hemoglobin SC. Note the presence of crystals Figure 8.9 Variants of hemoglobin in United States versus
with pointed projections. worldwide.
Hemoglobin DPunjab/Hemoglobin Gphila trophoresis at pH 8.6. There are no hematological

abnormalities, but there is a high incidence in Ghana.
Not often seen, hemoglobin DPunjab is a clinical variant
in which both genetic states are asymptomatic. There
is a higher incidence of hemoglobin D in Great Britain,
and this is thought to reflect the large number of Hemoglobin OArab
Indian wives brought to England during Great Britain’s An uncommon hemoglobin, hemoglobin OArab is found
long occupation of the Punjab region of India and in 0.4% of American blacks. Most individuals are
Pakistan. The prevalence of this variant in these regions asymptomatic, but this hemoglobin must be distin-
is 3%. guished from hemoglobin C at alkaline electrophoresis,
Although rare, hemoglobin Gphila is seen in Amer- because it migrates to the same location. Citrate elec-
ican blacks. It is an alpha chain variant that migrates in trophoresis at pH 6.4 will isolate this band for positive
the same position as hemoglobin S at alkaline elec- identification.
CONDENSED CASE
A 6-year-old Indian girl was brought to the emergency department with a fever, malaise, and joint pain. Lab results
were WBC ⫽ 13,000 ⫻ 109/L, Hgb ⫽ 9.0 g/dL, Hct ⫽ 27%, and MCV ⫽ 85%. Her peripheral smear revealed a mod-
erate number of target cells, with 2⫹ polychromasia and moderate oat-shaped cells. Based on this sketch, what is
the first diagnosis that comes to mind?
Answer
Based on her peripheral smear and the fact that she is anemic with joint pain, sickle cell anemia is a strong possibility.
She needs to have this condition confirmed with hemoglobin electrophoresis or IEF. Oat-shaped cells are reversible
sickle cells seen in many sickle cell anemia individuals. Obviously her bone marrow is responding because she is
exhibiting polychromasia. Splenic function needs to be carefully monitored in individuals of this age group.
Summary Points • Autosplenectomy is a consequence of repeated

• Most hemoglobinopathies are the result of single infarctions to the spleen in young children with
amino acid substitution in the beta chain. sickle cell disease.
• In sickle cell disorders, valine is substituted for glu- • Stroke and acute chest syndrome represent serious
tamic acid in the sixth position of the beta chain. complications to sickle cell patients.
• In hemoglobin C disorders, lysine is substituted for • During sickle crisis episodes, patients will show
glutamic acid in the sixth position of the beta chain. nRBCs, sickle cells, target cells, and polychromasia.
• The presence of hemoglobin S affords some protec- • The white count may need to be corrected due to
tions against malarial infection of red blood cells. nRBCs present during sickling episodes.
• Cells containing hemoglobin S as the majority • Individuals with sickle cell trait are asymptomatic
hemoglobin are insoluble in areas of the body with with rare abnormalities in the peripheral smear.
low oxygen tension. • Newborn screening for hemoglobinopathies is avail-
• Sickle cells clog small vessels during sickling crisis, able in the United States through state health labora-
causing extensive organ damage and pain. tories.
• Homozygous inheritance of hemoglobin S produces • Dithionite solubility is usually the screening proce-
sickle cell anemia (Hgb SS); heterozygous inheri- dure used to determine if hemoglobin S is present.
tance produces sickle cell trait (Hgb AS). • Acid or alkaline electrophoresis and IEF provide bet-
• Hypoxia, acidosis, dehydration, cold, and fever will ter methods to isolate hemoglobin bands.
predispose the patient to sickling episodes. • Hemoglobin C disease occurs when hemoglobin C is
• In the African American population, there is an 8% inherited homozygously; hemoglobin C trait occurs
to 10% prevalence of the sickle cell gene. when hemoglobin C is inherited heterozygously.
• Hemoglobin C disease may produce hemoglobin C • Hemoglobin S-beta thalassemia may produce
crystals on Wright’s stain. conditions as severe as sickle cell disease.
• Hemoglobin SC is the result of inheriting two abnor- • Hemoglobin E is the third most prevalent hemoglo-
mal hemoglobins, hemoglobin S and C. bin variant and is seen with great frequency in the
• Hemoglobin SC may produce abnormal crystal for- southeast Asian populations.
mation resembling the Washington Monument or • Hemoglobin D and hemoglobin Gphila migrate with
fingers in a glove presentation. hemoglobin S on alkaline electrophoresis.
Review Questions
1. What is the amino acid substitution in sickle cell c. Hgb H
anemia patients? d. Hgb C
a. Adenine for thymine
5. Which hemoglobin will show crystals appearing
b. Lysine for valine
like bars of gold in the peripheral smear?
c. Valine for glutamic acid
a. Hemoglobin CC disease
d. Cytosine for guanine
b. Hemoglobin DD disease
2. Which of the following factors contributes to the c. Hemoglobin EE disease
pathophysiology of sickling? d. Hemoglobin SS disease
a. Increased iron concentration
6. Which one of the following conditions is the
b. Hypochromia
leading cause of hospitalization for sickle cell
c. Fava beans
patients?
d. Dehydration
a. Acute chest syndrome
3. Which of the following statements pertain to most b. Priapism
of the clinically significant hemoglobin variants? c. Painful crisis
a. Most are fusion hemoglobins. d. Splenic sequestration
b. Most are singe amino acid substitution.
7. Which of the following hemoglobin separation
c. Most are synthetic defects.
methods is used for most newborn hemoglobin
d. Most are extensions of the amino acid chain.
screening?
4. Which of the following hemoglobins ranks second a. High-performance liquid chromatography
in variant hemoglobins worldwide? b. Alkaline electrophoresis
a. Hgb S c. Isoelectric focusing
b. Hbg E d. Acid electrophoresis
CASE STUDY
A 3-year-old boy of Ghanaian ethnicity came to the emer- from the time he was seen in the emergency department,
gency department acutely ill, with fever, chest pain, and a he was admitted and put in the critical care unit, in grave
heavy cough. He was accompanied by his parents, who condition. His breathing was compromised and he was
said that he seemed to have a mild cold and slight fever. placed on mechanical ventilation and lapsed into a coma.
However, his condition had become more serious in the He developed disseminated intravascular coagulation
last 24 hours. His temperature was 103⬚F. His parent (DIC), using 10 units of fresh frozen plasma, 10 units of
informed the emergency department staff that he has a platelets, and 20 units of packed cells to control the
diagnosis of sickle cell anemia, but they thought that bleeding. Twenty-four hours after admission, he
this episode was different from his previous crisis died from overwhelming sepsis. Initial results are as
episodes. A CBC was ordered and, because of his cough, follows (see cover for normal values). What role does
he was helped to cough up a sputum sample for culture. splenic function play in the management of sickle cell
He was given ibuprofen for pain and fever. Four hours patients?
(Continued)
WBC 20.0 ⫻ 109/L dactylitis . When they are admitted to the hospital, coor-
RBC 2.82 ⫻ 1012/L dinated care by a staff knowledgeable about sickle cell
Hgb 11.5 g/dL complications is increasingly important because time is
Hct 34% usually the enemy and the situation can rapidly escalate.
MCV 85 fL In this case, even though the parent mentioned the child’s
MCH 29.8 pg sickle cell diagnosis, he was treated far too casually and
MCHC 35.0% not as a young child with special medical needs. Strepto-
Platelets 160 ⫻ 109/L coccus pneumoniae grew from his sputum culture and a
RDW 18.0% gram positive organism was seen on Gram stain, but he
The differential showed a left shift with heavy toxic was not treated aggressively when one considers that his
granulation and Döhle bodies. The initial coagulation spleen was compromised. Functional asplenia is serious
results are: and life threatening, especially if the patient becomes
PT 12.0 seconds (normal value, 11 to 13 seconds) infected with an encapsulated organism. Patients such as
PTT 26.0 seconds (normal value, ⬍40 seconds) this merit special attention. This patient died of over-
whelming sepsis due to the streptococcal infection, which
Insights to the Case Study triggered DIC and uncontrollable bleeding. His platelet
This account represents the worst case scenario for a count plummeted to 40,000 within 2 hours of admission
young sickle patient. Patients in this age range who have and he began to bleed from the venipuncture site. He was
sickle cell anemia are vulnerable to virulent infections too young to withstand the numerous assaults on his
by encapsulated organisms, acute chest syndrome, and body system.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Is the Proper Procedure If the Auto- The technologist performed the differential and noted
mated WBC Does Not Correlate With a Slide several items:
Estimate? • The WBC count of 35,000 did not correlate
A 14-year-old boy presented to the emergency depart- with the slide.
ment with a fever of unknown origin. A CBC, blood
• 100 nRBCs were counted while completing the
cultures, and routine chemistries were ordered. The
chemistries came back as normal and the blood cul- differential.
tures would be read in 24 hours. The CBC results were • The patient had anisocytosis, probably due to
as follows: younger polychromatic cells.
• The patient had poikilocytosis including mod-
WBC: 35.0 H
erate target and moderate sickle cells present.
RBC 4.19 L
• The patient had the presence of RBC inclu-
Hgb 9.3 L
sions: Pappenheimer and Howell-Jolly bodies.
Hct 27.8 L
MCV 66.3 L It was obvious to the technologist that this was a
sickle cell patient in a crisis with an elevated RDW and
MCH 22.3 L
the peripheral smear indicative of sickle cell crisis. The
MCHC 33.5
presence of 100 nRBCs counted in the differential is a
Platelets 598 H
significant finding. nRBCs were most likely being
RDW 21.0 H counted as white cells, falsely elevating the white cell
The elevated WBC flagged and reflex testing indi- count. The Coulter LH750 usually corrects for the
cated that a manual differential should be performed. presence of nRBCs when the nRBCs are in the low
range, but an nRBC count of 100 is fairly high and the Uncorrected WBC ⫻ 100 49.8 ⫻ 100
instrument calculation has not been reliable in the high ᎏᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ
100 ⫹ 100 200
range. The instrument reported out a white count of
35,000, but the technologist thought that this count 4980
did not agree with the peripheral smear. The technolo- ⫽ ᎏ ⫽ 24,900, the corrected WBC
200
gist needed to manually correct the white count. In
order to perform this function, the technologist The corrected white count was reported to the
referred to the raw data function available in the Coul- floor. This case illustrates the value of reflex testing,
ter instrument, to find what the WBC count was prior prompting the performance of a manual differential. A
to correction by the instrument. The number of the careful observation of the peripheral smear indicated
WBC was 49,800 and represents the raw number of that the instrument correction for nRBCs, 35,000, was
white cells counted on the initial run of this sample. not valid (the white count seemed lower) and that the
This number was used to correct for the nRBCs using technologist needed to intervene to provide a reliable
the formula shown in Figure 8.4. white count.
WORD KEY 8. Barnhart MI, Henry RL, Lusher JM. Sickle Cell. A Scope
Publication. Kalamazoo, MI: The Upjohn Co., 1976;
Autosomal • Referring to chromosome, a non–sex-linked 12–14. Monograph.
chromosome 9. Armbruster DA. Neonatal hemoglobinopathy screening.
Lab Med 21:816, 1990.
Embolism • Occlusion of a blood vessel
10. Singer K, Motulsky AG, et al. Aplastic crisis in sickle cell
Infarction •Area of tissue that has been deprived of blood anemia. J Lab Clin Med 35:721, 1950.
and therefore has lost some of its function 11. Pearson HA, Cornelius EA, et al. Transfusion reversible
Hypovolemic • Low blood pressure functional asplenia in young children with sickle cell
anemia. N Engl J Med 283:334, 1970.
Placebo • Substance having no medical effect when given 12. Gaston MH, Vwerter JL, Woods G, et al. Prophylaxis
to an individual as if a medicine with oral penicillin in children with sickle cell anemia:
Viscosity • Thickness A randomized trial. N Engl J Med 314:1593–1599,
1986.
References 13. Gladwin MT, Sachdev V, Jison ML, et al. Pulmonary
1. Ingram VM. Gene mutations in human hemoglobins: The hypertension as a risk factor for death in patients with
chemical differences between normal and sickle hemo- sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med 350:886–895, 2004.
globins. Nature (Lond) 180:326, 1957. 14. Barnhart MI, Henry RL, Lusher JM. Sickle Cell. A Scope
2. Huisman TH, et al. A Syllabus of Human Hemoglobin Publication. Kalamazoo, MI: The Upjohn Co., 1974; 45.
Variants, 2nd ed. August, GA: The Sickle Cell Anemia Monograph.
Foundation, 1998. 15. Vichinsky EP, Neumaur LD, Earles AN, et al. Causes and
3. McGhee DB. Structural defects in hemoglobin (hemoglo- outcomes of acute chest syndrome in sickle cell disease.
binopathies). In: Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Prin- National Acute Chest Syndrome Study Group, 2000.
ciples and Applications, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB 16. Konotey-Ahulu FI. Sickle cell disease. Arch Intern Med
Saunders, 2002; 321. 133:616, 1974.
4. Smith-Whitley K. Sickle Cell Disease: Diagnosis and 17. Dampier C, Ely E, Brodecki D, et al. Home manage-
Current Management. Workshop material from the ment of pain in sickle cell disease: A daily diary study
American Society for Clinical Laboratory Sciences in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol
National Meeting, Philadelphia, July 2003. 24:643–647, 2002.
5. Smith JA, Kinney TR (co-chairs). Sickle Cell Disease 18. Adeyoju AB, Olujohungbe AB, Morris J, et al. Priapism
Guideline Panel: Sickle cell disease guideline and in sickle cell disease: Incidence, risk factors and com-
overview. Am J Hematol 47:152–154, 1994. plications—An international multicenter study. BJU
6. Pawars DR, Chan L, Schroeder WB. Bs– gene cluster hap- Int 90:898–902, 2002.
lotypes in sickle cell anemia: Clinical implications. Am J 19. Babalola OE, Wambebe CO. When should children and
Pediatr Hematol Oncol 12:367–374, 1990. young adults with sickle cell disease be referred for eye
7. Pawars DR, Weiss JN, Chan LS, et al. Is there a threshold assessments? Afr J Med Sci 30:261–263, 2001.
level of fetal hemoglobin that ameliorates morbidity in 20. Embury SH, et al. Sickle Cell Disease: Basic Principles
sickle cell anemia? Blood 63:921–926, 1984. and Clinical Practice. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
21. Adams RJ, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by trans- hydroxyurea on the frequency of painful crisis in sickle
fusion in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal cell anemia. N Engl J Med 332:1317–1322, 1995.
results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography 25. Pearson HA. Neonatal testing for sickle cell disease:
N Engl J Med 317:781, 1987. A historical and personal view. Pediatrics 83(Suppl):
22. Pelehach L. Understanding sickle cell anemia. Lab Med 815–818, 1989.
126:727, 1995. 26. Galacteros F, Kleman K, Caburi-Martin J, et al. Cord
23. Gaston M, Rosse WF; The Cooperative Group. The blood screening for hemoglobin abnormalities by thin
Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease: Review of layer isoelectric focusing. Blood 56:1068–1071, 1980.
study designs and objectives. Am J Pediatr Hematol 27. Geist A. Hemoglobinopathies: Diagnosis and Care of
Oncol 4:197–201, 1982. Patients with Sickle Cell Disease. Indiana Univeristy
24. Charache S, Terrin ML, Moore RD, et al. Effect of Medical Center, personal correspondence.
Pa r t I I I
White Cell
Disorders

9 Leukopoiesis and
Leukopoietic Function
Betty Ciesla
Leukopoiesis Objectives
Stages of Leukocyte Maturation After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Features of Cell Identification 1. Describe leukopoiesis and the steps leading from
Myeloblast immature forms to maturation.
Promyelocyte (Progranulocyte) 2. List the maturation sequence of the granulocytic
Myelocyte series.
Metamyelocyte 3. Name four morphological features that are help-
Band ful in differentiating the cells of the granulocytic
series.
Segmented Neutrophil
Eosinophils and Basophils 4. Describe the physiology and function of granulo-
cytes.
The Agranular Cell Series
5. Describe the features that differentiate the gran-
Lymphocyte Origin and Function ules of the neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and
Lymphocyte Populations basophilic cell line.
The Travel Path of Lymphocytes 6. Distinguish between the marginating and circu-
Lymphocytes and the Development of Immunocom- lating pools of leukocytes.
petency
7. Recognize the subtle morphological clues that
The Response of Lymphocytes to Antigenic Stimula- may distinguish one white cell from another.
tion
Lymphocyte Cell Markers and the Cluster Designa- 8. Describe the lymphatic system and its relation-
tion (CD) ship to lymphocyte production.
9. Describe the role of stimulated and unstimulated
Leukocyte Count From the Complete Blood
lymphocytes.
Cell Count to the Differential
Manual Differential Versus Differential Scan
Relative Versus Absolute Values
129
130 PART III • White Cell Disorders
LEUKOPOIESIS have a distinctive place on the hematopoietic matura-

tion chart (see Fig. 2.3).
White cells are a remarkably versatile group of cells
Most of the function of the white cells is performed
whose primary purpose is to defend against bacteria,
in the tissues, and it is here that white cells reside for 2 to
viruses, fungi, or other foreign substances. To this end,
5 days. WBCs that appear in the circulation are part of
most white cells are granulated and these granules con-
two distinctive cell pools: the marginating pool and the
tain enzymes used for digestion and destruction of the
circulating pool. The marginating pool designates those
invading organisms. In the bone marrow there is a 4:1
white cells that are located along the vessel endothelium
ratio, the M:E ratio indicating that four myeloid, or
ready to migrate to a site of injury or infection. The cir-
white cells are produced for one erythroid cell. Daily
culating pool designates those white cells actually in the
production of white cells is 1.5 billion. Transit from the
bloodstream.2 At any particular point in the peripheral
bone marrow to the peripheral circulation takes place
circulation, the white cells are evenly divided in either
only after white cells have been held in the maturation-
pool and there is rapid transfer from pool to pool. An
storage pool of the bone marrow. For example, seg-
additional site of white cell storage is the spleen, which
mented neutrophils, the most mature of all of the white
harbors one fourth of the white cell population.
cells, are held for 7 to 10 days before their release into
the peripheral circulation. Other white cell types have
much shorter storage in the maturation pool time.1 STAGES OF LEUKOCYTE
Once released into the circulation, most white cells are MATURATION
short lived before they migrate into tissues. The white The white cell series encompasses those cells that are
cells that are observed in the peripheral circulation are distinguished by their granules and those that are
only a snapshot of white cells that are located in three agranular. In all, there are five maturation stages for
distinct cell compartments: the bone marrow, the circu- neutrophils, four for eosinophils and basophils, and
lation, and the tissues. three each for monocytes and lymphocytes. Key fea-
White blood cells (WBCs) are referred to as leuko- tures in distinguishing immature and mature stages of
cytes. For clarity, the word leukocytic applies to the white any of these cells are cell size, nucleus-to-cytoplasm
cells of all stages; granulocytic applies only to granulated ratio (N:C), chromatin pattern, cytoplasmic quality, and
white cells; and myelocytic is used in describing a partic- presence of granules. Cell identification is an organized
ular white cell condition. The term myelocytic may also process. Each cell can be identified using the character-
be used interchangeably for granulocytic in conditions istics listed and each student must survey the cell for
such as chronic granulocytic leukemia or chronic mye- each characteristic it presents. The stages of maturation
locytic leukemia. Suffice it to say that these three for the neutrophilic series from least mature to most
words—granulocytic, leukocytic, and myelocytic—are mature are:
all used in denoting some stage of the white cell family. • Myeloblast
They are not meant to be confusing, but often are, • Promyelocyte or progranulocyte
despite good intentions. • Myelocyte
WBCs, or leukocytes, have a more complex matu- • Metamyelocyte
ration cycle than erythrocytes. To begin, there is only • Band
one mature red cell form as opposed to five mature • Segmented neutrophil
white cell forms. Red blood cells journey through the
circulation for 120 days while white cells spend only
hours in the circulating blood. Like red cells, white cells FEATURES OF CELL IDENTIFICATION
originate from the pluripotent stem cell. The pluripo- Descriptions for this section represent composite crite-
tent stem cell gives rise to the myeloid stem cell and the ria for each cell identification.3–5 In addition to key dis-
lymphoid stem cell. Through a series of interventions tinguishing features, differentiating characteristics are
from interleukins (chemical stimulators) and growth presented for most cells.
factors, a CFU-GEMM is structured to give rise to gran-
ulocytes, erythrocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.
Curiously, megakaryocytes, eosinophils, and basophils Myeloblast
have their own CFU: CGU-Meg and CFU-eosinophil/ Size: 12 to 20 μm
basophil. Lymphocytes originate not only from the N:C: 4:1 with round, oval, or slightly indented
bone marrow but also from the thymus and thus, they nucleus
CHAPTER 9 • Leukopoiesis and Leukopoietic Function 131
Chromatin: Light red-purple with a fine mesh-

like and transparent structure/close-weaved
texture; may see two to five nucleoli, which

appear as lightened, refractile round struc-
tures
Cytoplasm: Moderate blue and usually nongranu-
lar
Differentiating characteristic: Nucleus has thin chro-
matin strands that are distributed throughout the
nucleus uniformly; chromatin appears smooth and
velvety (Fig. 9.1).
Cluster designation (CD)45, CD38, CD34, CD33,
CD13, human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR
Figure 9.2 Promyelocyte. Prominent nuclei, prominent
nonspecific granules, and slightly coarse nuclear chromatin.
Promyelocyte (Progranulocyte)
Size: 15 to 21 μm Chromatin: Oval indented nucleus, denser, red-
N:C: 3:1, oval, round, or eccentric flattened purple with slight granular appearance, coarser,
nucleus clumped appearance
Chromatin: Light red-purple of medium density, Cytoplasm: Specific granules present, neutrophilic
may see single nucleoli granules are dusty, fine, and red-blue; eosino-
Cytoplasm: Moderate blue color but difficult philic granules are large red-orange, and
to observe because fine to large blue-red singular; basophil granules are large, deep blue-
azurophilic granules are scattered throughout purple
the chromatin pattern; granules are NONSPE- Last stage capable of dividing
CIFIC Differentiating characteristic: Small pink-purple
Differentiating characteristic: Cell is larger than the granules for the neutrophilic myelocyte, nucleus
blast with large prominent nucleoli, nuclear chro- stains deeper color, granular pattern to the chro-
matin is slightly coarse (Fig. 9.2). matin (Fig. 9.3).
CD45, CD33, CD13, CD15 CD45, CD33, CD13, CD15, CD11b/11c
Myelocyte Metamyelocyte
Size: 10 to 18 μm Size: 10 to 15 μm
N:C: 2:1 N:C: 1:1

Figure 9.1 Myeloblast. Large cell with high N:C ratio and
thin chromatin strands distributed evenly throughout the Figure 9.3 Myelocyte. Oval indented nucleus with small,
nucleus; no granules observed. specific granules, granular pattern to the chromatin.
Chromatin: Indented shaped nucleus resembling a

kidney bean structure, patches of coarse chro-
matin in spots

Cytoplasm: Pale blue to pinkish tan with moderate
specific granules
Differentiating characteristics: Nuclear indentation
and condensed chromatin with no nuclei (Fig. 9.4).
CD markers are the same as for the myelocyte
Band
Size: 9 to 15 μm
Chromatin: Band shaped like a cigar band, C or S
shaped, unable to see filament, coarsely
Figure 9.5 Band. No nuclear lobes, no filament, and
clumped almost like leopard spot coarseness clumped chromatin.
Cytoplasm: Brown-pink, with many fine second-
ary granules
Differentiating characteristics: No filament, may
resemble a metamyelocyte but indentation is more Eosinophils and Basophils
severe and chromatin is more clumped (Fig. 9.5). Eosinophil
CD45, CD13, CD15, CD11b/11c
Eosinophils can appear at the myelocytic stages
and move through the maturation sequence.
Segmented Neutrophil Size: 10 to 16 μm
Size: 9 to 15 μm N:C: Barely 1:1
Chromatin: Two to five lobes of nucleus connected Chromatin: Eccentric nucleus, usually bilobed
by thin thread-like filaments, cannot observe Cytoplasm: Large, distinctive red-orange SPE-
chromatin pattern in filaments CIFIC granules with orange-pink cytoplasm,
Cytoplasm: Pale lilac with blue shading and many granules are highly metabolic and contain hista-
fine secondary dust-like granules mine and other substances
Distinguishing characteristics: If chromatin can be Distinguishing characteristics: Granules are uniformly
observed in filament, then the identification is a round, large, and individualized; if stain is less than
band; if no constriction is observed in nucleus, then adequate, observe granules carefully for their crys-
the cell is a band (Fig. 9.6). talloid nature (Fig. 9.7).
Figure 9.6 Segmented neutrophils. Note two to five lobes

Figure 9.4 Metamyelocyte. Indented nucleus with con- in the nucleus with well-distinguished filament, pale dustlike
densed chromatin, small granules, and no nuclei. granules.
Promonocyte
Size: 12 to 20 μm
N:C: 3:1
Chromatin: Round, flattened nucleus, nucleoli

may be present, folding, and creasing, and
crimping may be observed
Cytoplasm: Gray-blue, some blobbing may appear,
rare granules
Distinguishing characteristics: None noted
Monocyte
Size: 12 to 20 μm
N:C: 1:1
Figure 9.7 Eosinophil. Bilobed nucleus with large Chromatin: Nuclei take different shapes from
uniformly round orange-red granules. brainy convolutions to lobulated and S shaped,
chromatin is loose-weaved, lacey, open, and thin
Basophil Cytoplasm: Abundant gray-blue with moderate
granules, may show area of protrusion or bleb-
Basophils can appear at the myelocytic stage and
bing
move through the maturation sequence.
Distinguishing characteristic: Nuclear chromatin lacks
Size: 10 to 14 μm
density, it is open weaved, soft and velvet-like
N:C: Difficult to determine
(Fig. 9.9).
Chromatin: Coarse, clumped bilobed
CD33, CD13, CD14
Cytoplasm: Many large SPECIFIC purple-black
granules seem to obscure the large cloverleaf
The Lymphocytic Series
form nucleus, may decolorize during staining
leaving pale areas within cell; granules much Outlining CD markers for the lymphocyte cell
larger than neutrophilic granules population is a complex task and beyond the
Distinguishing characteristics: Size and color of gran- scope of this chapter. Lymphocytes develop
ules will obscure the nucleus (Fig. 9.8). subpopulations along the path to maturity, each
with a unique CD subset. For this reason, only a
The Agranular Cell Series modified CD list will be included (Table 9.1).
The Monocytic Series Lymphoblast
Monoblast Size: 10 to 20 μm
See description for myeloblast. N:C: 4:1
Figure 9.8 Basophil. Indistinguishable nucleus with large, Figure 9.9 Monocyte. Nuclear chromatin is loose-weaved
purple-black granules. and open, abundant gray-blue cytoplasm.
Table 9.1 ¢ A Modified List of

Antigen Markers

of Lymphocytes*
LSC-HLA-DR
CD34, CD45
tDt
Pre-B (most mature)
CD19, CD24, CD45, CD10
tDt
Cyto μ
B cell (mature) Figure 9.10 Small lymphocyte. Oval nucleus with coarse,
lumpy chromatin.
CD19, CD20, CD22, CD45
IgM, IgD
Chromatin: Looser chromatin pattern, more trans-
S Ig parent
T cell (most mature) Cytoplasm: Larger amount of cytoplasm, lighter in
CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7 color
Distinguishing characteristic: Cytoplasm is more
*List does not represent all possible CD cell designations. abundant with tendency for azurophilic granules
(Fig. 9.11).
Chromatin: One or two nucleoli with smudgy

LYMPHOCYTE ORIGIN
chromatin AND FUNCTION
Cytoplasm: Little, deep blue staining at edge
Distinguishing characteristics: Nucleoli is surrounded The lymphocytic series is distinctive in its presentation
by dark rim of chromatin and function. In contrast to most other white cells,
which are derived solely from the bone marrow, lym-
Prolymphocyte phocytes are derived from two locations. The primary
Size: 9 to 18 μm lymphoid organs are the bone marrow and thymus. The
N:C: 3:1 secondary lymphoid organs are the spleen, lymph
Chromatin: Nucleoli present, slightly coarsened nodes, Peyer’s patches of the gastrointestinal tract, and
chromatin the tonsils. Additionally, the lymphatic system plays an
Cytoplasm: Gray-blue, mostly blue at edges essential role in lymphocyte development, differentia-
Distinguishing characteristics: None noted
Small Lymphocyte
Size: 7 to 18 μm
N:C: 4:1
Chromatin: Oval nucleus with coarse lumpy chro-

matin with specific areas of clumping, a com-
pact cell
Cytoplasm: Usually just a thin border, with few
azurophilic, red granules
Distinguishing characteristics: Clumping of chromatin
around the nuclear membrane may help to distin-
guish this from a nucleated cell (Fig. 9.10).
Large Lymphocyte
Size: 9 to 12 μm Figure 9.11 Large lymphocyte. Oval nucleus with looser,
N:C: 3:1 more transparent chromatin pattern.
tion, and function. More than 100 lymph nodes form a an injury has occurred and fluid is accumulated
nexus known as the lymphatic system, which runs from through swelling, the lymphatic system moves fluid
the cervical lymph nodes of the neck to the inguinal from the affected area back to the circulation through
lymph nodes in the groin area (Fig. 9.12). The lymphatic the capillaries of the lymph nodes. Because the lym-
system plays an important role in blood filtration, fluid phatic system has no pumping mechanism like the
balance, antibody generation, and lymphopoiesis.6 A heart, it derives its circulatory ability from respiration,
major part of this system is lymph, a clear, thin fluid muscle movement, and pressure from nearby blood
derived from plasma that bathes the soft tissues. Once vessels. Excess fluid is transported to two large vessels:
Submaxillary nodes
Cervical nodes
Left subclavian vein
Thoracic duct
Mammary plexus
Axillary nodes
Right lymphatic duct

Spleen
Cisterna chyli
Mesenteric nodes
Cubital nodes
Iliac nodes
Inguinal nodes
Popliteal nodes
Figure 9.12 The lymphatic system.

the thoracic duct near the left subclavian vein and the adults. Determining lymphocyte life span is difficult.
right thoracic duct near the right subclavian vein. Long-lived lymphocytes product cytokines, whereas
The primary function of lymphocytes is immuno- short-lived lymphocytes produce antibodies. Plasma
logic: recognizing what is foreign, non-self; forming and tissue environmental influences either promote or
antibodies; and securing immunity. Non-self or foreign delay longevity. There has been speculation that some
substances may appear as bacteria, cell substances, prolymphocytes may live up to 4 years.7
teins, or viruses. T and B cells are dependent on their interaction
with their microenvironment: bone marrow versus
Lymphocyte Populations thymus, versus lymph nodes, versus peripheral
blood. Their specific derivation is defined from the
There are two general subpopulations of lympho- surface membrane markers they possess and their
cytes—B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes—which stimulation toward a particular immune response. Clas-
appear morphologically similar on peripheral smear. sification of stages of T and B cells is complex and
Yet their derivation and function are quite different. B dominated by which CD markers or surface antigens
lymphocytes comprise 10% to 20% of the total lympho- they possess.
cyte population, while T lymphocytes comprise 60% to
80%. A third minor population, natural killer (NK)
lymphocytes, constitute less than 10% of the total lym- The Travel Path of Lymphocytes
phocyte population (Fig. 9.13). Lymphocytes may originate in the bone marrow, the
B lymphocytes are derived from bone marrow thymus, and the lymphatic system. Because the lym-
stem cells. The pluripotent stem cell is activated by phatic system is a network of tissues, the travel path of
interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 to differentiate into the lym- lymphocytes from blood to thymus to lymphatics is less
phocyte stem cell (LSC). In general, the LSC gives rise to than straightforward. Most white cells proliferate and
the progression of the pre-B cell, the lymphoblast, the B mature in the bone marrow and are released into
cell, and the terminal cell, the plasma cell. The plasma peripheral circulation. From the circulation, they may
cell is responsible for antibody production and either migrate to tissues or wind their way through cir-
humoral immunity, antibodies to a specific antigen. T culation until they degenerate. Lymphocytes travel two
cells arise from the LSC, which migrates to the thymus. paths. They either travel between areas of inflamma-
The thymus, a gland located above the heart, gives rise tion, or they move from the bone marrow to the thymus
to the prothymocyte, T lymphoblast, and T cell respon- and then into secondary lymphoid tissue, the lymphatic
sible for cell-mediated immunity. This gland, although system. Mature lymphocytes primarily move back and
highly active in infants and children, is not functional in forth the between the lymphatic system, while imma-
Lymphocyte
stem cell
Thymus Bone marrow
T Cells B Cells NK
60-80% 10-20% Lymphocytes
< 10%
Figure 9.13 Subpopulations of
lymphocytes.
ture lymphocytes move from the bone marrow to the The Response of Lymphocytes
thymus and then into the lymphatic system. Because to Antigenic Stimulation
the lymphocyte is a highly mobile cell, it will interact Once resting lymphocytes respond to antigenic stimu-
with the endothelial cells of blood vessels as it migrates lation, they begin to synthesize receptors, signals, or
to tissues. This migration is carefully orchestrated antigenic markers. T cells, which represent 60% to
through a series of receptors and cytokines from the 85% of total lymphocytes, can be subdivided into
endothelial network. Lymphocytes spend far more time two populations: T helper (CD4) or T cytotoxic/sup-
in travel through tissues than the marrow or circula- pressor (CD8). T helper cells interact with macrocytes
tion.8 Extensive transit is meant to increase their oppor- and macrophages, secrete cytokines, and promote
tunities to become exposed to foreign antigenic stimuli humoral immunity. T-cytotoxic cells promote memory
and mount an appropriate response. cells and help to eliminate non-self by promoting
enzyme activity, which can significantly alter the
Lymphocytes and the Development cell membrane. B cells, which represent 10% to 20%
of Immunocompetency of total lymphocytes, differentiate into plasma cells.
Initially, lymphocytes that are developing and maturing This transformation takes place as T cells recognize
in the bone marrow and thymus are not responsive to antigens and release lymphokines. Lymphokines assist
provocative antigens. It is only when they reach the B lymphocytes in transforming into plasma cells,
lymphatic system that they begin to develop a response detecting antigens, and producing antibodies. NK
to antigenic stimulation and become immunocompe- cells represent a small subpopulation of lymphocytes
tent. Migration through the lymphatic system is care- with a highly specific function. These cells are non-T
fully orchestrated through a series of receptors, and or non-B in origin and do not need antigenic stimula-
chemokines on the endothelial network of blood vessels tion to function. Originating in the bone marrow,
surrounding lymphatic tissue.8 Immunoblasts are large they play a role primarily in resisting bacteria, viruses,
activated lymphocytes capable of mustering an immune and fungi.
response. Antigenic presentation to lymphocytes may
take many forms from altered cells to the body or for- Lymphocyte Cell Markers and
eign antigens or proteins. When a foreign antigen is pre- the Cluster Designation (CD)
sented to the body, it is usually phagocytized and
destroyed by the macrophages of the lymph nodes or Before 1980, lymphocytes were demarcated by surface
tissues. If this mechanism is not complete and some part and cytoplasmic immunoglobulins, HLA markers, and
of the invading mechanism is left behind, then an terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (tDt) antigens.
immune response begins to take place. Lymphocytes For a listing of CD markers in the unstimulated B and T
become activated and proceed to “battle” foreign anti- cells, see Table 9.1. At present, most lymphocyte sub-
gens with many immune capabilities. Activated lym- populations are recognized by their CD markers. CD
phocytes take on many roles and proliferate in the first refers to cluster designation, a series of monoclonal anti-
few days after recognition of a foreign antigen or antibodies manufactured by public and private companies
genic products. B cells begin to synthesize antibodies to to identify surface antigens on the many lymphocyte
the particular antigen as a primary response. Once the subsets. Lymphocytes can now by identified at succes-
antigen is presented to T cells by macrophages or B cells, sive stages in their maturation by their pattern of reac-
then T cells respond by participating in cell-mediated tion to monoclonal antibodies. Most lymphocytes have
immunity activities. These include: several CD designations that they may initially possess
and then lose or may carry with them throughout their
• Delayed hypersensitivity maturation sequence.
• Tumor suppression
• Resistance to intracellular organisms
In addition to each of these responses, T cells LEUKOCYTE COUNT FROM
release lymphokines, which activate B lymphocytes and THE COMPLETE BLOOD CELL
assist in humoral immunity and the production of COUNT TO THE DIFFERENTIAL
plasma cells. Therefore, T cells play a vital role in cell- White cell counts that are reported on the CBC are
mediated and humoral response and are essential to directly counted from an automated instrument or by
immune development. manual method. The age of the patient directly influ-
ences whether this number is within or outside of the

reference range (Table 9.2). Pediatric reference ranges Table 9.3 ¢ Manual Differential
show more variability than do ranges for adults. Some Reference Ranges for
of the peculiarities of the newborn include highest Adults and Infants
white counts at 3 months.
The WBC differential is an evaluation of the types Adults Up to 1 Year
of mature white cells in the peripheral circulation.
Although only a snapshot of the white cell concentra- Segmented neutro- 50% to 70% 20% to 44%
phils
tion at a particular moment in time, the differential
offers valuable information as to the hematological sta- Bands 2% to 6% 0% to 5%
tus of an individual and their response to any circum- Lymphocytes 20% to 44% 48% to 78%
stances which may alter hematological status. In general Monocytes 2% to 9% 2% to 11%
terms, the differential is performed on a well-stained, Eosinophils 0% to 4% 1% to 4%
well-distributed peripheral smear. Basophils 0% to 2% 0% to 2%
The peripheral smear is evaluated for distribution
at ⫻10 and then a white cell estimate is performed at
⫻40 (refer to Chapter 20 for procedures). Following
records concerning notification of a patient with a criti-
this, a differential count is performed. One hundred
cal value. Date, time, and person receiving the infor-
white cells are counted and the percentage and identifi-
mation are usually recorded. For a list of sample critical
cation of each type of white cell is recorded. These per-
values refer to Table 9.5.
centages are compared to the reference ranges for an
individual according to age (Table 9.3). White cell esti-
mates provide important quality control data for the Manual Differential Versus
technologist performing the differential. If the white cell Differential Scan
estimate fails to agree with the automated count, then Most automated hematology instruments have the
perhaps the wrong smear was pulled and an investiga- capacity to perform a differential count. This advance in
tion should proceed to correct this error. In most cases, instrumentation has dramatically shifted work patterns,
one hundred white cells are carefully counted and iden- because less time is spent in reviewing peripheral
tified, but there are circumstances which may warrant smears. When a differential is ordered and reported
counting two hundred white cells. Students will need to from instrumentation, there are some conditions in
refer to the Standard Operating Procedure at each clini- which the automated differential count may be ques-
cal site for recommendations for counting a 200-cell tionable. If certain parameters in the differential have
differential. If this is the case, the physician should be been flagged or if a peripheral smear needs to be
aware that a 200-cell count was performed. Table 9.4 reviewed as a result of a delta check or reflex testing, the
lists general conditions when a 200 cell count differen- peripheral smear is actually reviewed by a laboratory
tial may be desirable. Critical values outside of the refer- professional. For these circumstances, there are two lev-
ence range have been established for each clinical facility els of technologist review: a manual leukocyte differen-
regarding the CBC and the differential. These values are tial count or a differential scan. A manual leukocyte
usually flagged by the automated instrument and must differential count implies that 100 WBCs are counted
be reported to the physician and/or the pathologist in along with red cell morphology and platelets. A diff
a timely fashion. Laboratory personnel keep careful scan implies that approximately 50 cells are reviewed to
Table 9.2 ¢ Leukocyte Counts at Table 9.4 ¢ When to Consider Count-

Different Ages* ing More Than 100 Cells
on Differential*
Age Leukocyte Count
• WBC >35.0 × 109/L
Birth 4 to 40
• Lymphocytes > 40% or <17 %
4 Years 5 to 15 • Monocytes >12%
Adult 4 to 11 • Blasts (first-time patient)
*All values ⫻ 109/L. *These values will vary with every clinical site.
Table 9.5 ¢ Sample Critical Values Table 9.6 ¢ Absolute Reference

Range for Adult
WBC Low 3.0 ⫻ 109/L Differential*
High 25.0 ⫻ 109/L
Hemoglobin Low 7.0 g/dL • Neutrophils 1.4 to 6.5
High 17.0 g/dL • Lymphocytes 1.2 to 3.4
• Monocytes 0.11 to 0.59
Platelet Low 50.0 ⫻ 109/L • Eosinophils 0.0 to 0.5
High 1.0 ⫻ 1012/L
Differential Refer to Standard Operating Proce- *All values ⫻109/L.
dure for each facility for criteria.
Blasts, which are reported on a new
patient, are always a critical result. count refers to the percentage of a particular cell
counted from the 100 WBC differential. Absolute refer-
ence ranges have been compiled for each cell in the
verify the automated result. The criteria for performing white cell differential (Table 9.6). For an example of how
either a full differential or a “diff scan,” are usually well to calculate and interpret the relative and absolute
outlined in the standard operating procedure for each count, see below:
clinical facility. Generally, these criteria include items If the WBC is 5.0 ⫻ 109/L
such as total leukocyte count, lymphocytes, and mono-
And the differential Segmented neutrophils: 40%
cytes above a certain level, an abnormal scatter plot, or
reads: (Ref. range ⫽ 50% to 70%)
thrombocytopenia. Patients whose peripheral smears
Bands: 3% (Ref. range ⫽ 2%
need review usually represent a pool of individuals who
to 6%)
are seriously ill or whose conditions are deteriorating or
Lymphocytes: 55% (Ref. range
changing. Needless to say, reviewing peripheral smears
⫽ 20% to 44%)
on these patients requires a high level of morphological
Monocytes: 2% (Ref. range ⫽
skill from the laboratory professional.
2% to 9%)
Then the absolute count of lymphocytes would be 5000
Relative Versus Absolute Values
⫻ 0.55⫽ 2500.
Relative and absolute counts are terms referring to the Reference range for absolute lymphocyte count ⫽ 1200
white cell differential. The absolute count refers to the to 3400
count derived from the total white count multiplied by In this patient, there is a relative lymphocytosis but
the percentage of any particular white cell. The relative not an absolute lymphocytosis.
CONDENSED CASE
A routine CBC was received in the clinical laboratory on a patient who had been receiving daily blood work. On this
particular day, the computer flagged (delta checked) a variety of parameters pertaining to the CBC. The parameters
that were flagged were: WBC, Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, and MCV. What are the steps needed to investigate the
discrepancy in this patient’s results?
Answer
1. Realize that the delta check is the historical reference on the patient. If the results are flagged, then there is a
discrepancy in patient results.
2. Visually inspect the CBC tubes, and peel back the label looking for identification.
3. Check the sample for a clot.
4. Re-run the sample to ensure that there is the proper amount of sample and proper mixing.
5. Check whether there is a transfusion history on the patient.
6. Call the floor and ask how the sample was drawn.
After performing these steps, decide on a course of action.

Summary Points • The bone marrow and the thymus are the primary
lymphoid organs.
• The myeloid:erythroid ratio (M:E) is 4:1.
• Spleen, lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches, and the ton-
• Segmented neutrophils are held in the marginating
sils are the secondary lymphoid organs.
pool for 7 to 10 days before release to circulation.
• The lymphatic system plays an important role in
• The white cell series in order of least mature to most
blood filtration, fluid balance, antibody generation,
mature is myeloblast, promyelocyte, myelocyte,
and lymphopoiesis.
metamyelocyte, band, and segmented neutrophils.
• T cells represent 60% to 80% of the total lympho-
• Cell identification is based on cell size, N:C ratio,
cyte count.
presence or absence of granules, presence or absence
of nucleoli, chromatin pattern, and texture of cyto- • B cells represent 10% to 20% of the total lympho-
plasm. cyte count.
• The marginating pool designates those white cells • T helper and T cytotoxic/suppressor cells are essen-
located along the vessel endothelium. tial in cell-mediated immunity.
• The circulating pool designates those white cells • B cells support humoral immunity, which is anti-
present in the bloodstream. body production by plasma cells.
• Lymphocytes originate not only from the bone • Absolute counts are derived from the total white
marrow but also from the thymus and the counts multiplied by the relative percentage of
lymphatic system. a particular cell in the differential.
CASE STUDY
A 45-year-old woman presented to the emergency depart- bleeding was a consideration. No further testing was
ment with vague complaints of dizziness, right-sided order because it was the weekend and a hematology con-
abdominal pain, and intermittent blurred vision.A base- sult could not be arranged before Monday. The patient
line CBC was drawn with the following results: had two subsequent CBCs during this time and eventu-
WBC 6.5 ⫻ 109/L ally a peripheral smear was pulled. Once the peripheral
RBC 4.02 ⫻ 1012/L smear was stained and reviewed, the technologist noted
Hgb 13.2 g/dL that most of the platelets were spreading around the neu-
Hct 37.3% trophils, a condition known as platelet satellitism (see
Fig. 10.18). This condition is a reaction by some patients
MCV 86 fL
to the EDTA in the lavender top tubes. Once this was
MCH 24.2 pg
observed, the patient’s blood was redrawn in a sodium
MCHC 30.3 ⫻ 109/L
citrate tube and cycled for a platelet count. The platelet
Platelets 30.3 ⫻ 109/L
count on this sample was recorded at 230,000. In the
Is this a critical platelet count? usual course of events, a flag on the platelet count would
Insights to the Case Study probably not warrant a peripheral smear review. How-
The patient was admitted to the hospital as a result of the ever, this situation may serve as a catalyst for a review of
extremely low platelet count. The risk of spontaneous the flagging policy.
Review Questions
1. The primary lymphoid organs are the b. Metamyelocyte
a. liver and spleen. c. Myelocyte
b. gallbladder and liver. d. Band
c. bone marrow and thymus.
4. Which CD marker is specific for monocytes?
d. spleen and tonsils.
a. CD45
2. Which one of these features distinguishes a mono- b. CD19
cyte from a lymphocyte? c. CD20
a. Nucleoli d. CD14
b. Abundant gray-blue cytoplasm
5. Which subpopulation of T cells alters the cell
c. Round, flattened nucleus
membrane?
d. Large blue-black granules
a. T cytotoxic
3. In which stage of neutrophilic maturation are spe- b. T helper
cific granules? c. NK cells
a. Myeloblast d. None of the above
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When Samples Are Sent to the problems with the sample. She considered these possi-
Lab Within Minutes on the Same Patient and the bilities:
Results Do Not Match? 1. Is the specimen clotted or contaminated?
A 74-year-old patient who was in the critical care unit 2. Did the same patient have blood drawn for
was having daily hematology blood work performed. specimen 1 and for specimen 2?
The first sample was sent to the laboratory at 2:23 P.M.
3. How was the specimen obtained?
Hemoglobin and hematocrit were the only analyses
requested. The results were verified without delta flags. Both samples were checked for clots. After con-
The second sample was sent 20 minutes later with a tacting the floor nurse, the following information was
request for hemoglobin and hematocrit. Both samples obtained. Both samples were drawn through an arterial
were cycled through the automated instrument and a line, an “A line.” Arterial lines are inserted in critically
full CBC was obtained. Only the hemoglobin and ill patients who have frequent blood draws and receive
hematocrit were reported. The results: frequent medications. The procedure when drawing
through an A line is to draw off and discard the first 10
First Sample Second Sample mL of blood and then proceed with the blood draw,
at 2:23 P.M. at 2:43 P.M. usually filling tubes directly from the line. In this case,
the blood draw for the first sample was difficult and the
WBC 16.9 ⫻ 109/L 12.5 ⫻ 109/L
blood from the A line was not free flowing. The second
Hgb 9.3 g/dL 8.4 g/dL sample, however, was obtained without difficulty.
Hct 26.5% 24.2% Proper blood drawing procedure with the A line was
followed with both samples. After consultation with
Platelets 104 ⫻ 109/L 97 ⫻ 109/L
the lead technologist and the nurse, it was decided to
Hemoglobin and hematocrit were the only two release the second set of results and remove the first set
tests ordered and both results seem totally verifiable. from the computer. The patient did have a blood bank
Since the technologist had access to the complete CBC history and had received units of packed red cells and
on the computer screen, she noticed the disparity in fresh frozen plasma. This information, however, did
white counts. The change in white count, however, is not have relevance in this case, considering that the
troubling and alerted the technologist to the possible parameter in question was the white count.
WORD KEY phocytes. In: Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of

Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002; 252.
Cervical • Relating to the neck 3. Heckner F, Lehman P, Kao Y. Practical Microscopic Hema-
tology, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1994;
Inguinal • Relating to the groin area
14–16.
Subclavian • Situated beneath the clavicle or collarbone 4. Carr JH, Rodak BF. Clinical Hematology Atlas. Philadel-
phia: WB Saunders, 1999.
Thoracic • Relating to the chest
5. O’Connor BH. A Color Atlas and Instructional Manual of
Humoral • When relating to immunity it means antibody Peripheral Blood Cell Morphology. Baltimore: Williams
formation & Wilkins, 1984.
6. Brown B. Hematology: Principles and Procedures, 6th ed.
Thymus • Ductless gland located above the heart that
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000;
plays a role in immunity
74–79.
7. Rossi MI, Yokota T, Medin KL, et al. B lymphopoiesis is
References active throughout human life, but there are developmen-
1. Turgeon ML. Clinical Hematology: Theory and Proce- tal age related changes. Blood 101:576–584, 2003.
dures. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 8. Steine-Martin EA, Lotspeich-Steininger CA, Koepke JA.
1999; 160. Clinical Hematology: Principles, Procedures, and Corre-
2. Parsons D, Marty J, Strauss R. Cell biology, disorders of lations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1998;
neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis and reactive lym- 326–327.
10 Abnormalities of White Cells:

Quantitative, Qualitative,
and the Lipid Storage Diseases
Betty Ciesla
Introduction to the White Cell Disorders Objectives

Quantitative Changes in the White Cells After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Conditions With Increased Neutrophils 1. Recall the physiology and function of granulo-
Conditions With Increased Eosinophils cytes.
Conditions With Increased Basophils 2. Describe the steps involved in phagocytosis.
Conditions With Increased Monocytes
3. Identify conditions that cause a quantitative
Specific Terminology Relating to Quantitative increase or decrease in a particular white cell
White Cell Changes line.
Stages of White Cell Phagocytosis 4. Describe the changes observed when white
Qualitative Defects of White Cells cells respond to infection.
Toxic Changes in White Cells 5. Identify the acquired and inherited qualitative
Nuclear Abnormalities: Hypersegmentation changes in the white cell.
6. Identify conditions that lead to hyposegmenta-
Hereditary White Cell Disorders
tion or hypersegmentation of the segmented
May-Hegglin Anomaly neutrophils.
Alder’s Anomaly (Alder-Reilly Anomaly)
7. Define the probable causes for an increased
Pelger-Huët Anomaly lymphocyte count.
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome
8. Define the differences seen in an adult’s versus a
Reactive Lymphocytosis in Common Disease child’s lymphocyte count.
States 9. Describe the effects of the human immunodefi-
Other Sources of Reactive Lymphocytosis ciency virus on the complete blood count and
the peripheral smear.
The Effect of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 10. Recall the reactive symptoms of infectious
on Hematology Parameters mononucleosis and cytomegalovirus.
Lipid Storage Diseases (Briefly) 11. Define white cell–related terms such as leukocy-
tosis, left shift, leukemoid reaction, and leukoery-
Common Features of a Few of the Lipid Storage
throblastic reaction.
Diseases
Bone Marrow Cells in Lipid Storage Disorders 12. Briefly describe the lipid storage diseases, such
as Gaucher’s, Niemann-Pick, and Tay-Sachs
Bacteria and Other Unexpected White Cell diseases.
Changes
143
INTRODUCTION TO THE Conditions With Increased Neutrophils

WHITE CELL DISORDERS • Infections
Because white cells have such a short time span in the • Inflammatory response
peripheral circulation, alterations either in the quantity • Stress response
of or the quality of a particular cell can be quite dra- • Malignancies
matic. With the normal differential reference ranges for
adults and children as a benchmark, any increase or
Conditions With Increased Eosinophils
decrease in a particular type of cell signals the body’s
unique response to “assaults” of any kind. Infection, • Skin disease
inflammation, chronic disease, parasitic infestations, • Parasitic disease
etc., each represents an unexpected occurrence, an • Transplant rejection2
opportunity for white cells to mobilize. As white cells • Myeloproliferative disorders
respond to infection or other stimuli, changes are seen
in the number of and types of a particular cell line. If a Conditions With Increased Basophils
cell line is increased, the suffix used to designate an
increase is “osis” or “philia,” such as “eosinophilia” and • Myeloproliferative disorders
“leukocytosis.” If a cell line is decreased, the suffix used • Hypersensitivity reactions
to designate a decrease is “penia,” such as “neutrope- • Ulcerative colitis
nia.” Changes are observed in the complete blood count
(CBC) as well as in the peripheral blood smear. An inter- Conditions With Increased Monocytes
esting situation is the role that granules from a particu- • Chronic infections like tuberculosis
lar cell line play in producing symptoms. For example, • Malignancies
eosinophilic granules contain histamine. In allergy • Leukemias with a strong monocytic component
patients, eosinophils are usually seen in excess. Once • Bone marrow failure
histamine is released from eosinophils, this chemical
stimulates allergy-related symptoms such as watery, With regard to a decrease in cell lines, perhaps the
itching eyes and rhinorrhea. Interestingly, most allergy most significant finding is neutropenia in which the
medications contain antihistamines, formulated to absolute neutrophil count is less than 2.0 ⫻ 109/L. This
block allergy symptoms. occurs due to medications, bone marrow assaults due to
In most cases, patients who have newly acquired chemicals, viral infections, or splenic sequestration.3
infections will show an increase in white cells from
the reference range. Care must be taken, however, Specific Terminology Relating
when assessing a patient with an increased white to Quantitative White Cell Changes
count. Ethnic differences have been suggested in
For the most part, four terms are used to describe white
the normal white cell reference range, with blacks hav-
cell conditions: leukocytosis, left shift, leukemoid reaction,
ing a lower normal white count than whites. A sympto-
and the leukoerythroblastic picture. These terms are usu-
matology that reflects an infection combined with an
ally not used interchangeably, but they are a source of
elevated white count strongly suggests an infectious
confusion for the student. Leukocytosis simply means
process.1
that an increase in white cells has occurred; left shift
means that the bone marrow is responding to the
increased white count by sending out younger cells
QUANTITATIVE CHANGES (metamyelocytes, bands) into the peripheral circula-
IN THE WHITE CELLS tion. Leukemoid reaction is an exaggerated response to
Various conditions give rise to increases or decreases in infections and inflammation in which the baseline
a particular cell line. These conditions are usually tran- leukocyte count may be between 20 and 50 ⫻ 109/L.
sient, and once the underlying condition has resolved This count may appear as preleukemic; however, the
itself, for the most part the counts return to normal. A white cells that are seen in the peripheral smear are
partial list of disorders that increase or decrease leuko- slightly immature to mature with no blasts present. The
cytes is included. Lymphocytes will be considered leukoerythroblastic picture is a significant feature of the
under a separate heading. myeloproliferative disorders and refers to the presence
CHAPTER 10 • Abnormalities of White Cells: Quantitative, Qualitative, and the Lipid Storage Diseases 145
in the peripheral smear of immature white cells, imma-

ture red cells (nucleated RBCs [RBCs]), and platelet
abnormalities (Table 10.1).
STAGES OF WHITE CELL

PHAGOCYTOSIS
A
The phagocytic process by which bacteria and other
infectious agents are recognized and destroyed is a crit-
ical function of neutrophils and monocytes. The neu-
trophil role in phagocytosis is localized and immediate;
the monocyte role is related to immune response and
more tissue oriented. The process by which bacteria are
digested and immobilized can be broken down in sev-
eral simplified steps (Fig. 10.1).
B
• Stage 1—CHEMOTAXIS: Foreign body
invades tissues; neutrophils, which usually
move in random motion through the tissue, are
attracted directly to site of invasion through
chemical signals sent by foreign body (bacte-
ria). More neutrophils mobilize and rush to site
of infection.
• Stage 2—OPSONIZATON: Neutrophilic
attachment of the invading foreign body can C
only take place once the foreign body has been
opsonized or prepared to be ingested through
interaction with the complement system and
other immunoglobulins.
• Stage 3—INGESTION: The opsonized foreign
body is ingested by the neutrophil. The foreign
body is engulfed by the neutrophilic pseudo-
pod membranes. D
• Stage 4—KILLING: The neutrophilic granules
release their contents, which contain various
lytic elements. The pH of the cell is reduced Figure 10.1 Mechanism of phagocytosis. Stages depicted
and hydrogen peroxide is produced by the are (A) chemotaxis and directed motility, (B) opsonization,
neutrophil as a result of respiratory burst (C) ingestion, (D) degranulation and digestion.
and released to accelerate the destruction
process. The neutrophil is also destroyed
in this process.
Bacteremia or sepsis may occur if invading organ- QUALITATIVE DEFECTS
isms or foreign bodies are not destroyed upon entry into
OF WHITE CELLS
the body. They may locate in secondary sites such as the Qualitative changes of the white cell take place either
lymph nodes, where they will rapidly multiply and in the cytoplasm or the nucleus. These changes are
release toxins. classified as either inherited or acquired. Acquired
Phagocytic activity is a complex process involving defects are seen with much greater frequency than
phagocytic cells, the complement system, cytotoxins, inherited abnormalities. Once a patient has developed
and acute-phase reactants. Each of these systems must an increased white count, toxic changes of the white
have coordinated activities to ensure that pathogens cells usually occur due to stress during maturation
will be destroyed4 (Table 10.2). and as a result of activity in the circulation or tissue. A
careful and patient review of the peripheral smear of

Table 10.1 ¢ White Cell Terminology these individuals will reveal many of the changes dis-
cussed (Fig. 10.2).
• Neutrophilia Increase in segmented neutrophils
• Leukocytosis Increase in white cells
• Left shift Increase in bands and metamyelocytes Toxic Changes in White Cells
in the peripheral smear; seen in response to The visible response of white cells to infection or
infection inflammation occurs along two paths. As white cells
• Leukemoid reaction Exaggerated response to infec-
increase, what is usually seen in the peripheral smear is
tion; resulting in high white count and increased
numbers of metamyelocytes, bands, and possibly
either an increase in the number of segmented neu-
younger cells trophils giving rise to a neutrophilia or a shift to the left,
• Leukoerythroblastic picture Immature white cells, where younger cells are noted. In either of these cases,
immature red cells, and platelet abnormalities seen in toxic changes such as toxic granulation, toxic vacuoliza-
the peripheral smear tion, or the presence of Döhle bodies may be observed
and should be carefully sought.
Cytokine (G-CSF)
Myeloid precursor
in bone marrow
stimulated by cytokine
Cell is altered
White cells
more readily
exit marrow
Increased
phagocytic
activity
Left shift Cytoplasmic

Enhanced enzyme inclusion may
production and appear
packaging resulting in
large granules
Toxic
vacuolization
Toxic Döhle bodies

granulation
Figure 10.2 The evolution of toxic

granulation.
Table 10.2 ¢ Essential Elements

Leading to Phagocytosis
Cells
• Neutrophils: Attracted to pathogen, are activated by
endothelial cell surface receptors, will recruit more
neutrophils to infection site through cell surface
receptors
• Monocytes: Cells in transit between marrow, tissues
circulating blood, will move to area of stimuli and
possess lytic enzymes
• Basophils, eosinophils: React in concert with comple-
ment and hormones to suppress inflammation
Figure 10.3 Toxic granulation. Note heavier granulation Complements
throughout the cytoplasm. • C5a: Coats the pathogen, making it “tasty” to phago-
cytic cells
• C3b: Causes increase in vascular permeability
Toxic Granulation Cytokines
Normal granulation in the segmented neutrophils • Tumor necrosis factor
shows a dustlike appearance, with the red and blue • Interleukins 1, 8, and 10
granules being difficult to observe. Toxic granulation is
excessive granulation in amount and intensity, with
more prominent granules in segmented neutrophils in
such as sulfonamides or chloroquine or prolonged
direct response to enhanced lysosome enzyme produc-
storage may lead to phagocytosis of granules or cyto-
tion. These granules are more frequent and have much
plasmic contents.5 Additionally, small uniformly placed
more vivid blue-black coloration (Fig. 10.3). Cluster of
vacuoles may be seen in peripheral smear made from
toxic granules usually appear in neutrophils. At times
blood that has held for long periods of time. In cases
the granulation is so heavy as to resemble basophilic
where the creation of peripheral smears has been
granules.
delayed, pseudo-vacuolization will be recognized. This
phenomenon must be distinguished from the patho-
Toxic Vacuolization genic variety. Larger vacuoles unevenly distributed
throughout the cytoplasm usually signal serious infec-
This change occurs in segmented neutrophils. Vacuoles
tions and possible sepsis. Studies have shown that
appear in the cytoplasm of this cell and may be small or
when 10% of neutrophils are affected by vacuoles in
large (Fig. 10.4). Prolonged exposure of blood to drugs
a fresh sample, this ranks as a serious and significant
prognostic indicator6 (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3 ¢ Significant Alterations

in Neutrophils in
1967 American Society of Clinical Pathologists.
Peripheral Smears
Text/image rights not available. • Döhle bodies
• Toxic granulation
• Toxic vacuolization
• Hyposegmentation
• Hypersegmentation
• Bacteria (intracellular or extracellular)
©
• Platelet satellitism
Figure 10.4 Toxic vacuolization. Note large vacuoles • Chediak-Higashi granules
located in the cytoplasm.

Courtesy of Ms. Kathy Finnegan, MS, MT (ASCP)SH,

Stony Brook Medical Center, Stony Brook, NY.
©
Figure 10.5 Döhle bodies are inclusions that are pale,

peripherally located in the cytoplasm, and rodlike.
Figure 10.6 Human ehrlichiosis.

Dohle Bodies
These cytoplasmic inclusions consist of ribosomal (Fig. 10.6). These inclusions, if identified, are specific for
RNA. They range from 1 to 5 μm in size, are located near these diseases but are difficult to observe and are not
the cytoplasmic membrane, and appear as a rod-shaped seen in every case. However, peripheral smears and
pale bluish-gray structure (Fig. 10.5). These transient bone marrow smears should be carefully reviewed for
inclusions are frequently observed in neutrophils but identification of these inclusion bodies.
may be seen in monocytes and bands. Dohle bodies are
difficult to observe under light microscopy, and periph-
eral smears must be carefully scrutinized for their pres- Nuclear Abnormalities:
ence. Dohle bodies may also be seen in nonpathological Hypersegmentation
conditions such as pregnancy. Normal segmented neutrophils will have between three
and five lobes in the nucleus. Hypersegmentation is
Human Ehrlichiosis defined as a segmented neutrophilic nucleus having
more than five lobes (Fig. 10.7). This condition is usually
Named for the noted microbiologist, Paul Ehrlich, seen in the megaloblastic processes such as folic acid,
human ehrlichiosis infections are a fairly new group of pernicious anemia, or vitamin B12 deficiency and is usu-
tick-borne diseases, which show a notable white cell ally accompanied by oval macrocytes.
inclusion in some cases. There are two varieties: human
monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME), caused by the Rickettsia-
like bacteria Ehrlichia chafeensis, and human granulo-
cytic ehrlichiosis (HE), caused by the Rickettsia-like
bacteria Ehrlichia phagocytophilia. These diseases are dif-
ficult to diagnose because patients show vague sympto-

matology that is often mistaken for other infectious
diseases. HME cases are usually located in the southeast-
ern and mid-Atlantic United States9 and show in initial
flu-like presentation. Patients with HE, who are usually
located in the midwestern United States, show an acute
onset of high fever, chills, and headache.10 Common to
both illnesses is low white count, extremely elevated
liver enzymes, and thrombocytopenia. Inclusions may
be seen in the granulocytes or monocytes from the bone
marrow, and these morula, mulberry-like, inclusions are
large, 1 to 3 μm, and resemble berries in appearance Figure 10.7 Hypersegmented neutrophil.
HEREDITARY WHITE
CELL DISORDERS

May-Hegglin Anomaly
This inherited disorder is associated with thrombocy-
topenia and giant platelets. Abnormal bleeding may be
seen in a small number of affected individuals. Döhle
bodies are seen in the cytoplasm of neutrophils and are
larger than the Dohle bodies seen in neutrophils
responding to infections or inflammation.
Alder’s Anomaly (Alder-Reilly Anomaly)

This rare genetic disorder is associated with the pres-
Figure 10.9 Pelger-Huët. Note spherocyte (at arrow)
ence of coarse dark granules in neutrophils, lympho- and the typical bilobed appearance of Pelger-Huët cells.
cytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils (Fig. 10.8).
This granulation is thought to consist of lipid deposi-
tions in the cytoplasm as a result of decreased to make two judgments. Is the hyposegmentation
mucopolysaccharide production.7 Prominent deposi- seen in the majority of neutrophils? Is the nuclear
tion of granules in every cell line is a differentiating fea- content mature? Even experienced morphologists have
ture between this condition and toxic granulation, misidentified these cells as bands or metamyelocytes,
which appears in clusters only in neutrophils and greatly skewing the peripheral smear results. In a true
monocytes. Pelger-Huët anomaly, almost 70% to 95% of the
neutrophils will show hyposegmentation. The cells,
Pelger-Huët Anomaly however, will be functional neutrophils. There are a
number of conditions in which the neutrophils may
This fairly common inherited disorder shows hyposeg- present with a pseudo–Pelger-Huët look, such as
mentation of the nucleus of segmented neutrophils. leukemias, myeloproliferative disorders, and severe
In heterozygotes, the nucleus is seen as peanut shaped, infections.
dumb-bell shaped, or pince-nez shaped (Fig. 10.9). In
homozygotes, the nucleus is spherical with no lobes
and prominent nuclear clumping. Initially, when Chediak-Higashi Syndrome
observing cells with the Pelger-Huët anomaly, they This is a rare autosomal disorder of neutrophilic gran-
may appear as bands or metamyelocytes. When con- ules. Neutrophils in these individuals show giant gray-
sidering these cells in a peripheral smear, it is important green cytoplasmic granules (Fig. 10.10). Lymphocytes

©
Figure 10.10 Chediak-Higashi anomaly. Note large gray-

Figure 10.8 Alder’s anomaly. Note deep granulation. green granules in the cytoplasm.
and monocytes show a single red granule in the cyto-

plasm. Current studies suggest that there is a
defective fusion protein in these individuals, which is

crucial to lysosomal secretion.8 White cells in patients
with Chediak-Higashi syndrome are not fully function-
ing and show reduced chemotaxis and bactericidal
killing function. Affected children show neutropenia,
albinism, and photophobia and develop recurrent
infections with Staphylococcus aureus. Hepatosplenome-
galy and liver failure may develop. Platelet function is
affected with abnormal bleeding times and small vessel
bleeding. The prognosis is poor in most children, who
usually die young due to complications of infections.
Figure 10.11 Normal lymphocyte.
REACTIVE LYMPHOCYTOSIS
IN COMMON DISEASE STATES
EBV antigen positivity and measure IgG titers in conva-
It is normal for young children between the ages of 1 lescence. The peripheral smear is particularly impres-
and 4 to have a relative lymphocytosis. The white cell sive and usually shows a reactive lymphocytosis, with
differential in this age group will show a reversal in the between 10% and 60% reactive lymphocytes (Fig.
number of lymphocytes to segmented neutrophils from 10.12). Morphologically, these lymphocytes are larger
the adult reference range. The lymphocytes, however, than the normal large lymphocytes with an abundant
will have normal morphology (Fig. 10.11). By far the royal blue cytoplasm, sometimes scalloping the red
most common disease entity displaying variation in cells. They are easily identified with clumped chromatin
lymphocytes is infectious mononucleosis. This is viral material and must be recorded separately (on the differ-
illness caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a mem- ential counter) from the other nonreactive normal lym-
ber of the human herpes virus family, type 4. Although phocytes seen in the smear (Table 10.4). At times, the
young children may become infected with EBV, the diagnosis of infectious mononucleosis is difficult to
virus has a peak incidence at around 20 years of age. make in the event that the rapid agglutination test is
Most adults have been exposed to EBV by midlife, and negative, which it is in 10% of cases.11 The clinician
this is recognized by demonstratable antibody produc- should rely on symptoms, peripheral smear, and profes-
tion whether or not they have had an active case of sional experience in pronouncing the disease. Molecular
infectious mononucleosis. The virus is found in body diagnostics is highly accurate but is expensive and a spe-
fluids, especially saliva, and is frequently passed cialized procedure. There is no treatment for infectious
through exchanges such as kissing, sharing food uten- mononucleosis except for bed rest and treatment of
sils, or drinking cups. The virus, which incubates for 3 additional symptoms or possible subsequent infections.
to 4 weeks, enters through the oral passages and infects
B lymphocytes. Normal lymphocytes become infected
and are transformed into “reactive” (old terminology, Other Sources of Reactive Lymphocytosis
“atypical”) lymphocytes. Symptoms include sore throat, In most cases, viral disorders affect the CBC in a similar
fatigue, anorexia, fever, and headache. The lymph pattern. Most have an increased white count with a
nodes are usually always enlarged and there may be depressed number of segmented neutrophils and an
hepatosplenomegaly. Most individuals have a self-lim- increased lymphocyte count. Conditions such as
ited course of disease, which is uncomfortable but cytomegalovirus and hepatitis A, B, and C viruses may
uncomplicated. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia and show reactive lymphocytes of a morphology similar to
elevated liver enzymes may be a complication in less infectious mononucleosis. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a
than 1% of patients. virus that is endemic worldwide. A member of the her-
Differential diagnosis includes careful examination pes family, this virus discovered in 1957 is similar to
of the peripheral smear, the results of rapid agglutina- EBV. The virus has been isolated from respiratory secre-
tion tests, and more sophisticated procedures such as tions, urine, semen, and cervical secretions, but it also
ELISA or indirect immunofluorescence, which track found in transplanted organs and donor blood. Indeed,
Table 10.4 ¢ Lymphocyte Morphologies
Reactive Resting Small

Lymphocyte Lymphocyte
Size Large (9 to 30 μm) Small (8 to 12 μm)
N:C ratio Low to moderate High to moderate
Cytoplasm Abundant, color- Scant, colorless to
less to dark blue light blue
Nucleus Round to irregular Round
Chromatin Coarse to moder- Coarse
ately fine
Nucleoli Absent to distinct Absent
Typing Polyclonal Polyclonal
individuals and the other vulnerable populations, CMV

disease can be severe and potentially fatal. Congenital
CMV occurs when the mother develops an active CMV
infection or when her latent CMV becomes reactivated
due to pregnancy. It is the leading congenital viral dis-
ease. Affected infants may show low birth weight, jaun-
dice, and enlarged spleen and the disease may
predispose to psychomotor defects or deafness. Often,
affected mothers are not even aware that they are
infected. Donor blood administered to premature
infants, multiply transfused populations, or immuno-
compromised patients must be CMV negative.
THE EFFECT OF HUMAN

IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS/
ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY
SYNDROME ON HEMATOLOGY
PARAMETERS
The HIV is the causative agent of acquired immunodefi-
ciency syndrome (AIDS). In this disease, immune func-
tion is eventually obliterated and patients frequently die
of opportunistic infections such as Pneumocystis carinii
Figure 10.12 Reactive lymphocytes. Note large cells or Mycobacterium avium or the neoplasm Kaposi’s sar-
with abundant basophilic cytoplasm. coma. Lymphocytes are primarily involved in this dis-
ease process, particularly CD4 helper, inducer cells and
CD8 suppressor, cytotoxic cells. The normal ratio of
40% to 90% of all blood donors show anti-CMV titers, CD4 to CD8 is 2:1. In HIV infection, the level of CD4 is
indicating that they have been exposed and have drastically reduced, with the ratio being reversed, lead-
mounted an antibody response. Most individuals have a ing to a decline in immune capabilities. The CBC shows
subclinical infection and do not even realize that they a pancytopenia with neutropenia, anemia, and a throm-
have had a viral infection. Some individuals have a bocytopenia. The lymphocytes will show reactive
mononucleosis-like syndrome with low-grade fever changes such as extremely basophilic cytoplasm or pos-
and flu-like symptoms. But to immunocompromised sibly clefting and vacuolization.
Table 10.5 ¢ Enzyme Deficiencies

in Specific Lipid

Storage Diseases
Disease Missing Enzyme
Gaucher’s disease ␤-Glucocerebrosidase
Niemann-Pick disease Sphingomyelinase
Tay-Sachs disease Hexosaminidase A
LIPID STORAGE DISEASES (BRIEFLY) Figure 10.13 Gaucher’s cells (BM). Note the crinkled tis-
The lipid storage diseases are a group of diseases in sue paper appearance of the cytoplasm.
which a strategic metabolic enzyme is missing or inac-
tive, usually as a result of a single gene deletion (see Table supportive therapy is all that can be offered. Enzyme
10.5). Because of this missing enzyme, undigested replacement therapy using biosynthetic enzyme mate-
metabolic products accumulate in cells and cell rial is available in limited qualities.13 Bone marrow
integrity is affected. Cells of the reticuloendothelial sys- transplantation is also available, yet the risks and bene-
tem (RES) are most often affected. The RES is a network fits of this procedure in young children must be care-
of cells seen throughout the circulation and tissues that fully considered.
provide the phagocytic defense system. Histiocytes,
monocytes, macrophages, and the cells of the bone
Bone Marrow Cells in Lipid
marrow, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes comprise this Storage Disorders
network. Consequently, large, easily identifiable cells
specific to each disease are located in the bone marrow Gaucher’s and Niemann-Pick diseases each have spe-
and are part of the diagnostic picture of many of these cific bone marrow cells that are representative of the
disorders. For this reason, these disorders are not fre- particular disorder. For Gaucher’s disease, the cell is
quently observed in the clinical laboratory. large, 20 to 100 μm, with rod-shaped inclusions that
appear like crinkled tissue paper in the bone marrow
(Fig. 10.13). For Niemann-Pick, the cell is equally large
Common Features of a Few
but appears round with evenly sized lipid accumula-
of the Lipid Storage Diseases
tions (Fig. 10.14). In their own right, each of these cells is
Gaucher’s, Tay-Sachs, and Niemann-Pick are the three
most common lipid storage diseases, and they have
many common features. All are autosomal recessive dis-
orders as a result of a single-gene mutation. Abnormal
facial features and liver enlargement are seen in all but
Tay-Sachs. Although there is a wide range of clinical
presentation, from infant onset to adult onset, those
individuals with infant onset have a more severe clinical

presentation and a shorter life span. Many of these dis- Text/image rights not available.
eases have a high incidence in the northeast European
Jewish population (the Ashkenazi), and for this reason

prenatal counseling and genetic screening are highly
recommended in affected or extended families. Central
nervous system involvement is often a feature of infan-
tile forms of the disease, especially Tay-Sachs, and short
©
life spans usually prevail.12 There is no cure for the lipid Figure 10.14 Niemann-Pick cell (BM). Cytoplasm shows
storage diseases, and for the most severe manifestations, lipid accumulation.
Figure 10.15 Intracellular bacteria in a segmented Figure 10.17 Precipitated stain, not bacteria.
neutrophil.
striking on bone marrow examination because they are cocci or rods. In either case, bacteria must be recog-
infrequently observed. In Tay-Sachs disease, there is no nized and the significant medical caretakers must be
large identifiable bone marrow cell, yet most of these alerted (Figs. 10.15 and 10.16). Precipitated stain may at
individuals have a deficiency of hexosamindadase A, times resemble bacteria; therefore, it is important to be
which can be tested for prenatally.14 The lymphocytes in positive in your identification of bacteria, as artifacts
each of these disorders may show vacuolization, and may be confusing (Fig. 10.17).
although it is a common finding, it is not specific for the Platelet satellitism has been discussed in a case
lipid storage disorders. study in a previous chapter. However, it represents a
phenomenon that must be recognized as an unexpected
event in a peripheral smear. The blood of some patients
BACTERIA AND OTHER UNEXPECTED will react with EDTA, causing platelets to form a ring
WHITE CELL CHANGES around neutrophils. This is described as platelet satel-
The presence of bacteria in a peripheral smear indicates litism (Fig. 10.18). This event will produce a falsely low
bacteremia or sepsis, a condition that may have severe platelet count and can be corrected only once the
consequence to the patient. Blood is a sterile environ- patient sample is collected in a sodium citrate tube for
ment such that the presence of gram-positive or -nega- an accurate platelet count (Fig. 10.19). An additional
tive bacteria, fungi, etc., is an unwanted event. Bacteria peripheral cell change that may occur in segmented
may be seen intracellularly or extracellularly as either neutrophils is pyknosis, or pyknotic changes. This is
Figure 10.16 Extracellular bacteria in peripheral blood. Figure 10.18 Platelet satellitism.
seen in degenerated neutrophils as the segmented

nucleus becomes an amorphous, smooth blob-like
EDTA
structure with no clear segmented structure. These cells
are not counted in the white cell differential.
Platelet
Patient's blood
has antibodies
to EDTA. Student Challenge
Observe Figure 10.20. Is the cell at the arrow a lympho-
cyte or an nRBC? Why or why not?
The IgG antibody is

directed against the
glycoprotein complex
Adapted from Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide Based on Proficiency
on the platelet.
The attached platelets

are not counted by
hematology instruments,
Testing. Northfield, IL: College of American Pathologists, 1998, with permission.
leading to falsely
low counts.
The antibody-coated
platelets attach to
bands, segmented
neutrophils, and
rarely monocytes.
Figure 10.20 Is this a lymphocyte or an nRBC?
As seen in peripheral smear
Figure 10.19 Platelet satellitism formation. An unex-

pected reaction of the patient to the EDTA causes the
platelets to ring around segmented neutrophils.
CONDENSED CASE
A hemoglobin and hematocrit were ordered on a patient for a surgical floor. The test was performed on the Coulter LH
750, and the hemoglobin and hematocrit were compatible with previous results. However, the instrument routinely
reports the complete CBC, and while observing the entire nine parameters, the operator noticed that the platelet count
was only 23,000, a critical value. The delta check on the patient from the previous day showed that the platelet count
was 257,000, a significant difference. Corrective action needed to be taken. The operator decided to check the tube
that she has just cycled through the instrument for clots, and a small clot was found. How many times should a pur-
ple top tube be inverted once drawn to prevent clotting?
Answer
The specimen that was sent from the floor was an improper sample that had probably not been properly collected.
When drawing blood into a purple top tube, the tube must be inverted five to seven times for proper mixing of the
anticoagulant and blood. Once the technologist noticed a small clot, corrective action needed to be taken. The technol-
ogist now had the responsibility of notifying the nurse of the erroneous results and asking for a redraw. Additionally,
the erroneous results needed to be removed from the computer and the documentation of the situation and corrective
action needed to be recorded. The sharp eye of the technologist/technician in this case made it possible for reliable
results to eventually be obtained.
Summary Points • A hypersegmented nucleus, five lobes or more, is

seen in megaloblastic disorders.
• Infections and inflammation will increase the num-
ber of neutrophils in the peripheral smear. • Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a rare autosomal dis-
order of neutrophilic granules.
• Leukocytosis means an increase in white count.
• Human ehrlichiosis represents a group of tick-
• Eosinophils will be increased in skin diseases, para- borne diseases caused by Rickettsia Ehrlichia chafeen-
sitic infections, and transplant rejection. sis and Ehrlichia phagocytophilia. Inclusions may
• A left shift signifies that younger white cells will be seen in the granulocytes and monocytes in the
appear in the peripheral smear such as occasional bone marrow.
metamyelocytes, many bands, and segmented neu- • Reactive lymphocytes are lymphocytes transformed
trophils. by viral infections or other disorders.
• Leukemoid reaction is an exaggerated response to • Reactive lymphocytes are characterized by abundant
infection or inflammation. basophilic cytoplasm, a lower N:C ratio, and
• In the leukoerythroblastic picture, young white clumped chromatin material.
cells, young red cells, and abnormal platelets will • Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the Epstein-
be seen. Barr virus, and patients show low-grade fever,
• Phagocytosis is a process by which bacteria and sore throat, swollen glands, anorexia, and
other infectious agents are recognized and destroyed headache.
by neutrophils and monocytes. • Individuals with AIDS show a pancytopenia and a
• Toxic changes in white cells are observed as toxic reversal in CD4 and CD8.
granulation, toxic vacuolization, and Döhle • Bacteria may appear intracellularly in neutrophils
bodies. or may appear within the peripheral smear.
• Hereditary white cell disorders include May- • Lipid storage diseases represent a group of inherited
Hegglin anomaly, Pelger-Huët anomaly, and disorders in which a key metabolic enzyme is miss-
Chediak-Higashi syndrome. ing or inactive.
• Pelger-Huët anomaly is a hyposegmentation disor- • Gaucher’s disease and Niemann-Pick disease are
der in which the lobes of the segmented neutrophils lipid storage disorders showing large histiocytic-like
are peanut shaped or bilobed. cells in the bone marrow.
CASE STUDY
A 60-year-old woman was sent for preoperative blood ordered and a peripheral smear was reviewed. The smear
testing before her elective gallbladder surgery. Her sur- showed large numbers of segmented neutrophils with
geon ordered a complete blood count, a chemistry panel, bilobed or peanut-shaped nuclear material, suggestive of
and a coagulation profile. Her chemistry panel and coag- Pelger-Huët anomaly. Pelger-Huët anomaly, discovered in
ulation profile were normal. Her CBC, however, showed a 1928, is an inherited abnormality of the segmented neu-
large number of band forms, which were flagged on the trophils in which there is hyposegmentation of the
automated differential. This was an unexpected result, nuclear material. In most cases, it is a heterozygous disor-
and the surgeon called for a repeat sample. Because her der and the white cells still function normally showing
differential was flagged, a slide was pulled and observed active phagocytic ability and normal leukocyte function.
for a slide review. Which conditions may show a high When the disorder presents homozygously, a single
number of bands? round nucleus is seen. It is essential to differentiate
Pelger-Huët anomaly from true band cells because the
reporting of 50% bands could lead the physician to sus-
The CBC on this individual showed all normal parame-
pect septicemia or other serious infectious conditions,
ters except for the band count in the automated differen-
which would warrant a left shift. In this case, the surgeon
tial. The automated differential in this patient reported
was notified and the surgery was completed as scheduled.
50% bands, clearly unexpected results. Reflex testing was
Review Questions
1. Which of the following inclusions are usually only c. CMV
seen in the bone marrow? d. CBC
a. Toxic granulation
4. The process of ingesting, digesting, and killing
b. Chediak-Higashi granules
bacteria is termed:
c. The morulas from Ehrlichia infections
a. opsonization.
d. Bacteria
b. phagocytosis.
2. In which of the following conditions will mono- c. neutrophilia.
cytes be increased? d. mobilization.
a. Tuberculosis
5. Qualitative changes in the white cell include all
b. Parasitic infections
except which of the following:
c. Ulcerative colitis
a. Toxic granulation
d. Skin diseases
b. Toxic vacuolization
3. Which is the causative agent in infectious mononu- c. Gaucher’s cells
cleosis? d. Döhle bodies
a. HIV
b. EBV
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
Is It Precipitated Stain or Is It Bacteria? Toxic granulation was noted.
A 24-year-old man presented to the emergency depart- The patient’s peripheral smear seemed to show
ment with a fever of unknown origin. A CBC, blood the presence of bacteria intracellularly and
cultures, and routine chemistries were ordered. The extracellularly; however, the technologist was
chemistries came back as normal and the blood cul- fairly new to the hospital facility, and because
tures would be read in 24 hours. The CBC results were this was such an important finding, he needed
as follows: assistance in making a definite identification.
WBC 35.0 ⫻ 109/L H
RBC 3.23 ⫻ 10 /L
12
L Differentiating precipitated stain from bacteria is
often difficult, yet there are some distinct characteris-
Hgb 9.3 g/dL L
tics that can make the identification easier. Microorgan-
Hct 27.8% L isms or bacteria are uniform in size and shape and are
MCV 86.0 fL L usually dispersed throughout the slide. They may be
MCH 28.7 pg L found randomly throughout the peripheral smear, and
MCHC 33.5 % in most cases, they are lucky to be visualized at all. Pre-
Platelets 598 ⫻ 109/L H cipitated stain, on the other hand, tends to appear in
aggregates, which are localized and plentiful. Addition-
RDW 21.0 H
ally, precipitated stain tends to lack an organized mor-
The elevated WBC was flagged, and reflex testing phology and looks smudgy or clumpy. In the case of
required that a manual differential be completed. The our patient, the technologist consulted several of his
technologist, upon reviewing the peripheral smear, peers. Through consensus, it was agreed the inclusions
noted several items: were bacteria. The pathologist was notified and the
The 35.0 ⫻ 109/L WBC count correlated with the floor was contacted. The blood cultures were positive,
slide. and the patient was started on high-dose antibiotics
Many band forms were seen. and made a complete recovery.
WORD KEY phonuclear leukocyte in toxic conditions. J Lab Clin

Med 28:316, 1942.
Albinism • Partial or total absence of pigment in the hair, 6. Malcolm ID, Flegel KM, Katz M. Vacuolation of the
skin, and eyes neutrophil in bacteremia. Arch Intern Med 139:675,
1979.
Convalescence • Period of recovery after a disease or
7. Foley A. Nonmalignant hereditary disorders of leuko-
surgery cyte. In: Steine-Martin EA, Lotspeich-Steininger CA,
Photophobia • Unusual intolerance of light Koepke JA. Clinical Hematology: Principles, Proce-
dures, Correlations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott,
Prognostic • Prediction of the chance for recovery 1998; 365.
Pyknosis • Shrinkage of cells through degeneration 8. Baetz K, Isaaz S, Griffith SG. Loss of cytotoxic T lym-
phocyte function in Chediak-Higashi syndrome arises
Rhinorrhea • Excessive watery discharge from nose from a secretory defect that prevents granule exocytosis.
J Immunol 154:6122, 1995.
Sepsis • Systemic inflammatory response to infection that 9. Eng TR, Harkess JR, Fishbein DB, et al. Epidemiological
includes symptoms such as fever, hypothermia, tachycardia,
clinical and laboratory findings of human ehrlichiosis in
and others
the U.S. in 1988. JAMA 264;2252–2258, 1990.
10. Bakken JS. Ask the experts: Differentiating human ehrli-
References chiosis from other tick borne illnesses. Infect Dis News
1. Van Assendelft OW. Reference values for the total and September:14–15, 1995.
differential leukocyte count. Blood Cells 11:77–96, 11. James E. Unmasking infectious mononucleosis.
1985. ADVANCE for Medical Laboratory Professionals.
2. Barnes EJ, Abdel-Rehim MM, Goulis Y, et al. Applica- March 22, 2004.
tion and limitation of blood eosinophilia for the diagno- 12. Kolodney EH, Tenembaum AL. Storage diseases of
sis of acute cellular rejection in liver transplantation. the reticuloendothelial system. In: Nathan and
Am J Transplant 3:432–438, 2003. Oski’s Hematology of Infancy and Childhood, 4th
3. Wiseman BK. A newly recognized granulopenic syn- ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1992; 1453–1464.
drome caused by excessive splenic leukolysis and 13. Graubowski GA, Pastores GM. Enzyme replacement
successfully treated by splenectomy. J Clin Invest therapy in type I Gaucher disease. Gaucher Clin Per-
18:473, 1939. spect 1:8, 1993.
4. Turgeon ML. Clinical Hematology: Theory and Proce- 14. Harmening DM, Spier CM. Lipid (lysosomal) storage
dures, 4th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & disease and histiocytosis. In: Harmening DM, ed.
Wilkins, 2005; 196–200. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of Hemostasis,
5. Ponder E, Ponder RV. The cytology of the polymor- 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002; 633.

11 Acute Leukemias
Barbara Caldwell
Definition of Leukemia Objectives

Comparing Acute and Chronic Leukemia After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Leukemia History 1. Compare and contrast acute versus chronic
leukemia with respect to age of onset, present-
Acute Myeloid Leukemia ing symptoms, and organ involvement.
Epidemiology
2. Describe acute leukemia with emphasis on
Clinical Features symptoms, peripheral smear finding, and bone
Laboratory Features marrow findings.
Classifications 3. Classify the acute nonlymphocytic leukemias
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia according to the French-American-British
classification system.
Epidemiology
Clinical Features 4. Describe how cytochemical staining can aid in
the diagnosis of the acute leukemias.
Classifications
Prognosis in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia 5. Briefly describe the World Health Organization
classification for acute leukemias.
6. Identify the most consistent cytogenetic abnor-
malities in the acute leukemias.
7. Describe acute lymphocytic leukemia with
emphasis on age of onset, symptoms at presen-
tation, prognosis, and laboratory findings.
8. Describe the most pertinent CD markers for the
acute lymphocytic leukemias.
9. Describe the factors that may influence the
prognosis in acute lymphocytic leukemias.
10. Characterize the T-cell acute lymphoblastic
leukemias.
159
DEFINITION OF LEUKEMIA Cell maturity can be used to separate the initial

diagnosis between acute and chronic leukemias. When
Leukemia is caused by the mutation of the bone marrow
blasts or other immature cells predominate, the
pluripotent or most primitive stem cells. This neoplas-
leukemia is classified as acute, versus the predominance
tic expansion results in abnormal, leukemic cells and
of more mature cell types being associated with chronic
impaired production of normal red blood cells, neu-
leukemia.
trophils, and platelets. As the mutant cell line takes hold
The onset of acute versus chronic leukemia is dis-
and normal hematopoiesis is inhibited, the leukemic
tinctly different. Acute leukemia has a quick onset,
cells spill into the peripheral blood and invade the retic-
whereas chronic leukemia has a slow, insidious course
uloendothelial tissue, specifically the spleen, liver,
and may even be discovered on routine physical exami-
lymph nodes, and, at times, central nervous system.
nation. Age is another factor that is often consistent
The leukemic stem cells have atypical growth and mat-
in the different leukemic variants. Although acute
uration capability. The mutant clone may demonstrate
leukemia may occur at any age, chronic leukemia is usu-
unique morphologic, cytogenetic, and immunopheno-
ally a disease seen in adults (Table 11.1).
typic features that can be used to aid in the classification
To summarize, using both the cell lineage and the
of the particular type of leukemia. Many of the
maturity of cells that predominate, leukemias can be
leukemias have similar clinical features, but regardless
categorized into four broad groups:
of the subtype, the disease is fatal if left untreated.
1. Acute myeloid leukemias
2. Acute lymphoblastic leukemias
COMPARING ACUTE 3. Chronic myelocytic leukemias (see Chapter 12)
AND CHRONIC LEUKEMIA 4. Chronic lymphocytic leukemias (see
The initial evaluation of leukemia is initially made by: Chapter 13)
1. Noting the onset of symptoms
2. Analyzing the complete blood count (CBC) LEUKEMIA HISTORY
results It is important to give credit to those early scientists who
3. Observing the type of cell that predominates were able to recognize and define leukemia in an age
(cell lineage) when little technology existed save a crude microscope
4. Assessing the maturity of cells that predom- and who had the ability to make astute clinical observa-
inate
Because leukemia is a disease of the bone marrow
that causes normal bone marrow cell production to be
crowded out as the abnormal, neoplastic cells take over, Table 11.1 ¢ Comparison of
the CBC results will commonly show a decreased Characteristics of Acute
red cell count or anemia, as well as a decrease in and Chronic Leukemia
platelets or thrombocytopenia. The level of anemia and
thrombocytopenia tends to be more severe in acute Acute Chronic
Characteristic Leukemia Leukemia
leukemia. Leukocytosis is a hallmark feature of chronic
leukemia, and because the spleen also becomes a site Onset Abrupt Subtle
of extramedullary (outside of the bone marrow) Morbidity Months Years
hematopoiesis, prominent hepatosplenomegaly is most
Age All Adults
often associated with chronic leukemia.
The type of cell that predominates in the peripheral WBC Variable Elevated
blood and the bone marrow is defined according to cell Predominant cells Blasts and other Mature
lineage as either myeloid or lymphoid. The myeloid stem immature
cell gives birth to granulocytes, monocytes, megakary- white cells
ocytes, and erythrocytes (see Fig. 2.3). Therefore, as will Anemia, throm- Present Variable
be described in the various sections of this chapter, the bocytopenia
myeloid leukemias can involve proliferation of any stage Neutropenia Present Variable
of these four cell lines. By contrast, the lymphoid stem Organomegaly Mild Marked
cell gives rise solely to lymphocytic lineage cells.
CHAPTER 11 • Acute Leukemias 161
tions and perform postmortem analysis. A brief discus- these scientists laid the foundation for our current
sion of the pertinent discoveries that occurred more understanding of leukemia. As new research and appli-
than 100 years ago gives one a great appreciation of just cation of new techniques continue to refine the classifi-
how far the science of hematology has progressed in cation of leukemia, changes in treatment protocols lead
such a short time. Two scientists in separate countries to improved survival statistics.
made early descriptions of leukemia in 1845. Bennett in
Scotland and Virchow in Germany both studied a series
of autopsy findings from individuals who died with very ACUTE MYELOID LEUKEMIA
enlarged spleens and livers (hepatosplenomegaly).1,2 AML is malignant, clonal disease that involves prolifera-
Virchow is credited with assigning the term weisses blut tion of blasts in bone marrow, blood, or other tissue.
(meaning “white blood”), which is translated into Greek The blasts most often show myeloid or monocytic dif-
as leukemia. Both Bennett and Virchow came to believe ferentiation. Almost 80% of patients with AML will
that leukemia is caused by a cancerous overgrowth of demonstrate chromosome abnormalities, usually a
the white cells. Virchow was able to demonstrate by fur- mutation resulting from a chromosomal translocation
ther studies that one could classify the cases into two (the transfer of one portion of the chromosome to
groups: those with mostly large spleens and those with another).9 The translocation causes abnormal onco-
predominantly enlarged lymph nodes.3 We now know gene or tumor suppression gene expression, and this
that these groups represent a distinction between results in unregulated cellular proliferation.10 Genetic
chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) and chronic lym- syndromes and toxic exposure contribute to the patho-
phocytic leukemia (CLL). genesis in some patients.
The next conceptual proposal came in 1878 from Although the diseases grouped into the acute
Neumann, who suggested that the origin of blood cells myelogenous leukemia categories have similar clinical
was the bone marrow, and hence leukemia was a disease manifestations, the morphology, immunophenotyping,
of the bone marrow. He used the term myelogene, which and cytogenetic features are distinct. Cytochemical
is the origin of the later term “myelogenous leukemia.”4 stains are used along with morphology to help identify
Epstein in 1889 was the first to assign the term acute the lineage of the blast population. Electron microscopy
leukemia, designating cases wherein the patients died may also be used to subclassify the various leukemias.
from the disease in a matter of months from manifesta- When morphology and/or cytochemistry evidence of
tion of first symptoms. He noted that these patients had lineage is absent, flow cytometry is used to specifically
very purulent blood and surmised by this gross obser- tag the myeloid or lymphoid antigens and thus classify
vation of white blood that there was an incredible the acute leukemias.
increase in white cells. He was eventually able to lead
the hematology forefathers of his day to recognize a sep-
aration between what we now call acute myelogenous Epidemiology
leukemia (AML) and a more chronic, slow onset that we The incidence of AML increases with age, accounting
now recognize at CML.5 for 80% of acute leukemias in adults and for 15% to
Proof of the early scientist’s ingenuity is the fact 20% of acute leukemias in children. Of note, however,
that until Ehrlich developed a polychromatic stain in is that when congenital leukemia (occurring during the
1877 that allowed blood cells to be distinguished, sci- neonatal period) does rarely occur, it is paradoxically
entists were only able to observe colorless cells under AML rather than ALL and is often monocytic. The rate
the microscope6! Once the use of his stains became of AML is somewhat higher in males than females, and
widespread around the turn of the century, scientists there is an increased incidence in developed, more
were able to show that acute leukemia was associated industrialized countries. Eastern European Jews have
with early blast cells, and chronic leukemia with more an increased risk of developing AML, whereas Oriental
mature cells. Thus, in 1900 the description of a populations have a decreased risk.11
myeloblast and a myelocyte were documented by Table 11.2 lists the conditions that have been doc-
Naegeli,7 and several years later the existence of umented as predisposing to development of AML. The
monoblastic leukemia was first described by Schilling. high incidence of individuals having congenital defects
Hirschfield’s important contribution was that he made such as Down syndrome and bone marrow failure syn-
the connection that red cells and white cells share a dromes such as Fanconi’s anemia has demonstrated that
common cell of origin.8 The combined discoveries of these factors are often implicated in the pathogenesis of
Table 11.2 ¢ Conditions and Disorders With Increased Risk

for Development of Acute Leukemia
Congenital Defects Acquired Diseases Environmental Factors
Down syndrome Aplastic anemia Ionizing radiation

Klinefelter syndrome Myeloma Alkalating agents
Turner syndrome Sideroblastic anemia Cytotoxic drugs
Monosomy 7 syndrome Acquired genetic changes Pesticide exposure
Fanconi’s anemia Translocations Solvents
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome Inversions
Neurofibromatosis Deletions
Familial aplastic anemia Point mutations
Fraternal twins and nonidentical siblings Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
Combined immunodeficiency syndrome Transition from other hematopoietic dis-
eases (myeloproliferative disorders)
Blackfan-Diamond syndrome
AML. It has also been well documented that leukemia is anemia, infection due to functional neutropenia, and
associated with exposure to ionizing radiation, as this hemorrhage due to thrombocytopenia (Table 11.3).
was most notably reported with the increase in leukemia Fatigue and weakness are the most common com-
that occurred following the release of atomic bombs plaints that reflect the development of anemia. Pallor,
over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The fallout from dyspnea on exertion, heart palpitations, and a general
atomic bombs and exposure to nuclear reactor plants loss of well-being has been described.15 Fever is present
has caused much well-founded public apprehension, is about 15% to 20% of patients and may be the result of
fear, and concern over the past 50 years.12,13 A wide vari- bacterial, fungal, and, less frequently, viral infections, or
ety of chemicals and drugs have been linked to AML. In from the leukemic burden of cells on tissues and organs.
a study involving factories in China, the risk of develop- Easy bruising, petechiae, and mucosal bleeding may be
ing leukemia was five to six times higher in workers with found due to thrombocytopenia. Other more severe
recurrent exposure to benzene than in the general pop- symptoms related to decreased platelet counts that
ulation.14 Many drugs, in particular, therapy-related occur less commonly are gastrointestinal or genitouri-
alkylating drugs, are associated with AML emerging nary tract and central nervous system (CNS) bleeding.
after the treatment. All of the chronic myeloproliferative CNS infiltration with high numbers of leukemic cells
disorders (chronic myelocytic leukemia [CML], idio- has been reported in 5% to 20% of children and
pathic myelofibrosis [IMF], polycythemia vera [PV], approximately 15% of adults with AML.16,17 Headache,
essential thrombocythemia [ET]) have an increased blindness, and other neurological complications are
propensity for terminating in AML, with 60% to 70% of indications of meningeal involvement. Leukemic blast
CML cases undergoing a transition to AML. cells circulate through the peripheral blood and may
invade any tissue. Extramedullary hematopoiesis is
common in monocytic or myelomonocytic leukemias.
Clinical Features Organs that were active in fetal hematopoiesis may be
All of the signs and symptoms that present so abruptly in reactivated to again produce cells when stressed by the
patients with AML are caused by the infiltration of the poor performance of the overburdened leukemic bone
bone marrow with leukemic cells and the resulting fail- marrow. Hepatosplenomegaly or lymphadenopathy
ure of normal hematopoiesis. These criminal leukemic may occur but is not as prominent as that seen in the
cells that invade the bone marrow are dysfunctional, and chronic leukemias. Skin infiltration is very characteris-
without the normal hematopoietic elements, the patient tic in monocytic leukemias, particularly gum infiltra-
is at risk for developing life-threatening complications of tion, which is termed gingival hyperplasia. When
Table 11.3 ¢ Clinical Findings in Acute Leukemia
Pathogenesis Signs and Symptoms

Bone Marrow Infiltration
Neutropenia Fever, infection
Anemia Pallor, dyspnea, lethargy
Thrombocytopenia Bleeding, petechiae, ecchymosis, intracranial hematoma and gastrointestinal
or conjunctival hemorrhage (rare)
Medullary Infiltration
Marrow Bone pain and tenderness, limp, arthralgia
Extramedullary Infiltration
Liver, spleen, lymph nodes, thymus Organomegaly
Central nervous system Neurological complications including dizziness, headache, vomiting,
alteration of mental function
Gums, mouth Gingival bleeding and hypertrophy
Skin Lesions or granulocytic sarcoma
leukemic cells crowd the bone marrow of the long severe, is almost always a feature at diagnosis. Giant
bones, joint pain may be produced. platelets and agranular platelets may be seen. Dis-
seminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is most com-
Laboratory Features monly associated with one of the types of AMLs known
as acute promyelocytic leukemia. The DIC is caused by
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Findings
the release of tissue factor–like procoagulants from the
The CBC and examination of peripheral blood smear are azurophilic granules of the neoplastic promyelocytes,
the first step in the laboratory diagnosis of leukemia. which in turn activate coagulation and further consume
Blood cell counts are variable in patients with AML. The platelets, leading to dangerous bleeding diathesis.
WBC may be normal, increased, or decreased. It is Before treatment, serum uric acid and lactic dehy-
markedly elevated, over 100 ⫻ 109/L cells in less than drogenase (LDH) levels often are mild or moderately
20% of cases. Conversely, the WBC is less than 5.0 ⫻ increased.
109/L with an absolute neutrophil count of less than 1.0 The hallmark feature of acute leukemia is always a
⫻ 109/L in about half the patients at the time of diagno- hypercellular bone marrow, with 20% to 90% leukemic
sis.18 Blasts are usually seen on the peripheral smear blasts at diagnosis or during relapse. The blast popula-
examination, but in leukopenic patients, the numbers tion grows indiscriminately as these cells have only lim-
may be few and require a diligent search to uncover. ited differentiation capability and are frozen in the
Cytoplasmic inclusions known as Auer rods often earliest stage of development. The lineage of blasts that
present in a small percentage of the myeloblasts, predominate depends on the specific type of acute
monoblasts, or promyelocytes present in the various leukemia. The most current classification for hemato-
subtypes of AML. Auer rods are elliptical, spindle-like logical and lymphoid tumors published by the World
inclusions composed of azurophilic granules. Nucleated Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the req-
red blood cells may be present, as well as myelodysplas- uisite blast percentage for a diagnosis of acute myeloid
tic features, including pseudo-hyposegmentation leukemia be greater than or equal to 20% myeloblasts in
(pseudo Pelger-Huët cells) or hypersegmentation of the the blood or marrow.19 When performing a peripheral
neutrophils, and hypogranulation. blood smear on a patient with a suspected diagnosis of
Anemia is a very common feature due to inad- leukemia, at least 200 WBCs should be classified. It is
equate production of normal red cells. The reticulo- recommended that the blast percentage in the bone
cyte count is usually normal or decreased. Red cell marrow be derived from a 500-cell differential count. If
anisopoikilocytosis is mildly abnormal, with few poi- the WBC is less than 2.0 ⫻ 109/L, buffy coat smears
kilocytes present. Thrombocytopenia, which can be should be prepared for differential counting.
Myeloblasts may be distinguished from lym- Other studies that can be used to diagnose the
phoblasts by three distinct ways: presence of Auer rods, acute leukemias include chromosome analysis, molecu-
reactivity with cytochemical stains, or reactivity with lar genetic studies, DNA flow cytometry, and electron
cell surface markers (for example, clusters of differenti- microscopy.
ation [CD] groups CD13, CD33) on blasts with specific From 5% to 10% of the AMLs have a preleukemic
monoclonal antibodies. The morphology of blasts can presentation termed “myelodysplastic syndrome.”
often be determined by an experienced morphologist; These patients are usually over the age of 50 and have
however, other supporting tests are always needed to anemia, thrombocytopenia, and monocytosis but with
confirm the initial designation. The features that can be bone marrow blast percentages of less than 20% (see
used to differentiate a myeloblast from a lymphoblast Chapter 14).
are outlined in Figure 11-1. The chromatin material of a
myeloblast is usually much finer than that of a lym-
phoblast. A myeloblast often has more cytoplasm than a Cytochemical Stains
lymphoblast. Both size of the blast and number of Cytochemical stains are very helpful in the diagnosis
nucleoli may not be helpful characteristics. Although a and classification of acute leukemias (Table 11.4). These
myeloblast is usually larger than a lymphoblast, suffi- stains are usually performed on bone marrow smears
cient variations are seen that this is not the best factor to but may also be done on peripheral smears or bone
consider. Along the same lines, the number of nucleoli marrow touch preps. The special stains are used to
that can be seen in a myeloblast is one to four, and a identify enzymes or lipids within the blast population of
lymphoblast one or two, so when deciding lineage on a cells—hence, the reaction in mature cells is not of
blast with two obvious nucleoli, either choice would be importance. The positive reactions that occur will be
acceptable. Therefore, of the characteristic features associated with a particular lineage, and with some of
listed in Figure 11.1, the most helpful is usually the the stains (e.g., myeloperoxidase [MPO] and Sudan
chromatin staining pattern. As mentioned previously, Black B [SBB]), the fine or coarse staining intensity is an
other methods besides morphological examination indication of the lineage of blast cells. All of the cyto-
must be used to confirm the type of blasts present, and chemical stains described below are negative in lym-
often to quantify the number of blasts, particularly phoid cells (with rare exceptions), so a positive result
when two blast populations coexist in significant with any of these will most often rule out acute lym-
amounts in the leukemic bone marrow. phoblastic leukemia.
Figure 11.1 Comparison

of myeloblast and lymphoblast
morphology.
Table 11.4 ¢ Cytochemical Reactions in Acute Leukemia
Cytochemical Reaction Cellular Element Stained Blasts Identified
Myeloperoxidase (MPO) Neutrophil primary granules Myeloblasts strong positive; monoblasts faint positive
Sudan Black B (SBB) Phospholipids Myeloblasts strong positive; monoblasts faint positive
Specific esterase Cellular enzyme Myeloblasts strong positive
Nonspecific esterase (NSE) Cellular enzyme Monoblasts strong positive
Terminal deoxynucleotidyl Intranuclear enzyme Lymphoblasts positive
transferase (TdT)
Periodic acid-Schiff Glycogen Variable, coarse or block-like positivity often seen in
lymphoblasts and pronormoblasts, myeloblasts usu-
ally negative although faint diffuse reaction may
occasionally be seen
Myeloperoxidase granules of lymphoblasts may demonstrate positivity.

Primary granules of myeloid cells contain peroxidase. The SBB pattern of staining mimics the MPO stain in
The granules are found in the late myeloblast and exist that it is very sensitive for granulocyte precursors,
throughout all the myeloid maturation stages. Because increases in staining intensity with the later stages of
primary granules are absent in myeloblasts, there is lim- granulocytic maturation, and stains weakly positive
ited MPO activity in early myeloblasts; however, those with monocytic cells. Thus, this stain can also be used
blasts that are closer to maturing to the promyelocyte to differentiate AML from ALL. A distinct advantage of
stage will stain positive. Promyelocytes, myelocytes, the SBB over the MPO stain is that the SBB-stained
metamyelocytes, and band and segmented neutrophils slides are stable for a longer period of time.
will stain strongly positive, indicated by the presence of
blue-black granules. Monocytic granules stain faintly Specific Esterase (Naphthol AS-D
positive. Because lymphoid cells, nucleated red cells, Chloracetate Esterase)
and megakaryoblasts lack this enzyme, they will stain The specific esterase enzyme is present in the primary
negative. This negative reaction is useful in initially dif- granules of myeloid cells. Accordingly, myeloblasts and
ferentiating ALL from AML. Eosinophils will also stain other neutrophilic cells in AML will stain positive. This
positive for MPO. Auer rods are strongly positive for stain will also be positive in basophils and mast cells but
peroxidase. The enzymatic activity in blood smears will is negative in eosinophils, monocytes, and lympho-
fade over time, so slides should not be held for staining cytes. The specific esterase enzymatic reaction is stable
for longer than 3 weeks. The MPO stain will be positive in paraffin-embedded tissue sections, making this an
in acute myeloid leukemia (⬎3% positive), acute extremely useful stain for identifying cells of myeloid
promyelocytic leukemia (90% to 100% positive), acute lineage in extramedullary myeloid tumors.20
myelomonocytic leukemia (including AMML with
abnormal eosinophils, AMML Eo [variable, ⬎3% posi- Nonspecific Esterase (Alpha-Naphthyl Butyrate
tive]), acute monoblastic and monocytic leukemia or Alpha-Naphthyl Acetate Esterase)
(variable), and in the myeloblasts present in acute ery- These stains are used to identify monocytic cells and
throid leukemia (myeloblasts, ⬎3% positive). will stain negative with granulocytes. Different sub-
strates are available, with alpha-naphthyl butyrate stain
Sudan Black B considered more specific and alpha-naphthyl acetate
Phospholipids and other intracellular lipids are stained stain being more sensitive. Many cells in addition to
by SBB. Phospholipids are found in the primary (non- monocytes will stain positive (macrophages, histio-
specific) and secondary (specific) granules of neu- cytes, megakaryoblasts, and some carcinomas), so the
trophilic cells and eosinophils, and in smaller quantities sodium fluoride inhibition step is used to differentiate
in monocytes and macrophages. The stain will be nega- the positivity. With this step, following initial staining,
tive in lymphocytes, although rarely the azurophilic the NSE activity of monocytes and macrophages is
inhibited (reaction was positive, then reaction is nega-

tive), whereas the activity of the other cells remains pos- Table 11.5 ¢ Immunophenotypic
itive. Mature T lymphocytes will stain a coarse dot-like Classification
pattern. The NSE stain is used to identify the monoblast
and promonocyte populations in acute monoblastic Lineage Marker
leukemia and acute myelomonocytic leukemia. How-
ever, in 10% to 20% of cases of acute monoblastic Hematopoietic precursor CD117 (HLA-DR), CD34
leukemia, the NSE stain is weakly positive or negative. Myeloid CD11b, CD13, CD33,
In these cases, immunophenotyping may be used to CD15
confirm monocytic differentiation.19 T-lineage CD1, CD2, CD3, CD4,
CD5, CD7, CD8, TdT
Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase B-lineage CD10, CD19, CD20,
Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) is an CD21A, CD22, CD23,
intranuclear enzyme found in stem cells and immature CD24, CD79a, TdT
lymphoid cells within the bone marrow, but not in Erythroid Glycophorin A
mature B lymphocytes. It is present in 90% of acute Monocytic CD14, CD4, CD11b,
lymphoblastic leukemias and in only 5% to 10% of CD11c, CD36, CD64
acute myeloblastic leukemias.21 It has also been demon- CD41, CD42, CD61
Megakaryocytic
strated in one-third of cases of the blast crisis stage of
chronic myelogenous leukemia and is a good prognos-
tic indicator in these patients.22,23
thrombocythemia. The acute leukemias are categorized
Immunophenotype according to the cell line and stage of maturation that
Immunophenotyping can help to classify the clone of predominate. In order to classify the acute leukemias
leukemic blasts by using monoclonal antibodies consistently, in 1976 the French-American-British
directed against cell surface markers. The specific line- (FAB) group developed a system of nomenclature that
age and stage of maturation can be tagged, and this separated the acute myeloid from acute lymphoid
information then is used to indicate appropriate therapy leukemias. The classification scheme, as it evolved over
and can be correlated to prognosis. Immunophenotyp- the years, designates multiple subtypes for the various
ing can be done by flow cytometry or by immuno- acute myeloid leukemias, M0 to M7, and three sub-
histochemistry methods. Multiple antigens can be types, L1 to L3, for the lymphoid leukemias (Table 11.6).
detected simultaneously on a single cell using flow The classification was initially based solely on morphol-
cytometry. A selected panel of monoclonal antibodies is ogy of the cells present; however, later results of cyto-
presented in Table 11.5. chemistry staining reactions were incorporated into the
The assignment of the particular nomenclature classification. The requisite blast percentage derived
for the type of leukemia is based on the combined from bone marrow examination using the FAB classifi-
morphologic, immunophenotypic, and cytochemical cation is greater than 30%.
information, as well as any unique clinical presentation. The FAB classification has been problematic for
The information is used to suggest the best approxima- several reasons. Immunophenotyping and cytogenic
tion of the subtype of leukemia, recognizing that our and molecular analyses are not well defined for the
knowledge is sometimes imperfect and that changes individual subtypes. Also, the FAB classification does
in these classifications may again take place in the not clearly separate groups of patients who have posi-
future as our understanding of the science of leukemia tive clinical outcomes. Because of these limitations, and
improves. due to the discovery of a number of genetic lesions
that can predict clinical outcomes much better than
just a morphology-based delineation, the group of
Classifications hematopathologists convened by WHO in 1997 pro-
The morphological variants of acute myeloid leukemia posed a new classification for the acute myeloid
may occur as a primary presentation or may be the leukemias (Table 11.7). The resulting scheme proposed
result of a clonal evolution from other disorders such as by the WHO group incorporated specific genetic data
the myeloproliferative disorders of chronic myeloge- into the classification of hematopoietic and lymphopoi-
nous leukemia, idiopathic myelofibrosis, or essential etic tumors24 (Table 11-8). They also included a sepa-
Table 11.6 ¢ FAB Classification Table 11.7 ¢ World Health

of Acute Leukemia Organization
Classification of Acute
Designation Descriptive Name Myeloid Leukemias
M0 Acute myeloblastic leukemia, mini-
mally differentiated Acute myeloid leukemia with recurrent genetic abnor-
malities
M1 Acute myeloblastic leukemia with-
• Acute myeloid leukemia with t(8;21)(q22;q22)
out maturation
• Acute myeloid leukemia with abnormal bone marrow
M2 Acute myeloblastic leukemia with eosinophils
maturation - inv(16)(p13q22) or t(16;16)(p13;q22)
M3 Acute promyelocytic leukemia, • Acute promyelocytic leukemia (AML with
hypergranular t(15;17)(q22;q12)
M3v Acute promyelocytic leukemia, • Acute myeloid leukemia with 11q23
microgranular Acute myeloid leukemia with multilineage dysplasia
M4 Acute myelomonocytic leukemia Acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syn-
M4Eo Acute myelomonocytic leukemia dromes, therapy-related
with eosinophilia Acute myeloid leukemia not otherwise categorized
M5a Acute monoblastic leukemia, • Acute myeloid leukemia minimally differentiated
poorly differentiated • Acute myeloid leukemia without maturation
• Acute myeloid leukemia with maturation
M5b Acute monoblastic leukemia, with
• Acute myelomonocytic leukemia
differentiation
• Acute monoblastic and monocytic leukemia
M6 Erythroleukemia • Acute erythroid leukemia
M7 Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia • Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia
L1* Acute lymphoblastic leukemia • Acute basophilic leukemia
• Acute panmyelosis with myelofibrosis
L2* Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
• Myeloid sarcoma
L3* Acute lymphoblastic leukemia,
Acute leukemia of ambiguous lineage
leukemic phase of Burkitt’s
• Undifferentiated acute leukemia
lymphoma
• Bilineal acute leukemia
• Biphenotypic acute leukemia
*Based on blast morphology.
rate designation for the acute leukemias that arise from

a previous myelodysplastic syndrome (preleukemia/ or marrow compared to the FAB blast percentage crite-
myelodysplastic syndrome, see Chapter 14) or those ria of 30% that has been used for many years.19
occurring as a result of transition from a myeloprolif- Because the WHO is the most current classi-
erative disorder (see Chapter 12). In addition, they fication, each of these groups is discussed. However,
recognized two other categories of AML as distinct: as technology of genetic and molecular analysis is mov-
therapy-related AMLs and those not otherwise catego- ing so rapidly, it is likely that modifications to this
rized. Therefore, the four main WHO groups are: classification scheme will be necessary in the near
I. AML with recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities future.
II. AML with myelodysplasia
III. Therapy-related AML and myelodysplastic I. Acute Myeloid Leukemia With
syndrome Recurrent Genetic Abnormalities
IV. AML not otherwise categorized
The most important features of this group are the recur-
It is noteworthy that the most significant change rent genetic abnormality and favorable prognosis. The
from the FAB classification is that the required blast per- abnormalities that are commonly identified involve
centage for a diagnosis of AML using the WHO criteria reciprocal translocations. Four subtypes are described
is greater than or equal to 20% myeloblasts in the blood here. The reader is referred to other hematology refer-
Table 11.8 ¢ Chromosomal Alterations*
Chromosome Abnormality Clinical Correlation
Courtesy of Dr. Sidonie Morrison, Kathleen Finnegan,

AML t(8;21)(q22;q22)
11q23
Trisomy 7, 8, 13
Stony Brook University, New York.

AML with abnormal bone inv(16)(p13q22)
marrow eosinophils t(16;16)(p13;q22)
APL t(15;17)(q22;q12)
AMML t(8;16)(p11;p13)
AMonoL t(9;11)(p22;q23)
B-ALL Hyperdiploid ⬎50 Figure 11.2 Acute myeloid leukemia with t(8;21)
t(1:19)(q23;p13.3) (q22;q22). Note Auer rod in myeloblast.
t(12;21)(p13;q22)
T-ALL t(1;14)(p32;q11.2)
t(1;7)(q32;q35) granulocytic, and eosinophilic maturation are present,
as well as abnormal granulations in the immature
*These are example of chromosome abnormalities; the list is not eosinophils (Fig. 11.3). Rarely, cases of inv(16)(p13q22)
intended to be comprehensive. lack the eosinophilia.26 The monoblasts and promono-
cytes will stain positive for nonspecific esterase (NSE)
stain, and the myeloblasts and monoblasts show greater
ence texts for an in-depth discussion of immunophe- than 3% positivity.
notypes and genetics that are characteristic for each AMML with inv16 and t(16;16) also show high
disorder. complete remission rates.
Acute Myeloid Leukemia With t(8;21)(q22;q22)
This leukemia occurs most often in children or young Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia
[AML With t(15;17)(q22;q12)]
adults and represents 5% to 12% of AML cases.25 The
Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) accounts for 5%
translocation t(8;21)(q22;q22) is the hallmark feature of
to 8% of AML and can occur in any age but most often
this subtype. The morphology associated with this AML
include the presence of myeloblasts having abundant
cytoplasm, often containing azurophilic granules and
sometimes containing large, pseudo–Chediak-Higashi
granules. Auer rods are common, and maturation in the
neutrophil lineage (promyelocytes, myelocytes, neu-
trophils) is seen. Dysplastic neutrophilic features that
may be seen include pseudo–Pelger-Huët hyposegmen-
tation and hypogranulation. Eosinophils are often

increased, and monocyte percentages are usually
decreased (Fig. 11.2).
AML with t(8;21) is associated with good response
to chemotherapy and long-term survival rates.
Acute Myeloid Leukemia With inv(16)

(p13q22) or t(16;16)(p13;q22)
This acute myeloid leukemia occurs in all ages but most
often in younger patients. The inv(16)(p13q22) is
found in approximately 10% to 12% of all AML cases.19 Figure 11.3 Acute myeloid leukemia with inv(16)
This leukemia was previously referred to using the FAB (p13q22). Numerous monoblasts, promonocytes, and
monocytes are present. Also note few eosinophils that are
classification as acute myelomonocytic leukemia with often characteristically increased in AML with this cytoge-
eosinophilia (AMML Eo). Various stages of monocytic, netic abnormality.
Figure 11.4 (A) and (B), Hypergranular acute promyelocytic leukemia, promyelocytes with prominent azurophilic granules.
(C) Hypergranular APL with multiple Auer rods. (D) Microgranular APLv. These abnormal promyelocytes have lobulated nuclei
and absent or fine azurophilic granules.
in middle-aged patients.27 Abnormal, hypergranular is often markedly elevated in the microgranular variety
promyelocytes predominate in the bone marrow in APL of APL.
with t(15;17)(q22;q12). Numerous Auer rods (fused The prognosis in APL patients with t(15;17)
azurophilic granules) are present in the myeloblasts and (q22;q12), as with the other leukemias grouped in this
promyelocytes, and bundles of Auer rods (“faggot category, is also very good.
cells”) may be seen (Fig. 11.4, C). The azurophilic gran-
ules from leukemic promyelocytes have procoagulant Acute Myeloid Leukemia With 11q23
activity and predispose the patient to a bleeding diathe- This 11q23 deletion/translocation cytogenetic abnor-
sis as a result of DIC. The MPO reaction is strongly pos- mality is found in 5% to 6% of AML cases. It occurs in
itive in the promyelocytes. In about 20% of APL cases, more often in children but can occur at any age.
a variant type of APL referred to as microgranular APL Monoblasts and promonocytes predominate in the
is found. These cases are characterized by cells with bone marrow and peripheral blood. The monoblasts
convoluted or lobulated nuclei that mimic promono- have abundant cytoplasm, often showing pseudopodia,
cytes (Fig. 11.4D). These leukemic promyelocytes con- and fine nuclear chromatin with one or more nuclei.
tain such small azurophilic granules that they are not Azurophilic granules are often seen in the monoblasts,
visible by light microscopy. These cells may cause con- and cytoplasmic vacuoles may be present in monoblasts
fusion with acute monocytic leukemia; however, the and promonocytes (Fig. 11.5). The NSE reaction is
strong positive MPO reaction (weak in AMonoL) and strongly positive in the monoblasts and promonocytes,
the bundles of Auer rods are clear clues pointing to a and the MPO reaction is often negative. The prognosis
diagnosis of microgranular APL. In addition, the WBC in AML with 11q23 abnormalities is intermediate.
topoisomerase II inhibitors.30 These therapy-related

leukemias have different epidemiologies, as the alkylat-
ing agent/radiation induced disorders usually occur 5 to
6 years after exposure, whereas the topoisomerase II
inhibitor disorders occur after an average of 2 to 3 years
after exposure.31 The alkylating agent–related AMLs
usually start with a myelodysplastic presentation, with
the blast percentage less than 5%, and having the typi-
cal myelodysplastic features. Nuclear hypolobulation,
cytoplasmic hypogranulation, dyserythropoiesis, and
an increase in ringed sideroblasts are characteristic fea-
tures seen. This may progress into an AML or more pro-
nounced myelodysplastic syndrome. There is a
Figure 11.5 Acute myeloid leukemia with 11q23. Note generally poor prognosis associated with alkylating
monoblastic leukemia features; monoblasts have abundant agent/radiation therapy–related AML.
cytoplasm, often showing pseudopodia, and fine nuclear
chromatin, with one or more nucleoli. Topoisomerase II inhibitor–related AML does not
usually have a preleukemic or myelodysplastic syn-
drome phase. This type of therapy-related AML often
II. Acute Myeloid Leukemia With Myelodysplasia has morphology consistent with that seen in acute
AML with myelodysplasia is seen primarily in adults.28 monoblastic or myelomonocytic leukemia, although
The blast percentage in blood or bone marrow is 20% cases showing involvement of other cell lineages have
or greater, with abnormal characteristics, called dyspla- also been described. The prognosis is similar to that of
sia, observed in at least two cell lines. Some of the patients with the corresponding morphologically classi-
dysplastic features that can be observed in neutrophils fied AML.
are hypogranulation, hyposegmentation or pseudo-
Pelgeroid neutrophils, and/or bizarre segmented nuclei. IV. Acute Myeloid Leukemia
In the erythroid cell line, the dyserythropoiesis may pre- (Not Otherwise Categorized)
sent as nucleated red cells with nuclear fragments or Leukemias with features that do not fit into the previ-
multinucleated cells, megaloblastic features, cytoplas- ously described categories fall into this grouping. These
mic vacuoles, or karyorrhexis. Ringed sideroblasts may leukemias are primarily classified according to mor-
also be seen. The platelet cell line may also be dysplastic, phology and cytochemistry reactions. As with the other
as micromegakaryocytes with one lobe instead of multi- AMLs, the presence of at least 20% blasts is a hallmark
ple lobes are often present. It is important to be able to characteristic.
recognize these dwarf megakaryocytes because they may
be seen by a technologist performing a peripheral smear Acute Myeloid Leukemia,
examination and can be confused with other cells having Minimally Differentiated
a round nucleus, for example, mimicking the appear- There is little evidence of maturation beyond the blast
ance of a myelocyte. The dysplasia must be present in at stage in AML, minimally differentiated, and the marrow
least two cell lines to fit the criteria for this category of is replaced by a homogeneous population of blasts (Fig.
AML. AML with myelodysplasia may follow a myelodys- 11.6). The myeloid lineage of the blasts is defined by
plastic syndrome (see Chapter 14). Patients with this immunophenotyping with a positive expression of
disorder often present with a decrease in WBC, RBC, CD13, CD33, CD34, and CD117. The MPO and SBB
and platelet counts, termed pancytopenia. The progno- cytochemical stains are usually negative (⬍3% blasts
sis of patients with AML with myelodysplasia is poor.29 reacting) and Auer rods are absent. This phenotype
comprises approximately 5% of the AML cases and is
associated with a poor prognosis.
III. Therapy-Related Acute Myeloid Leukemia
and Myelodysplastic Syndrome Acute Myeloid Leukemia Without Maturation
Treatment with cytotoxic chemotherapy and/or radia- Similar to AML, minimally differentiated, the category
tion therapy has been associated with the development of AML without maturation also involves cases where at
of AML and myelodysplastic syndrome. The two major least 90% of the nonerythroid cells in the bone marrow
agents implicated are alkylating agents/radiation and are myeloblasts (Fig. 11.7). However, at least 5% of the
Figure 11.6 Acute myeloid leukemia, minimally differ- Figure 11.8 Acute myeloid leukemia, with maturation.
entiated. Note myeloblast with multiple Auer rods.
blasts, and usually a much higher percentage, have a Blasts frequently demonstrate Auer rods and variable
positive reaction with MPO or SBB and Auer rods may degrees of dysplasia may be seen (Fig. 11.8). More than
be present. AML without maturation constitutes about 50% of the blasts and maturing cells are MPO and SBB
10% of AML cases. The blasts in this AML variant positive. The morphology of the previously described
express CD13, CD33, CD34, and CD117. AML without AML with t(8;21)(q22;q22) is usually that of AML with
maturation appears to have a poor prognosis, especially maturation. This phenotype responds variably to
in patients with a markedly increased WBC.19 chemotherapy, with the t(8;21) cases having a favorable
prognosis.
Acute Myeloid Leukemia With Maturation
AML with maturation is a common leukemia, compris- Acute Myelomonocytic Leukemia
ing approximately 30% to 45% of all AML cases. Again, A mixture of malignant cells with both myelocytic and
following the definition for acute leukemia, blasts will monocytic features are found in the blood and bone
constitute at least 20% of all nucleated cells in the bone marrow of patients with acute myelomonocytic
marrow. However, in this variant, greater than 10% of leukemia (AMML). The bone marrow has greater than
neutrophils with maturation beyond the promyelocyte 20% blasts, with both myeloid cells and monocytic cells
stage are observed. Additionally, the monocytic compo- each comprising greater than 20% of all marrow cells.
nent will comprise less than 20% of nonerythroid cells. The monoblasts are large cells with abundant,
basophilic cytoplasm with fine azurophilic granules
and often pseudopod cytoplasmic extensions; the
nucleus has a lacy chromatin and one to four nucleoli.
Promonocytes have a more convoluted nucleus with a
somewhat more condensed, mature chromatin pattern
and may have cytoplasmic vacuoles (Fig. 11.9). Interest-
ingly, the monocytic component may be more promi-
nent in the peripheral blood than in the bone marrow.
The NSE reaction is usually strongly positive in AMML,

and at least 3% of the blasts are MPO positive. The
naphthol ASD chloracetate esterase (specific esterase)
reaction is also positive. The leukemic cells variably

express myeloid antigens of CD13 and CD33 and
usually demonstrate one or more of the monocytic-
associated antigens such as CD14, CD4, CD11c, CD64,
and CD36.19 Cases of AML with inv(16) that display
AMML with eosinophilia are discussed under AML with
Figure 11.7 Acute myeloid leukemia, without maturation. recurrent genetic abnormalities. This particular variant
nuclear chromatin of promonocytes is more condensed

and they often have a convoluted or cerebriform config-
uration. The cytoplasm of promonocytes contain
azurophilic granules and may be vacuolated. Less than
20% of the cells are of granulocytic origin. Auer rods are
usually absent in acute monoblastic leukemia but are
frequently seen in the promonocytes of acute mono-
cytic leukemia (Fig. 11.10). In most cases, monoblasts
Figure 11.9 Acute myelomonocytic leukemia. (A) AMML

with prominent monoblasts, promonocytes, and spectrum
of myeloid/monocytic cells. (B) AMML with promonoblast,
promonocytes, and eosinophil on edge of frame at arrow
(AMMLe)
is associated with favorable prognosis, whereas survival

C, Courtesy of Dr. Sidonie Morrison, Kathleen Finnegan, Stony Brook University, New York.
rates for the other AMMLs vary.
Acute Monoblastic and Acute

Monocytic Leukemia
Acute monoblastic leukemia accounts for 5% to 8% of
AMLs, whereas acute monocytic leukemia comprises
3% to 6% of cases.27 The bone marrow in both of these
leukemias shows greater than 20% blasts, with greater
than 80% of the cells having monocytic origin, includ-
ing monoblasts, promonocytes, and monocytes. The
distinction between monoblastic and monocytic
leukemia subtypes depends on the proportions of
monoblasts and promonocytes present in the bone mar-
row. Acute monoblastic leukemia has a predominance
of monoblasts, which are large cells with moderate to
intensely basophilic, abundant cytoplasm, and promi-
nent round nuclei with fine chromatin. A spectrum of Figure 11.10 (A) Acute monoblastic leukemia with Auer
rods. (B) Acute monocytic leukemia, one monoblast, three
monocytic cells is seen in acute monocytic leukemia, promonocytes. (C) Acute monocytic leukemia, monoblast,
with the majority of cells being promonocytes. The several promonocytes, and monocytes are present.
and promonocytes will stain intensely positive with CD11b, CD11c, CD 36, CD64, and CD68. The strong
NSE. Monoblasts are typically MPO or SBB negative; association between the acute monoblastic leukemia
promonocytes may be very weakly positive with these and deletions/translocations involving chromosome
staining reactions. The characteristic immunoreactivity 11q23 have been previously described under AML with
of the monocytic leukemic cells for lysozyme is also a recurrent genetic abnormalities. In general, both acute
common finding. monoblastic and acute monocytic leukemias have an
Acute monoblastic leukemia may occur at any age, unfavorable prognosis due to shorter duration of treat-
but the majority of patients tend to be younger, have ment response and poor prognostic factors.
increased blast percentages in the peripheral blood, and
have a poor prognosis.32 Acute monocytic leukemia is Acute Erythroid Leukemia
more common in adults, with the median age being 49 Acute erythroid leukemias are predominantly charac-
years. A hallmark clinical feature of the monocytic terized by abnormal proliferation of erythroid precur-
leukemias is extramedullary disease, with the most pre- sors. The additional presence or absence of a myeloid
dominant finding being the cutaneous and gum infiltra- element defines the two subtypes, erythroleukemia and
tion that results in gingival hypertrophy. Other clinical pure erythroid leukemia. More than 50% of the bone
features include bleeding disorders due to DIC, as well marrow cells are erythroid precursors and at least 30%
as a high incidence of CNS or meningeal disease either are myeloblasts in erythroleukemia (erythroid/myeloid)
at the time of diagnosis or as a manifestation of relapse (Fig. 11.11). Pure erythroid leukemia is defined by the
during remission.33 A high WBC count is another com- majority of marrow cells (⬎80%) being comprised of
mon finding reported in 10% to 30% of patients. erythroid precursors, without a myeloid proliferation.19
Characteristic immunophenotypic markers for Erythroleukemia is usually found in patients 50
cells of monocytic differentiation include CD14, CD4, years of age or older and accounts for approximately 5%
Figure 11.11 (A) and (B) Acute erythroid leukemia. (C) Acute erythroid leukemia, note Auer rod in myeloblast. (D) Acute
erythroid leukemia, left frame shows binucleated pronormoblasts and dysplastic features, right frame shows PAS block positiv-
ity in a ring around the nucleus.
to 6% of AML cases. Characteristics that are commonly

seen in the abundant erythroid precursors include
dysplastic features such as bizarre multinucleation,
cytoplasmic vacuolization, and megaloblastic nuclear
changes. The differential diagnosis includes mega-
loblastic anemia; however, patients with vitamin B12 or
folic acid deficiency will respond to treatment with
these vitamins, and the dysplastic features are not as
pronounced as those seen in cases of erythroleukemia.
Myeloblasts containing Auer rods may be observed
in up to two-thirds of patients with erythroleukemia.34
Abnormal megakaryocytes may also be noted. Anemia is
often markedly severe in patients with erythroleukemia,
and indeed may be more profound that the degree seen
in other AML subtypes. The peripheral blood may con- Figure 11.12 Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.
tain a striking amount of nucleated red cells. However, it
is interesting to note that the crowding of the normal ele-
ments of the bone marrow by the leukemic cell popula- oblasts may be difficult if not impossible to identify by
tion results in ineffective erythropoiesis, which actually light microscopy, the presence of blasts with cytoplas-
leads to reticulocytopenia. The bone marrow iron stain mic blebbing may provide a hallmark clue as to the lin-
often demonstrates ringed sideroblasts, and the PAS eage of the blasts. Megakaryoblastic fragments or
stain may be positive in the classic “block” or coarse pos- micromegakaryocytes, along with giant, hypogranular
itivity in the pronormoblasts. The myeloblasts will stain platelets, are sometimes present (Fig. 11.12).
MPO and SBB positive. The diagnosis of AMegL is usually made based on
Pure erythroid leukemia is the more rare subtype immunophenotyping results because megakaryoblasts
of the two acute erythroid leukemias and may be seen in will express one or more of the platelet glycoproteins:
any age. The stem cells in this leukemia give rise pre- CD41 (glycoprotein IIb/IIIa), CD61 (glycoprotein IIIa),
dominantly to erythroid lineage; therefore, any myeloid and, less frequently, CD42 (glycoprotein Ib). Cyto-
cell markers will be negative. The pronormoblasts can chemical stains are not as useful, as the MPO, SBB, and
be identified by immunohistochemical reactivity with TdT are negative, whereas the alpha-naphthyl acetate
antibody to hemoglobin A and expression of gly- esterase reaction is usually positive with a negative
cophorin A, a red cell membrane protein.19 alpha-naphthyl butyrate esterase reaction (both types of
Erythromyeloleukemia may evolve to an acute NSE would be positive in acute monocytic leukemia).
myeloblastic leukemia, with similar prognostic results Megakaryoblasts manifest platelet peroxidase activity
as other subtypes in patients of similar ages.35 Pure ery- that can be identified by electron microscopy cyto-
throid leukemia is usually associated with an aggressive chemistry.
clinical course. Although adult patients usually present with the
typical acute leukemia symptoms related to cytopenias
Acute Megakaryoblastic Leukemia of pallor, weakness, and excessive bleeding, unlike
Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMegL) is the most other leukemias, organomegaly is uncommon at diag-
rare form of the AMLs, comprising approximately 3% to nosis. Thrombocytosis may rarely occur and dysplastic
5% of cases. This diagnosis is made if at least 20% of features of platelets and neutrophils may be seen. The
blasts in the bone marrow are megakaryoblasts. This AMegL that occurs in children has been associated with
leukemia occurs in both children and adults. t(1;22), and these individuals may present with signifi-
Megakaryoblasts are small, medium to large in cant abdominal masses36 and lytic bone lesions.37 Chil-
size, often found as heterogeneous mix in the same dren with Down syndrome who develop an acute
patient in regard to size, with some blasts being of small transient leukemia often have AMegL as the predomi-
or medium size with scant basophilic cytoplasm and nant morphological subtype. Patients with this rare
others much larger with more abundant cytoplasm and form of AMegL associated with Down syndrome may
distinct blebbing pseudopod formation. The nucleus is undergo spontaneous remission, in contrast with the
round or slightly indented with delicate chromatin and poor prognosis that is typical of most cases of AMegL,
one to three prominent nucleoli. Although megakary- especially in infants with the t(1:22).38
Other Acute Leukemias dullary and extramedullary sites, constantly competing

Several other acute leukemias account for less than 5% with normal hematopoietic cell production and func-
of cases of acute leukemia. Acute basophilic leukemia is a tion. This results in anemia, thrombocytopenia, and
very rare leukemia that may occur “de novo” or more neutropenia, as well as an overpopulation of lym-
commonly may arise as a blastic transformation in phoblasts in the tissues such as liver, spleen, lymph
patients with a preceding CML. The predominant circu- nodes, meninges, and gonads.
lating cell appears blast-like with one to three nucle-
oli and prominent, but variable number of, coarse Epidemiology
basophilic granules. The cells will stain positive with
ALL is predominantly a disease of children, with highest
the metachromatic stain tolidine blue. Additionally,
incidence in children between the ages of 2 and 6. It
the blasts will stain positive with acid phosphatase
accounts for 76% of all leukemias diagnosed in children
and show block positivity with PAS but are negative
younger than age 15.42 According to National Cancer
with MPO, SBB, and NSE stains. The blasts usually
Institute statistics, there is an increased incidence
are positive for myeloid markers CD13, CD33, and
of ALL seen in all age groups in males compared to
CD34, and also will show reactivity with CD9. The spe-
females of European or African descent.43 The exception
cial stains and immunophenotyping will distinguish
is a slight female predominance in infancy.44 Although
acute basophilic leukemia from acute promyelocytic
more uncommon in adults, ALL occurs in all ages, and
leukemia, as the early basophilic myelocytes may be
rising incidence rates are seen with increasing age, with
confused with promyelocytes.
a second peak incidence in the elderly population.
Acute myelofibrosis is another rare leukemia charac-
The etiology of ALL is unknown in the vast major-
terized by marked peripheral blood pancytopenia and
ity of cases. Environmental agents, such as ionizing
marrow hyperplasia of the erythroid, granulocytic, and
radiation and chemical mutagens, have been impli-
megakaryocytic components, combined with a variable
cated, and there is evidence to suggest a genetic factor in
degree of fibrosis. Differential diagnosis from chronic
some patients. Children with Down syndrome have an
idiopathic myelofibrosis (IMF) can be made since more
increased risk of leukemia, particularly precursor B
immature cells are seen in the acute process and the
lymphoblastic leukemia. There is a higher frequency of
splenomegaly that is a hallmark feature of IMF is absent
childhood ALL in industrialized countries compared
in acute myelofibrosis.
with in developing countries. It has also been postu-
There are several types of acute leukemias that the
lated that some cases of childhood leukemia stem from
WHO group has combined into “acute leukemia of
an adverse cellular response to common infections that
ambiguous lineage.” These include leukemias where
occur at a later time than was typically experienced in
the morphologic, immunophenotypic, and/or cyto-
past centuries.45,46 These “delayed” exposures are
chemical findings are not helpful in the classification of
believed to increase the risk of genetic mutations in the
a particular type of myeloid or lymphoid process or,
lymphoid precursors, leading to the development of
conversely, where the features indicate a combination of
leukemia.
different lines.39–41 Undifferentiated acute leukemias lack
markers consistent with a specific lineage, bilineal acute
leukemias contain different populations of cells that Clinical Features
express both myeloid and lymphoid markers, and Clinical presentation is variable; symptoms may be sub-
biphenotypic acute leukemias are typified by cells that tle and develop over months or they may be acute and
have both myeloid- and T or B lineage–specific antigens quite severe. The presenting symptoms are directly
on the same blast population.19 related to the degree of bone marrow failure or
extramedullary involvement (see Table 11.3). Symptoms
that are seen in about half of the patients include fever
ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA that stems from the leukemic process itself (tumor bur-
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a malignant dis- den) and from the neutropenia and pallor and fatigue
ease that evolves as a result of mutation of lymphoid pre- that are caused by the anemia. Bleeding, purpura, and
cursor cells that have their origin in the marrow or bone and joint pain are other common presenting com-
thymus, at a particular stage of maturation. The plaints. Children often present with a limp or the inabil-
immunophenotype reflects the antigen expression of the ity to walk due to the pain caused by the leukemic
stage of differentiation of the dominant clone. The infiltration of the periosteum (bone covering) or due to
leukemic cells persistently accumulate in intrame- the actual bone itself causing osteoporosis or bone ero-
sion. Hepatosplenomegaly and lymphadenopathy may fewer lymphoblasts are seen in the marrow, the designa-
be prominent symptoms. Uncommon symptoms tion lymphoma is used.19 B-ALL comprises approxi-
include cough, dyspnea, cyanosis, and syncope related mately 85% of all childhood ALL, whereas B-LBL is a
to a bulky mediastinal mass that can compress blood rare type of lymphoma and constitutes approximately
vessels or the trachea.47 10% of lymphoblastic lymphoma cases.48 B-ALL may
also develop in adults, and the prognosis is generally
Classifications much poorer in adults.
The bone marrow and blood will manifest blasts in
The FAB classification defined three morphological
all cases of B-ALL. Extramedullary sites of hematopoiesis
subtypes—L1, L2, and L3—based on the appearance of
cause hepatosplenomegaly, and there is a predilection
the blasts that predominate. L1 lymphoblasts are small
for CNS (meningeal leukemia), lymph nodes, and
with scant cytoplasm, are uniform in size, and have
gonad involvement. Bone pain from marrow hyperplasia
indistinct nucleoli. L2 blasts are larger and more pleo-
is also a frequent clinical symptom.
morphic, often containing abundant cytoplasm and
prominent nucleoli (Table 11.9). Both LI and L2 blasts
Laboratory Features
cannot be determined from morphology alone as they
The WBC is variable in B-ALL—it may be markedly ele-
may be easily confused with myeloblasts seen in AML.
vated, normal, or decreased. As with all other acute
L3 lymphoblasts are characterized by intensely
leukemias, anemia and thrombocytopenia are apparent
basophilic cytoplasm that has many vacuoles. Because
at diagnosis. The blood and bone marrow contains lym-
of the differences in prognosis based on immunophe-
phoblasts with L1 or L2 morphology (Fig. 11.13).
notype and cytogenetics, the WHO has recognized
Coarse azurophilic granules may be present in the lym-
just two groups of acute lymphoblastic leukemias,
phoblasts in up to 10% of cases. Lymphoblasts with
precursor B-cell and precursor T-cell lymphoblastic
pseudopod projections, termed “hand-mirror cells,” are
leukemia/lymphoma.
occasionally found. Although not as important as the
immunophenotypic characterization, cytochemistries
Precursor B Lymphoblastic Leukemia/ may be helpful until further studies can be performed to
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
help separate the preliminary diagnosis of lymphoid
Precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL)/lym- from myeloid leukemia. The myeloid stains SBB and
phoblastic lymphoma (B-LBL) is a malignancy where B- MPO will be negative or very weakly positive as com-
lineage lymphoblasts predominate in the bone marrow pared to the intensely positive stain seen in myeloblasts.
(B lymphoblastic leukemia). Sometimes there is pri- The NSE reaction is generally negative. By contrast, the
mary involvement of lymph nodes or extranodal sites (B PAS stain is positive in over 70% of ALL cases, with the
lymphoblastic lymphoma). Greater than 25% of bone nuclei often giving the appearance of being rimmed
marrow cells must be identified as lymphoblasts to meet with a punctate PAS-positive string of beads.
the WHO definition of acute lymphoblastic leukemia;
however, the bone marrow aspirate typically consists of Immunophenotype
almost entirely lymphoblasts at diagnosis. When the As previously noted, the immunological classification
leukemic process is limited to a mass lesion and 25% or should be performed in all cases as it allows for more
Table 11.9 ¢ FAB Morphological Classification of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Feature L1 L2 L3
Cell size Small, regular Large, mixed sizes Large

Nuclear chromatin Fine or condensed Fine or condensed Fine
Nuclear shape Regular, cleft or indentation Irregular, cleft or indentation more Regular, round or oval
possible common
Nucleoli Indistinct 1 to 2, prominent 1 to 2, prominent
Cytoplasm Scant Variable, often moderately abundant Deeply basophilic, vacuolated
differentiation (CD) groups is done. Because no one

surface marker is 100% specific, a panel is needed to
establish the diagnosis and sort the leukemia into the
appropriate subtype. To be able to interpret the CD
information, it is important to have a basic understand-
ing of lymphocyte ontogeny.

Each of the two lineages of lymphocytes (B and
T cells) can be subclassified into several maturational
stages by the expression of their surface antigens.
Accordingly, ALLs are divided by immunophenotype,

first into B- or T-cell lineages. In leukemia, the lym-
phoblasts are “frozen” at a specific stage of matura-
tion, and these blasts can then be further categorized
by using CD markers into the particular stage of
differentiation, that is, precursor B, pre-B, and mature
Figure 11.13 Precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia.
B-ALL.
The lymphoblasts in B-ALL/LBL are uniformly TdT
precise diagnosis and important prognostic correla- positive and HLA-DR positive. The flow cytometric
tions. In order to define a particular population of lym- immunophenotype in most cases is positive for CD 10,
phoblasts in leukemia, evaluation of the results of a CD19, CD20, CD24, cytoplasmic CD22, and CD79a
panel of antibodies used to distinguish the clusters of (Fig. 11.14).
Antigen Independent Antigen Dependent
Stem Cell Early Pre-B Cell Pre-B Cell B Cell Plasma Cell
Immat. Mat. Activtd.

B-Cell B-Cell B-Cell
HLA-DR
CD 34
TdT
CD 10
CD 19
CD 20
Cytoplasm CD 22
CD 79a Cytoplasm
Figure 11.14 B-lineage antigen slg

expression. Stages of B-cell differ-
entiation can be demonstrated by
antigen expression. TdT, terminal clg
deoxynucleotidyl transferase; sIg,
surface immunoglobulin; cIg, Precursor B-Cell Leukemia-Lymphoma B-Cell Lymphoma LPL/Myeloma
cytoplasmic immunoglobulin.
Cytogenetic Findings T-ALL represents approximately 15% to 20% of all

In addition to immunophenotype, certain chromoso- childhood ALL, is more prevalent in adolescents than
mal alterations have been identified in B-ALL that are young children, and is seen more frequently in males
considered prognostically important (see Table 11-8). than females. T-ALL accounts for 25% of adult cases. T-
While these abnormalities are not as consistently asso- lymphoblastic lymphoma (T-LBL) is the subtype of 85%
ciated as the Philadelphia chromosome seen in CML, to 90% of lymphoblastic lymphomas19 and is seen more
they do provide additional information that can help to frequently in males.
refine the treatment regimen. Two abnormalities that The bone marrow and blood will manifest blasts in
have been associated with a good prognosis are (1) all cases of T-ALL. Both T-ALL and T-LBL patients often
hyperploidy greater than 50 and (2) t(12;21)(p13;q22). present with large mediastinal or other tissue masses;
Other cytogenetic findings have been linked to a poor other sites of involvement include lymph nodes, liver,
prognostic outcome (Table 11.10). spleen, skin, CNS, and gonads.
Laboratory Features
Precursor T Lymphoblastic Leukemia/
The leukocyte count may be quite high in precursor T-
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
ALL (⬎100 ⫻ 109/L). The lymphoblasts often have L2
Precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma is a morphology, medium-size blasts with a moderate
malignancy of lymphoblasts with pre-T markers pre- amount of cytoplasm and prominent nucleoli, occa-
dominating in the bone marrow (T-ALL). When there is sional nuclear clefting; or, less frequently, have L1
primary involvement of lymph nodes or extranodal morphology with smaller blasts, a high nucleus-to-
sites, it is termed T lymphoblastic lymphoma. As in B- cytoplasm ratio, scant cytoplasm, and indistinct cyto-
ALL, greater than 25% of bone marrow cells must be plasm. Sometimes, a mixture of both L1 and L2
identified as lymphoblasts to meet the WHO definition morphology is observed in the same case (see Table 11.9
of acute lymphoblastic leukemia; however, the bone and Fig. 11.15). The number of mitotic blast cells is usu-
marrow aspirate typically consists of almost entirely ally higher in T-ALL than in B-ALL.
lymphoblasts at diagnosis. When the leukemic process
is limited to a mass lesion and at least 25% lym- Immunophenotype
phoblasts are seen in the marrow, the designation lym- Most precursor T-ALL malignancies have an immuno-
phoma is used.19 phenotype that corresponds to an immature thymocyte
Table 11.10 ¢ Prognostic Factors in Acute

Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Risk Factors Favorable Unfavorable
WBC Count ⬍10 ⫻ 109/L ⬎50 ⫻ 109/L

Hemoglobin ⬍10 g/dL ⬎7 g/dL
Age 2 to 9 years ⬍2 and ⬎10 years
Race White Black
Sex Female Male
Response to treatment ⬍14 days ⬎28 days
CNS leukemia Absent Present
Immunophenotype Precursor B-cell Precursor T-cell or mixed lineage
Cytogenetic Hyperploidy ⬎50 Hypoploidy
t(12;21)(p13;q22) Translocations, especially
t(9;22)(q34;q11.2)
t(1;19)(q23;p13.3)
t(4;11)(q21;q23)
and this may still be consistent with the diagnosis of

T-ALL/LBL (Fig. 11.16).
Cytogenetic Findings
Reciprocal translocations of the T-cell receptor loci have
been detected in about one-third of patients with T-
ALL/LBL.19 These translocations arise from mistakes in

the normal recombination mechanisms that generate
antigen receptor genes. These cellular rearrangements
that occur in T-ALL cases affect the proteins that have

vital functions in cell proliferation, differentiation, or
survival.50 The association of clinical findings, specific
lymphoblast phenotype with particular chromosomal
abnormalities has been shown to have prognostic signif-
icance. For a detailed discussion of the genes affected by
Figure 11.15 Precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia. chromosomal translocations in B-ALL and T-ALL, the
reader is referred to Williams Hematology, 6th ed. Chap-
ter 97, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
(prothymocyte) stage, originating in the bone marrow.
The B-LBL or lymphoma phenotypes correspond to the
more mature state of differentiation.49 The lym- Prognosis in Acute
phoblasts in T-ALL are TdT, cytoplasmic CD3 and CD7 Lymphoblastic Leukemia
positive, and variably express CD1, CD2, CD4, CD5, In the pediatric age group, children with ALL have an
CD8, and CD10. Of interest is the fact that the myeloid- overall complete remission rate of close to 95%; how-
associated antigens CD13 and CD34 are often present, ever, the disease-free, long-term response rate is about
Cortical Medullary Mature T-Cell

Pro-thymocyte
thymocyte thymocyte (peripheral)
TdT
CD 7
CD 1
CD 2
CD 3
CD 5
Figure 11.16 T-lineage antigen
expression. T-cell development
originates with prothymocytes in CD 4
the bone marrow. Further devel-
opment takes place after these CD 4, CD 8
cells migrate to the thymus,
where the maturation of the thy- CD 8
mocyte can be classified, using
specific CD markers, according to Leukemia/
the various membrane antigens Precursor T-Cell T-Cell Lymphoma
Lymphoma
that are expressed.
70% to 80%.51,52 The cure rate in adults is somewhat immunophenotypic and cytogenetic profiles, and
more variable at 60% to 85%.19 Prognostic indicators in response to treatment. The two most important tests
ALL are listed in Table 11.10. with the greatest prognostic prediction power when the
Although the FAB morphology classification has sample of hematopoietic material is limited are flow
been used for more than a quarter of a century, the cytometry and cytogenetics.
discovery of genetic markers that can help predict The combination of conventional clinical, mor-
clinical outcome prompted the WHO to redefine the phological, and cytochemistry findings with the newer
classification scheme. For a given case, the initial ther- immunophenotypic, cytogenetic, and molecular testing
apy for treating an acute leukemia based on morpholog- now available affords the pathologist and oncologist the
ical or cytochemical findings may be amended when most valuable and comprehensive information to “get
the cytogenetic and immunophenotypic testing is com- to know” each disease entity and its characteristics. It is
pleted. now even more imperative that there is good communi-
Age and WBC count are used for risk assessment in cation between the clinician, the laboratory staff, and
all pediatric clinical trials, with WBC less than 50 ⫻ the pathologist in gathering the important prognostic
109/L as the minimal criteria for low-risk ALL.53 Other data so that the most specific diagnosis and treatment
prognostic factors used to determine outcome are sex, can be applied.
CONDENSED CASE
A 10-year-old girl was taken to an outpatient clinic with a complaint of sore throat and a lump in her neck. Upon
examination she was observed to have a tonsillar abscess, swollen glands, and widespread bruising in the extremities.
She also had a low-grade fever. She was treated with antibiotics and released, but she failed to progress in the next 2
days. Her blood work revealed a white count of 8.0 ⫻ 109/L, an hematocrit of 28%, and a platelet count of 10,000. Her
parents were contacted and she was immediately admitted to the hospital. A bone marrow examination was performed
and revealed an infiltration of blast cells in the marrow. Why are her other cell counts depressed?
Answer
Although this is an unusual presentation of an acute leukemia, all of the elements related to symptoms are in place.
The depressed hematocrit and platelet count are indicative of the blast burden in the bone marrow crowding out all of
the normal elements and causing low counts. This young girl will be transferred to an oncology facility and will most
likely be treated aggressively for her leukemia after it is classified. What is the presumptive diagnosis based upon
this information?
1 Monocyte
83 Blasts
Summary Points • Skin infiltration is characteristic of monocytic

leukemias; extramedullary hematopoiesis is com-
• Leukemia is caused by the mutation of the bone
mon in monocytic or myelomonocytic leukemias.
marrow pluripotent stem cells.
• Individuals with acute leukemia will present with • Headache, blindness, and other neurological com-
variable white counts, anemia, and platelet counts. plications are indicative of blast cells crossing the
blood-brain barrier.
• When blasts cells accumulate in the bone marrow
and peripheral smear, the leukemia is classified as • Cytochemical staining can assist in the diagnosis
acute. of acute leukemias based on staining patterns.
• Hepatosplenomegaly or lymphadenopathy is more • Auer rods are composed of fused primary granules
prominent in chronic leukemias than in acute and may be present in myeloblasts.
leukemias. • Immunophenotyping can help to classify the clone
• According to the WHO, the peripheral smear must of leukemic cells by using monoclonal antibodies
contain 20% myeloblasts or greater for a diagnosis in flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry
of acute leukemia. procedures.
• Cytogenetic abnormalities such as translocation and childhood with highest incidence between the ages
deletion are an important prognostic feature of many of 2 and 6 years.
acute leukemias. • Acute lymphoblastic leukemia accounts for 76% of
• Acute promyelocytic leukemia is associated with all leukemias diagnosed in children younger than
disseminated intravascular coagulation. 13 years.
• Treatment with cytotoxic chemotherapy and/or • Children with Down syndrome have an increased
radiation therapy is associated with the develop risk of leukemia.
ment of acute leukemia and myelodysplastic syn- • Lymphoblasts will frequently cross the blood-brain
drome. barrier, causing neurological involvement.
• Acute myelocytic leukemia with maturation of the • In the pediatric age group, children with acute
most common acute myelocytic leukemias. lymphoblastic leukemia have an overall complete
• Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the leukemia of remission rate of close to 95%.
CASE STUDY
A 6-year-old girl presented to her pediatrician with symptoms of fatigue, pallor, bruising, and a pronounced limp. Phys-
ical examination revealed moderate splenomegaly, mild lymphadenopathy, and a fever of 101⬚F. CBC results were as
follows:
WBC 60.6 ⫻ 109/L LDH 725 (Nl 277-610 IU/L)
RBC 2.90 ⫻ 1012/L Reticulocytes 0.7%
Hgb 7.9 g/dL PT/aPTT Normal
Hct 24.1%
MCV 82 fL
MCH 27.2 pg
MCHC 32.8 g/dL
RDW 17.0%
Platelets 23 ⫻ 109/L
Differential: 2 band neutrophils
4 segmented neutrophils
10 lymphocytes
1 monocyte
83 balsts
Considering the patient’s age and the fact that she has 83% blasts in her peripheral smear, a diagnosis of acute leukemia
is highly likely. There is also evidence of hemolysis since the LDH is extremely elevated. The reticulocyte count is low
and not representative of a regenerative bone marrow. This is probably due to the crowding out of the normal elements
of the bone marrow. A bone marrow biopsy was ordered and showed sheets of small blasts with scanty cytoplasm and
indistinct nucleoli. The cytochemical stains were SBB negative and NSE negative. The PAS was positive. Immunopheno-
typing results showed TdT positive and cells positive for CD10, CD19, CD20, CD24, and CD34. These findings suggest
a pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Review Questions
1. Which of the following is most often associated 2. What is the requisite blast percentage for the diag-
with acute leukemia? nosis of acute leukemia recommended by the
a. Erythrocytosis and thrombocytosis World Health Organization (WHO)?
b. Neutropenia and thrombosis a. 10%
c. Anemia and thrombocytopenia b. 20%
d. Lymphocytosis and thrombocythemia c. 30%
d. 40%
3. Auer rods may be seen in which of the following b. inv(16)(p13q22)

cells? c. t(15;17)(q22;q12)
a. Myeloblasts d. t(9;11)(p22;q23)
b. Myelocytes
6. Which cytochemical reaction is most helpful in
c. Lymphoblasts
identifying the blasts in acute monoblastic
d. Megakaryoblasts
leukemia?
4. The myeloperoxidase stain will be strongly positive a. Nonspecific esterase
in: b. TdT
a. acute lymphoblastic leukemia. c. PAS
b. acute monocytic leukemia. d. SBB
c. acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.
7. The monoclonal marker that is often positive in
d. acute myeloblastic leukemia.
precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma is:
5. Acute promyelocytic leukemia has a high inci- a. CD1.
dence of which of the following cytogenetic b. CD7.
abnormalities? c. CD10.
a. t(8;21)(q22;q22) d. CD41.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do to Correct the CBC When the White Count Is Out of Linearity Range?
CBC results Flags
WBC 194.1 ⫻ 109/L ⫹⫹⫹WBC beyond reportable range, upper
RBC 3.89 ⫻ 1012/L linearity limit is 99.9 ⫻ 109/L
Hgb 11.3 g/dL RL, R, RH, flags
Hct 34.0% on entire CBC
MCV 91.0 fL
MCH 29.1 pg
MCHC 32.0 g/dL
RDW 17.2%
WBC diff: NE, LY, MO, EO, BA all have R flags
The entire CBC and differential was “flagged” and considered nonreportable.
1. Which of these CBC results are unacceptable to report out to the clinician without further workup?
ALL: WBC out-of-range, inaccurate RBC/HCT/RBC indices, questionable inaccurate platelets
2. What are the next steps that should be taken to provide accurate results?
Resolution steps
• Dilute blood 1:10 with diluent, re-run
• Calculate to get accurate WBC
• Subtract RBC from WBC, i.e., RBC ⫺ WBC ⫽ accurate RBC
• Perform microhematocrit (spun HCT)
• Report only WBC, RBC, platelets
• Perform manual WBC differential, verify platelet count (or perform manually)
Example:
1. 1:10 dilution of blood—WBC result was 24.9 ⫻ 109/L
• Calculate to get accurate WBC:
WBC 24.9 ⫻ 109/L
24.9 ⫻ 10 (dilution factor) ⫽ 249 ⫻ 109/L ⫽ accurate WBC count
2. Subtract WBC from original RBC, as WBCs are included in original count, to obtain accurate RBC
3.89 (original RBC) – 0.249 (WBC count expressed in millions unit of measure) ⫽
3.64 ⫻ 1012/L ⫽ accurate RBC count
3. Microhematocrit ⫽ 33.5%
• Be careful to exclude the buffy coat when reading the microhematocrit
4. Perform manual WBC differential and platelet estimate
WORD KEY purulent matter in the blood. Edinburgh Med Surg J

64:413, 1845.
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29. Leith CP, Kopecky KJ, Godwin J, et al. Acute myeloid 45. Greaves MF. Aetiology of acute leukaemia. Lancet
leukemia in the elderly: Assessment of multidrug resist- 349:344, 1997.
ance (MDR1) and cytogenetics distinguishes biologic 46. Kinlen LJ. High-contact paternal occupation, infec-
subgroups with remarkably distinct responses to stan- tion and childhood leukaemia: Five studies of unusual
dard chemotherapy. A Southwest Oncology Group population mixing of adults. Br J Cancer 76:1539,
study. Blood 89:3323–3329, 1997. 1997.
30. Pui CH, Relling MV, Rivera GK, et al. Epipodophyl- 47. Ingram L, Rivera GK, Shapiro DN. Superior vena cava
lotoxin-related acute myeloid leukemia: A study of syndrome associated with childhood malignancy:
35 cases. Leukemia 9:1990–1996, 1995. Analysis of 24 cases. Med Pediatr Oncol 18:476, 1990.
48. Borowitz MJ, Croker BP, Metzgar RS. Lymphoblastic tailored intensification of therapy: A report of the
lymphoma with the phenotype of common acute lym- Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster group trial NHL-BFM90.
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1983. 52. Bowman W, Shuster JJ, Cook B, et al. Improved survival
49. Weiss LM, Bindl JM, Picozzi VJ, et al. Lymphoblastic for children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia
lymphoma: An immunophenotype study of 26 cases and stage IV small noncleaved-cell lymphoma: A Pedi-
with comparison to T cell acute lymphoblastic atric Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 14:1252,
leukemia. Blood 67:474–478, 1986. 1996.
50. Look AT. Oncogenic transcription factors in the human 53. Smith M, Arthur D, Camita B, et al. Uniform approach
acute leukemias. Science 278:1059, 1997. to risk classification and treatment assignment for chil-
51. Reiter A, Schrappe M, Tiemann M, et al. Improved dren with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol
treatment results in childhood B-cell neoplasms with 14:18, 1996.

12 Chronic Myeloproliferative
Disorders
Kathy Finnegan
Chronic Myelogeneous Leukemia Objectives

Disease Overview After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features and Symptoms 1. Define the myeloproliferative disorders.
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow 2. List and discuss classification of the myelopro-
Diagnosis liferative disorders.
Treatment 3. Identify the major cell lines involved with the
Prognosis myeloproliferative disorders.
Chronic Neutrophilic Leukemia 4. Discuss the pathogenesis of the myeloprolifera-
Chronic Eosinophilic Leukemia tive disorders.
Polycythemia Vera 5. Identify and differentiate clinical features and
Disease Overview signs associated with the chronic myeloprolifer-
ative disorders.
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features and Symptoms 6. Identify and describe the peripheral and bone
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Findings marrow abnormalities associated with the
chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
Diagnosis
Treatment 7. Compare and contrast the clinical and labora-
Prognosis tory features of the chronic myeloproliferative
disorders.
Myelofibrosis With Myeloid Metaplasia
8. Identify the diagnostic criteria for the chronic
Disease Overview
myeloproliferative disorders.
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features and Symptoms 9. Discuss the treatment of and prognosis for the
chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
Diagnosis 10. Discuss the cytogenetic abnormalities asso-
Treatment ciated with the chronic myeloproliferative
disorders.
Prognosis
Essential Thrombocythemia
Disease Overview
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features and Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
187
The chronic myeloproliferative disorders (CMPDs) are

a group of disorders that are considered clonal malig- Table 12.1 ¢ WHO Classification of
nancies of the hematopoietic stem cell.1 These disorders Chronic Myeloprolifera-
include chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), tive Diseases
myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia (MMM), poly-
cythemia vera (PV), and essential thrombocythemia Chronic myelogenous leukemia [Ph chromosome,
(ET). Significant changes have evolved in the last decade t(9;22) (q34;q11). BCR-ABL positive]
with regard to terminology of leukemias and associated Chronic neutrophilic leukemia
disorders. The World Health Organization (WHO) in
Chronic eosinophilic leukemia (hypereosinophilic
conjunction with the Society for Hematopathology and syndrome)
the European Association of Hematopathology pub-
Polycythemia vera
lished a new classification for myeloid and lymphoid
neoplasms.1,2 The WHO based their classification on Chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis
morphology, genetic, immunophenotypic, biological, Essential thrombocythemia
and clinical features. For lymphoid disorders, the WHO Chronic myeloproliferative disease unclassifiable
classification uses the Revised European-American
Lymphoma (REAL) Classification. The myeloid disor- Adapted from: Jaffee ES, Harris NL, Stein H, Vardiman JW, eds.
World Health Organization Classification of Tumors: Pathology
ders include the criteria of the French-American-British and Genetics of Tumors of Haematopoietic Lymphoid Tissues.
(FAB) classification and the guidelines of the Poly- Lyon: IARC Press; 2001.
cythemia Vera Study Group (PVSG).3,4 The WHO classi-
fication of the chronic myeloproliferative diseases
recognizes seven entities.2,3 Table 12.1 lists these enti- Other common features shared by these disorders are
ties.1 These disorders are unified but independent. Each splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, increased leukocytosis,
disease has overlapping clinical features but different thrombocytosis, and erythrocytosis. There may be vari-
etiologies. The CMPDs are characterized by prolifera- ous degrees of bone marrow fibrosis. All the CMPDs
tion of one or more cell lines and are predominantly have interrelationships between the disorders. Transi-
mature in cell morphology. The bone marrow shows tions are common between disorders and many finally
varying degrees of abnormal proliferation of myeloid, terminate into an acute myelogenous leukemia (AML).1
erythroid, and megakaryocytic elements. In the periph- Review Figure 12.1 for these interrelationships. A very
eral blood, the red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell small percentage of CMPDs can terminate into an acute
(WBC), and platelet counts vary, and each disorder is lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). An increase in the per-
identified by the predominant cell that is present. Table centage of blasts in the peripheral blood and bone mar-
12.2 summarizes the characteristics of the CMPDs. row indicates the onset of an accelerated stage or
transformation to an acute process.
The CMPDs are primarily diseases of adults. The
peak onset is in the fifth to the seventh decades of life.1
PV The major clinical and pathological findings are the
unregulated proliferation of cells in the bone marrow.
This results in the increased numbers of mature cells
1–2% 10–15% 15–20% in peripheral blood. The increase is found in the granu-
locytes, usually the neutrophils, platelets, or RBCs.
These disorders typically manifest a normocytic, nor-
MMM 1–2% ANLL 5 –15% ET mochromic anemia with all three cell lines involved.
The dysfunction in the CMPDs is a loss of regulatory
signals that control the production of the mature cells.
1–2% 60–70% 5% One of the important bone marrow findings that over-
lap the various CMPDs is marrow fibrosis. Fibrosis is
defined as the replacement of normal bone marrow ele-
CML ments with connective tissue. Classification of these
diseases is based on the lineage of the predominant cell
present, marrow fibrosis, and clinical and pathological
Figure 12.1 Interrelationships of the CMPDs. findings.
CHAPTER 12 • Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders 189
Table 12.2 ¢ Characteristics of Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders
Bone Philadelphia
Marrow Chromosome Organ
CMPD Cell Line WBC Fibrosis (Ph1) Involvement
Chronic myelogenous Myeloid Increased Variable Present Splenomegaly

leukemia (CML) Hepatomegaly
Polycythemia vera (PV) Erythroid, myeloid Increased None Absent Splenomegaly
megakaryocyte Hepatomegaly
Myelofibrosis with myeloid Teardrop, erythro- Variable Increased Absent Splenomegaly
metaplasia (MMM) cytes Fibroblasts Hepatomegaly
Essential thrombocythemia (ET) Megakaryocyte Normal None Absent Splenomegaly
CHRONIC MYELOGENOUS LEUKEMIA The main portion of the long arm of chromosome 22
is deleted and translocated to the distal end of the long
Disease Overview
arm of chromosome 9. This results in an elongated
CML is a hematopoietic proliferative disorder associ- chromosome 9 or 9q. A small part of chromosome
ated with a specific gene defect and a very characteristic 9 is then reciprocally translocated to the broken end of
blood picture.5 Synonyms for this disorder include 22 or 22. This now forms the BCR-ABL hybrid gene,
chronic granulocytic leukemia and chronic myelocytic which codes for a 210-kDa protein, or p210, which
leukemia. There is a marked neutrophil leukocytosis has increased tyrosine kinase activity.5,8 Tyrosine kinase
with some circulation of immature neutrophils and an activity provides an important mediator to regulate
increase in basophils. The gene defect is the transloca- metabolic pathways causing abnormal cell cycling.
tion of genetic material between chromosome 9 and The activation of tyrosine kinase activity may sup-
chromosome 22 (t9:22), which is positive in 90% to press apoptosis (natural cell death) in hematopoi-
95% of the cases.6,7 This gene mutation is called the etic cells and provide the mechanism for excess cell
Philadelphia chromosome, or Ph1. This translocation production.6,9
leads to a formation of a hybrid gene called BCR-ABL.
This fusion gene mutation affects maturation and differ-
entiation of the hematopoietic cells.
This disorder is usually diagnosed in the chronic Most patients are diagnosed in the chronic phase. Many
phase of the disorder. The peripheral blood picture patients are asymptomatic and are diagnosed when an
shows an extremely high WBC with the whole spec- elevated white count is found on a routine complete
trum of neutrophilic cell development seen. As the dis- blood count (CBC). Common findings include fatigue,
ease evolves, the chronic phase will deteriorate to an
aggressive or accelerated phase and terminate in an
acute phase or blast crisis. CML is one of the most com-
mon forms of chronic leukemia.1 See Table 12.3 for a Table 12.3 ¢ Key Facts of CML
summary of key facts for CML.
• Clonal stem cell disorder
Pathophysiology • Marked leukocytosis with all stages of granulocyte
maturation
CML is a clonal proliferative disorder. The hallmark • Hepatosplenomegaly
of the initial phase is the excess of mature neutrophils • Thrombocytosis is common in chronic phase
in the peripheral blood. The expansion of the myeloid • Three phases: chronic, accelerated, blast
cell results in an alteration of self-renewal and differen- • Philadelphia chromosome
tiation. There now is an increase in cells. The forma- • BCR-ABL fusion gene
tion of the Philadelphia chromosome plays a significant • LAP score 10
role in the understanding of the pathogenesis of CML.
weight loss, low-grade fever, normocytic, normochro-

mic anemia, night sweats, and splenomegaly. The
chronic phase can last for months to years. CML is char-
acterized by a chronic phase, an accelerated phase, and a
blast phase. As the disease progresses, the features
Courtesy of Dr. Sidonie Morrison and Kathleen Finnegan,

worsen.
The accelerated phase has a rising peripheral
blood count, appearance of peripheral blasts and
promyelocytes, increase in splenomegaly, bone pain,

thrombocytopenia, and a worsening anemia.
The acute phase or blast crisis is similar to an acute
leukemia. Bone marrow and peripheral blood blasts
counts are greater than 30%.1 Excessive bleeding, infec-
tion, petechiae, ecchymosis, and bruising are seen more
in the later stage due to bone marrow failure.
Figure 12.2 Spectrum of neutrophil maturation
seen in CML.
Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow
The peripheral blood smear shows the presence of a
severe leukocytosis with the entire spectrum of the seen. In the acute phase, the blast count increases and
myeloid cell development. A mild normocytic, nor- may be greater than 30%.
mochromic anemia with nucleated red blood cells Examination of the bone marrow reveals a hyper-
(nRBCs) is a common finding. Eosinophils and cellular marrow with marked myeloid hyperplasia.
basophils also are increased in number. In the chronic The myeloid-to-erythroid (M:E) ratio is 10:1 and can
phase, thrombocytosis is present. Figure 12.2 illustrates be as high as 25:1. A normal M:E ratio is 3:1. The bone
the spectrum of neutrophilic maturation seen in CML. marrow may become fibrotic as the disease progresses.
As the disease progresses, the anemia worsens, and Table 12.4 summarizes the peripheral blood and bone
thrombocytopenia and younger and younger cells are marrow findings in the three phases of CML.
Table 12.4 ¢ Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Findings

in the Three Phases of CML
Chronic Phase Acceleratsed Phase Blast Phase
Peripheral blood Leukocytosis with the pres- Increase in promyelocytes Blasts 20%
ence of neutrophils in all Blasts increased Increase in promyelocytes
stages of maturation Basophils 20% Increase in basophils and
Blasts 2% Increase in circulation eosinophils
Increased basophils NRBs Erythrocytes Thrombocytopenia
Increased eosinophils Persistent thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytosis Anemia
Mild anemia
NRBs
Bone marrow Hyperplasia myeloid Dysplasia Blasts 20%
Blasts 5% Blasts 5% 20 Large clusters of blasts
M:E ratio 10:1 Left shift of mature Increased fibrosis
Increased immature forms neutrophils Marked dysplasia of all
of basophils Increased basophils three cell lines
Reduced erythrocytes Megakaryocytic proliferation
Increased megakaryocytes in sheets and clusters
Fibrosis
Diagnosis rapidly (red cells are reinfused), and a cytotoxin drug is

used to keep the patient in a longer remission.5,7
CML must be distinguished from other myeloprolifera-
A new approach to treatment is to directly inhibit
tive disorders. The presence of the Ph chromosome or
the abnormal molecular molecule, using a tyrosine
BCR-ABL fusion gene and a low or absent leukocyte
kinase inhibitor. This inhibitor reacts to the BCL-ABL
alkaline phosphate (LAP) score is diagnostic for this dis-
tyrosine kinase associated with the Ph chromosome.
order. The LAP score is a cytochemical stain and is used
The drug is called imatinib mesylate (Gleevec), and it
to differentiate CML from a leukemoid reaction. Leuko-
inhibits proliferation, slows down cell growth, and
cyte alkaline phosphatase enzyme is located in the gran-
induces cell death.11-13 An additional treatment for
ules of the neutrophil and bands. LAP activity increases
CML is an allogeneic bone marrow or stem cell trans-
with the maturity of the neutrophil. One hundred
plantation. However, bone marrow transplant has
mature neutrophils and bands are stained, counted, and
a high mortality rate.14 Allogeneic bone marrow trans-
scored for stain intensity and granulation. In a leuke-
plant is currently the only curative therapy.1 There
moid reaction, the LAP score is high, and in CML, it is
are many clinical trials now being studied for better
low. A leukemoid reaction is caused by a severe infec-
prognosis.
tion or inflammation. This reaction can resemble a
leukemic process. Table 12.5 summarizes the differenti-
ation of a neutrophilic leukemoid reaction and CML. Prognosis
The chronic phase CML is highly responsive to treat-
Treatment ment. The median survival is 4 to 6 years, with a range
The goal of treatment for CML is to achieve hematolog- of 1 year to longer than 10 years. Survival after develop-
ical remission, which consists of a normal CBC, no ment of an accelerated phase is usually less than 1 year,
organomegaly, and a negative Ph chromosome or neg- and after blast crisis survival, is only a few months.15
ative BCR-ABL fusion gene. The chronic phase can be Poor prognosis in patients with CML is associated with
controlled with hydroxyurea, interferon-alfa, or busul- several prognostic factors. These factors include
fan therapy.10 This type of therapy is called myelosup- • Patient’s age
pressive therapy, with the goal of controlling the • Phase of CML
hyperproliferation of the myeloid elements. The drug • Amount of blasts in the peripheral blood and
tries to decrease the WBC count by interfering with cell bone marrow
division. Neither cytotoxic drug can prevent the blast • Size of the spleen at diagnosis
crisis. Another treatment is called leukapheresis. This • Marrow fibrosis
therapy uses a cell separator to lower the WBC count • Patient’s general health
Table 12.5 ¢ Differentiating a Neutrophilic Leukemoid

Reaction and CML
Criterion CML Leukemoid Reaction
Neutrophil The whole spectrum of cells A shift to the left, more bands,
mature to the blast metas, blast very rare
Eosinophil Increased Normal
Basophil Increased Normal
Platelet Increased with abnormal forms Normal
Anemia Usually present Not typical
LAP score Decreased Increased
Philadelphia Present Absent
chromosome
Toxic granulation Absent Increased
Döhle bodies Absent Increased
For patients lacking the Ph chromosome, median excluded before a diagnosis of PV can be made. Table
survival is about 1 year.16 12.6 summarizes the key facts of polycythemia.
CHRONIC NEUTROPHILIC LEUKEMIA Pathophysiology
CNL is a rare chronic myeloproliferative disease charac- The etiology of polycythemia has become clearer. The
terized by an elevated neutrophil count. The bone mar- primary defect involves the pluripotential stem cell that
row is hypercellular with an increase in the granulocytic has the capability of differentiating into RBCs, WBCs,
proliferation. An enlarged spleen and liver are also pre- and platelet. Recently the JAK2 V617F mutation has
sented. There is no significant dysplasia in any cell line, been discovered in most patients with PV.18 Erythroid
and bone marrow fibrosis is uncommon.1 The Philadel- precursors in PV are very sensitive to erythropoietin,
phia chromosome or BCR-ABL fusion gene is absent.17 which leads to an increased red cell production. The
increased red cell production leads to an increase in
RCM and increased blood viscosity. For this reason,
CHRONIC EOSINOPHILIC LEUKEMIA patients are predisposed to arterial and venous throm-
CEL is a chronic myeloproliferative disease character- bosis and/or increased bleeding. The elevated hemat-
ized by an elevation and proliferation of the eosinophil.1 ocrit and platelet counts are directly proportional to the
The eosinophil is increased in the peripheral blood, number of thrombotic events.18
bone marrow, and peripheral tissue. There is tissue and
organ damage from the overproduction of eosinophils. Clinical Features and Symptoms
The diagnosis of CEL is made if the blood eosinophil Patients tend to be asymptomatic at the time of diagno-
count is greater than 1500/μL, there are no other causes sis. Symptoms are often insidious in onset. As the RBCs
of increased eosinophils, and there are clinical signs and and platelet number increase, more symptoms are evi-
symptoms of organ damage. There is no Ph chromo- dent. The major symptoms are related to the hyperten-
some or BCL-ABL fusion gene found. sion, hyperviscosity, and the vascular abnormalities
Synonyms include hypereosinophilic syndrome caused by the increased RCM. Symptoms of hypervis-
(HES). cosity and increased hematocrit include headache, light-
headedness, blurred vision or visual disturbances,
POLYCYTHEMIA VERA fatigue, and plethora. Plethora is a condition of a red or
Disease Overview ruddy complexion due to the expanded blood volume.
Additionally, this manifests itself in the nail beds, hands,
PV (polycythemia rubra vera) is a clonal disorder char- feet, face, and conjunctiva. Thrombosis in the small
acterized by the overproduction of mature RBCs, blood vessels leads to painful dilation of the vessels in the
WBCs, and platelets.19,20 With the increased produc- extremities. Sometimes ulceration or gangrene can occur
tion of red cells, there is an increase in hemoglobin, in the fingers and toes. Thrombosis in the larger vessels
hematocrit, and red cell mass (RCM). Erythrocytosis is can lead to myocardial infarction, transient ischemic
the most prominent clinical manifestation of this disor- attacks, stroke, and deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
der. The bone marrow is usually hypercellular with Abnormalities in platelet function can lead to
hyperplasia of all three bone marrow elements. This dis- bleeding from the nose (epistaxis), easy bruising, and
order usually occurs in the sixth or seventh decade of gingival bleeding. The increased blood cell turnover can
life. All causes of secondary erythrocytosis must be cause hyperuricemia, gout, and stomach ulcers. As the
disease progresses, the patients develop abdominal pain
due to hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. Splenomegaly
is present in 75% of the patients at the time of diagnosis,
Table 12.6 ¢ Key Facts of and hepatomegaly is present in about 30%.20,21 Pruri-
Polycythemia Vera tus, which results from increased histamine levels
released from the basophil, is a common extenuating
• Increase in all three cell lines
symptom.
• Absolute increase in RCM
• Normal oxygen saturation
• Splenomegaly
Peripheral Blood and Bone
• Recommended treatment is phlebotomy
Marrow Findings
• Thrombosis and hemorrhage Polycythemia is characterized by an increased cell
count in all three cell lines. The major characteristics of
Table 12.7 ¢ Causes of Secondary

Erythrocytosis
• Hypertension
• Arterial hypoxemia
• Impaired tissue oxygen delivery
• Smoking
• Renal lesions
• Renal disease
• Endocrine lesions
• Drugs
• Alcohol
• Hepatic lesions
Figure 12.3 Increased RBCs in PV.
PV are normoblastic erythroid proliferation in the bone Relative erythrocytosis is due to dehydration and hemo-
marrow and an increased number of normocytic, nor- concentration. Elevated hematocrit and hemoglobin
mochromic RBCs in the peripheral blood. Figure 12.3 counts are a result of a high red cell count and a low
illustrates the increase in RBCs. The reticulocyte count plasma volume.
tends to be normal or slightly increased. Neutrophilia The National Polycythemia Vera Study Group
with a “shift to the left” and basophilia are common in (PVSG) diagnostic criteria are given in Table 12.8.1,22 PV
the blood smear.1 At disease onset, the red cell count, is present when a patient demonstrates all of the major
hemoglobin, and hematocrit are increased. The red cell or primary criteria (elevated hematocrit or RCM, nor-
distribution width (RDW) tends to be higher than normal arterial oxygen saturation, and splenomegaly) or
mal. The granulocyte and platelet counts are found to together with the secondary or minor criteria (thrombo-
be increased. The leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) cytosis, leukocytosis, elevated LAP, and increased serum
score is usually elevated. Platelet counts are increased B12). In summary, the most significant finding in PV is
and have abnormal morphology and function. increased RCM, splenomegaly, and the JAK2 mutation
Characteristically, the bone marrow biopsy is with the increase in leukocytes and platelets. Other tests
hypercellular. Pancytopenia accounts for the increased that are helpful in the diagnosis of PV are a bone marrow
cellularity. The increase in the number of erythroid and aspirate and biopsy. However, these invasive procedures
megakaryocytic precursors is more significant. The are not necessary to establish a diagnosis, but a hyper-
bone marrow biopsy shows increased reticulin or fibro- cellular marrow with hyperplasia of erythroid, granulo-
sis. The amount of reticulin is directly proportional to cytic, and megakaryocytic elements supports the
the amount of cellularity. The iron stores of the bone diagnosis. Serum erythropoietin levels in patients with
marrow are usually depleted. PV are often found to be low compared with patients
As the disease progresses, the erythroid activity in with secondary and relative erythrocytosis.20,23
the marrow decreases. Immature WBC and RBC pre- There is no consistent or unique cytogenetic
cursors are found in the peripheral blood with marked abnormality associated with this disorder. Cytogenetic
morphology. Microcytes, elliptocytes, and dacryocytes abnormalities are found in 8% to 20% of patients at the
(teardrop cells) develop. Granulocytes and platelet time of diagnosis.24 The most frequent cytogenetic
morphology is abnormal with increases in younger and abnormality are trisomy of 1q, 8, 9 or 9p,del 3q,del 20q
younger cells. or interstitial deletions of 13 or 20.24
Diagnosis Treatment
The major diagnostic issue related to PV is distinguish- Treatment begins with decreasing the hematocrit and
ing it from secondary and relative erythrocytosis. Sec- hemoglobin, thereby reducing the plasma viscosity.
ondary erythrocytosis is an increase in the RCM without Therapy recommendations are based on age, sex, clini-
evidence of changes in the other cell lines. Table 12.7 cal manifestations, and hematological findings. Treat-
summarizes the causes of secondary erythrocytosis. ment recommendations for patients are phlebotomy,
in immature WBCs and RBCs. The red cells will appear

Table 12.8 ¢ Diagnostic Criteria in a teardrop shape, with an increase in shape changes.
for Polycythemia Vera The spleen will increase in size due to extramedullary
hematopoiesis. The main characteristics of this stage
A1 Elevated RCM 25% above mean normal are the increase in reticulin and fibrosis in the bone
predicated marrow.27
Hgb 18.5 g/dL in men or 16.5 g/dL in
women
MYELOFIBROSIS WITH
A2 No cause or absence of secondary erythrocy- MYELOID METAPLASIA
tosis
A3 Splenomegaly
Disease Overview
A4 Prescence of JAK2 V617 F mutation Myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia (MMM) is a
or other cytogenetic abnormalities in CMPD characterized by bone marrow fibrosis, prolifer-
hemopoietic cells ation of megakaryocytic and granulocytic cells, and
A5 Endogenous erythroid colony formation in extramedullary hematopoiesis. MMM presents with an
vitro elevated WBC, teardrop RBCs, normocellular or hyper-
B1 Thrombocytosis 400 109/L cellular bone marrow, leukoerythroblastic anemia,
B2 WBC 12 109/L
splenomegaly, and the absence of the Philadelphia chro-
mosome.28,29 MMM is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell
B3 Bone marrow biopsy presenting with pan-
expansion in the bone marrow with the production of
myelosis with prominent and megakary-
ocytic proliferation
reticulin and bone marrow fibrosis.30,31 Table 12.9 sum-
marizes the key facts found in MMM.
B4 Low serum erythropoietin levels
There are many synonyms for this myeloprolif-
A1 A2 any other category A are present, diagnose PV.
erative disorder; they include agnogenic myeloid meta-
A1 A2 any two of category B are present, diagnose PV. plasia, chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis, idiopathic
Adapted from Jaffee ES, Harris NL, Stein H, Vardiman JW, eds. myelofibrosis, primary myelofibrosis, leukoerythroblas-
World Health Organization Classification of Tumors: Pathology and
tic anemia, and myelosclerosis with myeloid metaplasia.
Genetics of Tumors of Haematopoietic Lymphoid Tissues. Lyon: IARC
Press, 2001; and Pearson TC, Messinezy M, Westwoos N, Green AR, et
al. A polycythemia vera update: Diagnosis, pathobiology and treat-
ment. Hematology 1:51–68, 2000.
Pathophysiology
The etiology of this disorder is unknown, and the mech-
anism of myelofibrosis is poorly understood. The clonal
radioactive phosphorus (32P), myelosuppressive agents, proliferation of hematopoietic stem cell is thought to
and interferon-alfa.25 The target goal for therapy is to produce growth factors and an abnormal cytokine
decrease the hematocrit. For men, the hematocrit target release that mediates a bone marrow reaction that leads
value is less than 45%, and for women, it is less than to fibrosis of the bone marrow.32,33 Platelets, megakary-
40%.26 Therapeutic phlebotomy is an immediately ocytes, and monocytes are thought to secrete cytokines,
effective therapy and is usually the first choice of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta), platelet-
recommended treatments. derived growth factor (PDGF), interleukin 1, and
fibroblast growth factor, which may result in formation
Prognosis of the bone marrow matrix.32,33
PV is a chronic disease. The median survival is more
than 10 years with treatment.1 The major causes of
death in untreated patients are hemorrhage and throm-
Table 12.9 ¢ Key Facts of Myelofibrosis
bosis. Other causes of death are complications of
myeloid metaplasia or the development of leukemia.1 • Leukoerythroblastosis
The incidence of transformation into an acute leukemia • Extramedullary hematopoiesis
is greater in patients treated with radioactive phosphate • Fibrosis of the bone marrow/reticulin silver stain
or alkylating agents.26 • Teardrop RBCs
During the later stages of PV, a post–polycythemic • Absence of the Philadelphia chromosome
myelofibrosis phase occurs, characterized by a leuko- • Hepatosplenomegaly
erythroblastic peripheral blood picture with an increase
MMM has an evolution in the disease process. The
Courtesy of Dr. Sidonie Morrison and Kathleen Finnegan, Stony Brook University, New York.
initial phase is the prefibrotic stage, which is character-
ized by a hypercellular bone marrow with minimal reti-
culin. The second phase is the fibrotic stage, which is
characterized by the bone marrow having marked retic-
ulin or collagen fibrosis. Normal hematopoiesis is
blocked as the bone marrow becomes more fibrotic.
This stage is characterized by a leukoerythroblastic
blood smear: immature white cells and nRBCs com-
bined with teardrop RBCs. Patients become pancy-
topenic (decrease in all three cell lines). Extramedullary
hematopoiesis contributes to the leukoerythroblastic
blood picture, splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly.
Myelofibrosis is a complicating reactive feature of the
primary disease process.
Figure 12.4 Teardrop RBCs in MMM.

In the early stages of the disease, the patient may be
asymptomatic. Patients with myelofibrosis exhibit of the physician to obtain a sample because the normal
splenomegaly, an anemia, and marrow fibrosis. Many of architecture of the bone marrow is disrupted by fibrotic
the signs and symptoms are attributed to the pancy- tissue, reticulin.
topenia associated with the presence of a fibrotic bone
marrow. Pancytopenia occurs as a result of decreased Diagnosis
cell production because of the fibrosis marrow or inef- Diagnosis is made on the basis of detecting spleno-
fective hematopoiesis with increased spleen sequestra- megaly and of the result of the CBC. Splenomegaly is
tion. Most patients exhibit symptoms of anemia. the most common finding, followed by hepatomegaly.34
Patients who are thrombocytopenic and neutropenic The PVSG has criteria for myelofibrosis as follows:
tend to have bleeding tendencies and infection. Other splenomegaly, fibrosis of the bone marrow, a leukoery-
symptoms include night sweats, low-grade fever, throblastic blood picture, absence of increased RCM,
weight loss, and anorexia. Patients often complain of absence of the Philadelphia chromosome, and exclu-
left upper quadrant discomfort due to the enlarged sion of any other systemic disease. Table 12.10 summa-
spleen and liver. Patients with myelofibrosis develop rizes the diagnostic criteria of MMM.35
osteosclerosis, which can cause severe joint pain. There are no specific genetic defects. Cytogenetic
abnormalities occur in about 60% of the patients.36
Peripheral Blood and Bone Cytogenetics rule out CML, myelodysplastic syndrome,
Marrow Findings and other chronic myeloid disorders. Various chromo-
somal abnormalities may occur, with the most common
The peripheral blood and bone marrow biopsy provide being del(13q), del(20q), and partial trisomy 1q.36
information for diagnosis. The WBC and platelet counts
may increase initially but will decrease as the disease
progresses. The typical picture is a blood smear that Treatment
shows leukoerythroblastosis and teardrop red cells There are no available treatments to reverse the process
(Fig. 12.4). Large platelets, megakaryocyte fragments, of myelofibrosis. Asymptomatic patients are observed
and immature blood cells may be found due to the and require no treatment. Therapy for MMM is mainly
crowding out of normal cell development by fibrosis in supportive for the anemia and thrombocythemia.
the bone marrow. A normocytic, normochromic anemia Hydroxyurea is used as a cytoreductive therapy to con-
is present with hemoglobin of less than 10 g/dL. trol leukocytosis, thrombocytosis, and organomegaly.28
The bone marrow is hypercellular with increased Interferon-alfa is used in patients younger than 45
and abnormal megakaryocytes and megakaryocyte years. Splenectomy may be considered for treating
clusters. Bone marrow aspirates are sometimes dry taps patients with symptomatic splenomegaly that is refrac-
in about 50% of the patients. This refers to the inability tory to hydroxyurea.37 Radiation may be used to treat
Table 12.10 ¢ Diagnostic Criteria Table 12.11 ¢ Key Facts for Essential
for Myelofibrosis Thrombocythemia
Clinical Criteria • Marked thrombocytosis (platelet count 600
A1 No preceding or allied subtype of CMPDs 109/L)
• Usually no fibrosis
A2 Early clinical stages
• Neurological manifestations
Normal hemoglobin
• Abnormal platelet function
Slight or moderate splenomegaly
• Megakaryocyte fragments in both peripheral blood
Thrombocythemia platelets 400 109/L
and bone marrow
A3 Intermediate clinical stage • Absent Philadelphia chromosome
Anemia
Definitive leukoerythroblastic blood
picture/teardrop RBCs
Splenomegaly increased platelet count, a megakaryocytic hyperplasia,
No advance signs and an absence of increased RCM. The clinical course is
A4 Advanced clinical stage complicated by hemorrhage or thrombotic episodes.
Anemia Etiology is unknown, and the disorder usually occurs
One or more adverse signs between the ages of 50 and 70.1 Table 12.11 summa-
Pathological Criteria rizes the key factors for ET.
B1 Megakaryocytic and granulocytic
proliferation Pathophysiology
Reduction RBC precursors
Abnormal giant-sized megakaryocytes ET is considered to be a clonal disorder of the multipo-
tential stem cell.35 ET has many biological characteristics
Adapted from Spivak JL, Barosi G, Tognoni G, et al. Chronic myelopro- in common with PV and the other myeloproliferative
liferative disorders. Hematology 1:200–224, 2003. disorders. This disorder can affect all three cell lines, but
the main characteristic is the increase in the megakary-
ocyte. Bone marrow and peripheral blood are the princi-
symptomatic extramedullary hematopoiesis. A more pal sites of involvement in this disorder. Megakaryocytes
aggressive approach is an allogeneic peripheral stem are hypersensitive to several cytokines, including IL-3,
cell or bone marrow transplant.38 IL-6, and thrombopoietin, which leads to increased
platelet production.40 Platelet survival and platelet
Prognosis aggregation studies are normal.
MMM has the worst prognosis of all the myeloprolifera- The increased platelet count can cause increased
tive disorders. The median survival is approximately 3 to thrombotic and hemorrhagic episodes. Qualitative
5 years from diagnosis.29 The major causes of death are abnormalities in the platelet contribute to the increased
infection, cardiovascular disease, hemorrhage, throm- risk of thrombotic and hemorrhagic complications. Age,
bosis, progressive marrow failure, and transformation previous thrombotic event, increased or greater than
into an acute leukemia.29,31 Prognostic factors that affect 600 109/L platelet counts, duration of diseases, and
survival include age, anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, prior symptoms are considered high-risk factors. The
circulating blasts, and karyotype abnormalities. There is increase in thrombotic risk with age has been attributed
a shorter survival with poor prognostic values.28,39 to vascular disease or hypercoagulable platelets.

ESSENTIAL THROMBOCYTHEMIA
Most often, patients present asymptomatic at the time
Disease Overview of diagnosis. The elevated platelet count is discovered
ET, or primary thrombocythemia, is a chronic MPD on a routine CBC. The clinical signs and symptoms are
characterized by a clonal proliferation of megakary- similar to those of PV. The most frequent symptoms are
ocytes in the bone marrow. The peripheral blood weight loss, low-grade fever, weakness, pruritus, hem-
platelet counts exceed 600,000/μL and can be greater orrhage, headache, and dizziness. Bleeding is usually
than 1 million. This disease is characterized by an mild and may present as epistaxis and the tendency to
bruise easily. The gastrointestinal tract is the primary

site for bleeding complications. Patients who present Table 12.12 ¢ Causes of Relative
with microvascular occlusion may have transient Thrombocytosis
ischemic attacks with symptoms of unsteadiness, syn-
cope, and seizures. Thrombosis of the large veins and • Inflammatory states
main arteries is common. Occlusion of the leg arteries • Infection
and renal arteries may be involved. • Trauma
Approximately 50% of the patients at the time of • Blood loss
diagnosis will present with an enlarged spleen and • Postsplenectomy
approximately 20% of patients will present with an • Acute hemorrhage
• Malignancy
enlarged liver.1
• Postoperative
• Hemolytic anemia
Peripheral Blood and Bone
Marrow Findings
The hallmark for ET is an unexplained elevated platelet
Diagnosis
count. The blood platelet count is usually in excess of
1 million. The platelets will have anisocytosis ranging Discriminating ET from reactive thrombocytosis and
from small to large forms. Figure 12.5 illustrates the the other myeloproliferative disorders is a diagnostic
increased platelet count. The peripheral blood may challenge. For the diagnosis of ET, reactive thrombocy-
reveal a leukocytosis with an occasional immature cell tosis needs to be excluded. Secondary or reactive
(myelocytes and metamyelocytes), erythrocytosis, and thrombocytosis is associated with many acute and
a mild normocytic, normochromic anemia. A mild chronic infections. Table 12.12 summarizes the causes
basophilia and eosinophilia may be seen. Leukoery- of relative thrombocytosis. In reactive thrombocytosis,
throblastosis and teardrop cells are not features of ET. the platelet count is less than 1 million and is transient.
The bone marrow shows an increase in cellularity. Leukocytes and erythrocytes are normal. Platelet func-
Megakaryocytic hyperplasia is the most striking feature. tion is normal, and the spleen and liver are not enlarged.
Giant megakaryocytes and clusters of megakaryocytes Diagnostic requirements for ET include a normal
are frequently seen. The megakaryocytes have abun- RBC mass (increased with PV), a hemoglobin of less
dant, mature cytoplasm and hyperlobulated nuclei. than 13 g/dL (elevated in PV), absence of the Philadel-
Proliferation of erythroid precursors may be found in phia chromosome (associated with CML), and the
some cases. The network of reticulin fibers is normal or absence of teardrop RBCs or significant increase in bone
slightly increased.1 Increased reticulin or collagen fibro- marrow fibrosis (as seen in MMM). Diagnosis for ET fol-
sis points more toward MMM than ET. Stainable iron is lows the gold standard criteria of the PVSG.3 Table
present. 12.13 summarizes the diagnostic criteria for ET.3,41
There are no characteristic cytogenetic or molecu-
lar abnormalities associated with or that establish the
diagnosis for patients with ET.41,42
Treatment
The goal of treatment of ET is to prevent or reduce the
risk of complications from vaso-occlusion or hemor-

rhage. The treatment of ET can vary from no treatment,
if patients are asymptomatic, to low-dose aspirin for
low-risk patients, to treatment with hydroxyurea, ana-
grelide, or alfa-interferon to reduce the platelet

count.43,44 Patients with life-threatening hemorrhagic
or thrombotic events should be treated with platelet
phoresis in combination with myelosuppressive ther-
apy to reduce the platelet count below 1 million.40 The
maintaining of a platelet count of less than 400,000/μL
Figure 12.5 Increased thrombocytes in ET. is needed to reduce the risk of a thrombotic event.
Table 12.13 ¢ Diagnostic Criteria for Essential Thrombocythemia
I. Platelet count 600 109/L

II. Hematocrit 40 or normal RBC mass (males 36 mL/kg, females 32 mL/kg)
III. Stainable iron in marrow or normal serum ferritin or normal RBC mean corpuscular volume
IV. Absent Philadelphia chromosome or BCR-ABL gene rearrangement
V. Collagen fibrosis of marrow
A. Absent or
B. 1/3 of biopsy involved and neither marked splenomegaly nor a leukoerythroblastic reaction
VI. No cytogenetic or morphological evidence for a myelodysplastic syndrome
VII. No cause for reactive thrombocytosis
Adapted from Murphy S, Peterson P, Iland H, Laszio J. Experience of the Polycythemia Vera Study Group with
essential thrombocythemia: A final report on diagnostic criteria, survival and leukemic transition by treatment.
Semin Hematol 34:29, 1997; and Nimer S. Essential thrombocythemia: Another “heterogeneous disease” better
understood? Blood 93:415–416, 1999.
Prognosis larly the younger patients.4,46 Less than 10% of patients

Prognosis is dependent on the age of the patient and the with ET will convert to AML and less than 5% will con-
history of thrombotic events (Table 12.14). The survival vert to MMM.47 Most patients die from thrombotic
rate is 10 years for 64% to 80% of the patients, particu- complications.
Table 12.14 ¢ Differentiation of Myeloproliferative Disorders
Chronic Myelofibrosis
Laboratory Myelogenous With Myeloid Polycythemia Essential
Findings Leukemia Metaplasia Vera Thrombocythemia
Hematocrit Normal/decreased Decreased Marked increased Normal/decreased
WBC Marked neutrophilia Increased Normal/increased Normal/increased
with a shift to the Left shift with Leukocytosis with Leukocytosis usually
left myeloblasts (occ) neutrophilia and mild
Basophilia and Basophilia and basophilia
eosinophilia eosinophilia
RBC Normal Teardrop reticu- Normal morphology Normal morphology
Few nRBCs locytosis as disease pro- and maturation
nRBCs gresses; iron defi-
cient morphology
Platelets Normal/increased Normal/decreased/ Increased Increased
Enlarged and frag- increased Platelet count
ments Giant and abnormal 600,000/μL
megakaryocytes Giant size
present Bizarre shapes
Micromegakaryocytes
and megakaryocytic
fragments
Immature Increased Increased Absent or shift Rare
granulocytes
LAP Decreased Normal/increased Increased Normal
Chronic Myelofibrosis
Laboratory Myelogenous With Myeloid Polycythemia Essential
Findings Leukemia Metaplasia Vera Thrombocythemia
Ph chromosome Present Absent Absent Absent
Spleen Normal/increased Increased Increased Normal/increased
Bone marrow Hypercellular predomi- Increased fibrosis Hypercellular mod- Hypercellular mild to
nantly granulocytic Megakaryocytic erate to severe moderate
decreased iron stores hyperplasia All three lines Megakaryocytic
RBCs and WBCs increased hyperplasia
usually normal with normal Clusters and sheets of
Bone marrow aspi- maturation megakaryocytes
rate DRY TAP Deceased iron stores Some marrow fibrosis
Diagnostic Complete rainbow of all Leukoerythroblastic Excessive RBC pro- Platelet count greater
criteria stages of neutrophil picture with tear- duction than 600,000/μL
maturation drop RBCs Increased red cell with no known cause
Less than 5% blasts in Fibrotic marrow as volume, normal for reactive thrombo-
peripheral blood disease progresses O2 saturation, all cytosis
Ph chromosome present Enlarged spleen three lines Complications of throm-
in 90% to 95% of cases increased bosis and hemorrhage
Three clinical phases: Enlarged spleen
Chronic
Accelerated
Blast
Adapted from Finnegan K. Leukocyte disorders. In: Lehmann C, ed. Saunders Manual of Clinical Laboratory Science.
Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1998: 903–944.
CONDENSED CASE
A 44-year-old woman went to her physician as part of a physical examination for life insurance. Her medical history
was unremarkable, but she did complain of loss of appetite with a full feeling in her upper abdomen. She appeared to
be in good physical condition but her spleen was palpable. Her physician ordered a complete CBC. What condition
could cause an enlarged spleen?
Answer
An enlarged spleen can occur primarily as a result of hemolysis and sequestered cells or as a result of extramedullary
hematopoiesis. In this case, the CBC revealed a 50,000 white count and a differential that showed the entire family of
white cells. An LAP was ordered, and it was negative. This patient was diagnosed with early-stage chronic myelocytic
leukemia. She was in no acute distress, but she was cautioned that since her spleen was enlarged, her movements
should be restricted so as not to cause a rupture.
Summary Points • The bone marrow in CMPDs may show hyperplasia

or elements of fibrosis.
• Chronic myeloproliferative disorders (CMPDs)
are caused by abnormal stem cells that lead to • Most of these disorders are seen in older
unchecked autonomous proliferation of one adults and show a normochromic normocytic
or more cell lines. process.
• The most common CMPDs are chronic granulocytic • Individuals with chronic myelogenous leukemia
leukemia, polycythemia vera (PV), myelofibrosis (CML) show an extremely high white count, moder-
with myeloid metaplasia (MMM), and essential ate anemia, and the entire spectrum of white cells in
thrombocythemia (ET). the peripheral smear.
• Ninety percent of CML individuals show the • MMM is characterized by marrow fibrosis,
Philadelphia chromosome, which is a cytogenetic extramedullary hematopoiesis, and the leukoery-
abnormality in which a small part of chromosome 9 throblastic blood smear.
is translocated to the broken arm of chromosome 22. • In patients with MMM, the accelerating fibrosis
• A hybrid gene, BCR-ABL, is also manifested with may contribute to leukopenia and thrombocy-
Philadelphia chromosome, and this gene prevents topenia.
natural cell death or apoptosis. • In 50% of patients with MMM, bone marrow aspi-
• In the accelerated phase of CML, a higher blast rates are impossible because of increased fibrosis:
count may be present and eventually ends in blast the dry tap.
crisis, all blasts in the bone marrow. • MMM has the worst prognosis of all of the myelo-
• PV is a clonal disorder of red cells in which the proliferative disorders.
patient shows a pancytosis: high red count, high • ET is a clonal proliferation of megakaryocytes in the
white count, and high platelet count. bone marrow.
• Patients with PV have symptoms related to hypervis- • The peripheral count of patients with ET is
cosity, including hypertension and vascular abnor- extremely elevated, sometimes up to 1 million.
malities.
• The increased platelet count in ET can cause hemor-
• The leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score is usually rhagic and thrombotic episodes, including gastroin-
elevated in PV and low in CML. testinal bleeding, epistaxis, and transient ischemic
• Patients with PV must be distinguished from those attacks.
with secondary or relative erythrocytosis. • Diagnosis for ET involves ruling out any other
• The major causes of death in patients with PV are causes for reactive thrombocytosis other than the
hemorrhage and thrombosis. clonal proliferation of megakaryocytes.
CASE STUDY
A 45-year-old male police officer sustained a fall from his motorcycle while driving at low speed while on patrol. He
started to experience light-headedness, headache, and left upper quadrant abdominal pain. He was brought to a local
hospital emergency department. On the basis of a physical examination, he was scheduled for surgery for a ruptured
spleen. A STAT CBC was performed prior to surgery, with the following results:
Laboratory Data Differential
WBC 199 109/L Basophils 5%

Hgb 10.6 g/dL Eosinophils 5%
Hct 32% Metamyelocytes 15%
Platelets 850 10 /L
9 Myelocytes 8%
Bands 17% Promyelocytes 7%
Neutrophils 32% Blasts 7%
Lymphocytes 3%
Monocytes 1%
Which conditions show a differential with these abnormalities?
Considering our case study, there are many pieces of abnormal laboratory data. Chief among these is the exorbitant
white count and platelet count. When you combine this unexpected data with the police officer’s enlarged spleen and
the peripheral smear findings, a likely diagnosis is chronic granulocytic leukemia. The patient seems to be in the chronic
phase of the disease, since his blast count is low. This phase can last months to years. Cytogenetic studies need to be run
to determine if he is Philadelphia chromosome positive. Myelosuppressive therapy will probably be instituted to reduce
his white count, and he will be followed closely to monitor his progress and the progress of the disease.
Review Questions
1. One of the hallmarks in the diagnosis of a patient c. the infiltration of fibrotic tissue in MMM.
with CML is: d. the increase of megakaryocytes in MMM.
a. splenomegaly.
b. presence of teardrop cells. 5. Thrombotic symptoms in PV are generally related
c. thrombocytosis. to:
d. an M:E ratio of 10:1 or higher. a. hyperviscosity syndrome.
b. increased M:E ratio.
2. The BCR:ABL fusion gene leads to: c. increased LAP.
a. increased LAP activity. d. splenomegaly.
b. increased tyrosine kinase activity.
c. increased organomegaly. 6. Pancytopenia in MMM may be caused by:
d. increased platelet count. a. an aplastic origin.
3. Blast crisis in CML means that there are more than b. increase in reticulin fiber in the bone marrow.
____ blasts in the peripheral smear c. extramedullary hematopoiesis.
a. 10% d. the Ph chromosome.
b. 30% 7. The diagnostic criteria for essential thrombocytes
c. 5% includes all EXCEPT which of the following
d. 15% criteria?
4. The origin of the dry tap in MMM occurs as a result a. Increased platelet count
of: b. Absence of collagen fibers
a. extramedullary hematopoiesis. c. Increased hematocrit
b. the presence of teardrop cells in MMM. d. No cytogenic abnormalities
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
How Do I Obtain a Valid White Count When My out of range then several more dilutions are tried until a
Patient’s White Count Is Outside of the Linearity reading can be obtained. Once a reading is obtained,
Range? then the technologist must remember to multiply by
Consider the case study presented earlier in this chap- the dilution factor to obtain an accurate white count.
ter. The white count is 199 109/L, which is out of the The white count will be a critical value and must be
linearity range. Special techniques must be used by the called and reported to a responsible party. Additionally,
technologist to obtain a valid white count on this sam- each of the other parameters of the CBC must be exam-
ple. The technologist will notice that the white count is ined to evaluate whether they are credible. The trou-
seen as a vote out on the automated screen, bleshooting case in Chapter 11 outlines each of the
and this is the first alert that the count may be too high steps necessary to resolve the total CBC on a trouble-
(out of the linearity range) to be recorded by the instru- some patient such as this, examining each CBC param-
ment. The first step is to dilute a small amount of the eter and the resolution steps. Although each of these
patient’s sample, usually 1:2 dilution, and re-run it to procedures seems exhaustive, they are necessary to give
see if a number can be obtained. If this dilution is still the physician an accurate account of this patient’s CBC.
WORD KEY Gout • Arthritic disorder marked by crystal formation

(usually uric acid) in the joints or tissues
Clonal • Disease arising from a single cell
Deep vein thrombosis • Formation of a blood clot in the Hyperplasia • Increase in the number of cells in the bone
deep veins of the legs, arms, pelvis, etc. marrow
Myelofibrosis •
Increase in the reticulin or fibrotic tissue 12. Obrien SG, Tefferi A, Valent P. Chronic myelogenous
in the bone marrow. leukemia and myeloproliferative disease. Hematology
1:146–162, 2004.
Myeloproliferative • Disease that results in the uncon- 13. Sawyers CL, Hochhaus A, Feldman E, et al. Imatinib
trolled overproduction of normal-appearing cells in the induces hematologic and cytogenetic responses in
absence of an appropriate stimulus patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia in myeloid
blast crisis: Results of a phase II study. Blood
Organomegaly • Enlargement of the organs 99:3530–3539, 2002.
Osteosclerosis • Abnormal increase in the thickening or 14. Reiffers J, Trouette R, Marit G, et al. Autologous blood
density of bone stem cell transplantation for chronic granulocytic
leukemia in transformation: A report of 47 cases. Br J
Plethora • Excess blood volume Haematol 77:339–345, 1991.
Pruritus • Itching 15. Sawyers CL. Chronic myeloid leukemia. N Engl J Med
Therapeutic phlebotomy • Withdrawing blood for a 340:1330–1340, 1999.
medical purpose 16. Onida f, Ball G, Kantarjian HM, et al. Characteristics
and outcome of patients with Philadelphia chromosome
Transient ischemic attack • Neurological defect, having a negative, BCR/ABL negative chronic myelogenous
vascular cause, producing stroke symptoms that resolve in leukemia. Cancer 95:1673–1684, 2002.
24 hours 17. Bohm J, Schaefer HE. Chronic neutrophilic leukemia:
14 new cases of an uncommon myeloproliferative
Trisomy • In genetics, having three homologous chromo- disease. J Clin Pathol 55:862–864, 2002.
somes instead of two
18. Campbell PJ, Green AR. Management of Polycythemia
Vera and Essential Thrombo cythemia. Am Soc
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13 Lymphoproliferative
Disorders and Related
Plasma Cell Disorders
Betty Ciesla
Lymphoid Malignancies Objectives

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Hairy Cell Leukemia
1. Define the common features of the chronic
Sezary Syndrome lymphoproliferative disorders.
Prolymphocytic Leukemia
2. Describe the symptoms, peripheral smear mor-
Hodgkin’s and Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (Briefly) phology, and treatment of individuals with
Plasma Cell Disorders chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
Normal Plasma Cell Structure and Function 3. Evaluate the complications of chronic lympho-
Multiple Myeloma cytic leukemias with respect to immunocompe-
tency and bone marrow involvement.
Waldenstrom’s Macroglobulinemia
4. Describe the pertinent features of hairy cell
leukemia to include clinical presentation,
peripheral smear, and pertinent cytochemical
stains.
5. Define the clinical features of Sézary syndrome.
6. List the morphological features of the plasma
cell.
7. Describe the basic immunoglobulin unit.
8. List the laboratory criteria used to diagnose the
monoclonal gammopathies.
9. Differentiate the clinical and laboratory features
that distinguish multiple myeloma and
Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia.
10. List the CD markers used to differentiate B-cell
and T-cell disorders.
11. Compare and contrast the clinical and labora-
tory features of multiple myeloma and Walden-
strom’s macroglobulinemia.
12. Briefly describe how molecular diagnostics aid
in the diagnosis of lymphoid malignancies.
205
Lymphoproliferative disorders comprise those disorders

of the B and T lymphocytes, in which there is a clonal,
malignant proliferation of either cell subset. This chap-
From the College of American Pathologists, with permission.

ter discusses the malignant lymphoproliferative dis-
orders (with variants) and the plasma cell disorders.
There are several common features of each of these
groups. Primarily these diseases affect the elderly; they Text/image rights not available.
are chronic; most complications are related to a compro-
mised immune ability; and these diseases progress
slowly.
Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma are cov-
ered briefly in this chapter. These diseases have compli-
cated staging systems and are primarily diagnosed
through lymph node biopsy, through bone marrow Figure 13.1 Bone marrow view of chronic lymphocytic
studies, and with molecular techniques. The laboratory leukemia. Compare the nRBCs at the arrow with mature
involvement in these diseases is peripheral at best. lymphocytes.
Major plasma cell disorders such as multiple myeloma
and Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia will be pre- Disease Progression in Chronic
sented. Molecular diagnostic techniques such as flow Lymphocytic Leukemia
cytometry and chromosomal analysis with a molecular
The peripheral blood smear shows exclusively small
component provide essential data for diagnosis of the
lymphocytes intermixed with few lymphoblasts. The
malignant disorders. These techniques will be men-
lymphocytes show certain homogeneity in morphology
tioned throughout the text.
with a heavily clumped chromatin combined with round
and at times slightly indented nucleus. Figure 13.1 pro-
vides a comparison of nucleated red blood cells (nRBCs)
LYMPHOID MALIGNANCIES and lymphocytes in CLL. Smudge cells may be present
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia in the peripheral smear and are visualized as pieces of
lymphocyte chromatin splashed across the peripheral
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is caused by a
smear. Because lymphocytes are fragile, smudge cells
clonal proliferation of B lymphocytes. It is the most
may arise in the process of making a peripheral smear
common chronic leukemia with a predilection for men
where the cytoplasm is disrupted and the nuclear chro-
over women. Most patients are older, over 50 years of
matin strands are smudged across the smear in a basket
age.1 Small lymphocytes begin to accumulate in the
shape or amorphous smudge (Fig. 13.2).
spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow to a high degree
As the disease progresses, lymphocyte mass accu-
and eventually spill into the peripheral blood. These
mulates in the bone marrow and splenomegaly and
malignant lymphocytes will show CD15, CD19, CD20,
and CD22 antigen markers as well as exhibit a low level
of surface immunoglobulin (SIg) and CD5, a marker
usually reserved for T cells. Chromosomal abnormali-
ties include chromosomes 11, 12, and 13 in over 82%
of patients.2 Trisomy 12 is reported in almost half of all
CLL patients and is associated with a poor prognosis.2
The presenting symptoms of this disease are fairly unre-

markable (fatigue, pallor, weight loss), and for this rea-
son, it is often discovered by accident, as a result of
other complaints. However, lymphadenopathy is the

most common initial symptom.3 The white counts are
exaggerated with many over 100,000 ⫻ 109/L. The M:E
ratio is 10 or 20:1, and the bone marrow and peripheral
blood present a monotonous tapestry of mature lym-
phocytes to the exclusion of other normal elements in Figure 13.2 Chronic lymphocytic leukemia with smudge
the blood or bone marrow. cells.
CHAPTER 13 • Lymphoproliferative Disorders and Related Plasma Cell Disorders 207
lymphadenopathy may develop. Anemia, thrombocy-

topenia, and neutropenia usually develop in the course
of the disease, subsequent to lymphocytic involvement

in the bone marrow. The altered immune function of the
lymphocytes may lead to the complication of autoim-
mune hemolytic anemia in 10% to 30% of individuals
with CLL. Spherocytes and nRBCs that appear in the
peripheral smear of CLL individuals may be early indi-
cators of the autoimmune hemolytic process. Erythroid
hyperplasia is present in the bone marrow, and the
direct antiglobulin test (which measures antibody
coating of the red cells) is positive.
Immunological Function in Chronic Lymphocytic Figure 13.3 Hairy cell leukemia, showing hair-like projec-
Leukemia and Treatment Options tions in large mononuclear cells.
The B lymphocytes present in CLL patients are long-

lived and nonproliferating. Programmed cell death or data in an attempt to project disease prognosis and risk
apoptosis is a significant feature in most cell line pro- factors.
gressions, but in 80% of CLL patients there is the pres-
ence of Bcl2, an antiapoptosis gene.4 Therefore, the Hairy Cell Leukemia
survival of the dysfunctional B-cell clone is guaranteed. Hairy cell leukemia (HCL) is a rare B-cell malignancy in
Additionally, the immunological function of these lym- which the key morphological entity is a fragile appear-
phocytes is compromised, with over 50% of patients ing mononuclear cell with hair-like or ruffled projec-
showing a hypogammaglobulinemia. Patients experi- tions of the cytoplasm (Fig. 13.3). The nuclear material in
ence bacterial or skin infections, particularly herpes these cells is round or dumbbell shaped with a spongy
zoster (shingles) and herpes simplex (cold sores), that appearance of the chromatin. Hairy cells represent
can be painful and debilitating.5 approximately 50% of cells seen in the peripheral smear.
Treatment options for CLL patients include irradia- These cells eventually infiltrate the bone marrow and
tion for enlarged spleen and lymph nodes as a means spleen, leading to pancytopenia and thrombocytopenia.
to reduce discomfort and related symptoms.6 The most Most patients are older, in their fifth decade, with more
effective drug for reducing lymphocyte burden is flu- males than females being affected. Abdominal discom-
darabine, a cytotoxic drug that induces apoptosis.7 fort is a frequent presenting symptom; more than 80%
Other therapies include alkylating agents, monoclonal of patients show massive spleens that misplace the
antibodies, and possibly allogeneic stem cell transplants. stomach. Bleeding, infections, and anemia develop as
Table 13.1 depicts the Rai staging systems and survival malignant cells predominate in the bone marrow and
projections. The Rai staging system was designed by Dr. peripheral circulation. Neutrophils and monocytes are
Rai in 1970 and modified in 1987. These systems divide greatly reduced. Bone marrow aspirates are usually
patients into risk categories and provide survival statis- unsuccessful and lead to a dry tap. Dry taps occurs when
tics. Staging systems are developed to analyze patient the normal bone marrow architecture becomes filled
Table 13.1 ¢ Modified Rai Staging for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
Staging Lymphocytes Lymph Nodes Spleen Platelet Count Survival
0 Increased 12.5 years

I Increased Enlarged 8.5 years
II Increased Enlarged/some Enlarged 6 years
III Increased Enlarged/some Enlarged 1.5 years
IV Increased Decreased 1.5 years
with fibrotic material and liquid marrow is unable to be

aspirated. A key item in the diagnosis of HCL is the cyto-
chemical stain known as TRAP, or tartrate-resistant acid
phosphatase stain. Most lymphocytes contain many
isoenzymes, and isoenzyme 5 is especially abundant in

hairy cells.8 When blood smears from patients with HCL
are stained with the acid phosphatase, most cells will Text/image rights not available.
take up the stain. Once tartrate is added, lymphocytes

from HCL patients will remain stained while the stain-
ing in other cells will fade. This resistance to tartrate is
directly related to the level of isoenzyme 5 activity in
hairy cells. CD markers present in hairy cells are CD22,
CD11c, CD25, and CD103 (Table 13.2).
Treatment for patients with HCL is individualized Figure 13.4 Sézary cells. Note the folded or convoluted
according to the progress and course of disease. Thera- nuclear membrane that may appear cerebriform.
peutic splenectomy will provide an improvement in
cytopenias and hypersplenism, as well as providing an
and individuals who progress to this phase have
improvement in physical symptoms such as abdominal
decreased survival rates. Sézary cells shown CD2, CD3,
fullness and satiety. Other treatments with interferon-
CD4, and CD5 markers10 (Fig. 13.4).
alfa and 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine (2-CdA) have offered
positive remissions.9 Prolymphocytic Leukemia
Prolymphocytic leukemia (PLL) is a variant of chronic
Sézary Syndrome
lymphocytic leukemia. A rare disorder, this peripheral
T-cell lymphomas may present with a cutaneous mani- smear of individuals with PLL shows a majority of circu-
festation in some patients. The name for this is mycosis lating prolymphocytes. These cells of lymphoid origin
fungoides. Individuals with mycosis fungoides will have more abundant cytoplasm than mature lympho-
show reddened itchy areas (generalized erythroderma) cytes, and their nuclear chromatin appears more mature
that become thickened, scaly, and pronounced. Skin and coarse. This leukemia has a poor prognosis and, in
biopsies of these areas will show an infiltration of contrast to CLL patients, these patients have more
lymphocytes. As this disease progresses, the spleen, severe symptoms such as splenic enlargement, liver
bone marrow, and lymph nodes become involved, pre- involvement, and escalating white counts. Individuals
senting the characteristic Sézary syndrome, which is the with PLL will show strong CD20 markers and SIg activ-
leukemic phase of T-cell lymphoma. Sézary cells can be ity and will also be positive for CD19 and CD20.
identified in the peripheral blood as large cells, approx-
imately 8 to 20 μm, with a convoluted, cerebriform, Hodgkin’s and Non-Hodgkin’s
ovoid nucleus. Although they may be mistaken for Lymphoma (Briefly)
monocytes, the concentration of chromatin is much Hodgkin’s lymphoma represents a significant lympho-
thicker and more compact in Sézary cells. Sézary cells proliferative disorder with a bimodal incidence. It is
are pathognomonic for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma one of the most common lymphomas in young males
between the ages of 14 and 40, but it also may be seen in
individuals older than 50 years. Most patients complain
of a single lymph node in the cervical region that is firm
Table 13.2 ¢ CD Markers in Hairy
to the touch and usually does not disappear. Symptoms
Cell Leukemia
of hypermetabolism such as low-grade fever and weight
• CD19 loss may be present. Individuals who have had previous
• CD20 exposure to Epstein-Barr virus or who have been
• CD22 exposed to environmental hazards may be more vulner-
• CD11c—membrane adhesion able to Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Diagnosis is made based
• CD25 upon the cellular features seen in lymph node biopsy,
• CD103 which may feature a Reed-Sternberg cell, a large multi-
nucleated cell resembling an “owl’s eye.” Other histo-
logical classifications of lymphoma include lymphocyte Variable region

predominant (5%), nodular sclerosing (60%), mixed for binding
cellularity (20%), and lymphocyte depleted (5%). The antigen
disease may spread across the lymphatic system and Light

may involve the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Prog- chain
nosis is good, however, with a high cure rate.

Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is three times more Disulfide Constant
bond region
common than Hodgkin’s lymphoma and may present as
painless cervical lymph node involvement. The lymph
Heavy
nodes may be enlarged, and the disease may spread to chain
the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems, skin, liver,
and spleen. The range of spread may be more sporadic Figure 13.5 Basic immunoglobulin structure.
than that of Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and lymphoma cells
may be seen in the peripheral blood. Any history of con-
genital or acquired immunological disorder may be a note is the color of the cytoplasm, which is a distinct sea
predisposing factor in the development of non- blue or cornflower color. The chromatin, although
Hodgkin’s lymphoma. The diagnostic scheme is divided clumped, is evenly arranged in a pinwheel structure.
into low grade, intermediate grade, or high grade based Plasma cells make immunoglobulins, the basic building
on the different histological types of lymphocytic cells. blocks of antibody production (see Fig. 13.5). There are
Radiation and chemotherapy may be successful in five types of immunoglobulin—IgG, IgM, Ig D, IgE, and
obtaining remission, but relapses for non-Hodgkin’s IgA. Each immunoglobulin has:
lymphoma are frequent.11
• Four polypeptide chains
• Two H chains (heavy chains)
PLASMA CELL DISORDERS • Two L chains (light chains)
Normal Plasma Cell Structure and Function There are five different types of H chains
A normal plasma cell evolves as the last stage of a B lym- • Gamma (␥), alpha (␣), mu (μ), epsilon (␧´), and
phocyte. In structure and function, this is a unique cel- delta (␦)
lular entity that comprises less than 5% of the cells in There are two different types of L chains
the bone marrow. Rarely do these cells make an appear- • Kappa (␬) and lambda (λ)
ance in the peripheral circulation, and when they do, Table 13.4 presents the specific function of each
they are in response to infectious, inflammatory condi- immunoglobulin type.
tions, or malignant proliferation (Table 13.3). A plasma
cell is a medium-sized cell with an eccentric nucleus
having a well-defined Golgi apparatus. Of particular
Table 13.4 ¢ Immunoglobulin and
Range of Activity
Table 13.3 ¢ Increased Plasma Immunoglobulin Range of Activity
Cells in Blood
IgG Secondary immune response, pre-
• Streptococcal infections cipitating antibodies, hemolysins,
• Syphilis virus neutralizing antibodies
• Epstein-Barr virus IgA Secretory antibody, protects airways
• HIV and gastrointestinal tract
• Tuberculosis IgM Primary immune response
• Mumps IgD Lymphocyte activator and sup-
• Rubella
pressor
• Collagen vascular disease
IgE Antibody found in respiratory and
Adapted from Glassy E. Color Atlas of Hematology: An Illustrated Guide gastrointestinal tract/parasitic
Based on Proficiency Testing. Northfield, IL: College of American infections
Pathologists, 1998.
Albumin Albumin Gamma
Beta
Beta
Alpha1 Alpha2 Alpha1 Alpha2
Gamma
A B
Figure 13.6 Serum protein electrophoresis showing patterns of (A) normal serum and (B) serum from patient
with multiple myeloma; note the monoclonal spike in the gamma region.
Immunoglobulins are assessed either quantita- plasma cells. These include exposure to atomic radia-
tively or qualitatively. Serum protein electrophoresis tion, work involving the use of organic solvents, work
gives a representation of all serum proteins: immuno- with toxins within the textile industries, and any occu-
globulins, albumins, and some minor proteins (Fig. pation that may primarily or secondarily expose one to
13.6). Immunoelectrophoresis, on the other hand, sepa- chemicals, pesticides, or herbicides.12 Additionally,
rates the specific immunoglobulins by using antibodies chromosome abnormalities have been defined in 18%
directed against each fraction combined with an electri- to 35% of patients with multiple myeloma.13 Aberra-
cal field and a gel medium. tions in chromosome 13 have been particularly well
studied and include monosomy, deletions, or translo-
Multiple Myeloma cations of the chromosome. Multiple myeloma patients
with chromosomal damage have a worse prognosis, a
One of the premier disorders of plasma cells (Fig. 13.7) higher rate of disease acceleration, and a decreased sur-
is multiple myeloma. This disorder has a well-defined vival.14 Screening for chromosomal abnormalities
pathophysiology that centers around the accumulation seems a prudent course of action in monitoring disease
of plasma cells in the bone marrow and other locations. progress (Table 13.5).
Multiple myeloma occurs in older age, among men
more than among women, and with greater frequency Pathophysiology in Multiple Myeloma
in the African American population.
Several environmental and occupational factors Disease and clinical symptoms in multiple myeloma
are thought to contribute to the clonal proliferation of follow along three distinct pathways:
1. Acceleration of plasma cells in the bone
marrow
2. Activation of bone resorption factors or
osteoclasts
3. Production of an abnormal monoclonal
protein
Text/image rights not available. Table 13.5 ¢ A Simplified list of Chro-

mosomal Aberrations in
Multiple Myeloma
• 13q14 deletions
• 14q32
• t(11:14)(q13:q32)
Figure 13.7 Plasma cells. Note basophilic cytoplasm and • t(4:14)
eccentric nucleus.


Figure 13.8 Sheets of plasma cells. Figure 13.10 Plasma cell with inclusion.
To begin, plasma cells accelerate in multiple large multinucleated cells in the bone marrow that
myeloma under the direction of the renegade cytokine absorb bone tissue. With increased activity, bone loss is
interleukin (IL)-6. The plasma cells appear in clusters inevitable and this pathology usually brings forward the
(Fig. 13.8) and may be morphologically normal, or they single most frequent complaint from MM patients—
may appear binucleated and have a bizarre structure. bone pain. Pain usually develops due to compressed
Some may even develop colorless inclusions called Rus- vertebrae in the back, ribs, or sternum. This compres-
sell bodies or other crystalline inclusions (Figs. 13.9 and sion may lead to loss of sensation, fractures, and paraly-
13.10). Flame cells may also be visualized in IgA myelosis. Serum calcium is also greatly increased due to bone
mas and appear as plasma cells with a striking deep loss, and this event may lead to kidney failure or the for-
pink cytoplasm (Fig. 13.11). Eventually, these clusters or mation of kidney stones.
sheets overtake the normal bone marrow structure, Increased plasma cell production results in
leading to the appearance of plasma cells in the periph- increased immunoglobulin production and usually the
eral smear as well as anemias, thrombocytopenia, and advent of a monoclonal gammopathy, a purposeless
neutropenia. Plasma cell tumors may seed to other areas proliferation of one particular antibody, usually IgG. On
in the body, and plasmacytomas may occur in liver, serum immunoelectrophoresis (see Fig. 13.11), this is
spleen, gastrointestinal tract, or nasal cavities. Addi- seen as an M spike. This excess globulin production
tionally, the increased plasma cell activity leads to com- may lead to complications from hyperviscosity in the
mensurate increased osteoclast activity. Osteoclasts are plasma such as blurred vision or headache. Subsequent

Figure 13.9 Russell bodies. These inclusions are derived Figure 13.11 Flame cell; a plasma cell with a pink
from an accumulation of immunoglobulin. cytoplasm.
Symptoms and Screening for Multiple Myeloma

Approximately 50,000 Americans are diagnosed with
multiple myeloma each year.15 Symptoms usually do
Form the college of American Pathologists, with permission
not develop initially, but as the numbers of plasma cells

accelerate, the individual may experience the following:
• Fatigue—due to anemia
• Excessive thirst and urination—due to excess
calcium
• Nausea—due to excess calcium
• Bone pain in back and ribs—due to plasma cell
acceleration
• Bone fractures—due to calcium leeching from
Figure 13.12 Rouleaux. Red cells form stacks of coins as bones into circulation
a reaction to excess protein. • Unexpected infections—due to compromised
immunity
• Weakness and numbness in the legs—due to
laboratory abnormalities such as rouleaux may also vertebrae compression
be seen. Red cells circulating in abnormal proteins like Screening and diagnosis of patients suspected of
fibrinogen and globulin may cause rouleaux formation having MM include a CBC, possibly a bone marrow, uri-
(Fig. 13.12), where red cells look like stacks of coins nalysis, and protein panel. Serum protein electrophore-
even in the thinner areas of the smear. Unlike red cell sis (SPE) and beta-microglobulin might also be ordered.
agglutination, where red cells are attracted to an specific Serum beta-microglobulin is a protein produced by the
antibody and appear in clumps, rouleaux is nonspecific light chains. In the early stages of MM, this protein is at
binding of red cells where the net negative charge of red a low level. Elevated levels greater than 6 μg/mL are
cells has been neutralized by excess protein (Fig. 13.13). seen later in the disease and usually indicate higher
Rouleaux may cause falsely decreased red counts and tumor burden and poor prognosis.
falsely increased MCV and MCHC. Red cell counts
appear lower as the doublets and triplets caused by Prognosis and Treatment in Multiple Myeloma
rouleaux pass through the red cell–counting aperture of
automated equipment as one cell. MCV appears higher Patients with multiple myeloma face many difficulties
because the red cell volume is directly measured and especially with respect to their skeletal condition. Some
red cells showing rouleaux appear larger. MCHC individuals show punched-out lesions on initial radi-
appears falsely increased because these parameters are ographs. Chemotherapy and radiation may be used,
calculated using red count. The peripheral smear may with radiation providing some relief in painful bone
also show a blue coloration on macroscopic examina- areas. Agents used in chemotherapy include the gluco-
tion due to excess proteins. The ESR (refer to procedure corticoids and interferon-alfa, yet survival times from
section, Chapter 20) is usually elevated due to the
increased settling of the red cells brought on the
increased globulin content of the plasma (Table 13.6).
Table 13.6 ¢ Laboratory Findings
Bence Jones protein is a peculiar protein made by
some individuals with MM as a result of an excess of
of Multiple Myeloma
kappa and lambda light chains. These light chains are
• Pancytopenia
small and can be filtered by the kidneys. They appear in • N/N anemia
the urine and have several unique properties. When • ↑ ESR
urine is heated to 56⬚C, Bence-Jones protein precipi- • ↑ Calcium
tates out and will redissolve at higher temperature. As • ↑ Urine protein
the urine is cooled, precipitates will once again appear, • ↑ Uric acid
and will dissolve upon cooling. Bence-Jones protein is • Abnormal serum electrophoresis
damaging to the kidneys.
Plasma Cell Leukemia

Plasma cell leukemia is a complication of multiple
myeloma in which there is an increased number of
plasma cells in the circulating blood (Fig. 13.14). This

condition is usually seen late in the progression of the
disease as plasma cells overtake the normal bone mar-
row elements. Text/image rights not available.

Waldenstrom’s Macroglobulinemia
Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia was discovered in

1944 by the Swedish physician Dr. Jan Waldenstrom.
His original presentation described two patients who Figure 13.14 Plasma cell leukemia.
had abnormal mucosal bleeding, enlarged lymph nodes,
anemia, and thrombocytopenia. No bone pain was evi-
dent and both patients showed an elevated ESR. He experience headaches, dizziness, visual problems, and
described an abnormal protein that we now know is an serious coagulation difficulties. The peripheral smear
overproduction of IgM, which presents as a particular may show rouleaux and plasmacytoid lymphocytes. As
spike on SPE and produces the hyperviscosity syn- a subset of the abnormal IgM protein, cryoglobulins
drome. Patients tend to be older, but the condition may form in some patients, which leads to Raynaud’s
affects both men and women equally, with more whites phenomenon and bleeding. Chemotherapy is available
than blacks being affected. The overproduction of glob- for these patients, and plasmapheresis may be used as a
ulin is caused by abnormal B lymphocytes that manifest means to reduce the IgM concentration. In the plasma-
in the bone marrow and peripheral smear as having pheresis procedure, blood is removed from the patient,
features of plasma cells—thus, the name plasmacytoid which separates the plasma from the cells. The cells are
lymphocytes. Clinical issues related to hyperviscosity returned to the patient while the offending plasma,
feature largely in the complications experienced by which contains the elevated IgM protein, is discarded.
these patients. Because IgM is such a large molecule, an Treatment for many patients consists of plasmapheresis
overproduction of this macromolecule has the ability to chemotherapy, immunotherapy with monoclonal anti-
coat platelets, impeding their function, interfering with bodies, or possibly stem cell transplantation. Inter-
coagulation factors, and causing potential neurological feron may also be used to relieve symptoms. Table 13.7
or thrombotic complications. Although there is no provides a summary of the major lymphoproliferative
unique profile of symptoms in these patients, most disorders.
CONDENSED CASE
A 65-year-old grandmother, Ms. L. was recently bitten by mosquitoes while she was gardening. This time, her experi-
ence with mosquito bites was different than previously. She noticed that despite her normal routine of rubbing alcohol
and Calamine lotion on her bites, her bites became suppurative, bumpy, and large. She decided to seek medical atten-
tion from her internist. After prescribing steroids and applying a topical antibiotic, the internist ordered a CBC just as a
precaution. Two days later, Ms. L was called back into the office. Her results were WBC 65 ⫻ 109/L, Hct 33, and
platelets 150 ⫻ 109/L. A differential was ordered as part of reflex testing and revealed 99% mature lymphocytes
Are the results of this differential in the normal reference range?
Answer
Clearly, this is an unexpected case of CLL. While it is unusual to have a severe cutaneous response to mosquito bites,
the fact that the lymphocytic cells in CLL are compromised and unable to provide proper immune response certainly
contributes to this unusual presentation. Ms. L will probably do well with little intervention. She will need to be
followed as the disease progresses.
yright © 2007 by F. A. Davis.
13(F) Ciesla-Ch 13
Table 13.7 ¢ Overview of Major Malignant Lymphoproliferative Disorders
CLL HCL HL NHL MM WM
12/21/06
Predominant Mature lymphocyte Hairy cell Reed-Sternberg Lymphocyte Plasma cells in Plasmacytoid
cell type* cell (in node) Lymphocyte marrow lymphs
variations
7:34 PM
Main symptoms Fatigue Infections Enlarged lymph Painless, enlarged Bone pain, thirst, Bleeding, lym-
Weight loss Bleeding node lymph node fatigue phadenopathy
Dizziness, blurred
vision
Page 215
Significant lab ↑↑↑ WBC TRAP ⫹ Variable Variable presenta- ↑↑ Calcium, hyper- Monoclonal gam-
findings Peripheral smear Pancytopenia presentations tions viscosity (↑ ESR), mopathy (Ig M),
shows 90% monoclonal gam- hyperviscosity
lymphs mopathy (ESR ↑)
(IgG-M spike), Rouleaux
rouleaux
Organ involvement Enlarged lymph ↑↑↑ Spleen Possibly extra- Possible extranodal Kidneys Kidneys
nodes nodal sites sites Bone marrow Bone marrow
Survival rate Variable Good Good Poor Variable Poor
Immunological CD15, CD19, CD19, CD20, CD15 None CD38 CD19, CD20, CD22
markers CD20, CD22 CD22, CD11c,
D25, CD103
CLL, chronic lymphocytic leukemia; HCL, hairy cell leukemia; HL, Hodgkin’s lymphoma; NHL, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma; MM, multiple myeloma; WM, Waldenstrom’s
macroglobulinemia; TRAP, Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase stain; ESR, erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
*See text for appearance in bone marrow or peripheral smear.
215
Summary Points • Multiple myeloma is a disorder of plasma cells that

leads to a monoclonal gammopathy, bone involve-
• Lymphoproliferative disorders comprise the B and T
ment, and pancytopenia.
lymphocytes in which there is a clonal malignant
proliferation of either cell subset. • Most of the abnormal proteins are an accumulation
of IgG, which may lead to a hyperviscosity and
• Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a clonal rouleaux in the peripheral smear.
proliferation of B lymphocytes that is seen in older
• Serum calcium is elevated in MM patients due to
patients and often discovered by accident.
bone loss and increased distribution of calcium in
• CLL shows an accumulation of mature lymphocytes the peripheral circulation.
in the bone marrow and eventually the lymph nodes,
• Bence-Jones protein may be seen in individuals
spleen, and peripheral blood.
with MM.
• The white counts in CLL are extremely elevated and • Plasma cell leukemia is a complication of MM in
the M:E ratio is 10 to 20:1. which mature plasma cells are seen in increasing
• Immune function is compromised in CLL, and 10% numbers in the peripheral circulation.
to 30% of individuals may experience autoimmune • Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia is a rare disorder
hemolytic anemia. of plasma cells in which IgM is overproduced.
• Hairy cell leukemia (HCL) is a rare B-cell malig- • Many of the symptoms of Waldenstrom’s macroglob-
nancy in which the cells have a lymphoid appear- ulinemia are related to hyperviscosity of the plasma,
ance but hair-like projections in the cytoplasm. which accounts for coagulation abnormalities,
• Pancytopenia, splenomegaly, and dry tap are the key rouleaux formation, and bleeding or thrombotic
features of HCL. complications.
• Sézary syndrome is the blood equivalent of cuta- • Plasmapheresis, the therapeutic removal of plasma,
neous T-cell lymphoma that presents with a convo- may be used as a treatment to decrease the amount
luted, cerebriform, ovoid nucleus. of abnormal IgM protein.
CASE STUDY
A 60-year-old woman complained of gastric pain Insights to the Case Study
and vomiting for 2 weeks. She had no fever, but a Relative lymphocytosis is usually reported in conditions
CAT scan was ordered and showed a slightly enlarged like infectious mononucleosis, hepatitis virus infection,
spleen. An enlarged lymph node was also discovered. or cytomegalovirus infection. These lymphocytes, how-
The patient complained of severe itching, redness ever, showed a distinct morphology with a large cell and a
and scaling of the skin, and pitting edema. A bone small cell variant. Nuclear clefting or folding may be seen
marrow showed a hypocellular architecture with in lymphoma cells, but lymphoma cells rarely have vac-
increased fat. uoles. An additional finding is that these cells were very
Laboratory findings are as follows: large, some up to 20 μm, and the clefting manifestation is
WBC 39.0 ⫻ 109/L Differential: very pronounced. When clinical characteristics are
RBC 4.25 ⫻ 1012/L Segs 29% included, the most likely diagnosis in this case is Sézary
Hgb 11.7 g/dL Lymphs 67% syndrome, a rare type of T-cell lymphoma. This disorder
Hct 38% Eosinophils 4% usually has serious skin manifestations, as shown in our
MCV 89 fL Platelets normal patient, combined with an elevated white count and
MCH 27.5 pg Technologist note: lympho- rising lymphocyte count. The abnormal lymphocyte
MCHC 30.6% cytes appear abnormal with morphology usually causes confusion when performing
rounded, clefted, folded or a differential due to the unusual nuclear manifestations
bilobed nucleus; vacuoles in of these cells. Sézary cells are usually confirmed by
some cells immunophenotyping and are usually CD4-positive
Considering the patient’s symptoms, which are unusual, T lymphocytes. The life expectancy for a patient with
the increased white count and the differential reversal, this condition is around 5 years.
what are the diagnostic possibilities? (Adapted from Hematology Problem, November
1981, American Journal of Medical Technology.)
Review Questions
1. What is the most common presenting symptom in b. HCL
individuals with chronic lymphocytic leukemia? c. CGL
a. Massive spleens d. PV
b. Thrombocytosis
5. Hypercalcemia in patients with multiple myeloma
c. Increased calcium
is the direct result of:
d. Enlarged lymph nodes
a. increased plasma cell mass.
2. What are the peripheral cell indicators of an b. crystalline inclusions in the plasma cells.
autoimmune hemolytic anemia in a patient with c. increased osteoclast activity.
CLL? d. hyperviscosity.
a. nRBCs and spherocytes
6. Plasmapheresis is a possible treatment for:
b. Smudge cells and normal lymphs
a. Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia.
c. Howell-Jolly bodies and siderocytes
b. HCL.
d. Lymphoblasts and prolymphocytes
c. PCL.
3. A dumbbell-shaped nucleus with fragile, spiny d. CLL.
projections like cytoplasm best describes:
7. Patients with Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia
a. Sézary cells.
frequently encounter thrombotic complications
b. lymphoblasts.
due to:
c. hairy cells.
a. increased platelet count.
d. smudge cells.
b. increased megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.
4. In contrast to most of the other leukemias, which c. increased plasma cells.
of these conditions presents with a pancytopenia? d. coating of platelets and clotting by increased
a. CLL IgM.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When the Hematology Analyzer much lower, no platelet clumps were observed, but
Fails to Report a Differential Count? strange, foamy purple blobs were observed. While can-
An 82-year-old man came through the emergency vassing the laboratory for other specimens, the technol-
department with altered mental status. His initial WBC ogist noticed that the centrifuged coagulation samples
through the hematology analyzer was 31.3 ⫻ 109/L, on the same patient contained a 2-cm layer of what
but the instrument voted out the differential and gave a appeared to be lipemia but the rest of the plasma was
platelet clump warning message. The technologist pro- clear. This is not the typical picture of lipemia. The tech-
ceeded with several corrective actions as she was begin- nologist knew that something was wrong with the
ning to doubt the reported white count. She took the plasma, but she could not pinpoint the problem. At this
following steps: point, the technologist cancelled the CBC and coagula-
tion tests and called the emergency department to
• She physically checked the specimen for clots;
inform them of this action and inquire about the
there were none.
patient. Additional patient samples were also requested.
• She vortexed the sample, because according to The technologist was informed that the patient had
the SOP at this hospital this was the optimal Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia. The samples were
method when the platelet clumping flag redrawn and run through the hematology analyzer
appeared and there were no visible clots. again with a WBC of 12.1 ⫻ 109/L. The instrument
The CBC was repeated, and the WBC increased to again gave messages such as platelet clumps and inter-
39.1 ⫻ 109/L and the platelet count was 178.0 ⫻ 109/L. fering substances. A slide examination was performed,
The technologist decided to hold the CBC for further and again the white cell estimate appeared lower than
study and proceeded to make a differential. When she the instrument-reported WBC. As a last step, the tech-
observed the differential, the white cell count appeared nologist per formed a manual white count and platelet

count. The manual white count and platelet count were stance with significant consequences to the white count
5.6 ⫻ 109/L and 166.0 ⫻ 109/L, respectively. The tech- and differential primarily. Many hours of investigation
nologist left a message for future shifts that a manual and trying alternatives were spent in obtaining results
white count and platelet would be necessary for this on this patient. An observant technologist combined
patient. This case offers an insight into the level of inter- with reliable information from the family eventually led
ference possible with the increased IgM globulin in to actions that would contribute to the credibility of the
patients with Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia. patient’s hematology samples. The next day, the patient
Because the level of IgM monoclonal antibody is so underwent plasmapheresis and the CBC was run
elevated (paraprotein), it is seen as an interfering sub- through the instrument with no interferences.
WORD KEY Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Fundamen-

tals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002:
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia • Process by which cells 303.
fail to recognize self and consequently make antibodies that 6. McFarland JT, Kuzma C, Millard FE, et al. Palliative
destroy selected red cells irradiation of the spleen. Am J Clin Oncol 25:178–183,
Direct antiglobulin test • Laboratory test for the presence 2003.
7. Rosenwald A, Chuang EY, Dabis RE, et al. Fludara-
of complement or antibodies bound to a patient’s red blood
bine treatment of patients with CLL induces a p53-
cells dependent gene expression response. Blood 104:
Erythroderma • Abnormal widespread redness and 1428–1434, 2004.
scaling of the skin, sometimes involving the entire body 8. Bradford C. Cytochemistry. In: Rodak B, ed. Hematol-
Monosomy • Condition of having only one of a pair of ogy: Clinical Principles and Applications, 2nd ed.
chromosomes, as in Turner’s syndrome, where there is only Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002: 391.
9. Jenn U, Bartl R, Dietzfelbinger H, et al. An update:
one X chromosome instead of two
12 Year follow-up of patients with hairy cell leukemia
Pathognomonic • Indicative of the disease following treatment with 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine.
Raynaud’s phenomenon • Intermittent attacks of pallor Leukemia 18:1476–1481, 2004.
or cyanosis of the small arteries and arterioles of the fingers 10. Turgeon ML. Malignant lymphoid and monocytic
as a result of inadequate arterial blood supply disorders and plasma cell dyscrasias. In Turgeon ML,
ed. Clinical Hematology: Theory and Principles,
Plasmapheresis • Plasma exchange therapy, involving the
4th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
removal of plasma from the cellular material that is then 2005: 287.
returned to the patient 11. Manner C. The lymphomas. In Steine-Martin EA,
Rouleaux • Group of red cells stuck together that look like Lotspeich-Steininger CA, Keopke J, eds. Clinical
a stack of coins Hematology: Principles, Procedures, Correlations,
2nd ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Translocations • Alteration of a chromosome through the
1998: 490–497.
transfer of a portion of it either to another chromosome or to 12. Bergsagel DE, Wong O, Bergsagel PL, et al. Benzene and
another portion of the same chromosome multiple myeloma: Appraisal of the scientific evidence.
Cancer Invest 18:467, 2000.
References 13. Dewald GW, Kayle RA, Hicks GA, et al. The clinical
1. Cutler S J, Axtell L, Hesiett H. Ten thousand cases of significance of cytogenetic studies in 100 patients
leukemia 1940-62. J Natl Cancer Inst 39:993, 1967. with MM, plasma cell leukemia or amyloidosis. Blood
2. Dohner H, Stilgenbauer S, Beuner A, et al. Genomic aber- 66:380–390, 1985.
rations and survival in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. N 14. Shaughnessy J, Jacobsin J, Sawyer J, et al. Continuous
Engl J Med 343:1910–1916, 2000. absence of metaphase-defined cytogenetic abnormali-
3. Redaelli A, Laskin BL, Stephens JM, et al. The clinical and ties, especially of chromosome 13 and hypodiploidy,
epidemiological burden of chronic lymphocytic ensures long-term survival in multiple myeloma
leukemia. Eur J Cancer Care 13:279–287, 2004. treated with Total Therapy I: Interpretation in the
4. McConkey DJ, et al. Apoptosis sensitivity in chronic context of global gene expression. Blood
lymphocytic leukemia is determined by endogenous 101:3849–3854, 2003.
endonuclease content and related expression of BCL-2 15. Multiple myeloma. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.
and BAX. J Immunol 156:2624, 1996. com/health/multiple-myeloma/DS00415 from the Mayo
5. Holmer LD, Hamoudi W, Bueso-Ramos CD. Chronic Clinic. Accessed September 25, 2006.
leukemia and related lymphomproliferative disorders. In:
14 The Myelodysplastic
Syndromes
Betty Ciesla
Pathophysiology Objectives
Chromosomal Abnormalities After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Common Features and Clinical Symptoms 1. Define the myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs).
How to Recognize Dysplasia 2. Outline the possible causes of the MDSs.
Classification of the Myelodysplastic 3. Discuss the major cellular morphological abnor-
Syndromes malities associated with MDSs.
Specific Features of the World Health Organization 4. Classify MDSs according to the World Health
Classification Organization.
Prognostic Factors and Clinical Management 5. List the disease indicators that contributed to
prognosis of the MDSs.
6. Discuss the management of the MDSs.
219
The myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are a group of toms that patients experience—weakness, infection,
hematology disorders that have eluded a firm designa- and easy bruisability—are all explained from the per-
tion for many decades. These disorders have been spective of the clonal abnormality, depending on which
known by several other names, including preleukemia, cell line is the most affected. The following is a likely
dysmyelopoietic syndrome, oligoblastic leukemia, and sequence of events:
the refractory anemias. In the past 20 years, consider- • Weakness develops from the anemia and short-
able information has developed concerning the hema- ened red cell survival.
tology of these disorders, the molecular biology, and the • Infections develop due to white blood cells
treatment protocols for patients with an MDS. What with poor microbicidal activity and decreased
began as a group of cases with vague symptoms and chemotaxis.
morphology has become a recognized entity complete • Bruising develops due to lower numbers and
with classification and well-defined characteristics. abnormally functioning platelets.
Presently, 1 in 500 individuals over the age of 60 have
In general, a diagnosis of MDS is made based on the
an MDS, and it represents the most common hemato-
percentage of blasts present, the type of dysplasia seen in
logical malignancy in this age group.1
the marrow and the peripheral smear, and the pres-
ence or absence of ringed sideroblasts (see Chapter 5).
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Classification into one of the six subtypes of MDS
The MDSs are a clonal stem cell disorder, resulting from is made once all of the information from marrow,
a lesion in the stem cell that leads to the formation of an peripheral smear, cytogenetic studies, and immunologi-
abnormal clone of cells, a neoplasm. There are two cal features is gathered.
types of MDS: de novo (new cases unrelated to any
other treatment) and secondary cases related to prior How to Recognize Dysplasia
therapy, usually alkylating therapy or radiation. Cer- Dysplasia in the bone marrow and peripheral smear are
tain populations are at risk for MDS: those individuals hallmark features of the MDSs. Therefore, it is essential
exposed to benzene, radiation petrochemical employ- that the morphologist have an understanding of what is
ees, cigarette smokers, and patients with Fanconi’s ane- meant by this term with respect to variations in each cell
mia.2 Secondary cases are often seen following line. Well-stained and well-distributed peripheral
immunosuppressive therapy, and the transformation to smears and bone marrow preparations are an essential
MDS may occur within 2 to 5 years after the agent or ingredient to determining if dysplasia is present in the
agents have been administered.3 From 30% to 40% of individual. Their importance cannot be underesti-
all MDS cases end in an acute leukemia.4 mated. By definition, dysplasia means “abnormal devel-
opment of tissue.” In the bone marrow, this may
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES manifest itself in the nuclear and cytoplasmic character-
Chromosomal abnormalities play a large role in patients istics of precursor cells. Bone marrow nuclear changes
from both classifications of MDS. Typically, patients will may include multinuclearity, disintegration of the
exhibit partial or complete absence of chromosomes 5 nucleus, asynchrony similar to megaloblastic changes,
and 7 and trisomy in chromosome 8. Other abnormali- and nuclear bridging between cells. Bone marrow cyto-
ties may include a deletion of 17p or 20q and loss of the plasmic changes include vacuolization or poor granula-
Y chromosome. Ninety percent of therapy-related MDS tion. In the peripheral smear, similar changes may be
patients show some abnormality, whereas only 40% to seen like hypogranulated cells (Fig. 14.1), hypergranu-
70% of patients with primary cases show chromosomal lated cells, hyposegmented cells, nuclear material that
abnormalities.5 is too smooth, pseudo–Pelger-Huët cells, and red cell
size changes (Fig. 14.2). Platelet abnormalities in the
peripheral smear include abnormal size (Fig. 14.3), or
COMMON FEATURES megakaryocytic fragments. Degenerating neutrophils
AND CLINICAL SYMPTOMS may also be seen (Fig 14.4). What usually comes to
Key features that almost all MDS patients share are a mind when these peripheral smear changes are first
macrocytic anemia that is refractory, cytopenias of one observed are technical factors like a poorly stained
or more cell lines, and a hypercellular marrow. smear or a poorly made smear. The morphologist may
Organomegaly is not a frequent finding. The symp- not exercise the index of suspicion, feeling that what is
CHAPTER 14 • The Myelodysplastic Syndromes 221


Figure 14.1 Hypogranular band. Figure 14.3 Giant platelet.
observed is not hematologically relevant. Yet when Specific Features of the World Health
10%6 of a particular cell line starts manifesting any of the Organization Classification
changes noted, the change is significant and due to a Refractory anemia (RA) is primarily a disorder of
pathology (Table 14.1). red cells, with an anemia resistant to treatment.
Less than 1% myeloblasts in the peripheral
blood and less than 5% myeloblasts are seen in
CLASSIFICATION OF THE
the bone marrow. The marrow shows hyperpla-
MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES
sia with megaloblastoid features, such as multi-
The French-American-British (FAB) investigative group nuclearity, etc.
devised a working classification for the MDSs in 1981 Refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts (RARS)
based on a study of 50 cases.7 This classification was is a refractory anemia in which 15% or more of
groundbreaking work and presented the first formal red cell precursors are ringed sideroblasts (Fig.
body of knowledge on this group of disorders.In 1997, 14.5). The bone marrow shows erythroid hyper-
the World Health Organization (WHO) revised this plasia and less than 5% myeloblasts, and the
work and presented their classification of the MDSs liver and spleen may show changes related to
based on the additional knowledge gained from molec- iron overload.
ular, immunological, and cytogenetic studies. Although Refractory anemia with multilineage dysplasia shows
both classifications will be presented, only the WHO bone marrow failure with two or more myeloid
classification will be elaborated on6 (Table 14.2). cell lines affected. Fifty percent of patients are
Figure 14.2 Macrocytic red cell. Figure 14.4 Degenerating neutrophil.

Table 14.1 ¢ Dysplastic Changes

in MDS

Dysplastic changes of the red cell—Dyserythropoiesis
• Nuclear budding
• Ringed sideroblasts
• Internuclear bridging
• Dimorphism
• Megaloblastoid asynchrony
• Multinuclearity
Dysplastic changes of the white cell—Dysgranu-
lopoiesis
• Abnormal staining throughout the cytoplasm Figure 14.5 Ringed sideroblast.
• Hyposegmentation
• Hypersegmentation
• Nucleus with little segmentation
• Missing primary granules There are abnormalities in all myeloid cell lines
• Granules that are poorly stained with 5% to 19% blasts in the bone marrow. Two
Dysplastic changes of platelets—Dysthrombopoiesis subclasses are recognized: RAEB 1, which shows
• Micromegakaryocytes 5% to 10% blasts in bone marrow, less than 5%
• Abnormal granules blasts in the peripheral blood, and RAEB 2,
• Giant platelets which shows 10% to 19% blasts in the bone
marrow and less than 20% blasts in the periph-
eral blood, hypercellular marrow in most cases.
Myelodysplastic syndrome unclassifiable is a condi-
affected with multiple chromosomal abnormali- tion that shares features of the MDSs but not a
ties, showing marked erythroid hyperplasia clearcut classification. Neutropenia and throm-
with nuclear and cytoplasmic dysplastic bocytopenia are common.
changes. There are less than 1% blasts in Deleted 5q is seen in female patients primarily as a
peripheral blood. deletion of the long arm of chromosome 5. Nor-
Refractory anemia with excess blasts (RAEB) shows mal or elevated platelet counts are seen. There is
anemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia. a marked anemia with macrocytes and less than
5% blasts in peripheral blood, associated with
long survival times.
Table 14.2 ¢ The FAB and WHO Clas-
sifications of Myelodys- PROGNOSTIC FACTORS
plastic Syndromes AND CLINICAL MANAGEMENT
Progression to an acute leukemia is always a concern for
The FAB Classification The WHO Classification patients with an MDS. Low-grade disorders like RA or
Refractory anemia Refractory anemia RARS have longer survival times and less tendency to
Refractory anemia with Refractory anemia with ringed develop into overt acute leukemias. These disorders are
ringed sideroblasts sideroblasts also unilineage. Disorders, however, like RAEB and the
Refractory anemia Refractory cytopenia with multilineage disorders are high grade with much
with excess blasts multilineage dysplasia shorter survival times and a greater incidence to
Chronic myelomono- progress to acute leukemia. Other factors such as multi-
cytic leukemia ple cytogenetic abnormalities, especially chromosome 7
Refractory anemia Refractory anemia with excess abnormalities, have an unfavorable predictive influence
with excess blasts in blasts (Table 14.3). Treatment of the MDS is difficult to man-
transformation Myelodysplastic syndrome age. Issues such as quality of life, severe thrombocy-
unclassifiable topenia, and progression to more advanced disease are
5(q) chromosome abnormality serious concerns. Patients with MDSs are classified into
low- or high-risk categories based on their initial WHO
refractory, necessitating more transfusions, which may

Table 14.3 ¢ Factors Indicating lead to iron overload. Iron chelating agents may be used
Progression to Leukemia but are more successful in younger patients. Recall that
in MDS individuals with iron overload are usually attached to
an iron chelating pump, which works to clear their
• Disease is stable if there is little increase in marrow blood of excess iron while they sleep. Generally,
blast count and the original karyotype is unchanged. younger patients are more compliant than older indi-
• Progressive rise in blast count usually indicates tran- viduals and are better able to cope with the constancy of
sition to acute leukemia. this procedure. Oral iron chelators such as deferiprone
• Sudden change in karyotype that may progress into and IL 670 will likely improve iron chelation therapy in
acute leukemia. this patient group.10 Patients with cardiopulmonary
• Abnormal karyotype develops without subsequent
complications due to progressive anemia must be han-
increase in blasts; acute leukemia may or may not
develop.
dled carefully. EPO and G-CSF are important supple-
mentary agents, and they are effective short-term
Adapted from Bick RL, Laughlin WR. Myelodysplastic syndromes.
measures during difficult episodes of cytopenias.11 Sev-
Lab Med 11:712–716, 1993. eral immunobiologic therapies are being considered in
clinical trials such as anti-thymocyte globulin, anti-
CD33 antibody, idarubicin, and fludarabine.12 Addi-
designation. Treatment protocols tailored to these des- tionally, a group of therapies known as antiangiogenic
ignations range from transfusional support to erythro- therapies are on the horizon. These agents direct their
poietin (EPO) and G-CSF (granulocyte-colony activities against microenvironmental factors such as
stimulating factor), induction chemotherapy, and allo- vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and tumor
geneic stem cell transplant. Although stem cell trans- necrosis factor. It is thought that the increased produc-
plants offer a potential cure, the morbidity and tion of these inflammatory factors amplify ineffective
mortality associated with this procedure must be seri- hematopoiesis, fuel the growth of certain premalignant
ously considered.8 Even in patients with allogeneic or malignant cells, and suppress normal hematopoietic
transplants there has only been a 30% to 50% long-term progenitor cells. Thalidomide (lenalidomide) and
disease control.9 Most patients are given supportive arsenic trioxide have both been studied.13 Therapies for
treatment such as red cells, antibiotics, or vitamins. The MDS will no doubt improve as the disease mechanisms
difficulty with this management is that the anemias are become more clearly defined.
CONDENSED CASE
A 65-year-old recent retiree went to visit the nurse practitioner in her assisted living community. She complained of
excessive fatigue, rapid heart rate, and bruising. A CBC and differential was performed and the results suggested a
macrocytic anemia with a slightly decreased platelet count. No hypersegmented neutrophils were seen and no oval
macrocytes were observed on the peripheral smear. What other testing is worth considering in this case?
Answer
Other causes for a nonmegaloblastic macrocytic anemia may be liver disease, reticulocytosis, or hypothyroid condi-
tions. Each of these was ruled out on our patient, and she was referred for a hematology consult. A bone marrow and
cytogenetic studies were ordered. The bone marrow showed a hypercellular marrow with slightly increased and dys-
plastic megakaryocytes. Cytogenetic studies show a deleted 5q. This patient progressed well with transfusion support
and as of this date has not shown a progression to acute leukemia.
Summary Points • The bone marrow and peripheral smear will show
dysplastic changes in white cells, red cells, and
• The myelodysplastic disorders (MDSs) are a group platelets over time.
of clonal disorders characterized by refractory ane- • Dyserythropoietic changes include multinu-
mias and cytopenias of one or more cell lines. clear red cell precursors, bizarre nuclear
changes, nuclear bridging, macrocytes, and megakaryocytes, abnormal granulation, no

dimorphism. granulation, and giant platelets.
• Dysgranulopoietic changes include abnormal • The blast count in the MDS is less than 20%.
granulation of mature cells, hypersegmenta- • Weakness, infections, and easy bruising are some of
tion, hyposegmentation, or complete lack of the symptoms that patients with MDS may manifest.
granulation. • According to the World Health Organization, there
• Dysthrombopoietic changes include micro- are six classifications of MDSs.
CASE STUDY
A 78-year-old man was referred to a hematology consult Based upon the patient’s age, clinical presentation,
after complications from a total knee operation. After this CBC, and differential results, what are some of the diag-
surgery, the patient experienced bleeding from the opera- nostic possibilities?
tive site that was unexpected. His routine coagulation Insights to the Case Study
tests were normal at the time of preoperative review. No The CBC on this patient indicates a low platelet count
organomegaly was noted, and no petechiae were combined with normocytic, normochromic anemia and
observed. Within 4 weeks, he was readmitted for wound differential indicating a left shift. The differential showed
oozing. His CBC and differential on the day of consult are a fairly large number of blasts but not enough blasts to be
as follows: called an overt acute leukemia (for acute leukemia, 20%
WBC 2.3 ⫻ 109/L Segmented or more blasts). A bone marrow was requested on this
neutrophils 3% patient, but the hematologist was cautious given the low
RBC 3.14 ⫻ 1012/L Bands 4% platelet count and decided to delay this procedure until
Hgb 10.8 g/dL Metamyelocytes 2% the platelet count normalized. The patient was given
Hct 31% Myelocytes 3% platelets to boost his platelet count and was started on
MCV 81 fL Lymphocytes 60% prophylactic antibiotics because his white count was
MCH 26 pg Monocytes 7% depressed. A preliminary diagnosis of refractory anemia
MCHC 32 g/dL Eosinophils 3% with excess blasts was made pending the bone marrow
Platelets 15.0 ⫻ 109/L Blasts 18% and cytogenetic studies.
Review Questions
1. Which one of the following is the predominant red c. 10%
cell morphology in patients with MDS? d. 20%
a. Schistocytes
4. Which mechanism accounts for the reticulocy-
b. Macrocytes
topenia seen in most cases of MDS?
c. Target cells
a. Heavy blast tumor burden in the marrow
d. Bite cells
b. Effects of toxins
2. Which one of the MDS groups has the best prog- c. Marrow aplasia
nosis? d. Ineffective erythropoiesis
a. MDS with excess blasts
5. What is the cutoff blast count used to distinguish a
b. Refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts
patient with MDS as opposed to a patient with
c. Refractory anemia
acute leukemia?
d. 5q deletion
a. 50%
3. What is considered a significant number of ringed b. 30%
sideroblasts in the MDS classification? c. 20%
a. 15% d. 15%
b. 5%
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Influence Does the Patient’s History Have plasma blanks, and pipetting. The Hgb concentration is
on an Increased MCHC? calculated with the following equation, which indicates
A patient had presented to the laboratory for 3 consec- that there is a ratio between the MCV and MCHC of
utive days with variability in his MCH and MCHC. At 2.9814:
times his MCHC rose to 39%, prompting an investiga- Hb (g/L) ⫽ MCV ⫻ RBC/2.98 ⫻ 10 (29.8)
tion of this increased parameter. Cold agglutinins,
lipemia, and spherocytes are each reasons why the Therefore, the corrected Hgb/L ⫽
MCHC might be elevated. Each of these was eliminated (84.2 ⫻ 2.71)/29.8 ⫽ 7.7 g/L
as a reason for the fluctuating MCHC. On day 4, the
patient had another CBC, which again presented with This calculation corrects the Hgb. As a result of
an elevated MCHC. this new value, the MCH and MCHC can be corrected
with the new Hgb result.
WBC 16.9 ⫻ 109/L
RBC 2.71 ⫻ 1012/L The CBC now reports as
Hgb 9.0 g/dL WBC 16.9 ⫻ 109/L
Hct 22.9% RBC 2.71 ⫻ 1012/L
MCV 84.2 fL Hgb 7.7* corrected result
MCH 33.2 pg Hct 22.9%
MCHC 39.3% H MCV 84.2 fL
Platelets 52 ⫻ 109/L MCH 28.4 pg* recalculated result
RDW 15.4 MCHC 33.4%* recalculated result
The technologist reviewed the previous results Platelets 52 ⫻ 109/L
with the comments presented and decided that the RDW 15.4
patient’s history might hold some clues to these variant MDS is a classification of malignant clonal disor-
results. It was noted that the Hgb and Hct had failed the ders that show cytopenias, dysplastic-looking cells in
correlation check (Hgb ( 3 ⫽ Hct⫾ 2). The technologist the peripheral smear, increasing numbers of blasts in
discovered that the patient had MDS. MDS has an the bone marrow, and a tendency to progress into a
unknown etiology but may falsely increase the Hgb,14 leukemic process. This case indicates a corrective
thus elevating the indices (MCH and MCHC). With this action that is not often used but appropriate when all
in mind, the technologist decided to apply the labora- other causes of hemoglobin abnormality have been
tory procedure for correcting Hgb values that eliminates eliminated.
tedious manual procedures such as centrifugation,
WORD KEY 3. Kjeldsberg CR, ed. Practical Diagnosis of Hematologic

Disorders, 3rd ed. Chicago: ASCP Press, 2000: 369–397.
Alkylating agent • Agent that introduced an alkyl radical 4. Bick RL, Laughlin WR. Myelodysplastic syndromes. Lab
into the compound in place of a hydrogen atom; these Med 11:712–716, 1993.
agents interfere with cell metabolism and growth 5. West RR, Stafford DA, White AD, et al. Cytogenetic
Angiogenesis • Development of blood vessels abnormalities in the myelodysplastic syndromes and
occupational and environmental exposure. Blood
Organomegaly • Enlargement of any organ
95:2093–2097, 2000.
Refractory • Resistant to ordinary treatment 6. Jaffe ES, Harris NL, Stein H, Vardiman JE, eds. World
Health Organization Classification of Tumours. Pathol-
References ogy and Genetics of Tumours of Hematopoietic and Lym-
1. Hoffman WK, Ottmann OG, Ganser F, et al. Myelopdys- phoid Tissues. Lyon: IARC Press, 2001: 63–73.
plastic syndrome: Clinical features. Semin Hematol 7. Bennett HJM, Catovsky D, Daniel MT, et al. Proposals
33:177–178, 1996. for the classification of the myelodysplastic syndromes.
2. Willman CL. The biologic basis of myelodysplasia and Br J Haematol 51:189–199, 1982.
related leukemias: Cellular and molecular mechanisms. 8. Hellstrom-Lindberg E. Update on supportive care and
Mod Pathol 12:101–106, 1999. new therapies: Immunomodulatory drugs, growth
factors and epigenetic acting agents. Hematology (Am human granulocyte colony stimulating factor. Blood
Soc Hematol Educ Prog) 165, 2005. 78:36, 1992.
9. Giralt S. Bone marrow transplant in myelodysplastic 12. Appelbaum FR. Immunobiologic therapies for
syndromes: New technologies, some questions. Curr myelodysplastic syndromes. Best Pract Res Clinc
Hematol Rep 3:165–172, 2004. Haematol 4:653–661, 2004.
10. Hoffbrand VA. Deferiprone therapy for transfusional 13. Williams JL. The myelodysplastic syndromes and
iron overload. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 18: myeloproliferative disorders. Clin Lab Sci 17:227, 2004.
299–317, 2005. 14. Kalache GR, Sartor MM, Hughes WG. The indirect
11. Negrin RS, et al. Maintenance treatment of patients estimation of hemoglobin concentration in whole
with myelodysplastic syndromes using recombinant blood. Pathologist 23:117, 1991.
Pa r t I V
Hemostasis
and
Disorders of
Coagulation

15 Overview of Hemostasis
and Platelet Physiology
Donna Castellone
History of Blood Coagulation Objectives

Overview of Coagulation After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Vascular System 1. Describe the systems involved in hemostasis.
Overview 2. Describe the interaction of the vascular system
Mechanism of Vasoconstriction and platelets with regard to activation, adhe-
The Endothelium sion, and vasoconstriction.
Events Following Vascular Injury 3. Identify the process involved in the coagulation
cascade from activation to stable clot formation.
Primary Hemostasis
Platelets: An Introduction 4. Describe the role of platelets in hemostasis with
respect to platelet glycoproteins, platelet bio-
Platelet Development chemistry, and platelet function.
Platelet Structure and Biochemistry
5. Define the difference between primary and sec-
Platelet Function and Kinetics ondary hemostasis.
Platelet Aggregation Principle
6. Outline the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways,
Secondary Hemostasis the factors involved in each, and their role in
Classification of Coagulation Factors the coagulation system.
Physiological Coagulation (In Vivo) 7. List the coagulation factors, their common
Laboratory Model of Coagulation names, and function.
Extrinsic Pathway 8. Explain the interaction between the prothrom-
Intrinsic System bin time, activated partial thromboplastin time,
and factor assays.
Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time
Common Pathway 9. Identify the relationship of the kinin and com-
plement systems to coagulation.
Formation of Thrombin
Feedback Inhibition 10. Identify the inhibitors and their role in hemo-
stasis.
Fibrinolysis
Coagulation Inhibitors
Kinin System
Complement System
229
230 PART IV • Hemostasis and Disorders of Coagulation
HISTORY OF BLOOD COAGULATION Testing of blood plasma factors and platelets

depended on seeing the clotting process directly or
The study of blood coagulation can be traced back to microscopically. The first whole blood clotting time was
about 400 BC and the father of medicine, Hippocrates. done in 1780 by William Hewson, who noted that
He observed that the blood of a wounded soldier con- blood taken from healthy people clotted in 7 minutes
gealed as it cooled. Additionally, he noticed that bleed- while in some disease states, blood took from 15 to 20
ing from a small wound stopped as skin covered the minutes up to 11/2 hours to form a clot.
blood. If the skin was removed, bleeding started again. In 1897, Brodie and Russel begin observing the
Aristotle noted that blood cooled when removed from process on a glass slide. A drop of blood was placed on a
the body and that cooled blood initiated decay resulting glass cone, in a temperature-controlled glass chamber
in the congealing of the blood. If fibers were removed, agitated by an air jet. Blood no longer moved micro-
there was no clotting. This was known as the cooling scopically but clotted in 3 minutes and was completed
theory or blood coagulation. It was not until 1627 that at 8 minutes. In 1905, Golhorm used a wire loop
Mercurialis observed clots in veins that were at body attached to a glass tube. In 1910, Kottman observed an
temperature. In 1770, William Hewson challenged the increased viscosity in clotting blood in a Koagulo-
cooling theory and believed that air and lack of motion viskosimeter. Blood was rotated at 20 degrees 12 to 15
were important in the initiation of clotting. Hewson times per minute. In 1936, Baldes and Nygaard added
described the clotting process, demonstrating that the photoelectric tracings called a coagelogram, depicting
clot comes from the liquid portion of blood, the coagu- shape change by light transmittance.
lable lymph, and not from the cells, disproving the cool- In the 1960s, BBL introduced the Fibrometer. This
ing theory. It was Paul Morawitz in 1905 who instrument provided mechanical registration of clots
assembled coagulation factors into the scheme of coag- that allowed more reproducible timing and an expres-
ulation and demonstrated that in the presence of cal- sion of the clotting process.2
cium and thromboplastin, prothrombin (II) was
converted to thrombin, which in turn converted fib-
OVERVIEW OF COAGULATION
rinogen (I) into a fibrin clot. This theory persisted for 40
years until Paul Owren, in 1944, discovered a bleeding Coagulation is a complex network of interactions
patient who defied the four-factor concept of clotting. involving vessels, platelets, and factors. The ability to
Thus factor V was discovered. Owren also observed a form and to remove a clot is truly a system dependent
cofactor that was involved in the conversion of pro- on many synergistic forces. Hemostasis depends on a
thrombin to thrombin. In 1952, Loeliger named this system of checks and balances between thrombosis and
factor VII. Factor VIII was identified as classic hemo- hemorrhage that includes both procoagulants and anti-
philia prior to the identification of VII in 1936/1937. In coagulants. This scale needs to be kept in balance.
1947, Pavlovsky reported that the blood from some Thrombosis is an activation of the hemostatic system at
hemophiliac patients corrected the abnormal clotting an inappropriate time in a vessel. Thrombi formed in
time in others. In 1952, this was called Christmas dis- this fashion are pathologic and beyond the normal
ease, after the family in which it was discovered, or fac- hemostatic mechanism. If physiological anticoagulants
tor IX. Factor X deficiency was described in 1957 in a are decreased in the circulation there will be a clot. If
woman named Prower and a man named Stuart. Factor procoagulants or clotting factors are decreased, the
XI was described in 1953 as a milder bleeding tendency. scale will tip toward bleeding. Hemorrhage or excessive
In 1955, Ratnoff and Colopy identified a patient, John bleeding may be due to blood vessel disease, rupture,
Hageman, with a factor XII deficiency who died from a platelet abnormalities, and acquired or congenital
stroke—a thrombotic episode, not a bleeding disease. abnormalities. Hemostasis is comprised of the vascular
In 1960, Duckert described patients who had a bleed- system, platelets, and a series of enzymatic reactions of
ing disorder and characteristic delayed wound healing. the coagulation factors. The role of hemostasis is to
This fibrin stabilizing factor was called factor XIII. arrest bleeding from a vessel wall defect, while at the
Prekallikrein (1965) discovered from four siblings in same time maintaining fluidity within circulation.
the Fletcher family demonstrated no bleeding tenden- Under physiological conditions, fluidity is maintained
cies, as well as high-molecular-weight kininogen by the anticoagulant, profibrinolytic, and antiplatelet
(1975). These were both identified as contact activation properties of the normal endothelium.3
cofactors that participated in the activation of factor XI Coagulation is divided into two major systems: the
by factor XII.1 primary and secondary systems of hemostasis. The pri-
CHAPTER 15 • Overview of Hemostasis and Platelet Physiology 231
mary system comprises platelet function and vasocon- lumen of the blood vessel are the principal elements
striction. The secondary system involves coagulation regulating vascular functions. Physiologically, the sur-
proteins and a series of enzymatic reactions. Once the face of endothelial cells is negatively charged and repels
coagulation proteins become involved, fibrin is formed circulating proteins and platelets, which are negatively
and this reinforces platelet plug formation until healing charged.6 Vasoconstriction occurs very quickly and is
is complete. The product of the coagulation cascade is effective in stopping bleeding in small blood vessels but
the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into an insoluble cannot prevent bleeding in larger vessels. Other systems
fibrin clot. This is accomplished by the action of a pow- are required for this task.
erful coagulant, thrombin. Thrombin is formed by a pre-
cursor circulating protein, prothrombin. Dissolution of The Endothelium
the platelet plug is achieved by the fibrinolytic process.
The endothelium contains connective tissue such as
collagen and elastin. This matrix regulates the perme-
VASCULAR SYSTEM ability of the inner vessel wall and provides the princi-
Overview pal stimuli to thrombosis following injury to a blood
vessel. Circulating platelets recognize and bind to insol-
The vascular system prevents bleeding through vessel uble subendothelial connective tissue molecules. This
contraction, diversion of blood flow from damaged ves- process is dependent on molecules that are in plasma
sels, initiation of contact activation of platelets with and on platelets. Two factors, von Willebrand (vWF)
aggregation, and contact activation of the coagulation and fibrinogen, participate in the formation of the
system.4 The vessel wall contains varying amounts of platelet plug and the insoluble protein clot, resulting in
fibrous tissue such as collagen and elastin, as well as the activation of the coagulation proteins. Receptor
smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Arteries are the molecules not only adhere to platelets and damaged
vessels that take blood away from the heart and have the vessel components but also allow platelets to use vWF
thickest walls of the vascular system. Veins return blood and fibrinogen to bind platelets and form a plug. Blood
to the heart, and are larger with a more irregular lumen flows out through the wall and comes in contact with
than the arteries. Veins, however, are thin walled, with collagen. Collagen is an insoluble fibrous protein that
elastic fibers found only in larger veins. Arterioles are a accounts for much of the body’s connective tissue. Ves-
smaller subdivision of arteries, and venules are smaller sel injury leads to the stimulation of platelets. Platelets
subdivisions of veins. Capillaries are the thinnest walled contain more of the contractile protein actomyosin than
and most numerous of the blood vessels. They are com- any cells, other than muscle cells, giving them the abil-
posed of only one cell layer of endothelium that permits ity to contract. Basically platelets adhere to collagen and
a rapid rate of transport materials between blood and other platelets adhere to them. A plug is built and the
tissue.5 platelets’ ability to further contract compacts the mass.7
In forming the initial plug, platelets have now built
Mechanism of Vasoconstriction a template on a lipoprotein surface, which in turn acti-
vates tissue factor. The balance between coagulation
The process in which coagulation occurs begins with
proteins and anticoagulants now leans toward coagula-
injury to a vessel. The first response of a cut vessel is
tion. This process will accelerate vasoconstriction,
vasoconstriction or narrowing of the lumen of the arte-
platelet plug development, and the formation of cross-
rioles to minimize the flow of blood from the wound
linked fibrin clot (Fig. 15.1).
site. The blood is ordinarily exposed to only the
endothelial cell lining of the vasculature. When this is
invaded, the exposed deeper layers of the blood vessel Events Following Vascular Injury
become targets for cellular and plasma components. 1. Thromboresistant properties of a blood vessel
Vasoconstriction occurs immediately and lasts a short maintain blood in a fluid state.
period of time. It allows for increased contact between 2. After vascular injury, subendothelial compo-
the damaged vessel wall, blood platelets, and coagula- nents of collagen induce platelet aggregation,
tion factors. Vasoconstriction is caused by several regu- which is mediated by vWF and platelet recep-
latory molecules including serotonin and thromboxane tor glycoprotein Ib.
A2, which interacts with receptors on the surface of cells 3. Further platelet recruitment occurs as a result
of the blood vessel wall. These are products of platelet from fibrinogen binding to its platelet recep-
activation and endothelium. Endothelial cells lining the tor, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa.
INJURY TO VESSEL are called megakaryocytes (Fig. 15.2). These large cells
(80 to 150 μm) are found in the bone marrow.
Megakaryocytes do not undergo complete cellular divi-
Activated platelets sion but undergo a process called endomitosis or
Exposed collagen
endoreduplication creating a cell with a multilobed
nucleus. Each megakaryocyte produces about 2000
platelets. Thrombopoietin is responsible for stimulating
maturation and platelet release. This hormone is gener-
Endothelium
Injury to vessel
ated primarily by the kidney and partly by the spleen
and liver.10 There is no reserve of platelets in the bone
marrow: 80% are in circulation and 20% are in the red
PLATELET RESPONSE pulp of the spleen. Platelets have no nucleus but do
have granules: alpha granules, and dense granules.
These granules are secreted during the platelet release
Platelet reaction and contain many biochemically active com-
ponents such as serotonin, ADP, and ATP. They are
destroyed by the reticuloendothelial system (RE).
Platelet development occurs in the following
GPIb
sequence:
VWF
1. Megakaryoblasts are the most immature cell

Collagen (10 to 15 μm) with a high nuclear to cytoplas-
Figure 15.1 Platelet response to vascular injury. mic ratio and two to six nucleoli.
2. Promegakaryocyte is a large cell of 80 μm with
dense alpha and lysosomal granules.
4. Tissue factor generates thrombin, which 3. Basophilic megakaryocyte shows evidence
results in cross-linked fibrin strands that rein- of cytoplasmic fragments containing mem-
force the platelet plug. branes, cytotubules, and several glycoprotein
5. Platelet actomyosin mediates clot retraction to receptors.
compact the platelet mass.8 4. The megakaryocyte is composed of cytoplasmic
fragments that are released by a process called
PRIMARY HEMOSTASIS the budding of platelets.
Platelets: An Introduction
Platelet Structure and Biochemistry
Platelets were recognized in 1882 by Bizzozero as a cell
structure different from red and white cells. However, it Platelets have a complex structure comprised of
was not until 1970 that platelets’ relationship to hemo- four zones: the peripheral zone, the sol gel zone, the
stasis and thrombosis became so important.9 Every
cubic millimeter of blood contains one-fourth of 1 bil-
lion platelets, resulting in approximately a trillion
platelets in the blood of an average woman. Each
platelet makes 14,000 trips through the bloodstream in

its life span of 7 to 10 days.7
Platelet Development
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small discoid cells (0.5 to
3.0 μm) that are synthesized in the bone marrow and
stimulated by the hormone thrombopoietin. They are
developed through a pluripotent stem cell that has been
influenced by colony-stimulating factors (CSF) pro-
duced by macrophages, fibroblasts, T-lymphocytes, and
stimulated endothelial cells. The parent cells of platelets Figure 15.2 Megakaryocyte, the platelet parent cell.
F
VW
GpIb Fib
rin
og
en
Mitochondria
GpIIb/IIIa
ADP
Microtubules
EPI
Thrombin
PAF Dense granules

Collagen
Thromboxane
Open canalicular
IIa system
Dense tubular
system VIII
IXa Ca Va
Figure 15.3 Schematic diagram of platelet
Xa Ca Vacuoles
morphology.
organelle zone, and the membrane system (Table 15.1). disc to spiny spheres. Glycoprotein (GP) Ib
Figure 15.3 is a diagram of platelet morphology. and vWF aid in adhesion. This is primary
aggregation and is reversible. This reaction is
Platelet Function and Kinetics mediated by the release of platelet granules.
• REACTION 2 (AGGREGATION): In response
Platelets play an important role in both the formation of
to chemical changes, these events lead to
a primary plug as well as the coagulation cascade. The
platelet aggregation in which platelets adhere
formation of a plug at the site of a cut vessel serves as the
to other platelets. Platelet shape change occurs.
initial mechanical barrier. The lumen of the vessel is
• REACTION 3 (RELEASE): Platelets release
lined with endothelial cells; a break in this will initiate a
the contents of their dense granules. The
series of reactions.
release of these granules constitutes a sec-
There are four phases to platelet function:
ondary aggregation that is irreversible. Throm-
• REACTION 1 (ADHESION): Platelets adhere boxane A2 is released by platelets, which
to collagen and undergo shape change from promotes vasoconstriction. ADP amplifies
the process.
• REACTION 4 (STABILIZATION OF THE
Table 15.1 ¢ The Four Functional CLOT): This reaction is responsible for throm-
Platelet Zones bus formation. The adherent and aggregated
platelets release factor V and expose platelet
1. The peripheral zone is associated with platelet adhe- factor 3 to accelerate the coagulation cascade
sion and aggregation. and promote activation of clotting factors and
2. The sol gel zone provides a cytoskeletal system for ultimately stabilize the platelet plug with a fib-
platelets and contact when the platelets are stimu- rin clot.
lated.
3. The organelle zone contains three types of granules: The platelet membrane contains important recep-
alpha, dense bodies, and lysosomes. tors called GPs on the platelet surface. Further interac-
4. The membrane system contains a dense tubular sys- tions are mediated by both plasma protein receptors of
tem in which the enzymatic system for the produc- vWF and fibrinogen. Other activators of platelets are
tion of prostaglandin synthesis is found. thrombin, ADP, thromboxane A2, serotonin, epineph-
rine, and arachidonic acid.
The receptor for vWF is GPIb-IX. GPIIb/IIIa are of aggregation and is preceded by a shape change except
receptors for fibronectin, vWF, fibrinogen, and factors when platelets are stimulated with epinephrine (Fig.
V and VIII. This interaction recruits more platelets 15.4). Primary aggregation is a reversible process. The
to interact with each other.11 Adhesion of platelets second phase of platelet aggregation occurs when
to collagen and each other can occur without contrac- platelet granule contents are secreted. Secondary aggre-
tion or shape change. Contraction causes shape change gation is irreversible. Epinephrine, collagen, ADP, and
into a spiny sphere. Exposure of a negatively charged arachidonic acid are the aggregating agents most fre-
membrane leads to secretion of granular contents. quently used in clinical platelet aggregation.
These activated platelets release ADP and synthesized 1. Epinephrine (EPI): When added to platelet
thromboxane A2, which mediate activation of addi- rich plasma (PRP), it will stimulate platelets
tional platelets, resulting in the formation of a platelet to aggregate. Normal platelets will respond
plug.12 by releasing endogenous ADP from their gran-
ules. Both primary and secondary aggregation
is seen. An abnormal response is due to an
Platelet Aggregation Principle absent or decreased release of nucleotides
Aggregation defines the ability of platelets to stick to from dense granules.
one another. The formation of aggregates is observed 2. Adenosine diphosphate (ADP): When added
with a platelet aggregometer. This is a photo-optical to PRP, it will stimulate platelets to change
instrument connected to a chart recorder. Light trans- their shape and aggregate. Aggregation is
mittance through the sample is increased and converted induced by exogenous ADP at a high dose of
into electronic signals, which are amplified and 20 μmol/L. The primary and secondary wave
recorded. A characteristic curve is formed with each aggregations are indistinguishable. Reversible
aggregating agent. Primary aggregation is the first wave aggregation may occur due to an inadequate
Platelet Aggregation Tracings

Normal Aggregation
Shape change
Primary aggregation: adhere and aggregate
Secondary aggregation: release of granules
Formation of plug
Dissaggregation
Shape change
Primary aggregation
Reversible aggregation
Abnormal: only primary aggregation Abnormal
Figure 15.4 Platelet aggregation. Note the

stages of aggregation, which include primary
No release of granules No response and secondary aggregation as well as shape
change and plug formation.
release of nucleotides. Lack of a secondary There are three groups in which coagulation fac-
wave is indicative of defective thromboxane tors can be classified:
production and/or a defective granule pool. 1. The fibrinogen group consists of factors I, V,
3. Collagen: When added to PRP, the platelets VIII, and XIII. They are consumed during
adhere to the collagen, followed by shape coagulation. Factors V and VIII are labile and
change, release of endogenous ADP, and then will increase during pregnancy and inflamma-
aggregation. An abnormal response to collagen tion.
may be seen if thromboxane production is 2. The prothrombin group: Factors II, VII, IX, and
deficient. Aggregation is slower and less com- X all are dependent on vitamin K during their
plex, resulting in a decreased response. synthesis. This group is stable and remains
4. Arachidonic acid (AA): This is a fatty acid preserved in stored plasma.
present in membranes of human platelets 3. The contact group: Factor XI, factor XII,
and liberated from phospholipids. In the prekallikrein, and high-molecular-weight
presence of the enzyme cyclooxygenase, oxy- kininogen (HMWK) are involved in the intrin-
gen is incorporated to form the endoperoxide sic pathway, moderately stable, and not con-
prostaglandin G2 (PGG2). PGG2 is then consumed during coagulation.5
verted to thromboxane A2, a potent inducer
of platelet aggregation. The coagulation factors and their actions are listed
in (Table 15.2).
SECONDARY HEMOSTASIS
Factor I, Fibrinogen
Secondary hemostasis involves a series of blood protein
Substrate for thrombin and precursor of fibrin, it is a
reactions through a cascade-like process that concludes
large globulin protein. Its function is to be converted
with the formation of an insoluble fibrin clot. This sys-
into an insoluble protein and then back to soluble com-
tem involves multiple enzymes and several cofactors as
ponents. When exposed to thrombin, two peptides split
well as inhibitors to keep the system in balance. Coagu-
from the fibrinogen molecule, leaving a fibrin monomer
lation factors are produced in the liver, except for factor
to form a polymerized clot.
VIII, which is believed to be produced in the endothe-
lial cells. When the factors are in a precursor form, the
enzyme or zymogen is converted to an active enzyme or Factor II, Prothrombin
a protease. Precursor to thrombin, in the presence of Ca2⫹, it is
The initiation of clotting begins with the activation converted to thrombin (IIa), which in turn stimu-
of two enzymatic pathways that will ultimately lead to lates platelet aggregation and activates cofactors pro-
fibrin formation: the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. tein C and factor XIII. This is a vitamin K–dependent
Both pathways are necessary for fibrin formation, but factor.
their activating factors are different. Intrinsic activation
occurs by trauma within the vascular system, such as Factor III, Thromboplastin
exposed endothelium. This system is slower and yet
more important versus the extrinsic pathway, which is Tissue factor activates factor VII when blood is exposed
initiated by an external trauma, such as a clot and to tissue fluids.
occurs quickly.
Factor IV, Ionized Calcium
Classification of Coagulation Factors This active form of calcium is needed for the activation
of thromboplastin and for conversion of prothrombin
Coagulation factors may be categorized into substrates, to thrombin.
cofactors, and enzymes. Substrates are the substance
upon which enzymes act. Fibrinogen is the main sub-
Factor V, Proaccelerin or Labile Factor
strate. Cofactors accelerate the activities of the enzymes
that are involved in the cascade. Cofactors include tis- This is consumed during clotting and accelerates the
sue factor, factor V, factor VIII, and Fitzgerald factor. All transformation of prothrombin to thrombin. A vitamin
of the enzymes are serine proteases except factor XIII, K–dependent factor, 20% of factor V is found on
which is a transaminase.13 platelets.
Table 15.2 ¢ Factor Facts
Half-life Clinical Picture If Factor for Screening

Factor Inheritance (hr) Deficient Hemostasis Tests
I Autosomal domi- 64 to 96 Bleed with trauma, stress, mucosal, 40 to 50 ↑ PT and aPTT
nant umbilical stump, intracranial, gas- mg/dL
trointestinal
II Autosomal recessive 48 Severe bleed, mucous membrane, spon- 20% to 30% ↑ PT and aPTT
taneous
V Autosomal recessive 12 Moderate-severe bleed, mucosal, large 10% to 15% ↑ PT and aPTT
ecchymoses
VII Autosomal recessive 4 to 6 Intra-articular bleed, severe mucosal, 10% to 15% ↑ PT
epistaxis, hemarthrosis, genitourinary,
gastrointestinal, and intrapulmonary
VIII Sex-linked recessive 15 to 20 Severity based on levels, hematuria,
hemarthrosis, intra-articular, ⬎10% ↑ aPTT
intracranial
IX Sex-linked recessive 24 Severe mucous membrane, deep tissue, ⬎10% ↑ aPTT
intra-muscular
X Autosomal recessive 32 Mucous membrane, skin hemorrhages 10% to 15% ↑ PT and aPTT
XI Autosomal recessive 60 to 80 Severity of bleeds vary, not proportional 30% ↑ aPTT
to factor level
XII Autosomal recessive 50 to 70 Hemorrhage is rare, risk for thrombosis ? ↑ aPTT
and dominant
XIII Autosomal recessive 40 to 50 Only homozygotes bleed, deep tissue 10% Normal PT
muscle, intracranial bleed and aPTT
Factor VI, Nonexistent Factor X, Stuart-Prower

Factor VII, Proconvertin or Stable Factor Final common pathway merges to form conversion
This is activated by tissue thromboplastin, which in of prothrombin to thrombin, activity also related to
turn activates factor X. It is a vitamin K–dependent factors VII and IX. It is vitamin K–dependent and can
factor. be independently activated by Russell’s viper venom.
Factor XI, Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent

Factor VIII, Antihemophilic
Essential to intrinsic thromboplastin generating of the
This cofactor is used for the cleavage of factor X-Xa by cascade, it has increased frequency in the Jewish popu-
IXa. Factor VIII is described as VIII/vWF:VIII:C active lation. Bleeding tendencies vary, but there is the risk of
portion, measured by clotting, VIII:Ag is the antigenic postoperative hemorrhage.
portion, vWF:Ag measures antigen that binds to
endothelium for platelet function; it is deficient in Factor XII, Hageman factor
hemophilia A.
This surface contact factor is activated by collagen.
Patients do not bleed but have a tendency to thrombosis.
Factor IX, Plasma Thromboplastin Component
A component of the thromboplastin generating system, Factor XIII, Fibrin Stabilizing Factor
it influences amount as opposed to rate. It is deficient in In the presence of calcium, this transaminase stabilizes
hemophilia B, also known as Christmas disease. It is sex polymerized fibrin monomers in the initial clot. This is
linked and vitamin K–dependent. the only factor that is not found in circulating plasma.
High-Molecular-Weight Kininogen Laboratory Model of Coagulation

This surface contact factor is activated by kallikrein. Laboratory testing looks at the in vitro effect of the coag-
ulation process which is measured by the prothrombin
Prekallikrein, Fletcher Factor time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time
(aPTT), thrombin time (TT), fibrin degradation prod-
This is a surface contact activator, in which 75% is
ucts (FDPs), and D-dimer. This section will focus on PT
bound to HMWK.
and a PTT, while Chapter 20 will concentrate on the
other routine tests mentioned. While the coagulation
Physiological Coagulation (In Vivo) cascade does not reflect what goes on in vivo, it provides
The original theory of coagulation used a cascade or a model in which the laboratory relates to for testing.
waterfall theory. This description depicted the genera- However, the coagulation cascade reflects the mecha-
tion of thrombin by the soluble coagulation factors and nisms that the laboratory uses for results. The screening
the initiation of coagulation. This theory identified two tests provide a tremendous amount of information to
starting points for the generation of thrombin: the the physician. They can be performed both quickly and
initiation of the Intrinsic pathway with factor XII accurately (Fig. 15.6).
and surface contact, and the extrinsic pathway with fac-
tor VIIa and tissue factor. These two pathways meet Extrinsic Pathway
at the common pathway, where they both generate
The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the release of tissue
factor Xa from X, leading to a common pathway
thromboplastin that has been expressed after damage to
of thrombin from prothrombin and the conversion of
fibrinogen to fibrin. This process holds true under labo-
ratory conditions (Fig. 15.5). The discovery of a natu-
rally occurring inhibitor of hemostasis, tissue factor aPTT (Heparin therapy) PT (Coumadin therapy)
pathway inhibitor (TFPI), is able to block the activity of INTRINSIC SYSTEM EXTRINSIC SYSTEM
the tissue factor VIIa complex, soon after it becomes Contact activation pathway Tissue factor pathway
active.14 XII VII

HMWK
Prekallikrein
XIIa Ca + Tissue factor

XI
Revised Coagulation Cascade: In Vivo
XIa
VIIIa
Vessel injury IX
XI XIa IXa
TF–VIIa IX IXa Ca
Ca Pl VIIIa VIII + Ca + PF
X
X Xa
X
Ca Pl Va Xa
II IIa V + Ca + PF
Fibrinogen Fibrin Prothrombin II Thrombin IIa Factor XIII
XIIIa
Fibrinogen I Fibrin X
XIIIa
Insoluble monomer
cross-linked fibrin Fibrin clot
Figure 15.5 In vivo coagulation cascade. Figure 15.6 In vitro coagulation cascade.
a vessel. Factor VII forms a complex with tissue throm- Calcium is required for the activation of X to proceed
boplastin and calcium. This complex converts factors X rapidly. The reaction then enters the common pathway
and Xa, which in turn converts prothrombin to throm- where both systems involve factors I, II, V, and X. This
bin. Thrombin then converts fibrinogen to fibrin. This results in a fibrin monomer polymerizing into a fibrin
process takes between 10 and 15 seconds. clot. Factor XIII, or fibrin stabilizing factor, follows acti-
Prothrombin time (PT) developed by Armond vation by thrombin. This will convert initial weak
Quick in 1935 measures the extrinsic system of coagu- hydrogen bonds, cross-linking fibrin polymers to a
lation. It is dependent upon the addition of calcium more stable covalent bond.
chloride and tissue factor. It uses a lipoprotein extract
from rabbit brain and lung.1 Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time
PT uses citrate anticoagulated plasma. After the
addition of an optimum concentration of calcium and aPTT measures the intrinsic pathway. The test consists
an excess of thromboplastin, clot detection is measured of recalcifying plasma in the presence of a standardized
by an automated device for fibrin clot detection. The amount of platelet-like phosphatides and an activator of
result is reported in seconds. PT is exclusive for factor the contact factors. It will detect abnormalities to factors
VII, but this test is also sensitive to decreases in the com- VIII, IX, XI, and XII. The aPTT is also used to monitor
mon pathway factors. Therefore, if a patient presents heparin therapy. Heparin is an anticoagulant used to
with a prolonged PT and there is no other clinical treat and or prevent acute thrombotic events such as
abnormality or medication, the patient is most likely deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism
factor VII deficient. The PT is also used to monitor oral (PE), or acute coronary syndromes. The action of
anticoagulation or warfarin therapy used to treat and heparin is to inactivate factors XII, XI, and IX in the
prevent blood clots. In many instances, patients are presence of antithrombin. Laboratory monitoring of
placed on life-long therapy and the dosage is monitored heparin therapy will be discussed in Chapter 19.
by the PT test. The attempt in anticoagulant therapy is
to impede thrombus formation without the threat of Common Pathway
morbidity or mortality from hemorrhage. The common pathway is the point at which the intrinsic
Warfarin is an oral anticoagulant, which means it and extrinsic pathways come together and factors I, II,
must be ingested. It was discovered in 1939 at the Uni- V, and X are measured. It is important to note that the
versity of Wisconsin quite by accident. It seems that a PT and the aPTT will not detect qualitative or quantita-
farmer found that his cattle were hemorrhaging to tive platelet disorders, or a factor XIII deficiency. Factor
death, for what appeared to be no reason. The cattle XIII is fibrin stabilizing factor and is responsible for sta-
were grazing in a field eating sweet clover. This contains bilizing a soluble fibrin monomer into an insoluble fib-
dicumarol, actually bis-hydroxy coumadin, which rin clot. If a patient is factor XIII deficient, the patient
caused the cattle to bleed.6 will form a clot but will not be able to stabilize the clot
There are several compounds of coumadin: and bleeding will occur later. Factor XIII is measured by
dicumarol, indanedione, and warfarin. Dicumarol a 5 mol/L urea test that looks at not only the formation
works too slowly, and indanedione has too many side of the clot but also if the clot lyzes after 24 hours.
effects. Warfarin or 4-oxycoumarin is the most com-
monly used oral anticoagulant. Coumadin works by
inhibiting the y-carboxylation step of clotting and the Formation of Thrombin
vitamin K–dependent factors.15 Laboratory monitoring When plasma fibrinogen is activated by thrombin, this
of oral anticoagulation therapy will be discussed in conversion results in a stable fibrin clot. This clot is a
Chapter 19. visible result that the action of the protease enzyme
thrombin has achieved fibrin formation. Thrombin is
also involved in the XIII-XIIIa activation due to the
Intrinsic System reaction of thrombin cleaving a peptide bond from each
Contact activation is initiated by changes induced by of two alpha chains. Inactive XIII along with Ca2⫹ ions
vascular trauma. Prekallikrein is required as a cofactor enables XIII to dissociate to XIIIa. If thrombin were
for the autoactivation of factor XII by factor XIIa. XI is allowed to circulate in its active form (Ia), uncontrol-
activated and requires a cofactor of HMWK. XIa acti- lable clotting would occur. As a result thrombin circu-
vates IX to IXa, which in the presence of VIIIa converts lates in its inactive form prothrombin (II).Thrombin, a
X to Xa. Also present are platelet phospholipids PF3. protease enzyme, cleaves fibrinogen (factor I) which
results in a fibrin monomer and fibrinogen peptides A patients with contact factor abnormalities (factors XI
and B. These initial monomers polymerize end to end and XII) do not bleed.8 See Figure 15.7 for a diagram of
due to hydrogen bonding. feedback inhibition.
Formation of fibrin occurs in three phases:
Fibrinolysis
1. Proteolysis: Protease enzyme thrombin cleaves
fibrinogen resulting in a fibrin monomer, A The fibrinolytic system is responsible for the dissolu-
and B fibrinopeptide. tion of a clot. Fibrin clots are not intended to be perma-
2. Polymerization: This occurs spontaneously due nent. The purpose of the clot is to stop the flow of blood
to fibrin monomer that line up end-to-end due until the damaged vessel can be repaired. The presence
to hydrogen bonding. or absence of hemorrhage or thrombosis depends on a
3. Stabilization: This occurs when the fibrin balance between the procoagulant and the fibrinolytic
monomers are linked covalently by XIIIa system. The key components of the system are plas-
into fibrin polymers forming an insoluble minogen, plasminogen activators, plasmin, fibrin, fib-
fibrin clot. rin/FDP, and inhibitors of plasminogen activators and
plasmin.6 Fibrinolysis is the process by which the
hydrolytic enzyme plasmin digests fibrin and fibrino-
Feedback Inhibition gen, resulting in progressively reduced clots. This sys-
Some activated factors have the ability to destroy other tem is activated in response to the initiation of the
factors in the cascade. Thrombin has the ability to tem- activation of the contact factors. Plasmin is capable of
porarily activate V and VIII, but as thrombin increases it digesting either fibrin or fibrinogen as well as other fac-
destroys V and VIII by proteolysis. Likewise, factor Xa tors in the cascade (V, VIII, IX, and XI). Normal plasma
enhances factor VII, but through a reaction with tissue contains the inactive form of plasmin in a precursor
factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), it will prevent further called plasminogen. This precursor remains dormant
activation of X by VIIa and tissue factor. Therefore, until it is activated by proteolytic enzymes, the kinases,
these enzymes limit their own ability to activate the or plasminogen activators. Fibrinolysis is controlled by
coagulation cascade at different intervals. the plasminogen activator system. The components of
Thrombin feedback activation of factor IX can pos- this system are found in tissues, urine, plasma, lysoso-
sibly explain how intrinsic coagulation might occur in mal granules, and vascular endothelium.
the absence of contact factors. Tissue factor is expressed An activator, tissue-plasminogen activator (tPA)
following an injury forming a complex with VIIa, then results in the activation of plasminogen to plasmin
activating X and IX. TFPI prevents further activation of resulting in the degradation of fibrin. The fibrinolytic
X. Thrombin formation is further amplified by factors V, system includes several inhibitors. Alpha-2-antiplasmin
VIII, and XI, which leads to activation of the intrinsic is a rapid inhibitor of plasmin activity and alpha-
pathway. This feedback theory helps to enforce why 2-macroglobulin is an effective slow inhibitor of plas-
Feedback Inhibition:
Factor XI Factor XIa Factor IX Tissue factor + Factor VIIa Factor VII
Factor IXa Factor X

Factor VIII Factor VIIIa
Factor Va + Factor Xa
Factor V Factor II
Figure 15.7 Feedback inhi-

bition. Note the role of throm- Thrombin IIa
bin in the activation and
deactivation of coagulation
factors. Fibrinogen Fibrin
min activity. This system is in turn controlled by Kinin System

inhibitors to tPA and plasmin-plasminogen activator
Another plasma protein system in coagulation is the
inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) and alpha-2-antiplasmin. Reduced
kinin system. This system is capable of vascular dilata-
fibrinolytic activity may result in increased risk for car-
tion leading to hypotension, shock, and end-organ
diovascular events and thrombosis.
damage by its capability to increase vascular perma-
Pharmacologic activators are currently used for
bility.16 The kinins are peptides of 9 to 11 amino acids.
therapeutic thrombolysis, including streptokinase,
The kinin system is activated by factor XII. Hageman
urokinase, and tPA.
factor XIIa converts prekallikrein (Fletcher factor) into
Urokinase directly activates plasminogen into
kallikrein, and kallikrein converts kininogens into
plasmin, and streptokinase forms a streptokinase plas-
kinins. The most important is bradykinin (BK). This is
minogen complex, which then converts plasminogen
an important factor in vascular permeability as well as
into plasmin.16
a chemical mediator of pain. BK is capable of repro-
ducing many characteristics of an inflammatory state
Coagulation Inhibitors such as changes in blood pressure, edema, and pain,
Inhibitors are soluble plasma proteins that are natural resulting in vasodilation and increased microvessel
anticoagulants. They prevent the initiation of the clot- permeability.13
ting cascade. There are two major inhibitors in plasma
that keep the activation of coagulation under control.
Complement System
These inhibitors are:
1. Protease inhibitors: inhibitors of coagulation This system has a role in inflammation and the immune
factors, which include system as well as important thrombohemorrhagic
• Antithrombin disorders such as disseminated intravascular coagula-
• Heparin cofactor II tion (DIC). Activated complement fragments have the
• Tissue factor pathway inhibitor capacity to bind and damage self tissues. Regulators
• Alpha-2-antiplasmin of complement activation are expressed on cell surfaces.
• C1 These protect the cell from the effects of cell-bound
2. The protein C pathway: inactivation of acti- complement fragments. If this regulation process is
vated cofactors, which includes abnormal, it may participate in the pathogenesis of
• Protein C and protein S autoimmune disease as well as inflammatory disorders.
This system includes 22 serum proteins that play a
Each will be discussed in detail in Chapter 19. role in mediating immune and allergic reactions and
Table 15.3 has a listing on inhibitor and target reaction the lysis of cells due to a production of membrane
sites. attack complex (MAC). The lysis and disruption of red
blood cells and platelets lead to the release of procoagu-
lant material. This system is a sequential activation
Table 15.3 ¢ Serine Protease pathway. Complement is activated by plasmin through
Inhibitors the cleavage of C3 into C3a and C3b. C3 causes
increased vascular permeability, and because of the
Inhibitor Specificity degranulation or lysis of mast cells, which in turn
results in the release of histamine, C3b causes immune
Antithrombin (AT) IIa, Xa, IXa
adherence.13
Alpha-2-macroglobulin Nonspecific The interrelationship between the complement,
Tissue factor pathway Xa, VIIa/TF complex kinin, and the coagulation system is complex and
inhibitor revealing. Coagulation and the elements that contribute
Heparin cofactor II IIa to the success of the hemostatic system are multifactor-
Alpha-2 protease inhibitor XIa, elastase ial, and with each decade, more knowledge about this
CI inhibitor XIIa, kallikrein, XIa, CI versatile system is learned. Figure 15.8 illustrates the
(complement system) important interrelationships between the coagulation,
fibrinolytic, complement, and kinin systems.
Kininogen Kallikrein Prekallikrein
Collagen
Phospholipids
Kinins Coagulation
Factor XII Factor XIIa Factor XIIa fragments
Plasminogen Plasmin
Fibrinolysis
Figure 15.8 Interrelationships

between the coagulation, fibri- C8C9 C3 activation C1 activation
nolytic, complement, and kinin (Lysis)
systems. Complement activation
CONDENSED CASE
A 35-year-old woman needs to have an ovarian cyst removed. She had one delivery that was uneventful. Her mother
has a history of bleeding after tooth extraction. The physician needs to determine if there is a bleeding disorder. The
coagulation test results are as follows:
PT 12.5 seconds (Reference range, 10.5 to 13.3)
aPTT 32.1 seconds (Reference range, 28.7 to 35.5)
Platelets 320,000/mm3 (Reference range, 150,000 to 400,000/mm3)
Bleeding time 11 minutes (Reference, 8 minutes)
What is the most significant abnormal result in the coagulation panel?
Answer
The bleeding time is the only abnormal test, since it is greater than 8 minutes. This suggests a disorder within primary
hemostasis. This can be caused by any disorder of platelets, such as von Willebrand disease, or a problem due to
platelet secretion. Or it can be caused by several medications. Tests to rule out von Willebrand disease include factor
VIII assay, a vWF antigen and activity, as well as platelet aggregation testing. Upon performing a platelet aggregation,
there was only a primary wave for epinephrine, and no response for arachidonic acid. The patient was taking 81 μg of
aspirin a day as a preventive measure. This resulted in a prolonged bleeding time. The patient was removed from
aspirin and the bleeding returned to normal.
Summary Points • Secondary hemostasis is composed of fibrin clot for-

mation and fibrin clot lysis.
• Hemostasis depends on a system of checks and bal-
ances between thrombosis and hemorrhage that • Platelet aggregation is mediated by von Willebrand’s
involve procoagulants and anticoagulants. factor (vWF) and platelet glycoprotein Ib (GP1b).
• The systems involved in hemostasis are the vascular • Platelets are small discoid cell fragments that are
system, platelets, coagulation system, and fibri- synthesized in the bone marrow and stimulated by
nolytic system. the hormone thrombopoietin.
• Primary hemostasis is composed of platelet function • There are four phases to platelet function at the site
and vasoconstriction. of injury: platelet adherence to collagen, platelet
aggregation, platelet granule release, and stabiliza- • The key components of the fibrinolytic system are
tion of the clot. plasminogen, plasminogen activators, plasmin, fib-
• Coagulation factors are produced in the liver with rin, fibrin degradation products, and inhibitors of
the exception of a portion of factor VIII, produced in plasminogen and plasmin.
the endothelial cells. • Streptokinase, urokinase, and tissue plasminogen
• The traditional coagulation pathway is divided into activator are activators of the plasmin-plasminogen
the intrinsic, extrinsic, and common pathways. system.
• The extrinsic pathway is monitored by the pro- • Tissue plasminogen activator is available as a phar-
thrombin time, while the intrinsic pathway is moni- macological product to break up pathologically
tored by the partial thromboplastin time. formed clots.
• The intrinsic pathway is initiated by factor XII and • Serine protease inhibitors and the protein C path-
surface contact with the endothelial cells. way are the major physiologic inhibitors of coagula-
• Tissue factor pathway inhibitor is able to block the tion.
activity of the tissue factor: factor VII complex soon • The kinin system is activated by factor XII and
after it becomes active. contributes to vascular permeability.
• Plasma fibrinogen activated by thrombin results in a • The complement system once activated may con-
stable fibrin clot. tribute to the release of procoagulant material.
CASE STUDY
A 15-year-old boy with chronic strep throat has presented with excessive bruising. His coagulation results were as fol-
lows:
aPTT 42.1 seconds (Reference range, 28.5 to 35.5)
Platelets 325,000 (Reference range, 150,000 to 400,000)
Bleeding 5 minutes (Reference, 8 minutes)
Which coagulation tests are abnormal, and how should this physician proceed in his treatment of this patient?
In this case, two parameters, the PT and aPTT, are elevated. The patient is not bleeding, but he shows a history of recent
bruising. Since both the PT and the aPTT are affected, one can assume the problem is in the common pathway, specifi-
cally factors I, II, V, and X. Factor assays could be performed to assess the level of activity of each of these clotting factors;
however, a closer examination into the patient’s history might reveal an additional feature. Since this patient has had
chronic strep throat, it is logical to assume that he has been on long-term antibiotics. Antibiotics may deplete the normal
flora, a source of vitamin K synthesis. Factors II, VII, IX, and X are vitamin K–dependent factors. Vitamin K is the essen-
tial cofactor for the gamma carboxyglutamic acid residues necessary to activate these factors. When vitamin K is in short
supply or depleted, these factors fail to function properly. In our patient, vitamin K can be given by mouth to resume
normal coagulation and correct bruising.
Review Questions
1. The factor with the longest half-life is: a. VIII.
a. II. b. II.
b. V. c. VII.
c. VII. d. X.
d. X.
3. Receptors that are found on the platelets are called:
2. If a patient has a prolonged PT, the patient is most a. glycoproteins.
likely deficient in factor: b. vWF.
c. fibrinogen. 8. If a patient has just a prolonged aPTT, the patient

b. beta-thromboglobulin. may be deficient in the following factors:
a. VIII, X, II, and I
4. Vasoconstriction is caused by several regulatory
b. VIII, IX, XI, and XII
molecules, which include:
c. VIII, X, XI, and XII
a. fibrinogen and vWF.
d. VIII, XI, II, and XII
b. ADP and EPI.
c. Thromboxane A2 and serotonin. 9. The factor that is responsible for stabilizing a
d. Collagen and actomyosin. soluble fibrin monomer into an insoluble
clot is:
5. The vitamin K–dependent factors are: a. II.
a. I, II, V, and X. b. X.
b. II, VII, IX, and X. c. XII.
c. I, VII, V, and VIII. d. XIII.
d. II, IX, XI, and X.
10. An inhibitor of plasmin activity is:
6. The life span of a platelet is: a. tPA.
a. 5 to 8 days. b. PAI-1.
b. 7 to 10 days. c. alpha-2-antiplasmin.
c. 6 to 9 days. d. plasminogen.
d. 9 to 12 days.
11. Protein C and its cofactor protein S proteolytically
7. Alpha granules are found in: inactivate factors:
a. the peripheral zone. a. VIIa and Xa.
b. the sol gel zone. b. Va and VIIIa.
c. organelles. c. IXa and VIIa.
d. membranes. d. VIIIa and XIIa.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When the Coagulation tubes must be filled to 90% capacity to preserve a 1:9
Sample Is Drawn Incorrectly? anticoagulant-to-blood ratio.
Preanalytic variables represent important sources of
error in patient testing and accuracy of results. In Transport and Handling of Specimens
hemostasis testing, sample integrity is paramount. There are several coagulation proteins that are labile,
Areas in which sample integrity are most affected are in namely factors V and VIII. The activity of these factors
phlebotomy practices, transport and handling of speci- will be lost if the sample is not tested in an appropriate
mens, choice of coagulation tubes, and patient vari- time span. For maximum activity, testing should be per-
ables. formed within 4 hours for aPTT and up to 24 hours for
Phlebotomy Practices PT. Plasma can be removed from the sample and stored
The sample must be provided from an atraumatic draw, at –20⬚C for up to 2 weeks. Additionally, samples must
on a properly identified patient, and the tube must be be centrifuged for a period of time that enables them to
inverted three to four times for proper mixing of anti- become platelet poor plasma. Platelet poor plasma is
coagulant. The order of draw in coagulation testing is defined as having a platelet count of less than 10,000,
important to avoid contamination of the sample with which depends upon proper centrifugation. If samples
tissue thromboplastin. Therefore, if multiple tubes are are not platelet poor, falsely shortened results may
drawn, the coagulation tube should be last. If only a occur as a result of activation of platelet factor 4. Activa-
coagulation sample is requested and the sample is tion of platelet factor 4 may also occur in heparinized
drawn through a butterfly, then a discard tube should samples that are allowed to sit on red cells for longer
be drawn first. If a syringe is needed for phlebotomy, a than 4 hours. In this case the platelet factor 4 may inac-
needle gauge of 12 to 19 is optimal. Additionally, the tivate the heparin giving a falsely shortened PTT result.

Which Tubes to Use? coagulation sample. For patients who have hematocrits
Most facilities are using blue top tubes, which contain that are ⬎60% (neonated, polycythemia), falsely pro-
3.2% sodium citrate. The reasons for this are many and longed results will occur if the anticoagulant is not
include the fact that this concentration provides a adjusted, since there is too much anticoagulant for
closer osmolality to plasma, has less binding of cal- plasma. For patients who have hematocrits of less than
cium, and provides a more favorable environment for 22%, results will be falsely decreased as a result of too
heparinized samples. little anticoagulant because of increasing plasma vol-
ume. The standard formula for adjusting the volume of
Patient Variables anticoagulant is:
Many variables affect coagulation results such as med-
ication, physical and emotional stress, and patient age
and personal habits. These factors cannot be controlled New volume of sodium citrate ⫽
by the laboratory. A patient’s hematocrit, however, is (1.85 ⫻ 10)⫺3 ⫻ (100 ⫺ Hct) ⫻
something that can be adjusted for when drawing a volume of sample
WORD KEY 3. Schetz M. Coagulation disorder in acute renal failure.

Kidney Int S53(suppl 66):96–101, 1998.
Anticoagulant • Delaying or preventing blood 4. Harmening D. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals
coagulation of Hemostasis, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 1997.
5. Turgeon ML. Clinical Hematology, Theory and Proce-
Fibronectin • Protein involved in wound healing and cell
dures, 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, 1993.
adhesion
6. McKenzie SB. Textbook of Hematology. Baltimore:
Lumen • Space within an artery, vein, or intestine or tube Williams and Wilkins, 1996.
7. Zucker M. The functioning of blood platelets. Sci Am
Morbidity • State of being diseased 242:86–89, 1980.
Mortality • Death 8. Kjeldsberg C. Practical Diagnosis of Hematologic
Polymerize • Process by which a simple chemical sub- Disorders, 2nd ed. Chicago: ASCP Press, 1995.
stance or substances are changed into a substance of a much 9. Plaut D. Platelet Function Tests. ADVANCE for the
Administrators of the Laboratory, July 2003.
higher molecular weight but with the same proportions
10. Southern D, Leclair S. Platelet Maturation and Func-
Thrombolysis • Breaking up of a clot tion. In: Rodak B, ed. Diagnostic Hematology. Philadel-
phia, WB Saunders, 1995.
Transaminase • Aminotransferase (an enzyme)
11. Kolde H.-J. Haemostasis pentapharm. Basel: 2001.
Vasoconstriction • Decrease in the diameter of the blood 12. Rodgers G. Hemostasis Case Studies. Chicago: ASCP
vessels that decreases the blood flow Press, 2000.
13. Ogedegbe HO. An overview of hemostasis. Lab Med 33:
Viscosity • State of being sticky or gummy
December 2002.
14. Fass D. Overview of Hemostasis, Mayo Clinic Coagula-
References tion Conference, Mayo Clinic, August 2004.
1. Owen CA. A History of Blood Coagulation. Rochester, 15. Kandrotis RJ. Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of
MN; Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and antithrombotic agents. Clin Appl Thromb/Hemost
Research, 2001. 3:157–163, 1997.
2. Hougie C. Fundamentals of Blood Coagulation in Clinical 16. Bick R. Disorders of Thrombosis and Hemostasis.
Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1963. Chicago: ASCP Press, 1991.
16 Quantitative and Qualitative

Platelet Disorders
Betty Ciesla
Quantitative Disorders of Platelets Objectives

Thrombocytopenia Related to Sample Integrity/ After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Preanalytic Variables
Thrombocytopenia Related to Decreased Production 1. Define the quantitative platelet disorders.
Thrombocytopenia Related to Altered Distribution 2. Identify the types of bleeding that are seen in
of Platelets platelet disorders.
Thrombocytopenia Related to the Immune Effect 3. List four laboratory tests that are helpful in
of Specific Drugs or Antibody Formation evaluating platelet disorders.
Thrombocytopenia Related to Consumption of 4. State how preanalytic variables may affect the
Platelets platelet count.
Thrombocytosis
5. Describe three characteristics of the qualitative
Inherited Qualitative Disorders of Platelets platelet disorders von Willebrand disease,
Disorders of Adhesion Bernard Soulier, and Glanzmann’s thrombas-
thenia.
Platelet Release Defects
6. Identify drugs that are implicated in immune
Acquired Defects of Platelet Function thrombocytopenia.
Vascular Disorders Leading to 7. Evaluate conditions that may cause
Platelet Dysfunction thrombocytosis.
8. Compare and contrast acute versus chronic
idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.
9. Describe the effect of ristocetin on platelet
aggregation.
10. Define hemolytic uremic syndrome in terms of
incidence, key clinical features, and patient
management.
11. Define thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura in
terms of incidence, key clinical features, and
severity.
12. Describe platelet abnormalities due to
acquired defects: drug induced, nonimmune,
or vascular.
245
QUANTITATIVE DISORDERS Thrombocytopenia Related

OF PLATELETS to Decreased Production
A normal platelet count is 150 to 450 ⫻ 109/L. In this Any condition that leads to bone marrow aplasia or a
range, an individual will have properly functioning lack of megakaryocytes, the platelet forming cell, will
platelets that assist in the coagulation process by lead to a thrombocytopenia. Most patients with
creating a platelet plug and stimulating the formation leukemia will exhibit a thrombocytopenia as a result of
of a solid fibrin clot. A decrease in platelet count will infiltration of the bone marrow with blast cells. Blasts of
cause bleeding from the mucous membranes such as any cellular origin crowd out normal bone marrow ele-
gum bleeding (gingival bleeding), nose bleeding (epis- ments leading to thrombocytopenia. Defects in platelet
taxis), extensive bruising (ecchymoses), or petechiae synthesis can occur in the megaloblastic anemias that
(pinpoint hemorrhages). A patient with a platelet count show a pancytopenia, a decrease in all cell lines. Cyto-
of 60,000 will bleed in surgery and a patient with toxic agents or chemotherapy usually interferes with
a platelet count of 30,000 may have petechial bleeding the cell cycle, thereby reducing the number of active
At less than 5000 platelets, there is a risk of bleeding platelets. Patients undergoing chemotherapy are care-
into the central nervous system. Laboratory tests fully monitored for platelet count and may need to be
that are helpful in the evaluation of platelet function given platelet support if the count drops too far below
are the evaluation of the peripheral smear for platelet 20.0 ⫻ 109/L.
number and morphology, the bleeding time test (or Megakaryocytic function is impaired during the
similar platelet function tests), platelet aggregation by infectious process. Infections with several viral agents
one of several methods, or other methods that assess such as cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, varicella,
platelet function and aggregation. Thrombocytopenia and rubella and certain bacterial infections may cause a
or a decreased platelet count is caused by a number thrombocytopenia. The mechanism at work in viral
of factors. Decreased production of platelets or infections is thought to be megakaryocytic suppression;
increased destruction of platelets usually accounts for in bacteria, the mechanism is direct toxicity of circulat-
the pathophysiology of most quantitative defects ing platelets.2
in platelets. Additionally, sample related conditions or
preanalytic variables may lead to falsely decreased Thrombocytopenia Related to
platelet counts. Altered Distribution of Platelets
The normal spleen holds one third of the platelet
Thrombocytopenia Related to Sample
Integrity/Preanalytic Variables volume. Several hematological conditions may lead to
an enlarged spleen as part of their pathological process:
Coagulation samples are drawn into blue top tubes con- the myeloproliferative disorders, extramedullary hema-
taining sodium citrate. Sodium citrate anticoagulates a topoiesis, and hemolytic anemias. As the spleen
specimen by binding calcium in a 1:9 anticoagulant-to- enlarges, blood pools in this organ withholding
blood ratio. Sample tubes must be at least 90% full and platelets from the peripheral circulation. If the organ is
the phlebotomy must be nontraumatic. The blue top removed, then large numbers of platelets may spill into
tube must be inverted at least three or four times for the circulation, causing possible thrombotic complica-
proper mixing of the anticoagulant. If this does not hap- tions.3 An additional scenario in which platelet distri-
pen, there is a possibility of small clots being formed on bution is altered is in massive transfusion. Once the
the top of the tube. Platelet satellitism is another condi- total blood volume (10 units) has been replaced with
tion related to samples that may give a falsely decreased two or three volume exchanges, the platelet and the
platelet count. First reported in 1963,1 this condition is coagulation factors become diluted leading to a tran-
an in vitro phenomenon in which the patient’s platelets sient thrombocytopenia.4
rosette around segmented neutrophils, monocytes, and
bands. This phenomenon occurs only in EDTA (ethyl-
enediaminetetraacetic acid) samples and produces a Thrombocytopenia Related to the
pseudo-thrombocytopenia unrelated to medication or Immune Effect of Specific Drugs
any other disease state (see Fig. 10.21). If platelet satel- or Antibody Formation
litism is observed on the peripheral smear, the sample Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia produces a
should be redrawn in sodium citrate and cycled reduced platelet count that can be severe and danger-
through the automated hematology counter for a more ous. Several drug classifications are particularly relevant
accurate platelet count. and include quinines, NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-
CHAPTER 16 • Quantitative and Qualitative Platelet Disorders 247
inflammatory drugs), sulfonamides, and diuretics.5 The may be increased in the marrow; however, they
mechanism for thrombocytopenia is 2-fold. On the one are poorly functioning.2 There are two types of ITP:
hand, ingestion of the drug will cause an antidrug anti- chronic and acute. Patients with acute ITP are usually
body formation that will bind to a glycoprotein on the children between the ages of 2 and 6 who have just
platelet surface and be removed by the reticuloendothe- recovered from a viral illness.2 The platelet counts may
lial system (RES). The second mechanism involves the drop precipitously, some as low as 20 ⫻109/L. In this
drug combining with a larger carrier protein to form an range, the child will usually show bruising, nose
antigen that triggers an antibody response and subse- bleeding, or petechiae but will not usually show life-
quent platelet destruction, potentially in the spleen. threatening hemorrhage. Fortunately, this low platelet
The incidence of drug-induced thrombocytopenia is 10 count usually resolves in less than 6 weeks as the child
cases per 1 million.5 fully recovers from the viral illness. Treatment, if neces-
Additionally, there are two rare conditions in which sary, may consist of intravenous immunoglobulin
thrombocytopenia may be quite dramatic. Fortunately, (IvIg or WinRho, anti–D immune globulin), splenec-
these are rare. The first, posttransfusion purpura (PTP), tomy, or platelet transfusion.2 Chronic ITP, on the other
occurs after transfusion of platelet-containing products hand, shows a platelet count between 30 and 60 ⫻
in which the recipient has developed an antibody. The 109/L in a much older age range of between 20 and 50
antibody is directed against an antigen on the platelet years of age. For these patients, an IgG antibody is
Pl1A, a primary platelet antigen, and therefore when produced that coats the platelets, causing them to be
donor platelets are transfused containing this antigen, sequestered and subsequently destroyed in the spleen.
the platelets are coated and removed by the spleen. The Splenomegaly is a frequent physical symptom. Most
resultant thrombocytopenia is quite long lasting, and patients are treated with prednisone, which suppresses
treatment is directed toward delaying antibody produc- the antibody response, increases the platelet count,
tion. The second condition, neonatal isoimmune throm- and decreases the hemorrhagic episodes. For those
bocytopenia, occurs as a result of maternal antibody who are nonresponsive, anti-CD20, Rituximab, has
made against a previous exposure to platelet antigens been shown to provide a sustained platelet response.6
from an earlier pregnancy. The antibody is usually Splenectomy is a therapeutic option, but it must be
directed against the Pl1A. Since this antibody can cross carefully considered. Recently, immune thrombocy-
the placenta, it can coat the baby’s platelets in utero. topenia related to infections has been investigated.
Infants born to mothers carrying these antibodies will Patients infected with HIV, hepatitis C, and Helicobacter
often show a normal platelet count initially but within pylori show thrombocytopenia at some point during
days they will develop petechiae and skin hemorrhages their disease. The precise mechanism, thought to be
with decreasingly low platelet counts. Infants are care- immune derived, is under study.7 Table 16.1 compares
fully observed and treatment is only begun when there is acute and chronic ITP.
a risk of central nervous system hemorrhage.2
Thrombocytopenia Related
to Consumption of Platelets Table 16.1 ¢ Chronic and Acute
Hematological conditions studied under this category Idiopathic Thrombocy-
usually include idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura, topenic Purpura
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, and hemolytic
uremic syndrome. In these conditions, excessive clots Acute Idiopathic Chronic Idiopathic
are formed throughout the body, which consume Thrombocytopenic Thrombocytopenic
platelets. Each of these conditions is serious and can Purpura Purpura
produce significant life-altering complications. Age Young children Adults
Prior History of rubella, No prior history
Idiopathic (Immune) Thrombocytopenic Purpura infection rubeola, or
Patients with idiopathic (immune) thrombocytopenic chickenpox
purpura (ITP) show a decreased platelet count that Platelet ⬍20,000 30,000 to 80,000
is thought to be a result of immune destruction of count
platelets. In 66% of cases, the antibody is an auto- Duration 2 to 6 weeks Months to years
antibody directed against specific sites on glycoprotein Therapy None Steroids, splenectomy
(GP) IIb-IIIa or GP Ib-IX. Additionally, megakaryocytes
Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

This devastating platelet disorder described by
Moschowitz in 1925 is acute and nonpredictable. More
prevalent in women than in men, thrombotic thrombo-
cytopenic purpura (TTP) can occur in women postpar-
tum or near delivery8 in those who have suffered from
other immune disorders like SLE (systemic lupus ery-
thematosus), and in those with previous viral infections
or gastric carcinomas. Platelet counts are less than 20 ⫻
109/L but other coagulation testing such as PT and PTT
are within reference range. Platelet thrombi are dis-
persed throughout the arterioles and capillaries subse-
quent to the accumulation of large von Willebrand
multimers made by the endothelial cells and platelets. Figure 16.1 Schistocyte.
The etiology for this pathological accumulation of mul-
timers and subsequent thrombocytopenia is thought to to 82% presently.11 Few hospital facilities provide
be related to a deficiency of ADAMTS-13, a large metal- plasma exchange capabilities. Specialty teams of med-
loprotease.9,10 This protein is responsible for cleaving ical professionals using equipment designed for plasma-
large von Willebrand factor (vWF) multimers into pheresis are usually called upon. Timing is essential to
smaller proteins. Large vWF multimers have increased the patient’s welfare and long-term recovery. Recovery
binding sites for platelets as compared to smaller vWF for TTP patients has improved in the past decade, with
portions. If large vWF are not cleaved and allowed to more than 80% surviving.11
circulate, then excessive platelet clots may be formed.
Schistocytes are seen in the peripheral smear and are
directly related to shear stress as fragments of red cells Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
are removed once the cells try to sweep past the thrombi. Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) frequently occurs in
Patients experience a severe anemia with a high level children between the ages of 6 months and 4 years. This
of hemolysis, with increased lactate dehydrogenase clinical condition mimics TTP, with the exception that
(LDH). Some of the hemolysis may be intravascular with the renal damage is more severe. The kidney is the pri-
hemoglobinuria. Decreased haptoglobin may be seen. mary site of damage by the toxin Escherichia coli
Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MHA) is the term O157:H7 or the Shigella toxin.11 The endotoxin pro-
used to describe this process of severe anemia combined duced by this particular strain of E. coli inevitably leads
with schistocytes (Fig. 16.1). Oftentimes patients will to cell death, particularly in the renal environment,
present with neurological complications. These compli- where platelet thrombi predominate.12 A child may ini-
cations may include mild presentations of visual impair- tially present with bloody diarrhea and vomiting; how-
ment and intense headache ranging to more severe ever, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and renal
presentations such as coma and paresthesias. Renal failure soon follow. Patients may also experience fever
dysfunction may occur, and patients with renal impair- and abdominal pain, and the hemolytic anemia is
ment experience an increased protein and possibly some microangiopathic with schistocytes present. The illness
blood in the urine. Treatment for TTP patients presents a in children is usually self-limiting once the toxin is elim-
dilemma for most physicians, as they watch their inated from the body; however, there have been reports
patients spiral rapidly downhill. Diagnosis is often diffi- of patients relapsing. Renal dialysis may be needed for
cult and often represents a diagnosis of exclusion. Once those children suffering from acute renal failure. Most
made, the patient’s condition has usually dramatically children make a complete recovery, but some have
worsened. Corticosteroids are often used in conjunction residual kidney problems into adulthood. HUS may
with plasma exchange, a dramatic procedure performed occur in adults, but it is more similar to TTP in course of
over a 3- to 5-day period in which the patient’s plasma is disease (Table 16.2).
removed and replaced by ABO matched fresh frozen Disorders such as heparin-induced thrombocy-
plasma that is cryoprecipitate poor (lacking fibrinogen topenia and disseminated intravascular coagulation
and vWF). The use of plasma exchange has dramatically also lead to thrombocytopenia. These will be covered in
improved the survival rate from a low of 3% before 1960 subsequent chapters.
intrinsic defect of platelets. Many of these disorders

Table 16.2 ¢ Hemolytic Uremic (with the exception of vWD) are rare, and in most cases
Syndrome Versus the bleeding time is prolonged. Often, the qualitative
Thrombotic Thrombocy- defects are separated into disorders of adhesion and
topenic Purpura platelet release or storage pool defects.
Hemolytic Thrombotic
Uremic Thrombocytopenic Disorders of Adhesion
Syndrome Purpura von Willebrand’s Disease
Platelet count ⬍20,000 ⬍20,000 The most important disease of platelet adhesion is von
Organ(s) Kidney Neurological mani- Willebrand disease (vWD). Discovered in 1926 by Dr.
affected festations Eric von Willebrand, vWD is the most prevalent inher-
Kidney ited bleeding disorder worldwide, affecting 1% to 3% of
Age group Children Adults (more females the world population by conservative estimates. In ran-
than males) dom studies of children investigated for epistaxis and
Symptoms Fever, bloody Fever, headaches women investigated for menorrhagia, vWD was the
diarrhea Visual impairment, most frequent cause of bleeding.14,15 von Willebrand
MHA with schis- coma initially described a family of 12 children of which 10
tocytes MHA with schisto- had excessive nosebleeds, gum bleeds, and menorrha-
cytes gia. One of the youngest girls died at age 13 during her
Treatment Renal dialysis, Plasmapheresis fourth menstrual cycle of uncontrollable bleeding. vWD
blood transfu- is an autosomal dominant disorder marked by easy
sions bruising, nosebleeds, heavy menses, and excessive
bleeding after tooth extraction or dental procedures.
MHA, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia.
Type O individuals have a lower plasma concentration
of vWF than other blood types. For many patients, the
variabilities in clinical symptoms and laboratory presen-
Thrombocytosis tations have contributed to the underdiagnosis of this
Thrombocytosis is defined as a platelet count greater disorder. Women may represent a significant yet under-
than 450 ⫻ 109/L. The cause for an increased platelet served subset of individuals affected by vWD, since
count may be primary or secondary. A primary throm- menorrhagia is a frequent presenting feature of this dis-
bocytosis is seen in the myeloproliferative disorders (see ease. According to Luscher, vWD may be the underlying
Chapter 12), in which case platelets are high in number cause in 9% to 11% of cases of menorrhagia,16 yet it is
but have an impaired function. Of all of the myelopro- often not considered as a possible diagnosis by obstetri-
liferative disorders, essential thrombocythemia has the cians and gynecologists.
highest platelet value, at times exceeding 1 million As a disease entity, vWD is fairly complex with few
platelets. Secondary causes of thrombocytosis include clear-cut and consistent diagnostic clues. The basic
acute and chronic blood loss, chronic inflammatory dis- pathophysiology in vWD is a qualitative or quantitative
eases, postsplenectomy, and iron deficiency anemia. In defect in vWF. vWF is a large multimeric glycoprotein
these cases, the platelet function is normal, although the derived from two sources: endothelial cells and
increase in platelet numbers may last days to weeks. In megakaryocytes (Table 16.3). This protein is coded for by
severe iron deficiency anemia, the platelet count may chromosome 12 and is carried into plasma circulation
increase to 2 million, as a result of marrow stimula- by factor 8, one of the clotting factors. vWF serves as an
tion.13 Once iron therapy is initiated, the platelet count intermediary for platelet adhesion, providing a receptor
usually returns to normal. molecule for GP Ib of the platelets and the subendothe-
lium. With this platform in place, platelets, once acti-
vated by injury, adhere to the subendothelium forming a
INHERITED QUALITATIVE platelet plug, recruiting more platelets to the site of
DISORDERS OF PLATELETS injury and eventually leading to platelet aggregation and
Inherited qualitative platelet disorders are those in the formation of an insoluble fibrin clot. Without a fully
which platelet function is impaired usually due to an functioning vWF, platelet adhesion is impaired. Addi-
tionally, vWF binds GP IIb/IIIa. There are three primary

levels of vWD: type 1, type 2, and type 3. Seventy per- Table 16.4 ¢ Primary von Willebrand’s
cent of all individuals with vWD have the type 1 disor- Disease Derivatives*
ders characterized by an abnormal bleeding time and an
increased PTT in most patients. Type 2 vWD is the result Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
of a qualitative defect of wVF, and type 3, the rarest type,
is characterized by a total absence of vWF multimers Frequency 70% to 80% 15% to 20% Rare
and is autosomal recessive in its presentation. Type 2 Genetics Autosomal Autosomal Autosomal
vWD has many subtypes: type 2A, type 2B, type 2M, dominant dominant recessive
and type 2N. See Table 16-4 for a description of vWD Bleeding time ↑ or N ↑ ↑
and its variants. The vWF protein can be measured by PTT ↑ or N ↑ or N ↑
several methods; those that assess its role in adhesion, RIPA ↑ or N ↑ ↑
its secondary role in aggregation, and its role in clotting vWF agn. ↓ ↓ Absent
factor activity. Ristocetin co-factor activity is the single
best predictive assay17 and relies on the use of reagent *Secondary vWD variants include types 2A, 2B, 2M, and 2N: these
platelets rather than patient’s platelets during ristocetin- are not discussed.
induced aggregation studies. Table 16.3 gives a descrip-
tion of a typical testing profile for vWD.
in Chapter 15, platelet glycoproteins play a significant
Treatment is usually tailored to the particular type
role in hemostasis. The receptor for vWf is GP Ib-IX.
or subtype of vWD. Some of the products that may be
This complex, Ib-IX, serves as a site for thrombin bind-
considered are desmopressin acetate (DDAVP), which
ing as well as regulating platelet shape and reactivity.18
causes the release of endothelial vWF. DDAVP may be
GP IIb and IIIa are receptors for fibronectin (an adhe-
given as an injectable agent or as a nasal spray, which
sive protein for platelets), vWF, fibrinogen, and factors
makes it portable and convenient. For patients who
V and VIII. BSS is inherited as an autosomal recessive
are nonresponsive, vWF can be raised by giving high
disorder, with near normal amounts of GPIb in het-
purity factor 8 products that contain a sufficient amount
erozygotes. If the disorder is inherited homozygously,
of vWF.
however, moderate or severe bleeding may occur. Epi-
staxis, gingival bleeding, menorrhagia, and purpura are
Bernard Soulier Syndrome the usual bleeding manifestation. Additionally, there is a
Bernard Soulier syndrome (BSS) is a rare adhesion thrombocytopenia with giant platelets observed on the
defect of platelets that involves the GP Ib/IX complex. peripheral smear. Ristocetin-induced platelet aggrega-
Once an injury has occurred, vWF acts as a medium tion is absent in BSS patients since there are no recep-
through which the platelet membrane GP Ib has a tors to bind to vWF, a key ingredient in ristocetin
receptor that allows its binding to collagen. As indicated induced platelet aggregation. Platelet aggregation
with other agents such as epinephrine, thrombin, and
collagen appears normal. The bleeding time test is
prolonged.
Platelet transfusions are the treatment of choice for
Table 16.3 ¢ Basic Test Profile
active bleeding but they should be used prudently to
for vWD prevent the stimulation of platelet antibodies. To date,
• Platelet count—measured by automated methods
over 30 mutations of the glycoproteins involved in the
• PTT—measures anticoagulant portion of the factor GP Ib-IX complex have been described.19
VIII molecule
• Bleeding time—measures adhesion of platelets to site Glanzmann’s Thrombasthenia
of injury Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia (GT) is an autosomal
• vWF activity—measured by ristocetin-induced
recessive disorder, first described in 1918, most often
platelet aggregation (RIPA)
associated with consanguinity. Homozygous individu-
• vWF antigen—measured by immunoassay als may experience variable bleeding patterns. When
bleeding does occur, it is usually from birth as umbilical
Most patients will have variable test results. It is recommended
that this test profile be performed multiple times within a time cord or circumcisional bleeding and may proceed to gin-
period to aid in diagnosis. gival bleeding, purpura, or prolonged bleeding from
minor cuts or childhood events. The defect in GT is a have no radial bones and other skeletal and car-
deficiency or abnormality of GP IIb and IIIa. These gly- diac abnormalities. Thrombocytopenia is seen
coproteins serve as the intermediary for fibrinogen bind- in most patients.
ing to platelets, a necessary step in platelet aggregation. Gray platelet syndrome: Platelets show a lack of
Aggregation cannot occur if GP IIb/IIIa is absent or if alpha granules and are noted in the peripheral
there is an absence of fibrinogen or calcium.20 Patients smear as appearing larger, having a gray or blue-
with GT will have a prolonged bleeding time, normal gray color. Patients may show thrombocytope-
platelet count and morphology, and abnormal aggrega- nia, bleeding tendencies, and bruisability.
tion with all aggregating agents except ristocetin.
Ristocetin-induced aggregation depends upon the inter-
action of vWF and platelet GP Ib. The GP IIb/IIIa com- ACQUIRED DEFECTS
plex does not play a role in this type of aggregation. OF PLATELET FUNCTION
Treatment in GT depends upon the severity of the bleed- Included in this category of platelet defects are those fac-
ing episode. Platelet transfusions may be considered but tors that are external to the platelet and that are nonim-
HLA-matched or ABO-matched transfusion may reduce mune, such as drug-related platelet abnormalities,
the possibilities of platelet alloimmunization. Oral con- extrinsic platelet abnormalities, or as a sequel to an
traceptives may be used to control menorrhagia, and underlying disorder. Of all the drugs that affect platelet
agents such as ethyleneaminocaproic acid (EACA) are function, aspirin is the most popular. Ingestion of
effective topical thrombin-inducing agents for proce- aspirin irreversibly inhibits cyclooxygenase (COX-1
dures such as tooth extractions.21 inhibitors) by inhibiting the formation of prostaglandin
synthesis. Both of these chemicals are necessary for the
Platelet Release Defects production of thromboxane A2, a potent platelet aggre-
gator. Without the production of proper amount of
Once platelets adhere to an injured surface, the con- thromboxane A2, platelet aggregation is impaired. This
tents of the platelets are released. Platelets contain alpha effect lasts for the entire life span of the platelet, 7 to 10
and dense granules, which are highly metabolic sub- days, and patients on aspirin will show a prolonged
stances containing procoagulant materials, vasocon- bleeding time. Patients should be queried about their
strictors ATP and ADP. The disorders that are described aspirin use or use of aspirin-containing products prior to
are inherited, usually have abnormal secondary phases any surgical event, elective or nonelective, to avoid any
of platelet aggregation, and show postoperative bleed- unexpected bleeding complications. The effect of
ing combined with menorrhagia and easy bruisability. aspirin on platelets is fairly rapid, occurring 45 minutes
In most of these disorders, the bleeding time is abnor- after ingestion.22 Additionally, aspirin as an antiplatelet
mal, but the platelet count may be normal. agent is used as a preventive for patients susceptible to
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome: An autosomal reces- strokes, heart attacks, or other cardiovascular events.
sive disorder characterized by a severe defi- Other drugs such as NSAIDs and the class of COX-2
ciency of dense granules. Patients show inhibitors such as naproxen and ibuprofen may affect
albinism and may have hemorrhagic events. platelet function. Certain antiplatelet agents such as
Chediak-Higashi syndrome: An autosomal recessive ticlopidine and clopidogrel inhibit fibrinogen binding to
disorder, in which patients show albinism and GP IIb and IIIa. The plasma expander dextran also alters
giant lysosomal granules in neutrophils. Not platelet function. The coating of platelets with dextran
only are the white cells in these patients qualita- gives an antiplatelet effect by inhibiting the action of the
tively flawed, but platelet release is impaired. platelet membrane and its surface receptors.
Patients show frequent infections because of Platelet function may also be impaired by plasma
impaired phagocytic ability and death usually conditions that are less than favorable to the platelet. In
occurs in childhood. Patients manifest throm- most cases, disorders in platelets are secondary to the
bocytopenia and increased liver and spleen. main disorder but may not be present in the initial pres-
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome: This is an X-linked entation. Conditions that may lead to disturbed platelet
recessive disorder in which patients show severe function include uremia due to renal disease and the
eczema, recurrent infections, immune defects, paraproteinemias such as multiple myeloma and
..
and thrombocytopenia. Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia. The pathophysiol-
Thrombocytopenia with absent radii (TAR): A rare ogy involved in the platelet defect in these acquired dis-
disorder of the skeletal system in which patients orders is not clear-cut. Patients with renal disease are
VASCULAR DISORDERS LEADING

TO PLATELET DYSFUNCTION
Skin, collagen, and blood vessels are essential elements
in the hemostatic system. Any abnormality, inherited or
acquired, in any one of these components of the vascu-
lar system will lead to mucosal bleeding such as: pur-
pura, petechia, ecchymoses, or telangiectasia (Fig.
16.3). Tests of platelet function and numbers in these
individuals will be normal. Senile purpura is a condi-
tion of aging in which skin loses its elasticity. Often-
times, older individuals will bruise more easily and
more prominently. Allergic purpura is seen in rare
..
childhood disorders such as Henoch-Schonlein pur-
pura, an immune complex disease that involves the
Figure 16.2 Purpura. skin, gastrointestinal tract, heart, and central nervous
system. The purpura is often seen in the lower extremi-
ties. Purpura may occur due to infectious agents such as
meningococcemia, Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
known to exhibit purpura (Fig. 16.2), epistaxis, and
staphylococci, or streptococcal infections.23 Conditions
hemorrhage at times. A few of the factors involved in
such as amyloidosis, vitamin C deficiency (scurvy), or
platelet dysfunction in uremia include decreased
Cushing syndrome may result in purpura.
thromboxane synthesis, decreased adhesion, decreased
Inherited collagen disorders provoking the forma-
platelet release, and decreased aggregation. Most of
tion of purpuric lesions or telangiectasia are hereditary
these patients will undergo peritoneal or hemodialysis,
hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu dis-
which usually improves platelet function.
.. ease), an autosomal dominant disorder of the blood ves-
Multiple myeloma and Waldenstrom’s macroglob-
sels. In this condition, small pinpoint hemorrhagic
ulinemia represent a group of plasma cell disorders in
lesions are seen on the tongue, roof of the mouth,
which a normal immunoglobulin is produced in excess
palate, face, and hands.23 In addition to these lesions,
leading to hyperviscosity syndrome and a parapro-
nosebleeds are prominent and the lesions in general
teinemia. Platelets circulating in abnormal amounts of
become more fragile with age. Kasabach-Merritt syn-
protein are unable to fully participate in the activation
drome is a rare congenital disorder featuring giant
of coagulation factors and in the fibrin formation.
hemangiomas,23 bleeding, and thrombocytopenia.
Patients will show a prolonged bleeding time and may
Hemangiomas may be found on the liver, skin, or
show postoperative bleeding and ecchymoses. Table
spleen, and they are deep and bleed easily and pro-
16.5 displays a list of drugs that affect platelet function.
fusely. DIC may develop if thromboplastic substances
are released when the blood vessels burst.
Table 16.5 ¢ Modified List of

Drugs that Affect
Platelet Function
• Penicillin
• Ampicillin
• Carbenicillin
• Cephalosporin
• Ticlopidine
• Clopidogrel
• Ibuprofen
• Aspirin
• Nitroglycerin
• Propranolol
• Nitroprusside
Figure 16.3 Telangiectasia.
CONDENSED CASE
A 14-year-old girl had a tooth extracted and was noted to have unexpected bleeding following extraction. She bled for
24 hours before the bleeding could be stopped. The dentist recommended that she have a hematology evaluation for
the unexpected bleeding. What questions concerning family history should be asked, and what baseline coagulation
tests should be considered?
Answer
This patient is exhibiting signs of mucosal bleeding, the type of bleeding seen in platelet adhesion defects such as vWD
and BSS. The family of the patient should be asked about the bleeding history of family members, such as umbilical
cord bleeding, circumcision bleeding, bleeding from minor cuts and abrasions, or gum or nose bleeding. The patient’s
mother revealed that her sibling had serious bleeding after a tonsillectomy procedure. This fact points to an autosomal
defect. Routine studies that should be ordered are bleeding time (platelet function assay), PT, and aPTT. Factor assay
should be considered if the PT or PTT are prolonged.
Summary Points • vWD is the most common inherited qualitative

platelet disorder, affecting 1% to 3% of the world’s
• A normal platelet count is 150 to 450 ⫻109/L.
population.
• Decreased platelet counts will lead to mucosal mem- • There are three primary types of vWD: type 1, type
brane bleeding such as gingival bleeding, epistaxis, 2A, and type 3.
purpura, and petechiae.
• Bernard Soulier syndrome is a platelet adhesion
• Preanalytic variables that may lead to thrombocy- defect in which glycoprotein Ib is decreased or
topenia include improper mixing of tubes, improper absent.
anticoagulant used, and improper amount of sample
• Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia is a defect of platelet
collected.
aggregation that shows an absence of glycoprotein
• Acute idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura is IIb/IIIa.
often a condition of children recovering from • Platelets from patients with vWD disease and
viral illness who show a dramatic drop in platelet Bernard Soulier syndrome will NOT aggregate with
count. ristocetin.
• Chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura • Aspirin impairs platelet function by interfering with
occurs in adults as a result of an IgG antibody pro- the synthesis of thromboxane A2, a potent platelet-
duced against platelets. aggregating agent.
• Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) and • The platelet release function is impaired in the
hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) are consumptive inherited disorders: Chediak-Higashi, Hermansky-
disorders of platelets. Pudlak, Wiskott-Aldrich, gray platelet syndrome,
• Individuals with TTP present with fever, a microan- and thrombocytopenia with absent radii syndrome.
giopathic hemolytic anemia, neurological complica- • External conditions that alter platelet function
tions, thrombocytopenia, and renal failure. include drugs, paraproteinemias, uremia, and the
• Individuals with HUS are predominantly children, use of plasma expanders, like dextran.
with fever, bloody diarrhea, microangiopathic • Skin, collagen, and blood vessels are essential ele-
hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and renal ments in the hemostatic system.
failure. • Any abnormality, inherited or acquired, in any one
• von Willebrand’s disease (vWD) is a disorder of of these components of the vascular system will lead
platelet adhesion in which von Willebrand factor is to mucosal bleeding such as purpura, petechiae,
decreased or absent. ecchymosis, or telangiectasia.
CASE STUDY
A 24-year-old woman was being evaluated by her gynecol- received a diagnosis of a bleeding disorder, it seems likely
ogist for menorrhagia. She gave a history of excessive that she and some of them may have von Willebrand’s
menses since the age of 12. A CBC revealed a microcytic disease, an autosomal dominant disorder. The patient’s
anemia and she began a course of ferrous sulfate therapy. CBC and platelet count is normal; however, the PTT is
Three months later, she had a follow-up visit with her slightly prolonged at 42 seconds. Factor assays for
gynecologist, and although her anemia was being cor- factor VIII and factor IX should be considered. Aggrega-
rected, she still complained of excessive menses. Her tion studies with collagen, ADP, and epinephrine were
physician recommended her for a hematology consult. normal. Ristocetin aggregation was absent and the
When asked about her family history, she revealed that her bleeding time test was abnormal with a result of
brother and mother had recurrent epistaxis and that her 12 minutes (reference range, 3 to 9 minutes). A
first cousin had a postpartum hemorrhage. The consulting preliminary diagnosis of type 1 von Willebrand’s
physician ordered a CBC, PT, PTT, platelet aggregation disease was made pending the result of the vWF:
studies, and bleeding time. Based upon this patient’s his- AG by immunoassay. The hematologist recommended
tory, what is the most likely outcome of this testing and contraceptives as a way to control the patient’s menstrual
what additional tests are to be considered? bleeding, and the patient was counseled on therapy alter-
natives such as DDAVP should she need dental extrac-
tions or minor surgery.
This patient gives a strong family history of mucosal
bleeding. Although no member of her family has
Review Questions
1. Which of the following are defects of platelet a. Clotting factor disorder
adhesion? b. Platelet defect
a. Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome c. Thrombosis
b. Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia d. Vascular disorder
c. Bernard Soulier syndrome
5. The presence of thrombocytopenia and giant
d. Wiskott-Aldrich
platelets best describes:
2. Which one of the conditions will produce a a. classic von Willebrand’s disease.
thrombocytopenia due to an altered distribution b. Wiskott-Aldrich
of platelets? c. Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia.
a. Platelet satellitism d. Bernard Soulier syndrome.
b. Iron deficiency anemia 6. Chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura
c. Splenomegaly (ITP):
d. Chemotherapy a. is found in children.
b. usually spontaneously remits within several
3. One of the main differences between TTP and weeks.
HUS is: c. affects males more commonly than females.
a. neurological involvement. d. involves the immune destruction of platelets.
b. kidney failure.
c. thrombocytopenia. 7. Aspirin prevents platelet aggregation by inhibiting
d. microangiopathic hemolytic anemia. the action of:
a. PF 3.
4. Nose bleeding, deep bruising, and gum bleeding b. GP II.
are usually manifestations of which type of c. TXA2.
coagulation disorder? d. GP Ib.
Consanguinity • Relationships among close blood

relatives
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING Cryoprecipitate • Product derived from fresh frozen
What Do I Do When Preoperative Coagulation plasma that is rich in factor VIII, von Willebrand factor, and
Studies Are Abnormal? fibrinogen
Preoperative testing was ordered on a 43-year-old Cytotoxic • Antibody or toxin that attacks the cells of
woman scheduled for an elective hysterectomy. She has particular organs
suffered with dysfunctional uterine bleeding for 6 Hemangiomas • Benign tumor of dilated blood vessels
months. Rather than go to the hospital setting, she
went to a physician office laboratory that accepted her HLA • Human leukocyte antigens, which are found in
insurance. Her surgeon ordered a CBC with platelet white blood cells and are part of the major histocompatibil-
count and a PT and PTT. Her CBC was within reference ity complex
range but the results of her PT and aPTT were: Hyperviscosity• Excessive resistance to the flow of liquids
PT 10.6 seconds (Reference range, 10 to 14) Menorrhagia • Excessive menstrual bleeding
aPTT 53 seconds (Reference range, 28 to 38) Microangiopathic • Related to pathology of small blood
The elevated PTT was an unexpected result. Possi- vessels
bilities for an elevated PTT include a factor deficiency, Paresthesias • Abnormal sensation that results from an
the presence of a circulating anticoagulant, or a patient injury to one or more nerves, described as numbness or
on heparin. Heparin was eliminated as a possible con- prickly or tingling feeling
tributor to the prolonged PTT since there was no
Telangiectasia • Vascular lesion formed by dilation of a
patient history of anticoagulation therapy. Mixing stud-
group of small blood vessels, most frequently seen on face
ies are familiar screening tests in the clinical laboratory
and thighs
to determine whether there is a factor deficiency or a
circulating anticoagulant. The technologist decided to
perform mixing studies on this patient and proceeded References
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12. Bell A. Extracorpuscular defects leading to increased 18. Liles DK, Knupp CL. Quantitative and qualitative
erythrocyte destruction: Nonimmune causes. In: platelet disorders and vascular disorders. In: Harmening
Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of
Applications, 2nd ed Philadelphia: WB Saunders, Hemostasis. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002: 481.
2002: 67. 19. Kunishima S, Kamiya T, Saito H. Genetic abnormalities
13. Bruce L. Quantitative disorders of platelets. In Rodak B, of Bernard-Soulier syndrome. Int J Hematol 76:
ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and Applications, 319–327, 2002.
2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002: 697. 20. Rogers RL, Lazarchick J. Identifying Glanzmann’s
14. Sondoval C, Dong S, Visintainer P. Clinical and labora- thrombasthenia. Lab Med 27:579–581, 1996.
tory features of 178 children with recurrent epistaxis. J 21. Paper R, Kelley LA. A Guide to Living With von Wille-
Pediatr Hematol 24:47–49, 2002. brand Disease. Pennsylvania: Aventis Bering, 2002: 53.
15. Saxena R, Gupta M, Gupta PC. Inherited bleeding disor- 22. Castellone D. Down and Dirty Coagulation: Practical
ders in Indian women with menorrhagia. Hemophilia Solutions and Answers. ASCP Workshop, May 7, 2004,
9:193–196, 2003. Abstract 5799, Baltimore, MD.
16. Lusher J. An underlying cause of menorrhagia. Mod 23. Bick RL, Scates SM. Qualitative platelet defects. Lab
Med 63:30–31, 1995. Med 23:95–103, 1992.
17 Defects of Plasma
Clotting Factors
Betty Ciesla
Evaluation of a Bleeding Disorder Objectives

and Types of Bleeding
The Classic Hemophilias 1. Describe the variable types of bleeding found in
The Factor VIII Molecule patients with clotting factor deficiencies versus
Symptoms in the Hemophilia A patient platelet disorders.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Hemophilia Patients 2. Define the factor VIII molecule.
Treatment for Hemophilia A Patients 3. Outline the genetics of the hemophilia disorders.
Quality of Life Issues for Hemophilia A Patients
4. Describe the symptoms of an individual with
Hemophilia B or Christmas Disease hemophilia A and B.
Congenital Factor Deficiencies With Bleeding
Manifestations 5. Define the laboratory results in an individual
with hemophilia A and B.
Congenital Factor Deficiencies Where Bleeding
Is Mild or Absent 6. Describe the management and treatment of an
Factor XIII Deficiency individual with hemophilia A and B.
Bleeding Secondary to a Chronic Disease Process 7. Distinguish the clotting factor disorders with
The Role of Vitamin K in Hemostasis little or no bleeding.
Vitamin K Deficiency and Subsequent Treatment 8. Distinguish the acquired factor disorders with
regard to symptomatology and treatment.
257
EVALUATION OF A BLEEDING mal gene and passes the gene to her sons. Not every
DISORDER AND TYPES OF BLEEDING male child will be affected, only those who inherit the
Patients who experience recurrent bleeding episodes abnormal gene. Likewise, if daughters inherit the
are a select group of individuals that need to be evalu- abnormal gene, they are obligatory carriers. History is
ated for the source of their bleeding disorder. Bleeding rich with accounts of hemophilia from the Talmud to
may occur due to an inherited clotting factor defect or British monarchy. Queen Victoria carried the abnormal
an acquired deficiency secondary to some other cause. gene and passed it through her offspring (nine births,
Factors that should be considered in evaluating a bleed- five living children) into the Russian royal family, the
ing disorder are the patient history, physical examina- Spanish dynasty, and the German royal family (Fig.
17.1). Victoria herself had no family history of hemo-
tion, laboratory testing, and family bleeding history.
Often, the abnormal bleeding that they experience is philia so her abnormal gene was acquired as a result of
not perceived as abnormal because that is all that they spontaneous mutation, which occurs in 30% of cases.
have ever known. Therefore, the questions that are
asked relative to the types of and frequency of their The Factor VIII Molecule
bleeding need to be extremely specific and nonthreat- Factor VIII is the only one of the clotting factors that is
ening. Bleeding comes under two main categories: open not synthesized exclusively by the liver. It is unique
bleeds and closed bleeds. among clotting factors for two reasons. Factor VIII is
Open bleeds are those types of bleeding such as genetically controlled by the X chromosome (it is sex-
tongue bleeding, tonsil bleeding, gum bleeding, epi- linked), and it forms a complex with von Willebrand
staxis, menorrhagia, umbilical cord bleeding, and cir- factor (vWF), which transports the factor into the circu-
cumcisional bleeding. Closed bleeds are soft tissue lation and is synthesized by an autosomal chromosome
bleeds, genitourinary bleeding, gastrointestinal bleed- (Fig. 17.2). This clotting factor is also labile and unstable
ing, and bleeding into the muscle, joints, skin, bone, or in stored plasma. In individuals with hemophilia A, the
skull. Not every patient experiences all types of bleed- vWF level will be normal so that bleeding time will be
ing; some patients with clotting factor deficiencies normal; however, the aPTT will be abnormal because of
never experience a bleeding episode. Yet, it is prudent the reduced level of factor VIII.
to gather as much information as can be obtained to
assess an individual with a history of bleeding.
Symptoms in the Hemophilia A Patient
Plasma clotting factors are inactive enzymes that
circulate in plasma awaiting activation when injury Clotting factors are measured in terms of their percent
occurs. They represent a significant ingredient to the activity as well as their function in coagulation tests.
proper clotting mechanism. Clotting factors that are Most clotting factors need to be available in the body at
poorly synthesized, inactivated by inhibitors, con- a minimum of 30% to achieve hemostasis. Bleeding
sumed by a rogue clotting process or functionally manifestation in hemophilia A individuals are related to
impaired will lead to faulty hemostasis. the level of factor VIII. There are three levels of clotting
factor activity in hemophilia:
• Severe, ⬍1%
THE CLASSIC HEMOPHILIAS • Moderate, 1% to 5%
For most individuals the word hemophilia is at least a • Mild, 6% to 24%
recognizable term. Many negative perceptions arise Patients with severe hemophilia A will manifest
with this bleeding disorder including deep dark family early bleeding manifestations such as circumcisional
secrets, profuse bleeding from small wounds, excruciat- bleeds or umbilical cord bleeding. As they become more
ing pain, and early death. By definition, hemophilias rep- mobile, ordinary activities such as crawling, walking, or
resent any of a group of disorders in which a particular running may present challenges. It is not uncommon to
clotting factor is decreased. With 13 clotting factors nec- see the severe hemophiliac child in protective gear
essary for clot formation, there should be a wide range (knee pads, ankle pads, helmet) for outside play. Bleed-
of hemophilias. Classically, however, only two disorders ing may occur in other areas such as the gastrointestinal
are referred to by the name hemophilias: hemophilia A, tract, the kidneys (hematuria), or gums or in
factor VIII deficiency and hemophilia B, factor IX defi- hematomas. It is not accurate to say that individuals
ciency. Both of these disorders are sex-linked recessive with hemophilia bleed more profusely. Rather, bleeding
disorders, meaning that the mother carries the abnor- continues for a longer period of time due to the
yright © 2007 by F. A. Davis.
17(F) Ciesla-Ch 17
12/21/06
Edward Victoria
Duke of Kent Princess of Saxe-Coburg
Victoria
Albert Queen of England
7:39 PM
Victoria Fredrick Ed VII Alexandra Alice Louis of Hesse Alfred Helena Louise Arthur Leopold Helen Beatrice Henry
of England
Page 259
Wilhelm II Sophie George V Irene Henry Fred Alix Nicholas II Alice of Alfonso XIII Eugenie Leopold Maurice
of Greece of Russia Athlone of Spain
George VI Waldemar Prince Henry Olga Tatiana Marie Anastasia Alexis Lady Rupert Alfonso Gonzalo
Sigmund May Abel
of Russia Smith
Princess Queen Prince Juan Carlos

Margaret Elizabeth Phillip of Spain
Normal male
Princess Prince Prince Prince Normal female

Anne Charles Andrew Edward
Hemophilic male
Carrier female
Male died in infancy.

probably hemophilc
Figure 17.1 Queen Victoria carried the abnormal gene for thalassemia and passed it through her offspring into the Russian royal family,
the Spanish dynasty, and the German royal family.
259
X-Chromosome AHF
AHF
Factor VIII Figure 17.2 Factor VIII com-

Complex plex is controlled by the X
Autosome #5 chromosome and an autosomal
chromosome. This complex
transports factor VIII into the cir-
culation. vWF, von Willebrand
vWF monomers vWF polymer factor; AHF, antihemophilic factor.
decreased level of clotting factor. Platelet counts are abnormal when mixed with a specific factor-deficient
normal and blood vessel function is adequate. Perhaps plasma suggests that the patient is missing the same
the most debilitating bleeds are muscle bleeds or joint clotting factor as that specific factor-deficient plasma. If
bleeds, which have the potential for causing long-term the patient and deficient plasma give a normal result,
disability, reduced range of motion, and intense pain. then obviously the patient supplied the factor missing
Joints become painful, swollen, and engorged with in the factor-deficient plasma. The aPTT result is plotted
blood. Hemarthrosis occurs in the joints as pooled on the factor-activity curve, and the level of factor activ-
blood damages the surrounding tissue while a clot ity is derived from the standard curve.
eventually forms. The joint become less and less
mobile, limiting physical activity (Fig. 17.3). Internal
hemorrhages into the muscles and deep soft tissues may
compress and damage nerves. Intracranial bleeding is a
leading cause of death in hemophilia A individuals, and
other complications like paralysis, coma, memory loss,
or stroke may precede an eventual fatality. Female carri-
ers for the hemophilia gene rarely have symptoms, yet
there are occasions when carrier females may become
symptomatic. The union of a hemophilia patient and a
female carrier would likely produce a symptomatic
female.
Laboratory Diagnosis
of Hemophilia Patients
Laboratory diagnosis of hemophilia patients is fairly
uncomplicated. Laboratory tests which are ordered
include bleeding time, PT, aPTT, and factor assays. In
hemophilia, the bleeding time test is normal, the PT is
normal, and aPTT is elevated, due to the reduced factor
VIII. Single factor assays provide a means of assessing
the percent activity of a clotting factor. These assays are
performed using the aPTT test. A standard curve is cre-
ated using serial dilutions of normal plasma of known
factor levels and assigning a 1:10 dilution of normal
plasma as 100% activity. Commercially prepared factor
deficient plasma is then mixed with a 1:10 dilution of Figure 17.3 Hemarthrosis occurs in the joints as pooled
patient plasma and aPTT is performed. An aPTT that is blood damages the surrounding tissues.
CHAPTER 17 • Defects of Plasma Clotting Factors 261
Treatment for Hemophilia A Patients expenses for this product are unfortunately the most
costly, and these costs are passed on to potential users.
Treatment options for hemophilia patients span decades
and present one of the saddest treatment histories of any
patient group with an inherited disorder. Factor Quality of Life Issues for
Hemophilia A Patients
VIII was discovered in 1937 and was termed anti-
hemophilic globulin.1 In the early days, treatment of Having a child with severe hemophilia A or B presents
hemophilia A patients consisted of giving whole blood special challenges to the parents and the family unit.
units to relieve symptoms. Not until 1957 was it real- The threat of hospitalizations, limited mobility, main-
ized that the deficient coagulation protein was a compo- streaming in schools, and the child’s drive for independ-
nent of the plasma portion of blood. Cryoprecipitate, a ence present potentially stressful environments. Added
plasma derivative, was discovered in 1964. This prod- to this is the cost of infusible factor, either recombinant
uct is produced as an insoluble precipitate that results or high purity products that could go as high as
when a unit of fresh frozen plasma is thawed in a stan- $50,000 if a patient has several bleeding episodes for
dard blood bank refrigerator. Cryoprecipitate contains which he needs to be hospitalized. Individuals with a
fibrinogen, factor VIII, and vWF. This product is chronic condition face many anxieties and may struggle
extracted from plasma and usually pooled before it is with feelings of isolation, anger, and disappointment
given to the patient according to weight and level of fac- (Table 17.1). Fortunately, in the United States, there are
tor VIII. This product presented a major breakthrough hemophilia treatment centers that offer a network of
for the hemophilia population because it was an easily needed services, and many states have local chapters of
transfusable product affording the maximum level of the National Hemophilia Foundation.2 Prophylaxis
factor to the individual. Next in the chronology of treat- with factor concentrates limits bleeding episodes, and
ment products for hemophilia was clotting factor prod- the use of magnetic resonance imaging offers the physi-
ucts. These freeze-dried products were developed in the cian a more effective means of evaluating joint damage.3
early 1970s. The products were lyophilized and freeze Issues concerning medical insurance coverage continue
dried and could be reconstituted and infused at home. to plague the hemophilia community.
This treatment offered the hemophilia population an The development of factor VIII inhibitors occurs
independence that they had never previously experi- in 15% to 20% of all hemophilia A individuals.4 These
enced. Finally they were in control because they could inhibitors are autoantibodies against factor VIII that are
self-infuse when necessary and provide themselves with time and temperature dependent and capable of neu-
prompt care when a bleeding episode developed. But a tralizing the coagulant portion of factor VIII. Treatment
dark cloud loomed over the bleeding community. for patients who develop inhibitors is difficult and treat-
Approximately 80% to 90% of hemophilia A patients ment protocols follow various paths. When the
treated with factor concentrates became infected with inhibitor is low titer or the individual is a low respon-
the HIV virus. Factor concentrates were made from der, physicians may infuse an appropriate level of factor
pooled plasma from a donor pool that was less than ade- VIII in an attempt to neutralize the inhibitor.4 If this is
quately screened. Additionally, manufacturing compa- not effective, patients must be treated with a factor sub-
nies were less than stringent with sterilization methods
and screening for HIV virus did not occur in blood
banks until 1985. When each of these factors is brought
to bear, the tragedy to the bleeding community is easily Table 17.1 ¢ Quality of Life Issues
understood. According to the National Hemophilia for Hemophilia A and
Foundation,2 there are 17,000 to 18,000 hemophilia B Patients
patients (hemophilia A and B) in the United States. Of
• Joint damage
those, 4200 are infected with HIV/AIDS. There are no
• Reduced mobility
numbers available for wives or children who could have
• Hemorrhage
been secondarily infected. Recombinant products • Fear
became available in 1989 and represent the highest • Physical restrictions
purity product because they are not human derived. • HIV/AIDS
Recombinant technology uses genetic engineering to • Hepatitis C
insert a clone of the factor VIII gene into mammalian • Future insurability
cells, which express the gene characteristic. Production
stitute, usually porcine factor VIII or alternative thera- A prothrombin, factor II deficiency may occur as a
pies such as anti-inhibitor coagulant complex.5 Gene result of a dysfunctional protein or as a result of dimin-
therapy, as a treatment alternative, continues to provide ished production of factor II. A structural defect in the
hope for those suffering from hemophilia. The idea here protein is termed dysproteinemia and individuals with
is to insert a copy of the factor VIII or factor IX gene into this particular deficiency may bleed. Additionally, a spe-
a virus vector that will then lodge in the body and start cific mutation in the prothrombin gene has been recog-
producing normal amounts of circulating factor. Com- nized since 1996. Located on chromosome 11, a single
plications from rejection of the virus vector in humans substitution of guanine to adenine at position 20210
have proved to be a delicate issue, yet there is optimism of the prothrombin gene produces prothrombin
that gene therapy for hemophilia patients could eventu- G20210A. This mutation increases the prothrombin
ally succeed. level and predisposes an individual to venous thrombo-
sis.7 Individuals should be screened for this mutation if
Hemophilia B or Christmas Disease any of the following are part of their patient history: a
history of venous thrombosis at any age, venous throm-
Individuals with hemophilia B lack factor IX clotting bosis in unusual sites, a history of venous thrombosis
factor. All of the conditions concerning inheritance, during pregnancy, and a first episode of thrombosis
clinical symptoms, laboratory diagnosis, and complica- before age 50.8
tions are the same for severe hemophilia B individuals Another mutation recently discovered (1993) is
as for severe hemophilia A individuals. Hemophilia B factor V Leiden. This mutation is produced by substi-
accounts for only 10% of those with hemophilia. tuting arginine with glutamine at position 506 of the
Patients with hemophilia B will have a prolonged aPTT factor V gene. The new gene product is factor V Leiden.
and will have decreased factor assay activity. Treatment In the normal coagulation scheme, once protein C is
of hemophilia B consists of factor IX concentrates or activated, it works to inactivate factors V and VIII, to
prothrombin complex that is a mixture of factors II, VII, inhibit the clotting mechanism. The mutated gene,
IX, and X. factor V Leiden, impedes the degradation of factor V
by protein C, causing activated protein C resistance.
Congenital Factor Deficiencies This condition accounts for increased clot forma-
With Bleeding Manifestations tion with the subsequent development of deep vein
Patients having deficiencies of factors II, V, VII, and X thrombosis or other hypercoagulability conditions
are rare and are usually the result of consanguinity. Most (see Chapter 19).
of these disorders are autosomal recessive, affecting
both males and females. Types of bleeding that may be Congenital Factor Deficiencies
observed are skin and mucous membrane bleeding. Where Bleeding Is Mild or Absent
Joint and knee bleeding is unusual except for factor VII In this group of factor deficiencies are those concerned
deficient patients. These patients may show joint hem- with contact activation and clot stabilization. Factors
orrhages and epistaxis. In a recent survey of the 225 XI, XII, Fletcher, and Fitzgerald are each synthesized by
hemophilia treatment centers in the United States, 7% the liver and are involved early in the coagulation cas-
of patients were identified with having a rare bleeding cade, in vitro. They become responsive when they con-
disorder.6 Of these, factor VII was the most common. tact surfaces such as glass in test tubes or ellagic acid in
Abnormal preoperative screenings led to the diagnosis testing reagents. Factor XII deficiency is an autosomal
of most of these patients. When bleeding occurred in recessive trait where there is a prolonged PTT in labora-
one half of these patients, no therapy was necessary.6 tory testing. Individuals with this deficiency do not
Those individuals inheriting these deficiencies het- bleed, however, and are more prone to pathologic clot
erozygously tend to have few bleeding manifestations, formation. Factor XI deficiency or hemophilia C is an
since they will have one half of factor activity. Treatment autosomal recessive trait with a high predominance in
of patients with inherited deficiencies of factors II, VII, the Ashkenazi Jewish and Basque population in South-
and X consists of prothrombin complex concentrates. ern France. The heterozygous frequency of this gene in
Factor VII clears rapidly from the plasma, and therefore this population group is 1:8.9 Bleeding is unlikely,
booster doses are usually necessary to maintain clotting. unless trauma or surgery occurs. There is little correla-
Two new gene mutations, recently discovered, are espe- tion between the level of factor XI activity and the sever-
cially pertinent to this discussion. ity of bleeding episodes. Fletcher factor or prekallikrein
deficiency manifests itself as an autosomal dominant each negatively affect clotting factor production and
and recessive trait. Again patients experience throm- clotting factor function. Factors that have a short half-
botic events such as myocardial infarction or pul- life such as factor VII and the vitamin K–dependent fac-
monary embolism. An interesting feature of this tors (II, VII, IX, and X) are particularly vulnerable. Liver
deficiency, in vitro, is that the initially prolonged aPTT disease brings a myriad of potential problems to coagu-
will shorten upon prolonged incubation with kaolin lation capability. In addition to poor production and
reagents. Fitzgerald factor deficiency, also called high- function of clotting factors, there is weak clearance of
molecular-weight kininogen deficiency, is a rare autoso- activated clotting factors and the accumulation of plas-
mal recessive trait. Deep vein thrombosis and minogen activators. If plasmin is activated to a high
pulmonary embolism are features of this disorder.10 degree, excessive clot lysis will be stimulated and DIC
and hemorrhaging may result. Unexpectedly elevated
Factor XIII Deficiency prothrombin times in a previously well patient may sig-
nal the advent of liver disease and the patient should be
Factor XIII is unique in that it is a transglutaminase
carefully monitored. Patients with liver disease who are
rather than a protease as are most of the other coagula-
bleeding are treated with fresh frozen plasma, a source
tion factors. The role of this factor in coagulation is to
of all clotting factors and natural inhibitors. As little as
provide stabilization to the fibrin clot through cross-
15 mL of plasma can increase the clotting factor activity
linkage of fibrin polymers. Proper levels of factor XIII
by 15% to 25%.12
are essential for proper wound healing, hemostasis, and
Renal disease, especially nephrotic syndrome,
the maintenance of pregnancy. This factor is not tested
usually leads to poor renal filtration and the presence of
for in the traditional coagulation tests such as PT, aPTT,
low-molecular-weight coagulation proteins in the urine
thrombin time, or bleeding time. Therefore, in a patient
of about 25% of patients with these disorders. Impaired
with factor XIII disorder, the traditional coagulation
platelet function is a feature of renal disease, and
screening test will be normal. Screening for factor XIII
patients with renal disorders are cautioned against tak-
deficiency is accomplished through the 5 mol/L urea
ing aspirin or other platelet inhibitors.
test, a primitive test which measures the stability or
firmness of the clot after 24 hours in a 5 mol/L urea
solution. If factor XIII is decreased, then the clot that is The Role of Vitamin K in Hemostasis
formed is stringy and loose, rather than the firm clot of
stable hemostasis. Additionally, quantitative assays for Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for the
factor XIII are available. Congenital deficiencies of fac- activation of factors II, VII, IX, and X. This vitamin
tor XIII are rare autosomal recessive disorders. Deficien- is taken in through the diet in the form of green leafy
cies have been linked to poor wound healing, keloid vegetables, fish, and liver. It is also synthesized in small
formation, spontaneous abortion, and recurrent amounts by the intestinal bacteria Bacteroides fragilis
hematomas. Approximately, one half of patients have a and some strains of Escherichia coli. Newborns are
family bleeding history, and large keloid scar formation usually vitamin K deficient because of the sterile
appears to be a consistent finding in these patients.11 environment of the small intestine, and therefore their
Treatment of inherited disorders is through fresh frozen levels of factors II, VII, IX, and X are low. Premature
plasma or cryoprecipitate, a source of factor XIII. infants have levels of vitamin K–dependent factors as
Acquired deficiencies of this factor may be associated low as 20% to 30%.13 As of the 1960s, all newborns are
with Crohn’s disease, leukemias, DIC, and ulcerative given vitamin K to avoid hemorrhagic disease of the
colitis. newborn.
The vitamin K–dependent factors are low-
molecular-weight proteins, with gamma-carboxyl
Bleeding Secondary to a residues at their terminal ends. To become activated and
Chronic Disease Process fully participate in the coagulation scheme, they must
Liver disease, renal disease, and autoimmune processes take on a second carboxyl group through the action of
may lead to deficiencies in clotting factors that can the enzyme gamma glutamyl carboxylase (Fig. 17.4).
cause bleeding. Because almost all of the procoagulants This reaction requires vitamin K. Once this reaction is
and inhibitors are synthesized by the liver, conditions accomplished, these factors can then bind to calcium
such as alcoholic cirrhosis, biliary cancer, congenital and then to phospholipids for full participation in coag-
liver defects, obstructive liver disease, and hepatitis can ulation pathways.
COO– –OOC COO–

Table 17.2 ¢ Drugs That Cause a
CH2 CH Deficiency of Vitamin
K Clotting Factors
CH2 Vitamin K CH2 • Carbenicillin
• Moxalactam
CH COOH CH COOH • Cephamandole
• Cefoxitin
• Cefoperazone
NH2 NH2 • Tetracyclines
• Sulfonamides
Glutamic acid Gamma-carboxy glutamic acid • Aspirin
Figure 17.4 The carboxylation of the enzyme glutamic
acid. This reaction requires vitamin K.
itored by anticoagulant clinics and diets need to be
modified to compensate for the loss of vitamin K activ-
Vitamin K Deficiency and ity. Additionally, there is a long list of drugs that may
Subsequent Treatment interfere with vitamin K activity and subsequent hemo-
Vitamin K can be depleted through several mecha- stasis (Table 17.2).
nisms. Because body stores of vitamin K are extremely If a patient is vitamin K depleted, the PT and aPTT
limited, dietary sources are important. In patients who will most likely be elevated but able to be corrected by
have prolonged hospitalizations with only parenteral normal plasma. Factor assays of the specific vitamin K
nutrition, dietary deficiency will likely develop and the factors will reveal a depressed activity. Factor VII with
patient may need to be supplemented. Long-term the shortest half-life will be depleted first within 2 days;
antibiotic therapy that disrupts normal flora, a source of the other factors will take between 3 and 10 days to
vitamin K synthesis, may lead to vitamin K deficiency reach low hemostatic levels. With mild bleeding, oral
and subsequent bleeding. This is the case only if normal administration of vitamin K provides hemostatic recov-
nutrition is also disrupted. Chronic diarrhea, biliary ery within a couple of hours. More emergent bleeding
atresia, or other severe liver problems may lead to vita- situations may result in parenteral administration of
min K synthesis, because bile salts are needed for vitamin K, blood products, or infusion of prothrombin
proper absorption of vitamin K. Coumadin or warfarin concentrate complex. An interesting side note is reports
oral anticoagulant therapy reacts because this substance of patients who have used coumadin as an agent of
is a vitamin K antagonist and therefore gamma carboxy- suicide.14
lation of factors II, VII, IX, and X is prevented. Patients Acquired inhibitors of coagulation will be dis-
on oral anticoagulant therapy need to be carefully mon- cussed in Chapter 19.
CONDENSED CASE
A 7-year-old child had a fall from a piece of playground equipment. After 24 hours, he developed a deep hematoma in
his right thigh and his parents brought him to the emergency department to be evaluated. His family history did not
give any indication of any previous bleeding from birth or otherwise. What tests should be ordered to rule out a coag-
ulation defect?
Answer
Although his family history does not indicate a clotting factor abnormality, preliminary clotting tests should include a
bleeding time, PT, and aPTT. This patient has a normal PT but an aPTT of 50 seconds (reference range, 20 to 38 sec-
onds). A factor assay was performed and indicated a mild factor VIII activity of 40% with a reference range of 50% to
150% activity. The patient was diagnosed with mild hemophilia A. This accident brought a previously undiagnosed
condition to light. This is important information in this patient’s personal and medical history. Future surgeries or
traumas will need to be carefully monitored.
Summary Points • From 15% to 20% of all hemophilia A individuals

develop factor VIII inhibitors.
• Patients with recurrent bleeding episodes need to be
evaluated for an inherited bleeding disorder. • Individuals with factor II, V, VII, and X deficiencies
may have minimal bleeding.
• Bleeding comes under two main categories: open
bleeds or closed bleeds. • Prothrombin complex concentrate is used to correct
deficiencies of factors II, VII, IX, and X.
• Plasma clotting factors need to maintain approxi-
mately 30% activity to achieve adequate clotting. • Prothrombin G20210A is a mutation of the pro-
thrombin molecule.
• The factor VIII molecule is carried into plasma by
vWF. • Factor V Leiden is a genetic mutation of the factor V
• Hemophilias A and B are sex-linked recessive disor- molecule that predisposes to clotting episodes.
ders. • Deficiencies of factors XI, XII, Fletcher, and Fitzger-
• In hemophilia A, factor VIII is deficient; in hemo- ald usually lead to increased thrombotic events.
philia B, factor IX is deficient. • Factor XIII is unique among clotting factors because
• Women are carriers of the defective hemophilia it is a transglutaminase; the other clotting factors are
gene. proteases.
• Individuals with hemophilia experience prolonged • An inherited deficiency of factor XIII may lead to
bleeding from minor wounds. poor wound healing and spontaneous abortions.
• Individuals with hemophilia may experience many • Liver disease, renal disease, and autoimmune
types of bleeding including joint bleeding leading to processes may lead to deficiencies in clotting factors
hemarthrosis, hematomas, umbilical cord bleeding, that cause bleeding.
or mucosal bleeds. • Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for the
• The bleeding time is normal in hemophilia A and B activation of factors II, VII, IX, and X.
patients; the aPTT is elevated. • Vitamin K is available through the diet; small
• Current treatment for hemophilia individuals con- amounts are synthesized by normal intestinal flora.
sists of recombinant factor products. • Newborns are vitamin K deficient and are given vita-
• Most individuals with hemophilia in the United min K at birth to avoid hemorrhagic disease of the
States use factor concentrates prophylactically. newborn.
• Prophylactic infusion of factor concentrates • If vitamin K is depleted, the PT and PTT will be pro-
has minimized the physical disabilities that longed.
may have occurred from unexpected bleeding • Coumadin, a therapeutic anticoagulant, is a vitamin
episodes. K antagonist.
CASE STUDY
A 54-year-old woman was admitted to the hospital with hematuria, anemia, easy bruising, and progressive weakness.
She gave no previous bleeding history or family history of bleeding even though she had multiple surgeries in the past.
Her surgeries included knee replacement. During this admission, she is complaining of a deep bruise in her right upper
thigh and hematuria. Her admitting laboratory data included the following:
WBC 6.0 ⫻ 109/L
Hgb 6.8 g/dL
Hct 20.2%
PT 12.5 seconds (reference range, 10.5 to 12.4)
aPTT 67.6 seconds (reference range, ⬍40)
Mixing studies: Immediate mixing and repeat PTT 39.6 seconds
aPTT after 1 hour 54.2 seconds
Factor VIII 4% (reference range, 50% to 150%)
What is your initial impression?
(Continued)
This patient’s family history is helpful in eliminating a congenital hemostatic defect as a source of her hematuria. She has
had successful surgery events in the past but now suffers with hematuria and deep bruising. An elevated aPTT value can
be seen in anticoagulant therapy, particularly heparin, in clotting factor defects, and if a circulating inhibitor is present.
Mixing studies in this patient show variable results with initial correction of the patient’s aPTT and then subsequent pro-
longation upon incubation. A factor VIII inhibitor was considered as a likely explanation for the laboratory results and
the low factor VIII assay value. Inhibitors or autoantibodies against factor VIII may develop in populations other than
the hemophilia A population, where 10% to 30% develop these type of inhibitors. These inhibitors are directed against
a portion of the factor VIII molecule and are time and temperature dependent. Once identified, the inhibitor should be
quantitated using the Bethesda titer. In this procedure, equal volumes of pooled normal plasma that is platelet poor are
mixed with patient platelet poor plasma at pH 7.4. The mixture is incubated for 2 hours and the PTT is repeated. If the
patient plasma has anti–factor VIII activity, then some of the active factor VIII in the normal plasma will be affected. The
level of inhibitor is seen as a percentage of the normal activity of the factor when compared to the control plasma. One
Bethesda unit is equivalent to the inhibitor in which 50% factor activity will remain.
Review Questions
1. Which of the clotting factors is not a a. cryoprecipitate.
protease? b. fresh frozen plasma.
a. Factor II c. prothrombin complex concentrate.
b. Factor VII d. recombinant factor VIII.
c. Factor XIII
4. One of the more fatal bleeds in a hemophilia
d. Factor IX
patient involves:
2. Why is the bleeding time normal in hemo- a. intracranial bleeding.
philia A? b. mucosal bleeding.
a. Because of an increase in factor XIII c. joint bleeding.
b. Because the clotting problem is a factor VIII d. epistaxis.
problem
5. Which clotting factor deficiency is associated with
c. Because vWF is normal
poor wound healing?
d. Because the clotting problem is a factor IX prob-
a. Factor II
lem
b. Factor X
3. The purest treatment product for hemophilia A c. Factor XII
patients is: d. Factor XIII
Hemarthrosis • Bloody effusion inside the joint

Hematoma • Swelling composed of a mass of clotted
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING blood confined to an organ, tissue, or space or caused by a
What Do I Do When Laboratory Results break in the blood vessel
Are Not Consistent With the Patient’s Keloid • Scar that forms at the site of injury that appears to
Physical Presentation? have a rubbery consistency and shiny surface
A 74-year-old woman arrived in the emergency depart- Porcine • Of or relating to swine (pigs)
ment with bruising over most of her extremities.
She gave no family or personal history of bleeding
but did indicate that she had delivered eight children. References
Her bleeding time was slightly abnormal at 9 minutes 1. Corriveau DM. Major elements of hemostasis. In: Cor-
riveau DM, Fritsma GA, eds. Hemostasis and Thrombo-
(reference ⬍ 8 minutes), but her PT and aPTT were
sis in the Clinical Laboratory. Philadelphia: JB
within normal range. Factor assays of factors VIII and Lippincott, 1988: 6.
IX were normal, and platelet aggregation studies were 2. www.hemophilia.org. Accessed June 14, 2005.
normal. What are the possibilities for the incongruities 3. Berntrop E, Michiels JJ. A healthy hemophilic patient
in this patient workup? without arthropathy: From concept to clinical reality.
This patient presented a diagnostic dilemma. Semin Thromb Hemost 29:5–10, 2003.
Quality control was verified at all levels on all pieces of 4. Fritsma G. Hemorrhagic coagulation disorders. In
equipment used. A repeat bleeding time, PT, and aPTT Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and
were performed and fell within ranges similar to the Applications, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders,
original. Factor assays were not repeated. These results 2002: 639–640.
stumped the coagulation staff. After careful considera- 5. Kleinman MB. Anti-inhibitor coagulant complex for the
rescue therapy of acquired inhibitors to factor VIII: Case
tion of exactly what was being tested for, the possibility
report and review of literature. Hemophilia 8:694–697,
of a factor XIII deficiency was considered. Factor XIII is 2002.
necessary for clot stabilization and would healing. A 5 6. Acharya SS, Coughlin A, Dimichele DM, et al. Rare
mol/L urea test was performed, and the results were Bleeding Disorder Registry: Deficiencies of II, V, X, fib-
abnormal. An inherited deficiency of factor XIII is the rinogen and dysfibrinogenemia. J Thromb Hasemost
rarest of all of the bleeding disorders, presenting as 2:248–256, 2004.
autosomal recessive. Our patient has a history of multi- 7. Jensen R. Screening and molecular diagnosis in hemo-
ple pregnancies and successful deliveries; therefore an stasis. Clin Hemost Rev 13:12, 1999.
inherited coagulation deficiency was not considered. A 8. McGlennen RC, Key NS. Clinical laboratory manage-
thorough medication check revealed that the patient ment of the prothrombin G20210A mutation. Arch
was on cardiac medication, which potentially could Pathol Lab Med 126:1319–1325, 2002.
9. Seligsohn U. High frequency of factor XI (PTA)
have caused an inhibitory effect on factor XIII, because
deficiency in Ashkenazi Jews. Blood 51:1223,
all other factor-related assays were normal. Cryopre- 1978.
cipitate was infused to prevent any future bleeding 10. Cheung PP, et al. Total kininogen deficiency (Williams
complication. The patient’s cardiac medication was dis- trait) is due to an argstop mutation in exon 5 of the
continued, and the patient was given an appropriate human kininogen gene. Blood 78:3919, 1991.
alternative medication for her cardiac condition. 11. Al-Sharif FZ, Aljurf MD, Al-Momen AM, et al. Clinical
(Many thanks to D. Castellone for the resource and laboratory features of congenital F XIII deficiency.
material for this case.) Saudi Med J 23:552–554, 2002.
12. Weiss AE. Acquired coagulation disorders. In: Cor-
riveau DM, Fritsma GA, eds. Hemostasis and Thrombo-
sis in the Clinical Laboratory. Philadelphia: JB
Lippincott, 1988: 176.
13. Zipursky A, Desa D, Hsu E, et al. Clinical and labora-
WORD KEY tory diagnosis of hemostatic disorders in newborn
infants. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1:217–226,
Atresia • As in biliary atresia, congenital closure, or 1979.
absence of some or all of the major bile ducts
14. Fritsma GA. Hemorrhagic coagulation disorders. In:
Crohn’s disease • Inflammatory bowel disease marked by Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and Appli-
patchy areas of inflammation from the mouth to the anus cations. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2002: 173.

18 Fibrinogen, Thrombin,
and the Fibrinolytic System
Betty Ciesla
The Role of Fibrinogen in Hemostasis Objectives

Disorders of Fibrinogen After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Afibrinogenemia 1. Identify the components of the fibrinolytic sys-
Hypofibrinogenemia tem.
Dysfibrinogenemia 2. Recall the role of fibrinogen in the coagulation
The Unique Role of Thrombin in Hemostasis and the fibrinolytic system.
Physiological Activators of Fibrinolysis 3. Describe plasmin in terms of activation and inhi-
Naturally Occurring Inhibitors of Fibrinolysis bition.
Measurable Products of the Fibrinolytic System 4. Differentiate the role of thrombin in both the
coagulation and fibrinolytic system.
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
The Mechanism of Acute Disseminated 5. Outline the inherited disorders of fibrinogen.
Intravascular Coagulation 6. Describe the laboratory testing for fibrinolytic
Clinical Symptoms and Laboratory Results in disorders.
Acute Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation 7. Define conditions that may precipitate dissemi-
Treatment in Acute Disseminated nated intravascular coagulation states.
Intravascular Coagulation
8. Describe the laboratory testing and management
of patients with disseminated intravascular coag-
ulation event.
269
THE ROLE OF FIBRINOGEN increased levels of lipoprotein will lead to less clot dis-
IN HEMOSTASIS solution, leaving clots available for a pathological
outcome.2
Fibrinogen is the principal substrate of the coagulation
and fibrinolytic system. This clotting factor has the
highest molecular weight of all of the clotting factors, DISORDERS OF FIBRINOGEN
and it is the substrate upon which the coagulation sys- Appropriate levels of fibrinogen are necessary to main-
tem is centered. This factor is heat labile but stable in tain hemostasis and to cause platelets to aggregate. The
storage. When fibrinogen is transformed to fibrin under reference range for fibrinogen is 200 to 400 mg/dL. Fib-
the influence of thrombin, it is the onset of solid clot for- rinogen is an acute-phase reactant, meaning that there
mation. The formation of fibrin occurs within minutes will be a transient increase in fibrinogen during inflam-
due in part to a positive feedback mechanism within the mation, pregnancy, stress, and diabetes and when tak-
hemostasis system. Once clotting factors are activated, ing oral contraceptives. Therefore, a careful patient
they accelerate the activity of the next factor, pushing history is necessary when evaluating a problem involv-
the reaction to conclusion. Negative feedback occurs ing fibrinogen. For the most part, decreases in fibrino-
when the activity of the reaction is delayed. This is the gen result from acquired disorders such as acute liver
role played by naturally occurring inhibitors within the disease, acute renal disease, or disseminated intravascu-
hemostatic system. With the assistance of factor XIII lar coagulation. Acquired increases in fibrinogen may be
and thrombin, the fibrinogen molecule is stabilized by demonstrated in hepatitis patients, pregnant patients,
cross-linked fibrin. Within hours, the fibrinolytic sys- or those with atherosclerosis.3 The inherited disorders
tem swoops in to dissolve the clots that have formed and of fibrinogen are afibrinogenemia, hypofibrinogenemia,
to restore blood flow. The creation of cross-linked fibrin and dysfibrinogenemia. These conditions are rare and
is an orderly process by which fibrinogen is cleaved into are marked by hematomas, hemorrhage, and ecchy-
fibrinopeptides A and B by thrombin. Fibrinogen is moses depending upon severity.
composed of three pairs of polypeptide chains: alpha,
beta, and gamma. When thrombin is generated, it
cleaves small portions of the alpha and beta chains, cre- Afibrinogenemia
ating fibrinopeptides A and B. The remaining portions The homozygous disorder, afibrinogenemia, is an auto-
of the alpha and beta chains stay attached to the fibrino- somal recessive disorder that shows less than 10 mg/dL
gen molecule. With fibrinopeptides A and B cleaved, the fibrinogen in the plasma. This small amount of fibrino-
fibrin monomer is created. These monomers sponta- gen is usually not demonstrable by traditional methods.
neously polymerize by hydrogen bonding to form a Infants with afibrinogenemia will show bleeding from
loose fibrin network, which is soluble. Trapped within the umbilical stump; poor wound healing and spon-
the soluble clot are thrombin, antiplasmins, plasmino- taneous abortion are also features of this disorder. Labo-
gen, and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). Because ratory results will show elevated PT, aPTT, thrombin
thrombin is now protected from its inhibitors, it acti- time (TT), reptilase time, and abnormal platelet
vates factor XIII and calcium and then catalyzes the for- aggregation with most aggregating agents and elongated
mation of peptide bonds between monomers, forming bleeding time. Cryoprecipitate and fresh frozen plasma
fibrin polymers that lead to an insoluble and resistant are the replacement products used for medical manage-
clot1 (Fig. 18.1). Balance between the coagulation and ment of bleeds for these patients.
fibrinolytic systems is critical for maintenance of circu-
lation and injury repair. An imbalance in the coagula-
tion system could cause excess clotting; an imbalance of Hypofibrinogenemia
the fibrinolytic system could cause hemorrhaging. Sev- Hypofibrinogenemia is the heterozygous form of afib-
eral other components may play a role in hemostatic rinogenemia. This disorder is autosomal recessive and
balance. In early studies, it has been suggested that indi- patients show between 20 and 100 mg/dL fibrinogen in
viduals with a high concentration of lipoprotein A may their plasma. Patients with this disorder may show mild
have reduced fibrinolytic activity due to decreased plas- spontaneous bleeding and severe postoperative bleed-
min generation. Cholesterol and triglycerides are all ing. Results of laboratory testing, whether prolonged
fatty components of lipoproteins. It is conceivable that or normal, will depend on the amount of fibrinogen
reduced plasmin generating activity in individuals with present.
CHAPTER 18 • Fibrinogen, Thrombin, and the Fibrinolytic System 271
Thrombin's Action on Fibrinogen

Thrombin
Alpha chains A A
Fibrinogen
Beta chains B B
Gamma chains
Thrombin
A A
+ B B Fibrin peptides
Fibrin monomer
Spontaneous
polymerization
Hydrogen bonds Weak fibrin

polymer
FXIIIa
Ca+++
Covalent
bonds
Figure 18.1 Thrombin’s activity on

fibrinogen, from fibrin monomer to Cross-linked fibrin polymer
fibrin polymer. (stable fibrin clot)
Dysfibrinogenemia level of fibrinogen is normal. The clottable assay for

quantitative fibrinogen is abnormal as this assay is
These fibrinogen disorders are autosomal dominant and
dependent on the proper amount and proper function-
are inherited homozygously and heterozygously. They
ing fibrinogen.
produce a qualitative disorder of fibrinogen in which an
amino acid substitution produces a functionally abnor-
mal fibrinogen molecule. Although these disorders are THE UNIQUE ROLE OF
an academic curiosity, named for the city in which the THROMBIN IN HEMOSTASIS
patient was discovered, they are infrequently associated Thrombin holds a respected place in the coagulation
with a bleeding tendency. A few are associated with mechanism for its multiplicity of function and the
thrombosis.4 Approximately 40 abnormal fibrinogens numerous reactions it mediates. The impact of throm-
have been discovered. Because fibrin formation is bin is far reaching from the initial activation of the
affected by the abnormal fibrinogen molecule in dys- platelet system to the initiation of the fibrinolytic sys-
fibrinogenemia, most of the normal laboratory assess- tem and subsequent tissue repair. Prothrombin is the
ments for fibrinogen will be abnormal. The PT, aPTT, precursor to thrombin and can only be converted by the
TT, and reptilase time will be increased. An immuno- action of factor X, factor V, platelet factor 3, and cal-
logic assay of fibrinogen that measures the antigenic cium. Thrombin is generated in small concentrations
through injury to the endothelial cells and proceeds to XIIa, kallikrein, and high-molecular-weight kininogen.
initiate a more enhanced coagulation mechanism. Once Once produced, plasmin, a potent enzyme, does not
generated, thrombin is involved in the platelet release distinguish between fibrin and fibrinogen and works to
reaction as well as platelet aggregation. Secondarily, digest both. Additionally, plasmin also hydrolyzes fac-
thrombin stimulates platelets to produce the platelet tors V and VIII, and if circulating in the plasma as patho-
inhibitor, prostacyclin, or PGI2. With the coagulation logical free plasmin, the damage to the coagulation
system alerted, thrombin activates factors V and VIII, system is significant, as clots are dissolved indiscrimi-
key cofactors in thrombus formation. Protein C, a natu- nately. Of interest is the fact that tPA has been synthe-
rally occurring inhibitor to coagulation, is also activated sized by recombinant technology and is presently used
by thrombin. An additional product thrombomodulin as a pharmaceutical product during stroke episodes for
which is secreted by endothelial cells amplifies protein fibrinolytic therapy. As a “clot-busting” drug, it has been
C activity when complexed with thrombin.5 With effective in thrombotic strokes and if injected within a
respect to the fibrinogen degradation, thrombin plays a small time-frame can spare the patient serious stroke
key role in negative feedback by converting plasmino- side effects. Another plasminogen activator is uroki-
gen to plasmin to digest the soluble fibrin clot. This nase, a protease present in the urine and produced by
interplay of thrombin disposition and thrombin initia- the kidney. The physiological effect of urokinase is min-
tion of clot disposal is part of the biologic control of imal in clot dissolution; however, like tPA it is a valuable
hemostasis. Once the clot is dissolved, thrombin plays a commercial product used in thrombolytic therapy, for
role in repairing tissue and wounds (Fig. 18.2). patients with heart attacks, strokes, and other throm-
botic episodes.6 Streptokinase is an exogenous fibri-
Physiological Activators of Fibrinolysis nolytic agent, produced when a bacterial cell product
forms a complex with plasminogen, a pairing that con-
A critical link in the chain of hemostasis is the dissolu- verts plasminogen to plasmin. This toxic product
tion of fibrin clots, which usually occurs several hours results from infection with beta-hemolytic streptococci
after the stable clot is formed. In this way, blood flow is and is a dangerous byproduct if this bacterial strain
restored at the local levels and tissue healing is precipi- develops into a systemic infection. It has the most activ-
tated. The body provides naturally occurring or physio- ity on fibrinogen.
logical activators that initiate this process. The key
component in this reaction is plasminogen, a plasma
enzyme synthesized in the liver with a half-life of 48 Naturally Occurring Inhibitors
hours. Plasminogen is converted to plasmin, chiefly of Fibrinolysis
through the action of tissue plasminogen activator The balance of hemostasis is aided by those products
(tPA), a substance released through the activity of that restrain fibrinolytic activity. These products,
endothelial cell damage and the production of throm- plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) and alpha-
bin. Additional plasminogen activators include factor 2-antiplasmin, act upon different substrates in the fibri-
Platelets Platelet Aggregation

TT
Stimulates
H
H
R
R
O
O Fibrinogen Fibrin
M
M Converts Plasminogen Plasmin
B
B Protein C Activated protein C (APC)
II Promotes
Wound healing
N
N Tissue repair
Figure 18.2 The multiple roles of
thrombin in hemostasis.
P P P P
D D E D D E D D E
D D E D D E D D
P P P
D D D D D D E
E E D D
DD DD/E DY/YD
Figure 18.3 The formation of D-

dimer and fibrin degradation prod- P= Plasmin
ucts. P, plasmin; D, D domain; E, E D= D domain
domain. E= E domain
nolytic system. PAI-1 is secreted by endothelial cells less than 40 μg/mL. Individuals with an intact and oper-
during injury and suppresses the function of tPA in the ational hemostatic system have normal FDPs. These
plasminogen-plasmin complex. Plasmin as a substrate products are measured semiquantitatively through
is directly inhibited by alpha-2-antiplasmin in a 1:1 direct latex agglutination of a thrombin clotted sample.
ratio at the target area. This inhibitor prevents plasmin Latex particles are coated with monoclonal antibodies
binding to fibrin in an orderly fashion and claims the to the human fibrinogen fragments D and E. The test is
role as the most important inhibitor of the fibrinolytic performed on serum using two dilutions, 1:15 and 1:20.
system. Inherited deficiencies of this inhibitor invari- It does not distinguish between fibrinogen and fibrin.
ably lead to hemorrhagic episodes. Secondary agents Pathological levels of FDPs interfere with thrombin for-
that can inhibit fibrinolysis are alpha-2-macroglobulin, mation and platelet aggregation. Elevated levels may be
C1 inactivator, and alpha-1-antitrypsin. These sub- seen in DIC, pulmonary embolism, obstetrical compli-
stances, as protease inhibitors, act upon thrombin for- cations, and other conditions7 (Table 18.1).
mation. Because thrombin is one of the initiators of the Once fibrin has been cross-linked and stabilized
generation of plasmin, the secondary effect on the fibri- by factor XIII, a stable clot has been formed. When this
nolytic system is unavoidable. clot is dissolved by plasmin, D-dimers are released.
Therefore, D-dimers suggest a breakdown of fibrin clot
Measurable Products
of the Fibrinolytic System
Physiological fibrinolysis occurs in an orderly fashion, Table 18.1 ¢ Conditions That May
producing measurable products that can be captured by Elevate Fibrin
laboratory assays. Specifically, the byproducts of an Degradation Products
orderly fibrinolytic system are fibrin split/degrada-
tion (FSP/FDP) products composed of fibrin fragments • Disseminated intravascular coagulation
labeled as X, Y, D, and E and the D-dimers, D-D • Pulmonary embolism
(Fig. 18.3). • Abruptio placentae
• Preeclampsia
The accurate and precise measurement of these
• Eclampsia
products is the basis for therapeutic decisions once
• Fetal death in utero
pathological clot forming and lysing has been initiated. • Postpartum hemorrhage
FSPs/FDPs are formed from plasmin action on fibrin and • Polycystic disease
fibrinogen. As plasmin degrades the fibrinogen mole- • Malignancies
cule, different fragments are split leading to early and • Lupus nephritis
late degradation products. Normal levels of FDPs are • Thrombolytic therapy
eliminated through the RES system and usually measure
and indirectly are an indication that clots have been anced, hyperactivating the coagulation and/or the fibri-
formed at the site of injury, at the local level. Excess D- nolytic system. This process is systemic, leading to
dimers are indicative of breakdown of fibrin products excessive disposition of thrombi or excessive hemor-
within the circulating blood. D-dimers can be assayed rhage. Additionally, the process is consumptive, con-
semiquantitatively and quantitatively. The semiquanti- suming clotting factors and platelets as soon as they are
tative assay uses monoclonal antibodies specific for this activated for coagulation. Usually the decrease in clot-
domain. A simple agglutination test, undiluted patient ting factors is more overpowering than the increase in
plasma is mixed with latex solution. Noticeable aggluti- lysis. In broad terms, DIC is associated with obstetrical
nation is a positive test and indicative of deep vein complications, malignancy, massive trauma, bacterial
thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), or sepsis, asplenia, or necrotic tissue. Under each of these
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Quanti- major headings are many other pathological possibilities
tative D-dimer tests are automated and use an enzyme- for the initiation of a DIC event (see Table 18.2). Although
linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedure. The most DIC occurs as acute, explosive episodes, there are
advantage of this procedure is its ability to detect low conditions that may lead to a chronic compensated DIC
levels of D-dimer and to provide specific information as state. These are much more difficult to diagnose because
to whether pathological clotting as in DVT or PE has the bone marrow and liver perform an excellent job of
occurred. D-dimers assays have great utility in monitor- maintaining equilibrium between the coagulation and
ing thrombolytic therapy.8 the fibrinolytic system. Laboratory results may be mini-
mally abnormal; yet once the underlying pathology
DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR intensifies, an acute DIC episode is likely.9
COAGULATION
The mere mention of the words “the patient has DIC” The Mechanism of Acute Disseminated
usually strikes fear into the hearts of attending physi- Intravascular Coagulation
cians, laboratorians, and nursing staff. The acute DIC As is customary in normal hemostasis, both the coagu-
event is almost always unanticipated and dramatic. Fatal lation and the fibrinolytic system are activated in paral-
outcomes do occur. DIC is triggered by an underlying lel. What is missing in DIC is the negative feedback
pathological circumstance occurring in the body (Fig. mechanism that holds the systems in balance. Table
18.4). As a result, the hemostatic system becomes unbal- 18.2 is a composite of events in the DIC cycle:
Trauma
Toxin
Sepsis
Vascular occlusion Thrombosis

Platelets aggregate
Thrombocytopenia Bleeding
Coagulation Factors depleted Bleeding
Platelet function depleted Bleeding

Fibrin deposited
-Plasmin initiated Decrease in fibrinogen Bleeding Figure 18.4 Conditions that may
-FSPs increased precipitate disseminated intravascular
Fibrin does not polymerize Bleeding coagulation (DIC). Note the multiple
pathways. FSPs, fibrin split products.
thrombin is bypassed, the platelet count is normal

Table 18.2 ¢ Events Triggering Dis- unlike the platelet count in DIC. Yet all other parts of
seminated Intravascular the DIC coagulation profile are abnormal. There is con-
Coagulation troversy as to whether primary fibrinolysis is a disease
entity unto itself or rather just a continuum in the
Infections Gastrointestinal disorders vicious DIC cycle.
• Gram-negative bacteria • Acute hepatitis
• Gram-positive bacteria Obstetrical complications Clinical Symptoms and Laboratory
• Malaria • Maternal toxemia Results in Acute Disseminated
Tissue Injury • Abruptio placentae Intravascular Coagulation
• Crush injury • Hemolytic disease of the
In hemorrhagic episodes, most patients have extensive
• Burns newborn
• Massive head injury • Group B streptococcal
skin and mucous membrane bleeding, including ecchy-
Malignancy infection mosis, epistaxis, and petechiae. Areas of entry such as
• Acute promyelocytic • Retained dead fetus surgical incisions, catheters, or venipuncture sites may
leukemia Other also ooze and must be carefully observed. In thrombotic
• Acute monoblastic or • Snake bites episodes, patients may exhibit acrocyanosis, hypoten-
myeloblastic leukemia • Heparin-induced sion, or shock. Microthrombi may occur in the nose,
• Microangiopathic thrombosis genitalia or digits, or major organs such as kidney, liver,
disorders • Septic shock or brain.
• Thrombotic thrombo- • Hemolytic transfusion Acute DIC is a medical emergency. The entire basic
cytopenia purpura reaction DIC coagulation profile is abnormal (Table 18.3). PT and
• Heat stroke • Graft versus host disease PTT are prolonged, fibrinogen and platelets are
decreased, and FDPs and D-dimers are dramatically
increased. D-dimer results are an essential piece of data
in emerging DIC patients; however, other pathologies
• Excessive generation of thrombin is triggered
such an inflammation, renal disease, or local clot may
by thromboplastin release (endothelial cells,
elevate the result.10 For this reason, all laboratory data
placenta, leukemic cells [promyelocytes or
must be carefully reviewed in concert with clinical
monoblasts], tumors).
symptoms before reaching the diagnosis. It has been
• Simultaneous enzymatic conversion of fibrino-
shown that not all patients in DIC have decreased fib-
gen to fibrin occurs.
rinogen levels. Indeed, recent studies have shown that
• Plasmin generation simultaneously degrades
for those patients exhibiting DIC but near normal fib-
fibrinogen/fibrin into FDPs; excess FDPs are
rinogen, clinical outcomes were much poorer, resulting
formed.
in severe organ failure.11 Recovering patients should be
• FDPs have affinity for fibrin monomers but fail
monitored over time using the same initial profile for
to polymerize properly; excess FDPs have an
comparison and evaluation of their coagulation status.
anticoagulant effect.
The patient will develop a microangiopathic hemolytic
• Plasmin causes inactivation of factors V, VIII,
anemia due to microthrombi disposition in the small
XI, and XII.
vessels. Schistocytes will be observed as a morphologi-
• Hemorrhage occurs as soluble fibrin monomers
cal marker for this process.
are formed; platelets are inactivated and clot-
ting factors are inactivated as both are coated
by the soluble monomers.
• Clots that are formed are not stable. Table 18.3 ¢ Disseminated Intravas-
Although the body attempts to minimize damage
cular Coagulation
once a DIC event occurs, the physiological inhibitors
Laboratory Profile
protein C, protein S, and thrombomodulin are each
• PT ↑
inactivated. A disorder related to DIC is primary fibri- • aPTT ↑
nolysis: activation of plasmin within the circulation by • Platelets ↓
sources other than thrombin activation. In this rare con- • Fibrinogen ↓
dition, plasmin acts on fibrinogen and fibrin indiscrim- • D-dimer ↑
inately, therefore hemorrhage is inevitable. Since
CONDENSED CASE
A 20-year-old woman came through the emergency Answer
department with unspecified complaints. A CBC The first step that comes to mind is to check the speci-
was ordered and her platelet count was recorded men for clots. Improperly mixed specimens are notori-
as 17.0 ⫻ 109/L. A repeat sample was ordered ous for containing small clots. Emergency department
from the emergency department, and with this run, personnel may not be aware that blue-top tubes need to
the platelet count was recorded as 6.0 ⫻ 109/L. The be inverted at least five times for proper mixing. This was
patient failed to delta check with her CBC history, done and no clots were observed. Next the technologist
revealing an admission 3 weeks prior with a platelet queried the physician as to whether or not this was an
count of 250 ⫻ 109/L. The technologist called the expected result. Although the physician was less than
physician immediately with the report of the cooperative, he did reveal that the patient has undergone
thrombocytopenia and inquired as to the patient a cardiac procedure and that the initial consensus was
history. that the thrombocytopenia was medication induced. The
What additional steps should the technologist patient was admitted and transfused with platelet con-
take to ensure the accuracy of this result? centrates, and the platelet count rose to 56 ⫻ 109/L. No
additional history is known at this time.
Treatment in Acute Disseminated • Afibrinogenemia, hypofibrinogenemia, and dysfib-

Intravascular Coagulation rinogenemia are all inherited disorders of fibrino-
If the precipitating event leading to the DIC is discov- gen. Each of these may also be acquired disorders.
ered, then successful treatment will involve resolution • Streptokinase is an exogenous fibrinolytic agent,
of this pathology. Surgery in the case of obstetrical com- produced when a bacterial cell product forms a
plications or widespread use of antibiotics in the case of complex with plasminogen.
septicemia may stem the bleeding episode. However, • Naturally occurring inhibitors of fibrinolysis are
because many clinicians are perplexed as to the root plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 and alpha-2-
cause of the precipitating events, judicious use of blood antiplasmin.
products will stop the bleeding. Fresh frozen plasma is a
• The byproducts of fibrinolysis are fibrin degradation
source of all of the clotting factors; packed red cells will
products and D-dimers.
restore oxygen-carrying capacity; and platelet concen-
trates will enable clot formation. Heparin has been used • Excess fibrin degradation products provide antico-
in DIC cases when combined with antithrombin. agulant activity.
Although controversial, this agent may provide needed • D-dimers are produced from a cross-linked and sta-
antithrombotic activity to delay excessive coagulation. bilized fibrin clot.
• Excess D-dimers are an indication that clots have
been formed and are being excessively lysed.
Summary Points
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is
• Fibrinogen is the key substrate of the coagulation usually triggered by an underlying pathological
and the fibrinolytic system. event.
• Fibrinogen has the highest molecular weight of all of • In DIC patients will excessively clot or excessively
the clotting factors. bleed, or both.
• Thrombin acts upon fibrinogen to convert it to • Laboratory results for a patient with acute DIC will
fibrin. show a prolonged PT and PTT, decreased fibrinogen
• Fibrin is stabilized by factor XIII and calcium to and platelets, and increased fibrin degradation prod-
become an insoluble clot. ucts and D-dimers.
• Plasminogen is converted to plasmin primarily • Treatment for DIC includes investigating and resolv-
through tissue plasminogen activator and then pro- ing the cause of the disorder and providing blood
ceeds to destroy the fibrin clot. bank products as needed.
Review Questions
1. Which of the following is one of the key roles of c. To restore blood flow at the local level
thrombin with respect to fibrinogen? d. To inhibit coagulation
a. Changes fibrinogen into plasmin
4. Which bacterial cell product will precipitate a DIC
b. Releases fibrin split products
event?
c. Converts fibrinogen into fibrin
a. Neuraminidase
d. Activates factors V and VIII
b. Streptokinase
2. Which of the following laboratory assays will be c. Urokinase
normal in a patient with dysfibrinogenemia? d. tPA
a. Immunologic assay for fibrinogen
5. Which is the best possible treatment for a patient
b. Reptilase time
with DIC?
c. Thrombin time
a. Provide supporting blood products
d. PT and PTT
b. Give the patient tPA if there is excessive
3. What is the primary purpose of the fibrinolytic clotting
system? c. Resolve the underlying cause of the DIC
a. To form a stable fibrin clot event
b. To activate the complement system d. Give the patient heparin therapy
CASE STUDY
A 27-year-old man was brought to the emergency department in serious condition. Earlier in the day, he was hiking and
had been bitten on his leg by what he thought was probably a black snake. The leg was swollen, and the hiker was
extremely lethargic and barely conscious. Additionally, he was bleeding from the site where he was bitten. When blood
was drawn, the venipuncture site bled profusely. His lab results follow:
Platelets 27.0 ⫻ 109/L (Reference range, 150 to 450 ⫻ 109/L)
PFA Not performed
PTT 53.7 seconds (Reference range, 23.0 to 35.0)
Fibrinogen 110 mg/dL (Reference range, 200 to 400)
D-dimer 3170 ng/mL D-Dimer units (Reference range, 0 to 200)
Given these laboratory results what is the most likely diagnosis? How can you account for his laboratory results?
Notice that the patient’s basic coagulation profile was abnormal. His PT and PTT were markedly abnormal, his platelet
count was markedly decreased, his fibrinogen was decreased, and his D-dimer was markedly prolonged. DIC was trig-
gered by the snake bite. The venom of poisonous snakes will directly activate factor X or factor II. When this happens,
clotting occurs within the vessels at an accelerated rate, consuming all of the clotting factors. Notice that the D-dimer
result is extremely elevated. D-dimer is the smallest breakdown product of fibrin. When elevated, it is indicative of cross-
linked fibrin within the circulating blood, rather than locally at the site of injury. The patient was given antivenin and
supported by blood products until his condition stabilized.
[Case submitted by Wendy Sutula, MS, MT(ASCP), SH, Washington Hospital Center.]
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When The Patient Is Scheduled Based on the mixing study results, one could con-
for Surgery and the PTT Is Abnormal, But He clude that the patient has a factor deficiency. Addition-
Denies Any Bleeding Episodes? ally, the incubated mixing study demonstrated that no
A 24-year-old man had routine preoperative blood slow-acting inhibitor is present. Because only the PTT
work done. Because of the results, he was referred to is affected, the most likely factor would be one or more
the hematology service. The young man denied any from the intrinsic pathway (factors XII, XI, IX, or VIII;
bleeding problems throughout his life and was taking HMWK; or prekallikrein). The hematologist then
no medications. None of his family members had any ordered factor assays, with the following results:
bleeding problems. A second sample reproduced the Factor VIII 109% activity (Reference range,
results of the first, which were as follows: 55% to 145%)
PT 13.9 seconds (Reference range, 11.8 to Factor IX 121% activity (Reference range,
14.5) 61% to 140%)
PTT 168.6 seconds (Reference range, 23.0 to Factor XI 86% activity (Reference range,
35.0) 65% to 135%)
Factor XII 33% activity (Reference range,
The patient’s PTT is extremely elevated. Three 50% to 150%)
questions come to mind. Is the patient on heparin? Is As can be seen from the laboratory data, this
there a circulating anticoagulant present? Does the patient was factor XII deficient. Unlike for factors VIII,
patient have a congenital acquired factor deficiency? A IX, and XI, patients with a factor XII deficiency do not
thrombin time was performed in the unlikely event have bleeding problems. Factor XII–deficient patients
that the patient was somehow receiving heparin (most tend to have very long PTTs, however, because the clot-
likely, low-molecular-weight heparin, which can be ting time of a PTT is dependent on the in vitro activa-
administered on an outpatient basis). The thrombin tion of factor XII. Similar to HMWK and prekallikrein
time was normal, so the hematologist then ordered a deficiency, factor XII–deficient patients may even have
PTT mixing study. a tendency toward thrombosis. This young man had
Mixing study: Immediate PTT ⫽ 32.9 his surgery with no complications.
50:50 mix: [Case submitted by Wendy Sutula, MS,
1-Hour incubated 50:50 mix: PTT ⫽ 34.3 MT(ASCP), SH, Washington Hospital Center.]
WORD KEY References

1. Loscalzo AD, Schafer AI. Thrombosis and Hemorrhage,
Acrocyanosis •Blue or purple mottled discoloration of the
2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1998:
extremities, especially the fingers, toes, and nose 1027–1063.
Immunologic assay • Measuring the protein and protein- 2. Falco C, Estelles A, Dalmau J, et al. Influence of lipopro-
bound molecules that are concerned with the reaction of the tein A levels and isoforms on fibrinolytic activity: Study
antigen with its specific antibody in families with high lipoprotein A levels. Thromb
Haemost 79:818–823, 1998.
Monoclonal • Arising from a single cell 3. Liles DK, Knup CL. Disorders of plasma clotting factors.
Recombinant • In genetic and molecular biology, pertain- In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical Hematology and Funda-
ing to genetic material combined from different sources mentals of Hemostasis. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002:
497.
Reptilase time • Coagulation procedure similar to throm- 4. Francis CW, Marder VJ. Physiologic regulation and
bin time except that the clotting is initiated by reptilase, a pathologic disorders of fibrinolysis. In: Colman RW, et al,
snake venom; using reptilase, heparin will not affect the assay eds. Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and
Thrombin time • Using thrombin as a substrate, this assay Clinical Practice, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott,
measures the time it takes for fibrinogen to be converted to 1994: 1089.
5. Hosaka Y, Takahashi Y, Ishii H. Thrombomodulin in
fibrin
human plasma contributes to inhibit fibrinolysis through
Thrombolytic therapy • Using an agent that causes the acceleration of thrombin dependent activation of plasma
breakup of clots carboxypeptidase. Thromb Haemost 79:371, 1998.
6. Fritsma G. Normal hemostasis and coagulation. In: 9. Cunningham VL. A review of disseminated intravascu-
Rodak B, ed. Hematology: Clinical Principles and Appli- lar coagulation: Presentation, laboratory diagnosis and
cations, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 2002: 625. treatment. M L O July:48, 1999.
7. Jensen R. The diagnostic use of fibrin breakdown prod- 10. Bick RL, Baker WF. Diagnostic efficacy of the D-dimer
ucts. Clin Hemost Rev 12:1–2, 1998. assay in disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).
8. Janssen MC, Sollershein H, Verbruggen B, et al. Rapid Thromb Res 65:785–790, 1992.
D-dimer assay to exclude deep vein thrombosis and 11. Wada H, Mori Y, Okabayashi K, et al. High plasma fib-
pulmonary embolism: Current status and new develop- rinogen levels is associated with poor clinical outcome
ments. Semin Thromb Hemost 24:393–400, 1998. in DIC patients. Am J Hematol 72:1–7, 2003.

19 Introduction to Thrombosis
and Anticoagulant Therapy
Mitra Taghizadeh
Physiological and Pathological Thrombosis Objectives

Pathogenesis of Thrombosis After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Vascular Injury 1. Define thrombophilia and thrombosis.
Platelet Abnormalities
2. Indicate risk factors associated with inherited
Coagulation Abnormalities and acquired thrombosis.
Fibrinolytic Abnormalities
3. List hemostatic changes responsible for patho-
Antithrombotic Factors (Coagulation Inhibitors) logical thrombosis.
Thrombotic Disorders 4. Describe antithrombin, protein C, and protein S
Inherited Thrombotic Disorders with regard to properties, mode of action, fac-
Acquired Thrombotic Disorders tors affected, and complications associated with
their deficiencies.
Laboratory Diagnosis for
5. List inherited risk factors for thrombosis and
Thrombotic Disorders
their frequency of occurrence.
Anticoagulant Therapy 6. List the most common acquired risk factors
Antiplatelet Drugs associated with thrombosis.
Anticoagulant Drugs 7. Describe activated protein C resistance with
Thrombolytic Drugs regard to pathophysiology, mode of action, and
associated complications.
8. Describe heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in
regard to the cause, patient’s clinical manifesta-
tions, and pathophysiology of the disease.
9. Name the laboratory tests used for the diagnosis
of factor V Leiden and heparin-induced throm-
bocytopenia.
10. List the types of anticoagulant drugs used for
the treatment of thrombotic disorders.
11. Explain the mechanism of action of each anti-
coagulant drug commonly used for the treat-
ment of thrombotic disorders.
12. Name the most common laboratory test used
for monitoring of heparin therapy.
13. Name the most common laboratory test used
for monitoring of Coumadin therapy.
281
Hypercoagulability refers to environmental, inherited, “white clot.” Complications associated with arterial
and acquired conditions that predispose an individual thrombosis are occlusions of the vascular system lead-
to thrombosis. Thrombosis is the formation of a blood ing to infarction of tissues.1 Factors causing arterial
clot in the vasculature. Two types of thrombosis are thrombosis are hypertension, hyper viscosity, qualita-
known: arterial and venous thrombosis. Arterial throm- tive platelet abnormalities, and atherosclerosis.
bosis is mainly composed of platelets with small Venous thrombosis is composed of large amounts
amounts of red cells and white cells whereas venous of fibrin and red cells resembling the blood clot formed
thrombosis is composed of fibrin clot and red cells. in the test tube. Venous thrombosis is associated with
Thrombosis may result from vascular injury, platelet slow blood flow, activation of coagulation, impairment
activation, coagulation activation, defects in the fibri- of the fibrinolytic system, and deficiency of physiologi-
nolytic system, and defects in physiological inhibitors. cal inhibitors. The most serious complication associ-
Arterial and venous thrombosis along with complicat- ated with venous thrombosis is demobilization of the
ing thromboembolism is the most important cause of clot. This occurs when a clot is dislodged from the site
death in the developed countries. More than 800,000 of origin and filtered out in the pulmonary circulation.
people die annually from myocardial infarction (MI)
and thrombotic stroke in the United States.1 It has also PATHOGENESIS OF THROMBOSIS
been reported that venous thromboembolic disease is
the most common vascular disease after atherosclerotic Hemostatic changes that are important in the pathogen-
heart disease and stroke.1 esis of thrombosis are vascular injury due to the toxic
This chapter will focus on the physiology and effect of chemotherapy; platelet abnormalities (more
pathology of thrombosis, thrombotic disorders, labora- important in arterial thrombosis); coagulation abnor-
tory diagnosis, and anticoagulant therapy. malities, fibrinolytic defects, and deficiencies of the
antithrombotic factors.
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
PATHOLOGICAL THROMBOSIS Vascular Injury
Normal hemostasis refers to the body’s physiological Vascular injuries play an important role in arterial
response to vascular injury. Normal clot formation and thrombosis. Vascular injury initiates platelet adhesion
clot dissolution is accomplished by interaction among to exposed subendothelium. The adherent platelets
five major components: vascular system, platelets, release the contents of alpha and dense granules such as
coagulation system, fibrinolytic system, and inhibitors. ADP, calcium, and serotonin, causing platelet aggrega-
These components must be in the functional state for tion and platelet plug formation. In addition, blood
normal hemostasis to occur. Imbalance in any of the coagulation is initiated by tissue factor released from the
above components will tilt the hemostatic scale in favor damaged endothelial cells. The fibrin clot formed
of bleeding or thrombosis. There are two systems of would then stabilize the platelet plug. The vascular
hemostasis: the primary and secondary hemostatic sys- endothelial injury may occur by endothelial cell injury,
tems. Primary hemostasis refers to the process by which atherosclerosis, hyperhomocysteinemia, or other disor-
the platelet plug is formed at the site of injury, while ders that may interfere with arterial blood flow. In can-
secondary hemostasis is defined as the interaction of cer patients, vascular endothelial cell injury may occur
coagulation factors to generate a cross-linked fibrin clot as a result of the toxic effect of chemotherapeutic drugs.
to stabilize the platelet plug to form physiological
thrombosis.
Physiological thrombosis results from the body’s Platelet Abnormalities
natural response to vascular injury. It is localized and is Platelets are the main components of arterial thrombo-
formed to prevent excess blood loss. Pathological sis. As platelets interact with the injured vessels, platelet
thrombosis includes deep venous thrombosis, arterial adhesion and aggregation occur. In normal hemostasis,
thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism. Pathological excess platelet activation is prevented by antiplatelet
thrombosis may be caused by acquired or inherited activities of endothelial cells such as generation of
conditions. Arterial thrombosis is primarily composed prostacyclin. In the disease state, excess platelet activa-
of platelets with small amounts of fibrin and red and tion can reflect thromboembolic disease or exacerba-
white cells. This clot may be also referred to as the tion of thrombotic episodes.1
CHAPTER 19 • Introduction to Thrombosis and Anticoagulant Therapy 283
Physical
Table 19.2 ¢ Conditions Associated
With Inherited
Thrombosis
Inherited Thrombophilia Thrombosis
• Protein C deficiency
• Protein S deficiency
Acquired • Antithrombin deficiency
• Prothrombin G20210A
• APCR
Figure 19.1 Risk factors for thrombosis. • Hyperhomocysteinemia
• Elevated factor VIII
• Factor XII deficiency
Coagulation Abnormalities
Risk factors associated with hypercoagulability can be
divided into environmental, acquired, or inherited fac- hemostatic regulation in favor of increased risk of
tors1,2 (Fig. 19.1) . thrombosis.
Environmental factors are linked to transient con-
ditions that may result from surgery, immobilization, Fibrinolytic Abnormalities
and pregnancy or therapeutic complications associated
with oral contraceptives, hormone replacement ther- The function of the fibrinolytic system is the breakdown
apy, chemotherapy, and heparin treatment. of fibrin clots. As in the coagulation system, the fibri-
Acquired risk factors are associated with condi- nolytic system is controlled by a specific group of
tions that hinder normal hemostasis such as cancer, inhibitors. Plasmin is an activated form of plasminogen
nephrotic syndrome, vasculitis, antiphospholipid anti- and has a primary role in fibrin breakdown. Plasmin is
bodies, myeloproliferative disease, hyperviscosity syn- inhibited by alpha-2-antiplasmin (the main inhibitor of
drome, and others1 (Table 19.1). Inherited risk factors plasmin), alpha-2-macroglobulin, alpha-1-antitrypsin,
are associated with genetic mutations that result in AT, and C1 esterase. Plasminogen activation is also
deficiency of naturally occurring inhibitors such as pro- inhibited by proteins such as plasminogen activator
tein C, protein S, or antithrombin (AT); accumulation of inhibitors I, II, and 3 (PAI-1, PAI-2, and PAI-3).3 A
procoagulant factor as in prothrombin G20210A1,3; or decrease in fibrinolytic activities, in particular decreased
clotting factor resistance to anticoagulant activities of levels of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and elevated
physiological inhibitors as in activated protein C resist- levels of PAI-1, results in impairment of fibrinolysis in
ance (APCR) (Table 19.2). These conditions disturb the vivo, resulting in arterial and venous thrombosis.1
Antithrombotic Factors
(Coagulation Inhibitors)
Table 19.1 ¢ Conditions Associated
Antithrombotic factors are plasma proteins that inter-
With Acquired fere with the clotting factors and therefore prevent
Thrombosis thrombin formation and thrombosis. Three types of
• Cancer
naturally occurring inhibitors are AT, prothrombin
• Surgery (especially orthopedic surgery) cofactor II, and protein C.
• Liver disease
• Immobility Antithrombin
• Nephritic syndrome
• DIC AT is a plasma protein made in the liver. AT neutralizes
• Pregnancy the activities of thrombin (IIa), IXa, Xa, XIa, and XIIa.
• Antiphospholipid antibodies The inhibitory action of AT against clotting factors is
• Drugs slow; however, its activity is markedly increased when
• Others AT binds to heparin (Fig. 19.2). AT deficiency is associ-
ated with thrombosis.1,2,4
Protein S is a vitamin K–dependent protein made

AT HEPARIN
in the liver that is necessary for activation of protein C.
Once protein C is activated, it will deactivate cofactors
Va and VIIIa. Deficiencies of proteins C and S are associ-
AT HEPARIN ated with thrombosis.
Complex
Serine THROMBOTIC DISORDERS

Protease
Inherited Thrombotic Disorders
Serine AT HEPARIN
Inherited thrombotic disorders are associated with
Protease genetic mutations that result in deficiencies of one or
more of the naturally occurring inhibitors such as AT,
Figure 19.2 Effect of antithrombin on serine proteases.
heparin cofactor II, protein C, and protein S. Increased
procoagulant factor such as in prothrombin G20210A
Heparin Cofactor II mutation is associated with thrombosis. Other causes
Heparin cofactor II is another coagulation inhibitor. It for inherited thrombotic disorders are AT, proteins C
acts against thrombin, and it is heparin dependent. and S deficiencies, factor V Leiden, or an inherited form
Heparin cofactor deficiency alone is not associated with of hyperhomocysteinemia caused by an enzyme defi-
thrombosis.1 ciency (see Table 19.2).
Protein C and Protein S Antithrombin Deficiency

Protein C is a vitamin K–dependent protein made in the AT deficiency was first discovered in 1965.1 This disor-
liver. Protein C circulates in the form of zymogen. Pro- der is inherited as an autosomal dominant disorder. It
tein C should be activated to a serine protease (activated has been reported that 1 in 600 people have AT defi-
protein C) in order to exert its inhibitory effects against ciency.1 There are two types of AT deficiencies: type I
the clotting factors. Protein C is activated by the action and type II. Type I is a quantitative disorder in which
of thrombin-thrombomodulin complex and protein S there is a reduction in the concentration of AT. Type II is
as a cofactor1,2,4 (Fig. 19.3). a qualitative disorder in which the concentration of AT
is normal but the molecule is functionally abnormal.
Deficiency of AT is associated with recurrent venous
Thrombin
thrombosis, which may include almost every vein site.1
The thrombotic event may be primary (in the absence of
triggering factors) or may be followed by another risk
Factor VIII Factor V factor such as pregnancy, surgery, or any other acquired
factors. Acquired AT deficiency may be associated with
DIC, liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, oral contracep-
tives, and pregnancy.1
Factor VIIIa Factor Va
APC APC Heparin Cofactor II Deficiency
Protein S Protein S
APC Heparin cofactor II was first discovered in 1974.3
Heparin cofactor II is inherited as an autosomal domi-
nant trait. It is a heparin-dependent factor whose
inhibitory effect is primarily against thrombin. Many
Protein C
studies have shown the heparin cofactor deficiency
alone is not associated with thrombosis.1
Thrombin
Thrombomodulin Protein C Deficiency

Protein C deficiency is inherited as an autosomal domi-
Endothelial cell
nant trait. Similar to AT deficiency, there are two types
Figure 19.3 Protein C pathway. of protein C deficiencies: type I (quantitative defi-
ciency) and type II (qualitative deficiency). Type I defi- factor V, Arg506Gln, referred to as factor V Leiden.1 Fac-
ciency is the most common form and is associated with tor V Leiden is the most common inherited cause for
both reduction of immunologic and functional activity thrombosis in the white population of northern and
of protein C to 50% of normal. Type II is characterized western Europe. In the United States, factor V Leiden is
by a normal amount of an abnormal protein.4 More than seen in 6% of whites.1 The homozygous form of factor V
160 different protein C mutations has been reported Leiden has a 80-fold increased risk of thrombosis, while
between the two types.1,4 Most of the mutations are mis- heterozygous carriers have a 2- to 10-fold increase in
sense or nonsense mutations. The most common com- thrombosis.1 Recall that factors V and VIII are inacti-
plications associated with protein C deficiency are vated by the protein C–protein S complex. Mutated fac-
venous thromboembolism in heterozygous adults. tor V, factor V Leiden, is not inactivated and leads to
Other reported complications are arterial thrombosis, excessive clot formation. The thrombotic risks are fur-
neonatal purpura fulminans in homozygous new- ther increased if other inherited or acquired risk factors
borns, and warfarin-induced skin necrosis.1 coexist. The thrombotic complications associated with
Many studies show that most patients with protein factor V Leiden are venous thromboembolism (VTE).
C deficiency alone are asymptomatic.1 This finding Another reported complication is recurrent miscar-
indicates that thrombotic episodes may be provoked by riage. Factor V Leiden has also been reported as a risk
some additional inherited or acquired risk factors in factor for myocardial infarction. Smoking increases the
these patients. Acquired protein C deficiency may be risk of thrombosis to 30-fold in individuals who have
associated with vitamin K deficiency, liver disease, mal- factor V Leiden.1 Other causes of activated protein C
nutrition, DIC, and warfarin therapy.1 (8%) are related to pregnancy, oral contraceptives, can-
cer, and other acquired disorders (Fig. 19.4).
Protein S Deficiency
Laboratory Diagnosis of APCR
Protein S deficiency was discovered in 1984.1 It is inher- APCR may be evaluated by coagulation assays, which
ited in an autosomal dominant fashion. Protein S circu- include a two-part aPTT test. The principle of the test is
lates in plasma in two forms: free (40%) and bound to the inhibition of factor Va by APC, which will cause pro-
C4b-binding protein (60%). The cofactor activity of prolongation of aPTT. Therefore, the aPTT is performed on
tein S is carried primarily by free protein S. As with AT patient plasma with and without APC. The results are
and protein C, protein S deficiency is divided into two expressed in a ratio.1
types. Type I is a quantitative disorder in which total pro-
tein S (free and bound), free protein S, and protein S Patient aPTT ⫹ APC
activity levels are reduced to about 50% of normal.1 Type ᎏᎏᎏ
Patient aPTT ⫺ APC
II protein S is a qualitative disorder deficiency and is
divided into type IIa and type IIb. In type IIa protein S
deficiency, free protein S is reduced while total protein S
is normal. In type IIb, both free and total protein S levels VII V
are normal .1 Type IIb protein S deficiency has been
reported in patients with factor V Leiden. Similar to pro-
tein C deficiency, many patients with thrombosis have
additional inherited or acquired risk factors.1 Most VIIa Va
patients with protein S deficiency may experience
venous thrombosis. However, arterial thrombosis has
been reported in 25% of patients with protein S defi- APCR APCR
ciency.1 Acquired protein S deficiency may be associated
with vitamin K deficiency, liver disease, and DIC. APC
Activated Protein C Resistance (Factor V Leiden)

APCR is an autosomal dominant disorder discovered in
1993.1,4 APCR was found in 20% to 60% of patients Protein C
with recurrent thrombosis with no previously recog- +
Thrombin/Thrombomodulin Complex
nized inherited thrombotic disorder. The majority of
cases (92%) are inherited and caused by mutation of Figure 19.4 Activated protein C resistance pathway.
Reference ranges vary from lab to lab but in gen- Hyperhomocysteinemia can be inherited or
eral the normal ratio is 2 or greater. A range of ⬍2 is acquired. Homocysteine is an amino acid formed dur-
diagnostic. ing the conversion of methionine to cysteine. Hyperho-
aPTT is decreased when is APC is added to the mocysteinemia results from either deficiencies of the
normal plasma. Plasma from patients with APCR has enzymes necessary for production of homocysteine
a lower ratio than the reference ranges established (inherited form) or deficiencies of vitamin cofactors (B6,
for normal patients. A DNA test is available to con- B12, and folate) in an acquired form. Increased levels of
firm the specific point mutation in patients with factor homocysteine in the blood are reported to be a risk fac-
V Leiden. tor for stroke, MI, and thrombotic disorder.1,3
Disorders of the fibrinolytic system such as plas-
Prothrombin Mutations minogen deficiency, tPA deficiency, and increased
plasminogen activator inhibitor are associated with
Prothrombin mutation (G20210A) is the second most
thrombotic disease.1
prevalent cause of an inherited form of hypercoagula-
bility. It is caused by a single point mutation. It is an
Acquired Thrombotic Disorders
autosomal dominant disorder that causes an increase in
concentration of plasma prothrombin. The risk of There are many situations that may lead to acquired
venous thromboembolism increases as the plasma pro- thrombotic disorders. They may be associated with
thrombin level increases to a level greater than 115 underlying diseases such as cancer, surgery, liver dis-
IU/dL.1 As with factor V Leiden, prothrombin mutation ease, nephrotic syndrome, DIC, pregnancy, and vitamin
tends to follow a geographic and ethnic distribution K deficiency. Drugs such as oral contraceptives or
with the highest prevalence in whites from southern hormone replacement therapy may predispose to
Europe. About half of the cases are reported in northern thrombosis.
Europe.1
Similar to factor V Leiden, the thrombotic episodes Lupus Anticoagulant/Antiphospholipid Syndrome
develop early before the age of 40.1
The antiphospholipid (aPL) syndrome is an acquired
disorder in which patients produce antibodies to
Other Inherited Thrombotic Disorders phospholipids binding protein known as beta-2-
Elevated activity levels of factor VIII are associated with glycoprotein I (␤2GPI) or apolipoprotein (aPL).5 Clini-
VTE. It has been reported that if factor VIII activity is cal manifestations of aPL antibodies are associated with
greater than 150%, the risk for VTE increases to 3-fold, thrombosis and fetal losses. The IgG2 subtype of aPL is
and if the activity is greater than 200%, the thrombotic usually associated with thrombosis. Thrombotic
risk increases to 11-fold.1 Factor XII deficiency is also episodes include venous and arterial thrombosis and
associated with thrombosis. thromboembolism. The usual age at the time of throm-
Factor XII is a contact factor that initiates the bosis is generally about 35 to 45. Men and women are
intrinsic pathway activation. Patients with factor XII equally affected.5 Thrombosis may occur spontaneously
deficiency will have a prolonged aPTT but no bleeding or may be associated with other predisposing factors
problem. Factor XII plays a major role in the fibri- such as hormone replacement therapy, oral contracep-
nolytic system and in activation of plasminogen to plas- tives, surgery, or trauma. A small number of patients
min. Therefore, patients with factor XII deficiency with aPL antibodies may manifest bleeding if there is a
would have an impaired fibrinolysis and are prone to concurrent thrombocytopenia or coagulopathy such as
thrombosis.3 hypoprothrombinemia.5
Dysfibrinogenemia is an inherited abnormality of The most common form of aPL antibodies are
the fibrinogen molecule with variable clinical presenta- lupus anticoagulant (LA) and anticardiolipin (ACA).
tion. Twenty percent of cases may present arterial or The thrombotic manifestations may be primary (inde-
venous thrombosis. Bleeding has been reported in 20% pendent autoimmune disorder) or secondary (associ-
of cases, and 60% of patients may be asymptomatic.3 ated with other autoimmune disorders such as systemic
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) deficiency is lupus erythematosus [SLE]). In vitro, LA acts against
another marker for thrombosis. TFPI plays an important phospholipid-dependent coagulation assays such as
role in prevention of clot formation. It inhibits factor Xa aPTT, which was not corrected with 1:1 mix with nor-
and factor VIIa–TF complex.3 The deficiency of this mal plasma.4,5 This will be explained in the next sec-
inhibitor is associated with thromboembolic disorder. tion. Patients with aPL antibodies may present with
thrombosis and fetal loss. Bleeding is uncommon,

unless the patient has thrombocytopenia or decreased Antibodies
prothrombin as well.
Laboratory Assays for PF4 + Heparin

Antiphospholipid Antibodies
Common tests used to detect lupus anticoagulants are
aPTT, Kaolin clotting time (KCCT), dilute Russell viper
venom test (DRVVT), and dilute PT. For both a pro- Platelet activation
longed aPTT and DRVVT, a mixing study should be
performed. In a mixing study, the patient plasma is
mixed with normal plasma and the test is repeated. In
the presence of lupus anticoagulant the mixing study PF4 release
does not correct to normal. Lupus anticoagulant is con-
firmed by the addition of excess platelets (platelet Figure 19.5 Pathophysiology of HIT.
neutralization test or hexagonal phase phospholipids
[DVV Confirm]).4,6. The International Society of Hemo- apy. About 36% to 50% of patients with HIT develop
stasis and Thrombosis has recommended four criteria life-threatening thrombosis. The thrombotic tendency
for the diagnosis of lupus anticoagulants: (1) prolonga- can last for at least 30 days.1 Venous thrombosis
tion of a phospholipid-dependent test, (2) evidence (extremity venous thrombosis) is more common than
for the presence of an inhibitor (mixing study), (3) arterial thrombosis. Other complications of HIT
evidence that the inhibitor is directed against phos- include thrombocytopenia, heparin-induced skin
pholipids (confirmatory test), and (4) lack of any other lesions (10% to 20% of patients), and heparin resist-
specific inhibitor (Table 19.3). Other factors that are ance.1 The pathogenesis of HIT is that antibodies are
helpful in the diagnosis of lupus anticoagulants are produced against heparin–platelet factor 4 complex.
the clinical presentation since these patients lack bleed- This immune complex binds to platelet FC receptors,
ing. Lupus anticoagulant may coexist with anticardi- causing platelet activation, formation of platelet
olipin antibodies in patients presenting with an microparticles, thrombocytopenia, and hypercoagula-
acquired thrombosis and fetal loss. Therefore, the ble state (Fig. 19.5).
test for ACLA is recommended as well. ACLAs are HIT is independent of dosage or route of adminis-
detected by the ELISA method.6 Other detectable anti- tration of heparin. This condition should be suspected
bodies are anti–␤2GPI.6 in any patient whose platelet count falls below 50% of
the baseline value after 5 days of heparin treatment1 and
Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia in patients who develop thrombosis with or without
HIT is an immune-mediated complication associated thrombocytopenia during heparin therapy.1
with heparin therapy. HIT may develop in 3% to 5%
Laboratory Diagnosis of HIT
of patients receiving unfractionated heparin.1 HIT usu-
Laboratory diagnosis of HIT includes functional assays
ally develops between 5 and 14 days after heparin ther-
or immunoassays. Functional assays measure platelet
activation or aggregation in the presence of HIT serum
and heparin. Functional assays include heparin-
induced platelet aggregation, heparin-induced platelet
Table 19.3 ¢ Criteria for the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release by lumiaggre-
Diagnosis of Lupus gometry, 14C-serotonin release assay (14C-SRA) release
Anticoagulant by ELISA, and platelet microparticle formation by flow
cytometry. Heparin-platelet factor 4 antibodies are
• Prolongation of at least one phospholipid-
dependent tests
detected by ELISA. When HIT is suspected, heparin
• Lack of correction of mixing studies should be stopped immediately and be replaced by
• Correction of the abnormal result with the addition alternative anticoagulant drugs (danaparoid, arga-
of excess phospholipids troban). Warfarin should be avoided in the acute phase
• Lack of any other specific inhibitor of thrombosis because it may cause venous limb gan-
grene.1 Patients receiving heparin should have a base-
line platelet count and platelet monitoring every third drugs, anticoagulant drugs, and thrombolytic drugs.
day between 5 and 14 days.1 Antiplatelet drugs prevent platelet activation and aggre-
gation and are most effective in the treatment of the
arterial diseases. Anticoagulant drugs inhibit thrombin
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS FOR
and fibrin formation and are used commonly for the
THROMBOTIC DISORDERS
treatment of venous thrombosis. Thrombolytic drugs
The availability of a wide range of assays to evaluate the are used to break down fibrin clots, to restore vascular
hypercoagulable state has enhanced the diagnosis of function, and to prevent loss of tissues and organs.
inherited and acquired thrombotic events. However,
the assays are expensive and time consuming. These
Antiplatelet Drugs
laboratory tests should be considered for patients in
whom the test results will impact the choice, intensity, There are numerous agents used against platelets.
and duration of anticoagulant therapy, family planning, Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is an antiplatelet drug that
and prognosis.1 irreversibly affects platelet function by inhibiting the
The clinical events that justify laboratory evalua- cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme and thereby the forma-
tion of hypercoagulable states are listed in Table 19.4. tion of thromboxane A2 (TXA2). TXA2 is a potent
Patients who lack a positive family history should be platelet-activating substance released from the activated
evaluated for an acquired form of thrombosis such as platelets. Aspirin is rapidly absorbed from the gastroin-
malignancy, myeloproliferative disorders, and aPL anti- testinal tract and the plasma concentration is at peak 1
bodies.1,7 Laboratory assays should not be done at the hour after aspirin ingestion.1 The effect of aspirin on
time of acute thrombosis or when the patient is receiv- platelets starts 1 hour after ingestion and lasts for the
ing any anticoagulant therapy because it may affect the entire platelet life span (approximately 1 week).1
results of the assays.1 Levels of fibrin degradation prod- Aspirin is effective in the treatment of angina, acute MI,
ucts and (D-dimer) are increased in patients with acute transient ischemic attack, stroke, arterial fibrillation,
venous thromboembolism. Lack of elevated D-dimer in and prostatic heart valve. The minimum effective
patients evaluated for acute DVT or PE has an excellent dosage for these conditions is 75 to 325 mg/day.1
negative predictive value for thrombosis.1 Aspirin toxicity includes gastrointestinal discomfort,
Functional tests are preferred over immunologic blood loss, and the risk of systemic bleeding. A low dose
assays. The screening laboratory tests used for evalua- of aspirin (30 to 75 mg/day) has shown to have an
tion of patients suspected of having a hypercoagulable antithrombotic effect.1 Some patients may develop
state are summarized in Table 19.5. aspirin resistance. Patients who become resistant to
aspirin have a higher rate of heart attacks and strokes.
Aspirin resistance can be evaluated by platelet aggrega-
ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY tion tests.
Thromboembolic diseases are treated by antithrom- Other antiplatelet drugs include dipyridamole,
botic drugs. Antithrombotic agents include antiplatelet thienopyridines, ticlopidine, and clopidogrel.1
Table 19.4 ¢ Conditions That Table 19.5 ¢ Screening Laboratory

Require Evaluation for Tests for Hyper-
Hypercoagulable States coagulable State
• Recurrent thrombosis in patients ⬍45 years old • Activated protein C resistance
• Patients with a positive family history • Functional assays for antithrombin, protein C, and
• Recurrent spontaneous thromboses protein S
• Thrombosis in unusual sites • Prothrombin G20210A by polymerase chain reaction
• Heparin resistance • APTT, DRVVT, mixing studies, and confirmatory test
• Proteins C and S deficiency for lupus anticoagulant
• Thrombosis associated with pregnancy and estrogen • Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for anticardi-
therapy olipin antibody
• Unexplained recurrent pregnancy loss • Factor VIII activity
Anticoagulant Drugs by FDA, are heparinoids, Lepirudin (recombinant

hirudin), Fon daparinux (pentasaccharides), Arga-
Anticoagulant drugs are used for the prevention and
troban, and Bivalirudin.
treatment of thromboembolic disorders. Short-term
anticoagulant drugs such as heparin are administered
by intravenous infusion or subcutaneous injection. Coumadin
Long-term anticoagulant drugs such as Coumadin are Coumadin is a vitamin K antagonist drug that inhibits
orally administered. the vitamin K–dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin
is a Coumadin derivative that is widely used in the
Heparin United States as an oral anticoagulant drug. Warfarin
Heparin is present in human tissue as naturally occur- inhibits carboxylation of the vitamin K–dependent fac-
ring highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan. Commercially tors (II, VII, IX, X) as well as vitamin K–dependent anti-
unfractionated heparin (UFH) is isolated from bovine coagulant proteins such as protein C and protein S. The
lung or porcine intestine. It contains a mixture of poly- half-life of warfarin is about 36 hours.1 Warfarin is given
saccharide chains with a molecular weight of 4000 to orally as a long-term anticoagulant. Warfarin dosage
30,000 daltons.1 Heparin sulfate is a heparin-like sub- varies from patient to patient and depends on dietary
stance made by the vascular endothelium. The antico- stores of vitamin K, liver function, preexisting medical
agulant activity of heparin is enhanced by binding to conditions, and concurrent medications. Warfarin
AT. Heparin–AT complex inactivates thrombin and fac- therapy is monitored by PT/international normalized
tor Xa (see Fig. 19.2). ratio (INR).
The half-life of heparin is dose dependent. The INR is a method to standardize PT assays
Heparin is cleared from the circulation by the reticu- against differences in commercial thromboplastin
loendothelial system and metabolized by the liver.1 reagent.10 The INR was established by the World Health
Heparin is given in a weight-adjusted dosage with an Organization (WHO).1 Each thromboplastin reagent is
initial bolus (high dose) followed by continuous infu- calibrated against a WHO reference preparation. The
sion (lower dose). INR is calculated using the following formula: INR ⫽
Heparin dosage is monitored by aPTT value to (PT ratio)ISI, where ISI refers to the international sensi-
range from 1.5 to 2.5 times the mean of the laboratory tivity index, which is calculated for each thromboplas-
normal ranges. This level of aPTT is equivalent to tin reagent against a reference thromboplastin reagent.1
heparin levels of 0.3 to 0.7 U/mL that can be measured According to the American College of Chest Physi-
by factor Xa activity assay.1,8 cians’ consensus panel, the therapeutic range of INR is
The adverse effects of heparin include bleeding, 2.0 to 3.0 for the treatment of venous thromboem-
HIT, and heparin resistance. Heparin resistance may bolism. For prosthetic mechanical heart valves and pre-
occur as a result of nonspecific binding of heparin to vention of recurrent MI, a higher dose of warfarin is
plasma proteins, platelets, and endothelial cells or as a required to attain an INR of 2.5 to 3.5.1
result of AT deficiency. The most common adverse effect of Coumadin
therapy is bleeding, which is directly dose related.10
Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin Patients with an INR of greater than 3.0 are at the higher
risk of bleeding. Warfarin crosses the placenta and
Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) is derived
therefore should be avoided during pregnancy. Another
from the UFH via enzymatic digestion to produce
rare but devastating complication of warfarin therapy is
smaller and low-molecular-weight glycosaminoglycan
skin necrosis. This phenomenon mostly occurs in
molecules. The mean weight of LMWH is about 5000
patients who receive high doses of warfarin and may
daltons.1 LMWH has a higher half-life and has low affin-
have heterozygous protein C deficiency.1 Skin necrosis
ity to bind to plasma proteins and endothelial cells.1,9
is caused by the rapid drop in protein C in patients who
The half-life of the drug is not dose dependent. LMWH
have preexisting protein C deficiency resulting in a
is administered subcutaneously, once or twice daily
thrombotic state.1
based on the body’s weight, and does not require
monitoring.1 LMWH has a higher inhibitory effect on
factor Xa than on factor IIa.9 LMWH is cleared by Thrombolytic Drugs
the kidney. The adverse reaction of LMWH includes Thrombolytic drugs are commonly used in acute arte-
bleeding, HIT, or sensitivity to LMWH. The LMWH rial thrombosis for immediate thrombolysis, restoration
drugs available in the United States, which are approved of vascular integrity, and prevention of tissue and organ
damage. Most fibrinolytic drugs are made by recombi- nase is not fibrin specific, and because it is antigenic, it
nant techniques and are fashioned after tPA and uroki- may cause allergic reactions.
nase. Urokinase is not fibrin specific and causes Bleeding is the most common complication associ-
hypofibrinogenemia by the breakdown of fibrinogen. ated with thrombolytic drugs. Thrombolytic therapy
Urokinase can be used for the treatment of venous does not require monitoring, however, prior screening
thromboembolism, MI, and thrombolysis of clotted tests such as PT, aPTT, TT, fibrinogen, and platelet
catheters.1 Streptokinase is a thrombolytic agent count may be helpful to predict patients who are at high
obtained from beta-hemolytic streptococci. Streptoki- risk of bleeding.3
CONDENSED CASE
A technical representative for a reference laboratory experienced severe pain behind his left knee 1 day after a visit to
one of his laboratory accounts. He tried to pass it off as muscle pain because of a recent basketball game, but walking
became difficult for him. Over the next 24 hours, he noticed that the area of pain became swollen, red, and even more
sensitive. What is your clinical impression?
Answer
This patient may be experiencing deep vein thrombosis. Upon further questioning, it was discovered that the patient
had done significant highway driving during the week; most of the time keeping his left knee in a bent position. He
eventually went to the emergency department, where the thrombosis was diagnosed. His PT and aPTT results were
normal, but his D-dimer results were higher than the normal range. A venogram demonstrated a clot behind the left
knee. The patient was treated appropriately and started on a regimen of Coumadin with careful outpatient monitoring.
Summary Points • Thromboembolism is formed when clot is dislodged

from the origination site and filtered out in the pul-
• Hypercoagulability refers to conditions that predis-
monary circulation.
pose an individual to thrombosis.
• Physiological anticoagulant is plasma protein and
• Risk factors associated with hypercoagulability can
includes antithrombin, heparin cofactor II, protein
be divided into those that are environmental,
C, and protein S.
acquired, or inherited.
• Antithrombin is made in the liver. It inhibits factors
• Thrombosis is the formation of blood clots in IIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, and XIIa. Heparin increases the
the vasculature. Thrombosis can be arterial or inhibitory action of antithrombin.
venous.
• Protein C is a vitamin K–dependent protein made in
• Arterial thrombosis is mainly composed of platelets the liver. Protein C is activated by thrombin-throm-
with small amount of red cells and white cells, bomodulin complex. Protein S is a cofactor for acti-
whereas venous thrombosis is composed of fibrin vation of protein C. Activated protein C deactivates
clot and red cells factors Va and VIIIa.
• Thrombosis may result from vascular injury, platelet • Inherited risk factors are associated with genetic
activation, coagulation activation, defect in fibri- mutations that result in deficiency of naturally
nolytic system, and defect in physiological inhibitors. occurring inhibitors such as protein C, protein S,
• Physiological thrombosis results from the body’s nat- or antithrombin; accumulation of procoagulant fac-
ural response to vascular injury. It is localized and is tors as in prothrombin G20210A; or clotting factor
formed to prevent excess blood loss. resistance to anticoagulant activities of physiological
• Pathological thrombosis includes deep venous inhibitors as in activated protein C resistance.
thrombosis, arterial thrombosis, and pulmonary • The majority (92%) of activated protein C resistance
embolism. Pathological thrombosis may be caused cases are inherited and are caused by mutation of
by acquired or inherited conditions. factor V Arg506Gln, referred to as factor V Leiden.
• Acquired thrombotic disorders are associated with • Antithrombotic drugs include antiplatelet drugs,
underlying diseases or drugs. anticoagulant drugs, and thrombolytic drugs.
• Antiphospholipid syndrome is caused by antibodies • Aspirin is an antiplatelet drug that inhibits the
against phospholipid-dependent coagulation assays cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme and therefore pre-
such as aPTT, which was not corrected with 1:1 mix vents formation of thromboxane A2 (TXA2). TXA2
with normal plasma. The most common form of aPL is a potent platelet-activating substance released
antibodies are lupus anticoagulant (LA) and anticar- from the activated platelets.
diolipin (ACA). • Heparin is a short-term anticoagulant drug. It is
• Laboratory tests for LA include aPTT or dRRVT; administered intravenously or intramuscularly.
mixing studies, and confirmatory studies. • Heparin dosage is monitored by aPTT value to range
Anticardiolipin antibodies are tested by from 1.5 to 2.5 times the mean of the laboratory
ELISA. control.
• Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an • Coumadin is a vitamin K antagonist drug that
immune-mediated thrombotic complication inhibits the vitamin K–dependent coagulation fac-
associated with heparin therapy. The antibody tors (II, VII, IX, and X).
is produced against heparin–platelet factor 4 • Coumadin is an oral anticoagulant that is adminis-
complexes. tered as a long-term anticoagulant. It is monitored
• Diagnostic tests for HIT include heparin-dependent by PT/INR.
platelet activation assays and detection of the anti- • Thrombolytic drugs include tPA, urokinase, and
body by ELISA. streptokinase.
CASE STUDY
A 30-year-old woman was referred to the hospital for evaluation. She presented with a history of multiple spontaneous
abortions. She is currently complaining of pain and swelling in her left thigh. Her family history and her past medical
history were unremarkable. The patient is currently on oral contraceptives. The patient’s laboratory results were as
follows:
WBC 8.0 ⫻ 109/L (Reference range, 4.4 to 11.0)
RBC 4.7 ⫻ 1012/L (Reference range, 4.1 to 5.1)
Hgb 14.0 g/dL (Reference range, 12.3 to 15.3)
Hct 43% (Reference range, 36 to 450)
Platelets 250 ⫻ 109/L (Reference range, 150 to 4000)
aPTT 52 seconds (Reference range, 34 to 38)
dRVVT Prolonged
aPTT 1:1 mixing study Not corrected immediately and after 2 hours’ incubation
dRVV confirm Corrected
ACA Present
The diagnosis of lupus anticoagulant was made based on the physical findings, patient’s history, and the laboratory
results. Physical finding reveals that the patient had had multiple fetal losses and had pain and swelling in her thigh
at the time of medical evaluation. The lack of a positive family history with thrombosis ruled out any inherited throm-
botic disorder. Platelet count was normal, indicating that the thrombotic episodes are not related to any cause of
platelet activation.
aPTT and dRVVT were both prolonged; however, the patient did not have any bleeding problems. A prolonged
aPTT and dRVVT in the absence of bleeding ruled out any clotting factor deficiency. Mixing study with normal plasma
differentiates factor deficiency from an inhibitor. Lack of bleeding rules out factor VIII inhibitor. Lupus anticoagulant is

(Continued)
against in vitro phospholipid-dependent tests. In dRVVT confirmatory tests, excess phospholipids are added to the test
system to neutralize the lupus antibodies and therefore correct the prolonged dRVVT initially done. The platelet neutral-
ization test is another confirmatory test used for confirmation of lupus anticoagulant. This test is used for correction of
a prolonged aPTT in patients with lupus anticoagulant. Lupus anticoagulant belongs to a group of antibodies called
antiphospholipid antibodies (ACA), which include lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies. Lupus anticoag-
ulant may coexist with ACA in some patients. Therefore, it is important to test for both antibodies when lupus anticoag-
ulant is suspected. The ACA antibody can be detected by ELISA and was positive in this patient. This patient was put on
Coumadin treatment and was monitored by INR.
Review Questions
1. The primary inhibitor of the fibrinolytic system is: c. mutation of factor V.
a. antiplasmin. d. deletion of factor VIII.
b. protein S.
7. Thrombin-thrombomodulin complex is necessary
c. antithrombin.
for:
d. protein C.
a. activation of protein C.
2. Dilute Russell’s Viper Venom test (dRVVT) is help- b. activation of antithrombin.
ful in the diagnosis of: c. activation of protein S.
a. HIT. d. activation of factors V and VIII.
b. factor VIII inhibitor.
8. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is caused by:
c. lupus anticoagulant.
a. antibody to platelet factor 4.
d. ACA.
b. antibody to heparin–platelet factor 4 complex.
3. The lupus anticoagulant is directed against: c. lupus anticoagulant.
a. phospholipid-dependent coagulation tests. d. antibody to heparin.
b. factor VIII.
9. Which of the following drugs would put an indi-
c. fibrinogen.
vidual at risk for thrombosis?
d. vitamin K–dependent clotting factors.
a. Aspirin
4. Which statement is correct regarding Coumadin? b. Dipyridamole
a. It is used for the treatment of bleeding disor- c. Streptokinase
ders. d. Oral contraceptives
b. It acts on factors XII, XI, IX, and X.
10. Which of the following results are correct regard-
c. It is used for a short-term therapy.
ing lupus inhibitors?
d. It acts on vitamin K–dependent clotting factors.
a. Prolonged aPTT on undiluted plasma and 1:1
5. Which statement is correct regarding protein C? mix of patient plasma with normal plasma
a. It is a cofactor to protein S. b. Corrected aPTT on a 1:1 mix of patient plasma
b. Its activity is inhibited by heparin. with normal plasma after 2 hours’ incubation
c. It forms a complex with antithrombin. c. Normal undiluted aPTT and prolonged aPTT
d. It is a physiological inhibitor of coagulation. on a 1:1 mix of patient plasma with normal
plasma
6. Activated protein C resistance is associated with:
d. Normal undiluted aPTT and 1:1 mix of patient
a. mutation of factor VIII.
plasma with normal plasma
b. deletion of factor VI.
¢ TROUBLESHOOTING
What Do I Do When the Lab Results Indicate range is 1.5 to 2.5 times the mean of the normal range
That the Patient Is Not Responding to Heparin? set by the institution. In the case study, the patient’s
A coagulation sample from the intensive care unit was PTT is virtually unchanged even after 48 hours of
given to the laboratory on the evening shift. The patient heparin therapy. There are several possibilities for this
had experienced multiple trauma due to an automobile scenario. The first possibility that comes to mind is to
accident. He had multiple fractures and internal check the sample for small clots; although most auto-
injuries. His condition was grave. Heparin therapy was mated coagulation instruments have a clot-sensing
initiated as a result of the multiple trauma. The patient’s device. There were no clots in this sample. An addi-
admitting PT and aPTT was in the normal range: PT ⫽ tional possibility is that the patient has an antithrombin
12.0 seconds (11 to 14 seconds) and PTT ⫽ 26 seconds deficiency in which case heparin as an anticoagulant
(24 to 36 seconds). The most recent coagulation sam- would not be effective. However, patients with an
ple, 2 days from the patient’s admission, shows a PTT of antithrombin deficiency are usually prone to clot for-
32 seconds. The intensive care unit asked for the sam- mation, and there were no indications of this in the
ple to be repeated since the patient had been on patient’s history. Next is the possibility of heparin-
heparin for 48 hours. induced thrombocytopenia, a condition in which
This case illustrates some of the difficulties with unfractionated heparin forms a complex with platelet
heparin therapy. Heparin was discovered in 1916 as a factor IV, causing thrombocytopenia, thrombosis,
polysaccharide found in the liver. It binds to anti- and heparin resistance. This is a significant complica-
thrombin forming a complex that inhibits the activity tion of heparin therapy that can lead to death. The
of clotting factors II, IX, X, XI and XII. technologist in this case inquired as to the patient’s
The therapeutic anticoagulant is usually adminis- admitting platelet count and referred the informa-
tered intravenously, but it can be given subcutaneously. tion to the pathologist. In follow-up, it was discovered
Patients clear heparin individually at their own rate, that the patient’s platelet count had plummeted
and there is no dose-dependent relationship. The half- from the admitting count of 160,000 to 60,000 in
life of heparin is 90 minutes, and most of the time 3 days. All unfractionated heparin was discontinued
heparin is given in a bolus dose of 5000 to 10,000 including heparin flush of intravenous sites. The
units, depending on the weight of the patient. Heparin patient was started in a heparin alternative therapy and
may be monitored by the PTT and the factor Xa–activ- continued to make slow progress until an eventual
ity curve. If monitored by PTT, the general therapeutic recovery.
WORD KEY References

1. Deitcher SR, Rodgers GM. Thrombosis and antithrom-
Angina •
Oppressive pain or pressure in the chest caused botic therapy. In: Greer JP, et al, eds. Wintrobe’s Clinical
by inadequate blood flow and oxygenation to the heart Hematology, 11th ed, Vol 2. Philadelphia: Lippincott
muscle Williams and Wilkins, 2004: 1714–1750.
2. Goodnight SH, Griffin JH. Hereditary thrombophilia. In:
Atherosclerosis • Cholesterol-lipid-calcium deposits in
Williams WJ, et al, eds. Hematology, 6th ed. New York:
the walls of arteries McGraw-Hill, 2001: 1697–1706.
Fibrillation • Usually refers to a cardiac fluttering due to 3. Ehsan A, Plumley JA. Introduction to thrombosis and
faulty electric supply to the heart anticoagulant therapy. In: Harmening D, ed. Clinical
Hematology and Fundamentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed.
Gangrene • Death of tissue usually resulting from defi- Philadelphia: FA Davis, 2002: 535–558.
cient or absent blood supply 4. Bauer KA. Inherited disorders of thrombosis and fibrinol-
ysis. In: Nathan DG, et al, eds. Hematology of Infancy
Necrosis • Death of cells, tissue, or organs
and Childhood, 6th ed, Vol 2. Philadelphia: WB Saun-
Purpura fulminans • Rapidly progressing form of purpura ders, 2003: 1583–1659.
occurring principally in children; of short duration and fre- 5. Rand JH. Lupus anticoagulant and related disorders. In:
quently fatal Williams WJ, et al, eds. Hematology, 6th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2001: 1715–1727.
• Inflammation of the blood vessels.
Vasculitis
6. Konkle BA, Palermo C. Laboratory evaluation of the
Venogram • Radiograph of the veins hypercoagulable state. In: Spandofer J, Konkle BA, Merli
GJ, eds. Management and Prevention of Thrombosis in 9. Merli G. Prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis and
Primary Care. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001: pulmonary embolism in the surgical and medical
16–25. patient. In: Spandofer J, Konkle BA, Merli GJ, eds.
7. Bauer KA. Approach to thrombosis. In: Loscalzo J, Schafer Management and Prevention of Thrombosis in Primary
AI, eds. Thrombosis and Hemostasis, 3rd ed. Philadel- Care. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001:
phia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2003: 330–340. 135–147.
8. Haire WD. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary 10. Schulman. Oral anticoagulation. In: Williams WJ,
embolus. In: Kitchens CS, Alving BM, Kessler CM, eds. et al, eds. Hematology, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-
Consultative Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Philadelphia: Hill, 2001: 1777–1786.
WB Saunders, 2002: 197–221.
Pa r t V
Laboratory
Procedures

20 Basic Procedures
in a Hematology
Laboratory
Lori Lentowski and Betty Ciesla
Microhematocrit Procedure
Principle Normal Values
Reagents and Equipment Conditions Associated With…
Specimen Collection and Storage Limitations
Quality Control Peripheral Smear Procedure
Procedure Principle
Interpretation Reagents and Equipment
Calculating Red Blood Cell Indices Specimen Collection and Storage
Normal Average Values Quality Control
Modified Westergren Sedimentation Rate Procedure
Principle Limitations
Reagents and Equipment Performing a Manual Differential and
Specimen Collection and Storage Assessing Red Blood Cell Morphology
Quality Control Principle
Procedure Reagents and Equipment
Normal Ranges Specimen Collection and Storage
Limitations Quality Control
Conditions Associated With… Procedure
Manual Reticulocyte Procedure Unopette White Blood Cell/Platelet Count
Principle Principle
Reagents and Equipment Reagents and Equipment
Specimen Collection and Storage Specimen Collection and Storage
Quality Control Quality Control
Procedure Procedure
Normal Values Cell Counts and Calculations
Conditions Associated With… Normal Values
Limitations Limitations
Reticulocyte Procedure With Miller Eye Disc Sickle Cell Procedure
Principle Principle
Reagents and Equipment Reagents and Equipment
Specimen Collection and Storage Specimen Collection and Storage
Quality Control Quality Control
297
298 PART V • Laboratory Procedures
Procedure Qualitative D-Dimer Test

Interpretation of Results and Result Reporting Principle
Limitations Reagents and Equipment
Cerebrospinal Fluid/Body Fluid Cell Count Specimen Collection and Storage
and Differential Quality Control
Principle Procedure
Reagents and Equipment Interpretation
Specimen Collection and Storage Results
Quality Control Limitations
Procedure An Approach to Interpreting Automated
Prothrombin Time and Activated Hematology Data
Partial Thromboplastin Time: Principle
Automated Procedure Instruments
Principle Flow Cytometry: The Basics in Hematology
Reagents and Equipment Interpretation
Specimen Collection and Storage Overview
Quality Control Principles
Procedure Data Interpretation: One Role for the Medical Tech-
Results nologist
Limitations Flow Cytometry Case Studies
The following procedures are representative of basic centrifuged at 10,000 to 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes. Ery-
methods employed in hematology laboratories and have throcytes are packed at the bottom of the capillary tube
been written in Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) and the hematocrit is expressed as a measurement of
format. this level compared to the plasma level. The interface
We hope they will provide a ready reference and between plasma and red cells is marked by a buffy coat
give students the opportunity to preview how a proce- that is composed of leukocytes and platelets. The hema-
dure would be introduced into the clinical setting. In tocrit percentage is read below the buffy coat layer. A
addition to the SOPs, specific manufacturer’s instruc- microhematocrit value can assist in evaluating fluid sta-
tions on instrumentation and reagents would be strictly tus, in clarifying various degrees of anemia, and in mon-
followed in a working clinical laboratory. itoring acute hemorrhagic conditions. The hematocrit
Information on scatterplots and flow cytometry is value is also useful in calculating indices, which in turn
presented at the end of this chapter. This information is can help determine the morphological classification of
fairly basic and serves only to kindle the interest of the anemias.
student and expose them to this subject matter. No
attempt has been made to create comprehensive cover-
age of these areas. Reagents and Equipment
1. Microhematocrit centrifuge (Fig. 20.1)
MICROHEMATOCRIT 2. Microhematocrit reader disk
3. Capillary tubes (Fig. 20.2)
Principle a. Plain-blue tip (for EDTA [ethylenedi-
The hematocrit or packed cell volume measures the aminetetraacetic acid] tubes)
concentration of red blood cells (RBCs) in a given vol- b. Heparinized-red tip (for Microtainer
ume of whole blood in a capillary tube. This volume is specimens)
measured after appropriate centrifugation time and is Note: both types of tubes contain self-sealing
expressed as a percentage of the total blood sample vol- clay
ume. A whole blood sample in an anticoagulated tube is 4. Mechanical rocker
CHAPTER 20 • Basic Procedures in a Hematology Laboratory 299
Procedure
1. Mix EDTA tube by placing on a mechanical
rocker for 3 minutes.
2. After adequate mixing, fill the self-sealing cap-
illary tubes two thirds to three fourths full.
Prepare the tubes in duplicate.
3. Wipe the outside of the capillary tubes with
lint-free wipe or gauze.
4. Invert the tube so that the blood runs to sealed
end.
5. Place the tubes directly across from each
other in the microhematocrit centrifuge,
with the sealed ends away from the center of
centrifuge.
Figure 20.1 Standard microhematocrit centrifuge. Maxi- 6. Record the identification and the position
mum packing time is dependent on a calibrated centrifuge. number of each patient specimen.
7. Place the head cover and hand-tighten only.
Close the outer lid.
Specimen Collection and Storage 8. Centrifuge for 5 minutes, for maximum pack-
1. Fresh whole blood collected in EDTA in which ing.
the patient tube is at least half full. 9. Remove the tubes from the centrifuge
2. Capillary blood collected in an EDTA and place in the microhematocrit reader.
Microtainer. Read the hematocrit according to the man-
ufacturer’s instructions. The results are
Quality Control recorded in percent. The tubes should match
within 1%.
Hematocrits are run in duplicate and must agree
within 1%.
Interpretation
The spun capillary tube should have three visible sec-
tions: RBCs, buffy coat (contains leukocytes and
platelets), and plasma. Read the hematocrit results by
placing the centrifuged capillary tube in the groove of
the plastic indicator reader. The bottom of the red cell
column should meet with the black line on the plastic
indicator (Fig. 20.3).
1. Rotate the bottom plate so the 100% line is
directly beneath the red line on the plastic
indicator and hold the bottom plate in this
position. With use of the finger hole, rotate
the top plate so that the spiral line intersects
the capillary tube at the plasma air space.
2. Rotate both discs together until the spiral
line intersects the capillary tube at the white
cell–red cell line.
3. The volume of red cell is read in percentage
from the point on the scale directly beneath
the red line of the plastic indicator. The
hematocrit percentage is read between the red
Figure 20.2 Standard and flexible capillary tubes. cell column and the clear plasma column.
c. Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

Air (MCHC)
Hemoglobin 100
MCHC %
Hematocrit
Serum 14 100
Example: 33.3%
42
Normal Average Values

Total Buffy coat
volume Hematocrit
Newborn (1 to 7 days) 56 2%
Adult (female) 42 2%
Adult (male) 47 2%
Red blood cell
volume
Normal Erythrocyte Indices Values
MCV 80 to 96 fL
MCH 27 to 32 pg
Clay plug
MCHC 32% to 36%
Figure 20.3 Capillary tubes. Note the distinct layers once Notes
blood sample has been spun.
• Buffy coats are not included as part of the red
cell column.
• Repeat procedure if specimen has leaked in
CALCULATING RED the centrifuge.
BLOOD CELL INDICES • Repeat procedure if centrifuge has been
stopped manually.
The morphological classification of anemias is
based upon the size and hemoglobin content of the
red cell. The values derived as red cell indices give MODIFIED WESTERGREN
important clues as to the differential diagnosis of the SEDIMENTATION RATE
anemia. The hematocrit value is an important parame- Principle
ter used in calculating these indices. See calculations
below: The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a nonspe-
cific screening test indicative of inflammation. It is used
a. Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) as an initial screening tool and also as a follow-up test to
monitor therapy and progression or remission of dis-
Hematocrit % 10 ease. This test measures the distance that RBCs will fall
MCV fL
Erythrocyte count in a vertical tube over a given time period. The ESR is
directly proportional to red cell mass and inversely pro-
35% 10
Example: 87.5 fL portional to its surface area. The ESR is reported in mil-
4.0 limeters. Any condition that will increase rouleaux
formation will usually increase the settling of red cells.
b. Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) Factors affecting the ESR are as follows:
Hemoglobin 10 • Red cell shape and size: Specimens containing
MCH pg
Erythrocyte count sickle cells, acanthocytes, or spherocytes will
settle slowly and give a decreased ESR
14.0 10 • Plasma fibrinogen and globulin levels:
Example: 35 pg
4.0 Increased fibrinogen or globulin levels
will cause increased settling and give an Quality Control

increased ESR
Commercially prepared controls stored at 2 to 8C are
• Mechanical and technical conditions: Surfaces
valid until expiration date. Controls are prepared like
that are not level will influence red cell settling.
patients’ specimens. Controls are run once daily prior to
Specimens that are not properly anticoagulated
setting up patient tests. Do not report out patient results
will also affect red cell settling. EDTA is the rec-
unless controls are in reference range.
ommended anticoagulant.
Procedure
Reagents and Equipment
1. Mix the EDTA tube on the rotator/mixer for a
1. Sediplast Autozero Westergren ESR system minimum of 5 minutes. If the sample has been
(Fig. 20.4) refrigerated, allow 30 minutes for the sample to
a. Fixed bore pipettes come to room temperature before proceeding.
b. Sedivials filled with 0.2 mL of 3.8% 2. Remove the top of the Sediplast vial, which
sodium citrate contains 3.8% sodium citrate. Using a dispos-
c. Vial holder (rack) able pipette, add blood to the indicated line,
2. Disposable plastic pipettes return the top, and mix thoroughly.
3. Rotator/mixer 3. Insert Westergren tube into Sediplast vial with
4. Timer a slight twist, allowing the blood to rise to the
zero mark.
Specimen Collection and Storage 4. Place the vial in the rack on a level surface.
5. Set a timer for one hour and read at the end of
Specimens are collected in EDTA. Tubes must be at least
the hour.
half full, well mixed, and free of clots and/or fibrin. ESR
6. Record the ESR in millimeters per hour.
can be set up on specimens at room temperature up to 4
hours old. Refrigerated specimens (2 to 8C) can be set
Normal Ranges
up until 24 hours old.
Men 0 to 15 mm/hr
Women 0 to 20 mm/hr
Limitations
1. Tubes not filled properly will yield erroneous
results.
2. Refrigerated specimens must come to room
temperature for 30 minutes prior to testing.
3. The ESR rack must be on a level surface and
free of vibration. Vibration can cause a falsely
increased ESR.
4. Cold agglutinins can cause a falsely elevated
ESR. An ESR can be performed at 37C (incu-
bator) for 60 minutes with no ill effects.
5. Cell size and shape affect ESR, usually result-
ing in a decreased ESR result.
6. Increased rouleaux formation, excessive
globulin, or increased fibrinogen will increase
the ESR.
7. Specimen must be free of clots and/or fibrin.
8. A tilted ESR tube gives erroneous results.
9. Hemolyzed samples are not acceptable.
Figure 20.4 Sediplast ESR rack. The sample must be placed 10. Specimens older than 24 hours are not
on a level surface with no vibration. acceptable.
Conditions Associated With… Specimen Collection and Storage

Increased ESR 1. One EDTA tube or EDTA Microtainer
1. Kidney disease 2. Specimens can be stored at room temperature
2. Pregnancy for 8 hours or refrigerated at 2 to 8C for 24
3. Rheumatic fever hours.
4. Rheumatoid arthritis
5. Anemia Quality Control
6. Syphilis
Commercially prepared controls are performed each
7. Systemic lupus erythematosus
day when reticulocytes are reported manually. Controls
8. Thyroid disease
are prepared like the patient specimens and follow the
9. Elevated room temperature
procedure below for counting reticulocytes. Do not
report out patient results until quality control results
Decreased ESR fall within the acceptable reference range.
1. Congestive heart failure
2. Hyperviscosity
Procedure
3. Decreased fibrinogen levels
4. Polycythemia 1. Mix 4 drops of New Methylene Blue with 4
5. Sickle cell anemia drops of patient’s blood. If the specimen is a
small amount (such as a Microtainer), add an
Note: A rapid ESR method (ESR Stat Plus) is now
equal amount of stain to the Microtainer after
available, which gives a result in 3 minutes.
the CBC has been completed.
2. Let the specimen mix for 10 to 15 minutes.
MANUAL RETICULOCYTE Make a wedge smear and let it air dry. Label
PROCEDURE
the smears with the patient’s name, specimen
Principle number, and the date.
The reticulocyte count is an index of bone marrow red 3. Allow the smear to completely dry and
cell production. The reticulocyte is the cell stage imme- read under the microscope using 100 oil
diately before the mature erythrocyte. This cell spends 2 immersion.
to 3 days maturing in the bone marrow before it is a. Count the number of reticulocytes in 1000
released into the peripheral circulation, where it spends cells.
an additional day of maturation. The reticulocyte count b. Use the following formula to calculate the
is the most effective measure of erythropoietic activity. percentage of reticulocytes
Reticulocytes contain RNA and can be observed using
supravital stains such as New Methylene Blue or Bril- number of reticulocytes
Number of counted per 1000 cells 100
liant Cresyl Blue. Low reticulocyte counts indicate reticulocytes
decreased erythropoietic activity. Increased reticulocyte 1000
counts indicate increased erythropoietic activity usually
35 100
as the bone marrow compensates in response to anemic Example: 3.5%
stress. Therefore, reticulocyte counts are a reflection of 1000
bone marrow health or injury. These counts assist
physicians in diagnosis, treatment, or monitoring of Normal Values
patients with various anemias. Adults: 0.5% to 2.0%
Infants: 2.5% to 6.5%
1. New Methylene Blue (Supravital Stain) Conditions Associated With…
2. Test tubes
3. Microscope slides with a frosted end Decreased Reticulocyte Count
4. Microscope with 100 (oil immersion 1. Aplastic anemia
objective) 2. Exposure to radiation or radiation therapy
5. Transfer pipettes 3. Chronic infection
4. Medications such as azathioprine, chloram- Quality Control

phenicol, dactinomycin, methotrexate, and
Commercially prepared controls are performed each
other chemotherapy medications
day when reticulocytes are reported. Controls are pre-
5. Untreated pernicious anemia/megaloblastic
pared like the patient specimen and follow the proce-
anemia
dure below for counting reticulocytes. Do not report
out patient results until quality control results are
Increased Reticulocyte Count acceptable.
1. Rapid blood loss
2. High elevation Procedure
3. Hemolytic anemias
4. Medications such as levodopa, malarial med- 1. Mix 4 drops of new methylene blue with 4
ications, corticotrophin, and fever-reducing drops of patient blood in a test tube. If the
medications specimen is a small amount (such as a Micro-
5. Pregnancy tainer), add an equal amount of stain to the
Microtainer after the CBC has been completed.
2. Let the specimen mix for 10 to 15 minutes.
Limitations
Make an appropriate smear with feather edges.
1. Recent blood transfusion can interfere with Label the slides with the patient’s name, speci-
accurate reticulocyte results. men number, and date.
2. Mishandling, contamination, or inadequate 3. Allow the smear to completely dry and read
refrigeration of the sample can interfere and the slides under the microscope with oil
cause inaccurate test results. immersion using the Miller Eye Disc (Fig. 20.5).
3. Red cell inclusions such as Heinz bodies, side- a. The Miller Eye Disc is a counting aid that
rocytes, and Howell-Jolly bodies can be mis- provides a standardized area in which to
taken for reticulocytes. If these are counted as count RBCs. There are two squares that
reticulocytes, they will falsely increase the make up the disc. Square 1 is nine times the
reticulocyte count. Inclusions should be con- area of square 2.
firmed with Wright’s stain. b. To use the disc, all reticulocytes are
counted in the large (1) and the small (2)
RETICULOCYTE PROCEDURE square. The RBCs are counted only in the
WITH MILLER EYE DISC small square.
c. Count the number of reticulocytes in
Principle
111 red cells in the small square. At
A Miller Eye Disc is placed inside the microscope eye- this time, the counting is concluded
piece as an aid to counting reticulocytes. This reticule is and the number of reticulocytes is
a large square inside a small square and provides the reported.
technologist the ability to isolate the reticulocytes while d. Use this formula for calculating reticulo-
counting. cytes in percentage. See example.
Total number of reticulocytes
Reagents and Equipment counted in large square 100
% Reticulocytes
1. New Methylene Blue (Supravital Stain) Total RBCs in small square 9
2. Test tubes
3. Slides
4. Microscope with Miller ocular eye disc
5. Transfer pipettes
Specimen Collection and Storage 1

2
1. One EDTA tube or EDTA Microtainer
2. Specimens can be stored at room temperature
for 8 hours or refrigerated at 2 to 8C for 24 Figure 20.5 Miller Eye Disc. Count RBCs only in the small
hours. square; reticulocytes are counted in both squares.
40 100 are two types of blood smears: the wedge smear and the
Example: 4.0% spun smear. The wedge smear will be discussed in this
900 9
procedure. Smears are prepared by placing a drop of
Normal Values blood on a clean glass slide and spreading the drop
using another glass slide at an angle. The slide is then
Adults: 0.5% to 2.0%
stained and observed microscopically. A well-stained
Infants: 2.5% to 6.5%
peripheral smear will show the red cell background as
red orange. White cells will appear with blue purple
Conditions Associated With…
nuclei with red purple granules throughout the cyto-
Decreased reticulocyte count plasm. A well made, well distributed peripheral smear
1. Aplastic anemia will have a counting area at the thin portion of the
2. Exposure to radiation or radiation therapy wedge smear which is approximately 200 red cells not
3. Chronic infection touching. A good counting area is an essential ingredi-
4. Medications such as azathioprine, chloram- ent in a peripheral smear for evaluating the numbers of
phenicol, dactinomycin, methotrexate, and and types of white cells present and evaluating red cell
other chemotherapy medications and platelet morphology.
5. Untreated pernicious anemia and megaloblas-
tic anemia Reagents and Equipment
1. Glass slides (frosted)
Increased reticulocyte count 2. Wooden applicator sticks
1. Rapid blood loss 3. DIFF-SAFE (an apparatus designed to avoid
2. High elevation removing the tube top)
3. Hemolytic anemias
4. Medications such as levodopa, malarial med- Specimen Collection and Storage
ications, corticotrophin, and fever-reducing 1. EDTA specimen or EDTA Microtainer
medications 2. Smears are made from EDTA
5. Pregnancy a. Microtainers within 1 hour of collection
b. EDTA blood within 2 to 3 hours
Limitations c. Check all Microtainers for clots with appli-
1. Recent blood transfusion can interfere with cator sticks
accurate reticulocyte results.
2. Mishandling, contamination, or inadequate Quality Control
refrigeration of the sample can interfere and A random slide is picked after it has been stained and a
cause inaccurate test results. technologist/technician checks the quality of the stain
3. Red cell inclusions such as Heinz bodies, side- for the WBCs and RBCs, platelets, and the distribution
rocytes, and Howell-Jolly bodies may be mis- of cells (see Principle)
taken for reticulocytes. Counting these
inclusions may cause a falsely elevated reticu-
Procedure
locyte count. Inclusions must be confirmed
with Wright’s stain. 1. Insert the DIFF-SAFE dispenser through the
stopper of the tube held in an upright position.
See automated reticulocyte information on page 2. Turn the tube upside down and apply pressure
326. at the frosted end of the slide. When the drop
of blood appears, discontinue pressure.
PERIPHERAL SMEAR PROCEDURE 3. Using a second slide (spreader slide), place the
edge of the second slide against the surface of
Principle
the slide at an angle between 30 and 45
When automated differentials do not meet specified cri- degrees (Fig. 20.6).
teria programmed into the automated hematology 4. Bring the spreader slide back into the blood
instrument, the technologist/technician must perform a drop until contact is made with the drop of
manual differential count from a prepared smear. There blood.
4. Glass slides must be clean; otherwise, this

results in imperfect distribution of cells and
improper staining.
5. Once the drop of blood has contact on the
slide, the smear needs to be made immediately.
Otherwise, the blood will clump and dry, again
resulting in uneven distribution of WBC and
platelets.
PERFORMING A MANUAL
DIFFERENTIAL AND ASSESSING
RED BLOOD CELL MORPHOLOGY
Principle
When blood samples are evaluated by the use of auto-
mated hematology analyzers, this analysis includes
automated differentials. Specific criteria pertaining to
normal, abnormal, and critical values have been pro-
grammed into the analyzers by the institution, and if the
differentials do not meet these criteria, verification is
30-45˚ necessary. This is done by performing manual differen-
Figure 20.6 Preparing a wedge-type smear. Size of drop
tials and further evaluating the peripheral smear. First, a
and angle of spread are important features. differential white blood cell (WBC) count is performed
to determine the relative number of each type of white
5. Move the spreader slide forward on the slide, cell present. Technologists/technicians must recognize
so a smear is made approximately 3 to 4 cm in and properly record the type(s) of white cell observed.
length. The smear should be half the size of the Simultaneously, red cell, white cell, and platelet mor-
slide, with no ridges, and a “feather edge” phology is noted and recorded. Also, a rough estimate
should be toward the end of the smear. of platelets and WBC counts is made to determine if
6. Label the frosted end of the slide with the these numbers generally correlate with the automated
patient’s last name and first initial, specimen hematology analyzer. Technologists/technicians must
number, and the date. be proficient at recognizing red and white cell abnor-
7. Allow the smear to air dry completely. malities, identifying them correctly, and quantifying
8. Proceed with staining. Manual Wright staining them.
is not found often in the clinical laboratory set-
ting. Most clinical laboratories have an auto- Reagents and Equipment
mated staining instrument attached to their 1. Microscope
automated CBC analyzer. If there is no auto- 2. Immersion oil
mated stainer attached to the analyzer, there 3. Differential cell counter
still is a separate staining instrument.
Specimen Collection and Storage
Limitations
Well-made stained blood smear obtained from a capil-
1. The angle between the slides is dependent lary puncture or an EDTA tube at least three-fourths full.
upon the size of the blood drop and viscosity
of the blood. The optimal angle is 45 degrees.
2. The larger the drop of blood and lower the Quality Control
hematocrit, the higher the angle needs to be so The slide should have three zones: head, body, and tail
the blood smear is not too long. (Fig. 20.7). In the tail area, neutrophils and monocytes
3. Blood with a higher hematocrit needs to have predominate, while red cells lie singly. In the body area,
a lower angle so the smear is not too short and lymphocytes predominate, and red cells overlap each
thick. other to some extent.
Head Body Tail (includes feathered edge)

Table 20.2 ¢ Platelet Estimate From
Peripheral Smear
Average No. of
Platelets per 100 Field Platelet Count Estimate
0 to 1 20,000
Figure 20.7 Three zones of wedge preparation.
1 to 4 20,000 to 80,000
5 to 8 100,000 to 160,000
1. WBCs should contain a blue nucleus along
with a lighter staining cytoplasm. 10 to 15 200,000 to 300,000
2. RBCs should have good quality of color rang- 16 to 20 320,000 to 400,000
ing from buff pink to orange. 21 420,000
3. Platelets should be blue with granules and no
nucleus.
Procedure 3. An alternative technique is to do a WBC esti-

mate by taking the average number of white
Observations Under 10 cells and multiplying by 2000.
1. Place a well-stained slide on the stage of the
microscope, smear side up, and focus using Observations Under 100: Platelet Estimates
the low-power objective (10).
2. Check to see if there are good counting areas 1. Platelet estimates are done under 100 with
available free of ragged edges and cell clumps. the RBCs barely touching, approximately 200
3. Check the WBC distribution over the smear. RBCs. This takes place under the 100 objec-
4. Check that the slide is properly stained. tive (oil). On average there are 8 to 20 platelets
5. Check for the presence of large platelets, per field. See Table 20.2.
platelet clumps, and fibrin strands. 2. Ten fields are counted using the zigzag method.
This method of counting is done by going back
Observations Under 40 x-: WBC Estimates and forth lengthwise or sidewise (Fig. 20.8).
1. Place a drop of immersion oil on the slide and Platelets per oil immersion field (OIF)
change the objective to 50 oil. (In cases 8 platelets/OIF decreased
where no 50 is available, use the 40 high
dry with no oil.) 8 to 20 platelets/OIF adequate
2. Choose a portion of the peripheral smear
where there is only slight overlapping of the 20 platelets/OIF increased
RBCs. Count 10 fields, take the total number 3. After the 10 fields are counted, the number of
of white cells and divide by 10, and refer to platelets is divided by 10 to get the average.
Table 20.1 to determine the WBC estimate. The average number is now multiplied by a
factor of 20,000 for wedge preparations. For
monolayer preparations, use a factor of
Table 20.1 ¢ Estimated WBC Count 15,000.
From Peripheral Smear
WBC/High-Power Field Estimated WBC Count
2 to 4 4.0 to 7.0 109/L

4 to 6 7.0 to 10.0 109/L
6 to 10 10.0 to 13.0 109/L
10 to 20 13.0 to 18.0 109/L
Figure 20.8 Zigzag method of performing differential.
Example: 120 platelets/10 fields Then

12 platelets per field 5,000 100/110 4545.50
12 20,000 240,000 platelets The corrected white count is 4545.50.
Recording RBC Morphology

Manual Differential Counts
1. Scan area using 100 (oil immersion).
1. These counts are done in the same area as
2. Observe 10 fields.
WBC and platelet estimates with the red
3. Red cells are observed for size, color, hemoglo-
cells barely touching.
bin content or pallor, and shape.
2. This takes place under 100 (oil) using the
4. Normal morphology
zigzag method previously described in the
a. Normocytic: normal cell size and shape
platelet estimate (see Fig. 20.8).
b. Normochromic: normal hemoglobin con-
3. Count 100 WBCs including all cell lines from
tent and color
immature to mature. Normal values for WBCs
5. Abnormal morphology: Red cell morphology
can be found in Table 20.3.
is assessed according to size, shape, hemoglo-
bin content, and the presence or absence of
Observing and Recording inclusions. See the following sample grading
Nucleated Red Blood Cells (nRBCs) system. Note that red cell morphology must
1. If nRBCs are observed while performing the be scanned in a good counting area. Two ques-
differential, they need to be reported. These tions should be asked, Is the morphology seen in
elements in a peripheral smear are indicative every field? Is the morphology pathologic and not
of increased erythropoietic activity and usu- artificially induced? Table 20.4 represents a
ally a pathologic condition. Additionally, the system derived to determine a quantitative
presence of nRBCs per 100 white cells will scale.
falsely elevate the white count and is clinically a. Report RBC size (see Table 20.5 for a com-
significant. posite list of red cell morphologies matched
2. Correct the WBC count if the nRBC count is to clinical conditions). Anisocytosis is a term
greater than 5 nRBCs/100. The following for- meaning variation in the size of the RBCs.
mula is applied for correcting NRBCs: The average size of an RBC is 7.2 μm with a
range of 6.8 to 7.5 μm.
WBC 100/NRBC 100 • Normocyte: normal size of RBC
• Macrocyte: larger than the normal RBC
Example : If WBC 5000 and 10 (8.2 μm) and is the result of a defect in
NRBCs have been counted nuclear maturation or stimulated ery-
thropoiesis
• Microcytic: smaller than the normal RBC,
7.2 μm, and is associated with a
Table 20.3 ¢ Normal Differential decrease in hemoglobin synthesis
Results in Adults and b. Shape. Poikilocytosis is the general term for
Infants mature erythrocytes that have a shape other
than the round, biconcave disk. Poikilo-
WBC Type Adult Infant cytes can be seen in many shapes.
• Acanthocyte: thorny projections that are
Segmented 50% to 70% 37% to 67%
neutrophils irregularly distributed around the red cell
and lack an area of a central pallor.
Bands 1% to 10% 4% to 14%
• Burr cell (echinocyte): short and spike-
Lymphocytes 20% to 44% 18% to 38% like projections that are evenly distrib-
Monocytes 4% to 10% 1% to 12% uted around the cell membrane.
Eosinophils 0% to 4% 1% to 4% • Ovalocyte (elliptocyte): an elongated oval
Basophils 0% to 2% 0% to 2% cell. They are a result of a membrane
defect.
• Schistocyte: red cell fragments that are • Auer rods are aggregates of fused lyso-
irregular in shape and size. They are somes, appearing as red needle-like
usually half the size of the normal RBC; inclusions. They are found in WBCs
therefore, they have a deeper red color. and are pathological.
• Sickle cells: crescent shaped with usually • Basophilic stippling is tiny round gran-
one end pointed. They can vary in size ules that stain deep blue with Wright’s
but are usually smaller than the normal stain. They are evenly distributed
RBC. These occur due to a decrease in throughout the red cell and are com-
oxygen and decrease in pH. posed of ribosomes and RNA. They do
• Spherocyte: red cells that lack the central not occur in vivo but only on the smear.
pallor or the biconcave disk. Usually they • Cabot rings are delicate thread-like inclu-
are smaller (6 μm) and appear darker sions in the RBC. They can take on a vari-
from the red cell background. They can ety of shapes such as a ring,
appear as artifacts if the slide is examined figure-of-eight, or twisted.
in too thin of an area. • Döhle bodies are light blue-staining
• Stomatocyte: Red cell with a slit-like inclusions found in Wright-stained
central pallor that resembles a mouth. blood smears. They are usually observed
These are the result of increased sodium in the periphery of the cytoplasm of neu-
ions and decreased potassium ion con- trophils. Döhle bodies are aggregates of
centration within the cytoplasm of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RNA).
RBCs. • Hemoglobin C crystals are found in
• Target cell: Red cell with a “target” or blood smears that are normochromic and
bull’s-eye appearance. The cell appears normocytic with at least 50% target cells.
with a central bull’s eye that is sur- The shape of the C crystal is usually
rounded by a clear ring and then an outer oblong in homozygous conditions. In
red ring. hemoglobin SC disease, the hemoglobin
• Teardrop: resembles a tear and usually C crystal is shaped like a gloved hand.
smaller than the normal RBC. • Heinz body inclusions can either be
c. Variation in erythrocyte color. A normal round or irregularly shaped. They are
erythrocyte has a pinkish-red color with a made of denatured hemoglobin. These
slightly lighter-colored center (central pal- inclusions tend to lie close to the periph-
lor) when stained with a blood stain, such ery of the cell. Observation of these inclu-
as Wright. The color of the erythrocyte is sions is seen with supravital stains such
representative of hemoglobin concentration as Brilliant Cresyl Blue or Crystal Violet.
in the cell. Under normal conditions, when They are NOT observed on Wright’s stain.
the color, central pallor, and hemoglobin • Howell-Jolly bodies are round, dark-
are proportional, the erythrocyte is referred staining nuclear remnants of DNA. When
to as normochromic. To grade color varia- present, there is only one or two per red
tions, use the method described in Table cell.
20.5. • Pappenheimer bodies (siderocytes) are
• Hypochromia: increased central pallor seen as small dark-blue or purple dots in
and decreased hemoglobin concentra- clusters along the periphery of the red
tion. cells in Wright stain. They are a result of a
• Polychromasia: is used to describe ery- defect of iron and aggregated with mito-
throcytes that have a faint blue-orange chondria and ribosomes. Proof of these
color and those that are slightly larger inclusions is done with a Prussian blue
than normal red cells. stain. See Table 20.7 for a composite of
d. Inclusions. There are several inclusions inclusions matched to disease states.
that can be seen in erythrocytes and/or • Toxic granulation is an increased number
white cells. Use Table 20.6 for grading of primary granules with intensified col-
inclusions. Inclusions are listed in alpha- oring. These can be found in segmented
betical order. neutrophils and band forms.
UNOPETTE WHITE BLOOD

Table 20.4 ¢ Qualitative Grading of CELL/PLATELET COUNT
RBC Morphology
Principle
Grade Degree of
Abnormalities The Unopette system is a system of prefilled blood dilu-
tion vials containing solutions that will preserve certain
1 to 5 cells/10 fields Slight cell types while lysing others. Capillary pipettes are
6 to 15 cells/10 fields Moderate available to draw up different volumes of blood. The
15 cells/10 fields Marked dilution is determined by the type of capillary used. The
diluted blood is added to a hematocytometer chamber,
Table 20.5 ¢ Red Cell Morphologies Matched to Clinical Conditions
RBC Morphology Relative Clinical Conditions RBC Morphology Relative Clinical Conditions
Anisocytosis Severe anemias Schistocytes Hemolytic anemias related to
Microcytes Iron deficiency burns and prosthetic implants
Hemoglobinopathies Renal transplant patients
Disseminated intravascular
Macrocytes Megaloblastic anemias
coagulation (DIC)
(vitamin B12 deficiency
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
and folic acid deficiency)
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic
Pernicious anemia
purpura (TTP)
Folic acid deficiency
Sickle cells Sickle cell anemia
Acanthocytes Abetalipoproteinemia
Neonatal hepatitis Spherocytes ABO incompatibility
Postsplenectomy DIC
Heparin administration Bacterial toxins
Cirrhosis of liver with Hemolytic anemias
associated hemolytic Blood transfusion reactions
anemia Congential spherocytosis
Burr cells Variety of anemias Stomatocyte Alcoholism
Gastric carcinoma Hereditary spherocytosis
Peptic ulcers Infectious mononucleosis
Renal insufficiency Lead poisoning
Uremia Liver disease including cirrhosis
Pyruvate kinase deficiency Malignancies
Thalassemia minor
Ovalocytes Hemoglobin C disease
Hemolytic anemias Target cells Hemoglobinopathies: HbC dis-
Hereditary ovalocytosis ease, S-C, S-S
Iron deficiency anemia Sickle cell thalassemia
Megaloblastic anemia Hemolytic anemias
Pernicious anemia Iron deficiency
Sickle cell trait Liver disease including cirrhosis
Thalassemia Postsplenectomy
Teardrops Myeloproliferative syndromes
Severe anemias

Table 20.6 ¢ Grading Inclusions 1. Unopette reservoirs containing ammonium
oxalate diluent. Check expiration dates and do
Rare 0 to 1/hpf
not use expired Unopettes. Protect from sun-
Few 1 to 2/hpf light. Storage temperature is 1 to 30C.
Mod 2 to 4 /hpf 2. Unopette capillary pipette, 20 μL.
Many 5/hpf 3. Hematocytometer: improved Neubauer ruling
4. Hematocytometer coverslips
hpf, high-power field. 5. Petri dish lined with filter paper that has been
moistened and two applicator sticks to hold
the hematocytometer
and cells are counted in a specified area. For this proce-
6. Microscope with phase
dure, whole blood is added to ammonium oxalate dilu-
7. Hand counter
ent, which lyses the red cells while preserving platelets,
leukocytes, and reticulocytes. Quality Control
1. All WBC and platelet counts are done in dupli-
cate. WBC counts should agree 20%. Platelet
Table 20.7 ¢ Inclusion Matched counts must agree 10%. If they do not agree,
to Disease repeat counts.
2. A visual estimate of the white count and the
RBC/WBC Inclusion Disease Association platelets can be done on the peripheral smear.
Auer rods Acute myeloid leukemias Refer to charts.
3. Laboratory professionals are trained and tested
Basophilic stippling Lead poisoning
Arsenic poisoning
for proficiency. Results are documented in
Severe anemias their training file.
Sideroblastic anemia
Hemolytic anemia Specimen Collection and Storage
Unstable hemoglobin Specimen of choice is a Microtainer EDTA or EDTA
Pyrimidine 5’-nucleotidase tube, which should be at least half full.
deficiency
Cabot rings Lead poisoning
Procedure
Pernicious anemia
Döhle bodies Infection 1. Specimen should be well mixed and left on a
Burn patients rocker for at least 5 minutes before using.
Hemoglobin C Hemoglobin C disease 2. Check Unopettes for clarity and contents. If
the Unopette chambers appear cloudy or the
Heinz bodies G6PD deficiency
amount of reagent looks questionable, do not
Howell-Jolly bodies Hemolytic anemias use.
Sickle cell anemia
3. With the reservoir on a flat surface, puncture
Pernicious anemia
Postsplenectomy
the diaphragm of the reservoir using the pro-
Megaloblastic anemia tective shield of the capillary pipette.
Lead poisoning a. Using a twist action, remove protective
Pappenheimer bodies Iron loading anemias
shield from the pipette assembly.
Sideroblastic anemia b. Holding the pipette and the tube of blood
Postsplenectomy almost horizontally, touch the tip of the
Lead poisoning pipette to the blood. The pipette will fill by
Thalassemia capillary action and will stop automatically
Toxic granulation Infections when the blood reaches the end of the cap-
Burn patients illary bore in the neck of the pipette.
Drug therapy c. Wipe the excess blood from the outside of
the capillary pipette. Be careful not to touch
the tip of the capillary when wiping off 3. Use the following formulas to calculate the
excess blood. WBC.
d. Before entering the reservoir, it is necessary average No. of cells depth
to force some air out of the reservoir. Do factor (10) dilution factor (100)
not expel any liquid and maintain pressure Cells/mm3
Area
on reservoir.
e. Place an index finger over opening of over- Example: side 1 85 cells
flow chamber and position pipette into Side 2 95 cells
reservoir neck. 90 cells average/all 9 squares counted
f. Release pressure on reservoir and then 90 10 100
remove finger. The negative pressure will 10,000 WBCs
draw blood into pipette. 9
g. Rinse the capillary pipette with the diluent
Normal Values
by squeezing the reservoir gently two or
three times. This forces diluent up into, but WBC/mm3
not out of, the overflow chamber and Adult: 4000 to 10,000
releases pressure each time to ensure the Newborn: 10,000 to 30,000
mixture returns to the reservoir. 1. Platelet counts are performed with a Neubauer
h. Return protective shield over upper open- hematocytometer (Fig. 20.9).
ing and gently invert several times to mix a. Counting is done using 40 dry phase con-
blood adequately. trast objective. Platelets will have a faint
i. Allow the Unopette to stand for 10 minutes halo. The middle square of the hemacy-
to allow RBCs to hemolyze. Leukocyte tometer chamber is counted. It contains 25
counts should be performed within 3 hours. small squares.
4. Charge hematocytometer b. Count 5 of the 25 squares if the platelet
a. Mix the dilution by inversion and convert count is 100,000. Take the average of
the Unopette to the dropper assembly. both sides. Refer to diagram below.
b. Gently squeeze Unopette and discard first 3 c. To calculate platelets, use the following
or 4 drops. This allows proper mixing, with formula
no excess diluent in the tip of the capillary. • If 5 squares of middle square counted
c. Carefully charge hematocytometer with the Multiply No. of platelets 5000
diluted blood, gently squeezing the reser- No. of platelets/mm3
voir to release contents until chamber is
properly filled. Be sure to charge both sides
and not to overfill chambers.
5. Place the hematocytometer in the premoist-
ened Petri dish and leave for 15 minutes. This
allows the sample to settle evenly.
Cell Counts and Calculations

A WBC count is performed with a Neubauer hematocy-
tometer.
1. Using the 10 microscope magnification,
WBC are counted using all nine squares of the
counting chamber. Count both sides of the
chamber and average the count. Refer to dia-
gram below.
2. When counting, the cells that touch the 1 mm 0.2 0.25
extreme lower and the extreme left lines are Figure 20.9 Neubauer hemocytometer counting chamber.
not included in the count. Note the difference in depth depending on area examined.
• If 25 squares of middle square are Reagents and Equipment

counted (if the platelet count is
1. Sickle cell kit
100,000, count all 25 squares of
a. Phosphate buffer/sodium hydrosulfite solu-
the middle square):
tion. Prepare by pouring entire contents
Multiply No. of platelets 1000 of sodium hydrosulfite vial into one phos-
No. of platelets/mm3 phate buffer bottle. Cap and mix for 1 to
2 minutes. Reagent, once reconstituted is
Platelets good for 5 days when stored at 2 to 8C.
150,000 to 410,000 platelets/mm3 b. Unmixed reagents are good until expira-
tion date on package when stored at 2
to 8C.
Limitations 2. 12 75-mm test tubes
1. Specimen should be properly mixed and have 3. Test tube caps or parafilm
sufficient volume of blood so there is no dilu- 4. 50-μL pipette and tips
tion of anticoagulant. 5. Reading rack
2. The capillary tube must be filled completely
and be free of any air bubbles. Specimen Collection and Storage
3. After the hematocytometer is charged, it
1. Whole blood obtained in EDTA, heparin, or
should be placed in a premoistened Petri dish
sodium citrate.
to prevent evaporation while the cells are set-
2. Specimens can be refrigerated at 2 to 8C for
tling out.
up to 2 weeks before testing.
4. The light adjustment is critical. It is important
for both WBCs and especially platelets. If the
condenser is not in the correct position, it will Quality Control
fade out platelets. Commercially prepared negative and positive controls
5. Debris and bacteria can be mistaken for are run along with the patient’s blood. Control results
platelets. must be correct to report patient results.
6. Clumped platelets cannot be counted prop-
erly; the specimen must be recollected. The Procedure
anticoagulant of choice is EDTA for preventing
platelet clumping. 1. Pipette 4 mL of the phosphate buffer/sodium
7. Avoiding overloading of hemacytometer hydrosulfite solution to each test tube, (one for
chamber. each test and each control).
2. Add 50 μL of well-mixed whole blood or con-
trol to each labeled tube.
SICKLE CELL PROCEDURE 3. Cover each tube with a cap or parafilm, invert
Principle to mix three or four times.
4. Place each tube in the reading rack at room
The sickle screen kit provides a procedure based on temperature and let them incubate for 10 to 20
differential solubility. Hemoglobin S is insoluble when minutes.
combined with a buffer and a reducing agent. This
occurs when the blood is mixed with the buffer and
sodium hydrosulfate solution. Specimens containing Interpretation of Results
hemoglobin S are insoluble and show a turbid cloudy and Result Reporting
solution. Normal adult hemoglobin A is soluble and Positive: If hemoglobin S is present (or any other
produces a transparent solution. The presence of hemo- sickling hemoglobin [hemoglobin C Harlem]),
globin S in either the heterozygous or homozygous state the solution will be turbid and the lines on the
will produce a cloudy solution. Because this is a qualita- reading rack are not visible.
tive screening procedure, all positives need to be fol- Negative: If no sickling hemoglobin is present, the
lowed up with hemoglobin electrophoresis at alkaline lines on the reading rack will be visible through
or acid pH or isoelectric focusing. the solution (Fig. 20.10).
of the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities all

have characteristic cellular elements, which often
change with disease in predictable patterns. Cell counts
and cell morphology are key elements in identifying
abnormalities within each of these systems. The meth-
ods outlined here present a unique method and calcula-
tion reference for performing fluid counts. For the
standard cell counting formula, refer to the Unopette
method for manual cell counts on page 311.

1. Saline
Figure 20.10 Tube solubility screen for hemoglobin 2. Slide stainer
S. The procedure simply gives an indication of the
presence of hemoglobin S and should be followed up 3. Phase microscope
with electrophoresis. 4. Neubauer hemacytometer with coverslip
5. Petri dish
Limitations 6. Pipettes
a. 0.2 MLA
1. Severe anemias can cause false negatives. b. 0.1 MLA
Therefore, if the hemoglobin is less than c. 1.0 volumetric
8 g%, the sample volume should be doubled d. 10.0 volumetric
(100 μL). 7. 12 75-mm plastic tubes
2. False negatives can occur with infants under 8. Cytospin
6 months, because hemoglobin F is insoluble 9. Disposable Cytofunnels with white filter
in the test solution. Therefore, testing on attached
infants up to 6 months should not be done. 10. Bovine albumin, 22%
3. Patients with multiple myeloma, cryoglobu- 11. Hyaluronidase
linemia, and other dysglobulinemias may give 12. Plain microhematocrit tubes
false-positive results, because the high protein 13. Crystal violet diluent
level may affect the test.
4. Some rare hemoglobin variants such as hemo-
Specimen Collection and Storage
globin C Harlem or C Georgetown may give
false-positive results. These are sickling hemo- Cerebrospinal Fluid
globins but do not contain hemoglobin S. 1. Collected in the sterile plastic tubes from the
5. Patients who have been recently transfused spinal tray. The laboratory accepts tubes 1
may give false-positive or false-negative results. and/or 4.
6. Patients who have sickle trait give positive 2. Tube 4 is the preferred tube because it is least
results. Confirm these with hemoglobin elec- likely to be contaminated with blood.
trophoresis. 3. CSF cell counts should be performed within
7. Positive results and/or questionable results 1 hour of receipt in the laboratory because
should be confirmed with hemoglobin elec- cells lyse on prolonged standing and accurate
trophoresis. counts become impossible.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID/BODY FLUID Synovial and Serous Fluids

CELL COUNT AND DIFFERENTIAL (Pleural, Pericardial, and Peritoneal)
Principle 1. Fluids should be collected in a heparinized
The examination of the cellular component of body flu- tube or EDTA tube.
ids is an important part of total body fluid testing. Cell 2. Perform testing within 4 hours.
counts are performed in a counting chamber. Cere- 3. The addition of hyaluronidase to the fluid may
brospinal fluid (CSF), synovial fluids, and serous fluids reduce the viscosity of synovial fluid.
Quality Control Petri dish. Allow the cells to settle for 3 to 5

minutes in the Petri dish.
The College of American Pathologists has removed
a. Place the hematocytometer in the phase
daily quality control for all body fluids. Each laboratory
microscope. Determining the number of
receives proficiency testing at least two times a year
squares to be counted depends on the ini-
from their proficiency program.
tial viewing of the fluid on the hematocy-
Procedure tometer chamber under the microscope.
This is the judgment of the technologist/
Cell Counting Method technician.
1. Based on the gross appearance of the fluid, b. Using the 20 or 40 objective, count the
dilute the specimen by one of the following WBCs and RBCs on each side. Now enter
methods: the WBC and RBC of each dilution in the
a. METHOD A (clear or slightly cloudy fluid) CSF/body fluid worksheet (see Table 20.9).
Dilute 1:2 with crystal violet diluent (0.2 c. Combine the two totals and take the aver-
mL specimen 0.2 mL diluent) age for the WBC and RBC counts, which
b. METHOD B (moderately cloudy fluid) must agree within 20%. If this criterion is
Dilute 1:11 with saline (0.1 mL specimen not met, reload the chamber and redo the
1.0 mL saline) using a volumetric pipette. counts.
Then dilute 1:2 with crystal violet diluent d. The gross appearance of non-CSF fluid will
(0.2 mL of 1:11 dilution 0.2 mL diluent) determine whether an RBC dilution is
c. METHOD C (very cloudy or bloody fluid) needed. If the fluid is cloudy and bloody,
Dilute 1:101 with saline (0.1 mL specimen then the red cells are too numerous to
10.0 mL saline) using a volumetric count; report RBCs as “TNTC.”
pipette. Then dilute 1:2 with crystal violet e. Tables 20.8 and 20.9 offer a unique calcula-
diluent (0.2 mL of 1:101 dilution 0.2 tion reference for fluids. Once a dilution is
diluent) determined and counts are performed for
2. Using a plain microhematocrit tube, fill each various fluids, then data can be plugged
side of the hemacytometer with the dilution. into these ready reference tables for a quick
Place the hemacytometer in a premoistened calculation of a final result. For example:
Dilution No. of Squares No. of Cells Average No.

(A, B, or C) Counted Count 1 Count 2 of Cells Calculation Result
WBC A 9 90 100 95 95 2.2 209 209/

L
RBC A 9 26 30 28 28 2.2 61.6 62/
L
Differential Using the Cytospin Method 4. Place assembled slide/cytocup into a position
of the head with a balance in the position
Figures 20.11, 20.12, and 20.13 represent a variety of opposite to its location.
cells in body fluids. 5. Cover cytospin head with lid and lock
1. Prepare slide for the cytospin by first labeling in place by pushing center down on the
the slide with the patient’s name, specimen base.
number, and date. 6. Program the cytospin for 10 minutes at 700
2. Attach slide for cytospin with the cytocup by rpm.
the Cytoclip. a. “Hi” acceleration for serous and synovial
3. Add 1 drop of 22% albumin to the bottom of fluids.
the cytocup. b. “Lo” acceleration for CSF.
a. Clear to slightly cloudy to moderately 7. Start the unit. Upon cycle completion, remove
cloudy fluid, add 200 μL of specimen. the sealed head. Remove the clip assembly and
b. Very cloudy or bloody fluid, add 50 to 100 hold it in a horizontal position with the funnel
μL of specimen. facing down.
see Table 20.13. For color and appearance

Table 20.8 ¢ Reference Factors for for CSF, see Table 20.14. (see page 318.)
Fluid Calculations
PROTHROMBIN TIME
Multiplication Factors AND ACTIVATED PARTIAL
Total No. of THROMBOPLASTIN TIME:
Squares AUTOMATED PROCEDURE
Counted Method A Method B Method C
Principle
1 20 220 2020
Presently, coagulation instruments are fully automated
2 10 110 1010
to analyze large volume of samples with a high degree of
3 6.7 73.3 673.3 accuracy. Many of the instruments have the capability to
4 5.0 55 505 analyze samples using clotting, chromogenic, or
5 4.0 44 404 immunoassay methods. The clot method of photode-
6 3.3 36.7 336.7 tection is described here. This method uses light trans-
7 2.9 31.4 288.6 mission (optical detection method) to determine
prothrombin (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin
8 2.5 27.5 252.5
time (aPTT) times. The optical detection method
9 2.2 24.4 224.4 detects the change in absorbance as a light-emitting
10 Small center 100 1100 10,100 diode recognized fibrin or clot formation. A sensor
11 Small center 50 550 5050 picks up the light beam and converts into an electrical
signal. The electrical power is signaled and calculated
by a microcomputer to determine the coagulation time.
Some automated coagulation testing now identifies
8. Release the tension clip and remove the sam- variables such as lipemia and hemolysis and are still
ple chamber and filter card. Remove the slide able to present accurate clotting times.
from the clip and allow to fully air-dry.
9. Stain the slides in the stainer and allow to
completely dry. Reagents and Equipment
10. Perform a differential count on the stained 1. Automated coagulation analyzer that uses
smear. See Table 20.10 for normal results. optical detection
a. Identify the cells as segmented neu- 2. Volumetric pipettes: 1 mL and 10 mL
trophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, 3. Centrifuge
eosinophils, and others. The others 4. Thromboplastin
include mesothelial, macrophages, and a. Reconstitute with 10 mL of reagent grade
tumor cells. For a chart including abnor- deionized water.
mal cells in CSF, see Table 20.11. b. Immediately, recap and mix until contents
b. Upon completion of the differential, any are completely dissolved.
abnormal cells should be reviewed by a c. Allow reagent to stand for 15 minutes.
pathologist. For abnormal cells in serous d. Check package insert for stability, once
fluids, see Table 20.12. For synovial fluids, reconstituted.
Table 20.9 ¢ Fluid Worksheet
No. of Cells
Dilution No. of Squares Count 1 Average No.
A, B, or C Counted Count 2 of Cells Calculation Result
WBC ____ ____ __ /

L
RBC ____ ____ __ /
L


Figure 20.11 Histiocyte in peritoneal fluid. Figure 20.13 Bacteria in CSF.
5. Coagulation controls, two levels: reconstitute 5. Coagulation samples are good for 24 hours at
according to manufacturer’s instructions. room temperature or refrigerated.
6. Deionized water
7. Calcium chloride solution Quality Control
8. aPTT reagent
1. Coagulation controls are of the laboratory’s
choice. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for
Specimen Collection and Storage reconstitution and stability.
1. Collect whole blood into vacuum tube with 2. Coagulation controls are run at the beginning
3.2% sodium citrate. There needs to be a 9:1 of each shift.
dilution of blood to anticoagulant. 3. If quality control is out, repeat if necessary.
a. 4.5 mL of blood with 0.5 mL of anticoagu- If still out, troubleshoot and/or notify super-
lant or visor.
b. 2.7 mL of blood with 0.3 mL of anticoagu-
lant Procedure
2. Specimens with hematocrits greater than 60%,
see Limitations. PT
3. Specimens should not be obtained through a 1. Prepare reagents and controls.
heparin lock or any other heparinized line. 2. Place reagents and control inside analyzer.
4. Specimens are spun down for 5 minutes at 3. Replenish any other materials.
3000 rpm to be platelet poor. 4. Run quality control.
5. Verify quality control; repeat any controls if
necessary and document any abnormal con-
trols.
6. Load centrifuged specimen onto instrument
with cap removed.

7. Press “Start.”
8. The instrument places 50 μL of the patient’s
plasma into a cup, incubates the sample for 3
minutes, and 100 μL of thromboplastin is
added (Fig. 20.14).
aPTT
1. Follow steps 1 through 7 in the PT procedure.
2. The instrument places 50 μL of the patients
Figure 20.12 Mesothelial cell in pleural fluid. plasma into a cup, incubates for 1 minute,
Table 20.10 ¢ Normal Fluid Results
CSF Serous (Pleural,

Normal Results Adult Neonate Pericardial, Peritoneal) Synovial
Appearance Clear and colorless Clear and colorless Pale yellow and clear Pale yellow and clear
RBC 0 to 1/mm3 0 to 3/mm3 0 to 1/mm3 0 to 1/mm3
WBC 0 to 5/mm3 0 to 30/mm3 0 to 200/mm3 0 to 200/mm3
Neutrophils (includes 2% to 6% 0% to 8% 25% 25%
bands)
Lymphs 40% to 80% 5% to 35% 25% 25%
Monocytes 5% to 45% 50% to 90% Included with others Included with others
Others (includes) Rare Rare Monocytes and Monocytes and
macrophages 65% macrophages
to 75% 65% to 75%
See Figures 20.11, 20.12, and 20.13 for fluid cells.
adds 50 μL of aPTT reagent, continuing with 3. Critical results

another incubation for 3 minutes, and finally a. PT 50.00 seconds
adds 50 μL of calcium chloride to the speci- b. INR 4.9
men (Fig. 20.15). c. aPTT 100.00 seconds
Results Limitations
1. Reference range: PT 9.8 to 11.7 seconds 1. Specimens with hematocrits greater than 60%
INR 2.0 to 3.0 will affect clotting times, with a clotting time
2. Reference range: aPTT 25.0 to 31.0 seconds that is falsely prolonged.
Table 20.11 ¢ Causes of Abnormal Cells in CSF
Abnormal Results CSF Abnormal Results CSF

Increased neutrophils Acute inflammation Increased monocytes Newborn infants
Early viral meningitis Recovery phase of meningitis
Bacterial meningitis Increased Siderophages present, indicating
(see Fig. 20.13) macrophages a CNS hemorrhage in past 48
Increased lymphocytes Neurosyphilis hours
Viral, fungal, and tubular Erythrophages present, indicating
meningitis an active CNS bleed and if
Alzheimer’s disease siderophages are also present
Multiple sclerosis Lipophages present in brain
Tumors abscesses and cerebral infarctions
Lymphocytic leukemias and Increased eosinophils Parasitic infections
lymphomas Postmyelogram specimens
Reactive lymphocytes to
Tumor/malignant cells Acute and chronic leukemias
include plasma cells in
Primary neurologic tumors
most of the above dis-
eases, particularly in mul- Others Choroid plexus and ependymal
tiple sclerosis and viral cells seen in post pneumoen-
meningitis cephalogram specimens
Table 20.12 ¢ Abnormal Cells Table 20.14 ¢ Color and Appearance

in Serous Fluids in CSF
Serous Fluids (Pleural, Color/appearance CSF
Abnormal Results Pericardial, and Peritoneal)
Colorless Normal
↑RBC Traumatic Cloudy Infections
Hemorrhage
Straw Excess protein
Malignancy of infarctions
Yellow Xanthochromia
↑WBC 1000/mm3 Infections
Malignancies Bloody Traumatic tap
Inflammatory conditions CNS hemorrhage
50% Neutrophils Acute inflammatory conditions
Infectious processes
50% Lymphocytes Tuberculosis 2. Specimens with hematocrits greater than 60%
Carcinomas will need to be drawn differently than ordinary
Lymphoproliferative diseases samples. Either the amount of anticoagulant
Increased reactive Multiple myeloma will need to be adjusted, or the amount of
lymphs and plasma Malignancy and tuberculous whole blood delivered to the sample will need
cells effusions to be adjusted. Formulas are provided for both
Malignant cells Diagnostically significant if circumstances.
found on the differential a. Anticoagulant adjustment
Solid tumors and hematology Volume of blood (100 – hematocrit) 0.00185
malignancies shed into these
amount of anticoagulant to be added
types of fluids are caused by
metastatic adenocarcinoma b. Volume of blood adjustment
1% Mesothelial Tuberculous effusions Volume of blood (60/100) – hematocrit
mL of whole blood to be added
Table 20.13 ¢ Abnormal Cells QUALITATIVE D-DIMER TEST

in Synovial Fluids Principle
D-dimer is a fibrin fragment that results when plasmin
Abnormal Results Synovial Fluids
acts on cross-linked fibrin in the presence of factor XIII.
80% Neutrophils Septic arthritis
Later stages of rheumatoid 50 μl of 100 μl of
arthritis plasma PT reagent
Lymphocytes Early stages of rheumatoid
arthritis
Reactive lymphocytes/ Early stages of rheumatoid
plasma arthritis
Monocytes Viral infections: Hepatitis and
rubella arthritis associated
with serum sickness
Eosinophilia Chronic urticaria and
angioedema
Rheumatic fever
3 min incubation Detection
Parasitic infections
Metastatic disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
Figure 20.14 Prothrombin time procedure.
50 μl of 50 μl of 50 μl of
plasma aPTT reagent Ca Cl2
3 min incubation 3 min incubation Detection

Figure 20.15 Activated partial thromboplas-
tin time procedure.
Therefore, D-dimers are formed from an insoluble fibrin a. 4.5 mL of blood with 0.5 mL of anticoagu-
clot. This semiquantitative assay, available since the lant OR
1990s, provides evidence of normal or abnormal levels b. 2.7 mL of blood with 0.3 mL of anticoagu-
of D-dimer. Latex particles are coated with mouse lant
anti–D-dimer monoclonal antibodies. When mixed 2. Collection of venous blood into heparin is
with plasma containing D-dimers, agglutination will acceptable.
occur. The test plays an important role in detecting and 3. Store specimens at 18 to 24C. Specimens
monitoring patients suspected of thrombotic disorders. should be tested within 4 hours from the time
Its clinical uses are for detecting deep vein thrombosis of specimen collection. If testing will take
(DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), and, in patients with place after 4 hours, specimens must be refrig-
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), postop- erated at 2 to 8C and are good up to 24 hours.
erative complications or septicemia. Quantitative D-
dimer procedures are available, using latex-enhanced Quality Control
turbidimetric methods. The qualitative test, however,
has widespread use in most coagulation laboratories as 1. Quality control is performed under several
a screening test for D-dimers. conditions
a. Daily
b. When opening a new kit
Reagents and Equipment c. When receiving a new shipment
1. D-dimer kit containing reagents (stored at 2 to d. When a new lot number is put into use
8C), good until expiration date on the kit. 2. A whole blood sample that has a negative
a. Test reagent solution containing red cell D-dimer result is used for the quality control.
anti–XL-FDP antibody conjugate 3. Quality control method
b. Negative control solution containing 0.9% a. Follow directions in the procedure to do
saline solution the quality control, steps 1 through 5.
c. Positive control solution containing puri- b. Now add 1 drop of positive control to
fied D-dimer fragment the test well, and proceed with steps
2. Plastic agglutination trays 6 through 8b.
3. White plastic stirrers
4. Timer Procedure
5. Pipette 10 μL with disposable tips
1. Allow reagents to come to room temperature
for at least 20 minutes before use.
Specimen Collection and Storage 2. Specimen should be thoroughly mixed; do not
1. Collect venous whole blood into a vacuum allow cells to settle out.
tube with 3.2% sodium citrate. There needs to 3. For each sample, pipette 10 μL of whole blood
be a 9:1 dilution of blood to anticoagulant. into each reaction well; the first labeled (nega-
tive control well) and (test well) on a plastic agglutination of the negative control, thereby invalidat-
agglutination tray. ing the test results.
4. Add 1 drop of the negative control to the nega-
tive control well. AN APPROACH TO INTERPRETING
5. Add 1 drop of the test reagent to the test well. AUTOMATED HEMATOLOGY DATA
6. With a plastic stirrer, mix the contents of each
Automated hematology has totally changed the land-
well thoroughly for 3 to 5 seconds, using a dif-
scape of the hematology laboratory. Fewer manual
ferent stirrer for each well and spreading the
techniques are required, as more operations become
reagent across the entire well surface.
automated. Work patterns have shifted as hematology
7. To promote agglutination, mix by gentle
professionals are expected to maintain quality and
rocking of the plastic agglutination tray for
morphologic acuity and adjust to increasingly com-
2 minutes.
plex instrumentation. Operators of automated instru-
8. At the end of the 2 minutes, observe for the
ments (technologists) are expected to have a variety of
presence of agglutination.
interpretive skills. Additionally, most of the white cell
a. Positive results: agglutination is present in
differentials that are reviewed are usually abnormal.
the test well compared to no agglutination
Accurate and discriminating cell identification skills are
in the negative well.
essential.†
b. If the negative control well agglutinates, the
As students are trained in their clinical rotations,
test is invalid.
they become familiar with the instrumentation pro-
c. If the test result is negative, add 1 drop of
vided by their clinical site. Yet few students have the
positive control to the test well and rock the
luxury of having been trained on automated instrumen-
plastic tray. Agglutination should occur
tation during the didactic portion of their training. Most
within 15 seconds. If agglutination does not
universities are only able to offer information rather
occur with the addition of the positive con-
then actual practice on automated equipment. What is
trol, the test is invalid.
needed for the entry-level practitioner is a way to
approach interpreting the visual automated data. This
Interpretation
skill is not necessarily practiced at university programs,
1. Positive: Agglutination seen in the test well since owning and operating automated equipment are
and no agglutination seen in the negative con- usually cost prohibitive. Training students on multipa-
trol well. rameter instruments is primarily left to clinical rota-
2. Negative: No agglutination seen in the test well tions. This section will attempt to give students a
and the negative control well. This would be thoughtful approach to bridging the divide between the
confirmed by adding the positive control to classroom and the clinical training ground with respect
the test well and agglutination occurs. to automated principles and data interpretation. It will
3. Invalid NOT be comprehensive and all inclusive. This presen-
a. Agglutination occurs in the negative control tation will cover basic concepts.
well. Presently, there is an entire menu of services that
b. No agglutination occurs with the positive automated instrumentation provides including
control.
• Embedded quality control programs
Results • Delta checks
• Flagging systems when data fall out of
Negative: No agglutination seen in negative agglu- range
tination well (0.5 mg/L) • Preparation, examination, and reporting of
Positive: Agglutination seen in undiluted sample white cell differentials
(0.5 to 4.0 mg/L) • Automatic maintenance in some instruments
Positive samples can be diluted 1:8 or 1:64 to provide
more specific data on the amount of D-dimer present. Most hematology instruments operate under sev-
eral basic principles, and these will be outlined.
Limitations
†The
author wishes to acknowledge Joyce Feinberg MT (ASCP) of
The presence of cold agglutinins in patient samples can Beckman-Coulter and Kathy Finnegan MS, MT (ASCP) SH of the
cause agglutinations in patient’s blood. This may cause MT Program at Stony Brook NY for their assistance with this section.
Principles detected. The cell interior density or nuclear volume is

directly proportional to pulse size or a change in RF
The Coulter Principle
resistance. The nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, nuclear
Using this technology, cells are sized and counted by density, and cytoplasmic granulation are determined.1
detecting and measuring changes in electrical resistance
when a particle passes through a small aperture. This is Optical Scatter
called the electrical impedance principle of counting
cells. A blood sample is diluted in saline, a good con- A sample of blood is diluted with an isotonic diluent
ductor of electrical current, and the cells are pulled and then hydrodynamically focused through a quartz
through an aperture by creating a vacuum. Two elec- flow cell. Cells pass through a flow cell on which a beam
trodes establish an electrical current. The external elec- of light is focused. The light source is a laser light that is
trode is located in the blood cell suspension. The light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
second electrode is the internal electrode and is located Laser light or monochromatic light is emitted as a single
in the glass hollow tube, which contains the aperture. wavelength. As the cell passes through the sensing zone,
Low-frequency electrical current is applied to the exter- light is scattered in all directions. Photodetectors sense
nal electrode and the internal electrode. DC current is and collect the scattered rays at different angles. These
applied between the two electrodes. Electrical resist- data are then converted to an electric pulse. The num-
ance or impedance occurs as the cells pass through the ber of pulses generated is directly proportional to the
aperture causing a change in voltage. This change in number of cells passing through the sensing zone. The
voltage generates a pulse (Fig. 20.16). The number of patterns of light are measured at various angles: forward
pulses is proportional to the number of cells counted. light scatter at 180 degrees and right angle scatter at 90
The size of the voltage pulse is also directly proportional degrees. Cell counts, size, cell structure, shape, and
to the volume or size of the cell.1 reflectivity are determined by the analysis of the scatter
light data. Forward angle light scatter (0 degree) is dif-
Radiofrequency fracted light which relates to volume. Forward low-
angle light scatter (2 to 3 degrees) relates to cell size or
Radiofrequency (RF) resistance is a high-voltage elec- volume. Forward high-angle scatter (5 to 15 degrees)
tromagnetic current flowing between the electrodes to relates to the internal complexity or refractive index of
detect the size of cells based on the cellular density. RF is cellular components. Orthogonal light scatter (90
a high-frequency pulsating sine wave. Conductivity or degrees) or side scatter is a combination of reflection
RF measurements provide information about the inter- and refraction and relates to internal components.1
nal characteristics of the cell. The cell wall acts as a con-
ductor when exposed to high-frequency current. As the
current passes through the cell, measurable changes are VCS Technology (Volume,
Conductivity, and Scatter)
Aperture current Vacuum (6" Hg) Low-frequency current measures volume, while high-
frequency current measures changes in conductivity,
and light from the laser bouncing off white cells charac-
terizes the surface shape and reflectivity of each cell.
This technology differentiates white cell characteristics.
Internal Hydrodynamic Focusing

electrode
This is a technique that narrows the stream of cells to
Blood cell
suspension single file, eliminating data above and below the focus
External
electrode points. Hydrodynamic focusing allows greater accuracy
Aperture and resolution of blood cells. Diluted cells are sur-
tube
rounded by a sheath fluid, which lines up the cells in a
Aperture bath single file while passing through the detection aperture.
Aperture After passing through the aperture, the cells are then
directed away from the back of the aperture. This
process eliminates the recirculation of cells and the
Figure 20.16 Coulter principle of electric impedance. counting of cells twice.
Use of Flow Cells
Relative number
Flow cells are composed of quartz rather than glass and Lymphocytes
provide a better atmosphere in which to measure cellu-

lar qualities. Light does not bend and UV light can pass Mononuclear cells
through the flow cell. Cell characteristics are then meas- Granulocytes
ured. The flow cells measure cell volume, internal con-
tent, and cell surface, shape, and reflectivity.
50 100 200 300 400
Femtoliters
Multiple Angle Polarized Scatter Separation
Each cell is analyzed through a flow cytometry cell as it
is subjected to a variety of angled light scatter. Five sub-
Relative number
populations of cells are identified.
Instruments
Basic automated hematology analyzers provide an elec-
tronic measured red cell count (RBC), white cell count 50 100 150 200 250 300
(WBC), platelet count (Plt), mean platelet volume Femtoliters
(MPV), hemoglobin concentration (Hb), and the mean
red cell volume (MCV). From these measured quanti-
ties, the hematocrit (Hct), mean cell hemoglobin
Relative number
(MCH), mean cell hemoglobin concentration, and the

red cell distribution width (RDW) are calculated. The
newer analyzers include white cell differential counts,
relative or percent and absolute number, and reticulo-
cyte analysis. The differential may be a three-part differ-
ential that includes granulocytes, lymphocytes, and 2 10 20 28
monocytes or a five-part differential that includes neu- Femtoliters
trophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and
basophils. The new generation of analyzers now offers a
Figure 20.17 Coulter scatterplots of (A) leukocytes, (B) red
sixth parameter, which is the enumeration of nucleated cells, and (C) platelets.
RBCs (nRBCs). Hematology instruments also include
verification systems. The verification system uses
review of past results or delta checks and instrument immediately notice a particular deviation in numbers of
flagging that includes R flags, population flags, suspect and distribution of a particular cell line by analyzing
flags, and definitive or quantitative flags.1 scatterplots (Fig. 20.17).
How Data Are Reported Beckman-Coulter Instrumentation

In most automated systems, the complete blood count Coulter STKS, Coulter GEN S, and Coulter LH 750
is numerically reported. The differential is numerically series (http://www.beckmancoulter.com) use VCS tech-
recorded and then graphically displayed. These dis- nology, which is an acronym for volume (V), conductiv-
plays include scatterplots, scattergrams, and his- ity (C), and laser light scatter (S). The simultaneous
tograms. The basic principles behind the graphic measurement of cell volume, conductivity, and light
displays of these data are fairly universal. Scatterplots scatter provides high statistical accuracy. The cell vol-
and scattergrams place a specific cell on a grid identifi- ume is measured by electrical impedance using low-
cation system while histograms measure size thresholds frequency direct current. To ensure accuracy, Coulter
of white cells, red cells, and platelets compared to the has incorporated pulse editing and sweep flow technol-
normal data for each of these cell groups. ogy. This technology allows the cells that are being
Scatterplots and scattergrams provide colorful counted to line up in a single file to ensure size meas-
imaging of normal and abnormal cells. An operator can urement integrity and to prevent cells from being
counted twice. The RBC, WBC, and platelet counts are 8. Be familiar with specimen handling and
obtained by analyzing the number of pulses generated. requirements.
The RBC, WBC, and platelet data are then plotted in the
form of a histogram. The cell number is plotted on the A Sample Case Using Coulter VCS Technology
y-axis, and the cell size is plotted on the x-axis. The
MCV and RDW are derived from the RBC histogram. An approach to verifying and sending these results (this
The MPV is derived from the platelet histogram. The approach can be used for each automated system
HCT, MCH, and MCHC are calculated. Hemoglobin is explained in this section).
measured by the cyanmethemoglobin method. 1. The CBC results look normal (Fig. 20.18).
Conductivity is measured by using high-frequency 2. When we preview the results, we can see that
electromagnetic current for nuclear and granular con- the eosinophil count is extremely high on the
stituents. Conductivity is influenced by the internal differential report.
structures of the cell such as the nuclear-to-cytoplasm 3. We also notice that the eosinophil area on the
ratio and the cytoplasmic granular content. A mono- scatterplot is particularly bright.
chromatic helium:neon laser is the light source to meas- 4. The eosinophil result on the differential is
ure light scatter for surface structure, shape, and flagged.
granularity. Forward angle light scatter is affected by cell 5. Delta check revealed that the patient sample
shape, surface characteristics, and cytoplasmic granular had been run on the instrument 4 days before
content. The enumeration of relative percentage and the with normal results in all categories.
absolute number of each five cells are displayed in a 6. Since the abnormal results have been flagged,
scatterplot.1 reflex testing demands that the best course of
action is to do a manual smear review and ver-
ify the large number of eosinophils.
What Knowledge Is Necessary for the
7. Once this is accomplished, then the results can
Operator of an Automated Instrument?
be verified.
Operating automated cell counting instrumentation
requires many skills. The operator must:
1. Know normal reference ranges. A Preview of Other Automated
2. Be familiar with normal scatterplots and his- Cell Counting Instrumentation
tograms for the particular piece of equipment. This section will present the Sysmex and Cell-Dyne
3. Be familiar with the flagging criteria deter- instrumentation. The Sysmex instrument uses hydro-
mined by the particular laboratory information dynamic focusing, while the Cell-Dyne instrument uses
system (LIS). optical scatter and impedance.
• Reference ranges will be preset according to
the LIS; specimens that fall out of the refer- Sysmex Instrumentation
ence range are flagged. Sysmex (Roche Diagnostics Corporation) manufactures
4. Be familiar with delta checks. a full line of hematology analyzers that include the
• Delta checks are historical checks of test K-4500, which provides a WBC, RBC, platelet, and
results from the patient’s previous samples. three-part differential. The SE series and SF-3000 per-
5. Be familiar with reflex testing. form a CBC with a five-part differential. The newest
• Reflex testing represents additional testing analyzer added to the line is the XE-2100, which pro-
such as manual slide reviews, etc., which vides a CBC, five-part differential, and a fully automated
must be accomplished before test results can reticulocyte count.
be released. Operators make decisions on The SE series measures WBC, RBC, and platelets
which reflex tests to perform. using direct current electrical impedance for counting
6. Notify the appropriate personnel of critical and sizing of cells, hydrodynamic focusing, and auto-
results. matic discrimination for accuracy and precision. The SE
• Critical results are those results that exceed series generates the standard hematology parameters
or are markedly decreased from the refer- and the added parameters of RDW-SD (red cell distri-
ence range or the patient history of results. bution width by standard deviation), RDW-CV (red cell
7. Be familiar with daily maintenance proce- distribution width by coefficient), and MPV (mean
dures. platelet volume). Hemoglobin values are determined by
Figure 20.18 Coulter VCS technology.
the use of a cyanide-free, nontoxic reagent and are tions. There are four separate detection channels for the
measured at 555 nm. The white cell count uses a sepa- determination of each white cell type. A plot of low-
rate channel and utilizes DC electrical impedance. frequency DC impedance plotted on the x-axis, and
The principle for the white cell five-part differential high-frequency current RF on the y-axis determines
includes simultaneous measurements of RF and DC lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes. This chan-
detection methods for separating the white cell popula- nel is called the DIFF channel (Fig. 20.19). The second
Figure 20.19 Sysmex scatterplot of WBC, lymphs, monocytes, and basophils.

channel is used with a special reagent for detecting the channel for the red count and platelets, and a hemoglo-
presence of immature cells. This channel is called the bin channel for hemoglobin determination.
IMI channel. This channel also allows for abnormal mor- A unique design of Cell DYNE is the technology of
phology findings. The last two channels are the EO and multiangle polarized scatter separation (MAPSS). The
the BASO chambers. Eosinophils and basophils are enu- WBC count and differential are derived from this
merated by impedance after the sample has been treated patented optical channel. A hydrodynamically focused
with specific lysing or buffer reagents1 (Fig. 20.20). sample stream is directed through a high-resolution
flow cytometer. A cell suspension is prepared with a
Cell Dyne Technology diluent, which maintains the WBCs in their native state,
The Cell-Dyne system (Abbott Diagnostics Instrumen- which is then passed through an air-cooled Argon ion
tation) uses three independent measurement technolo- laser light source. Scattered light is measured at multi-
gies. These measurements include an optical channel ple angles. Low-angle (1 to 3) forward light scatter rep-
for the white count and differential, an impedance resents the cell size. Wide-angle (3 to 11) forward light
Figure 20.20 Sysmex scatterplot; note that WBC and basos are selected out.
measures the cell complexity. Orthogonal light scatter tates the basophilic RNA network found in reticulo-
(90) determines cell lobularity; 90 depolarized (90D) is cytes. Hemoglobin and unbound stain are removed by
for the evaluation of cellular granularity. Various combi- adding a clearing reagent, leaving clear spherical mature
nations of these four angle measurements are used to RBCs and darkly stained reticulocytes. Stained reticulo-
differentiate the white cell populations. Neutrophils cytes are differentiated from mature cells and other cell
and eosinophils are separated from mononuclear cells populations by light scatter, direct current measure-
by plotting 90 light scatter data, which are on the y-axis, ments, and opacity characteristics. The normal refer-
and wide-angle forward light scatter data, on the x-axis. ence range is 0.5% to 1.5%. In comparison to the
Eosinophils are separated from the neutrophil popula- manual reticulocyte count in which 1000 red cells are
tion by the eosinophils’ ability to depolarize the polar- counting, the automated reticulocyte procedure counts
ized light scatter. The lymphocyte, monocyte, and 32,000 red cells.
basophil populations can be separated by plotting low-
angle forward light scatter on the y-axis and wide-angle FLOW CYTOMETRY: THE BASICS
forward light scatter on the x-axis1 (Fig. 20.21). IN HEMATOLOGY INTERPRETATION
The information presented here is purposefully sim-
Reticulocyte Counting on plistic. An elaborate explanation of flow cytometry
Automated Instrumentation is not appropriate for the audience and tone of this
Automated reticulocyte counting is quickly becoming text. Flow cytometry is a specialty technique and a
the standard for reticulocyte counting in clinical labora- recent Google search listed 10 pages of entries refer-
tories. For reticulocyte analysis, New Methylene Blue is ring to certificate programs for this specialty. For
incubated with whole blood samples. The dye precipi- additional information, the student is referred to
Figure 20.21 Cell Dyne technology.

Light scatter (forward angle light scatter/side

Table 20.15 ¢ Applications of Flow scatter) is the angle at which light is scattered
Cytometry depending upon the nuclear and cytoplas-
mic complexity of the cells and the size of the
• Immunophenotyping cells
• Diagnosis and staging of leukemia/ lymphoma The intensity of fluorescence is related to the anti-
• Lymphocyte screening panel: AIDS patients gen density of the markers being investigated;
• DNA content analysis cells are mixed with specific monoclonal anti-
• RNA content body probes and the absence or presence of
• Enzyme studies fluorescence provides data relative to the matu-
• Fetal cell enumeration
rational stage and phenotype of cells
The flow cytometer is composed of three distinct
systems: the fluid system, the optical system,
textbooks and websites solely devoted to the princi- and the electronic system (Fig. 20.22).
ples of flow cytometry and case studies.‡ The fluid system handles sampling in a single fluid
stream surround by a sheath fluid that produces
Overview laminar flow. This fluid within a fluid creates a
Flow cytometry is a technique that has greatly impacted differential pressure that allows cells to enter
the diagnosis of hematological malignancies. Peripheral into the conical nozzle. Here individual cells are
blood, bone marrow, lymph nodes, solid tumors, nee- analyzed by laser light sources and fluorescence.
dle aspirates, and splenic tissue are all examined by flow After analysis, the cell droplets will fall into the
cytometry instruments. Each of these tissues has spe- waste collection tubes.
cific antigen characteristics that can be illuminated The optical system includes gas ion laser, dioded
through the use of flow cytometry. This technique is lasers, and dye lasers. The lasers measure light
usually ancillary to traditional means of diagnosis scatter and emission of fluorescent light. The
because of the expense and expertise needed to achieve information gathered from this measurement
results. Although flow cytometry has many applications are directed into the photomultiplier tube
(Table 20.15), its use in immunophenotyping has been (PMT), beam-specific dichromic mirrors, and
particularly beneficial to distinguish hematological wavelength selective filters.
neoplasms: lymphomas and leukemias. A flow cytome- The electronic system is driven by a personal com-
ter can analyze up to 10,000 cells, separating them into puter that has sophisticated data storage capa-
subpopulations and then “looking for” particular anti- bilities. This data can then be analyzed by a
genic or epitope markers. This discovery is accom- variety of software packages from third party
plished through the use of monoclonal antibodies that distributors.
determine cell specificity and fluorescent dye that will Data are generated that will display the intensity
aid in the detection of the particular antigen-antibody of the fluorescence of those cells that possess
combination on the flow cytometer. Cell suspensions the antigen marker. Therefore, it is the patterns
are stained with monoclonal antibodies that contain of the reactive cells rather than the numbers of
fluorochromes and then the suspension is analyzed by reactive cells that are important (Fig. 20.23).
the flow cytometer. Additionally, flow cytometry analy-
sis is replacing several obscure but long established
techniques such as sucrose hemolysis for PNH, Klei- Data Interpretation: One Role
hauer-Betke for fetal hemoglobin, and nitroblue tetra- for the Medical Technologist
zolium test for chronic granulomatous disease. Diagnosing a leukemia and lymphoma is a difficult
undertaking. Bone marrow aspirate smears, blood
Principles smear interpretation, hematology results, patient’s
symptoms, cytogenetics, and cytochemical staining
Basic analysis of cell preparations includes light scatter
each plays a role in diagnosis. Flow cytometry adds
and fluorescence.
an additional piece of supporting information to this
‡The
author wishes to acknowledge Candace Breen Golightly MS, entire process. Not every laboratory has a flow cytome-
MT (ASCP) and Mark Golightly, PhD for their assistance with this try instrument used specifically for one of the purposes
section. listed above; yet most laboratory professionals will have
Electronic System
Light sensors
Optical System
Flow cell tip

(cells enter here)
Filters to select violet

light is measured
Forward light
scatter detector
Laser
Sample flow
Charged
detection
plates
Sorting station
(cells are
sorted here)
Fluid System
Collection vials
Figure 20.22 Internal components of flow cytometer, which includes fluid, optical, and electronic systems.
some exposure to these data in their laboratory careers. Flow Cytometry Case Studies
Some will make it their subspecialty. Since this technol-
ogy is rapidly expanding current lists of CD markers Case 1
(see Table 20.16), their applications and their interpre- A 67-year-old woman came to her physician’s office
tation are available in a variety of Internet sources. complaining of flu symptoms. Even though she had
Y axis UL UR
Table 20.16 ¢ A Brief List of Useful
Hematologic CD Markers
Cell Type Marker
LL LR
Hematopoietic CD34, CD45, CD117
X axis
progenitor cells
Figure 20.23 How flow cytometry data are graphed. LL, B cells CD10, CD19, CD20, CD22
cells negative for both x- and y-axes. UR, cells positive for
both x- and y-axes. UL, cells positive for y-axis and negative T cells CD3, CD4
for x-axis. LR, cells positive for x-axis and negative for y-axis. Hairy cells CD103, CD25, CD45
Different CD antibodies are placed on the x- and y-axes.
Myelocytic cells CD33, CD34, CD45
Monocytic cells CD4, CD14, CD33
been taking flu medications for 2 weeks, she felt she Megakaryocytes CD61, CD41, CD42b
was not improving. Her CBC revealed increased white
cell count, a moderate anemia, and a normal platelet
count. Blood smear revealed 90% lymphocytes, most
appearing mature. Flow cytometry was performed on Case 2
a tube of EDTA blood from the patient. The monoclonal A 43-year-old man presented to his family physician
antibodies used were CD5, CD19, CD23, and CD2 with complaints of feeling weak and fatigued for the
(Fig. 20.24). past 3 months. He has a low-grade fever. A CBC was
Flow cytometry results show that the patient has drawn and revealed anemia and thrombocytopenia.
CLL with the majority of the cells showing CD19- The patient was admitted for a bone marrow aspirate.
positive cells. Flow cytometry was ordered (Fig. 20.25).
CD 5 CD 23
Figure 20.24 Case 1 flow cytometry results. CD 19 CD 2
CD 22 CD 33
Figure 20.25 Case 2 flow cytometry results. MPO CD 34

Flow cytometry results show that the patient’s cells mentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
were negative for MPO but positive for CD33, CD34. 2002: 95–97.
Leukemia was identified as acute myelocytic leukemia Davidsohn I, Henry JB. Clinical Diagnosis and Management
by Laboratory Methods, 16th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saun-
(M2). ders, 1979.
Kjeldsberg C, Knight J. Body Fluids. Chicago: ASCP
Reference Press, 1982.
1. Ward-Cook C, Lehmann C, Schoeff L, et al. Clinical NCCLS. Collection, Transport, and Processing of Blood
Diagnostic Technology: The Total Testing Process, Vol- Specimens for Testing Plasma-Based Coagulation Assays
ume 2: The Analytical Phase. Chicago: ASCP Press, Approved Guideline, 4th ed. Wayne, PA: NCCLS, 2003:
2005: 253–288. NCCLS document H21-A4.
Sysmex Corporation. Sysmex Ca-1500 System Operators
Manual. Kobe, Japan: Sysmex Corporation, 2001.
Suggested Reading Turgeon ML. Clinical Hematology Theory and Proce-
Adams C. Autocrit II Centrifuge and Adams Microhemat- dures, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and
ocrit II Centriguge, Becton, Dickinson and Company, Wilkins, 1999.
1976. Wooldridge-King M. Determination of Microhematocrit
CAP, 2005 Surveys and Anatomic Pathology Education Pro- via Centrifuge. AACN Procedure Manual for Critical Care,
grams, Hematology, Clinical Microscopy, and Body Fluids 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2000.
Glossary. Wyrick GJ, Hughes VC. Routine hematology methods.
Ciesla BE, Simpson P. Evaluation of cell morphology and In: Harmening DH, ed. Clinical Hematology and Funda-
evaluation of white cell and platelet morphology. In: Har- mentals of Hemostasis, 4th ed. Philadelphia: FA Davis,
mening DH, ed. Clinical Hematology Theory and Funda- 2002: 571–573.
21(F) Ciesla-Appendix 12/21/06 7:44 PM Page 331
2 Appendix
Answers To Review Questions
Chapter 1
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. D
Chapter 2
1. C
2. A
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. B
9. A
10. B
331
332 APPENDIX
Chapter 3
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. D
Chapter 4
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. B
Chapter 5
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. C
8. D
9. C
10. B
APPENDIX 333
Chapter 6
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. D
7. A
Chapter 7
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. B
Chapter 8
1. C
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. C
Chapter 9
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. A
334 APPENDIX
Chapter 10
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. C
Chapter 11
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. A
7. C
Chapter 12
1. D
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. A
6. B
7. C
Chapter 13
1. D
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. A
7. D
APPENDIX 335
Chapter 14
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. C
Chapter 15
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. D
10. C
11. B
Chapter 16
1. C
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. D
6. D
7. C
Chapter 17
1. C
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. D
336 APPENDIX
Chapter 18
1. C
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. C
Chapter 19
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. D
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. A
22(F) Ciesla-Index 12/21/06 7:46 PM Page 337
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” indicate figures and tables, respectively.
Acanthocytes, 307 bone marrow formation in, vs. in fetus, 16f

Accuracy/precision WBC differential values in, 139t, 307t
clarification of, 9, 10f Afibrinogenemia, 270
Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), 238 Agglutination
automated procedure for, 315–318 vs. rouleaux, 213f
in hemophilia A diagnosis, 260 AIDS. See HIV-AIDS
Activated protein C resistance (Factor V Leiden), 285 Alder’s anomaly (Alder-Reilly anomaly), 149, 149f
laboratory diagnosis, 285–286 ALL. See Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
pathway, 285f Allosteric changes, in Hgb, 53
Acute basophilic leukemia, 175 Alpha-1-antitrypsin, 273
Acute erythroid leukemia, 173–174, 173f Alpha-2-antiplasmin, 239, 272–273, 283
Acute hemolytic anemia, 103–104 Alpha-2-macroglobulin, 239–240, 273
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), 175 Alpha-naphthyl butyrate/acetate esterase stains, 165–166
clinical features, 175–176 AML. See Acute myeloid leukemia
epidemiology, 175 AMML. See Acute myelomonocytic leukemia
morphological classification, 176, 176t Anemias. See also specific types
precursor B/lymphoblastic lymphoma, 176–178 acute hemolytic, 103–104
precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoblastic lymphoma, bone marrow response to, 18
178–179 of chronic disease/inflammation, 71–72
prognostic factors, 178f, 179–180 conditions leading to, 72t
Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia, 174, 174f hemolytic
Acute monoblastic leukemia, 172–173, 172f classification by intrinsic/extrinsic defects, 58t
Acute monocytic leukemia, 172, 172f terminology, 58
Acute myelofibrosis, 175 iron-deficiency, 68–70
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), 161 macrocytic vs. megaloblastic, 86
chromosomal alterations in, 168t morphological classification of, 23–25
clinical features, 162, 163t pathophysiology-linked symptoms, 26t
conditions with increased risk for, 162t sickle cell, 115–120
cytochemical staining, 163–166 sideroblastic, 72–74
with 11q23, 169, 170f Anisocytosis, 39
epidemiology of, 161–162 Ankyrin, 38
immunophenotypic classification, 166–167, 166t Antiangiogenic therapies, 223
with inv(16)(p13q22), 168, 168f Anticardiolipin (ACA), 286–287
laboratory features, 163 Anticoagulant drugs, 289
with maturation, 171, 171f Anticoagulant therapy, 288
minimally differentiated, 170, 171f Antiglobulin test, direct, 207
with myelodysplasia, 170 Antihemophilic factor (Factor VIII), 236
not otherwise categorized, 170 complex formation with vWF, 258, 260f
with recurrent genetic abnormalities, 167–168 thrombotic disorder associated with, 286
with t(8;21)(q22;q22), 168, 168f Antiphospholipid antibodies
with t(15;17)(q22;q21), 168–169 laboratory assays for, 287
with t(16;16)(p13q22), 168 Antiphospholipid syndrome, 286–287
therapy-related, 170 Antiplatelet drugs, 288
WHO classification of, 166–167, 167t Antithrombin (AT)
without maturation, 170–171, 171f deficiency of, 284
Acute myelomonocytic leukemia (AMML), 171–172, 172f effects on serine proteases, 284f
Acute promyelocytic leukemia, 168–169, 169f in thrombosis, 283
Adenosine diphosphate, 234–235 Aplastic anemia, 105
Adult Arachidonic acid (AA), 235
337
338 INDEX
Aristotle, 230 M:E ratio and, 18

Aspirin, 288 Niemann-Pick cell, 152f
platelet function and, 251 responses to anemic stress, 87t
AT. See Antithrombin ringed sideroblasts in, 72f
Auer rods, 163, 168f, 308 Bone marrow aspiration, 21, 21f
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia, 207 Bone marrow report, 21–22, 23f
Brodie, 230
Burr cells, 43, 45f, 307
Bacteria
in cerebrospinal fluid, 316f
extracellular, in peripheral smears, 153f C1 activator, 273
intracellular, in segmented neutrophil, 153f Cabot rings, 308
in peripheral smear, 153 Calcium, ionized (Factor IV), 235
phagocytosis of, 145 Calmodulin, 38
in precipitated stain, 153f Capillary tubes, 299f, 300f
Baldes, 230 Carboxyhemoglobin, 54, 55
B-ALL. See Precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia CD. See Cluster designation
Bands, 132f CD markers, 329t
hypogranular, 221f in acute leukemias, 174, 175, 177
identification criteria, 132 in hairy cell leukemia, 208
toxic granulation in, 308 of lymphocytes, 134t, 137
Barts hydrops fetalis, 76 in T-cell development, 179f
Basophilic normoblast, 36, 36f CEL. See Chronic eosinophilic leukemia
Basophilic normoblast-nucleated, 36f Cell-Dyne technology, 325–326, 326f
Basophilic stippling, 45, 46f, 308 Cellular immunity, 19
Basophils, 133f Centrifuge
identification criteria, 133 standard microhematocrit, 299f
increase in, conditions associated with, 144 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Sysmex scatterplot of, 324f bacteria in, 316f
B cells, 136 causes of abnormal cells in, 317t
Beckman-Coulter instrumentation, 322–323 cell count and differential, 313–315
Bence Jones protein, 212 normal values of, 317t
Bennett, John, 161 reference factors for calculations, 315t
Bernard Soulier syndrome (BSS), 250 color and appearance of, 318t
Biohazard shield, 7f CFU-GEMM. See Committed stem cells
Bite cells (helmet cells), 44f, 45f, 103f CFU-S. See Colony-forming units-spleen
formation, 104f Charache, Samuel, 117
Bizzozero, 232 Chediak-Higashi syndrome, 149–150, 149f, 251
Blast crisis Cheilitis, 69
in CML, 189, 190 Chemical hazards, 8
Blasts Chemotaxis
excess, refractory anemia with, 222 in white cell phagocytosis, 145
Bleeding Cholelithiasis, 99
evaluation of, 258 Christmas disease. See Hemophilia B, factor IX
iron deficiency and, 66, 68, 70–71 deficiency
open vs. closed, 258 Chronic diseases
secondary to chronic disease, 263 anemia of, 71–72
B lymphocytes, 137 Chronic eosinophilic leukemia (CEL), 192
Bone marrow Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
in acute myeloid leukemia, 163 bone marrow view in, 206f
in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 206f disease progression in, 206–207
in chronic myelogenous leukemia, 190, 190t immunological function/treatment options, 207
dysplasia, in MDSs, 220 modified Rai staging for, 207t
formation in fetus, vs. adult, 16f smudge cells of, 206f
Gaucher’s cell, 152f Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
in hematopoiesis, 16 clinical features/symptoms, 189–190
incorporation of vitamin B12 into, 88 diagnosis, 191
internal structure, 19t key facts of, 189t
in leukemia, 160 neutrophilic leukemoid reaction vs., 191t
in lipid storage diseases, 152–153 overview, 189
INDEX 339
pathophysiology of, 189 Cubilin, 89

peripheral blood/bone marrow findings, 190, Cytokines, 19–20, 21t
190t in phagocytosis, 147t
prognosis, 191–192 Cytomegalovirus (CMV), 150–151
treatment, 191–192 Cytoplasm
Chronic myeloproliferative disorders (CMPDs). See also red cell, 43
specific disorders Cytospin method
characteristics of, 189t in body fluid differentials, 314–315
differentiation of, 198t–199t
interrelationships of, 188f
terminology of, 188
WHO classification of, 188t D-dimers, 273–274
Chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), 192 qualitative test for, 318–320
CLL. See Chronic lymphocytic leukemia Deleted 5q, 222
Cluster designation (CD), 137. See also CD markers Delta checks, 10
CML. See Chronic myelogenous leukemia Dextran
CMPDs. See Chronic myeloproliferative disorders platelet function and, 251
CNL. See Chronic neutrophilic leukemia Diamond-Blackfan anemia, 106
Coagulation, blood DIC. See Disseminated intravascular coagulation
abnormalities in pathogenesis of thrombosis, 283 Direct antiglobulin test, 207
extrinsic pathway, 237–238 Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), 43, 273
inhibitors of, 240, 240f, 283–284 acute, mechanism of, 273–274
intrinsic system, 238 conditions precipitating, 273f
laboratory model of, 237 events triggering, 274t
study of, 230 laboratory profile in, 275t
in vitro cascade, 237f treatment, 276
in vivo cascade, 237f DNA synthesis, 87
Coagulation factors, 236t Döhle bodies, 146f, 148, 148f, 308
classification of, 235–237 Donath-Landsteiner test, 108
congenital deficiencies of Down syndrome, 161, 175
with absent/mild bleeding, 262 Duckert, F., 230
with bleeding manifestations, 262 Dysfibrinogenemia, 271
Coefficient of variation, 9
Cold agglutinin syndrome (CAS), 107–108
Collagen, 231
as aggregating agent, 235 Ehrlich, Paul, 148, 161
Collagen vascular disease Ehrlichiosis. See Human ehrlichiosis
anemia associated with, 71 Electrical hazards, 8
Colony-forming units-spleen (CFU-S), 19 Electrophoresis
Committed stem cells (CFU-GEMM), 19, 20 alkaline, hemoglobin, points in analysis of, 120f
Complement system, 240 hemoglobin, 119–120
Complete blood count (CBC), 22–23 serum protein, 210
critical values, 26 patterns in serum of normal vs. multiple myeloma patients,
in HIV disease, 151 210f
normal values, 25t Elliptocytes, 42–43, 43f, 101f
sample report, 24f Elliptocytosis. See Hereditary elliptocytosis
Congenital nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia, Embden-Meyerhof pathway, 40f
105 in pyruvate kinase deficiency, 105
Cooley, Thomas, 74–75 in RBC metabolism, 38–39
Cooley’s anemia, 78–79 Endothelium, 231
Coulter principle, 321, 321f Environmental hazards, 8
Coumadin, 238, 264, 289 Eosinophilia
COX-2 inhibitors definition of, 144
platelet function and, 251 Eosinophils, 133f
Critical results/values allergy and, 144
for CBC, 26 identification criteria, 132
definition of, 11 Epinephrine
sample, 139t as aggregating agent, 234
for WBC, 22 EPO. See Erythropoietin
Cryoprecipitate, 261, 270 Epstein, 161
CSF. See Cerebrospinal fluid Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), 150
340 INDEX
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), 300 disorders of, in thrombotic disease, 286
conditions associated with increase/decrease in, 302 measurable products of, 273–274
normal values, 302 Fibrin-stabilizing factor (Factor XIII), 236
Sediplast ESR rack, 301f deficiency of, 263
Erythrocytosis Fibrometer, 230
secondary, causes of, 193 Fibronectin receptors, 234
Erythroid hyperplasia, 75f Flagging signals, 10
Erythropoiesis, 34, 34f Flame cells, 211, 211f
ineffective Fletcher factor, 237
consequences of, 87t Flow cytometer
in megaloblastic anemia, 86–87 internal components of, 328f
Erythropoietin (EPO), 18, 20–21, 34 Flow cytometry, 326–327
increased production of, 27 applications of, 327t
ESR. See Erythrocyte sedimentation rate data interpretation, 327–328
Essential thrombocythemia (ET) in diagnosis of PNH, 107
clinical features/symptoms, 196–197 graphing of data from, 329f
diagnosis, 197 Fluids, body
diagnostic criteria for, 198t cell count and differential, 313–315
key facts for, 196t normal values of, 317t
pathophysiology of, 196 reference factors for calculations, 315t
peripheral blood/bone marrow findings, 197 worksheet, 315t
prognosis, 197 Folic acid, 41
treatment, 197 in DNA synthesis, 87
Esterase stains, 165–166 nutrition requirements of, 87–88
ET. See Essential thrombocythemia Folic acid deficiency, 89–90
Extramedullary hematopoiesis, 17 in megaloblastic anemia, 86
Eye protection, 7f
Gaucher’s cells, 152f

Factor I. See Fibrinogen Gaucher’s disease, 152
Factor II. See Prothrombin G-CSF. See Granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor
Factor III. See Thromboplastin Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia, 250–251
Factor IV. See Calcium, ionized Gloves, 6, 7f
Factor V Leiden, 262 Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, 102
Factor VII. See Proconvertin agents causing hemolysis in, 104
Factor VIII. See Antihemophilic factor clinical manifestations, 103–105
Factor IX. See Thromboplastin, plasma component diagnosis of, 105
Factor X. See Stuart-Prower factor genetics of, 102–103
Factor XI. See Thromboplastin, plasma antecedent genotypes of, 103t
Factor XII. See Hageman factor Glutamic acid
Factor XIII. See Fibrin-stabilizing factor carboxylation of, 264f
Fanconi’s anemia, 105–106, 161–162 GM-CSF. See Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
Fauvism, 104 Golhorm, 230
Ferritin, 66, 70–71 Granulation
Fibrin abnormal, platelet, 221f
conditions elevating, 273t toxic, 308
degradation products of, 273f Granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), 19
formation of, 270 Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), 19
measurement of, 273–274 Gray platelet syndrome, 251
Fibrinogen (Factor I), 235 Growth factors, 21t
in clot formation, 231 G6PD deficiency. See Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
disorders of, 270–271 deficiency
in hemostasis, 270
thrombin’s activity on, 271f
Fibrinolysis
abnormalities, in pathogenesis of thrombosis, 283 Hageman, John, 230
in disseminated intravascular coagulation, 275 Hageman factor (Factor XII), 236, 237
natural inhibitors of, 272–273 deficiency of, 262
physiological activators of, 272 Hairy cell leukemia, 207–208, 207f
Fibrinolytic system, 239–240 CD markers in, 208t
INDEX 341
Ham’s test, 106, 107f Hemoglobin SC (HgbSC), 120f, 121f

Handwashing, 7 haplotypes of, 114–115
Hct. See Hematocrit solubility screen for, 118, 312, 313f
HE. See Hereditary elliptocytosis Hemoglobinemia, 58
Heinz bodies, 17, 43, 45, 46f, 104f, 308 Hemoglobinopathies, 114
formation, 46f Hemolysis
in G6PD deficiency, 103 clinical events and, 55t
Helmet cells. See Bite cells extravascular, 56f
Hemarthrosis, 260, 260f intravascular, 57f
Hematocrit (Hct), 22. See also Microhematocrit laboratory evidence of, 56–57
normal values, 300 physiology of, 57–58
Hematology, 4 types of, 55–56
automated data on, interpreting, 320 Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), 248
Coulter principle, 321, 321f vs. thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, 249t
flow cells, 322 Hemophilia A, factor VIII deficiency, 230
hydrodynamic focusing, 321 laboratory diagnosis of, 260
instruments, 322–326 quality of life issues in, 261–262, 261t
multiple polarized scatter separations, 322 symptoms of, 258, 259
optical scatter, 321 treatment for, 261
radiofrequency resistance, 321 Hemophilia B, factor IX deficiency
VSC technology, 321 quality of life issues in, 261t
automated instruments in, knowledge necessary for Hemophilia C, factor X deficiency, 262
operator of, 323 Hemorrhage. See Bleeding
Hematopoiesis, 20f Hemorrhagic telangiectasia. See Hereditary hemorrhagic
in acute myeloid leukemia, 162 telangiectasia
definition of, 16 Hemosiderin, 66
intramedullary vs. extramedullary, 17 Hemostasis
Heme molecule, 52 basis of, 230
Hemochromatosis. See Hereditary hemochromatosis fibrin in, 271–272, 272f
Hemoglobin (Hgb), 22 fibrinogen in, 270
abnormal, 54–55, 55f normal, 282
chromosomes specific to formation of, 53f primary system of, 230–231
electrophoresis, 119–120, 119f platelet aggregation, 234–235
alkaline, points in analysis of, 120t platelet development, 232–235
embryonic, 16 platelet function/kinetics, 233–234
function, 53–54 secondary system of, 231
structure of, 52, 52f coagulation factors, 235–237, 235–241,
synthesis of, 52–53 236t
iron in, 39 common pathway, 238
in thalassemias, 75 complement system, 240
types of, 52–53 extrinsic pathway, 237–238
variants of, in US vs. worldwide, 121f feedback inhibition, 239
Hemoglobin A (HgbA) fibrinolysis, 239–240
gene states of, 76–77, 76f interrelationships between systems, 241
normal concentrations, by age, 119t intrinsic pathway, 238
postpartum, 16 kinin system, 240
Hemoglobin Barts (␥4), 76, 77 physiological coagulation, 237
Hemoglobin C crystals, 308 thrombin formation, 238–239
Hemoglobin C disease, 120–121 vitamin K in, 263
Hemoglobin CC (HgbCC), 120f Henoch-Schönlein anemia, 252
Hemoglobin D Punjab, 122 Heparin, 289
Hemoglobin E (HgE), 121 low-molecular-weight, 289
Hemoglobin F (HgbF) Heparin cofactor II
normal concentrations, by age, 119t deficiency of, 284
in sickle cell anemia, 114–115, 117 in thrombosis, 284
Hemoglobin G phila, 122 Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), 287
Hemoglobin H disease, 76–77 diagnosis, 287–288
peripheral smear in, 77f pathophysiology of, 287f
Hemoglobin O Arab, 122 Hepatosplenomegaly, 17
Hemoglobin S (HgbS), 42 in leukemia, 160
Hemoglobin S-beta thalassemia, 121 Hepcidin, 71–72
342 INDEX
Hereditary elliptocytosis (HE), 100–101 precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia, 176–177

variants of, 101t precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia, 178–179
Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH), 72 Inclusions, red cell, 17, 43, 45, 45t
laboratory diagnosis, 73 diseases matched to, 310t
symptoms of, 73, 73t grading, 310t
treatment, 73–74 recording, 308
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, 252, 252f Infants/newborns
Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis, 101–102, 102f jaundice in, 104–105
Hereditary spherocytosis (HS) red blood cell values in, 25t
clinical presentation, 98–100 WBC differential values, 138t, 307t
genetics of, 98 Inflammation
laboratory diagnosis of, 100 anemia of, 71–72
pathophysiology of, 98 Intramedullary hematopoiesis, 17
Hereditary stomatocytosis, 102 Iron
Hereditary xerocytosis, 102 absorption, 66
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, 251 enhancers of, 68t
Herrick, James B., 117 inhibitors of, 68t
Hewson, William, 230 available recycled, vs. need, 69f
Hexosaminidase A, 153 deficiency, prevention/control recommendations, 71t
Hexose monophosphate shunt foods high in, 68t
in RBC metabolism, 39 forms of, 68t
Hgb. See Hemoglobin in hemoglobin formation, 39
HH. See Hereditary hemochromatosis intake, 66
High-molecular-weight kininogen (HMWK), 235 overload
Hippocrates, 230 anemias related to, 72–74
Histiocytes organs damaged by, 74f
in peritoneal fluid, 316f storage/recycling, 66, 68
HIT. See Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia Iron-chelating agents, 74
HIV-AIDS rotation of injection sites, 75f
effects on hematology parameters, 151 Iron cycle, 67f
Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 206, 208–209 Iron-deficiency anemia (IDA)
Homocysteine, 286 causes of, 70–71
Howell-Jolly bodies, 17, 43, 45, 45f, 308 diagnostic tests, 70
in megaloblastic anemias, 88f stages of, matched to diagnostic signals, 69t
Human ehrlichiosis, 148, 148f causes of, 69t
Humoral immunity, 19 treatment, 71
Hypercoagulability, 282 Isoelectric focusing, 120
Hypercoagulable states ITP. See Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
conditions requiring evaluation for, 288t
laboratory screening tests for, 288t
Hyperhomocysteinemia, 286
Hyperviscosity syndrome, 252 Kasabach-Merritt syndrome, 252
Hypochromia, 39, 41, 41f, 308 Kidneys. See Renal disease
Hypofibrinogenemia, 270 Kininogen, high-molecular-weight (HMWK), 235, 237
Kinin system, 240
Koilonychia, 69, 70f
Kottman, 230
IDA. See Iron-deficiency anemia (IDA)
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), 247
acute vs. chronic, 247f
Immunity Labile factor. See Proaccelerin
cellular, 19 Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 58
humoral, 19 LDH. See Lactate dehydrogenase
Immunoglobulins Lee, Pearl, 74–75
basic structure, 209f Left shift
IgM, 214 definition of, 144
serum protein electrophoresis patterns, 210f Leukemia. See also specific types
type and activity range of, 209t acute
Immunophenotype of ambiguous lineage, 175
acute myeloid leukemia, 166–167, 166t vs. chronic, 160, 160t
lymphoblastic leukemia, 176–177 clinical findings in, 163t
INDEX 343
cytochemical reactions in, 165t small, 134, 134f

FAB classification, 166, 167t subpopulations of, 136, 136f
definition of, 160 Sysmex scatterplot of, 324f
early research on, 160–161 travel path of, 136–137
Leukocytes (WBCs), 133f Lymphocytic committed cell (LSC), 19
agranular cell series, 133 Lymphocytosis
bands, 132, 132f reactive, 150–151
basophils, 133, 133f Lymphoid cell lineage, 160
Coulter scatterplots of, 322f Lymphoproliferative disorders, 206
eosinophils, 132, 133f overview of, 215t
hereditary disorders of, 149–150
life span of, 130
lymphocytic series, 133–134
maturation stages, 130 Macrocytes
metamyelocytes, 131–132, 132f polychromatophilic, 41; see also Reticulocytes.
myeloblasts, 130–131, 131f shape of, pathologies associated with, 92f
myelocytes, 131, 131f size of, 39
promyelocytes (progranulocyte), 131, 131f Macrocytic anemias
qualitative defects of, 145–146 categories of, 86
quantitative changes in, 144 clinical features of, 88
terminology related to, 144–145 erythropoiesis in, 86–87
segmented neutrophils, 132, 132f hematological features of, 88–89
terminology of, 130, 146t laboratory diagnosis of, 90
toxic changes in, 146 non-megaloblastic, 91–92
toxic granulation in, 146f, 147, 147f red cell precursors in, 86
toxic vacuolization in, 147, 147f treatment, 90–91
Leukocytosis Macrocytic normochromic anemia, 24–25
definition of, 144, 146 May-Hegglin anomaly, 149
Leukoerythroblastic picture, 146 MCH. See Mean corpuscular Hgb
definition of, 144 MCHC. See Mean corpuscular Hgb content
Leukopoiesis, 130 MCV. See Mean corpuscular volume
Lipid storage diseases, 152–153 MDSs. See Myelodysplastic syndromes
Liver Mean corpuscular Hgb content (MCHC), 22, 25
disease, bleeding associated with, 263 normal values, 300
in fetal hematopoiesis, 16 Mean corpuscular Hgb (MCH), 22, 25
Loeliger, E.A., 230 normal values, 300
LSC. See Lymphocytic committed cell Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), 22
Lungs conditions related to shifts in, 25t
in sickle cell disease, 116 in macrocytic anemias, 80f
Lupus anticoagulant (LA), 286–287 normal values, 300
diagnostic criteria for, 287t Mediterranean fever, 78–79
Lymphatic system, 136 Megakaryocytes, 232, 232f
in lymphocyte development/differentiation, 134–135, 135f Megaloblastic anemias
Lymph nodes clinical features of, 88
in fetal hematopoiesis, 16 erythropoiesis in, 86–87
Lymphoblastic leukemia (B-LBL), 176 hematological features of, 88–89
antigen expression in, 177f laboratory diagnosis of, 90
cytogenetic findings, 178 peripheral blood smear in, 89f
immunophenotype, 176–177 pernicious anemia, 89
laboratory findings, 176 red cell precursors in, 86, 86f
Lymphoblasts treatment, 90
identification criteria, 133–134 M:E ratio. See Myeloid-erythroid ratio
morphology, vs. myeloblasts, 164, 164f Mercurialis, 230
Lymphocytes Metamyelocytes, 132f
antigen markers, 134t identification criteria, 131–132
development of immunocompetency and, 137 Methemoglobin, 54, 55
large, 134, 134f Methemoglobin reductase pathway, 39
origins of, 134 MHA. See Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia
reactive, 151f Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MHA),
morphology of, vs. resting lymphocyte, 151t 248
response to antigenic stimulation, 137 after acute DIC, 275
344 INDEX
Microcytes, 39, 41 Myeloperoxidase, 165

in thalassemia major, 80f Myelosuppressive therapy
Microcytic disorders in CML, 191
differential diagnosis of, 80
Microcytic hypochromic anemia, 24
Microhematocrit, 298
interpretation, 299–300 Naegeli, 161
procedure, 299 Naphthol AS-D chloroacetate esterase, 165
reagents and equipment for, 298 Neonatal jaundice, 104–105
Microscope, 4 Neumann, Ernst, 161
care of, 5–6 Neutrophilia, 146
parts of, 4–5, 5f definition of, 144
Microscopy Neutrophils
innovations in, 6 alterations in, in peripheral smears, 147t
light, corrective actions in, 6 hypersegmentation of, 148, 148f
Miller eye disc, 303, 303f increase in, conditions associated with, 144
Minot, George, 89 maturation spectrum, in CML, 190f
Modified Westergren sedimentation rate, 300 in phagocytosis, 145
Monoclonal gammopathy, 211 segmented
Monocytes, 133f bacteria in, 153f
identification criteria, 133 identification criteria, 132, 132f
increase in, conditions associated with, 144 toxic granulation in, 146f, 147, 308
in phagocytosis, 145 Niemann-Pick cell, 152f
Sysmex scatterplot of, 324f Niemann-Pick disease, 152
Morawitz, Paul, 230 NK cells, 137
Multiple myeloma, 210 Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 206, 209
chromosomal aberrations in, 210t Normoblastic erythropoiesis, 86f
disturbed platelet function in, 251, 252 Normoblasts
laboratory findings in, 212t polychromatic, 86f
pathophysiology of, 210–212 Normocytic normochromic anemia, 24
prognosis/treatment, 212–213 NSAIDs
symptoms/screening for, 212 platelet function and, 246–247
Murphy, William, 89 Nucleus:cytoplasm ratio (N:C ratio), 34
Myeloblasts, 131f in leukocytes, 130
identification criteria, 130–131 red cell maturation and, 35
morphology, vs. lymphoblasts, 164, 164f Nygaard, 230
Myelocytes, 131f
identification criteria, 131
Myelodysplasia
acute myeloid leukemia with, 170 OD curve. See Oxygen dissociation curve
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs), 164, 220 Opsonization
dysplastic changes in, 222t in white cell phagocytosis, 145
FAB classification of, 222t Orthochromic normoblast, 36f
factors indicating progression to leukemia in, 223t Orthochromic normoblast-nucleated (nRBC), 36
pathophysiology of, 220 Osler-Weber-Rendu disease, 252
prognostic factors/clinical management, 222–223 Osmotic fragility curve, 100f
recognizing, 220–221 Ovalocytes, 42–43, 307
therapy-related, 170 Ovalocytosis, Southeast Asian, 101, 101f
unclassifiable, 222 Overwhelming postsplenectomy infections (OPSIs), 17
WHO classification of, 221–222, 222t Owren, Paul, 230
Myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia (MMM), 194 Oxygen dissociation curve (OD curve), 53–54, 54f
clinical features/symptoms, 195
diagnosis, 195
diagnostic criteria for, 196t
key facts of, 194t Pappenheimer bodies, 17, 45, 72f, 308
pathophysiology of, 194–195 Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH), 107–108
peripheral blood/bone marrow findings, 195 Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), 106–107
teardrop RBCs in, 195f Pauling, Linus, 114
treatment, 195–196 Pavlosky, 230
Myeloid cell lineage, 160 PCH. See Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria
Myeloid-erythroid ratio (M:E ratio), 18, 21, 130 Pelger-Huët anomaly, 149, 149f
INDEX 345
Pentose-phosphate shunt, 40f clinical features/symptoms, 192

Peritoneal fluid diagnosis, 193
cell count and differential, 313–315 diagnostic criteria for, 194t
histiocyte in, 316f increased RBCs in, 193f
Pernicious anemia, 89 key facts of, 192t
Personal protective equipment (PPE), 6–7, 8t pathophysiology of, 192t
Phagocytosis, white cell peripheral blood/bone marrow findings, 192–193
essential elements leading to, 147t treatment, 193–194
mechanism of, 145, 145f Postanalytic variables, 10, 11t
Philadelphia chromosome Preanalytic variables, 10, 10f
in CML, 189, 191, 192 thrombocytopenia related to, 246
Pica, 69 Precursor B lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), 176,
PK deficiency. See Pyruvate kinase deficiency 177f
Plasma cell leukemia, 214, 214f antigen expression in, 177f
Plasma cells, 210f, 211 cytogenetic findings, 178
with inclusion, 211f immunophenotype, 176–177
sheets of, 211f laboratory findings, 176
structure/function of, 209–210 Precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL), 179f
Plasmin, 239, 272, 273 antigen expression in, 179f
in disseminated intravascular coagulation, 275 cytogenetic findings, 179
inhibitors of, 283 immunophenotype, 178–179
Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), 272–273 laboratory findings, 178
Plasminogen activator system, 239 Prekallikrein, 235, 237
Platelet(s) Priapism
abnormalities in sickle cell disease, 116–117
in myelodysplastic syndromes, 220 Proaccelerin (labile factor, Factor V), 235–236
in pathogenesis of thrombosis, 282 Proconvertin (stable factor, Factor VII), 236, 237
aggregation, 234f deficiency of, 262
principle of, 234–235 Prolymphocytes, 134
Coulter scatterplots of, 322f Prolymphocytic leukemia (PLL), 208
count, 22 Promonocytes
estimate, from peripheral smear, 306t identification criteria, 133
Unopette system for, 309–311 Promyelocytes (progranulocyte), 131f
normal values in, 312 abnormal, 169f
development of, 232 identification criteria, 131
dysfunction of, due to vascular disorders, 252 Protein C, 284f
function deficiency of, 284–285
acquired defects in, 251–252 pathway, 284f
drugs affecting, 252t Protein S, 284
kinetics and, 233–234 deficiency of, 285
zones of, 233t Prothrombin (Factor II), 235
giant, 221f deficiency of, 262
abnormal granulation of, 221f mutation, 286
inherited qualitative disorders of Prothrombin time (PT), 238, 270
adhesion disorders, 249–251 automated procedure for, 315–318
release defects, 251 procedure, 318f
quantitative disorders of, 246–249 Protonormoblast, 35, 35f
response of, to vascular injury, 232f Punnett square, 114f
satellitism, 153–154, 153f Purpura, 252, 252f
formation, 154f Pyknosis, 153–154
structure of, 232–233, 233f Pyropoikilocytosis. See Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis
Pleural fluid Pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency, 105
cell count and differential, 313–315
mesothelial cell in, 316f
PLL. See Prolymphocytic leukemia
PNH. See Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Quality assurance
Poikilocytosis, 39, 307–308 indicators of, 9t
Polychromasia, 18, 41, 308 monitoring, 9–10
Polychromatophilic macrocytes, 41f normal (reference) values, 9–10
Polychromatophilic normoblasts, 36, 36f plans, basic concepts of, 8–9
Polycythemia vera (PV), 192 monitoring, 7
346 INDEX
RA. See Refractory anemia Refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts (RARS), 221
Radioactive hazards, 8 Renal disease
RAEB. See Refractory anemia with excess blasts anemia associated with, 71
RARS. See Refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts bleeding associated with, 263
RBCs. See Red blood cells disturbed platelet function in, 252–253
RCDW. See Red cell distribution width Reticulocyte count
RCM. See Red cell mass with automated instrumentation, 326
Red blood cell indices. See also Mean corpuscular Hgb; Mean cor- conditions associated with increase/decrease in, 304
puscular Hgb content; Mean corpuscular volume manual, procedure, 302
calculating, 300 with Miller eye disc procedure, 302
Red blood cells (RBCs), 37f normal values, 304
abnormal morphologies, 39 value of, 26–27
clinical conditions matched to, 309t Reticulocytes, 36, 36f
color variations, 41 definition of, 26
qualitative grading of, 309t Reticuloendothelial system (RES), 17, 66
recording, 307–308 in leukemia, 160
shape variations, 41–43 in lipid storage diseases, 152
size variations, 39–41 Retinopathy
bone marrow production of, 16 in sickle cell disease, 117
Coulter scatterplots of, 322f Ringed sideroblasts, 72, 72f
elliptocytes, 42–43 Ristocetin co-factor assay, 250
fragmented, 43 Rouleaux, 212, 212f
hypochromic, 41f, 70f vs. agglutination, 213f
dimorphism in, 72f Russell bodies, 211f
inclusions, 17, 43, 45, 45t
recording, 308
life span of, 17
macrocytic, 221f Safety precautions, 6–9
maturation, 34 Scatterplots/scattergrams, 322, 322f
key features of, 35t Coulter
terminology, 35t of leukocytes, 322f
metabolism, 38–39 of platelets, 322f
microcytic, 66, 70f of RBCs, 322f
in microcytic anemias, 66 Sysmex, 324f, 325f
normal values, in newborn, 25t Schilling, 161
nucleated Schilling test, 90, 91f
in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 206f Schistocytes, 43, 248f, 308
observing/recording, 307 in microangiopathic hemolytic anemia after acute
ovalocytes, 42–43 DIC, 275
polychromatophilic macrocyte, 41f Sedimentation rate, modified Westergren, 300
in polycythemia vera, 193, 193f Sediplast ESR rack, 301f
precursors Serine protease, effects of antithrombin on, 284f
in megaloblastic anemia, 86, 86f Serine protease inhibitors, 240f
sickle cell, 42, 42f Serous fluids
spherocytes, 42, 42f causes of abnormal cells in, 318t
Red cell distribution width (RCDW), 22 cell count and differential, 313–315
value of, 25–26 normal values of, 317t
Red cell mass (RCM) reference factors for calculations, 315t
in polycythemia vera, 192, 193 Sézary cells, 208f
Red cell membrane, 37f Sézary syndrome, 208
cytoskeleton, 38 SH. See Hereditary spherocytosis
development and function, 37 Sickle cell anemia
disorders of clinical considerations, 115–117
role of spleen in, 98 genetics/incidence of, 114–115
lipid composition, 37–38 laboratory diagnosis, 117–120
protein composition in lipid bilayers, 38 management, 117, 118t
Reed-Sternberg cells, 208 pathophysiology of sickling process, 115
Reference intervals, 9 prognosis, 117
Reflex testing, 10 Sickle cell gene
Refractory anemia (RA), 221 haplotypes of, 114–115
Refractory anemia with excess blasts (RAEB), 222 Sickle cells, 42, 42f, 118f, 308
Refractory anemia with multilineage dysplasia, 221–222 Sickle cell screen, 309–311
INDEX 347
Sickle cell trait, 120 Teardrop cells, 308

Sickle solubility test, 119f in myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia, 195f
Sideroblastic anemias, 72–74 Telangiectasia, 252, 252f
Sideroblasts Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase, 165–166
ringed, 220, 222f TFPI. See Tissue factor pathway inhibitor
refractory anemia with, 221 Thalassemia gene
Siderotic granules, 45, 45f alpha, 75
Smears beta, 75
wedge-type expression in population, 76t
preparation of, 304, 305f lineage of, from Queen Victoria, 259f
three zones of, 306f Thalassemia syndromes, 74–75, 75f
zigzag method for differential, 306f alpha, 76–77
Southeast Asian ovalocytosis, 101f clinical states of, 76f
Spectrin, 38 beta major, 78
Spherocytes, 42, 42f, 98f, 308 treatment/management of, 79
formation mechanisms, 99f beta thalassemia trait, 78–79
treatment/management of, 100 diagnosis, 76
Spherocytosis. See Hereditary spherocytosis diagnostic clues for, 80t
Spleen microcytic cells in, 39–40
in fetal hematopoiesis, 16 minor
functions of, 17, 18t microcytic hypochromic blood smear, 80f
role in red cell membrane disorders, 98 pathophysiology of, 75–76
in sickle cell disease, 116 RBC morphology in, 39
in thrombocytopenia, 246 thalassemia intermedia, 78
Splenectomy treatment, 76
in hereditary spherocytosis, 100 Thalidomide, 213
Howell-Jolly bodies observed following, 43, 45 T helper cells (CD4), 137
overwhelming infections following, 17 in HIV disease, 151
in thalassemia major, 79 Thrombin
Stable factor. See Proconvertin activity on fibrinogen, 271f
Standard deviation, 9 role in hemostasis, 271–272, 272f
Statistical quality control, 9–11 Thrombocythemia, 196t. See Essential thrombocythemia
Stem cells, 18–19 Thrombocytopenia
Stomatocytes, 102f, 308 drug-induced, 246–247
Stomatocytosis. See Hereditary stomatocytosis related to altered platelet distribution, 246
Streptokinase, 272, 290 related to decreased platelet production, 246
Stroke related to sample integrity/ preanalytic variables, 246
in sickle cell disease, 117 Thrombocytopenia with absent radii (TAR), 251
Stuart-Prower factor (Factor X), 236 Thrombocytosis, 249
deficiency of, 262 relative, causes of, 197t
Sudan black B, 165 Thrombolytic drugs, 289–290
Sugar water test, 106 Thrombolytic therapy, 272
Sulfhemoglobin, 54, 55 Thromboplastin, plasma antecedent (Factor XI), 236
Synovial fluid Thromboplastin, plasma component (Factor IX), 236
causes of abnormal cells in, 318t Thromboplastin (Factor III), 235
cell count and differential, 313–315 Thrombosis
normal values of, 317t acquired, conditions associated with, 283t
reference factors for calculations, 315t anticoagulant therapy in, 288–290
Sysmex instrumentation, 324f arterial vs. venous, 282
definition of, 282
inherited, conditions associated with, 283t
pathogenesis of, 282
T-ALL. See Precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia antithrombotic factors, 283–284
Target cells, 42–43, 44f, 308 coagulation abnormalities, 283
formation of, 44f fibrinolytic abnormalities, 283
Tay-Sachs disease, 152, 153 platelet abnormalities, 282
T-cell lymphomas, 208 vascular injury, 282
T cells, 19, 136, 137 risk factors for, 283f
development, CD markers in, 179f Thrombotic disorders
in lymphoproliferative disorders, 206 acquired, 286–288
T cytotoxic/suppressor cells (CD8), 137 inherited, 284–286
in HIV disease, 151 laboratory diagnosis, 288
348 INDEX
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, 43 in DNA synthesis, 87

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), 248 nutrition requirements of, 87–88
vs. hemolytic uremic syndrome, 249t sources of, 87t
Thromboxane A2, 234, 252, 288 Vitamin B12 deficiency, 89–90
Thymidine triphosphate (TTP), 87 in megaloblastic anemia, 86
Thymus Vitamin K
in fetal hematopoiesis, 16 coagulation factors dependent on, 233–237
TIBC. See Total iron-binding capacity deficiency of, 264
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), 237 dependent proteins, 284
deficiency, 286 drugs interfering with activity of, 264t
T-LBL. See T lymphoblastic lymphoma Von Willebrand factor (vWF), 249
T lymphoblastic lymphoma (T-LBL) in clot formation, 231
laboratory findings, 178 Factor X and, 258
Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), 70 large multimers, 248
Toxic granulation, 146f, 147, 147f Von Willebrand’s disease, 249–250
TPA. See Tissue-plasminogen activator basic test profile for, 250t
in fibrinolysis, 272 primary derivatives of, 250t
Transferrin, 66
TTP. See Thymidine triphosphate
2,3-Diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), 52, 53, 54
Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia, 214
disturbed platelet function in, 251, 252
Warfarin, 238, 264
Unopette white blood cell/platelet count, 309 in acute thrombosis, 288
Uremia associated skin necrosis, in protein C deficiency, 285
disturbed platelet function in, 251, 252 WBC. See White blood cell count
Urokinase, 272, 290 WBCs. See Leukocytes
White blood cell count (WBC), 22, 137, 144
differential, 138
absolute values
Variables adult, reference range for, 139t
postanalytic, 10–11, 11t vs. relative values, 139
preanalytic, 10, 10f manual
Vascular system principle, 305
injury procedure, 306–307
events following, 231–232 reference ranges for adults and infants, 138t
in pathogenesis of thrombosis, 282 vs. scan, 138–139
overview, 231 normal values in adults/infants, 307t
Vasoconstriction from peripheral smear, 306t
mechanism of, 231 Unopette system for, 309–311
Vaso-occlusive conditions normal values in, 309–311
in sickle cell disease, 116 values
VCS technology, 321 critical, 22, 139t
in Beckman-Coulter instrumentation, 322, 324f at different ages, 138t
results from, verifying and sending, 323 zigzag method of, 306f
Victoria (Queen), 258 Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, 251
lineage of thalassemia gene from, 259f
Virchow, Rudolph, 161
Vitamin B12, 41
absorption and transport, 88f Xerocytosis. See Hereditary xerocytosis

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Copyright © 2007 by F. A. Davis.

00(F)Ciesla-FM 12/21/06 7:05 PM Page i

Copyright © 2007 by F. A. Davis.

Betty Ciesla, MS, MT(ASCP)SH

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Betty Ciesla, MS, MT (ASCP)SH

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Betty Ciesla, MS, MT(ASCP)SH Mitra Taghizadeh, MS, MT(ASCP)

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Linda Collins, MS, MT(ASCP) Debbie Heinritz, MT(ASCP), CLS(NCA)

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Susan Conforti, MS, MT(ASCP)SBB Judy A. Horton, DA, MT(ASCP)

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PART I BASIC HEMATOLOGY PRINCIPLES Alterations in the M:E Ratio, 18

Delta Checks, 10 Basic Red Cell Production, 34

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Red Cell Metabolism, 38 Hereditary Hemochromatosis, 72

Hemoglobin Structure and Synthesis, 52 CHAPTER 6

Abnormal Hemoglobins, 54 The Macrocytic Anemias and the

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Lymphocyte Origin and Function, 134 Pelger-Huët Anomaly, 149

Introduction to the White Cell Disorders, Deﬁnition of Leukemia, 160

May-Hegglin Anomaly, 149 Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia, 189

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Clinical Features and Symptoms, 189 Sézary Syndrome, 208

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Platelet Structure and Biochemistry, 232 CHAPTER 17

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Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation, Specimen Collection and Storage, 299

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Performing a Manual Differential and Prothrombin Time and Activated

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