The Boy Chemist

THE BOY CHEMIST
SCIENCE BOOKS
FOR
YOUNG PEOPLE
BY
A. FREDERICK COLLINS
THE BOY ASTRONOMER

8vo. 246 + ix pages. Frontispiece and One Hundred
and Seventy-Five Text Illustrations. Index. Price,
$2.00
THE BOY CHEMIST
8vo. 300 + xix pages. Frontispiece and One Hun-
dred and Seventy-Two Text Illustrations. Index.
Price, $2.00
THE BOY SCIENTIST
8vo. 447 + xxii pages. Frontispiece and Three Hun-
dred and Forty Text Illustrations. Index. Price, $2.50.
LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO., BOSTON

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THE ALCHEMIST.
(From Painting by Teniers.)

THE BOY CHEMIST
BY
A. FREDERICK COLLINS
Author of "The Boy Astronomer."
WITH FRONTISPIECE AND ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-TWO

TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO.

BOSTON
COPYRIGHT, 1924-
By LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO.
All Rights Reserved
THE BOY CHEMIST
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

TO
WILLIAM COX
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FOREWORD
DURING the dark ages there lived men who worked over
seething furnaces in the vain attempt to find a way to live
a thousand years and to make precious metals out of the
baser ones. These men were the alchemists of old, and as
they lived in an age of ignorance they believed many strange
and untrue things.
Chief among these were that earth, air, fire, and water
were el~ments; that when these acted one on another, sul-
phur, mercury, and salt were formed, which in turn were
called principles; and that by combining the elements and
the principles in the right proportions they would yield an
essence, which when taken internally, like castor oil, would
prolong life indefinitely, and when poured over lead would
change, or "transmute," it into pure gold.
Of course they did not find this miraculous essence, so dili-
r:ently sought, but they made a few simple discoveries which,
while seeming to them to be of very little value, were really
of priceless worth, for out of them came the great science of
Chemistry as we know it to-day. There is nothing in the
whole realm of knowledge of more absorbing interest in an
experimental way than this branch of it, for it tells you how
to combine atoms and molecules of various elements pro-
duced by Nature and make other and entirely different
substances. Many of these substances Nature herself
has never made, so that you have it in your power to be a
creator in the smaller sense; and, equally wonderful, Chem-
istry tells you how to break down various compounds by
vii
viii FOREWORD
means of light, heat, and electricity, and separate them

into their original elements.
If you would like to do these things, you will like Chem-
istry, and I have written this book so that you can easily
make the experiments, and thus gain a very good idea of
how and why chemicals react on each other, especially if
you will give careful attention to the chapter "Chemistry
Simply Explained," and do a little thinking at the same
time. You do not need to buy all the apparatus and chemi-
cals at once, but just enough to make a few of the simple
experiments that interest you at first. The next step is to
fit up a little laboratory, put on an apron, and go to work
in earnest. If you make the experiments in order, by the
time you reach the tenth chapter you will have taken a
fairly good course in Chemistry, and one that will serve you
well for all time.
From the tenth chapter on, you will find a large number
of experiments that are strange and curious in the extreme,
such as making a flame without light, making photographs
with a pinhole camera, magical experiments of all kinds, and
making safe and sane fireworks. Finally, there are numer-
ous experiments that have to do with household chemistry,
which are of much interest and have a great deal of practical
value. That much pleasure and profit will accrue to you
from this book is the wish of the author.
A. FREDERICK COLLINS.
Paris, France.
May, I924.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
WHAT You NEED TO EXPERIMENT WITH. I
The Apparatus You Need- What the Apparatus Consists of-How to
Make a Ring Stand - How to Make an Alcohol Lamp - How to
Make a Bunsen Burner-How to Make a Test-Tube Rack-Your
Supply of Chemicals - Indicator Papers and Solutions - How Litmus
Paper Acts - How Phenolphthalein Acts - How Methyl Orange
Acts - How Congo Red Acts - How Sulphide Test Paper Acts - How _
to Work Glass Tubing-How to Cut a Glass Tube-How to Smooth
Up the Sharp Edges - How to Bend Glass Tubing - How to Draw a
Glass Nozzle.
CHAPTER II.
AIR, THE MIRACLE-WORKER 18
The Height of the Atmosphere- The Weight, or Pressure, of the Air-
Experiment to Show that the Air Has Weight- What an Element is-
Experiments to show What a Mechanical Mixture Is - Experiment
to Show What a Chemical Coumpound Is - What the Air is Good for
- About Burning and Combustion - What Rusting, or Oxidation, Is
- Experiment to Show How Iron Rusts - Experiment to Show that
Other Metals Rust- Experiment to show that Air Is Used Up When
Iron Rusts - How Slow Oxidation Causes Decay - What Spontane-
ous Combustion Is- Substances that Oxygen Will Not Affect-
How to Make Ozone - How to Test for Ozone.
CHAPTER III.
EXPERIMENTS WITH OXYGEN, NITROGEN, AND CARBON DIOXIDE 32
A Simple Way to Make Oxygen-A Way to Make More Oxygen-
The Self-Lighting Match - The Flashing Charcoal Pill- The Scin-
tillating Watch-Spring- The Strange Action of Oxygen on Phosphorus
ix
x CONTENTS
PAGE
- How to Make an Oxy-Calcium Light- How the Oxy-Calcium
Light Works-How Sulphur Burns in Oxygen-A Simple Way to
Make Nitrogen - Another Easy Way to Make Nitrogen - How to
Make a Larger Amount of Nitrogen- The Self-Extinguishing Match
- What Else the Experiment Shows- How to Show there is Carbon
Dioxide in the Air - To Show That You Inhale Oxygen and Exhale
Carbon Dioxide- How to Make Carbon Dioxide- A Better Way
to Make Carbon Dioxide- To Show that Carbon Dioxide Will Not
Support Combustion - To Show that Carbon Dioxide Destroys Life
-A Magical Experiment With Air, Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen -To
Show that Carbon Dioxide Has Weight- To Separate a Candle from
Its Flame - The Levitation of a Soap Bubble.
CHAPTER IV.
THE WIZARDRY OF WATER •
Some Characteristics of Water- What Water Is Made of- What Water
Is Good for- How to Purify Water- How to Filter Water-How to
Boil Water- How to Distil Water- Tests for the Purity of Distilled
Water - How to Raise the Temperature of Water - How to Lower the
Temperature of Water- How to Make Ice-What Water of Crystalliza-
tion Is-How to See the Water of Crystallization-How to Make Rock-
Candy Crystals - How to Make a Secret Writing Ink - How to Make
a Weather Forecaster- How to Make Imitation Ground Glass-
Kinds of Water-How to Tell if Water Is Soft or Hard-How to
Test for and Get Rid of Temporary Hardness - How to Test for and
Get Rid of Permanent Hardness- How to Test Water for Odor and
Color - How to Test Water for Mineral Substances - How to Test
Water for Organic Matter- How to Test Water for Carbon Dioxide-
How to Test Water for Alkalis - How to Test Water for Lime - How
to Test Water for Acids - How to Test Water for Iron - How to
Test Water for Sulphur.
CHAPTER V.
EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROGEN 75
How to Analyze Water- How to Make Synthetic Water with an Elec-
tric Spark - How to Make Svnthetic Water with an Alcohol Flame-
How to Make Hydrogen - How to Make Hydrogen without an Acid
- How to Pour Out Hydrogen - The Diffusion of Hydrogen - How
to Make a Hydrogen Flame-How Hydrogen Acts on Flame-How
CONTENTS xi
PAGE
to Blow Hydrogen Soap Bubbles - How to Blow Hydrogen Cauliflower
Soap Bubbles - How to Blow Resin Bubbles - How to Make a Self-
Lighting Flame- How Hydrogen Acts on Silver Nitrate- How Hydro-
gen Acts on Sound-How to Make a Hydrogen-Flame Organ Pipe-
How to Purify Hydrogen Gas - How to Dry Hydrogen.
CHAPTER VI.
A PAIR OF SMELLY GASES
About Chlorine and Ammonia Gases- Experiments with Chlorine-
How to Make Chlorine - How to Test for Chlorine - How Chlorine
Acts on Flame - Spontaneous Combustion - How to Make a Smoke
Screen - The Art of Bleaching - How to Test the Bleaching Power
of Chlorine- To Make a Red Rose White-How to Make Bleach-
ing Powder - How to Make a Bleaching Liquid - How to Make a
Bandanna Handkerchief- Experiment with Ammonia-How to
Make a Little Ammonia - How to Make Ammonia on a Large Scale
- To Show How Ammonia Dissolves in Water- How to Make an
Ammonia-Operated Fountain - How to Make Concentrated Liquid
Ammonia- An Experiment with ConcentrlJ.ted Liquid A=onia-
Some Uses of Aqua A=onia.
CHAPTER VII.
ACIDS, THE GREAT SOLVENTS lIS
About Sulphuric Acid - The Easiest Way to Make Sulphuric Acid-

A Better Way to Make Sulphuric Acid - Another Method for Mak-
ing Sulphuric Acid - A Laboratory Method for Making Sulphuric
Acid - How to Make Sulphur Dioxide - How to Make Sulphur Tri-
oxide - How to Make Sulphuric Acid - Experiments with Sulphuric
Acid - How to Change Sugar into Carbon - How to Write Indelibly
on Cotton Goods - How to Make Copperas - How to Make Blue
Vitriol- How to Make Epsom Salts - Abou t Nitric Acid - How to
Make Nitric Acid - Experiments with Nitric Acid - An Experiment
in Spontaneous Combustion - The Action cf Nitric Acid on Metals-
About Hydrochloric Acid - To Make Hydrogen Chloride - To
Make Hydrochloric Acid - Experiments with Hydrochloric Acid-
How to Make a Hydrogen-Chloride Fountain - The Great Smoke ElI:-
periment - How to Make a Good Soldering Fluid - How to Make
Imitation Emeralds - How to Make Aqua Regia - About Fluorine and
Hydrofluoric Acid - How to Etch Glass - An Easier Way to Etch
on Glass - How to Change Water into Ozone.
xu CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER VIII.
WHAT BASES AND SALTS ARE 139
How Acids and Bases Form Salts- What the Bases Are- What the
Salts Are-How to Make Calcium Hydroxide(C~ustic Lime)-How
to Make Sodium HydrOJdde(Caustic Soda) '-How to Make Potassium
Hydroxide (Caustic Potash) - Experiments with Hydroxides - How
to Make Mortar - Other Things Made with Lime - How to Make
Hard Soap- How to Make Eoft Soap- How Soap-and-Water Cleans-
How to Make Various Salts- Sodium Chloride (Common Table
Salt) - Sodium Sulphate (Glauber's ,Salt) - Sodium Nitrate (Chili
Saltpeter) - Potassium Chloride- Potassium Nitrate (Saltpeter).
CHAPTER IX.
THE MYSTIC METALS-THEIR ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 150
How the Elements Are Classified - The Activity of the Metals - Table
of Activities- Potassium, the Softest Metal- Compounds of Potas-
sium - An Experiment with Potassium - Sodium, Another Alkali
Metal- Compounds of Sodium-An Experiment with Sodium-
Lithium, the Lightest Metal-Compounds of Lithium-An Experi-
ment with Lithium-Calcium, the Fourth Alkaline Metal-Com-
pounds of Calcium-Experiments with Calcium - Magnesium, the
Metal that Burns- Compounds of Magnesium-Experiments with
Magnesium - Aluminum, the Lightest C.:>mmon Metal- An Experi-
ment with Aluminum - Manganese, the Hardening Metal- Com-
pounds cf Manganese - An Experiment with Manganese - Zinc, the
Electric Metal- Compounds of Zinc - An Eyperiment with Zinc-
Chromium, the Color-Making Metal- Experiments with Chromium
- In:.n, the Most Useful Metal- An Experiment with Iron- Nickel,
the Non-Rusting Metal-How to Nickel-plate a Coin-Tin, the Soft,
Malleab1eMetal-An Experiment with Tin-Lead, the Heavy Metal-
How to Make a Lead-Tree - Copper, the Prehistoric Metal- An
Experiment with Copper - Bismuth, the Easily Fusible Metal- Ex-
periments with Bismuth - Antimony, the Metal that Expands-
Experiments with Antimony- Mercury, the Liquid Metal-An Ex-
periment with Mercury- Silver, the Queen of Metals- An Exper-
iment with Silver - Gold, the King of Metals - An E:..periment
ViI ~th Gold - Platinum, the Regal Metal- How Alloys Are Made-
Alloys of Magnesium and Aluminum-Alloys of Iron and Steel-
Alloys of Tin and Lead - Alloys of Copper - Silver Alloys - Gold
Alloys - How Amalgams Are Made - A Sodium Amalgam - A Zinc
Amalgam - Tin and Zinc Amalgams.
CONTENTS xiii
PAGE
CHAPTER X.
CHEMISTRY SIMPLY EXPLAINED 184
What Matter Is- What the Properties of Matter Are- First Experi-
ment- Second Experiment- The Three Common Forms of Matter-
What Matter Is Built Up of - What the Elements Are - How the
Elements Got Their Names- What the Symbols Mean- What the
Symbols Show- What Equations Are.
CHAPTER XI.
FIRE, FLAME, HEAT, AND LIGHT 195
What Fire Is- What Flame Is- What Heat Is- What Light Is-
Ways of Making Heat and Fire-How a Candle Burns-How Ven-
tilation Affects Combustion-How the Davy Safety-Lamp Works-
How an Alcohol Lamp Burns - How Oil and Gas Lamps Burn-
How a Bunsen Burner Works- Experiments with a Bunsen Burner-
HowtoLightthe Burner- The Luminous Flame of the Burner-The
Non-Luminous Flame of the Burner-How to Make Colored Flames
- How to Make Charcoal-How Charcoal Is Made-What Coal Is-
How to Make Coal Gas.
CHAPTER XII.
How. TO MAKE PHOTOGRAPHS 209
What Light Is - How Light Acts - How Light Acts on Silver - How
to Make Silver Nitrate - Experiments with a Silver Nitrate Solution
- How to Make Silver Chloride - Action of Light on Silver Chloride
- How to Make a Pinhole Camera - How the Camera Works - How
a Real Camera Is Made - How Dry Plates and Films Are Made- How
a Picture Is Made on a Dry Plate or Film- How to Develop a Dry
Plate or a Film - How to Fix the Picture - How to Make a Print
from a Negative- Kinds of Printing Papers- Silver Papers- How
to Make a Print- How to Tone the Print- How to Fix the Print-
How to Make a Velox Print- How to Make and Use Blue Paper.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE WHITR MAGIC OF CHEMISTRY 227
Pouring Wine and Water from the Same Pitcher- Changing Water into
Ink, and Vice Versa - The Blushing Bride - The Magical Atomizer
- The Rainbow Liquid - Breathing a Picture on Glass - Passing
Smoke Invisibly into a Tumbler- Elixir Vitae, or the Artificial Pro-
xiv CONTENTS
PAGE
duction of Life - How to Make Secret Writing Inks - A Heat Sym-
pathetic Ink - A Light Sympathetic Ink - A Fluorescent Sympathetic
Ink- How to Make Spirit Pictures-The Materialization of Mysteria.
CHAPTER XIV.
SAFE AND SANE FIREWORKS
How to Make Fire without a Match - Writing with Fire Ink - Rapid
Oxidation of Zinc - How to Make a Safe Fuse - How to Make a
Flash-Light- How to Make Explosive Matches- How to Make
Rainbow Lights-How to Make Fourth of July Sparklers-How to
Make a White Flash-Light-How to Make a Red Flash-Light-How
to Make a Green Flash-Light-How to Make Flash Paper-How to
Make Colored Flash Paper- How to Make Flash Handkerchiefs-
How to Light a Paper without a Flame - How to Light a Paper with a
Piece of Ice- The Great Fire-Eating Trick- How to Make Colored
Fire - Red Fire - Green Fire - Yellow Fire - Bengal Lights - How
to Make Phosphine Smoke Rings - How to Make Pharaoh's Serpents.
CHAPTER XV.
USEFUL HOUSEHOLD RECIPES 263
How to Make Soaps - Toilet Soap - Perfumed Soap - Colored Soap
- Floating Soap - Glycerine Soap - Sapolio - How to Make a Safe
Dry-Cleansing Compound-How to Take Out Spots and Stains-
A Fresh Grease Spot- Old Grease Spots- Paint Spots- Ink Spots
-Iron-Rust Stains-Alkali Spots-Mildew Stains-How to Make
Bleaching Compounds- For Cotton and Linen Goods- For Wool
and Silk - For Hair and Wool- How to Make Disinfectants - How
to Make and Use Natural-Color Dyes- Direct or Substantive Dyes
- Red Logwood Dye - Black Logwood Dye - Green Logwood Dye
- Yellow Tumeric Dye - Brown Tumeric Dye - Bright Red Cochi-
neal Dye - Orange Cochineal Dye - Violet Cochineal Dye - Insoluble
Dyes- To Dye Indigo Blue- To Dye Tumeric Yellow- Mordant,
or Adjective, Dyes- How to Make and Use Aniline Dyes- Direct
Aniline Dyes for Cotton Goods- Mordant Aniline Dyes for Cotton
Goods - Acid Colors for Silk and Woolen Goods - How to Make
Inks -.,.- Black Ink - Blue Ink - Purple Ink - Red Ink - Green
Ink - Printer's Ink - Some Other Useful Recipes - How to Make
a Liquid Ink Eraser-How to Make a Good China Cement-How to
Make an Adhesive Paste-How to Make Fire-ExtinguishingCompounds
- How to Clean Silverware Chemically - How to Clean Silverware
Electrically- How to Waterproof Goods- How to Fireproof Goods
- How to Make a Hair-Remover.
ILL USTRATIONS
The Alchemist (From Painting by Teniers) Frontispiece

PAGE
FIG. I - A Bought Ring Stand 3
FIG. 2 - A Home-Made Ring Stand 3
FIG. 3- A Bought Alcohol Lamp 4
FIG. 4- A Home-Made Alcohol Lamp 4
FIG. 5- A Bought Bunsen Burner . 5
FIG. 6- A Home-Made Bunsen Burner 5
FIG. 7- A Test Tube 6
FIG. 8- A Test-Tube Brush 6
FIG. 9- A Test-Tube Holder 6
FIG. 10 - A Bought Test-Tube Rack 7
FIG. II - A Home-Made Test-Tube Rack 7
FIG. 12 - A Glass Stirring Rod 8
FIG. 13 - A Pipette or Medicine Dropper 8
FIG. 14 - A Nest of Beakers 9
FIG. IS - An Ordinary Spherical Flask 9
FIG. 16 - An Erlenmeyer Flask 9
FIG. 17 - A Glass Funnel . 10
FIG. 18 - A Mortar and Pestle 10
FIG. 19 - An Ordinary Wide-Mouth Bottle II
FIG. 20 - A Woulff's Bottle II
FIG. 21 - A Four-Ounce Graduated Glass II
FIG. 22 - A Teaspoonful Graduated Glass II
FIG. 23 - A Porcelain Crucible 12
FIG. 24 - A Glass Retort 12
FIG. 25 - A Watch Crystal 13
FIG. 26 - A Porcelain Evaporating-Dish 13
FIG. 27 - A Five-Inch U-Tube 13
FIG. 28 - A Pair of Tweezers 13
FIG. 29 - How to Cut a Glass Tube 15
FIG. 30 - How to Bend a Glass Tube 16
xv
XVI ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
FIG. 31 - How to Draw a Glass Nozzle ..... 17

FIG. 32 - The Earth's Atmosphere is Shaped Like a Football 19
FIG. 33 - An Experiment Which Shows that the Air Has
Pressure 21
FIG. 34 - Separating Iron Filings from Sulphur by a Stream
of Air 22
FIG. 35 - Separating Iron Filings from Sulphur with a Magnet 22
FIG. 36 - Making a Chemical Compound 23
FIG. 37 - Apparatus for Making Lead and Tin Rust 27
FIG. 38 - Apparatus to' Show that Air Is Used When Iron Rusts 27
FIG. 39 - How to Make and Experiment with a Little Oxygen 33
FIG. 40 - How the Delivery Tube is Bent 34
FIG. 41 - The Hole in the Cork 34
FIG. 42 - The Oxygen Apparatus Complete 34
FIG. 43 - The Wire on the Match 36
FIG. 44 - The Self-Lighting Match 36
FIG. 45 - The Scintillating Watch-Spring 37
FIG. 46 - Filling the Bladder with Oxygen . 38
FIG. 47 - Directing a Stream of Oxygen on Phosphorus 39
FIG. 48 - How to Make an Oxy-Calcium Light 40
FIG. 49 - A Simple Way to Make Nitrogen 42
FIG. 50 - A Better Way to Make a Little Nitrogen 43
FIG. 51 - How to Make Nitrogen for Experimental purposes. 44
FIG. 52 - A Simple Way to Show Carbon Dioxide 47
FIG. 53 - A Better Way to Show Carbon Dioxide . 48
FIG. 54 - A Simple Way to Make Carbon Dioxide 49
FIG. 55 - A Better Way to Make Carbon Dioxide 50
FIG. 56 - To Make a Larger Amount of Carbon Dioxide. 51
FIG. 57 - A Magical Experiment 53
FIG. 58 - Pouring Carbon Dioxide from One Jar IntoAnother 54
FIG. 59 - Separating the Flame of a Candle from Its Wick 54
FIG. 60 - The Levitation of a Soap Bubble 55
FIG. 61 - How the Filter Paper is Creased 58
FIG. 62 - The Filter Paper in the Funnel 59
FIG. 63 - The Funnel in Use . 59
FIG. 64 - How to Distil a Little Water . 60
FIG. 65 - A Better Apparatus for Distilling Water 61
FIG. 66 - An Apparatus for Distilling Water on a Large Scale 62
FIG. 67 - How to Raise the Temperature of Water 63
FIG. 68 - How to Make Ice 65
FIG. 69 - How to Make Rock-Candy 66
ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
PAGE
FIG. 70 - How to Test for Mineral Matter in Water 71
FIG. 71 - How to Test for Organic Matter in Water 72
FIG. 72 - Separating Water into Its Original Gases 77
FIG. 73 - Diagram of the Theory of Ioni.zation 73
FIG. 74 - The Eudiometer . . . . . . . .. 79
FIG. 75 - The Eudiometer Connected with the Spark Coil 80
FIG. 76 - The Eudiometer Ready for the Experiment. 81
FIG. 77 - Producing Water with an Alcohol Flame. 81
FIG. 78 - How to Make Hydrogen 83
FIG. 79 - How to Pour Out Hydrogen . 84
FIG. 80 - The Diffusion of Hydrogen 85
FIG. 81 - How to Make a Hydrogen Flame 86
FIG. 82 - The Hydrogen Burns Gently . 87
FIG. 83 - The Match Is Extinguished . . . 87
FIG. 84 - The Hydrogen Mixed with Air Explodes 88
FIG. 85 - Blowing Hydrogen Soap Bubbles . .. 89
FIG. 86 - How to Blow Hydrogen Cauliflower Soap Bubbles 90
FIG. 87 - Melting the Resin and Linseed Oil Over a Water
Bath 91
FIG. 88 - A Self-Lighting Gas Flame 91
FIG. 89 - An Electric Bell in Hydrogen 92
FIG. 90 - A Squeaking Head in Hydrogen 93
FIG. 91 - A Hydrogen-Flame Organ Pipe 94
FIG. 92 - How to Purify Hydrogen and Other Gases 95
FIG. 93 - How to Dry Hydrogen and Other Gases 96
FIG. 94 - Apparatus for Generating Chlorine Gas IOO
FIG. 95 - How to Make a Smoke Screen I03
FIG. 96 - Maki.ng Some Dry Chlorine Gas I04
FIG. 97 - The Writing in the Bottle. I05
FIG. 98 - The Writing Bleached Out 106
FIG. 99 - To Make a Red Rose White. I07
FIG. 100 - How to Make a Bandanna Handkerchief I08
FIG. 101 - Making a Little Ammonia Gas . . . . . I09
FIG. 102 - Rubbing Up Sal Ammoniac and Slaked Lime in a
Mortar . .. .. IIO
FIG. 103 - Making Ammonia Gas for Experimental Purposes. III
FIG. 104 - The Test Tube Sealed by Mercury . II3
FIG. 105 - The Test Tube Lifted from the Mercury II3
FIG. 106 - An Ammonia-Operated Fountain II4
FIG. 107 - Apparatus for Making Concentrated Liquid Am-
monia . 115
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
FIG. 108 - Boiling Ammonia with the Heat of Your Hand 116
FIG. 109 - Sulphur Burning in a Bottle . 120
FIG. 110 - Introducing the Nitric Acid. ... 120
FIG. III - A Better Way to Make Dilute Sulphuric Acid 121
FIG. 112 - Laboratory Method for Making Sulphuric Acid 123
FIG. 113 - How to Make Nitric Acid . 128
FIG. 114 - How to Make Hydrochloric Acid 132
FIG. 115 - A Hydrogen-Chloride Fountain 133
FIG. 116 - The Great Smoke Experiment . . .. 134
FIG. 117 - How to Etch Glass with Hydrofluoric Acid. 136
FIG. 118 - The Reaction of Potassium on Water 153
FIG. 119 - Magnesium Burning in Air . . 159
FIG. 120 - Making Iron by the Thermit Process 161
FIG. 121 - A Stmple Electric Cell,. ...... 163
FIG. 122 - Chromium Crystals and Alcohol Bursting into
Flames . 165
FIG. 123 - Making Ferric Sulphide 166
FIG. 124 - How to Make a Lead-Tree . 170
FIG. 125 - How to Electroplate with Coppel," 171
FIG. 126 - How to Heat Antimony with a Blow-Pipe . 174
FIG. 127 - Clearly Two Bodies Cannot Occupy the Same Space
. at the Same Time . . . . . . . . . 185
FIG. 128 - This Experiment Seems to Show that Two Bodies
Can Occupy the Same Space at the Same Time. 186
FIG. 129 - How Atoms Form the Molecule, and Molecules the
Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
FIG. 130 - How the Negative and Positive Particles of Electri-
city form the A t o m . 188
FIG. 131 - Two Atoms of Oxygen Make a Molecule of Oxygen 190
FIG. 132 - Three Atoms of Oxygen Make a Molecule of Ozone 190
FIG. 133 - The Flame of a Candle 198
FIG. 134 - How Ventilation Affects Combustion 199
FIG. 135 - The Davy Safety-Lamp in Operation .. . 200
FIG. 136 - The Principle on which the Davy Safety-Lamp
Works 201
FIG. 137 - The Bunsen Burner 202
FIG. 138 - A Luminous Gas Flame 203
FIG. 139 - A Non-Luminous Gas Flame. . . 203
FIG. 140 - Proving the Dark Cone to Be Unburnt Gas 204
FIG. 141 - Production of Colored Flames 205
FIG. 142 - Cross-Section of a Charcoal Kiln . 206
ILLUSTRATIONS xix
PAGE
FIG. 143 - A Miniature Gas Works . 207

FIG. 144 - How a Stone Sends out Water-Waves 210
FIG. 145 - How a Bell Sends out Sound-Waves 211
FIG. 146 - How a Candle Sends out Light-Waves 212
FIG. 147 - How Silver Chloride Is Made. 214
FIG. 148 - How to Make a Pinhole Camera . 216
FIG. 149 - How the Image Is Reversed 217
FIG. 150 - How a Real Camera Works . . . 218
FIG. 151 - Coating the Plate with Silver Emulsion 219
FIG. 152 - A Negative-Rack 222
FIG. 153 - A Printing-Frame . . . . . . . . . . 224-
FIG. 154 - How Wine and Water are Poured from the Same
Pitcher . . . . . 228
FIG. 155 - Changing Water into Ink . 230
FIG. 156 - How the Ink Tablet Is Held . 231
FIG. 157 - The Feathers in Their Support 232
FIG. 158 - Spraying a Feather ... 232
FIG. 159 - Breathing a Picture on Glass. . . . . . 234
FIG. 160 - Passing Smoke Invisibly into the Glass Tumblers 235
FIG. 161 - Showing the Smoke in the Tumblers ., 236
FIG. 162 - Elixir Vitae, or the Artificial Production of Life 237
FIG. 163 - The Wire Frame . . 242
FIG. 164 - The Spirit of Mysteria . 244-
FIG. 165 - Writing with Fire Ink . 247
FIG. 166 - Making Rainbow Lights 250
FIG. 167 - A Fourth of July Sparkler 251
FIG. 168 - Lighting a Flash-Light 252
FIG. 169 - Lighting a Paper without a Match 255
FIG. 170 - The Great Fire-Eating Trick. . 257
FIG. 171 - Making Phosphine Smoke Rings . 259
FIG. 172 - Pharaoh's Serpent Cometh Forth 260
THE BOY CHEMIST
CHAPTER I
WHAT YOU NEED TO EXPERIMENT WITH

THE two chief things you need to make the experiments
described in this book are the apparatus and the chemicals.
You can improvise some of the apparatus and use household
china and glassware for other pieces, but it is better to buy
whatever equipment you need, for it costs but very little,
and having been designed especially for the purpose, it will
prove far more satisfactory. However, I shall tell you how
to construct whatever pieces of apparatus I think you can
make, so that in case you happen to be far removed from a
chemical supply house you can go ahead with the experi-
ments, anyway, and not lose valuable time.
The Apparatus You Need. If you can, it is the better
way to get the following pieces of apparatus before you
start in to experiment, as you will need them right along:
I. A Ring-Stand.
2. An Alcohol Lamp, or a Bunsen Burner.
3. A Sheet of Iron Gauze.
4. A Sct of 6 Test Tubes. /
5. A Test-Tube Rack.
6. A Test-Tube Brush.
7. A Glass Stirring Rod.
8. A Pipette, or Medicine Dropper.
9. An Ordinary Teaspoon and a Tablespoon.·
ro. A Nest of 3 Beakers.
1
2 THE BOY CHEMIST
II. One or Two Flasks.

12. A Glass Funnel.-"
13· A Mortar and Pestle.
14. Two or Three Wide-Mouth Bottles.
15· Some Corks, or, better, Rubber Stoppers to fit the
Bottles.
16. A Cork-Borer.
17· A Graduated Glass.
18. A Porcelain Crucible.
19· A Glass Retort.
20. Several Watch Glasses.
2I. A Glass V-Tube.
22. Several Pieces of %-Inch Glass Tubing. L
23· Some 7;i:-Inch Rubber Tubing.
24. A Pair of Forceps, or Tweezers ...
25· A Dozen Sheets of Filter Paper.
26. Two Sheets of Litmus Paper. /
What the Apparatus Consists of. Now before we go any

farther, let us find out just what each of the above pieces of
apparatus consists of.
A bought ring-stand is shown in Fig. I, and one that you
can make in Fig. 2. Take a piece of Ys-inch or Yi'6-inch
iron wire 2 feet long, and form a ring on one end 4 inches
in diameter so that it will stand on the table. Now take
a piece of Ys-inch iron wire and make a ring z%: inches in
diameter and then bend the free end into a spiral of three
or four turns with a pair of round-nose pliers, so that it
will slip snugly over the support rod of the ring-stand, and
it is ready to use. . .
WHAT YOU NEED TO EXPERIMENT WITH 3
The proper kind of an alcohol lamp to use is shown in

Fig. 3, but if you are hard-pressed for a flame you can make
a lamp of an empty inkstand; to do so, bend a strip of tin
IY.{ inches wide and I,%' inches long into a tube and then
bore a ~-inch hole through the cork and push the tube
into it so that it will project at both ends. Next, make a
FIG. I.-A Bought Ring-Stand. FIG. 2.-A Home-Made Ring-Stand.
wick of string about 4 inches long and put this in the tube,
half fill the bottle with methyl alcohol (C II 30 II), which
is ordinary wood alcohol, put the long end of the wick into
it, and then the cork in the bottle, and your alcohol lamp
will look like Fig. 4.
You can buy a Bunsen burner, Fig. 5, for 50 cents or
less, and this will give you a much hotter flame than an
alcohol lamp. Again, if you are pressed for the want of
4 THE BOY CHEMIST
one, take a piece of iron pipe Ys inch in diameter, inside

measurement, and 6 inches long, and drill a ;1-inch hole
through it about I Yz inches from one end. Then make a
tin ring Yz inch wide that will just slip over the pipe and
cover the hole, and you can regulate the supply of air.!
Now bore a hole in the center of a block of wood that
is U inch thick and 3 inches on the sides and push the
FIG. 3.-A Bought Alcohol Lamp. FIG. 4.-A Home-Made Alcohol Lamp.
tube into it; glue two strips of wood, U inch thick, to the
bottom of the block along its edges, then put a rubber tube
on the lower end of the pipe and connect it with a gas jet
from which you have taken out the tip, and the burner is
complete, as shown in Fig. 6. A sheet of iron gauze is laid
on the upper ring of the stand and the flask, or other piece
of chemical glassware, is set on it when you want to heat
any liquid to the boiling point. Iron gauze comes III
1 The reason for regulating the air supply is explained in Chapter XI.
sheets 4 by 4 inches on the sides, and you can also buy it

with the meshes filled in with asbestos for slow evaporation.
A set of three S-inch and three 6-inch test tubes, see
Fig. 7, will serve for your experiments, at least at first.
To clean the test tubes you will need a test-tube brush, as
shown in Fig. 8, and you can buy or make a test-tube
~
FIG. 5.-A Bought Bunsen Burner. FIG. 6.-A Home-Made Bunsen Burner.
holder, as shown in Fig. 9. A regular test-tube rack is

shown in Fig. 10, but you can make one by bending a piece
of %il-inch brass or iron wire 4 feet long into the shape
shown in Fig. II.
A glass stirring rod is a solid glass rod about %; inch in
diameter and 6 inches long, as shown in Fig. 12. You can
use a glass tube instead, though some of the liquid usually
gets up into it and stays there. A pipette is simply a
6 THE BOY CHEMIST
medicine dropper, see Fig. 13, and this enables you to put
one or more drops of a liquid into a test tube or beaker with
neatness, accuracy, and dispatch.
A beaker is a tumbler-shaped glass ~ith a lip on it, as
shown in Fig. 14, so that you can pour a liquid from it
without spilling it. You can use an ordinary glass tumbler
instead of a beaker except when you have to heat it. You
should have a set of three beakers, or nest, as it is called,
FIG. S.-A Test-Tube Brush.
FIG. 7.
A Test Tube. FIG. 9.-A Test-Tube Holder.
because one goes inside another, and the smallest can be

2 inches, the next 2~ inches, and the third 3 inches in
diameter.
You can buy in two shapes flasks of annealed glass that
can be heated without breaking, and these are shown in
Figs. 15 and 16. The first is the regular spherical form
with a flat bottom, and this can be set directly in the ring
of your stand over the flame. The second is called an
Erlenmeyer flask, and its shape is such that while it can-
not be easily tipped over, it can be set only on a ring-stand

on a piece of wire gauze.
A glass funnel will be found useful where you have to
transfer the contents of one vessel into another, especially
FIG. Io.-A Bought Test-Tube Rack.
FIG. II.-A Home-Made Test-Tube Rack.
if these are bottles, as well as for filtering solutions. A

funnel with a mouth 3 inches in diameter, and with the
stem cut at an angle, as shown in Fig. 17, will be large
enough. You will need also a package of 5-inch filter
paper. A 2U-inch or 3-inch glass or porcelain mortar and
8 THE BOY CHEMIST
a pestle, see Fig. 18, must be used where you have to grind
a substance to a powder.
A 4-ounce or an 8-ounce wide-mouth bottle, like that
pictured in Fig. 19, is used in many operations, especially
in purifying gases. You can use a ~ -pint fruit jar in a
pinch, but a bottle is better. An ordinary cork will serve
as a stopper, but a rubber stopper makes a tighter fit.
While you can make a hole in a cork with a knife and
smooth it up with a rat-tail file, an easier, quicker, and,
hence, better way is to use a cork-borer. Rubber stoppers
can be bought with holes in them, ready for inserting glass
FIG. 12.-A Glass Stirring Rod.
-;:-:=t
FIG. 13.-A Pipette or Medicine Dropper.
tubes. In experiments where two or three glass tubes have

to be inserted in a bottle, you can also use a W ouljj's
bottle that has two or three necks, as shown in Fig. 20.
With a graduated glass, Fig. 21, you can measure out
liquids in fluid ounces, and you can get at the drug store a
small one with which you can measure I to 8 teaspoonfuls
and from I to 2 tablespoonfuls; it is shown in Fig. 22,
and for many of the experiments described in this book
it is very convenient. A porcelain crucible fitted with a
cover enables you to heat compounds to a high tempera-
ture; a small one having a diameter of 174' inches, see
Fig. 23, will be quite large enough for any experiment you
will want to make.
The retort shown in Fig. 24 is made of a kind of glass
which has been carefully annealed, so that it can be heated
to quite a high temperature without breaking. It is made
with a ground-glass stopper, and can be set in a ring-stand
directly over a flame. Half a dozen watch glasses, or
crystals, as they are often called, see Fig. 25, are useful for
FIG. I4.-A Nest of FIG. Is.-An Ordinary FIG. r6.-An Er"en-

Beakers. Spherical Flask. meyer Flask.
evaporating small quantities of solutions, and you should

also have a 3-inch porcelain evaporating dish, which is
shown in Fig. 26. A 5-inch U-tube, pictured in Fig. 27, is
a convenient apparatus for purifying and drying gases.
When handling phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and other
solids that you do not want to get on your hands, use a
pair of forceps, or tweezers, as they are commonly called.
These are shown in Fig. 28.
Besides the above apparatus you will need several pieces
10 THE BOY CHEMIST
of glass tubing that is sold under the trade name of German

soft glass; you can easily bend this kind of glass in the
flame of your alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner, which pro-
cess I shall explain to you a little farther along. Get the
tubing Ys inch (about 8 millimeters)l in diameter, outside
measurement, and in 2-foot lengths. You can buy glass
T-tubes and glass V-tubes of the same size if you should
need them. You must also get two or three feet of rubber
tubing, with inside diameter, ~ inch, for making connections.
FIG. 17.-A Glass Funnel. FIG. IS.-A Mortar and Pestle.
While I have given the amounts of chemicals to be used

in making the experiments in this book in the way that
seemed to me to be the easiest for you to measure out, still,
in chemistry as it is taught in schools to-day, the solid kinds
of chemicals are most carefully weighed out on a pair of
scales, or a balance, and liquids are measured out in a
graduated cylinder, and for both of these the metric system
of measurements is used.
This system of weights and measures runs in multiples
1 It is listed in the catalogues in the metric system.
of ten, and this is, consequently, much more simple than

the English system, which is purely an arbitrary one that
has come down to us from an unscientific past. You can
buy a small pair of hand scales, or a balance, for $1.50 or
so, .but the weights will cost you considerably more, and
you can get a medium-size graduated cylinder for about
FIG. 2I.-A Four-

Ounce Graduated
Glass.
FIG. 2o.-A Woulff's

Bottle.
FIG. 22.-A Tea-
FIG. I9.-An Ordinary spoonful Graduated
Wide-Mouth Bottle. Glass.
$.75. Both of these you will eventually require in order

to do accurate work, but for all the experiments that follow
in these pages they will not be needed.
Your Supply of Chemicals. I shall not write out a list
of the chemicals you will need, for you can do this better
after you have decided what experiments you want to
make. But what you should do is to write to the firms I
12 THE BOY CHEMIST
have named below for their price-lists of chemicals. 1 These

will include not only all those I have named in this book
but many others. Many of the chemicals you will want
can be bought of your druggist, and you can often get test
tubes and other ordinary pieces of chemical glassware of
him.
FIG. 23.-A Porcelain Crucible. FIG. 24.-A Glass Retort.
While many of the chemicals come in the form of solid

substances, it is a good scheme to keep them in tightly
corked bottles, while acids and other liquids should be
kept in glass-stoppered bottles. Label each bottle care-
fully and then place all of them in a cabinet where the
light cannot reach them, as some compounds decompose
under its action.! Place them in the cabinet in alpha-
1 When you have made out the list of the chemicals and chemical apparatus,
you should write to the L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., Cambridge, Mass., or to
Eimer and Amend, Third Ave. and Eighteenth St., New York City, and
either firm will not only quote you prices but will give you other information
you want.
%See Chapter XII.
betical order so that you will know at a glance just what

you have in stock and, what is equally to the point, will
be able to find the one you want without having to hunt
for it. It is also a good plan to keep all the poisonous
chemicals together and to put a red label on each of these,
and tie a string around the neck of each one, to the end
that you will not mistake them.
FIG. 2S.-A Watch Crystal.
FIG. 26.-A Porcelain

Evaporating Dish.
FIG. 27.-A Five-Inch U-Tube. FIG. 2S.-A Pair of Tweezers.
Indicator Papers and Solutions. Indicators are papers or

liquids that change from one color to another whe:o. they
are dipped in or mixed with an acid or an alkaline solution.
Hence, if you want to know whether a solution is acid,
neutral, or alkaline you have only to test it with an in-
dicator.
14 THE BOY CHEMIST
How Litmus Paper Acts. Litmus is a blue coloring

matter that is found in lichens, and hence its name. When
this is extracted from the plant it is dissolved in hot water
(H 20) and a sheet of absorbent paper, that is, paper with-
out any sizing in it,-like filter paper-is dipped in the
solution and then dried, taking on a blue color; this, then,
is the way that bhte litmus paper is made. If, now, you
dip the paper in a weak acid solution it will turn red, and
this gives you red litmus paper; finally, if you dip this in an
alkaline solution it will turn blue again. Litmus paper
is the simplest, though not the most sensitive, of the indi-
cators, but it will serve for all your experiments. You can
buy blue and red litmus paper already prepared, as well as
the other indicators that follow.
How Phenolphthalein Acts. Phenolphthalein (C20 H 140 4 )
-pronounced fen-ol'-tha-Iein-is a colorless substance that
is much used by chemists as an indicator. This is because
it is very sensitive to acids, even to those of the weakest
kind, but it shows the presence of an alkali only when the
latter is strong. It acts the reverse of litmus in ,that it
remains colorless when it is used with acids, but turns red
in alkaline solutions.
How Methyl Orange Acts. This indicator is a complex
compound with the gentle formula of ( (CH 3) 2 • N' C 6H 4 • N 2 •
C aH4S03H) and you will come to a full realization of what
this means as you get farther along in the book. It is a
synthetic dyestuff, and when added to an acid solution it
turns red, and when added to an alkaline solution it turns
yellow. Its value lies in the fact that it is a very sensitive
indicator of weak alkalis.
How Congo Red Acts. Congo red (C 12H s (N 2 ' C10H 5' NH 2 '
S03N a)2) as shown by its formula, is also complex.
Congo red paper when dipped in an alkaline solution
remains red, and when dipped in acid solutions turns
blue, hence it acts in just the reverse way from litmus
paper. Its especial usefulness lies in the fact that it shows
FIG 29.-How to Cut a Glass Tube.
graduation of color, by which is meant that the depth of

the blue it turns depends entirely on the strength of the acid
which you are testing.
How Sulphide Test Paper Acts. Sulphide test paper is
used for testing the presence of sulphur (S) in water (II 20)
and other liquids. If the liquid contains sulphur (S), the
test paper will turn brownish-black.
How to Work Glass Tubing. While you can buy glass
tubing bent to whatever shape you want it, still in making
chemical experiments you will often find it a great con-
venience to be able to bend it yourself, and as it is an easy
and pleasant job, I'll tell you how to do it.
How to Cut a Glass Tube. As I have mentioned under the
caption of "The Apparatus Y <;m Need," you want to get
the kind of glass tubing that goes under the trade name of
German soft glass, as this kind melts at a comparatively
16 THE BOY CHEMIST
low temperature. This kind of tubing comes in 2-foot

lengths, and ·so the first thing is to know how to cut off a
piece of the length you want to use. To do this, you need
only to file a nick in it with a three-cornered file, when it
will easily break in two. The way you hold it to do this
is shown in Fig. 29.
How to Smooth up the Sharp Edges. Hold the end of
the tube that you want to smooth up in the flame of your
alcohol lamp, or, better because it is hotter, a Bunsen
FIG. 30.-How to Bend a Glass Tube.
burner, and turn it rapidly around. As soon as it is hot

enough it will begin to melt, and this will round the sharp
edges, and you can easily see just how far to carry the
process.
HOW to Bend Glass Tubing. To bend a piece of glass
tubing, hold it in the flame of your alcohol lamp or Bunsen
burner with a wing-top attachment until it is red-hot an
inch or so on either side of the place where you are going
to make the bend. Now turn the tube rapidly round in the
flame so that it will heat equally all over until it gets soft.
This done, take it out of the flame and while it is still at a
red heat you can bend it to whatever shape you want.

You must not heat it until it is too soft, or you will find
that the walls of the tube will collapse and so close up the
bore. Figure 30 shows the way it is done.
How to Draw a Glass Nozzle. In many cases where you
want a tube with a nozzle on it you can take the rubber
FIG. 3r.-How to Draw a Glass Nozzle.
bulb off a pipette, that is, a medicine dropper, and use it,
but if you should want a nozzle with a littl.e larger or a
little smaller opening in it, the only way to get it quickly
is to make one. To do this, cut off a piece of glass tube
about 4 inches long, hold both ends of it so that the middle
will be in the flame of your lamp or burner, and at the same
time keep turning it round so that it will heat evenly.
When it gets red hot it will be quite soft, and you can
then draw it out until it is very thin in the middle, as shown
in Fig. 3 I. Now take it out of the flame and make a cut
with a :file at the place where it will give an opening of the
size you want; this done, gently tap it with your file. It
will brf'ak off and the nozzle is ready to use.
CHAPTER II.
AIR, THE MIRACLE-WORKER
The word atmosphere is generally used to mean the

whole mass of the air that surrounds the earth, while the
word air itself is taken to mean some small or large part of
it. The atmosphere is really a shell formed of gases, the
inside of which has, naturally, the same shape as that of
the exterior of the earth, while its outside surface is mote
like a football than it is like a baseball, since it is flattened
out on its opposite sides,as shown in the diagram, Fig. 32.
The Height of the Atmosphere. To just what height
the atmosphere extends is not known with any degree of
certainty, but it is variously estimated to be from 50 to 2CO
miles, and it may extend in a highly rarefied state even
farther than the last-named figure indicates. Now there
are several ways by which its height can be calculated,
but all of them give results that are different,as the follow-
ing will show.
Since the speed of the earth as it turns on its axis is
known, its centrifugal force, that is, the force by which a
rapidly rotating body tends to throw things off from its
surface, can be figured out. This action is, of course,
opposed by the force of gravity, which tends to hold all
things down to the surface. But as gravity exerts a con-
stantly decreasing pull on the air the higher up it gets, it
18
can be shown that the upper limit of it is only about 50

miles.
Another way to :find the approximate height of the upper
limit of the atmosphere is with a barometer. This is an
instrument that really measures the weight, or pressure, of
the air, and as this decreases with its height it is easy to
FIG. 32.-The Earth's Atmosphere is Shaped Like a Football.
calculate its upward limit by taking several readings of the

barometer at different levels near the surface of the earth.
This method shows that the height of the atmosphere is
about 100 miles.
A third and very interesting way to :find the height of
the air, is by the length of twilight. If the earth were not
surrounded with an atmosphere, there would be no twilight
and the day would suddenly change into night the moment
20 THE BOY CHEMIST
the sun sank below the horizon. But if the earth's atmos-
phere reached a height of a thousand instead of a hundred
miles or so, then we should have daylight all the time, for
the light of the sun is refracted, that is, it is bent out of its
course, and diffused, or spread out by the gases of which
the former is composed, and so some of the light from it
would reach us whatever the relative positions of the earth
and sun might be. Hence, it is the height of the atmosphere
that determines the length of our twilight.
Thus while the sun is yet below the horizon in the morn-
ing, its rays are bent up and we get some of its light when
we have dawn, and again when the sun drops below the
horizon in the evening, and then we have twilight.
In the extreme northern and southern regions where the
days are the longest, twilight is always present, so that
there is enough light to see by throughout the whole night.
Oppositely, at the equator twilight is very short, and on
top of the Andes it lasts for only about half an hour. By
figuring the height of the atmosphere on the basis of the
length of twilight, the results show that the limit of the
atmosphere is reached in the neighborhood of 200 miles
above the earth's surface.
The Weight or Pressure of the Air. The atmosphere
must have weight or else it would not cling so tightly to
the earth's surface, and since it has weight it must exert a
pressure on the surface of the earth. It must be clear, too,
that having weight the atmosphere is denser directly on
the surface of the earth than it is at the upper levels, in
fact a Cli bic foot of it weighs 174' ounces at sea level, while its
pressure at sea level is, roughly, 15 pounds to the square inch.
Experiment to Show that the Air has Weight. Here is

an experiment that not only shows that the atmosphere
has weight but also that it has pressure, and that this is
equal in all directions. Take a tumbler that has a fiat rim
and fill it full of water (H 20). Then lay a piece of card-
board on top of it and then invert it, that is, turn it upside
CARD
FIG. 33.-An Experiment which shows that the Air has Pressure.
down, as shown in Fig. 33. While the water (H 20) weighs

so much more than a like volume of air, the pull of gravity
on the water (H 20) will not make it run out, because the
force is less than that of the pressure of the air on the sur-
face of the cardboard.
What an Element Is. An element in chemistry is a
form of matter that cannot be changed into any simpler
22 THE BOY CHEMIST
form. l A substance is a mass of matter that is made up

of one or more elements. Some substances are made up
by merely mixing two or more elements together mechani-
cally, and others are made up by combining two or more
elements chemically.
Experiments to Show what a Mechanical Mixture Is.
The two following experiments will give you a very good
FIG. 34.-Separating Iron Filings FIG. 3s.-Separating Iron Filings

from Sulphur by a Stream of Air. from ~ulphur with a Magnet.
idea of what a mechanical mixture is and why. Take

some very fine iron filings (Fe) and an equal amount of pul-
verized sulphur (S) and stir them well together, as though
you were going to make a pie. The mass will then take on
a greyish color. There has been no chemical action between
the two elements, and to prove that they are simply mixed
together you have only to pour them out on a sheet of paper
1 The splitting up of the atoms of various elements by Rutherford modifies
this statement somewhat, but it still holds good for all ordinary purposes.
and then blow gently on them, as shown in Fig. 34, when

the sulphur (S), which is very much iighter than the filings,
will be carried away, and the iron (Fe) only will remain.
A somewhat more scientific test is to hold a magnet close
to the mixture, as in Fig. 35, when the iron (Fe) filings will
be attracted to the poles of it and the sulphur (S) will be
(Fe andS)
FIG. 36.-Making a Chemical CompOlUld.
left behind. The above experiments show clearly enough

that the mixture is a purely mechanical one.
Experiments to Show what a Chemical Compound Is.
The following experiment will demonstrate in a striking
manner what a chemical compound is. Put the iron (Fe)
24 THE BOY CHEMIST
filings and the powdered sulphur (S) in an earthenware

dish and then pour a little warm water (H 20) over them, as
shown in Fig. 36. In a short time you will see that a change
is taking place in the mass, that it gets very hot, swells up,
and takes on a black metallic-looking color. The resultant
mass has none of the characteristics of iron (Fe) or of sul-
phur (S), but is a different substance entirely from either
one of them, for they have combined chemically and now
form ferrous 1 sulphide (FeS).
Now gases behave like solids in that they can either be
merely mixed or they can be combined chemically, in which
case they will form a new substance. Air is formed chiefly
of two gases, which are oxygen (0) and nitrogen (N), and
these are mechanically mixed in about the proportion of 23
parts of the former to 77 parts of the latter by bulk, or
volume, as it is called, and mixed with these are several
rare gases which include argon (A), neon (Ne), krypton
(Kr), and xenon (Xe) 2. These elements of the air are
called its fixed constituents, because they are always
present in it in exactly the same proportions.
Then the air contains certain other elements and sub-
stances, the foremost of which is carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) or
carbonic acid gas, as it used to be called, though incorrectly,
for it has no acid properties, water vapor (H 20) and am-
monia (N H 3), and these are known as its variable con-
stituents. Besides these elements and substances of and
1 The Latin name for iron is ferrum, and from this we get the words ferric
and ferrous. The word ferrous is used to show that the combining power or
valance as it is called is lowest, and ferric is used to show that it is highest.
2 Pronounced ze'-non.
AIR, THE MIRACLE-WORKER 2S
in the air there are dust, bacteria,! and yeast spores floating
around in it.
Carbon dioxide (C0 2) is a colorless, odorless compound
that is heavier than the air and is formed by the chemical
combination of carbon (C) and oxygen (0), and it is this
gas that is used to make soda water fizz and sparkle and
to cause bread dough to rise. The water vapor (H 20) con-
sists of oxygen (0) and hydrogen (H) chemically combined,
as you will see in Chapter V, while ammonia (N Ha) is
nitrogen (N) combined with hydrogen (H).
What the Air Is Good For. Air as a physical substance
js used at atmospheric pressure, that is, just as it is, as a
medium for flight by both the winged animals and man, it
is also used in the form of compressed air and in a rarefied
state for various industrial as well as experimental purposes.
Its first and chief use as a chemical substance is in support-
ing animal life, and the second in supporting combustion,
but in both of these cases it is only the oxygen (0) it con-
tains that is used, the nitrogen (N) merely serving to
dilute and to spread it. Air can also be liquefied by extract-
ing the heat of it, and liquid air is largely used for experi-
mental purposes.
About Burning and Combustion. When any element or
compound combines violently with oxygen (0) it generates
heat and often gives off light, and we call this action burn-
ing, and the process is known as combustion. Oxygen (0)
1 Bacteria, which is the plural of bacterium, or microbes, as they are popu-

larly called, are vegetable organisms so small that they can only be seen with
a high-power microscope. Nearly all of them are harmless, but a few of
them are the cause of various diseases.
26 THE 'BOY CHEMIST
then, supports combustion, but while it will combine with

other elements to make them burn it will not, strange as it
may seem, burn itself, and it is well it will not, for other-
wise the world would have been consumed in the making.
The reason, then, that you have to supply air in large
quantities to make fuel burn is to give the hydrogen (H)
and carbon (C) in it plenty of oxygen (0) to combine with,
and this is why you blow on or fan a freshly started fire to
make it burn, and have a chimney to give the stove, fire-
place, or furnace, a draft.
What Rusting, or Oxidation Is. When an element or a
substance unites slowly with oxygen (0), the action is called
rusting, or oxidation. Here are some simple experiments
which show how iron (Fe) and other metals rust.
Experiment to Show how Iron Rusts. Take a piece of
iron (Fe) and clean it well, so that there will be no grease on
it, or you can file it so that it will expose a clean surface,
and then lay it on a damp cloth in the open air. Let it re-
main over night, and you will then find that the surface of it
will be covered with a reddish powder. The iron (Fe) has
combined with the oxygen (0) of the air and formed what
we ordinarily call rust, but the chemical name of which is
ferric oxide (Fe 203) , and this is sold as rouge and Venetian
red.
Experiment to Show that other Metals Rust. Nearly all
the other metals will rust when they are exposed to oxygen
(0), but not nearly so quickly as. iron (Fe), and so instead
of saying that they rust we say that they tarnish. Lead
(Pb) and zinc (Zn) will rust in air at ordinary tempera-
tures, but the change is very slow.
Put a small piece of lead (Pb) into a porcelain crucible,

set it on a stand and place a lighted akohollamp, or a Bun-
sen burner, under it, as shown in Fig. 37; when the lead is
melted, stir it with an iron wire and you will soon see a
murky yellowish powder appear on top of it; and as you
continue to stir in the oxygen (O)-for this is what you are
really doing-more of the lead is changed into rust, which
TEST
TUBE
FIG. 37.- Apparatus for Making 38.-Apparatus to Show that

FIG.
Lead and Tin Rust. Aids Used when Iron Rusts.
is chemically called lead oxide (PbO). Now melt a piece

of tin (Sn) and stir it in the same way, and a white power,
which is tin oxide (SnO), will be formed.
Experiment to Show that Air is Used Up when Iron
Rusts. This experiment shows that air, or rather the
oxygen (0) of the alr, IS used up when iron (Fe) rusts.
28 THE BOY CHEMIST
Take a test tube and dampen the inside surface of it; now
put some very fine iron (Fe) filings into it and turn the tube
over and over until the filings stick to the damp surface;
this done, invert the tube, that is, turn it with the open
end down, and set it in a saucer of water, as shown in
Fig. 38.
The first thing that takes place is that the weight of the
atmosphere, or outside air, on the surface of the water (H 20)
in the saucer presses down on it and this forces it up in the
tube a little and presses the air that is in the tube into
closer contact with the particles of iron (Fe). The oxygen
(0) of the air in the tube makes the damp particles rust
and it is thus used up; this leaves more space in the tube
so that the weight of the outside air on the water (H 20) in
the saucer presses it still farther up the tube.
In the course of an hour or two, so much of the oxygen
(0) in the tube will be used up that the water (H 20) will
have reached a height of about Ys of the length of the tube.
If, now, you will examine the tube, you will see that some
of the particles of iron have taken on a brick-colored hue,
and this is due to the rust that has formed on the surface
of them.
All the particles would rust away if enough air could be
supplied to the tube to supply the necessary oxygen (0) to
them. The reason that only Ys of the tube is taken up by
the oxygen (0) is, obviously, because the other % is taken
up by the nitrogen (N), which is not a very active gas.
How Slow Oxidation Causes Decay. Metals are by no
means the only elements and substances that are rusted by
oxygen (0); vegetable and animal matter are likewis€
affected by it, but in these cases the oxidation is called

decay, though the chemical action and the products formed
are the same as those produced by burning.
When an animal inhales air, its lungs extract the oxygen
(0) from it and deliver it to the blood, the red corpuscles
of which carry it to all the tissues of its body. On coming
in contact with its food that has been eaten, it oxidizes .it
and forms carbon dioxide (C0 2) and water (H 20), with the
evolution of considerable heat. The blood returns the car-
bon dioxide (C0 2) to the lungs, whence it is exhaled. The
water (H 20) is carried off through the kidneys and the
pores, while the heat which is set up is used to warm the
body.
The opposite process to oxidation is called reduction, and
just as oxidation is the result of oxygen (0) combining with
a substance, so reduction is the result of hydrogen (H) com-
bining with a sub~tance. In other words, when oxygen (0)
combines with a substance, or hydrogen (H) is removed
from it, it becomes oxidized, and when hydrogen (H) com-
. bines with a substance or oxygen (0) is removed from it, it
is reduced.
What Spontaneous Combustion Is. It is possible for a
slow oxidation to become so accelerated, or quickened, that
enough heat will be generated to make a fire, and this kind
of an action is called spontaneous combustion. The way in
which this takes place will be clear when you know that
any body that can be oxidized, as for instance iron (Fe),
will set free exactly the same amount of heat when it com-
bines with oxygen (0), no matter how slow or how fast the
combining action takes place.
30 THE BOY CHEMIST
When oxygen (0) combines with a substance slowly and

the latter has plenty of air around it to conduct away the
heat as fast as it is developed, there can be no excess of it
stored up. But if the substance contains hydrogen (H)
and carbon (C), that is, if it is inflammable, such as oil-
soaked rags, and enough air can reach these rags to set up
oxidation, but not enough to carry away the heat as fast
as it is generated, then the latter will be stored up until
the temperature reaches a high-enough point to cause the
rags to burst into a blaze.
Substances that Oxygen Will Not Affect. There are some
substances that oxygen (0) has no effect on and, hence,
these cannot burn. While iron (Fe) oxidizes rapidly in
moist air, it does not oxidize in dry air, and it is therefore
largely used for cooking utensils and other purposes.
Gold (Au), silver (Ag) and platinum (Pt) will not oxidize
in air, and they are in consequence widely used in the arts,
the first two being especially useful for coinage and for
jewelry, while the latter, which has a high melting point and
is not affected by acids,l is useful in certain chemical opera-
tions.
How to Make Ozone. As early as 1785 Marum observed
that wherever the sparks of an electrical machine appeared
a fresh, penetrating odor, something like that of very dilute
chlorine (Cl) was produced. In 1840 Schonbein discovered
that the odor was due to a gas, and this is called ozone (Os)
from a Greek work which means to smell.
Ozone (Os) is made by adding an extra atom of oxygen
(0) to a molecule of oxygen (0), which is formed of two
1 Except aqua regia, see Chapter XII.
atoms of oxygen (0), and this you will find described and
pictured in Chapter X. There are several ways by which
oxygen (0) can be changed into ozone (0 3), but the easiest
way to do it on a small scale is to set up an electric spark,
and this you can do with either a Leyden jar or a spark coil.
Ozone (0 3) has powerful oxidizing properties and it is there-
fore a good bleaching agent and disinfectant.
How to Test for Ozone. Put I part of pure potassium
iodide (KI), 10 parts of starch (C 6 H 100 5)x,and 200 parts
of water (H 20) into a beaker and boil them together for 3
or 4 minutes, and they will form a paste. Spread this on
a sheet of writing paper evenly, let it dry, and then cut it
into strips, and you will have Sch~nbein's ozone test paper;
place these strips together and wrap them up in waxed
paper so that the air cannot act on them. If now you will
take out one of the strips and moisten it and then put it
in air that contains ozone (0 3), even if this is so weak you
cannot smell it, the paper will instantly change to a blue
color.
CHAPTER III.
EXPERIMENTS WITH OXYGEN, NITROGEN, AND
CARBON DIOXIDE
KNOWING now something of the nature of air and the

chief gases of which it is formed, the next step is to make a
small quantity of each one and perform the experiments
described in this chapter. Of course you do not really make
the gases, but what you do is to separate them, either from
the air, which, as you will remember is a mechanical mix-
ture, or else from other substances with which they are
chemically combined, and the latter is generally the eaSIer
way.
EXPERIMENTS WITH OXYGEN.
A Simple Way to Make Oxygen. With this simple appa-

ratus you can make enough oxygen (0) to do some pretty
experiments with, but, naturally, the effects are not so
striking as where larger quantities of the gas are used.
Put Y2 teaspoonful of potassium chlorate (K C10 s) and
the same amount of manganese dioxide (Mn02) into your
largest test tube and hold it with your test-tube holder
over the flame of your alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner, as ,
shown in Fig. 39, and very soon oxygen (0) will be set
free. Now slowly sprinkle a little finely powdered charcoal
( C), sulphur (S) and other substances, in turn, into the
tube by means of a tin trough and you will get some very
pretty effects.
32
OXYGEN, NITROGEN, AND CARBON DIOXIDE 33
AWay to Make More Oxygen. To make a larger quan-

tity of oxygen (0) than is possible with the apparatus
described above, you will need a small flask with a tightly
fitting cork in it; a ring stand, and an alcohol lamp or a
Bunsen burner. Now take a piece of glass tubing about
a foot long, heat it in the flame of your lamp, and bend it
TIN
TROUGH
FIG. 39.-How to Make and Experiment with a Little Oxygen.
to the shape shown in Fig. 40. This done, make a hole

in the cork and push the short end of the tube into it.
Next take a large cork and bore a Y2-inch hole half-way
through it from top to bottom, and bore a %-inch hole
through the side of it until it meets the first one, as shown
by the broken line in 'Fig. 41. Push the free end of the
34 THE BOY CHEMIST
tube into this latter hole and set the cork in a glass finger-.
bowl or other dish. Fill the bowl with water (H 20) so
that it covers the top of the cork, then fill a large test tube
with water (H 20), invert it, and set it on the cork over the
hole.
FIG. 40.-How the Delivery Tube is Bent. FIG. 4I.-The Hole in the Cork.
FIG. 42.-The Oxygen Apparatus Complete.
Finally, put I ounce of potassium chlorate (KC10 s) and

I ounce of manganese dioxide (Mn02) into the flask, then
fit the cork in tight and set it in the ring of the stand with
your lamp or burner under it, as shown in Fig. 42. Light

the lamp and the heat will soon act on the mixture, setting
the oxygen (0) of it free, so that it will pass through the
delivery tube and up through the water to the top of the
test tube. As it gathers there, it will push the water down,
and in this way you will know how much oxygen there is
in the tube.
How the Experiment Works. When the mixture is
heated, the potassium chlorate (KelO s), which contains
39 per cent of oxygen (0), gives up the latter and no action
whatever takes place in the manganese dioxide (Mn02).
But if you heat the potassium chlorate (K ClO s) without
having the manganese dioxide (Mn02) in contact with it,
you will have to bring it to a very much higher temperature
before it will be decomposed and liberate its oxygen (0).
Whenever the addition of a substance causes a chemical
reaction to take place more rapidly, yet the substance is
found at the end of the reaction apparently unchanged, the
substance is called a catalytic agent and the process is called
catalysis.
The Self-Lighting Match. Place a large test tube over
the delivery tube of your oxygen (0) generator and when
it is full of oxygen (0) remove it and hold it with its mouth
down. Light a match around which a wire has been
twisted, as shown in Fig. 43, and blow it out, leaving only
a glowing spark. Now, if you insert the smoldering match
by aid of the wire into the tube of oxygen (0), the match
will at once ignite again and blaze with more brilliancy
than before, as in Fig. 44.
How the Experiment Works. The air, as we know, is
36 THE BOY CHEMIST
oxygen (0) diluted with about three times its volume of

nitrogen (N). The number of particles of oxygen (0) in a
given volume of air is, therefore, much less than in the
same volume of pure oxygen (0). When combustion takes
:t
U
~
I
FIG. 43.- FIG. 44.-

The Wire on the Match. The Self-Lighting Match.
place in pure oxygen (0), the heat that is liberated is ex-

pended in raising the temperature of the oxygen (0) alone,
and the rapidity of the combustion depends chiefly on the
temperature of the oxygen (0).
The Flashing Charcoal Pill. For this and the following
experiments use a beaker, or a glass tumbler will do, instead
of the test tube, so that you can have a larger quantity of
oxygen (0) to work with. Take a bit of charcoal, which is

practically pure carbon ( C), made of bark, or very soft wooe,
about the size of a pea and fasten the end of a bent wire
to it to form a handle.
Soak a bit of cotton in alcohol (C 2 H 50H) and wrap this
around the charcoal pellet. Now light the cotton and hold
it in the Ibeaker or tumbler of oxygen (0), and the cotton
will quickly burn away and the incandescent charcoal (C)
will throw out flashes like an arc light.
How the Experiment Works. When carbon (C) burns
in more oxygen (0) than it needs to support combustion,
carbon dioxide (C0 2) is formed. You can prove this by
moistening a piece of blue lit-
litmus paper and, after the
charcoal pellet has burned out,
pressing this paper against
the inside of the beaker, or
tumbler. It will turn red.
This is because when carbon
dioxide (C0 2 ) is dissolved in
water it makes carbonic acid
(H 2 C0 3), though neither car-
(Fe)
bon dioxide (C0 2 ) nor water
(H 20) has any acid property
(0) in itself.
The Scintillating Watch-
Spring. Take a piece of
watch spring (Fe) about 6
FIG. 4s.-The Scintillating Watch-
inches long and straighten
Spring. it out by running it between
38 THE BOY CHEMIST
your fingers. Wrap a bit of cotton which you have

moistened in alcohol (C 2H 50H) around one end and light
it. Then hold the steel spring in a test tube or a beaker
of oxygen (0) and it will ignite and, once started, will
burn with great brilliance, scintillating beautifully, as
shown in Fig. 45. At the same time incandescent drops of
dross will fall and a reddish vapor will condense on the sur-
face of the test tube or beaker.
FIG. 46.-Filling the Bladder with Oxygen.
How the Experiment Works. When iron (Fe) burns in

oxygen (0) they combine and form ferrous oxide or oxide
of iron (FeO) as it is called. This substance is a neutral
compound, that is, not acid nor yet· alkaline, and this you
can easily prove with a piece of litmus paper.
The Strange Action of Oxygen on Phosphorus. Connect
the free end of the delivery tube of your oxygen-making
apparatus, see Fig. 46, with the tube in a toy rubber balloon,
or a bladder, then generate enough oxygen (0) to inflate it,
as shown in Fig. 46, and close up the mouth of the tube with
a bit of wax to keep the gas from escaping. This done,
put a few pieces of red phosphorus (P), each about the size
of a buckshot, in a small beaker and set this in a porcelain
bowl, or other deep vessel; now fill both of them full of
boiling water (H 20) and remove the wax from the mouth
of the tube and place the tube in the beaker, as shown in
FIG. 47.-Directing a Stream of Oxygen on Phosphorus.
Fig. 47. The phosphorus(P) will ignite and burn with

exceeding brilliancy under the water (H 20).
How the Experiment Works. The phosphorus (P) com-
bines with the oxygen (0) that is directed upon it, and the
reason it will burn under water (H 20) is by virtue of the
fact that while the hot water (H 20) melts it, it will not dis-
solve it, and coupled to this it has an exfraordinary affinity
for oxygen (0).
40 THE BOY CHEMIST
NOTE.- In making this experiment, be sure to use red

phosphorus instead of yellow or white phosphorus, as it is
not poisonous like the two latter kinds. Also it is a good
plan to place a sheet of wire gauze over the bowl while
the experiment is in progress.
How to Make an Oxy-Calcium Light. This is a very
dazzling light which is also called a lime-light, because a
piece of lime is used in its production, and a Drummond
light, after the man who invented it. You can make one
on a small scale easily enough, for all you have to do is to
drill a ~-inch hole in a board and set the end of a stiff
wire into it, the height of which is the same as that of your
FIG. 48.-How to Make an Oxy-Calcium Light.
alcohol lamp. Now take a piece of quicklime, that is, cal-

cium oxide (CaO) , and set it on the free end of the wire
support so that it will be in a line with the flame.
The next step is to make enough oxygen (0) to fill the
toy balloon or bladder with, then press down on the latter
and direct the stream of gas on the flame so that they will
both strike the piece of lime as shown in Fig. 48. The
flame thus produced will be very hot and it will heat the
lime to incandescence at the point where it strikes it, and

the result is a light of dazzling brightness.
How the Oxy-Calcium Light Works. The chief element
in alcohol (C 2H 50H) that burns is hydrogen (H). Now
when oxygen (0) and hydrogen (H) are mixed together at
ordinary temperatures no chemical action takes place; if
you seal the mixed gases in a tube and keep this tube heated
to 300 degrees for several days, a small amount of the gases
will combine to form water (H 20). At 500 degrees they
will combine, though still very slowly; but if you raise the
temperature to 700 degrees they will combine instantly and
develop an intense heat. Since the alcohol flame is hotter
than 700 degrees, the oxygen (0) and the hydrogen (H)
combine easily.
How Sulphur Burns in O;xygen. Take a bit of sulphur
(S) the size of a pea, wrap one end of an iron wire around
it, light it, and hold it in a beaker of oxygen (0). The sul-
phur (S) burns with a wonderful scintillating flame that is
violet-colored; the result of the combustion is that sul-
phurous acid (H 2S03) , nitrogen (N) and potassium sul-
phate (K 2S0 4 ) are set free and the beaker is filled with the
fumes of these substances.
EXPERIMENTS WITH NITROGEN.
There are several ways to obtain nitrogen (N), and

among these are to burn phosphorus (P) in air, to pass air
over finely divided copper (Cu), and by the evaporation of
liquid air. In the first two processes the oxygen (0) of the
air is taken up by the phosphorus (P) and the copper (Cu),
and this leaves the nitrogen (N) behind. For the produc-
42 THE BOY CHEMIST
tion of large amounts of nitrogen (N), liquid air is allowed

to evaporate. The oxygen (0) passes off first because it is
the lighter gas and the nitrogen (N) is left behind.
A Simple Way to Make Nitrogen. Fill a soup-plate half
full of water (H 20), then light a piece of paper and place it
in a beaker, or a tumbler, which you invert and set in the
water (H 20), as shown in Fig. 49. You will soon see that
0)
FIG. 49.-A Simple way to Make Nitrogen.
the flame of the burning paper grows more and more feeble,
and that the water (H 20) rises higher and higher in the
beaker or tumbler, until it is considerably above the level
of that in the soup plate. When the paper will no longer
burn, you will have considerable nitrogen (N) in the glass.
How the Experiment Works. When the paper burns, it
consumes the oxygen (0) in the beaker or tumbler, and this
produces a partial vacuum in it. The pressure of the out-
side air on the water (H 20) in the soup-plate is now greater
than that of the air in the beaker, or tumbler, and conse-
quently it forces the water (H 20) up and into the latter.
The oxygen (0) in the beaker, or tumbler, combines with
the carbon (C) in the paper and forms carbon dioxide
(C0 2); this gas is heavier than the air and so falls on the
surface of the water, which absorbs it; hence the gas that
remains in the tumbler is nitrogen (N).
Another Easy Way to Make Nitrogen. Pour a table-
spoonful of alcohol (C 2H 50H) into a little tin pill-box, or an
iron or porcelain dish, having a diameter of I Y2 or 2 inches,
and set this in a wine-glass. This done, stand the wine-
glass in a soup-plate filled with water (H 20). Now light
the alcohol (C 2H 50H ) , and then set a beaker, or a tumbler
or a small fruit-jar over them, as shown in Fig. 50.
FIG. so.-A Better Way to Make a Little Nitrogen.
How the Experiment Works. As soon as the alcohol

(C 2H 50H) is ignited, the oxygen (0) of the air in the beaker,
or other vessel, combines with the carbon (C) of it just as
it did with the carbon (C) of the paper in the foregoing
experiment and forms carbon dioxide (C0 2). The phe-
nomenonof the water (H 20) rising in the beaker, or other
vessel, is due to the same causes as described in the experi-
ment above.
How to Make a Larger Amount of Nitrogen. For experi-
mental purposes you will need considerably more nitrogen
(N) than either of the preceding processes will give you.
To make a larger amount, place a very little dry red phos-
44 THE BOY CHEMIST
phorus (P) in a small porcelain dish and set it on top of a

wine glass; now stand this in a soup-plate filled with water
(H 20) and ignite the phosphorus (P) with the end of a wire
which you have heated a bright red in the flame of your
lamp or burner. Having done this, set a glass jar-a pint
fruit-jar will do-over the burning phosphorus (P), as
shown in Fig. 5 I. When the phosphorus (P) has burned
out, the jar will then contain only nitrogen (N).
How the Experiment Works. As soon as the phosphorus
FIG. SI.-How to Make Nitrogen for Experimental Purposes.
(P) begins to burn, the air in the jar expands because of

the heat that it develops, but very soon the air contracts,
for the oxygen (0) unites with the phosphorus (P) and
forms a white smoke which is phosphorus trioxide (P 20 5 );
this compound falls to the surface of the water (H 20),
combines with it and so disappears, thus leaving only the
nitrogen (N), which is in a tolerably pure state.
The Self-Extinguishing Match. This is the· complemen-
tary experiment to the one explained under the caption of
"A Self-Lighting Match." Twist a copper wire around a
match, as shown in Fig. 43, lift the jar of nitrogen (N) up
from the soup-plate, then light the match and let it get to
burning well. When this is done, put it up into the jar,
and you will see how quickly the flame will be extinguished.
This experiment shows that nitrogen (N) will not support
combustion.
What Else the Experiment Shows. The fact that the
match will not burn in nitrogen (N) does not at all show
that it is a poison. While nitrogen (N) will not support
combustion, we take into our lungs a little more than three
times as much of it as we do oxygen (0) and with no harmful
effect. But carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), cyanogen (C 2 N 2 ), and
several other gases will kill, not only because they cannot
support combustion, but because they are poisonous.
EXPERIMENTS WITH CARBON DIOXIDE.
Carbon dioxide (C0 2) is a wonder gas, and many strange

and striking effects can be produced with it which are
worthy of a place on a magician's program. In this respect
it is quite unlike nitrogen (N), which is sluggish and, in
consequence, permits but very few experiments to be per-
formed directly with it. Carbon dioxide (C0 2) is a color-
less and odorless gas and it is considerably heavier than the
air, and for this reason when you perform experiments with
it you can handle it just as though it were a liquid like
water (H 20), that is, the vessels need not be corked up, nor
covered over, nor inverted, to keep it in them.
How to Show there is Carbon Dioxide in the Air. Fill a
clean saucer or a small flat, porcelain dish with clear lime-
water, which is calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), and this you
can make by pouring some water on quicklime, which is
46 THE BOY CHEMIST
calcium oxide (CaO). Then set the dish of lime-water in

the open air, and it will soon be covered with a film of
calcium carbonate (CaC0 3) the common name of which is
carbonate of lime. If you will now break the film, it will
fall to the bottom of the dish and the operation can be re-
peated until all the quicklime (CaO) in the solution is
changed into calcium carbonate (CaC0 3).
How the Experiment Works. That carbon dioxide (C0 2 )
is present in the air is evident, since this gas must combine
with the calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H) 2) to form calcium
carbonate (CaC0 3). Chalk, limestone, marble, eg~-shells,
oyster shells, coral and pearls, and calcite and Iceland spar
are all formed of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ).
To Show that You Inhale' Oxygen and Exhale Carbon
Dioxide. You can easily show that after you inhale oxygen
(0) you exhale carbon dioxide (C0 2) by means of this very
simple experiment. Fill a tumbler about three-fourths
full of lime-water, that is, calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2);
then take a good deep breath (oxygen (0» and blow through
a' straw into the lime-water, as shown in Fig. 52. The
clean lime-water will be made murky by the formation of
calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ) in it, and for the same reason
as explained under the foregoing caption of "How the Ex-
periment Works."
A better way to make the experiment is to take a wide-
mouth bottle and fit it with a cork and two bent glass tubes,
as shown in Fig. 53. Pour in enough lime-water, that is,
calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), to half fill the bottle,
then put the short tube in your mouth and draw in. The
outside air will then pass through the long tube and up
through the lime-water (Ca(O II) 2) , which will remain clear.

Now repeat the operation, but this time blow through the
long tube and the lime-water (Ca(0 H) 2) will get murky,
FIG. 52.-A Simple Way to Show Carbon Dioxide.
just as it did in the previous experiment, and for the same

reason.
How to Make Carbon Dioxide. In the experiments
above, it has been shown that chalk, limestone,and marble
are all forms of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ) and hence
these substances contain carbon dioxide (C0 2). Now all
you have to do to make a little of this gas is to put some
powdered chalk, limestone, or marble into a test tube half
48 THE BOY CHEMIST
full of water (H 20), and then add a few drops of hydro-

chloric acid (H Cl) to it, as shown in Fig. 54. Instantly
there will be a commotion of the liquid set up by the pro-
duction of numerous small bubbles of gas which rise to the
FIG. 53.-A Better Way to Show Carbon Dioxide.
surface and then break, and these are formed of carbon

dioxide (C0 2).
How the Experiment Works. While carbon dioxide ( CO 2)
is given off in the above reaction, calcium chloride (CaCl 2 )
and water (H 20) are left behind.
NOTE.- Do not use blackboard crayon for the experi-
ment, as this is usually made of gypsum, that is calcium
sulphate (CaS04.zH20) and not of chalk, which is calcium

carbonate (Ca CO 3) . Since carbon dioxide (C0 2) is a gas
that is heavier than air, it will stay in the tube or other
vessel when the latter is right side up, just as though you
had water (H 20) in it.
A Better Way to Make Carbon Dioxide. Where you
want to make a small amount of this gas for experimental
FIG. 54.-A Simple Way to Make Carbon Dioxide.
purposes, take a 4-ounce or 8-ounce, wide-mouth bottle

with a tight-fitting cork; now bore a hole in the latter and
push a piece of glass tube with a Yz-inch or %-inch bore-
or you can use a test tube from which you have cut the
closed end-through it; into the mouth of this fit another
cork and push the short end of a bent glass tube with a %-
inch bore through it, all of which is shown in Fig. 55. To
make the joints gas-tight, put some melted paraffin on them.
50 THE BOY CHEMIST
Use in suitable quantities the same materials called for in

connection with Fig. 54.
Where you want a still larger amount of the gas, use a
pint jar and fit the cork with a glass funnel tube that is
long enough to reach from the outside to the bottom of the
(C02)
POWDERED
~~v MARBLE
~~~V (eQ. COs)
FIG. 55.-A Better Way to Make Carbon Dioxide.
jar, and a delivery tube bent as shown in Fig. 56. If you

will use powdered marble (CaC0 3) instead of chalk you
will get a supply of nearly pure carbon dioxide (C0 2), This
gas is heavier than air, and has, therefore, a tendency to
stay in the bottom of the jar; but as it is set free from the
marble in large quantities it is soon under pressure and this

drives it out of the delivery tube.
To Show that Carbon Dioxide Will Not Support Com-
bustion. Fill a wide-mouth bottle. or a glass jar, with car-
FIG. 56.-To Make a Larger Amount of Carbon Dioxide.
bon dioxide (C0 2 ) and lower a lighted candle into it, and
the flame will be extinguished. You can do this experi-
ment as a trick, for to the average person the bottle, or jar,
is, to all intents, an empty one; now lower half a dozen
lighted candles into the jar one after the other, and the
THE BOY CHEMIST
flame of each one will go out as it reaches the surface of the

gas. The effect is most mysterious.
Moreover, the smoke from the candle when it goes out
does not rise into the air as it is expected to do in the natural
order of things but, instead, it floats on top of the unseen
gas in a strange and uncanny way, very like a London fog,
and if you shake the jar it will set up miniature waves in
imitation of the old ocean itself. The reason the smoke
clings to the surface of the gas is because it easily mixed
with the latter and this holds it down.
To Show that Carbon Dioxide Destroys Life. Carbon
dioxide (C0 2) is different from nitrogen (N) in that it kills
not only because it cannot support combustion, and, hence,
life, but by virtue of the fact that it is poisonous. And yet
as high as 6 per cent of it can be breathed without harm
when it is mixed with the oxygen (0) and nitrogen (N) of
the air. If you are a naturalist as well as a chemist you
can kill insects for your specimens and preserve them in
their original form and brilliancy of color by simply putting
them into a jar of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ).
A Magical Experiment with Air, Carbon Dioxide, and
Oxygen. Take three pint glass jars and let the first one
contain ordinary air, fill the second one with carbon dioxide
(C0 2 ), and the third one with oxygen (0), and invert the
latter one until you are ready to do the trick. Now wrap
a wire' around a piece of candle, light it, and then lower it
into the jar of air first. Of course, the flame will continue
to give its light. Now lower it into the jar c£ carbon diox-
ide (C0 2 ), and the flame will mysteriously go out; draw it
out of the jar before the wick cools off and dip it into the
jar of oxygen (0), and it instantly relights and burns with

a dazzling light. Since all the jars are evidently quite
empty, the average spectator will be at a loss to account
(0)
FIG. 57.-A Magical Experiment.

for the different actions that take place. The effects are
shown in Fig. 57.
To Show that Carbon Dioxide Has Weight. This is a
good magical experiment, too, and for it you need a couple
of pint glass jars, one of which you have secretly filled with
carbon dioxide (C0 2), Now set a piece of lighted candle
in the bottom of the other jar and then pour the contents
54 fHE BOY CHEMIST
of the first jar, which is invisible to the spectators but as

real as if it were water, into the second jar, as shown in
Fig. 58. The candle will be mysteriously extinguished.
To Separate a Candle from Its Flame. Light a candle
and lower it into a jar of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) far enough
AIR
FIG. 58.-Pouring Carbon Dioxide

from One Jar into Another. (CO~)
FIG. 59.-Separating the Flame

of a Candle from its Wick.
so that the tip of the wick is about Yz inch below the surface
of the gas. The flame, strange as it may seem, will keep on
burning above the surface of the gas although it is entirely
cut off from the wick.
How the Experiment Works. This strange effect, which

is shown in Fig. 59, is due to the fact that the heat
of the wick lasts long enough to vaporize the paraffin of
which the candle is made for a few moments after it is sub-
merged in the gas, the hot vapor from it ascends through
the latter, where it is supplied with oxygen (0) from the air.
The Levitation of a Soap Bubble. Here is an experiment
that would do credit to and gain renown for a Hindu magi-
cian. Set a large meat-platter or a tray on the table and
FIG. 60.-The Levitation of a Soap Bubble.
fill it to overflowing with carbon dioxide (C0 2), Now blow

a large soap bubble with a clay pipe in the ordinary way,
hold it over the platter and let it drop on the surface of the
gas that fills it. On striking the layer of carbon dioxide
(C0 2) it will bounce up and down on the latter like a rubber
ball on the sidew3-lk, and when it finally does come to rest
I it looks to the spectators as though it were suspended above
the platter, or tray, which, of course, it is by the layer of
carbon dioxide (C0 2), The experiment is shown in Fig. 60.
CHAPTER IV.
THE WIZARDRY OF WATER
THE liquid which we call water (H 20) is as necessary to

the existence of living things as air is. Like air, water (H 20)
is formed of two gases, but, differing from air, these are
chemically combined and form a liquid nearly 800 times
heavier than the former. Water (H 20) covers three-fourths of
the earth's surface, the oceans taking up the larger part of it,
and soundings have been made which show that at various
points it is more than 5 miles deep. As you have seen in
Chapter IV, the air has a large amount of water (H 20) in
it in the form of vapor, and the so-called dry land is saturated
with it, while both plants and animals are made up of from
50 to 75 per cent of it, hence without it life could not exist.
Some Characteristics of Water. Water (H 20) when
pure is colorless in small amounts, tasteless, and odor-
less, and in this state it is a non-conductor of electricity.
The water (H 20) of oceans, lakes,and rivers has a blue or
green color ,and this is due to the natural color of the gases
of which it is formed, the refraction and reflection of the
light that strikes it,and to the mineral and other substances
in it.
Like other liquids, water (H 20) is almost incompressible
and it remains a liquid at temperatures between 32 degrees
and 212 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. At 32 de-
S6
THE WIZARDRY OF WATER 57
grees it freezes into a solid which we call ice, and at 2I2

degrees it boils and passes into the air as a vapor which we
call steam. To reach this form it expands I700 times in
volume, or bulk, which means that I pint of water will
make I700 pints of steam.
What Water is Made of. Water (H 20) is formed of two
elements and these are hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0), and,
as you know, both of these are gases. To form water
(H 20) they must be chemically combined in the propor-
tions of 2 parts of hydrogen (H) to I part of oxygen (0),
that is, H 20, by volume, or bulk, or in the proportion of
2 parts of hydrogen (H) and I6 parts of oxygen (0) by
weight, which is the same thing. These measures are
easily proved to be correct both by analyzing, that is, de-
composing, water (H 20), and by measuring and weighing the
gases separately, and also by taking these gases in the
above proportions and chemically combining them, upon
which synthetic l water (H 20) results. How to analyze
water (H 20) and how to produce it synthetically will be
explained in the next chapter.
What Water Is Good for. Water (H 20) is not only nece-
ssary to drink, to bathe in, and for the construction of living
plants and animals and their maintenance, but it has many
other uses as well. For instance, it is one of the chemist's
allies in that it is a great solvent, for more substances can be
dissolved in it than in any other liquid, hence, it is always
used first when a substance is to be analyzed and it forms
the basis of many solutions. Because it cannot be com-
1 A synthetic compound is one that you have built up of the same elements
as those used by nature.
58 THE BOY CHEMIST
pressed, it is used in hydraulic presses and other machinery,

while in the form of ice it. is largely used as a cooling medium,
and in the form of steam it has a wide application as a
power, or prime mover.
How to Purify Water. Water (H20) is never found
pure in nature; rain water (H 20) is the purest, but even
that has foreign matter in it. In making chemical experi-
ments where water (H 20) is to be used,it must be pure or
the results may not be at all what you expect them to be.
Now water (H 20) can be purified by several methods, and
BE FORE CREASING AFTER CREASING
FIG. 6r.-How the Filter Paper is Creased.
chief among those are by filtration, by boiling, and by dis-

tillation. Where water (H 20) is filtered, only the larger
particles of matter in it are removed. Boiling kills all of
the germs in it, and much of the suspended matter will fall
to the bottom when it is allowed to settle, so that for ordi-
nary experiments you can use boiled water (H 20), which
should then be filtered. The only way to get pure water
(H 20), though, is to distil it.
How to Filter Water. To filter water (H 20) in order to
. get rid of any solid particles in a solution you need a glass
funnel, as shown in Fig. I7 in Chapter I. The filter paper
comes in round sheets and you can fit it into the funnel by
folding a sheet of it over once, then again, and, finally,
again, causing it to be creased, as shown in Fig. 62.
This done, spread the paper out flat and then make a
cone of it, set it into the funnel and rub it along the creases
to make it fit closely, as in Fig. 62; next, wet the paper all
over with clean water to make it cling to the surface, and
GLASS
FUNNEL.'
FIG. 62.-The Filter Paper in FIG. 63.-The Funnel in Use.

the Funnel.
set the funnel in the ring of a support, as inFig. 63. Finally

place a beaker, or a test tube under the funnel and pour
the solution you want to filter into the latter.
How to Boil Water. You can boil the water (H 20) in
an ordinary teakettle, or if you only need a small amount
of it you can use a beaker. Boiling does not remove all
the foreign matter in the water (H 20) by any means, but
if it has what is called temporary hardness, which will be
explained presently, then the mineral compounds cau£ing
60 THE BOY CHEMIST
it will be deposited on the sides and bottom of the vessel

and in this way are. removed. It is these compounds that
form fur in the kettle and scale in a boiler. But if the
water (H 20) has permanent hardness, boiling will not remove
the compounds that cause it.
How to Distil Water. The easiest way to get distilled
water (H 20) for your experiments is to buy it at the drug
FIG. 64.-How to Distil a Little Water.
store, but I shall give you three modifications of the same

apparatus, so that you can distil it for yourself. To distil
a very small quantity of water (H 20), so that you can see
clearly the exact nature of the process, all you need is two
test tubes, a delivery pipe, an alcohol lamp, and a beaker,
or a tumbler.
Pour enough w&.ter (H 20) of any kind into one of the
tubes to half fill it, then push the short end of the delivery
tube through a cork and fit this into the neck of the test
THE WIZARDRY OF WATEll 61
tube; put the other test tube into a beaker or tumbler of

cold water (H 20) and put the other end of the delivery
tube into this second test tube. Light the alchohol lamp
and hold the test tube with the water (H 20) in it over the
flame with your test-tube holder, as shown in Fig. 64, and
let the water (H 20) boil.
FIG. 6S.-A Better Apparatus for Distilling Water.
How the Experiment Works. As soon as the water

(H 20) begins to boil, it will generate steam,and as this passes
through the delivery tube it will be chilled and condensed
into water (H 20) when it reaches the cold test tube that is
in the beaker.
NOTE.- To see that only pure water (H 20) passes over
and that the impurities are left behind, you can dissolve
enough cupric sulphate (CuSO;j) , or copper sulphate, blue-
stone, or blue vitriol, as it is variously called, in the water
62 THE BOY CHEMIST
(H 20)you are going to distil to give it a good green color,
and you will see that this is left behind.
To distil enough water (H 20) to make an experiment
with, half fill a small glass flask with some water (H 20)
and set it in the ring of your stand. Now place your lamp,
or burner, directly under the flask, and put a beaker, or a
tumbler, under the end of the delivery tube, as shown in
FIG. 66.-An Apparatus for Distilling Water on a Large Scale.
Fig. 65. This done, light the lamp and when the water
(H 20) begins to boil and to generate steam, the latter will
pass through the tube; when it does so, let some cold water
(H 20) fall on the tube by means of a sponge, and the steam
(H 20) will then condense into water (H 20). The better
to aid the process of condensation, wrap a cloth round the
tube and let the water fall on it. Very soon pure water
(H 20) will flow out of the tube and into the beaker.
An apparatus for distilling water in large quantities is

shown in Fig. 66. It consists of a retort, with a delivery
tube which passes through a larger tube sealed to the former
at both ends, so that as much of the surface of the delivery
tube as possible will be exposed to the cooling water (H 20).
A stream of cold water (H 20) is made to flow into the cool-
ing tube at the bottom and to flow out of it at the top, as
warm water (H 20) always rises when circulating.
Tests for the Purity of Distilled Water. The first preofs
of the purity of water (H 20)
are that it has no color, no·
odor, and no taste, and that
it is perfectly clear and trans-
parent. Farther, it must not
change the colors of indica-
tors, such as litmus paper FIG. 67.-How to Raise the
Temperature of Water.
and phenolphthalein
(C2oH1404), and, finally, when slowly evaporated it must
not leave any solid matter behind. How to make a test for
each of these will be explained farther along.
How to Raise the Temperature of Water. Pour enough
distilled water (H 20) into a test tube to half fill it, then
hold it by the mouth and place the closed end against your
cheek, which will give you a rough idea of the temperature
of the water (H 20). Now putYz teaspoonful of magnesium
sulphate (MgS0 4), or Epsom salts, as it is commonly called,
in the tube, hold your finger, or thumb, over the mouth of
it, as shown in Fig. 67, and shake it until the salts have com-
pletely dissolved. Again hold the tube to your cheek and
you will find that it is considerably warmer than it was before.
64 THE BOY CHEMIST
How the Experiment Works. Many compounds be-

sides magnesium sulphate (MgS04) have what is called a
positive heat of solution, and when they come in contact
with water (H 20) they give up their latent heat to it.
How to Lower the Temperature of Water. Pour enough
distilled water (H 20) into a test tube to make it half full
and hold it to your cheek to get an idea of its temperature
as before. This time put Yz teaspoonful of ammonium
chloride (N H 4 Cl), or sal ammoniac, as it is more often
called, in the tube and shake it until the compound is com-
pletely dissolved. Again hold the tube to your cheek and
you will find that it is considerably colder than it was before.
How the Experiment Works. Many compounds besides
ammonium chloride (N H 4 Cl) have what is known as a
negative heat of solution when they are brought into contact
with water (H 20), and, hence, they absorb the heat of the
latter.
How to Make Ice. The principle of extracting the heat
of a compound by adding a substance that has a negative
heat of solution is used in a practical way in making ice-
cream. In this case, however, sodium chloride ( N a Cl),
which is common salt, is mixed with cracked ice and this
is packed around the can containing the cream to be frozen.
As the ice melts and the salt dissolves, they extract the heat
of the water (H 20) thus formed, and a temperature still
lower than that of the melting ice alone will be produced.
To make a little ice (H 20),all you have to do is to pour
enough water (H 20), distilled or otherwise, into a test tube
to half fill it, then put it into a beaker, or a tumbler, and
fill this up with a mixture of finely cracked ice (H 20) and
soldium chloride (NaCI), as shown in Fig. 68. Grip the

test tube by the mouth and turn it rapidly around in the
beaker, and in a couple of minutes the freezing mixture
will change the liquid water (H 20) into ice (H 20).
What Water of Crystallization Is. There are some kinds
of crystals which seem to be perfectly dry, as, for instance,
Glauber's salts, which is the decahydrate 1 of sodium sulphate
(Na2S04.lOH20), that are formed of more than half of
their weight of water (H 20), and this
is called water of crystallization. If the
crystals are heated and the water
(H 20) is driven out of them, they
will decompose and crumble to pieces.
Some crystalline compounds must
be heated to the temperature of boil-
ing water (zI2°F) before they will
give up their water of crystallization,
and others will do so when they are
simply exposed to the open air.
FIG. 68.-How to Make
When crystals give up their water of Ice.
crystallization the process is called
efflorescence. There are, however, some crystals which
when the water of crystallization is driven out of them will
absorb it again when the compound of which they are formed
is exposed to moist air, and new crystals are produced; this
process is just the reverse of efflorescence and is called
deliquescence.
Row to See the Water of Crystallization. Put half a
1A hydrate is a substance that combines with water, or the elements of
water, and a decahydrate is a hydrate one molecule of which combines with
10 molecules of water.
66 THE BOY CHEMIST
teaspoonful of copper sulphate (CuS04.5 H 20) into a clean,

dry test tube and heat it over the flame of your lamp or
burner. Almost instantly it will boil and give up its water
of crystallization in the form of steam (H 20), and some of
this will condense into little drops
of water (H 20) on the surface of
......<-H--TH READ
the tube. You will also see that
as the water is driven out of the
crystals they change from blue un-
til they become colorless. Nearly
all crystals lose their colors when
the water of crystallization is
_CR ....STALS driven out of them.
OF
(e12 HzzOII) How to Make Rock-Candy Crys-
tals. This is a very interesting
experiment, and to make it take
a large test tube and then tie one
end of a stout thread, which is
1Ir1lll.ll1H-tt--\lVEIGHT
about as long as the tube, to a
nut, or other little weight and the
1 other end of it to a bit of wood.

This done, half :fill the tube with
boiling water (H 20) and stir il( as
FIG. 69.- How to Make Rock-
Candy. much granulated sugar ( C 12 H 220 11)
as it will dissolve; now let the
thread down in the solution and set the tube in a rack where
it can slowly cool off, and large crystals of rock-candy
( C 12 H 220 11) will be formed on the thread, as shown in Fig. 69.
In the same way you can produce beautiful crystals of
other substances that have water of crystallization in them.
How the Experiment Works. When the crystals of

rock-candy (C 12 H 220U) are forming they leave behind
them the water of crystallization that is in the minute
crystals of sugar (C12H220U)' It is the water of crystalli-
zation that makes the crystals of ordinary sugar (C 12 H 220 11 )
as soft as they are, and since there is very little water (H 20)
in the crystals formed on the string, they are quite hard,
hence the name rock-candy (C 12 H 220 u).
How to Make a Secret Writing Ink. Put a little water
(H 20) into a test tube and add as much cobalt chloride
(CoCl 2) as it will dissolve, after which it is called a saturated
solution. To help along the operation, put your thumb
over the mouth of the test tube, as shown in Fig. 67, and
shake it vigorously. Now take a quill pen, or sharpen the
end of a match, and write upon a sheet of pink paper with
it. Then let it dry, and the writing will be invisible.
To read what you have written, your friend has only to
heat the paper a little, and the writing will come out in a
bright blue color; but as soon as the paper cools off, the
writing will vanish as completely as if it had never been, at
least as far as the human eye is concerned.
How the Experiment Works. Cobalt Chloride (Co Cl 2 )
comes in the form of blue crystals, and these have very
little, if any, water (H 20) in them. When it is dissolved
in water (H 20) and is used as an ink, the cobalt chloride
( Co Cl 2) absorbs the moisture from the air and forms crys-
tals that, of course, contain water of crystallization, and
the mixture of cobalt chloride and water (H 20) in them has
the formula of (Co Cl2 +6 H 20), since the cobalt chloride
(CoCl 2) has combined with 6 molecules of water (H 2O),
68 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make a Weather Forecaster. The same prin-

ciples can be used for indicating whether the weather is
going to be fair or rainy, and this is done by the percentage
of moisture there is in the air. Put enough water (H 20)
into a test tube to fill it half full, and then dissolve all the
cobalt chloride (CoCl 2 ) that it will take up, that is, you
make a saturated solution of it.
Cut a strip Yz inch wide and 4 inches long from a sheet
of clean white blotting paper and immerse it in the cobalt
chloride (CoCl 2 ) solution; now hang it up to dry and it will
forecast what the weather is to be by its changing colors.
When rain is to be expected, the air will be damp and the
moisture will turn the crystals of cobalt chloride (CoCl 2)
in and on the paper pink, and, when the weather is to be
fair, the air is much drier and the crystals lose enough of
their water of crystallization to turn them blue.
How to Make Imitation Ground Glass. A sheet of clean
glass painted over with the following solution and then
allowed to dry makes a very good imitation of ground glass.
To make the solution, nearly fill a large test tube with water
(H 20) and then put in 3 teaspoonfuls of ammonium chloride
(N H 4 Cl), which is sal ammoniac; shake the tube until the
salt is thoroughly dissolved, then stir in a couple of drops
of glue, boil it over the flame of your alcohol lamp, and paint
the surface of the glass with it while it is hot. As soon as
the solution begins to cool, the water (H 20) will start to
evaporate and minute crystals will form all over the surface
of the glass, and it will look as if it were ground.
Kinds of Water. By kinds of water (H 20), are meant
various specimens of it that contain different substances,
but, of course, in the last analysis there is really only one

kind, and this is water (H 20) - that is the liquid formed
by the chemical union of 2 parts of hydrogen (H) and I
part of oxygen (0) by volume.
Water (H 20) is classified under two general heads, and
these are soft water and hard water. When water (H 20)
is pure, or nearly so, it is called soft water, and when it con-
tains mineral substances it is called hard water. Of hard
water there are also two kinds, namely, those th<;tt have
temporary hardness and those that have permanent hardness.
How to Tell if Water Is Soft or Hard. You can easily
find out whether water (H 20) is soft or hard by rubbing
up some soap with it. If it lathers well it is soft water, and
it follows that if it does not lather well it is hard water.
How to Test For and Get Rid of Temporary Hardness.
Half fill a test tube with some of the water (H 20) to be
tested and boil it for several minutes over the flame of your
alcohol lamp. If it contains calcium carbonate (CaCO s),
or limestone, as it is commonly called, it has temporary
hardness, and to get rid of it you need only to boil it, upon
which the limestone (CaCO s) will be precipitated, that is,
thrown down to the bottom of the tube; in this way boiling
the water (H 20) makes it soft.
How the Experiment Works. When rain falls it absorbs
the carbon dioxide (C0 2) in the air, and as the water (H 20)
containing the gas filters through the earth, the carbon
dioxide (C0 2) acts on the limestone, or calcium carbonate
( Ca COs), and changes it into the more soluble form of cal-
cium bicarbonate (Ca(HCOs)2), which is dissolved by and
remains in the water (H 20). Now when the water is boiled,
70 THE BOY CHEMIST
the carbon dioxide (C0 2) is driven off and the calcium

bicarbonate (Ca(HCOS)2) again becomes calcium carbonate
(CaCO s), and this is precipitated, that is, it is thrown down
to the bottom of the vessel.
How to Test For and get Rid of Permanent Hardness.
Half fill a test tube with some of the water (H 20) to be
tested and then add Yz teaspoonful of sodium carbonate
(N a2 CO s+ ro H 20), which is commonly called soda; place
your thumb over the mouth of the tube and shake it hard.
If, now, the water has permanent hardness, white particles
of gypsum, that is, calcium sulphate (CaS04) , or Epsom
salts, which is magnesium sulphate (MgS0 4) , or both of these
salts, will be precipitated, mainly in the form of carbonates.
Then run the water through a sheet of filter paper, and
. the particles will be left behind and the water will be soft.
How the Experiment Works. When sodium carbonate
(Na 2COS+roH 20) comes in contact with sulphates that
cause permanent hardness, the latter are decomposed and
form calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ) and magnesium carbon-
ate (MgCO s), which then fall to the bottom, thus leaving
the water (H 20) soft. How soap cleans when it is used
with water (H 20) is explained in Chapter XV.
How to Test Water for Odor and Color. Half fill a
test tube with some of the water (H 20) to be tested, shake
it well, and then hold it to your nose; if the water (H 20)
contains any living organisms, it will give off an odor, and
if there are any decaying organic impurities in it, the odor
may be an unpleasant one. Now heat the test tube and
again smell of it, when you may find that the odor is even
more pronounced.
Half fill a test tube with water (H 20) and let it stand
for a few minutes; now hold if between your eyes and a
sheet of white paper against the light, and you can easily
see if it is tinted or not and whether it is clear or trans-
lucent. This done, shake it well and then examine it again.
How to Test Water for Mineral Substances. Pour a
little of the water (H 20) to be
tested into a watch crystal, or,
better, a small, porcelain evap-
orating-dish, and set it in the sun
until all the water has evapo-
rated. If you want to evaporate
TiD
it more quickly, heat it very

gently over the flame of your
lamp or burner, as shown in
L
Fig. 70. If it contains organic,
or mineral' matter of any kind,
or both, such matter will be left
behind as a residue on the crys-
-How to Test for Mineral
tal, or dish. Now heat it to red- FIG. 7o .Matter in \Vater.
ness, and if the residue is formed
of organic matter it will be decomposed and pass off in the
form of gases, while if it is formed of mineral matter, it will
not be affected by the heat.
How to Test Water for Organic Matter. By organic
matter is meant matter that is living or was once alive.
Another and more showy test for organic matter than the
one given above is to fill a beaker, or a tumbler, with some
water (H 20); now put I teaspoonful of sodium bisulphate
(NaHS0 4) in a test tube half full of water (H 20) and shake
72 THE BOY CHEMIST
it until it is dissolved. This done, put 10 or 12 drops of

the solution into the water (H 20) to be tested.
Now dissolve 7.4: teaspoonful of potassium permanganate
(KMn04) in a test tube of water (H 20), and with your
medicine dropper, or pipette, as it is more properly called,
FIG. 7r.-How to Test for Organic Matter in Water.
add the solution a drop at a time to the water (H 20) you

are testing, and at the same time stir it with a clean glass
rod or tube, as shown in Fig. 71, until it turns a violet color.
Let the beaker stand for half an hour or more, and if the
color of the water (H 20) does not change in that time you
may safely conclude that there is n0 organic matter in it.
If, however, the water (H 20) loses part of its color, it shows
that there is organic matter in it.
How to Test Water for Carbon Dioxide. First prepare
a little lime-water, which is calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2),
and this you do by half filling a test tube with pure water
(H 20), and then dissolving 7:4: teaspoonful of quicklime,
which is calcium oxide (CaO) in it. Let it settle and pour
off the clear part, which is lime-water (Ca(O H)2)' Now
fill a test tube nearly full of the water (H 20) you want to
test for carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and then put in half a dozen
drops of the lime-water (Ca(OH)2). If there is carbon
dioxide (C0 2 ) in the water, it will promptly take on a milky
color.
How to Test Water for Alkalis. Take a test tube full
of the water (H 20) you want to test and put in a couple of
drops of a solution of phenolphthalein (C20 H 1404), and this
you can make by dissolving a little of it in pure methyl
alcohol (C H sO H), which goes by the name of wood-spirit,
or wood alcohol. The phenolphthalein (C2o H 140 4) is a
colorless compound, but on coming in contact with an
alkali it takes on a red tint and so colors the water.
How to Test Water for Lime. Add 7:4: teaspoonful of
sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3) to a test tube of the water
(H 20) you want to test, and let it stand for half an hour.
If there is no lime, that is, calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), in
it, the water (H 20) will remain clear, but if there is any
lime in it, the water (H 20) will take on a milky color.
How to Test Water for Acids. To make this test all you
need to do is to soak a strip of blue litmus paper in the water
(H 20), upon which it will change color if it contains an acid.
74 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Test Water for Iron. To a test tube that is half

full of the water (H 20) you are going to test, add ~ teaspoon-
ful of sodium ferrocyanide (Na4Fe( C N)6+IZH20) and
. shake it well. Let the water (H 20) stand for a few minutes,
and if it takes on a blue color it shows that there is iron (Fe)
in it.
How to Test Water for Sulphur. Fill a test tube full of
the water to be tested, and then soak a strip of sulphide
test paper in it. If the water contains sulphur (S), the paper
will change its color to a brownish-black. Sulphur water
is a mineral water (H 20) that has a gas in it called hydrogen
sulphide (II 2S), and it is this· gas that makes it smell like
rotten eggs.
CHAPTER V.
EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROGEN
IT was the English chemist, Cavendish, who first showed

that hydrogen (H) was a gas by itself and, also, that it
would produce water (H 20) when it was burned in air.
It was known, however, before he made these experiments
that it was the oxygen (0) of the ai~ which supports com-
bustion, and this showed that water (H 20) was formed of
oxygen (0) and hydrogen (H) chemically combined.
Hydrogen (H) is the lightest gas known, and it is about
14-Yz times lighter than air, for which reason it is used for
filling balloons. It is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless
gas, and does not change blue litmus paper red, which shows
that it has no acid properties, and yet it is a necessary ele-
ment of all acid compounds. Hydrogen (H) like nitrogen
(N) is not a poisonous gas, but it cannot support either
combustion or life; unlike the latter gas, it burns with an
intense heat in air, or better, in pure oxygen (0), and when
these two gases are mixed with each other (not chemically
combined) they form a very explosive mixture. .
How to Analyze Water. After you have made the ex-
periments described in the foregoing chapter your next
step is to analyze some water (H 20), that is, separate it
into its two original gases, namely oxygen (0) and hydro-
gen (H); and then you want to make some of the latter
gas and do the experiments which follow.
75
76 THE BOY CHEMIST
You can easily separate the oxygen (0) and hydrogen (H)
of which water (H 20) is formed by a process known as
electrolysis-that is, by passing an electric current through
it. To do the experiment you will need a pair of test tubes,
a couple of pieces of carbon such as is used for arc lights
and each of which is about 172 inches long, a soup-plate,
and a battery of 5 or 6 dry cells. Take two pieces of in-
sulated copper wire and scrape the ends clean, then twist
one end of each one around each of the pieces of carbon and
connect the other ends to the battery of dry cells.
This done, fill the soup-plate nearly full of clean water
(H 20) - it does not have to be distilled - and stir half a
dozen drops of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) into it. You will
remember I told you in the chapter before this that water
(H 20) is not a conductor of electricity, but you can make
it so - it is then called an electrolyte - by adding a little
common salt, that is, sodium chloride (NaCl), or, better,
sodium bisulphate (Na HS0 4 ) or, still better, sulphuric
acid (H 2S0 4 ).
Now fill both test tubes full of the electrolyte, which is
the water (H 20) so prepared, then place your finger over
the mouth of each one in turn, invert it and set it into the
water (H 20) in the soup-plate over the carbon rod, or elec-
trode, as it is called, as shown in Fig. 72. As soon as you
have done this you will see bubbles of gas form on each car-
bon electrode and rise up through the water (H 20) to the
surface of it.
Now the gas formed in one of the tubes is oxygen (0),
and in the other one hydrogen (H); after this action has
taken place for a few minutes you will observe that the
water (H 20) is sinking in the tubes, and after a longer in-

terval you will further observe that there is twice as much
gas in one of the tubes as there is in the other one; this is
easily accounted for, since water (H 20) is formed of 2 parts
of hydrogen (H) and I part of oxygen (0) by volume. The
gas which takes up the smaller space must, therefore, be
the oxygen (0), and the one that takes up the larger space
must be the hydrogen (H).
FIG. 72.-Separating Water into Its Original Gases.
To prove that these gases have really been formed in the

tubes, lift up the one that has the greater amount of water
(H 20) in it and hold it mouth down, so that the water
(H 20) will run out and the oxygen (0) stay in. Now light
a match, and after it gets to blazing well, blow it out and
hold it in the tube; instantly it will burst into a flame again,
and this shows that the gas is oxygen (0). This done, lift
up the other tube and let the water (H 20) run out of it;
78 THE BOY CHEMIST
next, light a match and bold it to the mouth of the tube,

upon which the gas in it will explode, and this shows that
it is hydrogen (H).
How the Experiment Works. The above experiment
shows clearly enough that when an electric current acts on
water (H 20) it separates it into the two gases of which it
is formed, and this process is called electrolysis. The dis-
coveries made by chemists of the action that takes place
when water (H 20) and other substances in solution are
c..::~~:. CATION = HVDROGEN '(+)-=--

...-I,--ANION o::::::t OXYGEN
FIG. 73.-Diagram of the Theory of Ionization.
decomposed by an electric current is explained on the basis

of what is called ionization.
The theory of ionization supposes that the molecules
which form the water (H 20) are made to fall apart, or
dissociate, as it is called, when an electric current flows
through, and the atoms of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0)
are then ionized by the electric current, that is, each one
takes on a charge of electricity and so they are called ions.
The positively charged atoms, or positive ions, are called
cations, and the negatively charged atoms, or negative ions,
are called anions. Now the hydrogen (H) atoms are always
charged positively, and these ions of the water (H 20), or
other electrolyte, collect at the negative electrode, which
. is the carbon connected with the zinc pole of the battery,
while the oxygen (0) atoms are always
~ Pl.ATfNUM
charged negatively, and these ions col- ~l~IR£S
lect at the positive electrode, which is . "\
t-SPARK
the carbon connected with the carbon GA~
pole of the battery, as shown in Fig. 73.

How to Make Synthetic Water with
an Electric Spark. Since oxygen (0)
and hydrogen (H) are obtained when
water (H 20) is decomposed, these two
gases should form water (H 20) when
they are chemically combined, and this
they do. The apparatus for this ex-
I
periment is rather costkly abnd is n~t I
altogether easy to rna e, ut as It
proves that oxygen (0) and hydrogen
(H) when they combine form water
( H 20), I will tell you how to do it.
First, you need a piece of apparatus
called a eudiometer, and this consists of FIG.74.-The E Ud·lOme·ter.
a long glass test tube; a pair of platinum
wires are sealed in the wall of the tube near the closed end
and form a spark gap, as shown in Fig. 74.. The outside
ends of the wires are connected with a small induction coil,
or spark coil, as it is usually called, and this is energized by
a battery, as shown in Fig. 75.
Now fill the eudiometer full of mercury (Hg), so that
80 THE BOY CHEMIST
there will be no air in it, then invert it in a bowl of mercury

(Hg) and keep it in an upright position with the aid of the
ring-stand, as in Fig. 76. The next step is to place the free
end of the delivery tube of your oxygen generator, which
is shown in Fig. 42, under the mercury eHg) and in the
mouth of the eudiometer, and pass enough oxygen (0) into
it to displace about I inch of the mercury (H g). This done,
FIG. 7S.-The Eudiometer Connected with the Spark Coil.
withdraw the tube and insert one that is connected with

your hydrogen generator, which is shown in Fig. 72, and
pass -enough hydrogen (H) into it to displace 2 inches more
of mercury.
Now as long as these two gases in the tube are merely
mixed they will remain in this condition for a long time,
but the moment a spark is made to pass between the points
of the platinum wires in the eudiometer, it will ignite them,
a little explosion will take place, and they will combine
chemically and form a minute quantity of water (H 20).
How to Make Synthetic Water with an Alcohol Flame.
You do not need the elaborate apparatus just described

. to produce water (H 20) synthetically; instead here is a
very simple way in which you can generate hydrogen (H)
and make it combine with the oxygen (0) of the air, and
form water (H 20).
Put a little methyl alcohol (C H 30 H), or wood alcohol,
FIG. 76.-The Eudiometer Ready FIG. 77.-Producing Water with

for the Experiment. an Alcohol Flame.
as it is called, into your evaporating-dish and light it. Now.

hold a perfectly dry cold beaker over the flame, and very
soon minute drops of water (H 20) will form on the inside
surface of it, as shown in Fig. 77.
How the Experiment Works. The alcohol (C H 30 H)
contains, as the formula just given shows, 4 atoms of hydro-
gen (H) and the heat of the flame makes the oxygen (0)
of the air combine with it, so that water (H 20) is formed.
82 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make Hydrogen. This is the usual way that

hydrogen (H) is made for experimental purposes. First,
cut up a piece of sheet zinc (Zn) into bits, or better, get
some granulated zinc (Zn) and put the zinc into an Erlen-
meyer flask; now seal a glass delivery tube and a funnel
tube, commonly known as a "thistle tube" from its shape,
in a cork with sealing wax and put this into the mouth of
the flask. Make it tight, or the hydrogen (H) will
leak out.
This done, pour a little sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ), or oil of
vitriol, as it is sometimes called, into the flask and add 5 or
6 times its volume of water (H 20), and the zinc (Zn) will
instantly act on it; the solution will boil and a great deal
of heat will be evolved and a large amount of hydrogen
(H) will be set free. As hydrogen (H) is so much lighter
than the air, it can be collected in an inverted bottle, as
shown in Fig. 78, where it will displace the air and remain
for some time.
How the Experiment Works. When the zinc (Zn) acts
on the sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) the hydrogen (H) of the
latter is set free and the zinc (Zn) takes its place, forming
zinc sulphate (ZnS04) which, as its formula shows, contains
zinc (Zn), sulphur (S), and oxygen (0). The zinc sulphate
(ZnS04) thus formed is dissolved in the water (H 20) of the
acid, but you can easily recover it by evaporating the solu-
tion, upon which it will remain in the dish as a white solid.
N OTE.- Whenever you make hydrogen ( H), you should
never light it until it has passed off from the generating
apparatus for at .least 5 minutes. This is because there is
always air mixed with the first of the gas that passes off,
and this forms a very explosive mixture, due to the oxygen

(0) of the former.
It is also a good plan to wrap a cloth around the flask,
so that if there should be an explosion the flask will not fly
to pieces. Further, always make a test of the gas first,
and this you can do by filling a test tube with it and light-
THE GENERATOR
FIG. 78.-How to Make Hydrogen.
ing it; if it burns quietly, you can then safely light it as it

issues from the delivery tube.
How to Make Hydrogen without an Acid. Put I ounce
of potassium hydroxide (KO H), which is commonly called
caustic potash, in an Erlenmeyer flask, or one of the ordinary
kind, add Yz ounce each of fine granulated zinc (Zn) and
some iron turnin~s (Fe) and then cover these over with
84 THE BOY CHEMIST
water (H 20). This done, fit a cork with a delivery tube

in it into the neck of the flask; a reaction is now set up in
which the hydrogen (H) is liberated, and this you can col-
lect in another tube, or you can light it at the tip of the
delivery tube.
How the Experiment Works. The zinc (Zn) acts on the
potassium hydroxide (KO H) and forms potassium (K),
FIG. 79.-How to Pour Out Hydrogen.
zinc oxide (ZnO), and hydrogen (H), which is set free. By

writing this reaction in the form of an equation1 it is made
clearer because of its brevity, thus:
Zn + KO H K + ZnO + H t
Zinc Potassium Potassium Zinc Hydrogen
Hydroxide Oxide
Note:-Wherever you see an arrow pointing up in an
equation you will know that the preceding substance is a
gas.
1 The nature of an equation is explained in Chapter X.
How to Pour out Hydrogen. Since hydrogen (H) is

about I4.7'2 times lighter than air, if you want to transfer
it from one vessel to another you must pour it upward, as
shown in Fig. 79. To do this, take a test tube and fill it
with hydrogen (H), then
hold another test tube
vertically with its mouth
down; hold the full tube
vertically at first with its
mouth down, with the
edge of it touching the (H)
edge of the other one;
now lower the closed end
of the full tube and the
gas will ascend and you
will have performed the
feat of pouring it up.
The Diffusion of Hy-
drogen. Take two test
tubes and fill one with
hydrogen (H) and, of
course, hold it with its
mouth down to keep the FIG. So.-The Diffusion of Hydrogen.
hydrogen (H) in. Hold
another test tube with air in it With its mouth up and place
the tubes together, as shown in Fig. 80. Since air is so much
heavier than hydrogen (H), it would seem that they would
remain separated in their respective tubes, but <;uch, how-
ever, is not at all the case; after a little while the hydrogen
(H) sinks into the air just as though gravity were pulling
86 THE BOY CHEMIST
it down, and this curious effect is called diffusion. The

same action takes place when you open a bottle of perfume
and its scent penetrates the air everywhere in the room.
How to Make a Hydrogen Flame. To make a hydrogen
(H) flame, all you need to do is to take the rubber bulb
FUNNEL TUBE
(H) GENERATOR
FIG. Sr.-How to Make a Hydrogen Flame.
from a pipette and couple the large end of it with the free
end of the delivery tube of your generating apparatus by
means of a bit of rubber tubing, as shown in Fig. 81. Before
lighting the gas at the tip of the pipette, be sure to let the
generator run at least 5 minutes to get rid of all of the air
or else you are liable to have an explosion, as explained
under the caption of "How to Make Hydrogen."
How Hydrogen Acts on Flame. Take a large test tube

full of hydrogen (H) and keep it inverted, as shown in Fig.
82. Now light a match and hold it to the mouth of the
tube and the gas will catch fire and burn with an almost
invisible flame, which will work its way into the tube and
FIG. 82.-The Hydrogen FIG. 83.-The Match is

Bums Gently. Extinguished.
finally go out. This experiment shows that hydrogen

(H) is a combustible gas.
Twist a wire around a match and light it. Now take
another test tube of hydrogen (H), hold it mouth down-
ward as before, quickly push the lighted match up to the
top of the tube, ·as in Fig. 83, and it will go out, though
88 THE BOY CHEMIST
the gas will burn at the mouth. This experiment shows

that hydrogen (H) will not support combustion.
Finally, take another test tube full of hydrogen (H),
hold it mouth upward, as in Fig. 84, and touch a lighted
match to the mouth of it, and there will be an explosion.
This experiment shows that when hydrogen (H) and oxygen
FIG. 84.-The Hydrogen Mixed with Air Explodes.
(0) come in contact with each other they form an explosive

mixture.
How to Blow Hydrogen Soap Bubbles. Connect a blad-
der l or, better, a small rubber gas bag, to the delivery tube
of your hydrogen-generating apparatus, fill it with gas, and
1 To prepare a bladder for use as a gas bag, rub it weI! with a mixture of 1
part of glycerine and 2 parts of water. A rubber gas bag is cheap, c1ean,and
convenient and can be bought of dealers in chemical apparatus.
then tie the neck of it up tight; this done, connect the stem
of an ordinary clay pipe to the neck of the bladder, or bag,
and then make a solution of good soap and soft water (H 20).
Now dip the mouth of the pipe in the soap solution, cut
the thread from the neck of the bladder, or gas bag, and
then press on it, and a bubble will be formed, as shown
FIG. 8S.-Blowing Hydrogen Soap Bubbles.
in Fig. 85. As hydrogen (H) is so much lighter than the

air, the bubble will go up like a balloon, which it really is,
and break when it strikes the ceiling. If, however, you
hold a lighted match to it as it ascends,it will burst with a
faint yellow flash and explode with a slight noise.
How to Blow Hydrogen Cauliflower Soap Bubbles. Fill
a bladder, or a gas bag, with hydrogen (H) as before, but
90 THE BOY CHEMIST
instead of the clay pipe fasten a glass tube in the neck of it;
this done, half fill a wash-basin with the soap solution,
then put the end of the tube into it and press on the bladder,
or'gas bag, and the basin will be filled to overflowing with
small hydrogen (H) bubbles, as shown in Fig. 86. Now
tie a match to a long stick, then light it and bring it into
contact with the bubbles, and they will explode like a bunch
of giant fire-crackers going off.
FIG. 86.-How to Blow Hydrogen Cauliflower Soap Bubbles.
How to Blow Resin Bubbles. Procure I ounce of pure

linseed oil and 8 ounces of resin and put them in your
porcelain evaporating-dish; place this dish in a pan partly
filled with water. This arrangement, which is shown in
cross-section in Fig. 87, is called a water bath. Now heat
the pan with your alcohol lamp, or Bunsen burner, until
the mixture is the right consistency and then blow bubbles
with the clay pipe, either with air in the usual way or with
the gas-bag apparatus which I have just described. If
you blow resin bubbles with air, they will burst on coming
in contact with the table or floor, but you can keep them
for a long time by letting them fall on a sheet of paper on
which you have sprinkled some lycopodium powder. Bub-
FIG. 87.-Melting the Resin and Linseed Oil Over a Water Bath.
TUBE OF
PIPETTE
FIG. 88.-A Self-Lighting Gas Flame.
bles blown with the resin solution are exceedingly thin and,
different from soap bubbles: they are perfectly gas-tight.
They are very pretty when the sunlight is allowed to fall
on them.
How to Make a Self-Lighting Flame. Make a hydrogen
92 THE BOY CHEMIST
(H) gas jet, as shown in Fig. 8I, and hold a piece of spongy
platinum (Pt) over it, as shown in Fig. 88, and it will soon
get red-hot and then, in
turn, it will light the gas.
Spongy platinum (Pt)
is a powdered form of
platinum (Pt), and you
can buy it ready to use.
It is made by dissolv-
ing platinum (Pt) in
aqua regia, which is a
mixture of I part of
nitric acid (H N0 3) and
3 parts of hydrochloric
acid (H Cl). Crystals
of chloroplatinic acid
(H 2 PtCI 6) are thus
formed; ammonium
chloride (N H 4 CI) is
then added, which pre-
cipitates the platinum
GALLON
(Pt) as ammonium chlo- SIZE JAR
roplatinate ((N H 4)2 Pt
CI 6), and on heating the
compound it leaves the
platinum (Pt) in a pow-
dered form, and this is FIG. 89·-An Electric Bell in Hydrogen.
called spongy platinum (Pt).
How Hydrogen Acts on Silver Nitrate. Dissolve as
much silver nitrate (Ag N0 3) as you can in a teaspoonful
of pure water (H 20),and with a toothpick write or draw

upon a piece of silk; this done, moisten the latter with a
damp sponge and then place the silk in a beaker of hydro-
gen (H), or you can direct
a stream of the gas on it
with the bladder or rubber-
bag apparatus. The hydro-
gene H) removes the oxygen
(0) of the silver nitrate
(Ag NOs) and leaves the pure
metal on the silk.
How Hydrogen Acts on
Sound. For the following
experiments take a gallon
glass fruit jar, or a battery
jar, fill it with hydrogen
(H), and suspend it by
means of strings; now con-
nect a dry cell with an
electric bell and hold the
latter in the jar, as shown
in Fig. 89, and it will give
out quite a different sound
FIG. 90.-A Squeaking from that which it does
Head in Hydrogen.
when it rings in air.
If you can get one of those squeaking toys that are sold
at Christmas time, made in the form of a head, a duck, or
a dog, and work it in a jar of hydrogen (H), as shown in
Fig. 90, it will give forth a most ridiculous sound which
is very funny. In fact any object which will make a sound
94 THE BOY CHEMIST
in air and that can be worked in a jar of hydrogen ( H) will

set up a weird and curious noise.
While this experiment is not an easy one to make, still
if you can do it you will cause no end of astonishment.
Invert a tin, or copper, wash-boiler and suspend it by its
handles. This done, fill it with hydrogen (H) and then
play an accordion in it. After hearing the wonderful music
T
FIG. 9I.-A Hydrogen Flame Organ Pipe.
it makes you will not need to stretch your imagination to

conceive what a whole orchestra shut up in a room of hydro-
gen (H) would sound like.
Here is an experiment that has been made but which
you are not advised to try. When perfectly pure hydrogen
(H) is inhaled it is like nitrogen (N) in that it kills, not
because it is a poison but because it will not support life.
A most curious effect is produced on the voice by inhaling
some of the gas and then speaking, or singing, while it is

being exhaled, for it changes the deep voice of a man into
a nasal, piping tone that is both curious and funny. In
this experiment, two precautions must be taken, and these
HYDROGEN GAS
VV ASH BOTTLE
GENERATOR
FIG. 92.-How to Purify Hydrogen and Other Gases.
are to use absolutely pure hydrogen (H), and to keep en-

tirely away from a flame of any kind while inhaling the gas.
How to Make a Hydrogen-Flame Organ Pipe. For
this experiment use the apparatus described under the
caption of "How to Make a Hydrogen Flame" and hold a
glass tube that has a bore of I or I Yz inches and a length of
18 or 20 inches and open at both ends, over a very small
96 THE BOY CHEMIST
flame, as pictured in Fig. 91. Now raise and lower the

tube a little at a time, and you will strike a point where it
will give out a clear musical note, and then by moving it
up or down, different tones will be produced.
How the Experiment Works. When 32 or more vibra-
tions take place in a second, a musical sound is set up that
DELIVERY
TUBE
FIG. 93.-How to Dry Hydrogen and Other Gases.
the ear can hear . Now when the flame is made to burn
in the tube there will be a large number of regular explo-
sions of the hydrogen (H), and this sets up waves in the
air, which in turn produce a musical sound.
How to Purify Hydrogen Gas. In making experiments
with hydrogen (H), it is often necessary to have it free
from all other substances. To purify it you need only to
pass it through a solution made by dissolving I ounce of
potassium permanganate (KMn04) in 4- or 5 ounces of

water (H 20). This solution is put in a wash-bottle, that
is, a flask or any wide-mouth bottle with a tight-fitting
cork in which there are two tubes; the longer one, which
reaches below the surface of the solution, is connected with
the delivery tube of the generating apparatus, and the
purified hydrogen (H) is given off through the short tube,
as shown in Fig. 92.
How to Dry Hydrogen. Likewise it is often desirable
that the hydrogen (H) after it is purified should be per-
fectly dry. You can easily extract the moisture from it
by first passing it from the wash-bottle connected with
the generating apparatus into a bladder, or rubber bag;
now connect the latter with one of the ends of a U-tube in
which you have placed I ounce, or more, of calcium chloride
(CaCI 2 ) and the other end with a delivery tube, as shown
in Fig. 93. Calcium chloride (Ca C1 2) is a substance that
is very deliquescent, that is, it has the power of absorbing
large quantities of water (H 20) and, hence, it extracts
whatever moisture there may be in a gas which is either
passed through or over it.
CHAPTER VI
A PAIR OF SMELLY GASES
THERE are less than a dozen gases that are known to

exist as elements, and the most important of these, namely
oxygen (0), nitrogen (N), and hydrogen (FI), I have told
you about in the chapters that have gone before. There
is, however, another gas called chlorine (Cl) that is an ele-
ment, and as it is widely used I want you to know about
it, too.
Now while chlorine (Cl) is not found free in nature,
there is an enormous amount of it locked up in various
compounds, as for instance in sodium chloride (NaCl),
that is, common salt. As % by volume of sodium chloride
(N a Cl) is formed of chlorine (Cl) and there is enough salt
in the oceans to make a range of mountains as large as the
Alps, it will be seen that it is extremely plentiful and, more-
over, it is easy to obtain. In turn, chlorine (Cl) forms a
large number of useful compounds when mixed or combined
with other elements.
Another interesting gas, though very strong-smelling,
which I shall tell you of in this chapter, is ammonia (N H s),
but this is a compound and it is made up, as its formula
shows of I atom of nitrogen (N) combined with 3 atoms of
hydrogen (H). Now free hydrogen (H) is very scarce,
and while water (H 20) is made up of % by volume of this
98
A PAIR OF SMELLY GASES 99
gas, it is not altogether. easy to separate it from the oxygen

(0) in commercial amounts. But hydrogen (H) is found
in large quantities in all living and dead plant and animal
matter and also in natural gas and petroleum, and from
these compounds it can be easily obtained; hence, ammonia
(N H 3) can be cheaply made in large quantities.
Experiment with Chlorine. Chlorine (Cl) is a trans-
parent gas of a yellowish-green color and Davy, who proved
that it is an element, gave it this name from the Greek word
chloros, which means green. Chlorine (Cl) was discovered
by Scheele in 1774, and it was he who first made it. This he
did by treating black oxide of manganese (Mn02) with
hydrochloric acid (H Cl), or spirit of salt as it was called
in the early days of chemistry.
Chlorine (Cl) is a gas that is nearly 2;4 times as heavy as
air, and it has a pungent, suffocating odor, which is very
penetrating. In making experiments with it~ be very
careful not to inhale it, for it has an irritating effect on the
throat, and pure chlorine (Cl) will kilL While chlorine
(Cl) will not itself burn, it will support the combustion of
some substances. Scheele not only discovered this gas,
but he found out most of its charac'teristics, including the
all-important one that when it is mixed with water (H 20)
it will bleach out all kinds of vegetable colors.
The process for making chlorine (Cl) is not nearly so
simple as that for oxygen (0), but you can make it for experi-
mental purposes without any trouble. There are three
ways by which it can be made, and these are to pass a cur-
rent of electricity through a solution of sodium chloride
(NaCl), that is, common salt, and water (H 20), just as you
100 THE BOY CHEMIST
did the water (H 20) alone, to

separate it into its component
gases, as described in the previous
chapter; to use hydrogen chloride
(H CZ), or some other cheap
compound that contains the gas,
and make the hydrogen (H) in
it combine with the oxygen (0)
of the air, setting free the chlor-
ine (CZ); and, by the easier pro-
cess which I shall now describe.
CHLORINE GAS DRYING BOTTLE RECEIVING

BOTTLE
GENERATOR
FIG. 94.-Apparatus for Generating Chlorine Gas.
How to Make Chlorine. To make enough chlorine (CZ)

to experiment with, all you need is a flask fitted with a funnel
and a short delivery tube; connect the latter with the long
tube of a wash-bottle while the short tube of the latter

leads into a bottle that is to hold the gas, and which stands
right side up, as shown in Fig. 94.
Now while chlorine (Cl) is heavier than air, it is a good
plan to slip a card over the delivery tube of the wash-
bottle and lay it over the mouth of the bottle that is to
hold the gas, to prevent its dispersion. If you want the
gas to be perfectly dryas well as pure, then you will have
to use the wash-bottle as a drying bottle, by filling it about
one-third full of concentrated sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ).
Having the apparatus set up, put I ounce of potassium
permanganate (KMn04) in the flask and then fit the cork
in tight. Now fill a pipette, or medicine dropper, with a
solution made of I part of water (H 20) and 3 parts of con-
centrated hydrochloric acid (H Cl), which is the only com-
pound that hydrogen (H) and chlorine (Cl) will form with
each other, and let it fall drop by drop into the funnel. A
better appliance than the pipette is a funnel with a
stopcock in it. The acid is used up very fast and the gas
is set free in a quantity large enough to make a constant
stream of it flow from the delivery tube, while the bottle
is filled by the gas falling to the bottom and forcing the air
out at the top.
How the Experiment Works. When the potassium
permanganate (KMn04) comes into contact with the
hydrochloric acid (H Cl) it forms four substances, and these
are water (H 20), potassium chloride (K Cl), manganese
chloride (MnCl 2 ), and chlorine (Cl). The water (H 20)
and the chlorides are left behind in the flask, and since the
chlorine (Cl) is a gas it passes out of the delivery tube.
102 THE BOY CHEMIST
NOTE.- In making chlorine (Cl) and experimenting

with it, you should do so either in a shed or outdoors, for
the gas is not only very bad to breathe but it will destroy
the finish on furniture, take the color out of draperies, and
spoil the polish on metal work.
How to Test for Chlorine. Pour a little of the gas into

a test tube of pure water (H 20), and then dissolve a crystal
of silver nitrate (Ag NOs) in a teaspoonful of pure water
(H 20); this done, add a few drops of it to the solution in
the test tube. If the solution is chlorine (Cl) in water
(H 20) - which makes hypochlorous acid (H CtO) - a
precipitate will be formed like the curd of milk, and this is
silver chloride (AgCl); spread this salt out on paper and
let the sunEght shine on it and it will turn black.
How Chlorine Acts on Flame. Twist a wire around a
match, then light it and lower it into a test tube of chlorine
( CZ); the latter will ignite and burn with a dull red flame,
then dense fumes will be given off and the flame will soon
go out.
Spontaneous Combustion. Cut a strip of filter paper
about Yz inch wide and 4 inches long and fold it over length-
wise; dip one end of it into some turpentine that has been
warmed, and lower it into a test tube of chlorine (CI). It
will instantly ignite and give off a lot of black smoke.
Moisten a strip of filter paper with concentrated liquid
ammonia (N H s) and lower it into the test tube of chlorine
(CZ) and it will ignite spontaneously.
How to Make a Smoke Screen. Here is a way to make
smoke that is blacker than the blackest smoke of smoky
Pittsburgh. Put 1/3 ounce of wood-alcohol (CHsOH)
into a long test tube, then add I ounce of sulphuric acid

(H 2S0 4 ) and heat them over the flame of your alcohol
lamp. This done, grease the mouth of the test tube so
that an air-tight joint can be
made, and pour some chlorine
(CZ) gas into the tube, put a
piece of glass on top of it, and
shake it welL The next step
is to take off the glass and
light the gas in the tube, upon
which a great cloud of dense
black smoke will be formed
by the carbon (C) which is set
free, as shown in Fig. 95. While
the gas is burning, you will
hear an ominous noise like
that of a miniature earthquake
as the flame moves down
from the mouth to the bot-
tom of the tube.
The Art of Bleaching. Chlor..:
ine (CZ) is an active element,
FIG. 9S.-How to Make
and in this respect is very a Smoke Screen.
much like oxygen (0); fur-
ther, it has a larger number of chemical properties than
this latter gas has. Now while it is commonly said that
chlorine (Cl) bleaches, when it is perfectly dry it has no
bleaching properties whatever, and before it will bleach
it must be brought into contact with water (H 20). This
can be done by adding some chlorine (CZ) to water (H 20),
104 THE BOY CHEMIST
upon which hypochlorous acid (I-I CZO) results, and this

has bleaching properties; or the colored piece of goods can
be moistened with water (I-I 20) first and then dipped into
a jar of chlorine (CZ); in either case the colors will fade away
until the piece of goods is perfectly white.
FIG. 96.-Making Some Dry Chlorine Gas.
How to Test the Bleaching Power of Chlorine. Put 2

or 3 ounces of calcium chloride (CaCZ 2 ), that you have
broken up into small lumps, into a perfectly dry jar, then
cut a hole in a sheet of blotting paper and put it on top of
the jar. Pour some chlorine (CZ) from the jar or bottle
containing it into the other one, as shown in Fig. 96; the

purpose of the blotting paper is to prevent any water (H 20)
that may have gathered in the chlorine bottle from getting
into the dry jar when you pour it out, and the purpose of
the calcium chloride (CaCl 2) is to absorb whatever water
(H 20) there may be in the gas itself.
Now take a toothpick or a quill and write your name
boldly with some ordinary ink on a strip of paper, dry it
FIG. 97.-The Writing in the Bottle. FIG. 98.-The Writing Bleached Out.
over a stove to expel any moisture that there may be in it,

and while it is yet warm put it into the jar of chlorine (CZ)
and cork it up, as shown in Fig. 97, and you will find that
the gas has practically no effect on it.
Having made this experiment, take out the paper, moisten
it with water, (H 20), again put it in the jar of chlorine (CI)
and cork it up, as in Fig. 98, and in a very short time you
will :find the ink fading, and, finally, it will disappear alto-
gether.
How the Experiment Works. While chlorine (CI) when
106 THE BOY CHEMIST
it is perfectly dry has no bleaching power, on coming into

contact with water (H 20) it forms hypochlorou:: acid
(H ClO), as mentioned before. Now when this solution is
exposed to the sunlight it decomposes very fast, and hydro-
gen chloride (HCI), which is a gas, is formed; this remains
behind with the water (H 20), then the solution becomes
hydrochloric acid (H Cl) (commonly called muriatic acid),
and the oxygen (0) is set free.
Oxygen (0) is a strong oxidizing agent and, hence, it
combines with the organic matter of which the ink is made,
and so takes it out of the paper. Oxygen (0) does not act
as a bleaching agent under ordinary conditions, but it takes
on this power at the instant it is set free from the water
(H 20) by the chlorine (Cl), hence, it is the oxygen (0)
which bleaches, and not the chlorine (Cl) itself.
How to Make Red Roses White. Tie the stem of a red
rose to a pin pushed through a cork, and then put the lat-
ter into the mouth of a bottle of dry chlorine (Cl), as shown
in Fig. 99. In the course of a little while the red color will
begin to fade away, and finally it will vanish altogether
and the rose will be a perfectly white one. The reason
that flowers can be bleached in dry chlorine (Cl) is because
a very considerable part of them is formed of water (H 20).
Wheat flour is bleached with chlorine (Cl), and this is the
way it is made so white.
How to Make Bleaching Powder. Calcium hypochlorite
(CaOCI 2 ), or chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, as it is
more often called, is made by passing chlorine (Cl) through
calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), or slaked lime, to give it its
common name. Chloride of lime (CaOCl 2 ), is an unstable
compound which gives up its oxygen (0) freely and leaves

calcium chloride (CaCl 2 , 6 H 20) behind. It is the oxygen
(0) that is set free whIch kills germs in decaying and dead
plant and animal matter and it is, therefore, largely used
as a disinfectant as well as a bleaching agent.
To make a little bleaching powder, put a tablespoonful
of chloride of lime (CaOCI 2 ) in a beaker and half fill the
latter with water (H 20). Stir
it with a glass rod until as
much as possible of the lime is
PIN
dissol ved, let it settle, and then
pour off the clear solution. Now
dip a piece of paper colored with
ink, or a piece of muslin with
GAS fruit stains on it, into it and
they will be bleached out, leav-
ing the paper or muslin perfectly
white.
FIG. 99·-To Make a Red How to Make a Bleaching
Rose White.
Liquid. Fill a small test tube
with water (H 20), then add a few drops of sulphuric acid
( H 250 4) and stir with a glass rod; this done, dissolve in
the solution as much potassium chlorate (K CIO s) as you
can put on the point of a knife-blade, and you will find
that it has decided bleaching properties.
NOTE.- Do not make this experiment on any larger
scale than is given, or you may have an explosion.
How to Make a Bandanna Handkerchief. Fifty years
ago a gentleman would be as lost without a bandanna hand-
kerchief as he is to-day in Piccadilly without an eye-glass.
108 THE BOY CHEMIST
But I wonder if you know just what a bandanna handker-

chief is. For fear you may not, let me say that it is a very
large red silk handkerchief with white spots on it.
When they first became popular, they were made by the
very simple expedient of laying red silk handkerchiefs be-
tween thin sheets of lead in which there were a number of
FIG. loo.-How to Make a Bandanna Handkerchief.
holes. When a pile of 40 or 50 handkerchiefs and lead

plates were laid in this fashion, a solution of chlorine (Cl)
and water (H 20), which is almost the same as hypochlorous
acid (HetO), was poured in the holes in the top plate, and
as it seeped through the successive pieces of red silk it took
the color out of them and left spots that were perfectly white.
You can imitate this process by cutting out a hole an
inch in diameter in two strips of cigar-box wood, then plac-
ing a piece of calico dyed with Turkey red,l which you have
moistened, between them, and slipping a strong rubber
band over each end, as shown in Fig. 100. This done, drop
some hypochlorous acid(HClO), which is a bleaching liquid,
into the hole of the top board and let it filter through the
cloth. Finally, take the calico from the boards and wash
FIG. IOI.-Making a Little Ammonia Gas.
it, and you will find a perfectly white spot on it where the
liquid came in contact with the colored fibres.
Experiment with Ammonia. While the ammonia
(N H 40 H) we know so well and use so much of is a liquid
formed of ammonia (N H s), which is a gas, dissolved in
water (H 20), real ammonia (N Hs) is a transparent color-
less gas that has a very penetrating, choking odor, and
1 Turkey red is a dye produced when alizarin (C 14 H s0 4 ) is used with a
mordant of aluminum sulphate (A12 (S04h-H 20).
110 THE BOY CHEMIST
when inhaled it produces suffocation. Ammonia (N Ha)

is only about half as heavy as air, and while it will not burn
in the latter, it will burn in oxygen (0).
One of the characteristics of ammonia (N H 3) is that a
large amount of it will dissolve in a very small amount of
water (H 20), which is to say that 600 volumes of ammonia
(N Hs) can be dissolved in I volume of water (H 20). Now,
FIG. I02.-Rubbing Up Sal Ammoniac and Slaked Lime in a Mortar.
in the experiments to follow, be sure to keep ammonia

(N H 3) gas separate and distinct in your mind from ammon-
ium hydroxide (N H 40 H), which is ammonia (N H 3) gas
dissolved in water (H 20), and is generally called ammonia,
or more properly, aqua ammonia.
How to Make a Little Ammonia. Half fill a test tube
with concentrated liquid ammonia, which is made by dis-
solving as much ammonia (N H 3) in water (H 20) as possi-
ble, then put a cork into the mouth of it, which is fitted with
a delivery tube, as shown in Fig. 101, heat the solution of

ammonia (N H 3) over the flame of your alcohol lamp,
and ammonia (N H 3) gas will be given off, and this you
can detect by cautiously smelling at the opening of the
delivery tube.
FIG. I03.-Making Ammonia Gas for Experimental Purposes.
How to Make Ammonia on a Larger Scale. Put I ounce

of ammonium chloride (N H 4 Cl) , that is, sal ammoniac,
ir..to a mortar and powder it, as shown in Fig. 102; now
powder I ounce of calcium hydroxide ( Ca(O H)2), which is
slaked lime, in a mortar and then mix them well together.
This done, put them into a glass flask, add a little warm
water (H 20), and put in a cork that has a delivery tube in
112 THE BOY CHEMIST
it; finally heat it gently over the flame of your alcohol

lamp for 10 minutes, as shown in Fig. 103, and ammonia
(N H 3) gas will be given off, and, as it is only about half as
heavy as air, you can collect it in a large test tube or a
bottle by inverting it over the free end of the delivery tube,
which should reach nearly to the top of the container.
How the Experiment Works. When the ammonium
chloride (N H 4 Cl) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) are
heated together they combine and form calcium chloride
(,CaC1 2), water (H 20), and ammonia (N H 3) gas, which is
given off, or to write it as an equation:
2 NH 4Cl + Ca(OH)2 = CaC1 2 + 2 H 20 + 2 N H3 i
Ammonium Calcium Calcium \Vater Ammonia
cnloride hydroxide chloride
To Show How Ammonia Dissolves in Water. Take a
strong test tube and fill it with ammonia (N Hs) gas, stand
it in a small dish of mercury (Hg) (an individual butter-
dish will do) so that the gas will be sealed in the tube
air-tight, as shown in Fig. 104. Now set the dish and the
tube in a larger glass dish and nearly fill the latter with
water (H 20); these preliminaries attended to, lift the test
tube so that its mouth will be just above the surface of the
mercury (H g), but not out of the water (H 20), and the
latter will rush up into the tube and nearly fill it, as shown
in Fig. 105.
How the Experiment Works. This curious action is due
to the fact that the instant the mouth of the test tube is
lifted above the mercury (Hg), the water (H 20) enters it
and absorbs about all of the ammonia (N H 3) gas that fills
the tube; this action leaves a vacuum in the tube and the
pressure of the outside air on the water (H 20) in the dish

forces the latter up into it.
How to Make an Ammonia-Operated Fountain. For
this experiment, which is one in physics as well as in chem-
istry, use a round flask, and through the cork of it fit a
BUTTER
DISH
FIG. I04.-The Test Tube FIG. I05.-The Test Tube

Sealed by Mercury. Lifted from the Mercury.
short piece of tube with one end drawn to a nozzle.

Now fill the flask with ammonia (N H 3) gas and put the
cork into it tight, with the nozzle end of the pipette up into
the neck; color some water (H 20) with a little aniline dye,
either red or blue, and then dip the lower and larger end of
the pirette into it, as is shown in Fig. 106.
114 THE BOY CHEMIST
Instantly the ammonia (N H 3) gas in the flask will be

absorbed by the water (H 20) and produce a vacuum in
the flask. This causes the pressure of the air on the water
(H 20) outside to force it up through the nozzle, after which
it will fall in a spray.
How to Make Concentrated
Liquid Ammonia. Liquid ammonia
(N H 3) is ammonia (N H 3) gas
liquefied, which condition is brought
about in the same way that air is
liquefied, and this is by heat ex-
traction and pressure, but what we
ordinarily call liquid ammonia
(N H 3) is, as I explained before,
simply ammonia (N H 3) gas dis-
solved in water (H 20), and con-
centrated liquid ammonia is water
FIG. I06.-An Ammonia-
(H 20) in which the largest possible
Operated Fountain. amount of ammonia (N H 3) gas is
dissolved.
You can make a small quantity of concentrated liquid
ammonia (N H 40 H) by putting a little distilled water
(H 20) into a U-tube and setting this in a beaker of ice-water
(H 20), as shown in Fig. 107. One end of the U-tube is
connected with the delivery pipe of your ammonia (N H 3)
generating apparatus that is shown in Fig. 103, and the
other end of it is closed with a cork in which you have in-
serted the tube of a pipette. As water (H 20) increases
from 100 volumes in its normal condition to 175 volumes
when it is saturated with ammonia (N H 3) gas, the U-tube
must not be more than one-third full of water (H 20) to start

with.
How the Experiment Works. When the ammonia
(N H 3 ) is passed very slowly into the U-tube the water
(H 20) will rise in the arm of it that contains the pipette,
FIG. I07.-Apparatus for Making Concentrated Liquid Ammonia.
and the pressure of the gas will make the water (H 20)
absorb the largest possible amount, and a saturated solu-
tion will result. You will know when the water (H 20)
has absorbed all the ammonia (N H 3) gas it can by the
expansion of it, causing it almost to touch the cork that
116 THE BOY CHEMIST
has the pipette in it. The resulting solution will be con-

centrated liquid ammonia (N H 40 H), and it will be very
strong indeed.
An Experiment with Concentrated Liquid Ammonia.
Put some concentrated liquid ammonia (N H 40 H) into a
test tube and set this in a beaker of melting ice (H 20), and
it will be cooled to a temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
which is the freezing point. When it is thoroughly chilled,
pour it into a beaker and set
this in a warm room; now when
it reaches a temperature of 62
degrees Fahrenheit it will begin
to boil and give off ammonia
(N H 3) gas; as soon as it ceases
boiling and giving off gas, grip
the beaker with the palm of your
hand, as shown in Fig. 108, and
the heat of the hand will make
FIG. I08.-Boiling Ammonia the liquid ammonia (N H 40 H)
with the Heat of Your
Hand. boil again and give off still more
gas.
Some Uses of Aqua Ammonia. Ammonia (N H 40H)
is used in small amounts in the household as a remedy for
headache (aspirin or phenacetine is better), for polishing
some metals, for cleaning clothes, and for softening water.
It is used in larger amounts commercially for refrigeration,
in which the gas is liquefied by pressure and cooled by
running it through a coiled pipe in cold water.
The liquid ammonia (NH 40H) then drips through a
nozzle in the end of the pipe, causing evaporation. This
takes the heat out of a salt solution, or brine, In which there

are suspended cans that are filled with pure water; in this
way the temperature of the brine is reduced below the
freezing point and the water (H 20) in the cans freezes into
cakes of ice (H 20). Finally, ammonia is used for making
compounds of various kinds, including fertilizers.
CHAPTER VII.
ACIDS, THE GREAT SOLVENTS
.WHILE water (H 20) is the greatest of all solvents, still

there are many substances which it will not dissolve, and
acids of different kinds must be used instead. All acids
are alike in at least four respects, and these are that they
have a sour taste, change blue litmus paper red, contain
hydrogen (H), and, finally, metals dissolve in them, causing
the acids to give up their hydrogen (H).
Acids are usually formed of gases which are dissolved in
water (H 20), and acid solutions of this kind will dissolve
metals. Weak acids which are called dilute acids, con-
tain as high as 80 per cent of water (H 20); stronger
acids, called commercial acids, have about 7 per cent of
water (H 20) in them, while concentrated acids have the
smallest possible amount of water (H 20) in them. It is
very seldom that the water (H 20) which forms a part of an
acid has any effect on the substances to be acted upon and,
hence, it is not taken irito consideration in the reactions.
The most useful acid is sulphuric acid (H 250 4), then
comes hydrochloric acid (H CZ), and> this is followed by
nitric acid (H NOs); and then there are more than 50 other
kinds which have a less extensive use. Now, like all other
chemicals, you can buy the acids you need a great deal
lIS
ACIDS, THE GREAT SOLVENTS 119
cheaper than you can make them yourself, but still you
should make them for the experience that will accrue to you.
About Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ), the
common name of which is oil oj vitriol, is a thick, oily liquid
that is nearly twice as heavy as water (H 20). It is the
most difficult of all the common acids to make in the labora-
tory, but with a little patience you can do it. The start
has to be made with sulphur dioxide (S02), a colorless gas
that is more than twice as heavy as air, and 80 volumes of
it will dissolve in I volume of water (H 20). This gas is
easily made when sulphur (S) bums in the air, causing it
to combine with the oxygen (0) of the latter.
Next, the sulphur dioxide (S02) must be converted into
sulphur trioxide (S03), which is a colorless, volatile liquid,
and this is done by heating the SUlphur dioxide (S02) and
more oxygen (0) together at a high temperature. Another
atom of oxygen (0) then combines with each molecule of it
and so converts it into a different substance. The vapor of
the sulphur trioxide (S03) is then conducted to a vessel which
is kept cold, and it will liquefy into concentrated SUlphuric
acid (H 2S0 4 ) in the presence of water (H 20).
The Easiest Way to Make Sulphuric Acid. Take a
dozen pieces of cotton thread, each about 3 inches long,
dip them into melted sulphur (S), and when they are cold
tie them to one end of an iron wire about 6 inches long.
Now push the other end of the wire into a cork and then
put as much water (H 20) as will fill a small test tube into
a pint bottle. This done, light the sulphur (S) on the end
of the wire, push the wire into the bottle, and cork it up,
as shown in Fig. 109.
120 THE BOY CHEMIST
When the vapor of the burning sulphur (S) fills the bot-
tle, dip a thin pine stick into some strong nitric acid (H NO a)
and hold it in it, as shown in Fig. I 10. Instantly the nitric
acid (H NOs) will decompose and the nitric oxide (N 20)
VV'IRE
COTTON
THREADS
~;m
FIG. I09.-Sulphur Burning FIG. IIo.-Introducing the

in a Bottle. Nitric Acid.
which is formed will combine with the oxygen (0) and

form nitrogen peroxide (N0 2 ). Let the bottle stand for
10 to I5 minutes and then shake it. The vapors will be
absorbed by the water (H 20). The solution that results
is dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ), and you can test it by
dipping a piece of blue litmus paper in it. The paper will

then turn red.
A Better Way to Make Sulphuric Acid. Here is another
way to make a little dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ), and a
better one than that just described. Put I ounce of potas-
sium nitrate (K NOs), or nitre, as it is called, and 2 ounces
of sulphur (5) into a little cup and set it on a block of wood,
or other support, which is about I inch high, in a saucer of
(5)
AND
(KNO z)
FIG. III.-A Better Way to Make Dilute Sulphuric Acid.
water (H 20). Now light the mixture and set a larger

beaker over the cup in the water, and it will be air-tight,
as shown in Fig. I I I. The action produces nitrogen perox-
ide (N0 2), as in the foregoing experiment, and this is
absorbed by the water (H 20), thus forming dilute sulphuric
acid (H 2S0 4 ). To prove it is an acid, test it with a piece
of litmus paper as before.
Another Method for Making Sulphuric Acid. Take I
ounce of sulphur trioxide (50 3), which is a compound formed
122 THE BOY CHEMIST
of white silky crystals that look very much like the fibres
of asbestos. This must be kept in a bottle with a glass
stopper until you are ready to use it, as it fumes strongly
when it comes in contact with the air. Put the sulphur
trioxide (SOs) into I pint of water (H 20), and it will dis-
solve, in doing which it will make a hissing sound and set
up a large amount of heat. The resulting solution formed
by the reaction is sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ),
A Laboratory Method for Making Sulphuric Acid. To
make sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) by the process that is gen-
erally used in school laboratories, you have to begin with
oxygen (0) and sulphur dioxide (S02) , then change these
into sulphur trioxide (SOs) , and, finally, dissolve this in
water (H 20). Sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) results.
How to Make Sulphur Dioxide. Put I ounce of copper
turnings (Cu) into a pint flask and pour 2 ounces of concen-
trated sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) on them; this done, put a
cork that has a delivery tube in it in the flask and heat the
latter gently, and sulphur dioxide (S02) will be given off.
Just as soon as the gas begins to pass over, raise the flask
above the flame high enough so that the gas will flow from
the delivery tube in a steady stream. Couple the delivery
tube with a wash-bottle, and then you are ready to connect
it with the apparatus for making sulphur trioxide (SOs).
See Fig. IIZ.
How to Make Sulphur Trioxide. Sulphur trioxide
(SOs), as its formula shows, has I more atom of oxygen in
each of its molecules than sulphur dioxide (S02) has, and
to add this extra atom of oxygen (0) you need the follow-
ing piece of apparatus. Having your oxygen (O)-generat-
>-
n
H
oCfJ
~
()
~
Sen
I if.>
FIG. Il2.-Laboratory Method for Making Sulphuric Acid. ......

t-,;),
(,N,
124 THE BOY CHEMIST
ing apparatus, which I described in Chapter III, and the

sulphur-dioxide (S02) apparatus, just described, set up and
ready for action, put 2 ounces of ferric oxidel ( Fe 20 3) , or
iron oxide, as it is usually called and which is common iron
rust, into a glass or iron tube Y2 inch or ;t4 inch in diameter
and 8 inches long, one end of which is drawn out to a point
to form a nozzle.
Now push the delivery tubes of both the gas generators
into the mouth of the glass or iron tube and close it up with
a piece of soft clay; now heat the iron oxide (Fe 203) with a
Bunsen burner, or, better, a couple of them (an alcohol
flame is not hot enough), and then start the generators
going and the oxygen (0) and sulphur dioxide (S02) will
combine and form sulphur trioxide (S03), which will pass
off through the nozzle of the delivery tube.
How to Make Sulphuric Acid. To make sulphuric acid
( H 2S0 4) you need only to set the nozzle end of the tube
into a beaker containing a little ice-water (H 20), and as the
sulphur trioxide (S03) flows out through the former it con-
denses into sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4). The complete apparatus
for generating the oxygen (0) and sulphur dioxide (S02) ,
changing these into sulphur trioxide (S03), and finally col-
lecting this as sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4),is shown in Fig. II2.
How the Experiment Works. There are certain sub-
1 This acts as a contact agent, or catalytic agent, which is explained in Chap-
ter III under the caption of "A Way to Make More Oxygen:' In making
sulphur trioxide (SOg), platinized asbestos is a better contact agent than
ferric oxide (Fe.Og) , and it is also much more expensive.
Platinized asbestos is made by soaking the fibers of asbestos, or mineral
wool, as it is commonly called, in chloroplatinic acid (H 2 PtCI3); this acid is
made by dissolving platinum (Pt) in aqua regia, and this, in turn, is made by
mixing hydrochloric acid (Hel) with nitric acid (HN0 3 ).
stances, such as oxygen (0) and sulphur dioxide (S02) ,

which combine very much better with each other when
they are brought into contact with some other substance
as, for instance, iron oxide (Fe203); the latter, curiously
enough, does not in any way combine with them and, hence,
it remains itself unchanged. Such substances are called
catalyzers or catalytic agents, while the process itself is called
catalysis. This way of making sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) is
known as the contact process.
The reactions that take place in making sulphuric acid
(H 2S0 4 ) by the contact process are these: The copper
( Cu) acting on the sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) gives copper
sulphate (CUS04), or blue vitriol, as it is called, and water
(H 20) which substances remain behind in the flask while
the sulphur dioxide (S02) gas passes off through the delivery
tube. The reaction may be more easily shown by this
equation:
2 H 2S04 + Cu = CUS04 + 2 H 20 + S02 i
Slliphuric Copper Copper Water Sulphur A gas
acid sulphate dioxide
The arrow pointing upward shows that one of the resultant
products is a gas.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SULPHURIC ACID.
How to Change Sugar into Carbon. Put a couple of

pieces of lump sugar (C 12 H 220 11) in a beaker and pour a
tablespoonful of boiling water (H 20) on them; now add a
few drops of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) to the solution and
it will begin to boil. The hydrogen (H) and the oxygen
126 THE BOY CHEMIST
(0) of the sugar (C 12 H 220 11) combine and form water

(H 20), while the carbon (C) in it is left behind.
How to Write Indelibly on Cotton Goods. Write your
name on a piece of white muslin with dilute sulphuric acid
(H 2S0 4 ) and then quickly wash it out well, and there will
be no apparent change in the muslin. This done, heat the
muslin so that the water (H 20) in it is driven off, while the
trace of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) that still remains in the
fibres decomposes them and makes them black, and no
amount of washing will ever take the color out.
How to Make Copperas. To make ferrous sulphate
(FeS04) or copperas, green vitriol, or iron sulphate, as it is
variously known, put a dozen iron (Fe) shingle nails in a
flask and add enough dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) (1 part
of acid to 5 parts of water (H 20» to cover them. Now
warm the flask a little over the flame of your alcohol lamp,
and when all the hydrogen (II) has been set free, pour the
clear liquid off into a beaker. This done, add a few drops
of dilute sulphuric aicd (H 2S0 4) to it, then heat it until
half ;f it has boiled away and let it cool, and green crystals
of copperas (FeS04) will be formed in it. Finally pour off
the liquid and lay the crystals on a sheet of blotting paper
to dry.
How to Make Blue Vitriol. Cupric sulphate (CUS04) ,
or copper sulphate, or blue vitriol, as it is more often called,
comes in the form of large blue crystals. Like the crystals
of copperas (FeS04) above described, blue vitriol (CUS04)
contains a large amount of water of crystallization (see
Chapter IV), and when the crystals lose this they lose their
color, and become what is called white vitriol. But just as
soon as water (H 20) touches them again, they take on a

blue color. To make copper sulphate (CUS04) crystals,
let some dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) trickle over copper
(Cu) borings, or, better, granulated copper (Cu), in the
presence of air.
How to Make Epsom Salts. The chemical name for
Epsom salts is magnesium sulphate (MgS04 ), and to make a
little of it dissolve I ounce of magnesium carbonate (MgCO a)
- that is magnesite - in dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ),
filter it through filter paper placed in a funnel, and catch
it in a small porcelain dish. N:ow heat this gently over
the flame of your lamp or burner until the crystals separate
from it, and then dry them on blotting paper. You will
then have a dose of the famous Epsom salts that have long
been used as a laxative.
About Nitric Acid. When sodium nitrate (NaNOs) or
Chili saltpeter, as it is commonly called, or potassium nitrate
(K NO a) , which is Bengal saltpeter, is acted upon by any
kind of an acid nitric acid (H NO a) is formed. Since
sodium nitrate (NaNO a) is the cheapest nItrate and sul-
phuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) is the cheapest acid, they are always
used for making nitric acid (H NOs).
Pure nitric acid (H NOs) is a colorless liquid that fumes
when it is set in the open air. Commercial nitric acid
(H NOs) contains 68 per cent of the acid and the rest is
water (H 20), and when you buy commercial nitric acid
(H NOs), this is the strength you get. If you really want
concentrated nitric acid (H NOs), then you must buy pure
acid.
How to Make Nitric Acid. It is as easy to make nitric
128 THE BOY CHEMIST
acid (H N0 3) as it is hard to make sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4).

In fact, if you have sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) to start with,
it is easy to make almost any other kind of acid. To make
some nitric acid (H N0 3), put I ounce of sodium nitrate
(NaN0 3), which is a salt of the metal sodium (Na), and
COLD _---J!I11T1"H
(Ha O)
FIG. II3.-How to Make Nitric Acid.
Yz ounce of concentrated sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) into a

retort and set your lamp or burner under it; this done,
put the mouth of the delivery tube into a test tube and
set this in a beaker of cold water, all of which is shown in
Fig. II3. Now light the lamp or burner, and the mixture
in the retort will give off nitric acid (H N0 3 ) as a vapor,
and this is condensed in the test tube.
How the Experiment Works. After you have made the

nitric acid (H N0 3 ) you will find a substance, or residue,
as it is called, left over in the retort. Now when the sodium
nitrate (NaN0 3 ) and the sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) are
heated together they combine and form sodium sulphate
(NaHS0 4 ), which is the residue, and nitric acid (H N0 3 ) ,
which passes over as a vapor and is condensed into a liquid
in the test tube. The reaction can be more easily shown
by the equation:
NaN0 3 + H 2S0 4 = NaHS0 4 + H NOs
Sodium Sulphuric Sodium Nitric
nitrate acid sulphate acid
Experiments with Nitric Acid. After water (H 20),
nitric acid (HN0 3 ) will dissolve the most substances, even
the heavy metals on which water (H 20) has little or no
effect. Not only this, but nearly all the compounds that
are formed by the action of nitric acid (HN0 3 ) on the metals
and other substances will dissolve in water.
An Experiment in Spontaneous CombustIon. Put a
little fuming nitric acid (H N 0 3) in a test tube, then wad
up some woolen yarn and push it half-way down in the tube.
In a little while the yarn will catch fire, and after it has
burned up a white substance will be left in the tube. When
you make this experiment hold the test tube with your clip
in a beaker, so that in case it should break the acid will not
do any damage.
The Action of Nitric Acid on Metals. When nitric acid
(H N0 3) acts on metals it dissolves them and forms salts
that are called nitrates; thus when nitric acid (H N0 3 ) acts
130 THE BOY CHEMIST
on copper (Cu), copper nitrate (Cu(N0 3)2) is formed; when

it acts on silver (Ag), silver nitrate (Ag N0 3 ) is formed, and
so on, and all these salts will dissolve in water (H 20).
Cut a silver (Ag) ten-cent piece into bits, put them into
a large test tube and add just enough concentrated nitric
acid (H N0 3) to cover them. Now hold the test tube
over the flame of your alcohol lamp and heat it gently.
Colored gases then will be formed, the silver (Ag) will dis-
solve, and in its place white crystals will be found which are
formed of silver (Ag), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (0), and
this is silver nitrate (Ag N0 3).
How the Experiment Works. When nitric acid (H N0 3)
acts on the silver (Ag), it gives up part of its hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (0) and leaves silver nitrate (Ag N0 3 ) and water
(H 20) remaining in the tube. If now you will evaporate
the solution, the water (H 20) will pass off as a vapor and
crystals of silver nitrate (Ag N0 3 ) alone will remain in the
tube.
About Hydrochloric Acid. Since hydrochloric acid
(H CI+ H 20), or Jnuriatic acid, as it is commonly called, or
spirit of salt, which is its old-time name, is very widely used
in the arts, it is a good thing to know something about it.
In its pure state it is a colorless gas called hydrogen chloride
(H CZ), and when this is exposed to the air it fumes, espe-
cially in moist air; it has a sour taste which is common to
all acids, a strong, pungent odor, and it is very corrosive;
further, it has a very great affinity for water (H 20), and
I volume of the latter will absorb 500 volumes of the gas.
What we call hydrochloric acid (H CI + H 20) is then
hydrogen chloride (H CI) that is dissolved in water (H 20),
and the formula for it is usually given as (H CZ) since this

is the fon:h of it that is generally known, and the H 20 to
show that it is a solution is not considered necessary. When
the hydrogen chloride (H CZ) and the water (H 20) are both
pure, the hydrochloric acid (H CZ) formed of them is color-
less, but the acid that is sold for commercial purposes has a
yellowish color due to the impurities in it. As hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is made of sodium chloride (NaCl), that is,
common salt,and sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) it is very cheap,
and as it is a most useful acid it is made in large quantities.
HOW TO MAKE HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
To Make Hydrogen Chloride. Put I ounce of sodium

chloride (NaCl) into a flask and then mix Yz ounceof water
(H 20) with I Yz ounces of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) in a beaker.
Now fit a cork that has a funnel and a delivery tube in it
into the flask and let the end of the tube dip into a test
tube, as shown in Fig. 114-.
This done, pour the solution of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4)
slowly into the flask and heat it gently over the flame of
your lamp or burner, and the solution will boil at a great
rate. This action causes sodium sulphate (Na 2S04) to be
formed, while the bubbles that rise up through the solution
and break on reaching the surface are the hydrogen chloride
gas (H CZ), and this passes out of the delivery tube.
To Make Hydrochloric Acid. To change the hydrogen
chloride (H CZ) into hydrochloric acid (H CZ), it is only
necessary to fill the test tube with water (H 20) and let the
free end of the delivery tube dip into it while the gas is being
generated.
132 THE BOY CHEMIST
How the Experiment Works. If you have used the right

proportions of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) and water (H 20)
in making the hydrogen chloride (H Cl) and have heated
them very gently, all that will be left in the flask will be
FIG. II4.-How to Make Hydrochloric Acid.
sodium sulphate (Na 2S04), which is a white solid substance.

That is to say, the reaction of the sodium chloride (N aCl)
and the sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) makes sodium sulphate
(Na 2S04) and hydrogen chloride (HCZ) , and when this
is dissolved in ,vater (H 20) the solution becomes hydro-

chloric acid (H CI). The following equation shows it in a
more simple way.
2 NaCl + H 2S0 4 = Na 2S04 + 2 HCl i
Sodium Sulphuric Sodium Hydrochloric A gas
chloride acid sulphate acid
EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
How to Make a Hydrogen Chloride Fountain. Fill a
dry flask with hydrogen chloride (H Cl) and fit into the
neck of it a cork having a glass
tube in it, one end of which is
drawn out into a nozzle, and also
a pipette filled with water (H 20),
the jet of which is closed with a
bit of soft wax. Now dip the out-
side end of the long tube into a
beaker of water (H 20) and you are
ready to make the experiment.
Blow the wax out of the end of
the pipette by pinching the bulb,
and it will send a little stream of
water (H 20) into the flask; the
water will absorb so much of the
gas that a partial vacuum is
formed in the flask. The pressure
of the outside air on the water
(H 0) in the beaker will then FIG.uS·-A Hydrogen Chloride
2 ~ • Fountain.
force it up the tube and mto the
fl3,sk, where it will break into a spray, as shown in Fig. II5.
The Great Smoke Experiment. Fill a wide-mouth bottle
134 THE BOY CHEMIST
with hydrogen chloride (11 Cl) by inserting the free end of

the delivery tube of the generator in it, and then grease a
sheet of glass and lay it on top of the bottle. Now fill
another bottle with dry ammonia gas (N 113), as explained
in Chapter VI, and close it with a
sheet of greased glass also and then
set one bottle on the other with their
mouths together, as shown in Fig. I I6.
To the onlookers, both bottles will
appear to be perfectly empty, but
when you pull out the sheets of glass
the gases will rush together and form
a dense vapor that looks exactly like
smoke, and this substance is am-
monium chloride IN 11 4 Cl) , or sal
ammoniac, as it is ordinarily called.
A good magical experiment can be
performed with a little hydrochloric
acid (11 Cl) and concentrated liquid
ammonia (N 11 3), and the effect and
cause you will find· explained 111
FIG. II6.-The Great
Smoke Experiment. Chapter XIII.
How the Experiment Works. In
this experiment the ammonia gas (N 11 3) and the hydrogen
chloride ( 11 Cl) simply rombine and make ammonium
chloride (N 114 Cl) , which is in the form of a fine white
powder.
How the Make a Good Soldering Fluid. To make some
soldering fluid, cut up a piece of sheet zinc (Zn) into bits,
put them into an earthenware bowl, and then pour on
enough hydrochloric acid (H CI) to cover them. When

the zinc (Zn) is dissolved, the solution makes a good
soldering fluid.
How the Experiment Works. When zinc (Zn) is dis-
solved in more hydrochloric acid (H CI) than is needed,
zinc chloride (ZnCI 2) is formed, and this remains in the
solution. To obtain the zinc chloride (ZnCI 2 ), the solution
must be evaporated, and the salt will remain behind. Now
by dissolving this in water (H 20) you can also make a good
soldering fluid.
How to Make Imitation Emeralds. Put a few iron (Fe)
nails into an earthenware bowl and pour on enough hydro-
chloric acid ( H CI) to cover them. When the nails are
dissolved and the solution is yet hot, filter it into a narrow-
neck bottle, and solid green crystals that, with a little imagi-
nation, look like emeralds, will separate from it, and these
are formed of ferrous chloride (FeCI 2 ).
How the Experiment Works. The reaction in this ex-
periment is as follows: The iron (Fe) and the hydrochloric
acid (HCI) form ferrous chloride (FeCI 2 ) and hydrogen (H),
which is set free. When written as an equation you can
see the reaction at a glance:
Fe + 2 HCI + H2 i
Iron Hydrochloric Ferrous Hydrogen A gas
acid chloride
How to Make Aqua Regia. The term aqua regia comes
from two Latm . wor ds wh'ICh mean " water"an d " roya, 1" or
"royal water". It was so called by the early chemists because
it is the only known compound that will dissolve gold (Au)
and platinum (Pt), which were and are the noble metals.
136 THE BOY CHEMIST
Aqua regia is therefore a solvent that possesses remarkable

properties, and to make it, all you need to do is to mix one
part of concentrated nitric acid (H NOs) and three parts of
hydrochloric acid (H CI) in an earthenware bowl.
About Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid. Fluorine (F) is
a greenish-yellow gas and at room temperature it is the
most active element known, for there are very few sub-
stances that it will not attack and combine with. The
exceptions are oxygen (0), nitrogen (N), chlorine (CI),.
platinum (Pt), and those elements of the helium (He)
family.
Moreover, it combines usually with all the other elements
of its own accord when it is brought into contact with them,
and without the application of heat to help the reaction
along. The most interesting experiments with fluorine
are due to its property of attacking glass (Na 20,CaO, Si0 2 )
and other silicate compounds, and the conversion of water
(H 20) into ozone (Os).
Fluorine (F) is found chiefly in calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ),
which is ordinarily called fluor-spar, and also in combina-
tion with sodium (Na) and aluminum (Ai) in a mineral
called cryolite (N asA1F 6). Hydrofluoric acid (HF) , is
formed when sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4) is made to react with
fluor-spar (CaF2).
How to Etch Glass. To etch on glass (Na 20, CaO, Si0 2 ),
you have to make some hydrofluoric acid (HF) , and an
easy way to do this is to take a sheet of lead (Pb) 5 inches
wide and 8 inches long and bend up its edges I inch all
around to form a tray, as shown in Fig. II7. Now put 2
ounces of powdered calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ) , that is, fluor-
spar, into the lead tray and add enough sulphuric acid
(H 2S0 4 ) to make thin paste of it.
This done, melt some paraffin wax, pour it on the sheet
of glass which you want to engrave, run it all over the sur-
face and drain it off at one corner,and a thin film of the
FIG. II7.-How to Etch Glass with Hydrofluoric Acid.
wax will remain on it. This done, take a darning needle

and scratch a name or a picture on the film of wax with
the head of it so that the lines go clear through and expose
the glass (Na 20,CaO, Si0 2 ). Now set the glass (Na 20,
CaO, Si0 2) with the waxed surface down on the tray, light
your alcohol lamp and gently heat the paste. The fumes
that are given off are hydrogen fluoride (HF) , and this
attacks the glass (N a20, CaO, Si0 2) and eats it away.
After you have exposed it to the fumes for half an hour or
138 THE BOY CHEMIST
so, wash off the wax with turpentine and you will see the
name or picture etched into the glass (Na 20,CaO, Si0 2).
An Easier Way to Etch on Glass. An easier way to
etch on glass (Na 20, CaO, Si0 2 ) is to buy some hydrofluoric
acid (HF + H 20), which is simply hydrogen fluoride
(HF) gas dissolved in water (H 20). This is sold in rub-
ber bottles, as the acid does not attack rubber (C 5H 8) to
any great extent. Coat the glass (NazO,CaO, Si0 2) with
paraffin wax and scratch a name or draw a picture on and
through the film with a needle as before, and then build
up a little wax ridge all around the plate, lay it on a table,
and with your pipette cover the scratched-in lines with the
acid. Let it remain on the plate over night, then wash
the wax off with turpentine, and the surface of the exposed
parts of the glass (Na 20,CaO, Si0 2) will be found to be
etched away.
How to Change Water into Ozone. If you will turn
back to the last part of Chapter II, you will see that ozone
(0 3) is produced when electric sparks "are made to take
place in air. To change the oxygen (0) of water (H 20)
into ozone (03 ), fill a tube with fluorine (F), and as this gas
is heavier than the air in the tube, the latter can be held
right side up. Now let a single drop of water (H 20) fall
into the tube of fluorine (F) with your pipette, and tl:e
oxygen (0) of the water (H 20) will be turned to ozone (0 3),
CHAPTER VIII.
WHAT BASES AND SALTS ARE.
IN the previous chapter I told you about acids, and in

this chapter I shall tell you about bases and salts. Now
though these three compounds are entirely unlike each other,
still they are very closely related, for salts are formed by
the action of acids on bases. While it is easy to tell an acid
if it is a fairly strong one by testing it with litmus paper,
some acids are so weak that they have no effect whatever
on it, but the fact that they form salts when they are brought
into contact with bases shows ,that they are really' acids.
While you may never have heard of bases before, you
have often seen them, for they go under the familiar names
oflime(Ca(OHh),soda lye (NaOH), and potash lye(KOH),
and these compounds all go under the general heading of
alkalis. These bases are formed by dissolving metals of
various kinds in water (H 20), and the compounds which
result easily cut grease and have a very corrosive, or caustic,
action on the skin and flesh. It is just possible that you
did not know there were any metals which would dissolve
in water (H 20); well, there are a few, though these are not
at all common in their pure state and, hence, they are sel-
dom seen outside of the laboratory, but they are quite
plentiful in the various compounds that nature provides,
as you will presently see. These metals are calcium (Ca),
139
140 THE BOY CHEMIST
sodium (N a), potassium (K), and some others, all of which

I shall tell you about in the next chapter.
Finally, a salt is a compound that is formed when an
acid and a base combine and during the reaction of which
all, or a part, of the hydrogen (H) of the acid is replaced
by the atoms of the metal; in this case the hydrogen (H)
is set free just as it is when zinc (Zn) or iron (Fe) is dis-
solved in an acid.
What the Bases Are. As I mentioned above, the three
bases that are the most used and, hence, the best known,
are caustic lime (Ca(OH)2), caustic soda (NaOH), and
caustic potash (KOH). Now, as you know, water (H 20)
consists of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0); calcium (Ca)
is a very light metal, and when it is thrown into water
(H 20) it dissolves; in doing so it sets some of the hydrogen
(H) of the water (H 20) free and takes its place, and the
compound thus formed is called calcium hydroxide
(Ca(O H)2), or caustic lime, or slaked lime, which are its
common names.
The word hydroxide means, simply, that the base con-
tains both hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0). Thus calcium
hydroxide has the formula (Ca(O H)2), sodium hydroxide
has the formula (N aO H), and potassium hydroxide the
formula (KO H). The most common properties of bases
are their alkaline taste and their power to neutralize acids,
that is, to take away their acid qualities.
What the Salts Are. Now when you bring an acid and
a base together, the first result of the action they set up is
the formation of water (H 20), and the second is the forma-
tion of a salt. Thus when you make hydrochloric acid
(H Cl) act on sodium hydroxide (N aO H), water (H 20) is

formed and also a salt that is called sodium chloride (NaCl),
which is common table salt. Sodium nitrate (N a N0 3 ) is
formed by the action of nitric acid (H N0 3 ) on sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium chloride (KCl) is formed
by the action of hydrochloric acid (H Cl) on potassium
hydroxide (KO H), potassium nitrate (K N0 3 ) by the
action of nitric acid (H N0 3 ) on potassium hydroxide
(KOH), and so on.
How to Make Calcium Hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide
(Ca( 0 H) 2) in spite of its big name is simply slaked lime. To
make it, you start with calcium oxide ( CaO) , which is quick-
lime, and this is made by burning limestone (CaC0 3) in a
kiln. Calcium oxide (CaO) or quicklime, is a very white,
porous solid, and when water (H 20) is poured on it, they
unite and a great deal of heat is evolved, and this converts
some of the water (H 20) into steam.
To make a little calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), get some
pieces of fresh quicklime, that is calcium oxide (CaO), put
them in an earthen bowl and pour a little hot water (H 20)
over them. They will then unite, and the powder which
is left is calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), or slaked lime.
How the Experiment Works. The action can be shown
thus:
CaO + H 20 Ca(O Hh
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
How to Make Sodium Hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide
(N aO H) is caustic soda, or soda lye, and it is largely used
for making soaps from fats. To make sodium hydroxide
(NaOH);half fill a test tube with water(H 20),and then dis-
142 THE BOY CHEMIST
solve in it Y2 teaspoonful of sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3).

the common name of which is sal soda and which js often
called just soda for short, and the same amount of calcium
oxide (CaO). .
Now hold the test tube over the flame of your lamp or
burner for two or three minutes and then put it in the test-
tube rack and let it stay there until the solution is perfectly
clear. To show that it is an alkali, dip the end of a strip
of red litmus paper into it and it will turn blue.
How the Experiment Works. The action that takes
place when it is formed is this: the calcium oxide (CaO)
and the sodium carbonate (N a2 C0 3) together with the
water (H 20) form calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), which settles
to the bottom of the tube and sodium hydroxide (N aO H)
is the clear liquid above it, or:
CaO + Na 2 C0 3 + H 20 = CaC0 3 + NaOH
Calcium oxide Sodium Water Calcium Sodium
carbonate carbonate hydroxide
How to Make Potassium Hydroxide. This hydroxide
(KO H), the common names of which are caustic potash,
potash lye, and just lye for short, can be used for making
hard soap, but as it is more costly than sodium hydroxide
(N aO H) it is not used by commercial soap-makers. It is,
however, a familiar substance in the household and is used
for cleaning purposes and making soft soap.
To make potassium hydroxide (KO H), you start with
potassium carbonate (K 2C0 3 ) or potash, as it is called, or
you can use wood ashes, which contain considerable amounts
of it, and, indeed, this used to be the onlv source from which
potash, or lye, was obtained. Dissolve I tablespoonful of
potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3) or 2 tablespoonfuls of wood

ashes in a beaker half full of water (H 20), and heat this
over the flame of your lamp until the solution begins to
boil.
N ow put in I teaspoonful of calcium hydroxide ( Ca(0 H) 2)'
which is slaked lime that has been made with good quick-
lime, and keep stirring the mass with an iron rod. This
done, let the solution, which is the potassium hydroxide
(KO H), get cool, and pour it off very carefully into a bot-
tle, after which it is ready to use for your experiments.
Keep it well corked up, or the air will change it back into
potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3).
How the Experiment Works. The reaction in this case
is that the potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3) and calcium
hydroxide (Ca(O H)2) form calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 )
and potassium hydroxide (KO H). As the calcium car-
bonate (CaC0 3) is insoluble, that is, it will not dissolve in
the solution, it falls to the bottom, while the potassium
carbonate (K 2C0 3 ) and the calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2)
are soluble, that is, they dissolve in the solution, and it
becomes potassium hydroxide (KO H).
The reaction is more easily understood from the follow-
ing equation:
K 2C0 3 + Ca(O H)2 = CaC0 3 1 + 2KO H
Potassium Calcium Calcium Potassium
carbonate hydroxide carbonate hydroxide
Wherever you come to an arrow pointing down in an
equation it shows that the compound is precipitated.
144 THE BOY CHEMIST
EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROXIDES.

How to Make Mortar. Mix equal parts of calcium
hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), that is, slaked lime, and sand, whi~h
latter is formed largely of silicon dioxide (Si0 2) , and you.
will have a sample of mortar. Now let this stand in the
air, and the water (H 20) will soon dry out and calcium
carbonate (CaC0 3 ) is slowly formed, and the mass becomes
very hard, or sets, as it is called.
How the Experiment Works. First of all, the sand does
not act chemically on the lime in any way, but simply
serves to give it body and to make it porous. As the water
(H 20) is drying out from the lime, the latter absorbs carbon
dioxide (C0 2) from the air; this changes the lime into cal-
cium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), and this with the sand makes a
hard, solid mass. The following equation shows the action
that takes place:
Ca(O H)2 + CO2 CaCOa + H 20
Calcium Carbon Calcium Water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate (which dries ,out)
Other Things Made with Lime. Plaster is simply cal-
cium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), that is, slaked lime mixed with
hair, which holds it together when the former has changed
into calcium carbonate (CaCO s). Portland cement is made
by heating together slaked lime (Ca(O H)2) and alzlminum
silicate (Al 2Si 207,H 20), which is a hydroxide, and after
the mass has been fused by the application of heat it is
rolled to a powder. Concrete is simply Portland cement,
broken rock, and sand mixed together with water (H 20).
When this sets, a material results that is as hard as stone
and that lasts as long.
How to Make Hard Soap. This is an experiment with

sodium hydroxide (N aOH) and fat. The fats used for
making soaps are compounds of glycerine (C SH 5(OHh) and
palmitic acid (C16H3202) or stearic acid (ClsH3602), and soaps
are the alkali salts of the acids that are made when the fats
are treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
To make a little soap, put a bit of lard, which is a fat,
about the size of a hazelnut, into a small saucer or, better,
a porcelain evaporating-dish, and then pour a teaspoonful
of wood alcohol (C H 30 H) over it. This done, dissolve
a teaspoonful of sodium hydroxide (N aO H) in a like amount
of water (H 20) in a test tube, and then put IO drops of
this solution into the mixture in the dish. Now heat the
dish over a low flame until the solution boils and all the
alcohol (C H 30 H) has evaporated, which you will know
when there is no longer any odor from it; then evaporate
the solution slowly until a dry mass results, which will, or
should be, soap. If it is not soap, then put a little more
alcohol (C H 30 H) and sodium hydroxide (N aO H) in the
dish and boil it again.
How the Experiment Works. When the sodium hydrox-
ide (NaOH) and the glyceryl stearate (C3H5(ClSH3502h) or
fat, are heated together, the latter is decomposed and forms
glycerine (C 3H 5 (OH)3) and sodium stearate (NaClSH3502)
which is commonly called soap. The alcohol (CH 30H)
simply helps the reaction along and does not enter chemi-
cally into the process. When the reaction takes place
the fat is said to be saponified and, the process is called
saponification. The following equation shows the reaction
more clearly:
146 THE BOY CHEMIST
CSH5(C1SHs502)S +3 NaOH = C3H 5(OH)3 +3NaC1SH3502

Glyceryl Sodium Glycerine Sodium stearate
stearate hydroxide or Soap
How to Make Soft Soap. To make soft soap, you need
only to mix a little lard with some potassium hydroxide
(KO H) and boil them, and they will saponify. Potas-
sium hydroxide (KO H) is ~ot used in making soap com-
mercially, because sodium hydroxide (N aO H) is cheaper
and does the work just as well or better.
How Soap-and-Water Cleans. When y'Ju mix soap and
soft water (H 20) they make a soap solution and this cleans
the stains from the goods washed in them by separating the
vegetable and animal oils and grease and washing out the
dust and dirt that is in them. The first thing that happens
when goods are washed in a soap solution is that the soap
breaks up the oils and grease into little separate particles,
and then forms a film around each one, like the sugar coat-
ing on a pill. When this is done, the water (H 20) easily
washes them away. If the goods have mineral oils in them,
then they must be dry cleansed, that is, cleaned with benzine
or gasoline, which dissolves the oils.
When the clothes are dirty, it means simply that they
have a large amount of particles of carbon (C) on and in
them, and much of this· is soot. When the soap solution
comes into close contact with them, which it does when
the clothes are boiled and rubbed, the particles of dirt are
easily washed away by rinsing the clothes in water (H 20).
HOW TO MAKE VARIOUS SALTS.
How to Make Sodium Chloride. Since you can buy a
pound of sodium chloride (NaCl), that is, common table
salt, for a few cents it is not good economy to make it, but
it is well worth your while to do so for the experience it will
give you. To make a little, dissolve a tablespoonful of
sodium hydroxide (N aO H), that is, caustic soda, in a small
beaker half full of water (H 20).
Now fill a test tube one-fourth full of water (H 20) and
add an equal amount of hydrochloric acid (HCl). This
done, pour the dilute acid, a very little at a time, into the
solution of caustic soda (N aO H) and keep testing it with
blue litmus paper right along; the instant it changes the
paper from blue to red add a few drops of caustic soda
(N aO H), and it will be neutral, that is, it will be neither
acid nor alkali and hence, it will not change blue litmus
paper red nor red paper blue.
When this point is reached, pour the solution from the
beaker into a porcelain dish and evaporate it over a water
bath until there is nothing left but a white residue which
is l1either an alkali nor aN. acid but a salt, and this is sodium
chloride (N aCl).
How the Experiment Works. The reaction that takes
place is clearly shown by the following equation:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 20
Hydrochloric acid Sodium Sodium Water
hydroxide chloride
How to Make Sodium Sulphate. Put a little sodium

chloride (NaCl), into a test tube and pour on enough sul-
phuric acid (H 2S0 4) to cover it. Now hold it over the
flame of your lamp or burner, and very soon hydrochloric
acid gas CHCl) and sodium sulphate (Na2S04), the common
148 THE BOY CHEMIST
name of which is Glauber's salt, will be formed; the gas will,

of course, escape and the salt will be left behind.
How the Experiment Works. The following equation
shows the reaction:
2 NaCl + H 2S0 4 Na 2S04 + 2HCl i
Sodium Sulphuric acid Sodium Hydrochloric
chloride sulphate acid gas
How to Make Sodium Nitrate. To make some sodium
nitrate (NaNOs), which is commonly called Chili saltpetre,
proceed exactly as described in the above experiment, but
use nitric acid (H NOs) and caustic soda (N aO H) instead.
The reaction that takes place gives sodium nitrate (NaNOs)
and water (H 20).
How the Experiment Works. The following equation
shows what takes place:
HNO a + NaOH NaNO a +
Nitric acid Caustic soda Sodium nitrate Water
The solution must be evaporated, and when the water
(H 20) has passed off, the sodium nitrate (NaNO a) alone
will remain.
How to Make Potassium Chloride. This salt (KCl) is .
a white substance in the form of crystals, and the larger
part of it comes from the great potash beds at Stassfurt,
Germany. Giant kelp, or seaweed, as it is commonly
called, contains about 9 per cent of it, and from this it is
now extracted to some extent commercially.
To make a little potassium chloride (KCl) , follow the
directions given for making sodium chloride (N aCl) , but
use hydrochloric acid (HCI) and potassium hydroxide
(KOH), that is, caustic potash for the base.
How the Experiment Works. The reaction will give

you potassium chloride (KCl) and water (H 20), thus:
HCl + KOH KCl + H 20
Hydrochloric Potassium Potassium Water
acid hydroxide chloride
Evaporate the solution that remains after heating the acid
and the base together and the potassium chloride (K Cl)
will remain behind in the form of a crystalline salt.
How to Make Potassium Nitrate. Potassium nitrate
(K NOs) or just saltpetre, as it is usually called for short,
is also a white crystalline salt and is chiefly used for mak-
ing black gunpowder. Now while sodium nitrate (NaN0 3 )
is cheaper than potassium nitrate (K N0 3 ) , the former
cannot be used in making gunpowder, as it is deliquesent,
that is, it absorbs moisture from the air, while the latter
does not. To make potassium nitrate (KN0 3) on a com-
mercial scale, potassium chloride eKCl) from the Stassfurt
potash beds is added to a hot solution of sodium nitrate
(NaN0 3).
You can make a sample of potassium nitrate (K N0 3)
by using the same process as described for the foregoing
salts, but in this case add nitric acid (H N0 3) to potassium
hydroxide (KO H), and potassium nitrate (K N0 3 ) and
water (H 20) will result.
How the Experiment Works. The reaction is this:
H N0 3 + KOH KNO s + H 20
Nitric acid Potassium Potassium Water
hydroxide nitrate
The water (H 20) is then evaporated as explained before, and
the potassium nitrate (K NOs) salts are left behind.
CHAPTER IX.
THE MYSTIC METALS
THEIR ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS.
ALL the elements can be classified under two general

headings, namely, those that are metals and those that are
non-metals. Now while it is easy to tell a metal from a
non-metal when you see it, it is not at all easy to define the
difference; it will, however·, serve the purpose to say that
a metal is an element which is opaque, has a metallic lustre,
is a good conductor of electricity, and, finally, and most
important of all, is able to take the place of the hydrogen
(H) in an acid and to form a salt.
There are two ways in which metals occur in nature, and
these are in a native, or free, state, that is, they are found in
a pure form, and when they are mixed, or combined, with
other substances, and when these are hard they are called
ores. Copper (Cu), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), gold (Au),
platinum (Pt), and some other metals are found in a free
state.
Of the ores, there are several chief kinds, and these
are the oxides, the sulphides, and the carbonates.
Among the oxides are those of iron (FeO) and (Fe20s) ,
zinc (ZnO) , tin (5n02) , or tin stone, as this ore is called,
copper (Cu 20), which is called ruby copper, etc. Among
the sulphides are those of iron (Fe5 2 ), or iron pyrites, nickel
ISO
THE MYSTIC METALS 151
(N is), cobalt (Co AsS) or cobaltite, as this ore IS called,

antimony (Sb 2S S) , or stibnite, lead (PbS), etc. Finally,
amQng the carbonates are those of iron (Fe COs) , lead
(PbCO s), zinc (ZnCO s) and copper (CU2(0 Ii) 2 COs) or
malachite.
The Activity of the Metals. The power of a metal to
displace hydrogen (Ii) in dilute acids and water (Ii 20) is
called its activity. Now the most active metal is potassium
(K), as the table given below shows, while lead (Pb) is the
least active, and all those below the Zero or hydrogen ( Ii)
line will not dissolve in water (H 20) or weak acids, and,
hence, will not replace the hydrogen (Ii) in them at all,
and they are, therefore, called the inactive metals. These
metals can, however, be dissolved in strong acids.
TABLE OF ACTIVITIES.
13· Potassium (K) 2. Tin (Sn)

12. Sodium (Na) I. Lead (Pb)
II. Lithium (Li) o. Hydrogen (Ii)
10. Calcium (Ca) I. Copper (Cu)
9· Magnesium eM g) 2. Bismuth (Bi)
8. Aluminum (Al) 3· Antimony (Sb)
7· Manganese (Mn) 4· Mercury (Ii g)
6. Zinc (Zn) 5· Silver (Ag)
5· Chromium (Cr) 6. Platinum (Pt)
4. Iron (Fe) 7· Gold (Au)
3· Nickel (Ni)
There are many other metals than those given in the

preceding table, but these are the best known, and their
152 THE BOY CHEMIST
distinguishing features, various uses, and experiments with

them will follow in the above order.
Potassium, the Softest Metal. The Latin word for
potassium (K) is kalium, and since P is the symbol used
for phosphorus (P), which was a much earlier known ele-
ment, the letter K was chosen for potassium (K). This
metal was discovered in 1807 by Sir Humphrey Davy, who
made it by passing a current of electricity through some
potassium hydroxide (KO H), causing minute drops of the
pure metal to be formed on the negative wire. In the early
days, potassium hydroxide (KO II) was obtained from
wood-ashes, and when these were leached, boiled, and
evaporated, the remaining substance was called pot-ashes,
then just potash, and from this we get the name potassium
(K).
Potassium (K) is a silvery-white metal with a bright
metallic lustre and so soft that you can knead it with
your fingers at room temperature, just as you would a piece
of wax. Owing to its great activity when it comes into
contact with water (H 20), it must be kept in oil so that the
moisture of the air cannot get to it. It is so light that it
floats on water (H 20),and it melts at a much lower tempera-
ture than that at which water (H 20) boils.
Compounds of Potassium. While potassium (K) is of
little use by itself, the compounds made with it are of great
value. Its chief compounds are potassium iodide (KI),
which is used for testing starch, in medicine, and in photog-
raphy; potassium hydroxide (KO H), which is used largely
for making other compounds of potassium (K); potassium
nitrate (K N0 3 ) , which is used for preserving meats and
for making gunpowder and fireworks; potassium chlorate

(KC10 3), which is used in making oxygen (0) and in medi-
cine, and potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3 ), which is used as
a fertilizer.
An Experiment with Potassium. Take a piece of potas-
sium (K) out of the bottle of oil with your tweezers, cut
off a piece the size of a pea,and drop it into a bowl of water
(H 20); instantly the hydrogen (H) of the latter will be set
free and the heat produced will ignite the potassium (K);
FIG. II8.-The Reaction of Potassium on Water.
the gas will then force the burning metal through the water
(H 20), as shown in Fig. lIS, and as it darts along it will
make explosive sounds like a bunch of miniature firecrackers
going off.
How the Experiment Works. When you drop the potas-
sium (K) on the water (H 20), the chemical action sets the
hydrogen ( H) free so fast that it develops enough heat to
ignite both the gas and the metal, and the mechanical re-
action between the escaping gas and the metal forces the
latter along on the water (H 20). The chemical reaction
that takes place between the potassium (K) and the water
154 THE BOY CHEMIST
(H 20) forms potassium hydroxide (KO H) and hydrogen

(H) thus:
K + H 20 KOH + H i
Potassium Water Potassium Hydrogen
hydroxide
Sodium, Another Alkali Metal. Since S is the symbol
of sulphur (5) one of the earliest knovvn elements, the letters
Na, are used for sodium (Na), because in Latin the latter
was called natrium, which means soda. This metal was
also discovered by Davy, who made it in r808 by bringing
a pair of wires from a battery into contact with sodium
hydroxide (N aO H), that is, caustic soda. Sodium (N a)'
is a soft, shining, silvery metal, and it behaves very much
like potassium (K) when it is dropped into cold water, but
since it is not so active as the latter metal it does not pro-
duce enough heat to ignite the hydrogen (H) which is set
free around it.
Compounds of Sodium. The pure metal is chiefly of
interest for experimental work, but it is widely employed
by nature and the chemist in making various salts, and in
combination with carbon (C) compounds it is used for both
dyes and drugs. The chief compounds in which it occurs
are sodium chloride (NaCl), that is, common table salt;
sodium nitrate (NaNOs), which is the starting-point in
making potassium nitrate (KNO s), or saltpetre, and of
nitric acid (II NOs); sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO s), which
in turn, is used for making sodium bicarbonate (N a H COs),
or baking soda, etc.
An Experiment with Sodium. Drop a small piece of
sodium (Na) into a dish of cold water (H 20) and watch
its action. Having made the above experiment, thicken

the water (H 20) with a little starch (C 6 HlOOS), which will
cause the heat developed to be concentrated, and then the
hydrogen (H) will ignite and the sodium (N a) will burn with
a brilliant yellow color.
How the Experiment Works. The reaction that takes
place when sodium (Na) comes in contact with water (H 20) .
is that they form sodium hydroxide (N aO H) and hydrogen
(H). The following equation shows at a glance what takes
place:
Na + H 20 NaOH + H i
Sodium Water Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen
Lithium, the Lightest Metal. This metal gets its name

from the Greek word lithium, which means stone. Now it
happens that while lithium (Li) is obtained from stone-
like minerals, such as lapidolite, which is a kind of mica
and is, therefore, quite heavy, the metal itself is the lightest
of them all, and what is more, it is the lightest solid known;
in fact, it is so light that it not only floats on water but on
the oil in which it is kept.
Traces of lithium (Li) are found in' the water of various
mineral springs, in the soil, in the ashes of tobacco, and in
beets. It is made by passing a current of electricity through
fused lithium chloride (LiCl). When brought into contact
with water (H 20), it acts like potassium (K) and sodium
( N a), except that it is not so active, but different from these
metals, it is quite hard.
Compounds of Lithium. Lithium (Li) forms compounds
with hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (0), but
156 THE BOY CHEMIST
unlike those of the other alkali metals the hydroxide (LiO H)

formed of it does not dissolve easily in water (H 20).
An Experiment with Lithium. Drop a piece of lithium
(Li) into a test tube half full of cold water (H 20), and then
drop a piece into a like amount of warm water (H 20), and
you will see that it combines with the latter very much
faster than with the former. When the lithium is dissolved,
the compound that is formed is lithium hydroxide (LiO H).
Calcium, the Fourth Alkaline Metal. The Latin word
for lime is calx, and from this we get the word calcium (Ca),
which is the chemical name for lime. The metal in its
pure state looks like silver (Ag), and melts when brought
to a cherry-red heat. It is not quite as soft as lead (Pb)
and, like the latter, it can be cut, drawn, and rolled.
Calcium (Ca) is never found in a free state, but is very
plentiful in different compounds, especially in calcium car-
bonate (CaC0 3), of which chalk, marble, and limestone are
formed; it is also found in calcium sulphate (CaS04), which
is gypsum, and as calcium phosphate (Ca3(P04)2), in the
minerals apatite and phosphorite, and in fluoride (CaF 2 ),
that is, fluor-spar. It is also found in plants, in the bones
of animals, and in sea-shells, while coral and pearls are
made of it.
Compounds of Calcium. Like the other alkaline metals,
calcium (Ca) is of but little use in its pure state, but its
compounds are very valuable. Chief among these are
calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) , calcium oxide (CaO) , that is,
quicklime, calcium hydroxide (Ca(O H)2), or slaked lime,
calcium carbonate (CaC0 3), which, as I have said so many
times before, is limestone.
Now limestone (CaCO s) will dissolve in watel' (H 20)
that has carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) in it, which then acts like a
weak acid and, indeed, it is called carbonic acid (H 2 CO s).
When the water (H 20) of a river runs over limestone
(CaCO s), it dissolves it and sometimes forms a cave, or a
cavern; on the other hand, when water (H 20) has calcium
bicarbonate (Ca(HCOs)2) in it and it seeps drop by drop
through the ceiling of the cave, or cavern; it loses its carbon
dioxide (C0 2) and the calcium carbonate (CaCO s) gets
hard and forms stalactites, the name given to needles which
hang from the ceiling, and stalagmites, needles which rise
from the floor.
Experiments with Calcium. Take a piece of calcium
( Ca), stand about 3 feet from a clean brick wall and throw
it as hard as you can against it, and the metal will ignite
and burn with a brilliant white flame.
Spread some calcium sulphide (CaS), which is a compound
made by heating pulverized calcium sulphate (CaS04) and
charcoal (C) together, on a sheet of paper and lay it where
the sunlight will strike it. After you have thus exposed
it for half an hour or so, take it into a dark room and it will
shine with a cold light. Calcium sulphide (CaS) and barium
sulphide (BaS), which also shines in the dark, are used for
making luminous paint ..
Magnesium, the Metal that Burns. Magnesium (Mg)
gets its name from Magnesia, a district in Asia Minor,
where magnesium carbonate (MgCO s) , or magnesite, as it
is called, was first found. When Davy was experimenting
with the action of an electric current on various substances,
he discovered that magnesium carbonate (MgCO s) was a
158 THE BOY CHEMIST
compound of a metal with carbon (C) and oxygen (0); then

in r830, Bussy, a French chemist, separated the metal.
This he did by treating magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ), a salt
that is found in salt deposits, with potassium chloride (KCl),
causing the potassium (K) to combine with the chlorine
(Cl) andJeave the magnesium (Mg) in a pure state.
It is now obtained by passing a current of electricity
through melted magnesite (MgCO s) , potassium chloride
(KCl) , and sodium chloride (NaCl). It is a silvery-white
metal, quite soft and very light and brittle. Magnesium
(Mg) is used chiefly for making flash-lights for taking photo-
graphs, as it is rich in violet rays, which act strongly on
a photographic plate, for making fireworks and signal lights,
and for making silver polish and tooth powders.
Compounds of Magnesium. Chief among the com-
pounds of magnesium (M g) are magnesium oxide (M gO)
and the hydroxide (Mg(O H)2). The former is made by
heating magnesium carbonate (MgCO s), when the product
is called calcined magnesia, and as even the highest tem-
peratures will not affect this, it is used for making crucibles
and lining furnaces. When water (H 20) is poured over
magnesium oxide (MgO) , they combine slowly and form
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(O H)2). When magnesium (Mg)
is combined with oxygen (0), carbon (C), and hydrogen
(H), they form a magnesium alba, as it is commonly called,
and this is largely used in medicines and cosmetics.
Experiments with Magnesium. Magnesium (Mg) can
be bought in the form of thin ribbon coiled up, or in a pow-
der. Take a piece of the ribbon and light the end of it with
a match and it will give out a light of dazzling brightness,
as shown in Fig. 119. The greyish powder that remains

as an ash after it is burned is magnesium oxide (MgO).
Mix a teaspoonful of powdered magnesium (M g) with I Y2
teaspoonfuls of potassium chlorate (K elO s) and you will
have a flash-light powder.
Aluminum, the Lightest Com-
mon Metal. Aluminum (Al) gets
its name from alumen, which
means clay. After oxygen (0)
and silicon (Si) , aluminum (Al)
is the most plentiful element we
have, and all kinds of clays and
micas contain it. Davy dis-
covered the metal in 1808, and
he first obtained it from alum-
inum sulphate (Al 2 (S04) 3 H 20), or
alum, which is its common name,
and this is made by treating pure
clay with sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ).
The metal is now made on a FIG. II9.-Magnesium
Burning in Air.
large scale by passing an electric
current through aluminum oxide (Al 20 2 ) , which is dis-
solved in melted cryolite (NaF+AlF s), a mineral of Green-
land, that is formed of sodium fluoride (N aF) and aluminum
fluoride (AlFs). Aluminum (Al) is a whitish metal, the
color of which lies between that of tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn) ,
it is light, strong, and tough, weighs about 2 Y2 times as
much as water (H 20), and is both malleable and ductile.
It is very resonant, and when a rod of it fixed at one end is
struck with a piece of wood it gives a swelling musical sound.
160 THE BOY CHEMIST
Aluminum (Al) is largely used instead of copper (Cu)

for electric transmission lines, for making utensils, in mak-
ing pure steel, and for thermit, a high-temperature com-
pound. The steel-makers put I part of aluminum (Al)
in with IOOO parts of steel, and when the metals are melted
the gases combine with the aluminum (Al), so that when
the steel is cast it is free from blow-holes. The chief com-
pounds of aluminum are aluminum oxide (AI 20 s); aluminum
hydroxide (AlO s H s) ; aluminum chloride (AI CIs); aluminum
silicate (AlKSisOs)' which when mixed with water (H 20)
is clay; and the alums, which are compounds formed of
potassium (K) and aluminum (Al), called potassium alum
(AlK(S04)2+I2H20); and sodium (Na) and aluminum
(Al), called sodium alum (Al Na(S04) 2 + I2 H 20). When
aluminum (Al) burns, it produces a very high tempera-
ture - about 3000 degrees Fahrenheit - and this will
melt most metals. This fact is taken advantage of in
thermit, which is the trade-name for a process. The fol-
lowing experiment shows how it works.
An Experiment with Aluminum. Mix a tablespoonful
of powdered aluminum (Al) and a like amount of iron
oxide (Fe 20s) in a small sand crucible; now push a piece
of magnesium (Mg) wire down into the mixture and light
it, as shown in Fig. 120, and the aluminum will take fire.
The burning aluminum (Al) melts the iron (Fe) in the iron
oxide (Fe 20s),and when the mass is cold you will find a
button of pure iron (Fe) in .the bottom of the crucible.
This experiment must be done out-of-doors.
How the Experiment Works. The reason magnesium
(Mg) wire is used to ignite the aluminum (Al) powder is
because it takes a hotter flame to fire the latter than a burn-

ing splint of wood can produce. The aluminum (Al) gets
oxygen (0) in which to burn from the iron oxide (Fe 20s) ,
and these combine to form aluminum oxide (Al 20 s), while
pure iron (Fe) remains in the bottom of the crucible. The
rC:lction is this:
2Al + + 2Fe
Aluminum Iron oxide Aluminum oxide Iron
FIG. 12o.-Making Iron by the Thermit Process.
Manganese, the Hardening Metal. The Latin word for

magnet is magnes and manganese (Mn) , was named after it,
not only because the ore in which it was found looked some-
thing like the natural magnet, or lodestone, as it is called,
but also because it is slightly magnetic. This metal was
discovered by Gahn in 1775 in an ore that Scheele named.
manganese.
The metal does not occur free in nature but is found
in large quantities in a mineral called pyrolusite, which is
162 THE BOY CHEMIST
crude black manganese dioxide (Mn02). It can be extracted

by mixing this mineral and aluminum (Al), both in pow-
dered form, in a crucible and igniting them, as explained
under the heading of an "Experiment with Aluminum."
It is a heavy, hard, and brittle metal of a grey color.
Compounds of Manganese. When manganese (Mn)
combines with oxygen (0) it forms several compounds, the
most common of which are manganese oxide (M nO) and
manganese dioxide (Mn02). It also forms several com-
pounds when it combines with potassium (K), and among
these are potassium manganate (K 2Mn04) and potassium
permanganate (KMn04). When mixed with steel, it
forms an alloy of exceeding hardness, and this will be de-
scribed farther along.
An Experiment with Manganese. Dissolve Y2 tea-
spoonful of ferrous sulphate (FeS04) , that is, copperas, or
green vitriol, in a test tube half full of water (H 20) and add
a couple of drops of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ) to it. This
done, dissolve Y2 teaspoonful of potassium permanganate
(KMn04) in a test tube half full of water (H 20) and you
will have a solution of a deep purplish-red color. Now
with your pipette add a drop at a time of the former to the
latter, and the color will disappear.
Zinc, the Electric Metal. While zinc (Zn) is the nega-
tive element that is used in all primary battery cells for
generating a current of electricity, it finds a wider applica-
tion in the building industries, since it does not rust like
iron ( Fe), and in making brass and other alloys. It is
found in various ores, and among these are sphalerite, or
zinc-blende, (from the German blenden, meaning to dazzle),
which is zinc sulphide (ZnS) , and also III s11lithsonite

(ZnCO s).
To separate the zinc from these compounds, in the first
case, the sphalerite is crushed and then roasted, causing
the sulphur (S) to pass off, and in the second case the smith-
sonite is powdered and mixed with coal and then heated,
which drives off the (C0 3 ).
The pure metal is of a
bluish-white color and can
be easily rolled into sheets
(Zn) when it is heated to 15 0
degrees Fahrenheit, but it
is brittle when heated
either above or below this
point. Zinc oxide (ZnO)
OF or zinc white, as it is com-
(H2.S04) monly called by painters,
ANO
(HaO) zinc sulphate (ZnS04+
H 20), or white vitriol, to
give it its common name,
and zinc chloride (ZnC,2)
FIG. 12I.-A Simple
Electric Cell. are the chief compounds
formed of zinc (Zn).
An Experiment with Zinc. Make a solution, called an
electrolyte, by adding I fluid ounce of sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4)
to a beaker three-fourths full of water (H 20); put in a
strip of zinc (Zn) and a rod of carbon (C), to one end
of each of which you have fastened a copper wire, and you
will have a simple battery cell. If now you will wind one
of the wires around a nail and connect the end of it with the
164 THE BOY CHEMIST
end of the other battery wire, as shown in Fig. I2I, the nail
will become a magnet, and when this is the case you will
know that a current is flowing in the wire.
Chromium, the Color-Making Metal. We get the word
color from the Greek root chroma, and because this metal
gives variously colored compounds it is called chromium
(Cr). While it is not a very well known metal, still it was
discovered over a hundred years ago. It is found in a
mineral called chromite, which is ferrous chromite (Fe
(Cr02)2), and in crocoisite, which is lead chromate (PbCr04)'
The metal is easily extracted from this mineral by the
thermit process. (See Aluminum). Like manganese (Mn) ,
chromium (Cr) is used for hardening steel (Fe), and alloys
containing it will be described presently. The chief com-
pounds of chromium (Cr) are potassium chromate (K 2 Cr04)
and potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 207).
Experiments with Chromium. Potassium dichromate
(K 2 Cr 207) is the most common compound of chromium
(Cr). It is made by dissolving chromium (Cr) in nitric
acid (H N0 3). Heat a beaker half full of water (H 20)
until it boils, then remove it from the flame and stir in a
teaspoonful of potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 207); when it
is cold, add I ounce of sulphuric acid (H 2504) and stir the
solution well with a glass rod. This done, pour it into your
porcelain evaporating-dish and cover it with a board, let it
stand for several hours, and dark red crystals will be
formed in it. These are chromic acid (H 2 Cr04)'
Pour off the red solution, then lay the crystals on a piece
of flower pot, or other unglazed pottery, and cover them
with a glass jar so that the air can not get to them, and in a_
couple of days they will be quite dry. Put a teaspoonful

of dry chromic acid (H 2 Cr04) in your porcelain evaporat-
ing-dish and add a few drops of 95 per cent ethyl alcohol
(C 2 H50 H), which is grain alcohol, and the latter will
immediately burst into flames, as shown in Fig. 122.
Iron, the Most Useful Metal. Iron (Fe) is such a common
metal that it needs but little description. It is seldom
found in pure state but
it is very plentiful in
the ores of magnetite
(Fe04) , hematite (Fe 203) ,
siderite (FeC0 3), and
pyrites (FeS2). To get
the iron (Fe) .out of
these ores, they are
FIG. 122-Chromium Crystals and Alcohol
mixed with coke (C) in
Bursting into Flames. a blast furnace and the
coke (C) is then burned in a blast of air. The oxide or
sulphur (S) in them then combines with the gases of the air,
and the iron (Fe) melts and flows to the bottom of the
furnace.
When other metals and substances are mixed with iron
(Fe) it takes on new properties, and these alloys will be
described farther on. There are numerous iron (Fe) chemi-
cal compounds, and among them are ferrous carbonate
(Fe C0 3) , ferrous sulphate (FeS04), and ferrous sulphide
(FeS); also ferric chloride (FeCl s) and ferric oxide (Fe 20s),
which latter is iron rust.
An Experiment with Iron. To make a little ferrous sul-
phide (FeS) , dissolve Yz teaspoonful of ferric ammonium
166 THE BOY CHEMIST
sulphate ((N H 4)2S04+ Fe2(S04) 3 + 24 H 20) in a test tube

half full of water (H 20). Now put Y2 teaspoonful of sul-
phur (S) and a bit of paraffin wax the size of a pea into
another test tube; :fit a cork that has a bent delivery tube
in it into the mouth of the latter, and place the end of this
(Sf--~WI
PARAFFIN WAX
FIG. I 23.-Making Ferric Sulphide.
in the test tube containing the ferric ammonium sulphate

(see formula above) solution, as shown in Fig. I23. Finally,
melt the paraffin and sulphur (S) over the flame of your
lamp or burner, and let the hydrogen sulphide (H 2S), which
is a gas and smells like rotten eggs, pass through it for 3 or
4 minutes. Soon there will be a black precipitate formed,
and this is ferrous sulphide (F eS).
Nickel, the Non-Rusting Metal. Nickel (Ni) is a white

metal with a slightly yellowish tinge; it is very hard, has a
high melting point,and takes a fine polish. It is never
found free except in meteorites, but it is found in combina-
tion with arsenic (As), and is also obtained from a mineral
called pentlandite ((Ni,Cu,Fe)S). To extract the nickel
(Ni) from its ore, the latter is roasted, which drives off the
sulphur (S), and then smelted to separate it from the copper
(Cu) and the iron (Fe). As it rusts very slowly in moist
air and because it takes a beautiful silvery polish, it is largely
used in electroplating iron (Fe) and steel (Fe,C) articles of
all kinds.
There are many compounds of this metal, including the
chloride (NiCl 2,H20), the sulphate (NiS0 4,H20), and the
oxide (Ni 20s). Nickel ammonium sulphate ((N H 4)2S04,
NiS0 4,H20) is used for making nickel sulphide (NiS),
nickel carbonate (NiCO s), nickel tetraborate (NiB 4(O H)s),
and other nickel compounds.
How to Nickel-Plate a Coin. To electroplate a copper
coin with nickel (Ni), dissolve a teaspoonful of nickel am-
monium sulphate (see formula above) in a test tube two-
thirds full of boiling water (H 20). Now wrap a thin
copper wire around the coin and dip it in a solution made
by dissolving Yz teaspoonful of sodium hydroxide (N aO H),
that is, caustic soda, in a beaker half full of boiling water
(H 20).
This hot solution will dissolve all the grease and oxide
and leave the coin perfectly clean. This done, put the
coin into a smaller beaker and pour over it the nickel
solution, which you have allowed to get cold. Finally, put
168 THE BOY CHEMIST
a strip of clean zinc (Zn) into the solution and let it stand
for 5 or 10 minutes. The nickel (Ni) will be deposited upon
the coin and the latter will be nickel-plated.
Tin, the Soft, Malleable Metal. "Tin" is an old Anglo-
Saxon word, and stannum is its Latin name, so from th:s
we get the symbol for it (Sn). This metal was one of the
earliest known, as the fact that it has been found in Egyp-
tian tombs goes to show. In the days of the early Greeks
tin (Sn) was found only in the British Isles and, hence, these
were called the Tin Islands. It is a soft, white metal and
so malleable that it can be rolled into exceedingly thin
sheets which we call tin-foil.
The chief ore it is contained in is cassiterite (Sn02) , or
tin-stone, as it is commonly called, and this is found in the
Straits Settlement, Bolivia, England, and Nigeria. The
metal is extracted from its ore by pulverizing the latter,
washing it,and then roasting it to drive out the impurities,
after which it is smelted with coke (C). The chemical
compounds formed of tin (Sn) include the chlorides, the
oxides, stannic acid (H 2Sn03) , etc.
An Experiment with Tin. This is an experiment in which
stannous chloride (SnCl 2 ) is used to separate the metallic
mercury (Hg) that is in a mercuric chloride (HgCI 2 ) solu-
tion. Make a little stannous chloride (SnCl 2) solution by
dissolving Y2 teaspoonful of granulated tin (Sn) in a test
tube half full of hydrochloric acid (H CZ) . Next dissolve
Y2 teaspoonful of mercuric chloride (HgCI 2) , the common
name of which is corrosive sublimate, and which you want
to handle very carefully, as it is poisonous, in a test tube
half full of water (H 20). Now add a few drops of the tin
solution, and the metallic mercury (H g) will appear as a

grey powder and fall to the bottom of the test tube.
Lead, the Heavy Metal. Lead (Pb) like tin (Sn) is one
of the oldest known metals. It g"ets its sYPlbol from plum-
bum, which is its Latin name, and it was widely used by
the ancient Romans for weights, utensils, and water pipes.
It is found free in small quantities, but the greater part of
it is extracted from a mineral called galena (PbS), which
is lead sulphide (PbS). To get rid of the sulphur (S), the
ore is roasted, and this drives it off. As lead (Pb) does
not rust, it is largely used for plumbing, and because it
does not react with hydrochloric acid (H Cl) or dilute sul-
phuric acid (H 2S0 4), it is used for making vessels for holding
these acids. It is also the metal that is used for making
storage battery plates.
In combination with other elements it forms lead oxides,
one of which is minium or red lead (Pb 30 4 ), and lead car-
bonate (PbC0 3), which is white lead, both of which are
used for making paint; lead nitrate (Pb(N0 3)2)\ lead
acetate (Pb( CO 2 C H 3) 2 H 20), that is, sugar of lead, so-called
because it has a sweet taste, lead sulphate (PbS0 4 ), and
lead sulphide (PbS).
How to Make a Lead-Tree. You can make the pretty
vegetable-like growth called a lead-tree, or Arbor Saturni,
by precipitating the lead (Pb) from one of its salts by means
of zinc (Zn). Dissolve I ounce of powdered lead nitrate
(Pb(N0 3)2) in a pint bottle of water (H 20). Now tie a
bit of granulated zinc (Zn) to one end of a thread, then fix
the other end to a cork and suspend it in the lead solution
1 This salt is made by treating lead (Pb) with nitric acid (H N03).
170 THE BOY CHEMIST
so that it will be in the center of the jar. In the course of

several hours the lead (Pb) will be slowly deposited in the
form of a tree, as shown in Fig. 124-. While this action is
going on, the zinc (Zn) will pass into the solution and so
exchanges places with the lead, thus:
Zn + Pb(NO s)2 Zn(NO S)2 + Pb 1
Zinc Lead nitrate Zinc nitrate Lead
Copper, the Prehistoric
Metal. After the stone
age came the copper age,
and the reason that cop-
per (Cu) was the first
~...---THREAD metal to be used by the
pre-historic races is be-
(Zrt) cause it is found free in
nature, and, what was
(HaO) also fortunate for them,
it was soft enough to be
.!:'-'ffiJ~d;;..I...I..j---(Ph(N03)2) welded into shape while
it was cold. In the early
I~~~~~\"§bl:lt- LEAD TREE
Roman days it was
brought from an island
FIG. I24.-How to Make a Lead-Tree. in the Mediterranean
called Cyprus, and they
named this metal Cyprium aes, which means Cyprium brass.
Then as time went on it was called cuprium, then it degen-
erated into cuper, and we call it by the good old Anglo-
Saxon name of copper (Cu). It is not only found free in
considerable quantities but it occurs plentifully in many
kinds of ores.
It is, as you probably know, a tough, reddish metal, and
as it does not rust to any great extent and wears well it is
widely used by all nations for making coins of the smallest
value. For the same reason, it is also used for making
shells for rifles and guns, for cooking utensils, and as it is
the next-best conductor of electricity, 1 it is especially use-
ful for electric wires and apparatus.
With other elements it forins various compounds, and
these belong to two distinct
series, the first of which is
called cuprous compounds and
the second cupric compounds.
These compounds include the
chlorides, bromides, oxides,
-t--=t;;;tlJ.II--- ( H z. 0 )
hydroxides, carbonates,. cyan-
(CUS04) ides, acetates, sulphates, and
sulphides. Cupric hydroxide
(CU(OH)2) is used with am-
FIG. 12 5. How to Electroplate monium hydroxide (N H 40 H)
with Copper.
to form a compound that
has this formula (Cu(N H a)4(0 Hh). Cellulose (C GH 100 5)
in the form of paper or cotton "yill dissolve in this solution,
and when this is forced through minute holes in steel plates,
threads of artificial silk are formed.
An Experiment with C·opper. Put I ounce of cupric sulphate
(CUS04) , or copper sulphate, blue vitriol, or bluestone, as it
is variously called, in a beaker of warm water (H 20), stir
it well, and set a strip of zinc (Zn) in it, as shown in Fig.
125. Very soon the zinc (Zn) will be plated with copper
1 Silver (Ag) is the best conductor.
172 THE BOY CHEMIST
( Cu), and some of the zinc (Zn) will take the place of the
copper (Cu) in the solution, and it becomes zinc sulphate
(ZnS04) thus:
Zn + CUS04 ZnS04 + Cu
Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper
Bismuth, the Easily Fusible Metal. Although bismuth
(Bi) is found free in nature, still it is not a commonly known
metal.' Just why it is called bismuth (Bi) seems not to be
known, and Agricola, who discovered it in 1529 called it
wiessmatte, which means a blooming meadow, because of the
variegated colors it shows when it is tarnished. It is found
in ores formed of bismuth trioxide (Bi 20 3 ), and bismuth
trisulphide (Bi 2S 3), or bismuth glance as it is called. Bis-
muth (Bi) is a pinkish-colored metal, very brittle, melts at
a low temperature, and has the peculiar property of ex-
panding when it cools.
Bismuth (Bi) does not tarnish when exposed to air, and
when heated to redness it burns and forms bismuth trioxide
(Bi 20 3 ). It united with fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), iodine (I), and nitrogen (N). Bismuth nitrate
(Bi(N0 3)3,H 20) is the best known and most important
salt of this metal, and this forms the well-known cosmetic
so largely sold for beautifying ladies' complexions under
the name of pearl white.
Experiments with Bismuth. Drop some finely powdered
bismuth (Bi) into a jar of chlorine (Cl) and it will take fire.
Put a bit of bismuth (Bi) on a piece of charcoal (C) and
heat it. It will then form a yellow film, which is bismuth
trioxide (Bi 20 3 ).
Antimony, the Metal that Expands. This metal was
discovered by Valentino in the latter part of the 15th cen-

tury and it gets its name from two Greek words which mean
against and a monk, because some monks were poisoned by
medicine made from it. Antimony (Sb) is found free in
nature, but the chief supply comes from an ore called stib-
nite - hence the symbol (Sb),- which is black antimony
sulphide (Sb 2S 3); and this ore is roasted in the air to drive
out the sulphur (S).
Antimony (Sb) has a silver-white color and, like bismuth
(Bi), it is brittle, melts at a low temperature, and expands
on cooling. For the last reason, it is mixed with lead (Pb),
which contracts, for making type, and very sharp edges
result. The well-known remedy called tartar emetic is a
chemical compound formed of potassium (K), antimony
trioxide (Sb 20 3), tartaric acid (C 4H 606), and water (H 20).
There are quite a number of antimony compounds, and
these include stibine (Sb H 3), which is antimoniuretted hydro-
gen, made by the action of zinc (Zn) and hydrochloric acid
( H CZ) on some compound of antimony (Sb) which is soluble.
Then there are the halides, oxides, and the sulphides, an-
timony salts, such as antimony nitrate (Sb N0 3 ) and an-
timony sulphate (Sb(S04)3), antimonic acid (H 3Sb0 4 ), and
the sulphantimonites and sulphantimonates.
Experiments with Antimony. Heat a bit of antimony
(Sb) by laying it on a piece of charcoal (C), and bringing
the flame of your alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner to bear
on it with a blowpipe, as shown in Fig. 126, and the melted
bead of metal will show a network formed of antimony
trioxide (Sb 20 3). Now melt a small amount of antimony
(Sb) in a crucible, grip the crucible with a pair of tongs and,
174 THE BOY CHEMIST
holding it out at arm's length, pour the antimony upon the

ground. It will form smoking globules that rebound and
rush up like lava thrown out of a volcano.
Mercury, the Liquid Metal. This strange metal which
FIG. 126.-How to Heat Antimony with a Blow-Pipe.
is a liquid at ordinary temperatures was a great favorite of

the old alchemists, for other metals except iron (Fe) and
platinum (Pt) will dissolve in it, and in this way amalgams
are formed. The Latin name for mercury (Hg) is hydrar-
gyram, and this is the source of its symbol (Hg).
It is a bright, silvery-white metal, and it is found both
free in nature, as little drops, and in combination with sul-

phur (S) in mercuric sulphide (HgS), or cinnabar, as it is
called. To get the mercury (FIg) out of the latter, the ore
is roasted, causing the oxygen (0) of the air to combine with
the sulphur (S) in it. Sulphur dioxide (S02) is formed,
and the mercury (Hg), which passes off as a vapor, is caught,
and then condensed again, thus:
HgS + O2 Hg + S0 2
Mercuric Oxygen Metallic Sulphur dioxide
sulphide mercury
Of the compounds of mercury (H g), the most common
ones are mercuric oxide (HgO); mercurous chloride (HgCl),
or calomel, as it is called in medicine; mercuric chloride
(HgCl 2 ), which is corrosive sublimate; mercurous iodide
(HgI), mercuric iodide(HgI2)' and mercuric sulphide (HgS),
which brings us back to the ore we started from.
An Experiment with Mercury. Clean a small rod of
zinc (Zn) with a little dilute sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ), and
then roll it around in a few drops of mercury (Hg), and
it will be coated all over with the latter, or amalgamated,
as it is called. Zinc battery plates are amalgamated, and the
layer of mercury (Hg) prevents a local action from being
set up between the impure particles in the zinc (Zn) and
the atoms of the latter, which lessens the current output
of the battery.
Silver, the Queen of Metals. The Latin name for silver
(Ag) is argentum, arid since S is the symbol for sulphur,
Ag is used as the symbol for silver. It is the least valuable
of the precious metals, but owing to its many good proper-
ties it is widely used in the arts. It is found free in nature
176 THE BOY CHEMIST
and also in combination with sulphur (S) as silver sulphide

(AgS) , and this, in turn, is often found in galenite (PbS).
1
It is extracted from these ores by Parke's process.
Silver (Ag) does not tarnish in air, but the fumes of sul-
phur (S) coat it with a thin film. It is the best of all known
conductors of electricity, but as it is much more costly than
copper (Cu), and the latter is nearly as good, it is not used
for this purpose. Finally, it is the favorite metal for coin-
age, and much of it is made into silverware. It is also
largely used for electroplating and in photography.
The chief compounds that are formed with it are silver
chloride (AgCl), silver nitrate (AgN0 3), silver bromide
(AgBr), and silver iodide (AgI). There are other salts of
silver (Ag) and many complex compounds of it, but these
need not be gone into here.
An Experiment with Silver. Since silver (Ag) is too soft
to be used alone for coins, it is mixed, or alloyed, as it is
called with a little copper (Cu). Hold a silver dime in a
gas flame with your pair of forceps until it is quite hot, then
put a couple of drops of water (H 20) on it and let it cool,
and there will be a black spot on it. This spot is cupric
oxide (CuO), that is, copper oxide, and it is caused by the
copper (Cu) in the coin combining with the oxygen (0)
of the water (H 20).
Gold, the King of Metals. Gold (Au), that wonderful
yellow metal, was the warp, and the struggles of those who
sought it were the woof of which some of the most thrilling
scenes in the world's history were woven. Long ages ago
1 A description of this process will be found in Alex. Smith's "Inorganic
Chemistry," published by the Century Co., New York.
it was called by the Latin name of aurum, and it is from
this that we get the symbol, Au.
Gold (Au) is usually found free in nature - very often
in quartz sand and also encased in quartz. It is separated
from the former by washing and from the latter by mercury
(Hg), which forms an amalgam with it; when this is gently
heated, the mercury (Hg) passes off as a vapor and the gold
(Au) remains behind. Gold (Au) is a soft metal and so
malleable that it can be beaten into leaves of such exceed-
ing thinness that it takes a quarter of a million of them to
make a pile I inch high.
Gold (Au) will not set hydrogen (H) free from acids, it
is not affected by air, and it will not dissolve in any kind of
acid except aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric acid (H Cl)
and nitric acid (H NOs). It has always been used for
jewelry and for coinage, and to make it hard enough for
these purposes it must be alloyed with a little copper (Cu).
It is also used for making gold leaf, for gold plating, and
formerly to a considerable extent in photography.
Gold (Au) combines directly with chlorine (Cl), and
when dissolved in aqua regia it gives chlorauric acid
(HAuCl4.4H20). Auric chloride (AuCl s), or gold chloride,
which was once much used for toning photographic prints,
is made by heating chlorauric acid (HAuCl 4 .4H20); the
latter gives up its hydrogen chloride (H Cl) and leaves the
red crystals of auric chloride (AuCl s) behind. Gold (Au)
also combines with bromine (Br), and there are several
other compounds of it.
An Experiment with Gold. Get a sheet of gold leaf of a
sign-painter, or a painter's supply house, and hold it up
178 THE BOY CHEMIST
before a white light. You will observe that the light passes
through the gold leaf quite easily.
Platinum, the Regal Metal. The word platinum (Pt)
comes from the Spanish platina, which means silver (Ag),
and since these metals bear a decided resemblance to each
other in the matter of color, it is quite likely that the regal
metal was taken for the queen of metals when it was first
found. Platinum (Pt) is chiefly found free in the gravel
of river beds, and most of it comes from the Ural Moun-
tains. It is quite hard, cannot be melted in the flame of a
Bunsen burner, but does so in an oxyhydrogen flame or the
electric arc.
Platinum (Pt) is a very heavy metal, a piece of it weigh-
ing nearly three times as much as a piece of iron (Fe), and
twice as much as a piece of lead (Pb) of the same size. It
has a very small chemical activity, by which is meant that
it resists the action of most substances, and hence it is
largely used in making crucibles, evaporating-dishes, and
other apparatus required by the chemist.
One of the chief compounds made of platinum (Pt) is
platinic chloride (PtCI 4) , and this is done by dissolving
the metal in aqua regia and then evaporating the solution,
causing the acids to pass off.
How Alloys are Made. The na~e alloy, is given to two
or more different metals when they are melted together.
''''hile an alloy thus produced is simply a mixture of the
metals, it possesses properties entirely different from either
or all of them.
Alloys of Magnesium and Aluminum. Aluminum (AI)
is a metal that is hard to work in a lathe and also to polish,
for the reason that it sticks to the tools, but when 2 per
cent of magnesium (M g) is mixed with 98 per cent of it,
they form an alloy called magnalium that is free from these
difficulties.
Alloys of Iron and Steel. Pure iron (Fe) is quite soft
and malleable, but what we call cast iron is really an alloy
which contains a small per cent of carbon (C), sulphur (S),
silicon (Si), and other substances, and it is these that make
it grey and brittle. Wrought iron is purer, and for this
reason it is malleable. Steel is simply iron (Fe) that has
more carbon (C) in it than cast iron, and when it is heated
to a certain temperature and allowed to cool slowly, it gets
very hard and springy.
By mixing in various other metals, a wonderful series of
steel alloys are produced; thus when 7 to 20 per cent of man-
ganese (Mn) is added to steel it is called manganese steel ..
This alloy is exceedingly hard, and so it is used for making
burglar-proof safes, the jaws of stone crushers, and rail-
way frogs. When I per cent of chromium (Cr) and 15 .
per cent of vanadium (V) are mixed with steel, it makes
an alloy called chrome-vanadium steel, and this not only has
great tensile strength but it will bend double before it will
break. It is used for the connecting-rods of engines and
the frames and axles of motor-cars.
An alloy with 20 per cent of tungsten (W), % per cent
carbon (C), 3 Y2 per cent of chromium (Cr) and I Y2 per
cent of vanadium (V), and the rest steel, makes an alloy
called high-speed steel. This is used to make tools for lathes
and other machines, and these will cut steel very fast and
without losing their temper even when the friction heats
180 THE BOY CHEMIST
them red-hot. When 2 to 4 per cent of nickel (Ni) is added

to steel it makes an alloy called nickel-steel, and this alloy
is not only hard and springy but one that sea-water (H 20)
has but little effect upon. For these reasons it is used for
propeller shafts, ships' cables that must be placed under-
seas, armor-plate for battle-ships, etc.
Another nickel-steel alloy is called invar steel, and this
is made of 36 per cent of nickel(Ni) and the rest steel. While
all other metals and alloys will either expand or contract
on cooling, invar steel remains of the same dimensions under
practically all degrees of temperature. Hence it is largely
used for clock pendulums and measuring scales, the lengths
of which must remain unchanged under all conditions.
Alloys of Tin and Lead. Common solder for roofing pur-
poses is made of 50 per cent of tin (Sn) and 50 per cent of
lead (Pb). Fine solder for soldering tinware is formed of
33Y3' per cent of lead (Pb) and 66% per cent of tin (Sn).
Type metal is made of 25 per cent of antimony (Sb) and 75
per cent of lead (Pb). Pewter is an alloy the components
of which consist of 20 per cent of lead (Pb) and 80 per cent
of tin (Sn). An alloy that has a Yz of I per cent of arsenic
(As) in it and 99Yz per cent of lead (Pb) is used for making
shot and bullets. Wood's metal is an alloy that melts at a
much lower temperature than that at which water (H 20)
boils, and it is used for electric fuses and safety plugs for
steam boilers and automatic sprinklers. It is made of I
part of tin (Sn) , I part of cadmium (Cd), 2 parts of lead
(Pb), and 4 parts of bismuth (Bi).
Alloys of Copper. One of the earliest alloys to be used
is bronze, and it is made of varying proportions of lead
(Pb), tin (Sn) , zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), depending on

what it is to be used for. Brass, of which there are also
several varieties, is made of from 18 to 4-0 per cent of zinc
(Zn) and the rest copper (Cu). German silver has no sil-
ver (Ag) in its make-up but is formed of 20 per cent of
zinc (Zn), 20 per cent of nickel (Ni), and 60 per cent of
copper (Cu); it looks something like silver (Ag) and does
not easily tarnish; at one time it was much used for making
spoons.
Gun metal is an alloy that consists of IO per cent of tin
(Sn) and 90 per cent of copper (Cu); these proportions give
a metal that has a rich brownish-black color and is much
used for making art objects and the like. Monel metal is
made of 50 per cent of nickel (Ni) and 50 per cent of copper
(Cu); it is largely used for sheet metal work. Finally, an
alJoy formed of 30 per cent of manganese (Mn) and 70 per
cent of copper (Cu) makes a hard bronze that is used for
the propellers of ships.
Silver Alloys. The alloy of silver (Ag) that is used for
coins is IO per cent of copper (Cu) and 90 per cent of silver
(Ag), while that used for silverware is made of 20 per cent
of copper (Cu) and 80 per cent of silver (Ag). In both
cases the copper (Cu) is put in to make the metal harder.
Gold Alloys. To make gold (Au) hard enough for coin-
age and goldware, it is also alloyed with copper, and the pro-
portion of gold used is measured by a unit called a carat.
The carat in general use is equal to 3.168 grains, or 205
milligrams.. Pure gold (Au) is said to be 24 carats fine.
British sovereigns are 22 carats fine, and hence have 2/24
or 1/12 of copper (Cu) in them. American and French
182 THE BOY CHEMIST
gold coins are 21 6/IO carats fine, that is, they contain IO
per cent of copper (Cu) and 90 per cent of gold (Au).
How Amalgams Are Made. An amalgam is an alloy in
which one metal is dissolved in another metal. The word
amalgam comes from two Greek words that mean soft mass.
Mercury (Rg) is used to dissolve the other metal, and all
the common metals will dissolve in mercury (R g), although
platinum (Pt) and iron (Fe) do so to the least extent.
A Sodium Amalgam. When I per cent of sodium (Na)
is dissolved in 99 per cent of mercury (Rg), an amalgam
is formed that is a soft mass, but when 2 per cent of sodium
(Na) is dissolved in 98 per cent of mercury (Rg) it forms a
solid mass. When metallic sodium (N a) is to be used, it
is often better to make an amalgam, as the mercury (Rg)
will not affect its action and it can be handled easier.
Zinc Amalgam. When the zinc (Zn) plates used in
batteries are rubbed with mercury (Rg), the molecules of
the former that are on the surface are mixed with those of
the latter, and the plates are then said to be amalgamated.
The amalgam thus formed prevents local currents from
being set up between the impure particles in the zinc (Zn),
and the zinc (Zn) itself, and also keeps the acid solution
from eating the zinc (Zn) away so rapidly.
Tin and Zinc Amalgams. Formerly mirrors were made
by coating glass (Na 20,CaO,Si0 2 ) with a tin amalgam
formed of I part of tin (Sn), I part of lead (Pb), and 2 parts
of bismuth (Bi) dissolved in 4 parts of mercury (Rg).
Mirrors are now made by coating them with a silver nitrate
(Ag NOs) solution.
When I part of tin (Sn) and 2 parts of silver (Ag), or gold

(Au), are dissolved in 2 parts of mercury (Hg), an amal-
gam is formed of these metals that will harden and expand.
For these reasons, this amalgam is used by dentists for filling
cavi ties in teeth.
A cheap amalgam for filling teeth is made by dissolving
I part of pulverized zinc (Zn) in 2 parts of mercury (Hg).
CHAPTER X.
CHEMISTRY SIMPLY EXPLAINED
QUITE the least-interesting part of chemistry to the be-

ginner is the theory of it, by which is meant just how and
why different substances act and react on each other and
produce other substances of an entirely different nature.
Now while making experiments of any kind, but espe-
cially those in chemistry, is the most fascinating part of
the work, and you can get the same results if you follow
the instructions given whether you know anything about
the principles that underlie them or not, still, to work in
this way is to miss much of the fun and more of the interest
in it. So in this chapter I shall tell you about some things
in chemistry which you cannot see with your physical eye
but which you can visualize with your mind's eye.
What Matter Is. First of all, as you probably know, the
world and everything in, on, or around it is made up of min-
ute particles of different substances, and it is these that
form the material bodies which we call matter. Now mat-
ter of whatever kind has certain properties, and the first
two of these are called by the long names of indestructi-
bility and impenetrability; then solids have half a dozen
other properties, and these are hardness, malleability, ductil-
ity, brittleness, elasticity, and flexibility. Fluids include liquids
184
and gases; the former are called inelastic, while gases have
elasticity.
What the Properties of Matter Are. Indestructibility is
a word used to mean that matter cannot be created or de-
stroyed. It is easy to change the shape of solid bodies,
to make two or more substances into an entirely different
substance, to make a solid into a liquid, and the latter into
a gas; then, the other way about, gases can be liquefied
and these in turn can be solidified, though these latter pro-
cesses are much more diffi-
cult than the former. But
in any event there is exactly
the same amount of matter
left as there was before the
operation.
Impenetrability mea n s
simply that no two par-
ticles of matter can be in
the same place at the same
time. This is perfectly ob-
vious with solid bodies but
not so much so with liquids
FIG. I 27.-Clearly Two Bodies
and with gases. Now here Cannot Occupy the same
Space at the Same Time.
are two experiments, the
first of which shows easily enough the truth of the first
statement, and the second seems to show the fallacy of it.
First Experiment. Hold a tumbler, or a beaker, by the
bottom and put the open end into a soup-plate half full of
water (H 20), as shown in Fig. 127. You will see now that
the level of the water (H 20) in the glass is very much lower
186 THE BOY CHEMIST
than it is outside of it. It is evident that the air in the

glass prevents the water (H 20) from rising in the glass and
talcing up the same space that the air occupies.
Second Experiment. Now here is an experiment of a
different kind. Fill a beaker, or a tumbler, brimful of
water (II 20) and then take
a tablespoonful of pulver-
ized sugar (C 12H22011) and
slowly let it fall into the
water (H 20), a particle at a
time, as shown in Fig. 128,
so that the bubbles of air
which stick to them will rise
to the surface, and also to
give the sugar (C 12 II 220 11 )
sufficient time to dissolve.
Curiously enough, as you
put the sugar (C 12 H 220 11 )
into the water (H 20), the
latter does not increase in
volume, and so run over
the top of the glass. Now
while it is true that two
FIG. 128.-This Experiment seems to bodies cannot occupy the
Show that Two Bodies Can Occupy
the Same Space at the Same Time. same space at the same
time, these two substances
seem to do this very thing. The explanation, however,
is that the particles, or molecules, as they are called, of
which the water (H 20) and the sugar (C12H22011) are
formed, are widely separated, and when the latter is dis-
solved in the former, the spaces between the particles of

the one are filled up by the particles of the other.
Hardness is that property of a body which makes it tend
to resist any change in shape. The degree of hardness is
found by scratching one substance with another; thus iron
(Fe) will scratch lead (Pb); glass (Na 20, CaO, Si0 2 ) will
scratch iron (F e), and the diamond (C) will scratch glass
(Na 20,CaO, Si0 2).
Malleability is that property of matter which permits a
solid, such as iron (Fe), silver (Ag), gold (Au), or platinum
(Pt) to be rolled out into sheets. When red-hot, iron (Fe)
is very malleable. This is also true of steel, which is iron
(Fe) with a small amount of carbon (C) in it. In this
heated state, steel is rolled into sheets, rails, girders, etc.
You have seen in the foregoing chapter that gold (Au)
possesses this property to such an extent that it can be
beaten into sheets so thin it will take 250,000 of them to
make a pile I inch high.
Ductility is a first cousin to malleability, for it is that
property which permits a metal to be drawn out into a
slender thread, or wire, as it is called. When metals of
various kinds are drawn into wire, they have a greater
strength than they would have if a cross-section of the
same size were cut from a strip. Evidently the molecules
l1f which they are formed are rolled closer together. Brittle-
ness is just the opposite of malleability, and it is this prop-
erty of matter that makes a sheet of glass crack when it is
struck, and some metals are so brittle that they break when
you try to bend them.
Elasticity is that property of solids and gases which makes
188 THE BOY CHEMIST
them return to their original shape when they have been

sprung by the application of a force which is then released,
as for instance a steel spring when it is bent or twisted, or a
gas when it is compressed. Flexibility is that property
which enables a body to be bent out of shape, without
breaking.
The Three Common Forms of Matter. The three forms
of matter that we are best acquainted with are the solid,
liquid, and gaseous, and, as I explained before, these may
be changed one into the other. As an illustration, water
MASS
~~~~r-MOLECULE
FIG. 129.-How Atoms Form the FIG. 130.-How the Negative and Positive
Molecule, and Molecules the Mass. Particles of Electricity form the Atom.
(H 20) at ordinary temperatures is a liquid, but when it is

heated to a high-enough temperature it becomes a gas,
and when it is cooled to a low-enough temperature it be-
comes a solid. Since metals can be liquefied, and these
liquids converted into gases, and gases can be liquefied and
then changed into solids, it is safe to conclude that all the
elements and some of the compounds follow the same laws.
What Matter Is Built Up of. The way we always see
matter, even with the highest-power microscope, is in the
form. of a mass. A mass of any kind is built up of mole-

cules, which in turn are built up of atoms, and, finally, the
latter are built up of electrons. The way in which atoms
form molecules and the latter form masses is shown in the
diagram in Fig. 129, and the wayan atom is built IIp of
electrons is shown in Fig. 130.
The center of an atom is built up of a number of compact
positive charges of electricity called electrons, which are
represented by the black dots,and these are surrounded by
less compact charges of negative electricity, also called
electrons, which are shown by the white circles. It is the
number of positive charges of electricity an atom has that
determines whether it is iron (Fe), or sulphur (5), or oxy-
gen (0), etc.
Now the main things for you to remember in chemistry,
until you get into that part of it in which electric currents
are used, is that an atom is the smallest particle into which
matter can be divided without changing its nature, and
two or more atoms bound together by chemical affinity
form a molecule.
The molecules of a solid are held together by a much
stronger attractive force than they are in a liquid and while
they are constantly vibrating, that is, moving to and fro,
still they cannot move freely about, and so the body keeps
its shape. In a liquid they move about quite freely, but
still they are held together by an attractive force. It is,
however, the force of gravity that pulls them down, and
so makes the liquid take on the shape of the vessel that
holds it.
The action of a gas is quite different, for all the molecules
190 THE BOY CHEMIST
repel each other exactly as if they were charged with the

same sign1 of electricity, and, hence, they shoot out in every
direction. This is the reason why a gas when it is com-
pressed exerts a force against all of the inside surface of a
tank, or a gas-bag, that holds it.
What the Elements Are. An element is a mass of matter
that is built up of molecules, which are, in turn, formed of
atoms all of which are of a single kind. Two or more of
these atoms may be linked together to make up a mole-
cule, as shown in Fig. 131; this is the way that the mole-
cules which form oxygen (0) are linked together. Some-
ujXYGE. V
4 - . . . . . t T O M S OF ~ATOMSOF
OxYGEN
FIG. IJI.-Two Atoms of Oxygen FIG. I32.-Three Atoms of Oxygen

Make a Molecule of Oxygen. Make a Molecule of Ozone.
times the element itself is changed when an extra atom of

the same kind is added to those that form the original mole-
cule; thus if 3 atoms of oxygen (0) are linked together, as
shown in Fig. 132, then the molecule becomes ozone (03 ),
There are 92 elements theoretically possible, of which
90 are now reasonably well established. See "Table of the
Known Chemical Elements and Their Symbols," page 282
of this book.
How the Elements Got Their Names. The names of the
elements are interesting, but it is not at all easy to trace
1 That is, either with + electricity or - electricity, for like signs repel each
other.
the older ones. Thus iron (Fe) and gold (A u) are so old
that their names are shrouded in obscruity. Many of the
elements that have been discovered in recent times get
their names from various Greek and Latin words.
Thus chlorine (Cl) comes from the Greek word which
means yellowish-green, as this is the color of the gas. Bro-
mine (Br) gets its name from the Greek word which means
stench, and it is very aptly named, too, for it is a very smelly
gas. Hydrogen (H) comes from two Greek words which
mean water, and to produce, for water (H 20) is produced
by burning hydrogen (H) in air. In the same way, nitro-
gen (N) gets its name from the Greek word which means
nitre.!
The recently discovered gases, helium (He), argon (A),
neon (N e), krypton (Kr), and xenon (pronounced ze-non) ;
(Xe) are all named from Greek words meaning respectively:
the sun, inactive, new, hidden, and stranger. Finally, some
of the other elements are named from their properties, such
as radium (Ra), and some are named in honor of the coun-
tries the chemists were natives of who discovered them, as
for instance, scandium (Sc), etc.
What the Symbols Mean. In order that the name of
each element would not have to be written out every time
it was used, or where several of them are used together, as
in equations, the names of them have been abbreviated
and only the first letter or two - usually the first two
where more than one is needed - art: used to indicate an
element; thus 0 stands for oxygen, H for hydrogen, C for
carbon, and so on.
I The common name of potassium nitrate (KNOa) is nitre.
192 THE BOY CHEMIST
~ Where there are two or more elements that begin with

the same letter (there are IO that start with C), the second
or third letter of the name is also used as, for instance, Cl
stands for chlorine, Ca for calcium, etc. Then again some
of the symbols are formed of the first and second letters of
the Latin names of the elements as Fe for iron, since ferrum
means iron, Cu for copper,since cuprum means copper, etc.
What the Symbols Show. Now whenever you come
to a symbol, which let us suppose is H, you instantly know
that it stands for hydrogen; if it is 0, you know that it means
oxygen, and the same with all the other symbols. Further,
when you see two symbols linked together, thus, HO, you
know that it means a compound is formed of the elements
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0). When two or more sym-
bols are so linked together to indicate a compound, they
make what is called a formula.
Wherever you see a formula, you will almost invariably
find a number marked in little figures after one or the other,
or both, or all, of the symbols thus, H 20. This number
gives you a great deal of information in a very small space
- in fact it is the chemists' system of short-hand - for it
tells you at a glance that the compound contains 2 volumes
of hydrogen (H) and I volume of oxygen (0). This com-
pound is water (H 20), and so wherever you see the formula
you will know exactly what the substance is that the elements
have made when combined. Where there is only I volume
of an element used, as of oxygen (0) in the formula for
water (H 20), the figure I is not placed after it, but there
is understood to be I volume, for if there were 2 or more,
the number would be added to show it.
While the word volume has been used in the above explana-
tion, an experiment given in Chapter IV, in which you
analyze water (H 20) by passing a current of electricity
through it, shows that it is made up of 2 volumes of hydro-
gen (H) and I of oxygen (0). It also means that when
2 atoms of hydrogen (H) combine with I atom of oxygen
(0) they produce a molecule of water (H 20), and so it is
with all other compounds.
What Equations are. When two or more elements are
made to combine with each other and two or more other
elements or compounds are produced by the reaction, it
is called an equation, because the quantities you start with
and those that you get in the end are exactly equal. Take,
for instance, the first equation I have given in this book
in Chapter V under the caption of "How to Make Hydro-
gen without an Acid," which is
Zn + KO H K + znO + H t
In this experiment, zinc (Zn) which is an element, is
added to potassium hydroxide ( KO H), that is, caustic potash,
and which is a compound made up, as its formula shows, of
potassium (K), oxygen (0), and hydrogen (H). Now
when these react on each other, the oxygen (0) of the potas-
sium hydroxide (KO H) combines with the zinc (Zn) and
forms zinc oxide (ZnO) , and this sets the hydrogen (H)
free, and as this is a gas it passes into .the air, so that the
potassium (K) is left behind.
In the end, though, there is exactly as much zinc (Zn),
potassium (K), oxygen (0), and hydrogen (H) as there
was in the beginning, and to show that they are equal be-
fore and after the reaction, the equality sign is used. The
194 THE BOY CHEMIST
equality sign, however, is not used by chemists nearly as

much now as it formerly was in writing equations, a hori-
zontal arrow having taken its place thus:
Zn + KG H -> K + ZnG + H l'
If now instead of reading Zn+ KG H equals K+ZnG + H,
you will read it Zn+ KG H makes K + ZnG + H, it will be
just as sensible, though not quite so definite. As I have
mentioned in the experiments that have gone before, where
you find an arrow pointing up after a symbol in an equation,
it means that the element or substance which has been set
free is a gas, and, oppositely, where you find an arrow point-
ing down, it means that the element or substance which has
been set free is a precipitate.
CHAPTER XI.
FIRE, FLAME, HEAT, AND LIGHT
WHILE, as Darwin has pointed out, man and monkey

bear a very strong resemblance to each other, especially
in their anatomical make-up, still they are as widely sepa-
rated as the poles' in their mental attributes. One of the
most marked features which differentiate them in this latter
respect is that the first knows how to make and to use fire,
and the second shows an utter lack of any such knowledge.
That man began to use fire long before he could make it,
there is not the slightest doubt, and he learned how to make
it ages before that primitive race, called the Aryans ap-
peared on the Iranian plateau, whence the early Hindus,
Persians, Egyptians, and other races branched off. And
it is curious to note that the Aryans used the word agir for
fire, and that the Latin word for it is ignis, while we use
the word ignite when we want to convey the meaning that
we have lit, or started, a fire.
What Fire Is. When a substance combines slowly with
oxygen (0), the process is called oxidation, and when it
combines rapidly with oxygen (0), it is said to burn, and
the process is called burning, or combustion, while the result
of it in throwing off heat and light is called fire. The words
fire, burning, and combustion, are, however, all generally
used to mean the same thing, and that is that a chemical
195
196 THE BOY CHEMIST
change is going on which produces both heat and light.

Fire is, then, the chemical combination of a substance with
some other substance that will support combustion, and
for all ordinary purposes it is the air that supplies the oxy-
gen (0) for the latter purpose, and this it does in unlimited
quantities.
What Flame Is. When a solid substance burns that is
formed chiefly of charcoal (C) or coke (C) or anthracite
coal (C), the molecules of it are heated to incandescence,
and while this gives out heat and a glowing light, it does
not produce a flame. But when a substance that is formed
of a gas or has gas in it burns in another gas that will sup-
port combustion they combine chemically, and the heated
molecules flare up where the two gases come together, and
this makes a flame, or blaze, as it is popularly called.
What Heat Is. A particle of matter just large enough
to be seen by a microscope of fairly high power is formed
of 8 or 10 billions of molecules. Now when a substance
burns, the rapid chemical combination that takes place
between it and the oxygen (0), or other substance which
supports combustion, sets the molecules of which they are
formed into violent vibration, that is, it gives them a rapid
to and fro movement. In turn, these swift!y moving mole-
cules strike those of the air, and when these reach the body
they set the thermal nerves of the latter into vibration; these
vibrations are transmitted to the brain and we get the sensa-
tion of heat. Or if they impinge on some inanimate mass
of matter they make the molecules of it vibrate, and so it
in turn gets hot.
What Light is. When a substance of any kind bums it
gives out light. Now in the same way that the vibrating
molecules of a burning substance set the air into motion
they also set the ether into motion. The ether is a very
thin and transparent kind of matter that fills all space
which is not actually taken up by matter of other kinds,
and it fills the pores of the densest metals. It is the sub-
stance by, in, and through which not only light, but all
other electromagnetic waves travel. When the light waves
reach the optic nerves of your eyes they set up the sensa-
tion of light in your brain, and they also have a very decided
action on substances of various kinds, as you will see later
in the chapter on photography.
Ways of Making Heat and Light. Our sun is, of course,
the original source of all heat and light, and however these
are produced, they are directly traceable to the sun. Heat
is not always accompanied by light, but burning is; on the
other hand, light may be had without any appreciable
amount of heat accompanying it.
When heat is produced without light it means that the
molecules of the substance that is heated are not vibrating
fast enough to produce light. Oppositely disposed, the
molecules of certain substances are capable of vibrating
fast enough to set up light and yet not slow enough to pro-
duce heat, as, for instance, the phosphorescent light of a
fire-fly, or a glow-worm, or the Geissler tube when it is
energized by an induction coil.
The three chief ways of making ileat are by friction, by
chemical action, and by electricity, and in all cases light
follows if the heat set up is sufficient to make the molecules
of the substance vibrate fast enough. The only kind of
198 THE BOY CHEMIST
heat and light that we are interested in now is that pro-

duced by chemical action.
How a Candle Burns. Light a candle and examine the
flame of it through a piece of tinted glass and you will see
that it consists of three parts, as shown in Fig. I33, and
these are an inner dark part containing gas which is wait-
ing its turn to be burned; a middle bright
cone where the particles of carbon (C)
c are heated to incandescence and which
gives the light; and a thin outer cone of
b blue flame which is in direct contact with
the air and gives little or no light.
a Now this is what takes place when
you light a candle. First, the heat melts
the tallow) or wax, and this rises in the
wick by capillary attraction;l as it reaches
the tip of the wick where the heat is the
greatest it is converted for the most part
into a vapor,and this burns, which mak:es
the flame. It is the carbon (C) of the
tallow, or wax, which is raised to a white
FIG. I33·-TheFlame heat, while the hydrogen (H) of it burns
of a Candle.
with a blue flame outside of it and has
no lighting power whatever.
How Ventilation Affects Combustion. Take a quart
glass jar and fit a cork into the mouth of it; now bore two
U-inch holes through the cork and push a glass tube 3
inches long through one of them and another tube 8 or IO
inches long through the other one so that the former will
1 Any text-book on Physics will give you an explanation of this phenomenon.
extend just inside the jar and the latter will reach nearly
to the bottom of it, as shown in Fig. 134.
Now put a lighted candle inside of the jar and you will
observe that as it burns, vapor of water (H 20) and car-
bon dioxide ( CO 2) escape through the short tube. As they
do so, fresh, cool air from the outside flows through the
long tube into the jar and provides the necessary oxygen
(0) to support the burning process.
This experiment done, put your
finger over the end of the long
tube so that the fresh air is cut
off, and the flame will soon begin
to grow smaller, and finally it will
go out altogether.
How the Davy Safety-Lamp
Works. Sir Humphrey Davy in-
vented a safety -lamp, so that
when miners who carried it entered
a shaft where there was methane
( C H 4)' or fire-damp, as it is gen-
erally called, and which when
mixed with air is very explosive,
FIG. 134.-How Ventilation
it would not ignite. His safety- Affects Combustion.
lamp consists of a common oil
lamp, the flame of which is surrounded by a wire gauze
cover, as shown in Fig. 135. Now while enough oxygen (0)
will reach the flame to keep it burning, the flame cannot
get outside of the gauze to ignite the explosive gases.
To make an experiment which shows the principle of the
safety-lamp, take a piece of fine wire gauze about 8 inches
200 THE BOY CHEMIST
on the sides and which has about 10 meshes to the running

inch and hold it in the flame of a candle with a pair of pliers,
as shown in Fig. 136, and you will see that the flame re-
mains beneath it. The reason it does not go through the
gauze is because the wire of which it is made cools down
the flame to such an extent that it
puts it out, but the smoke and
other gases of combustion pass
through it readily enough.
Now hold a lighted match
above the gauze and the gases will
ignite and will make another
separate flame. The fact that
a flame cannot pass through a
piece of gauze is the principle,
then, upon which the Davy safety-
lamp is based.
How an Alcohol Lamp Burns.
It often happens that a flame does
not give out any useful light,
FIG. I 35.-The Davy Safety-
Lamp in Operation.
and usually this kind of a flame
is very hot. This is the case
when pure hydrogen (H) burns in oxygen (0), generally
~ obtained from the air. Now methyl alcohol (C H 40) con-
tains, as its formula shows, 4 times as much hydrogen (H)
as it does carbon (C).
To produce a flame that has no useful lighting power,
you must have not only a certain amount of oxygen (0)
present, but it must be mixed with the hydrogen (H).
When hydrogen (H) is mixed with oxygen (0), it gives a
FIRE, FLI\ME, HEAT, AND LIGHT 201
very hot flame, and this condition is fulfilled in a very sim-

ple manner in a lamp that burns alcohol (C I1 40).
How Oil and Gas Lamps Burn. V{hen we want a bright
light we must burn compounds that contain hydrogen (II)
and carbon (C), and certain vegetable and mineral oils
have them in the right proportions. Generally speaking,
an oil to burn with a bright light must have a large amount
of carbon (C) compared with the hydrogen (H) in it, and,
FIG. 136.-The Principle on Which the Davy Safety-Lamp Works.
further, its illuminating power also depends on the amount

of oxygen (0) in which it burns, and this must be supplied
gradually and from the outside.
Illuminating oils, like kerosene (C1 oH22 to C16H 34) and
gases such as coal-gas (C 2 H 4) do not contain oxygen (0),
and these burn, therefore, with the brightest light. A
tallow candle (3 C1sH 35 , CaH 50) contains a little oxygen
202 THE BOY CHEMIST
(O),and it burns with a less bright flame than oil or gas,

while alcohol (C II 40) contains considerable oxygen (0)
in proportion to its hydrogen (II), and so it burns without
any brightness whatever.
How a Bunsen Burner Works. While coal gas burns
with a bright flame and with little
heat in an ordinary burner, it can be
made to burn with a flame that is
hot, gives no light, and which does
not smoke, by using what is called
a Bunsen burner. It is so-called
because it was invented by Bunsen,
a German scientist who lived from
1791 to 1860.
FIG. I 37.-The Bunsen Burner. .A Bunsen burner in its simplest
form consists of a brass tube
% inch or Yz inch in diameter with a couple of air
holes drilled through it near one end. A ring is slipped
over the tube so that the amount of air which enters the
holes can be controlled, and it is then connected with the
pipe that supplies the coal gas, all of which is shown in Fig.
137. The purpose of the air-holes is to supply enough
oxygen (0) to burn up the carbon (C) in the gas, and this
makes the flame not only non-luminous but at the same
time very much hotter.
EXPERIMENTS WITH A BUNSEN BURNER.
How to Light the Burner. The right way to light a

Bunsen burner is to turn on the gas and then hold a match
to one side of the top of it, upon which the gas will catch
fire. If you hold the match over the top of the tube, the
pressure of the gas may blow it out before the gas ignites.
The Luminous Flame of the Burner. Slip the ring over
the holes in the burner so that it will cut off the air supply
and, hence, the oxygen (0), and you will see that the flame
gives out light, and if you hold a sheet of glass, or card-
board, over it, a film of carbon ( C), which is ordinarily called
soot, will be deposited on it.
NON-LUMINOUS
CONE
CONE OF
LIGHT DEEP BLUE
DEEP BLUE CONE
CONE
DARt( CONE
DARK CONE
OF UNBURNT GAS OF UNBURNT GAS
BURNER
FIG. 138.-ALuminous Gas Flame. FIG. 139.-A Non-Luminous Gas Flame.
Now examine the flame and you will see that it is formed
of four parts, as shown in Fig. 138; named, these are a dark
blue cone next to the burner, next, a deep blue cone, then,
a luminous cone containing glowing particles of· carbon ( C),
and, finally, a colorless cone, or sheath, on the outside.
The Non-Luminous Flame of the Burner. After you
have made the above experiment, slip the ring up and away
from the air-holes, and as you do so you will see that the
characteristics of the flame are changed. First of all, the
204 THE BOY CHEMIST
glowing carbon (C) disappears and with it the light of the

flame; at the same time the deep blue cone, which is the
one that gives the heat, expands and takes its place, as
shown in Fig. 139.
A closer examination of the flame will reveal the fact that
the extreme tip is the hottest part of it, the next, or middle
cone is not so hot, while the dark cone at the bottom is quite
cool; this means that the
gas is not burning at this
point, and if you will
put a small glass tube
FLAME into it the gas will flow
through it, and you can

light it, as shown in
Fig. IA.O.
DARK CONE OF
UNBURNT GAS
How to Make Colored
BUNSEN Flames. Top rod u c e
BURNER
beautiful colored flames,
FIG. I40.-Proving the Dark Cone
to be Unburnt Gas. get a piece of pumice
stone, which is very por,
ous and non-combustible, and fashion it into a ball about
I inch in diameter; now fasten an iron wire around it, then
dip it into anyone of the following solutions and hold in the
flame of an alcohol lamp or, better, a Bunsen burner, and
the salt of which the solution is formed will give a charac-
teristic color.
The solutions are made by dissolving the salts in water
(H 20), and these should be quite strong. Strontium chlor-
ide (SrCI 2 ,6H 20) will give a bright red flame; calcium
chloride (CaCI 2) will give a reddish-orange flame; copper
chloride (CuCl2) will give a bluish-green flame, and sodium

chloride (N a Cl) will give a brilliant yellow flame.
To see the colored flames to the best advantage, you
must burn the salts in a dark room. A most curious effect
is produced by burning sodium chloride (N aCl) so that the
light from it will shine in the faces of the spectators, giving
them a ghastly appearance. To prevent the solutions
from dripping into the tube of the burner and so stopping
it up, it is a good plan to lay it on its side, as shown in Fig.
I41.
PUMICE STONE
BALL
FIG. I4I.-Production of Colored Flames.
How to Make Charcoal. Our sun is the original source

of all the light, heat, and power we have here on earth, as
well as everything else, and hence the energy stored up in
all our fuels has come from it. For instance, the light and
heat of the sun make plants grow, and these when large
enough form trees, and are composed of wood.
In turn, wood is largely made of carbon ( C), and by heat-
206 THE BOY CHEMIST
ing it in an enclosed space so that little or no air can get to

it the gases are forced out of it and nearly pure carbon (C)
is left behind. Now when carbon (C) is made to burn in
oxygen (0), and the air supplies the latter, a very hot, flame-
less fire results.
To make a little charcoal (C), drive three sticks, each
about 18 inches long into the ground, about 2 inches apart,
then build up a conical pile of wood around them and leave
GROUND GROUND
FIG. I42.-Cross-Section of a Charcoal Kiln.
a little space between the sticks, as shown in Fig. 142. This

done, plaster it all over with mud so that the air cannot get
through it to the sticks and then make a dozen holes, about
I inch in diameter, through the mud covering, around the
base, and also let the top remain open. This is so that
when you light the wood the gases will slowly burn out of
it and yet not burn the carbon (C) there is in it.
How Charcoal is Made. When the wood begins to burn,
the used gases pass out of the kiln and you will see them as
a thick black smoke. After 24 hours or so, all the gases in

the wood will be burnt out and only charcoal (C), which is
an impure kind of carbon (C), is left behind. The sub-
stances in the wood that will not burn are left behind as ash.
What Coal is. When trees and other plant matter are
covered over with sand or clay, as the great forests were
in the pre-historic ages, so that the air cannot reach them,
FIG. 143.-A Miniature Gas Works.
they decompose, that is, they oxidize, and the water (H 20)
and gases and oils that are in them are set free, and the
matter that is left behind is called coal (C).
Now there are two kinds of coal ( C), and these are bitumi-
nous, or soft, coal, and anthracite, or hard, coal. Bituminous
coal is coal that still contains large amounts of hydrogen
208 THE BOY CHEMIST
(H) and oils of various kinds, and, hence, this kind is used
for making illuminating gas. The coal is put into closed
retorts, and after the gases and oils have been driven out of
it by heat, there remain behind coke and coal-tar, and from
the latter, dyes,perfumes, and medicines are made. Anthra-
cite coal is nearly pure carbon (C), and it burns without
flame, makes very little smoke, and leaves but a sID;lll
amount of ash behind; it is, therefore, the most suitable
kind of coal for heating purposes.
How to Make Coal Gas. Take a clay pipe and fill it
with powdered soft coal and then close up the mouth of it
with a piece of clay. Now heat the pipe in the flame of
your alcohol lamp, or, better, because it is hotter, your
Bunsen burner, and the hydrogen (H) will be driven out,
and this you can light at the end of the stem, as shown in
Fig. 143. When all the gas has passed out, you will find
a little lump of hard, black porous matter in the pipe bowl,
and this is coke, while the sticky substance that remains is
coal-tar.
CHAPTER XII.
HOW TO MAKE PHOTOGRAPHS
THE art of photography is made up of three parts: light,

optics, and chemistry. This may be explained by saying
that light either coming directly from an object or reflected
by it and made to pass through a lens of the proper kind,
will form an image of the object on a flat surface, and if this
is chemically prepared, the image can be fixed there and a
picture, or photograph, as it is called, is thus made.
What Light is. In order to know how light acts, you
must know something about its nature. In Chapter XI
I told you that when a substance burns it gives out light;
that the vibrating molecules of a burning substance set the
ether into motion, and that it is by, in, and through the
latter that light-waves traveL Now the two following ana-
logues will make clearer what light and light-waves are:
First, you have often noticed that when you throw a stone
into a pool of still water, little ring-like waves, or circular
ripples, will be formed around the place where the stone
has struck the water, and these will expand until either
their energy is used up or they are stopped by the shore.
In other words, the stone sends out water-waves, as shown
in Fig. I44.
Now, to go a step farther, if you strike a bell it vibrates,
that is, the rim of it moves rapidly to and fro, as shown in
20 9
210 THE BOY CHEMIST
Fig. 14-5. These rapid movements are imparted to the air

and set up waves in it, and while these are really air-waves,
they are called sound-waves. These waves spread out in
every direction and keep on expanding until they either
strike some object and are reflected by it, or their energy
is used up by in overcoming friction and other resistances.
Finally, if you ignite a substance that will burn, as, for
instance, a candle, the heated molecules given off byit will
be thrown into exceedingly rapid vibration, that is, a rapid
FIG. 144.-How a Stone Sends Out Water Waves.
to-and-fro motion, .and these will set up waves in the ether

which are called light-waves, see Fig. 14-6, but which are
really only ether-waves. Like water-waves and sound-waves,
light-waves are radiated in every direction, but normally
travel in straight lines, and they keep on going until they
are stamped out by the resistance they meet.
How Light Acts. Suppose you closed your eyes and
that you held a string with a cork tied to it, and resting
anywhere on the surface of the pool of water into which a
HOW TO MAKE PHOTOGRAPHS 211
stone was thrown. When the water-waves were sent out

by the impact of the stone you would be able to sense their
presence by the pull of the string every time the wave made
the cork bob up and down, and the sensation of touch would
by carried by the afferent nerves to your brain.
So in a like, but very much more refined way, wherever
you may be, as long as you are within earshot of the sound-
waves sent out by a bell, they will impinge on your ear, and
SOUND ""AVES (
))))) ~f
/~
FIG. 145.-How a Bell Sends out Sound-Waves.
the auditory nerves will convey them to your brain, where

the sensation of sound is set up. Likewise, wherever you
may be within range of the light-waves sent out, or reflected,
by an object, the lens of your eye will form an image of it
on the retina, and the optic nerves will transmit it to your
brain, where the sensation of light, of form, and of color is
produced.
Now light not only acts on the eye so that we are able
to see the images it forms, but it has a decided action on
212 THE BOY CHEMIST
the growth of plants in that it builds up compounds in and

for them; thus it makes the green coloring-matter of plants,
called chlorophyl, and the action of light on this compound
forms formaldehyde (C H 20), which is a gas with a stifling
odor, and this in turn is converted into sugar ( C 12 H 220 11 ).
Not only plants but animals must have light in order to
grow and, hence, its action on these bodies is to build up
their tissues. While the action of light on plants and ani-
mals cannot be seen, there are compounds that break down,
)))))) J
LIGHT WAVES
FIG. 146.-How a Candle Sends out Light-Waves.
that is, they are decomposed, when exposed to it, and the
effects of these are very readily observed.
How Light Acts on Silver. Of all the compounds that
light has been found to act upon, those formed of silver
(Ag) are the most sensitive, and for this reason they are
used in photography. Of these salts, silver nitrate (Ag NO 3) ,
silver chloride (AgCl), and silver bromide (AgBr) are the
most easily affected. Silver nitrate (Ag N0 3) was the first
salt that was found to break down under the action of light,
and then followed silver chloride (AgCl), which is still more
sensitive, and, finally, silver bromide (AgBr), which is the

most sensitive of all.
How to ¥ake Silver Nitrate. Silver nitrate (Ag NOs),
which used to be called lunar caustic, is the starting-point
for making the other salts of silver (Ag). To make a few
crystals, put 2 fluid ounces of pure water (H 20) in a beaker,
then add Y2 fluid ounce of nitric acid (H N0 3 ) to it and
drop a bit of pure silver (Ag) the size of a dime into the
solution. Stir it with a glass rod, and when the silver (Ag)
has dissolved let it stand and crystals of silver nitrate
(Ag NOs) will be formed, nitric oxide (NO) gas will pass off,
and the liquid left behind will be water (H 20) thus:
3 Ag + 4 HNO s 3 AgNO s + NO t + 2 H 20
Silver Nitric acid Silver Nitric Water
nitrate oxide
Experiments with a Silver Nitrate Solution. Nearly
fill a clean 2-ounce bottle with distilled water (H 20), drop
in the crystals of silver nitrate (Ag NOs), put in the cork,
and shake until the crystals are dissolved. If, now, you
will place the bottle where the light of the sun will fall on
it, no chemical action will take place and the solution will
remain colorless. Now take a sheet of paper, pour the
solution over it and expose it to the light of the sun, and
you will find that the light will quickly act on it and turn
it a brown color.
The question is why will not the light act on the solution
when it is in the bottle as it does when it is spread out on
the paper. The answer is because light will decompose
the salts of silver (Ag) only when the latter is in contact
with organic matter. By organic matter is meant plant or
214 THE BOY CHEMIST
animal matter that is living or has once lived. Paper, as

you know, is formed of cellulose (C 6 H 100 5), and it is of
this compound that plants are largely built up .•
How to Make Silver Chloride. Dissolve I teaspoonful
of sodium chloride (N aCl), that is, common table salt, in a
test tube full of water ( H 20), then dissolve the same amount
: ...."
FIG. I4 7.-How Silver Chloride is Made.
of silver nitrate (Ag NOs) in a test tube one-fourth full of

water. After the salts have dissolved, pour the solutions
of both test tubes into a beaker, as shown in Fig. 14.7, and
stir them together with a glass rod, and a milky-white
precipitate will be thrown down, which is silver chloride
(AgCl). The reaction is called a double decomposition,
in which the silver (Ag) of the silver nitrate (Ag NOs)
changes places with the sodium (Na) of the sodium chloride

(NaCl), and it may be expressed thus:
NaCl + AgNOa NaNO a + AgCl'!
Sodium Silver Sodium Silver
chloride nitrate nitrate chloride
The next thing to do is to put a sheet of filter paper in a
glass funnel and then ~et this in a bottle; now pour the solu-
tion with the precipitate into the funnel. The solution
will run through it and the precipitate will remain behind.
Action of Light on Silver Chloride. Put a tablespoonful
of water (H 20) in a test tube, and after scraping the silver
chloride (AgCl) from the filter paper spread it over a sheet
of unglazed paper and let it dry. If, now, you will expose
it to the light of the sun you will see that it turns a Plfrplish
color first, then gets brown, and finally black.
Evidently the light has produced a change in the silver
chloride (AgCl), and, in truth, it has acted on it in such a
way that the compound has brok~n down into the two
elements of which it was formed, namely, silver (Ag) and
chlorine (CZ), as the following equation shows:
AgCl + Light Ag + Cl i
Silver chloride Light Silver Chlorine
The chlorine (Cl), which is a gas, passes off, and the very
fine brown, or black, film that remains behind is formed of
minute particles of pure silver (Ag). It is this action of
light on silver compounds that makes it possible to take a
picture on a glass plate, a celluloid film, or a paper sheet;
there are, however, other operations necessary, the chief
216 THE BOY CHEMIST
one being to :fix the picture so that it will notfade out, and
this will be described presently.
How to Make a Pinhole Camera. To understand how
light forms a picture, or image, as it is more properly called,
of an object, we shall have to leave the chemistry of it for
the moment and get into the physics of it. The simplest
way is to make a pinhole camera, by means of a pair of
open-end, rectangular pasteboard cases, each of which is,
say, 4- inches wide and high and 6 inches long, so made
that one will slide snugly into the other,as shown in Fig. I48.
Now glue a thin disk of
cardboard over one end of
the larger case and make a
pinhole in the center of it,
and then secure a sheet of
oiled tissue paper over one
end of the smaller case and
slide them together. Your
FIG. 148.~I-Iow to Make a pinhole camera is then ready
Pinhole Camera.
to use. Hold it in a line
with the object the image or picture of which you want to
see on the screen, as the oiled tissue paper is now called,
and focus it, that is, slide the smaller case in or out until the
image on the screen is as sharp as you can get it.
How the Camera Works. You will observe that, curi-
ously, the image on the tissue paper is reversed, that is, it
is upside down, but the reason for this will be clearly under-
stood by a look at the diagram shown in Fig. I49. Now
light-waves travel in straight lines and they are sent out
in every direction from every point of a candle or other
object, but of all the waves sent out from a particular point,
as for instance the one marked A, only those will go through
the pinhole, B, that are in a straight line with it, and then
they pass on to the screen, where they strike it at C. In
the same way, only the waves from the point marked D
can get through the pinhole, B, that are in a straight line
with it, and these impinge on the screen at E; and this is
true of all other parts of the candle or other object.
How a Real Camera is Made. A real camera differs
from the one just described in that it has a lens instead of
A
E
D
FIG. 149.-How the Image is Reversed.
a pinhole in the front part of it, and either a plate-holder to

hold the sensitized glass dry plate, or a roll-holder to carry
the spools, where films are used. A cross-section of a real
camera is shown in Fig. 150. By using a lens in a camera,
a great deal more light can be got through it than through
a pinhole, and this makes for speed of exposure, and, further,
and what is equally important, the image is very much
more clearly defined.
How Dry Plates and Films are Made. To make a dry
plate or a film so that it will be sensitive to the light and
218 THE BOY CHEMIST
free from pinholes and spots is an expert's job, and he must

have a specially equipped laboratory for the purpose. How-
ever, I will tell you how it is done and you can try to make
them just as I did when I was a boy of your age, only I had
the decided advantage of having worked for a dry-plate
manufacturer.
Now just as silver chloride (AgCl) is more sensitive to
light than silver nitrate (Ag NOs), so silver bromide (AgBr)
FIG. 150.-How a Real Camera Works.
is more sensitive than silver chloride (AgCl). You can

make enough silver bromide (AgBr) emulsion to coat a
dozen 4- by 5 glass plates in this way: put I ounce each of
silver nitrate (AgNO s) and ammonium bromide (N H4Br)
in a beaker, with enough water (H 20) to dissolve them;
now put 2 ounces of clear gelatine, which is an organic com-
pound, in the beaker with enough water (H 20) to cover it;
gently heat them over the flame of your alcohol lamp until
the silver nitrate (Ag N0 3) and ammonium bromide

(N H4Br) react on each other and form ammonium nitrate
(N H 4N0 3) and silver bromide (AgBr), which is a double
decomposition, thus:
Ag N0 3 + N H4Br N H 4N0 3 + AgBr
Silver Ammonium Ammoniuffi Silver
nitrate bromide nitrate bromide
You will easily know when this reaction has taken place,
for the silver bromide CAgBr) will form in little drops, or
FIG. I5r.-Coating the Plate with Silver Emulsion.
granules, all through the gelatine solution, or emulsion,!

as it is now called. Now let the latter get cool, becoming
about as thick as jelly, and cut it up into bits about Ys inch
square. The next thing to do is to soak the emulsion in
water CH 20) over night in order to wash all the ammonium
nitrate (N H 4 N0 3 ) out of it, leaving only the silver brom-
ide CAgBr).
1 Strictly speaking, an emulsion is a liquid in which the solid pa'rticles of
some other substance are held in suspension, that is, evenly distributed
through it.
220 THE BOY CHEMIST
This done, melt the emulsion and then hold a perfectly

clean glass plate in one hand, as shown in Fig. 15 I, pour a
tablespoonful of it in the center, quickly tilt the plate so
that the emulsion will flow all over it, then lay it on a per-
fectly level surface and let it dry over-night. All these
operations must be performed in a dark room illuminated
only by a very feeble red light, and while there should be
a good current of air circulating in the room, it must be
absolutely free from dust. Films are made by coating long
strips of celluloid with the same kind of silver bromide
(AgBr) emulsion as that described above, but it takes
machinery of a special kind to do this evenly.
How a Picture is Made on a Dry Plate or a Film. When
you make a picture with your camera, the image formed by
the lens falls on the dry plate, or film, and the light instantly
acts on the silver bromide (AgBr) on the gelatine surface
in proportion to its intensity, and decomposes the silver
bromide (AgBr) into particles of pure silver (Ag) and bro..
mine (Br). The result is that the silver (Ag) remains on
the plate or film as a brown powder and the latter is set
free, thus:
Ag Br + Light Ag + Br
Silver bromide Light Silver Bromine
This reaction, which may take place in the I jrooo part
of a second, or less, cannot be seen in the sensitized surface,
and in order to bring out the picture, the plate must be
developed, to dissolve and wash away those parts of the silver
bromide (AgBr) which the light has not acted on.
How to Develop a Dry Plate or a Film. To develop a
plate, or a film, you must soak it in a solution called a de-
vcloper, and this you can make by dissolving 30 grains of

hydro quinone (C 6H 60 2), 10 grains of metol, 350 grains
of sodium sulphite (Na2SOa),350 grains sodium carbonate
(Na2COa), and 5 grains of potassium bromide (KBr), and
10 ounces of distilled water (H 20). In making up this
developer, use only the very best chemicals, and see to it
that the sodium sulphite (Na 2SOa) and sodium carbonJ,te
(N a2 COs) are good clear crystals.
Now when you soak the exposed plate, or film, in this
developer, the gelatine is softened by it and the bromine
(Br) that has been separated from the silver bromide (Ag Br)
by the action of light is absorbed by the developer, and this
leaves the pure silver (Ag) behind. As the development
goes on, you can see the picture slowly "come up," that is,
come into view - a most fascinating process - as the con-
trast grows greater between the parts which the light has
affected and those which it has not affected. The parts,
however, that were white of the object which was photo-
graphed will show in the developed plate as blad?, because
the silver (Ag) that has remained behind is black, and,
oppositely, the parts of the object that were black will show
as white, for here the silver bromide (AgBr) was not affected.
In other words, the black and white parts on the plate, or
film, are just the reverse of those of the object that was
photographed, hence, the plate is now called a negative.
How to Fix the Picture. If the developed plate, or film,
should again be exposed to the light it would decompose
the remaining silver bromide (AgBr), and all of it would
be decomposed into silver (Ag) and bromine (Br). To
keep this action from taking place when the picture has
222 THE BQY CHEMIST
reached the proper stage of development, it must be fixed,

as it is called, and, naturally, thus must also be done in a
dark room.
To fix the plate, or film, you must soak it in a fixing bath,
which is simply a solution that you make by dissolving Y2
pound of sodium thiosulphate, (Na 2S20S), often incorrectly
called hyposulphite, or hypo, for short, in Y2 pint of boiling
water (H 20),and then adding another Y2 pint of cold water
(H 20) to it. Keep this in
a corked bottle until you
want to use it. When
you are ready to fix the
picture, put the plate,
or film, in a glass tray
three-fourths full of the
hypo fixing bath and let
FIG. 15z.-A Negative-Rack. it stay there until all the
silver bromide (AgBr) ,
not acted on by the light, is dissolved out; you will
know when this action has taken place, for the opaque
whiteness of the plate disappears, and you will be able to
see the transparent picture by holding the plate, or film,
to the light.
Let the negative remain in the fixing bath for Y2 hour
or more so that every particle of the silver bromide CAgBr)
may be dissolved, and then wash it for an hour under run-
ning water (H 20), or in many changes of it, in order to
remove all the hypo with which the gelatine coating is sat-
urated and which if not removed will stain the negative.
After washing the negative, set it in a rack, see Fig. 152,
and let it dry slowly in a cool place where there is a good

circulation of air.
How to Make a Print from a Negative. Now while the
white and black parts of the picture on the negative are
just the reverse of what they were of the object you photo-
graphed, you can make a positive, or as many as you want,
on paper or on glass. When positive copies are made on
paper they are called prints, and when they are made on
glass they are called transparencies, if they are to be viewed
by the light shining through them, or lantern slides, if they
are to be projected on a screen.
Kinds of Printing Papers-Silver Papers. There are
different kinds of papers used for making photographic
prints, but all are coated' with either a nitrate, a chloride,
or a bromide silver compound. Those coated with silver
nitrate (Ag NO a) are slow printing papers and must be
exposed to the sunlight, hence, they are called printing-out
papers. There are two kinds of printing-out papers, the
first of which is known as silver paper. This is coated with
albumen, which is white-of-egg, and therefore an organic sub-
stance, and then with a solution of silver nitrate (Ag NO a);
the second is called solid paper, and this is coated with gela-
tine, also an organic substance, and then with a silver chlor-
ide (AgCl).
How to Make a Print. To make a print, you need a
printing-frame, as shown in Fig. 153. Take the back out of
it, lay the negative in the frame with the film side up, that
is, toward the back, and lay the sheet of sensitized paper
on it, with its film side down, that is, next to the negative.
Now put the back in the frame and clip the ends of the
224 THE BOY CHEMIST
springs, which are pivoted to the back, under the catches

that are fixed to the frame.
If you are making a silver or solid print, set the frame
out of doors so that the sunlight will fall directly on the
negative. From time to time take the frame into a more
subdued light and unclip one of the springs. Then you
can lift up half of the back (it is hinged together) and look
at the print to see how it is coming on. The print when
ready to be taken out of the frame will be a positive, for
the light that goes through the clear parts of the negative
will turn the paper brown or
black, and, conversely, where
the negative is black, the light
cannot get through, and so
the paper remains white.
How to Tone the Print.
The appearance of a silver
print is never very pleasing
as it comes from the frame,
FIG. I53.-A Printing-Frame.
and to give it a soft rich color
you must tone it. This you
do by putting it in a tray that contains a toning solution,
as it is called; it consists of two solutions which you make
up as follows: put 7 drams of distilled water (H 20) in a
small bottle and dissolve 7 grains of auric chloride (AuCl 3),
or gold chloride, as it is commonly called, in it and label it,
Solution No. I. Then put 5 ounces of water (H 20) in
another bottle and dissolve 220 grains of ammonium sul-
phocyanide ((N H4)2HSCN) in it and label it, Solution
NO.2. When you are ready to tone the print, put 2 Y:i
ounces of water (H 20) in a tray and then add I dram of

Solution No. I; stir it with a glass rod slowly, and then put
in I dram of the Solution No.2; let it stand for 10 minutes,
and it will then be ready for use. Now put the print in
this solution and keep turning it over constantly until a
rich deep-brown color is reached; next, wash it in two or three
changes of water (H 20),and then fix it for 15 minutes in a
fixing bath made of ~ ounce of sodium thiosulphate
(N a 2S20 3) dissolved in 5 ounces of water (H 20), and in
which you have stirred a drop or two of liquid ammonia
(NH 40H).
After fixing the print for Yz hour, wash it in running
water (H 20) for an hour or so, or in numerous changes of
water (H 20). Finally, dry the print, and you will have
a finished photograph.
How to Make a Velox Print. About 20 years ago a paper
was introduced under the trade name of velox. This new
kind of paper, which is coated with a silver bromide (AgBr)
emulsion like plates and films, gives a beautiful black-and-
white print. The great advantage of using it lies in the
fact that it can be printed by gas-light - hence in England
it is called gas-light paper - and while it must be developed,
like a plate or a film, this does not take anywhere nearly
the length of time that printing and toning a silver print
does. Because of these advantages it soon found favor
with both amateur and professional photographers, and
it was not many years before the silver print was entirely
supplanted by it except for commercial art work.
How to Make and Use Blue Paper. This paper is by
all odds the cheapest and simplest kind to make and use,
226 THE BOY CHEMIST
since a salt of iron is employed for sensitizing the surface

of it, and it only needs to be washed thoroughly to bring
out the picture and to :fix it. For these reasons it is largely
used by engineers and architects for making prints of draw-
ings and plans, but you will find it gives you pretty prints of
many objects and especially of marine views. While the
paper is easy to make, still, owing to the poisonous nature
of the chemicals employed, I would advise you to buy it
ready-made.
Blue paper is made by dissolving ~ ounce of green iron
ammonio-citrate in I ounce of water (H 20), and the same
amount of potassium ferrocyanide (K 3Fe( C N) 6) in a like
amount of water (H 20). The two solutions are now mixed
together and the surface of some unruled sheets of writing
paper, or other well-sized paper, is coated over with it by
means of a brush. It is then dried in a dark room, after
which it is ready to be printed in the sunlight like silver
paper. The only other operation is to wash it for Y2 hour
in running water (H 20), or in many changes of it.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE WHITE MAGIC OF CHEMISTRY
THERE are a great many experiments in chemistry that

have been used by magicians the world over during the
last half-century, and these are as pleasing to-day as when
they were just invented. In recent years, however, the
knowledge of chemistry and of chemical processes has
advanced to such an extent that the average spectator is
not so easily deceived as he once was, but, curiously enough,
even though he has an idea of how the tricks are done, in
the last analysis, the effects are still quite as wonderful, for
chemistry is magic. In this chapter I shall tell you how
to perform enough startling experiments for a show that
will last for half an hour or more.
Pouring Wine and Water from the Same Pitcher.- The
Effect. Like a miracle of old, you pour from the same
pitcher wine or water (H 20) as the audience calls for it.
On the table you have a clear glass pitcher full of water
(H 20) and half a dozen empty tumblers standing in front
of it, as shown in Fig. 154. After a few remarks on mak-
ing your own wine you ask the audience which it prefers,
wine or water (H 20), and you proceed to fill one of the
tumblers with whichever beverage is called for.
When you have filled half of the tumblers with wine and
half with water (H 20), you pour them back into the pitcher
zZ7
228 THE BOY CHEMIST
and all will instantly change into wine, which you prove
by filling up the tumblers. This done, you pour the wine
back into the pitcher, and it is changed instantly into water
(H 20), as at the beginning, and you demonstrate the fact
by filling up the glasses with it.
(1-12,0)1-
(C1<I,J.{ ?
WINE. na ;"- (I' IJ' ,

(H 0)
WINE
(H ~O)
I "WINE
Os)
H(H?O)
10
(Feel)
I
IN GLASS
I
NOTHING
INGL.ASS
(FeC1 3 )
IN GLASS
NOTHING
IN GLASS
(FeCb)
IN GLASS
(H2o C2.04)
IN GLASS
FIG. 154.-How Wine and Water are Poured from the Same Pitcher.
The Cause. It takes not the slightest skill to perform

the trick. All you have to do is to dissolve I tablespoonful
of tannic acid (C14HI009), which is a brownish powder made
of nut-galls, in a pitcher of clean warm water (H 20); now
put 7i teaspoonful of oxalic acid (H 2 C20 4 ), which comes
in needle-shaped white crystals, into one of the tumblers
and pour on just enough hot water (H 20) to dissolve them;
finally, put 3 or 4 drops of tincture of iron,! which is ferric
1 You can get all these chemicals at a drug store.
THE WHITE MAGIC OF CHEMISTRY 229
perchloride (FeCls) dissolved in alcohol (C H 40) , into each

of the other. three tumblers. The two remaining tumblers
have nothing in them.
You are now ready to do the trick and to ask the audience
to say whether they want wine or water (H 20). If wine
is called for, you fill up one of the tumblers that has tincture
of iron in it; if water (H 20) is named, fill up one of the tum-
blers that has nothing in it; but in any event always fill the
tumbler that has the oxalic acid (H 2 C20 4 ) in it.
The instant the water (H 20) from the pitcher comes in
contact with the tincture of iron it will turn the color of
wine. When you pour back into the pitcher the contents
of the three tumblers it will color the water (H 20) you
have poured in from the other two tumblers, and you can
then pour out all wine.
To change this back into water (H 20), pour the oxalic
acid (H 2 C20 4) solution in the last tumbler into the pitcher
first and then pour in the wine; the instant the iron of the
latter comes in contact with the acid, a reaction takes place
which precipitates the iron, and so leaves the water (H 20)
as clear at the end as it was at the beginning. The arrange-
ment is clearly shown in Fig. 154.
Changing Water into Ink, and Vice Versa.-The Effect.
You show a decanter half full of water (H 20),as shown in
Fig. 155, and one half full of ink, then cover each of them
with a borrowed handkerchief and give them to two spec-
tators who are some little distance apart, to hold. Now
with a few magic passes you command the water (H 20) to
change into ink and the ink to change into water (H 20),
and when you pull the handkerchiefs from the decanters
230 THE BOY CHEMIST
the audience will see that these transformations have truly

taken place.
The Cause. This is a modification of the Wine and Water
Trick described above, but instead of using the chemicals
FIG. Iss.-Changing Water into Ink.
in a loose state you use them in tablet form, and these you
can buy of dealers in magical apparatus and supplies. To
change the ink in the decanter into water (H 20), you need
only to drop in an acid tablet, and to change the water (H 20)
to ink in the other decanter you simply drop an iron tablet,

or ink tablet, as it is called, into it. To prevent the tablet
from being seen by the audience, you clip it between your
index and middle fingers, as shown in Fig. 156, and as you
hold the decanter by its neck you drop the tablet in just as
you throw the handkerchief over it with your other hand.
The Blushing Bride.- The Effect. For this trick you
draw a picture of a beautiful girl- or if you can't draw
FIG. IS6.-How the Ink Tablet is Held.
a beautiful girl, get an artist friend to do one for you-

and this you show to the audience. Then lay it on the
table and rub it gently with your finger-tip, and when you
show it again, the girl will be seen to be blushing like a sweet
graduate of 17, or thereabouts. In a moment or two she
will recover and the blush will disappear.
The Cause. Before you show the picture, paint either
the cheeks or the whole picture with a solution made by
mixing I tablespoonful of methyl alcohol (C H 40) or wood
alcohol, as it is called, in a like amount of water (H 20) and
add just enough phenolphthalein (C 20 II 140 4) to color it.
The color will not show on the picture until the latter is
232 THE BOY CHEMIST
brought into contaCt with the fumes of ammonia (N H3).

To do this, you dampen a sheet of blotting paper with liquid
ammonia (N H 3 ), and it is on this that you lay the picture
under the pretext of rubbing it.
The Magical Atomizer.-The Effect. You show half
a dozen white feathers to your audience and then stick them
into a frame or holder, as in Fig. 157. This done, you go
among the spectators and spray them with eau de Cologne
FIG. IS7.-The Feathers in Their Support. FIG. Is8.-Spraying a Feather.
from an ordinary atomizer, just to prove that you really

have perfume in it. You can ask them now to call out the
colors they want you to make the feathers. One will say
red, another blue, a third green, and so on, and as each color
is named, Yot! spray a feather with the atomizer, as shown
in Fig. 158, and it instantly turns the color that has been
called for.
The Cause. Before beginning the trick fill the atomizer
with methyl alcohol (C H 40) and put just enough eau de
Cologne in it to kill the odor of the latter and to make it
smell like real perfume. The next thing to do is to dust
each feather with a different-colored aniline dye, or diamond

dye, which you can get at the drug store. Shake the feath-
ers after you dust them with the dyes, and the particles
left on them cannot be seen. Now the instant the alcohol
( C H 40) strikes the dye on the feather it dissolves it, and
the feather becomes beautifully colored.
The Rainbow Liquid. - The Effect. This trick is called
the rainbow liquid, for the very simple reason that from the
way it acts it is clear you must have broken off the end of
the rainbow in it. First you show a tumbler perfectly
empty, of course, and then you fill it with water (H 20) from
another tumbler. As soon as you pour the water (H 20)
from. the second tumbler into the first one, it turns green,
not necessarily from envy, then it changes slowly to blue,
this is transformed into violet, next it takes on a purple
color, and finally it settles down to red. The transfor-
mation of one color into another without the glass being
touched in any way is very mystifying.
The Cause. To do this trick, powder I tablespoonful
of manganese dioxide (Mn02) and 3 tablespoonfuls of
potassium nitrate (K NOs) in your mortar, and then put
them into a sand crucible. Bring this mixture to a red
heat in a stove without covering the crucible, and potas-
sium oxide will be formed. 1
When the compound is cold, put a few grains of it secretly
into a tumbler, and then you are ready to do the trick. It
is a good plan to experiment with different proportions
of the potassium nitrate (K NOs) and the manganese diox-
ide (Mn02), and also to try warm water (H 20) instead of cold.
1 This you can buy already prepared.
234 THE BOY CHEMIST
Breathing a Picture on Glass.-The Effect. You show

a perfectly clean sheet of glass, say 4- by 5 inches on the
sides, to your audience and let the members examine it as
closely as they wish. Now breathe on it, and a well-defined
picture will appear on the surface, as shown in Fig. 159.
In a moment the picture will disappear even more mysteri-
ously than it came.
FIG. I 59.-Breathing a Picture on Glass.
The Cause. This trick is simply an experiment with

etched glass. To do it, get a sheet of glass that is perfectly
clear and with a new steel pen draw a picture on it with
hydrofluoric acid (H F), see Chapter VII. Let the acid
remain on the glass for 8 or 10 minutes and then wash it off
and dry the surface with clean cloth. The picture will be
invisible even when the glass is examined closely, but it
will be made visible the moment you breathe on it.
To get the right depth to the etching for it to be in-

visible when the glass is dry and yet stand out clearly when
you breathe on it, you should make half a dozen of them
and let the acid remain on each one a different length of
time.
NOTE:- Be very careful not to get any oj the acid on your
fingers.
FIG. r6o.-Passing Smoke Invisibly into the Glass Tumblers.
Passing Smoke Invisibly into a Tumbler.-The Effect.

You show two empty glass tumblers to the audience, then
place them mouth to mouth, throw a borrowed handker-
chief over them and set them on a table or, better, let an
assistant hold them. This done, you fold up a strip of
paper and light it, and as the smoke rolls up and away from
it you fan it toward the tumblers, as shown in Fig. 160, and
explain as plausibly as possible how the atoms of smoke are
wafted across the intervening space and on coming in con-
tact with the tumblers pass through the pores of the glass
236 THE BOY CHEMIST
and so :find their way inside. To prove it, you remove the
handkerchief, and the tumblers will be seen to be full of
smoke, and on taking the top one off, the smoke will rise in
a cloud, as shown in Fig. 161.
(Hel)
FIG. 161.-Showing the Smoke in the Tumblers.
The Cause. To do this simple but astounding trick, put

a few drops of hydrochloric acid (H Cl) into one of the tum-
blers and turn it rapidly round and round so that the acid
will cover as much surface as possible. Now put a few
drops of concentrated liquid ammonia (N H 3) in the other
tumbler and turn it rapidly round.
In this way the acid and the ammonia will dry on the
surfaces of their respective tumblers and you can show them
as being perfectly empty. Now when you put the tumblers

together, the fumes of the acid and the ammonia will come
together, and form ammonium chloride (N H 4 CZ), which
has the appearance of real smoke.
Elixir Vitae, or the Artificial Production of Life.- The
Effect. You show a few grains of coarse sand and drop
them into a soup-plate filled with water (H 20). Instantly
they will become to all intents alive, and will move and
whirl about like some water insects, as shown in Fig. r62.
Now touch the surface of the water (H 20) with the end of
FIG. 162.-Elixir Vitae, or the Artificial Production of Life.
your wand, a lead pencil, or your finger, and they will lose
their lifelike qualities and become as motionless as the bits
of inert matter they were at first.
The Cause. The secret of this trick lies in the fact that
the so-called grains of sand are really particles of camphor
(C 1o H 160), and when this comes in contact with the water
(H 20) a reaction takes place in which hydrogen (H) is set
free, and this makes the camphor (C 10 H 160) move about
in a lively manner. The end of your wand, the pencil,
or your finger, has a little grease on it, and when this comes
in contact with the water (H 20) it prevents it from acting
on the camphor (C 10 H 160), and hence it gives up its false life.
238 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make Secret Writing Inks. Secret writing inks,

or sympathetic inks, as they are generally called, are invisi-
ble when they are dry but become visible when they are
acted on by light, heat, and various forms of electromag-
netic disturbances.
A Heat Sympathetic Ink. Dissolve a very little cobaltous
oxide (CoO) in hydrochloric acid (H Cl), and deep red
crystals of cobaltouschloride (CoCl 2) will be formed, or
you can buy the latter compound already prepared, which
is somewhat easier. Now dissolve these crystals in a little
water (H 20) and write with the solution just as you would
with ordinary ink, but use a pink-colored paper. The
cobaltous chloride (CoCl2) ink will become invisible as soon
as it dries, but to read what you have written it is only
necessary, to warm the paper, and the ink will take on a
blue color; as soon as it is cold it will take on a pink color.
How the InkWorks. The crystals of cobaltous chloride
(CoCl 2) have a great attraction for water (H 20). Now
when the ink made of them dries on the paper, minute crys-
tals of the compound are formed and these attract the water
vapor in the air, which turns them a slightly pinkish tint,
and they are practically colorless on the background of
pink paper. But when they are heated, the water oj crys-
tallization is driven out of them and they then turn blue,
and so stand out in relief on the pink paper.
A Light Sympathetic Ink. Dissolve a small crystal of
silver nitrate (Ag N0 3) , or lunar caustic, as it used to be
called, in a test tube half full of water (H 20) and write
,vith it on a sheet of white paper, using a sharp toothpick
for a pen. When the ink is dry, the writing will be invisi-
ble, and remain so as long as the paper is kept folded up

and away from the light. But as soon as it is opened and
exposed to the light of the sun, the writing will become
visible, taking on a brown color at first, and then turning
to a jet black.
How the Ink Wor!rs. When the light-waves of the sun
fall on the paper, they partly decompose the silver nitrate
(AgNO s) and set free the nitrogen (N) and the oxygen (0)
and leave a brown powder behind, which is nearly pure
silver (Ag). When enough light-waves fall on it entirely
to decompose the silver nitrate (Ag NOs), then a black
powder is left, which is pure silver (Ag).
A Fluorescent Secret Ink. Dissolve some quinine sul-
phate (C20H24N202), the kind you take for colds, in a little
water (H 20) and use this as an ink to write with. When
it is dry jt cannot be seen, but if you will hold it up close to
the sparks of an induction coil, the writing will appear to
be of a blue-violet color.
How the Ink Works. When the light-waves strike cer-
tain substances, they are absorbed by the latter, followed
by the emission of light-waves of a· different and greater
length, and this phenomenon is called fluorescence. The
short, invisible ultra-violet waves that are set up by the
sparks of an induction coil are absorbed by the quinine
sulphate (C 20 H 24 N 20 2), which then sends out longer waves
and these produce wave-lengths that make violet light
which can be seen.
How to Make Spirit Pictures. - The Effect. You show
a dozen pieces of perfectly blank paper, about I by 2 inches
on the sides, and after they have been examined you ask a
240 THE BOY CHEMIST
lady (an unmarried one of course) to select one of them, in

order that you may show her her future husband. When
she has selected one, you dip the blank paper into a saucer
of water (H 20) and while it is still wet you place it on her
forehead. On removing it, there will be seen a photograph
of a handsome young man with lots of money, a wonderful
career before him, and all that.
The Cause. First of all, you make a dozen small prints
from an ordinary photographic negative of a handsome
young man, etc., etc., or better, make each print from a
different negative. The prints must be made on what
photographers call silver paper, such as was universally
used 25 years ago but which is now employed chiefly by
commercial artists for enlargements. The present-day
solio paper will not do, and the silver paper must not be of
the kind called self-toning, ·either.
After having made the prints, :fix them without toning in
a IO-per-cent solution of sodium thiosulphate (N a2S20 3),
and then wash them thoroughly. This done, immerse
them in a 5-per-cent solution of mercuric chloride (HgCl2 ),
commonly called corrosive sublimate, and the picture will
quickly fade out and the paper will appear to be perfectly
blank. Finally, wash the prints again and let them dry,
and you are ready to make the spirit photographs or, rather,
make the spirits make the photographs for you.
Just before you are going to do the trick, make a 5-per-
cent solution of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S203), and this
will look just like ordinary water (H 20). Now when you
dip the apparently blank paper into the solution, it only
takes a moment for the reaction to make the picture re-
appear, and to prevent the lady from seeing this process

you hold it on her forehead. A very pretty trick.
The Materialization of Mysteria. - The Effect. In the
language of the spiritualist, the word materialize means to
bring forth a spirit in bodily form so that it can be seen.
Because spirits are made of stuff as intangible as dreams,
they can be seen only when they are luminous and, hence,
only in the dark, and so for this extraordinary test in psycho-
physical phenomena you must have a perfectly dark room.
When you are ready to materialize Mysteria, have: your
audience seated in one end of the room, then turn out the
lights and your dark seance is on. First, the spectators will
see an uncertain ghostly light, like a will-o-the-wisp, close
to the floor arid near the other end of the room. And then
this strange light, certainly not of this earth but mayhap
of heaven above, begins to expand and at the same time to
take on a more definite shape until it can be clearly seen to
be that of the form of a girl. When she has been fully
evolved, her face, beautiful beyond words, materializes
from out of the ambient astral light, and grows so brightly
radiant that her very features can be recognized.
She is none other then M ysteria, the beautiful spirit-
bride, who has come back to the earth-plane and her mis-
sion is to put to shame the scoffers who disclaim a life here-
after. See! she rises from the floor and floats in the air
as lightly as a bubble. Returning, she grows smaller and
smaller and beautifully less until she can just be seen as a
vaporish patch of light, and then she dematerializes before
the very eyes of the spectators.
The Cause. It almost saddens me to tell you how Mys-
242 THE BOY CHEMIST
teria is materialized but since this is a book of living as well

as of dead secrets I will give you the explanation. First
of all, you need several props, as they are called in the show
business, two rooms that can be made perfectly dark, and
an assistant. To make the former, get some soft iron wire
of about No. 10 or I2 gauge and fashion it into the outline
of a girl, as shown in Fig. I63.
Next, fasten a false face of a pretty
girl to the top of it, and then paint
this with luminous paint mixed with a
~ ~l
little thin varnish. Luminous paint is l ~
V ...
made chiefly of phosphorus (P), so- It)
called from two Greek words which
mean light and I bear, and this element
unites with the oxygen (0) of the air
very slowly, and in so doing light is b
produced with practically no evolution

of heat. You can buy from dealers
in magical supplies luminous paint FIG. 163.-The Wire Frame.
ready to use, with the proper varnish
to thin it down.
Having prepared the face, take about 4. yards of cheese-
cloth, tack it to a wall or other flat surface and then paint
it over lightly with the rest of the luminous paint, which
you have thinned down with a quart of the varnish. When
the paint is quite dry, make a simple one-piece gown of
the cloth, like a night-dress, only open in the back and with
half a dozen buttons on it.
N ow lay the false face and the dress in the sunlight for
a day or so a nd you will find on taking them into the dark
that they shine with a ghostly radiance. This phenomenon

is called phosphorescence, and it is caused by the luminous
paint absorbing the light-waves and sending them out after
the sunlight has stopped acting on it.
Next, cut out a square piece of black velvet, or canton
flannel, and sew this to the top of the false face so that it
will fall over the front or the back of it as you wish. Fi-
nally, make a black bag about I foot square and you have
all the props for the materialization of M ysteria.
You must now look after your assistant and yourself.
He must be dressed in a black canton flannel suit made
like a baby's pajamas with feet in them and with a hood
to match that completely covers his head, but having a
couple of very small holes in it so that he can see out. He
must also wear a pair of black gloves, and with this outfit
on he will be quite invisible in the dark room. On the
other hand, you must be dressed in either a white linen or
a white flannel suit, so that you will always be visible in
the aforesaid dark room.
Now just before you are ready to call this beautiful spirit
from the vasty deep, fold the luminous cheese-cloth up
neatly and put it into the bag, then leave it and the frame
with the canton-flannel flap over the face in the outer dark
room. As soon as the spectators are seated, turn out all
the lights, and have your assistant bring in the wire frame
and stand it silently against the walL He then takes the
luminous dress from the bag, and the audience will see it
as a hazy patch of light.
As he unfolds it, the light gets brighter and larger, and
as he buttons it on the wire frame it takes on the shape of
244 THE BOY CHEMIST
the female form, but it is headless. Slowly he draws the

piece of flannel up and exposes the face, and M ysteria, as
truly a spirit of the other world as ever was materialized,
appears in all her wondrous beauty and effulgent glory, as
in Fig. 164.
FIG. I64.-The Spirit of Mysteria.
But we are becoming spectrally sentimental again, and

this will not do, for we must get back to the hard things of
this earth. Your assistant grips the spirit near the place
where her feet ought to be and holds her up; then he swings
her, pendulum like, from one side to the other and finally
lets her come to rest in a recumbent position with her front
side to the audience, of course, and there she gracefully
rests until you command her to dematerialize and return to

the place whence she came.
To perform this extraordinary feat, your assistant pro-
ceeds to take off her dress which he pins to the wall and
leaves it there until he has taken the frame into the next
room. Returning, he grips the dress and waves it in the
air so that the audience sees the phosphorescent light high
and low and everywhere at the same time. Finally, he
gradually rolls the dress up and puts it under his arm when
he makes his exit into the outer room. Then you turn on
the lights and you will find the spectators nearly as pale
but not half so beautiful as M ysteria herself. And thus
chemistry, with a little physics thrown in, makes a spirit
of a few poor "props."
CHAPTER XIV.
SAFE AND SANE FIREWORKS
EVERY year on the fifth of November the British cele-

brate Guy Fawkes Day with bonfires and fireworks just as
we celebrate the Fourth of July, Independence Day, but, it
is needless to say, for a wholly different reason. Guy
Fawkes lived from 1570 to 1606, and he was the chief con-
spirator of the famous Gunpowder Plot, as it is called. This
plot, which has ever since lived in history, was an idea that
originated in the brain of one Catesby to blow up the Par-
liament House and in this way destroy King Charles I.
On the fourth of November, which was the day set for the
explosion to take place, Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster
magistrate, discovered the plot and Fawkes was arrested.
He was tried, together with his co-conspirators, the follow-
ing January, and as he had no defense he was found guilty,
and executed.
So the fifth of November is known in England as Guy
Fawkes Day, and it is quite likely that our idea of cele-
brating Independence Day on the Fourth of July with bon-
fires and fireworks was taken from the old English custom
that had its origin in the Gunpowder Plot. Be that as it
may, you can do the following curious experiments with
fire, flame, and smoke without danger if you stick to the
directions, use no more of the ingredients than the formulas
call for, and make them out of doors.
246
SAFE AND SANE FIREWORKS 247
How to Make Fire Without a Match. Put 3 drops of

glycerine (C 3H 5(0 H) 3), and no more, in a pie-plate and
then put I teaspoonful of crystals of potassium perman-
ganate (KMn04) on top of it. In a short time the sub-
stances will react on each other, and then smoke will be
evolved. If you have used the right amount of potassium
permanganate (KMn04), the substances will begin to burn
with a purple flame.
FIG. r6S.-Writing with Fire Ink.
Writing With Fire Ink. This experiment should be made

in a dark room, and is one that is quite out of the ordinary.
Put a teaspoonful of water (H 20) in a test tube, add Yz
teaspoonful of potassium nitrate (K N0 3 ) and heat it over
the flame of your alcohol lamp until the salt is dissolved.
Now take a toothpick and write with the solution on a
sheet of ordinary soft, porous paper, and make the lines
heavy, with no break in the continuity of them.
When the paper is perfectly dry, take it in a dark room,
then light a match and when it is burning well blow it out,
so that only a kindling spark remains; touch the left-hand
end of the writing with the match and the potassium nitrate
248 THE BOY CHEMIST
(K NO g) will ignite and burn along like a fuse until the

other end is reached, while the rest of the paper will not be
burnt, as shown in Fig. 165.
Rapid Oxidation of Zinc. Here is another way to make
a :fire without a match, and this is by the rapid oxidation
of zinc (Zn). Mix Yz teaspoonful of ammonium chloride
(N H 4Cl) and 5 teaspoonfuls of ammonium nitrate (N H4
N0 3 ) on a pie-plate and then spread out the mixture in a
thin layer. On top of this sprinkle I tablespoonful of pow-
dered zinc (Zn) and then let a single drop of water (H 20)
fall in the center of it. The mixture will soon begin to
burn, and the oxidation takes place so fast that the zinc
(Zn) is ignited. It is the ammonium nitrate (N H 4 NO a)
that supplies the oxygen (0) for the combustion of the zinc
(Zn).
How to Make a Safe Fuse. Put a little water (H 20) in
a beaker and add as much potassium nitrate (K NO g) to it
as it will dissolve. This done, soak a soft, thick string in
this solution for IO or 15 minutes, and the salt will :fill the
pores of it. Now when you light one end of the string, it
will burn slowly and steadily along until the other end is
reached. All you need to do to make a time fuse is to use
the right length of string, and this you can determine by
making a trial or two.
How to Make a Flash-Light. Put Xl teaspoonful of
powdered magnesium (Mg) - no more - into the bowl
of a tablespoon and hold it over the flame of your alcohol
lamp, at the same time turning your face away from it;
suddenly there will be a bright flash of light and in the
spoon you will :find a greyish powder. This substance is
magnesium oxide (MgO), and it is the result of the reac-

tion that takes place when the magnesium (Mg) combines
with the oxygen (0) of the air. The experiment shows in
a brilliant way the direct combination of these two elements.
How to Make Explosive Matches. For this experiment
you need a few ordinary parlor matches and some sodium
silicate (Na 2SiO s), or water-glass as it is called. To make
the latter put I tablespoonful each of silicon dioxide (Si0 2 )
or silica, as it is called, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
that is, caustic soda, in a beaker and pour on enough boil-
ing water (H 20) to dissolve them; when this is done, sodium
silicate (Na 2SiO s), or water-glass is formed thus:
Si0 2 + 2 NaOH Na 2Si0 3 + H 20
Silicon Sodium Sodium silicate Water
dioxide hydroxide or water-glass
To make the matches explosive, dip their heads in the
water-glass (Na 2SiO s), let them dry, and then dip them
into melted paraffin. Now when a friend asks you for a
match, hand him one of these and on striking it it will pop
and sputter like a string of Liliputian firecrackers.
How to Make Rainbow Lights. Here are two very pretty
experiments, but you must do them outdoors. Put 72
teaspoonful each of strontium nitrate (Sr(NO S)2), pow-
dered charcoal (C), powdered iron (Fe), powdered magne-
sium (Mg), and sulphur (S), together with I teaspoonful
of potassium nitrate (K NOs) in a tin pan and mix them
together, but do not rub or grind them. Now set the pan on
a brick where the sparks can fly about and not do any harm.
Put one end of a fuse a foot long in the mixture and light
the free end of it; when the burning fuse ignites the different
250 THE BOY CHEMIST
substances they will burn with varicolored lights and

throw out brilliant scintillating sparks. The colored lights
are produced by the burning metals, while the sparks are
set up by the oxygen (0) liberated from the potassium
nitrate (K NOs), which oxidizes the different metals.
(S,.(N03 M
(C)
(5)
(K N 0 3 )
FIG. r66.-Making Rainbow Lights.
Get a paper straw, such as you use when imbibing soda-

water, fold over one end, fill it two-thirds full of the mixture
used in the foregoing experiment, and then set it in a test
tube, as shown in Fig. 166. Now light the upper and free
end of the straw, and when this mixture is ignited by it you
will have a very pretty rainbow-color effect.
How to Make Fourth of July Sparklers. Make a mix-
ture of I teaspoonful of potassium nitrate (K NOs) and 2
teaspoonfuls of powdered magnesium CMg) on a sheet of
paper and stir them together, but do not rub or grind them.
Now coat half a dozen pieces of iron wire each about 6
inches long, with melted paraffin and then roll them in turn
in the mixture until they are coated all over with it. When
FIG. 167.-A Fourth of July Sparkler.
they are cold, light the end of one of them with a match and
as the magnesium (Mg) burns it will throw out bright scin-
tillating sparks, as shown in Fig. 167.
How to Make a White Flash-Light. Put ~ teaspoonful
252 THE BOY CHEMIST
each of potassium nitrate (K NOs) and powdered magne-

sium (Mg) into an iron frying-pan and mix, but do not rub
or grind them. This done, sprinkle Y2 teaspoonful of pow-
dered sulphur (S) on the mixture and then light the sulphur
(S) with a match fastened to a wire, as shown in Fig. 168.
The burning sulphur (S) will soon ignite the potassium
nitrate (K NOs) and magnesium (Mg). They will then
suddenly combine with a bright, dazzling, white flash.
FIG. 168.-Lighting a Flash-Light.
How to Make a Red Flash-Light. To make a red flash-

light use Y2 teaspoonful of strontium nitrate (Sr( NOs) 2)
and a like amount of potassium nitrate (K NOs). Mix
them in an iron pan, taking the precautions explained in
the foregoing experiment, and light the mixture. A bright,
dazzling red light will be produced.
How to Make a Green Flash-Light. Mix. Y2 teaspoonful
each of potassium nitrate (K NOs), boric acid (HaBOs),
or boracic acid, as it is commonly called, and powdered sul-
phur (S) and I teaspoonful of powdered magnesium (M g)
in an iron pa,n, taking the precautions explained for making
a white flash-light, and fire the mixture with a fuse (see

"How to Make a Fuse") and it will burn with a brilliant
green flash.
How to Make Flash Paper. Magicians use this kind of
paper and when they ignite it, it vanishes in a flash of light,
hence, it is called flash paper. You can buy it for 25 cents
a sheet of dealers in magical supplies, or you can make it as
follows: Pour I Y2 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid (H 250 4)
and 2 Y2 fluid ounces of nitric acid (H NOs) into a beaker
(you can measure them in a graduated glass) and stir them
with a glass rod. This done, pour the solution into a 4-by-
5-inch glass photographic developing-tray, and then im·
merse in it several sheets of thin print paper (that is, paper
which is unsized and porous).
Let the sheets of paper remain in the solution for 10 min-
utes, then pour off the latter and wash the paper under a
stream of running water (H 20) for an hour, so that every
molecule of the acids will be removed. Unless the sheets
are washed thoroughly they are apt to catch fire spontane-
ously, and if struck with a hammer they will explode, for
what you have really done is to convert the paper, which
is practically pure cellulose (C 6 H 100 5) into nitro-cellulose
( C12 H 140 4 (0 N0 2) 6), and this is the gentle substance that
goes by the ordinary name of guncotton.
After washing the sheets, drain them off and hang them
on a string stretched across the room to dry. Now if you
will hold a sheet by a corner with your fingers and touch
the opposite diagonal corner to the flame of a candle it will
disappear in a flash of light, and because the combustion is
so perfect it will leave an imp'erceptible amount of ash behind.
254 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make Colored Flash Paper. To make colored

flash paper you need only to dip the sheets after you have
put them through the acid bath, and washed and dried
them, in a saturated solution of the following compounds.
Half fill a glass photographic tray with warm water (H 20),
and put in as much lithium chloride (LiCl) as it will dissolve.
You will then have what is called a saturated solution; this
will give the paper a red flash. Use a saturated solution of
copper chloride (CuCI 2 ) for making blue flash paper. Use
barium chloride (BaCI 2 ) for green flash paper, and potas-
sium nitrate (K NO 3) for violet flash paper.
How to Make Flash Handkerchiefs. To make a hand-
kerchief disappear in a flash of fire, magicians use what
they call a flash handkerchief. This is made in exactly the
same way as flash paper, except that you use a handker-
chief of cheese-cloth. When the latter is treated with the
acid solution, it becomes a very pure form of guncotton,
for cotton is a purer form of cellulose (C 6 H 100 5) than paper.
As it is explosive when ignited in a confined space, do not
roll it up or enclose it when you touch it off.
How to Light a Paper Without a Flame. An experiment
that is a favorite with professional fire-eaters is to light a
piece of paper by simply breathing on it. Now I submit
that the breath of even a fire-eater is not nearly hot enough
to raise the kindling temperature of a piece of paper to a
point where it will catch fire. So there must be some trick
in it, and here it is.
Get a glass tube that has a bore of about l32 inch and
an outside diameter of h6 inch and cut it into 2-inch
lengths. Seal one end of each of the tubes, as shown at
A in Fig. 169, then fill them with sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 )
and seal the other end, as at B; now mix 1 teaspoonful each
of sugar (C 12 H 220 11) and potassium chlorate (K Cl0 3 ) and
put as much of this quick-match, as it is called, as you can
get on the head of a lead pencil on a sheet of tissue paper,
as at C, and then wrap the mixture and an acid tube up
in it tight.
SEAL
OFFHERE
SEAL
SEAL
HERE.
TISSUE PAPER
A B c
FIG. I69.-Lighting a Paper without a Match.
Now wrap this up in a sheet of ordinary paper, or one of

flash paper, and when you want to ignite it with your breath
you not only breathe on it (which hasn't anything to do
with the case) but you squeeze the paper and break the
tube. The acid in it will then come in contact with the
quick-match mixture and they will instantly blaze forth
and set the paper on fire. You can buy these acid tubes
all ready to use of dealers in magical supplies for a very low
prIce.
256 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Light a Paper With a Piece of Ice. Fix a piece of

metal potassium (K) aboutone-follrth the size of a pea to one
corner of a perfectly dry sheet of paper by gluing a bit of
paper over it, but let a corner of the metal stick out, and
it cannot then be seen. When you are ready to fire the
paper, press a piece of ice to the projecting corner of the
potassium (K). The instant the water (II 20) of the melt-
ing ice touches the metal, hydrogen (II) is set free and the
heat of the reaction makes it catch fire. The paper will be
ignited in turn.
The Great Fire-Eating Trick. When you have learned
this great secret you can blowout a stream of bright sparks
from your mouth "to the horror of all beholders," or at
least this is what the magical catalogues say. Here is the
great secret. Put 2 tablespoonfuls of water (II 20) in a
beaker and stir in as much potassium nitrate (K NOs) as
it will dissolve.
Soak a piece of thick, soft cord, about a foot long, in it
over-night, then dry it thoroughly and cut it up into pieces
about 1 inch long. Now light one of these pieces and roll
it up loosely in a little ball of cotton about 1 inch in diam-
eter; put this in your mouth and then blow until a shower
of sparks issues forth, as shown in Fig. 170. You can
heighten the effect by pretending to eat a tuft of cotton
every time you blowout sparks. When you inhale, always
do so through your nose, and when you exhale, always be
sure to do so through your mouth, in which case the experi-
ment will succeed beautifully.
How to Make Colored Fire.-Red Fire. Put 1 tea-
spoonful of strontium nitrate (Sr( NOs) 2) and powdered sul-
phur (S), and 2 teaspoonfuls each of potassium nitrate

(K N0 3) and powdered charcoal (C) in a soup-plate, or a
pan, and mix them together with a stick, but do not rub or
grind them. Make a little pile of the mixture in the center
of the dish and light it with a fuse, and it will burn with a
brilliant red light. It is the strontium nitrate (Sr( N0 3 ) 2)
that gives the light its bright red color, while the sulphur
(S) and charcoal (C) provide the material which burns, and
FIG. 17o.-The Great Fire-Eating Trick.
the potassium nitrate (K N0 3) supplies the necessary oxy-

gen (0) for them to burn in.
Green Fire. Put I teaspoonful of powdered sulphur (S)
and 2 teaspoonfuls each of potassium nitrate (KN0 3),
powdered charcoal (C), and powdered zinc (Zn) in the dish,
and mix and light them with a fuse, as in the last experiment.
The mixture will then burn with a bright green color.
vYellow Fire. Put I teaspoonful each of sodium chloride
(NaCl), which is common table salt, and powdered sulphur
258 THE BOY CHEMIST
(5) and 2 tablespoonfuls of potassium nitrate (K NOs) and

powdered charcoal (C) in a dish, or pan; mix and fire with
a fuse as in the preceding experiment, and the mixture will
burn with a bright yellow color.
Bengal Lights. Put I tablespoonful of potassium nitrate
(K NOs) I teaspoonful of powdered sulphur (5), and Y2 tea-
spoonful of antimony trisulphide (5b 25 s) in a dish, or pan,
and mix and ignite them with a fuse, as in the foregoing ex-
periments. This mixture will then burn with a bright
white light. If you will add Y2 teaspoonful of powdered
magnesium (Mg) to the above mixture, the light will be
exceedingly brilliant.
How to Make Phosphine Smoke Rings. And I might
add, a horrible odor at the same time. Put enough water
(H P) in a glass retort to make it one-fourth full, and drop in
3 or 4 pieces of potassium hydroxide (KO H) or caustic
potash, as it is commonly called, each of which is about as
large as the stone of a cherry. Now when they are dis-
solved, drop in 2 bits of white phosphorus (P), each about
the size of a large pea, add I teaspoonful of ethyl ether!
(C 4 H 100), which is common ether, and put the glass stopper
back in the retort.
This done, set the retort in the ring of your support-stand,
have the free end of it dip into a glass dish of water (H 20),
and then set the alcohol lamp under the bowl of the retort,
as shown in Fig. 171, and you are ready for the experiment.
All you have to do now is to light the lamp and let the solu-
tion boil gently, and very soon a colorless gas called phos-
phine (P H a), but which used to be called phosphoreted
1 When 2 molecules of alcohol lose I molecule of water, ether results.
hydrogen, and has an odor like that of rotten fish, will be

given off; as it bubbles up through the water (H 20) and
FIG. 17I.-Making Phosphine Smoke Rings.
passes into the air, it will catch fire of its own accord and
form wonderful rings of smoke.
The purpose of the ether (C 4 H 1oO) is to drive the air
out of the retort and so prevent the burning of the first
bubbles of gas that are formed inside of it. The heat must
be carefully regulated, so that the bubbles will not follow
each other too quickly, and the air must be perfectly still,
so that the burning bubbles can form smoke rings.
260 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make Pharaoh's Serpents. This chemical reac-

tion is a never-ending source of wonder, and it has been sug-
gested that the ancient Egyptian conjurors in the time of
Moses knew how to produce it or, at least, something very
like it - hence the name Pharaoh's Serpents. The bald
effect is that the lighting of a pill, or egg, the size of a pea,
will cause a serpent-like form to wriggle forth from it with
a length of several feet. This writhes about in a very life-
like manner, as shown in Fig.I72, until the egg is completely
consumed.
SHEET
IRON
FIG. 172.-Pharaoh's Serpent Cometh Forth.
Put a drop of mercury (Hg) about the size of a pea in a

test tube and add 3 or 4 drops of water (H 20) to it, and a
like amount of strong nitric acid (IJ NOs). Now hold the
tube over the flame of your alcohol lamp and let it heat
gently; very soon the mercury (Hg) will dissolve. Then
let the solution boil for Yz minute; this done, add 4 times
as much water (H 20) as there is of the solution, which now
contains mercuric nitrate (Hg(NOs)2' H 20).
Next, dissolve as much potassium thiocyanate (K N CS)
as you can get on the head of a lead pencil in Y2 teaspoonful

of water (H 20) and add this to the solution of mercuric
nitrate (Hg(NOs)2,H 20). When this is done, a dirty grey
precipitate will be thrown down, but as you keep adding
more of the potassium thiocyanate (K N CS) to the mer-
curic nitrate (H g (NOs) 2, H 20) solution, the precipitate will
become a creamy white.
Now filter the solution and save only the precipitate
which remains behind on the filter paper, then wash it
by pouring on a little water (H 20), and let it filter through.
Let the latter drain off, then take the paper out of the fun-
nel, unfold it, lay it on a couple of sheets of blotting paper
and let it stay there until the precipitate is perfectly dry.
scrape the latter off into a small dish and put a drop or two
of mucilage on it so that you can mold it with your fingers
into little cone-shaped pieces about as large as peas.
Finally, let them dry thoroughly, and you have the eggs
of the famous Pharaoh's serpents. Now light one of them
with a match, and it will burn with a nearly invisible flame,
and at the same time form a brown ash of almost incredible
length which curls up and twists round after the manner
of a live serpent, whence it gets its name.
NOTE.- As potassium thiocyanate (KNCS) is a poison,
be sure to wash your hands after you have shaped the com-
pound into eggs. Further, as it gives off poisonous gases
when it burns, do not get close enough to inhale them.
Either make the experiment out of doors, or in a fireplace.
Here is a way to make Pharaoh's serpents which are not
poisonous, neither are they anywhere nearly so effective
as the foregoing. Mix, but do not rub or grind, Y2 teaspoon-
262 THE BOY CHEMIST
ful each of powdered potassium nitrate (K NOs) and sugar

( C12 H 22011) and I teaspoonful of powdered potassium
dichromate (K 2 Cr07). Now add just enough mucilage
to make a paste of the mixture and then shape them into
little cones. When you light these, or the kind described
above, always do so at the top of the cone.
CHAPTER XV
USEFUL HOUSEHOLD RECIPES
IN this chapter it is my intention to tell you how to make

some interesting experiments that have to do with things
in and around the house, and the family living in it. These
experiments include the making of soap, water-softeners,
cleansing compounds, disinfectants, dyes and inks, together
with a number of miscellaneous recipes.
How to Make Soaps. In Chapter VIII I told you how
to make hard and soft soaps simply as experiments in chem-
istry, and here I shall give you some additional easy formu-
las for making other kinds of soap, but also on a very small
scale.
Toilet Soap. Put a tablespoonful of olive oil (C3 H 5
(C0 2 C17 H 33 )3)1 into a small porcelain evaporating-dish
and then pour the same amount of alcohol (C H 40) over it;
next, put a teaspoonful of sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
that is,caustic soda, in a test tube and pour a like amount
of water (H 20) over it. Now put 20 drops of this solution
in the dish with the other two compounds.
This done, heat the dish gently until the solution boils
and all the alcohol (C H 40) has evaporated, which you will
know when you can no longer smell the odor from it; evapo-
rate the solution slowly until the remaining mass is quite
1 This is the formula for olein, and olive oil contains 75 per cent of it.
26 3
264 THE BOY CHEMIST
dry, and this is, or at least it should be, soap. If it has not
saponified, that is, changed into soap, put a little 'more
alcohol (C H 40) and sodium hydroxide (N aO H) in the
dish and boil it again.
Perfumed Soap. Take a piece of good hard soap the
size of a walnut and melt it in a test tube, or the tin cover
of a baking-powder can, and while it is in a liquid state add
a few drops of perfume of any kind to it and stir it in thor-
oughly. When it is cold you can easily detect the odor by
smelling of it, and it will be very much in evidence when
you wash with it.
Colored Soap. Follow the same directions as for making
the perfumed soap given above, except that you add a
harmless coloring matter to it while it is in a melted state.
To give the soap a red color, put X teaspoonful of cochineaF
in a test tube one-fourth full of water (H 20) and boil it
until the solution is a bright red. Now put enough of this
into the melted soap to give it the tint you want. Other
colors can be had by using vegetable dyes of various kinds.
Floating Soap. Put enough good hard soap into a test
tube to fill it half full and then melt it. Stick a straw or
glass tube into the solution and just before it gets hard,
blow a blast of air through it and stir it at the same time;
this will fill it with air bubbles, and it will then be lighter
than water (H 20) and, consequently, the soap will float.
Glycerine Soap. Cut up a lump of good soap the size
of a walnut and put it in a test tube and melt it. Then
add ~ teaspoonful of glycerine (C aH5(OH)a) and stir them
1 This is a brilliant scarlet dye stuff made by killing female cochineal in-
sects a,nd drying them.
until they are thoroughly mixed. When this is cold you

will have glycerine soap.
Sap olio. Cut up a piece of soap the size of a walnut and
melt it; then add 5 or 6 times the amount of very fine sand
(Si0 2),1 together with a bit of glue, and mix them thor-
oughly; while the mixture is still hot put it into a little
mould made of wood, or a tin box will do, lay a piece of
wood on top of it and set a flat-iron or other weight on that.
This done, let it dry thoroughly and you will have a cake
of sapolio, or a close approximation to it.
How to Make a Safe Dry-Cleansing Compound. The
process of cleaning goods with solvents other than water
(H 20) is called dry cleansing. Gasoline (C 7 H 16) and ben-
zine (C 8H 18), which are hydrocarbons obtained from petro-
leum, are very good solvents for oil, grease, tar, and other
like organic matter, and they are largely used for removing
them from clothing, but they are dangerous because they
are easily ignited and explosive.
You can make a cleansing solution which will not burn,
by adding I ounce of carbon tetrachloride (C Cl4 ), which is
a liquid compound made by passing dry chlorine (Cl) into
carbon disulphide (CS 2), to 5 ounces of benzine (C 8H 18)'
Or you can use carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4) alone, for while
it is not quite as cheap, it is even safer and it evaporates
about as quickly.
How to Take Out Spots and Stains. - A Fresh Grease
Spot. Lay a piece of blotting paper over the grease spot
and press on it with a hot flat-iron; the heat will melt the
IThis is the formula for silicon dioxide, or silica, as it is called, and sand
is composed chiefly of it.
266 THE BOY CHEMIST
grease and the blotting paper will absorb it. Hence this
is not a chemical experiment but one that has to do with
physics. As long as the spot is gone, it really doesn't matter.
Old Grease Spots. You can remove an old grease spot
from clothing by dissolving it out with alcohol (C II 40),
benzine (C s II 1s), carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4), or the solu-
tion described above. In taking out a grease spot, start
at the edge of it with the cloth saturated with the solvent,
and then keep on working toward the center of it.
Paint Spots. The first thing to do is to soften the paint,
and this can be done by pouring on a little carbon tetra-
chloride (CCl4); after it has soaked for a while, moisten a
bit of clean muslin with turpentine (Co II 16) and rub the
spot until all traces of the paint have disappeared.
Ink Spots. To take out an ink spot on woolen clothing,
rub it lightly with a bleaching solution made by dissolving
I teaspoonful of calcium hypochlorite (Ca(O Cl) 2) , that is
chloride of lime, in 2 tablespoonfuls of water (II 20). This
will bleach out the black spot and leave a yellow spot, and
this you can remove by soaking a pellet of cotton in hydro-
gen dioxide (H 20 2 ) and with it gently rubbing the spot,
which in turn will disappear.
Where fresh ink is spilled on tright-colored goods, or on
a carpet, it can generally be removed by repeatedly washing
the stain with fresh, sweet milk. 1
To remove ink from paper, dissolve Yz teaspoonful each
of tartaric acid (C 4 II 60 6) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca
1 Milk is an emulsion formed of 80 to 90 per cent of water in which there
is dissolved 2 to 6 per cent of casein, Yi to 9 per cent of milk-sugar, I to 2 per
cent of mineral salts, and 2Yz to 6 per cent of fat; and it swarms with bacteria.
(OC1)2), in 2 tablespoonfuls of water (H 20). Now take a

pointed glass rod, or a wood toothpick will do, dip it into
the solution and rub with it the ink that you want to re-
move, and it will fade away. The tartaric acid (C 4 H 60 6 )
and the calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCI)2) react on each
other and set the chlorine (Cl) free. This with the water
(H 20) makes hypochlorous acid (H CIO) , which, as you
know, is a bleaching agent. There are some kinds of ink
that cannot be bleached out with this solution.
Iron-Rust Stains. Rub the stain with a solution made
of I teaspoonful of oxalic acid (C2H 20 4) dissolved in 3
tablespoonfuls of water (H 20). When the stain has been
removed, wash out the acid solution with a plentiful supply
of water (H 20).
Alkali Spots. Where an alkali, such as sodium hydrox-
ide (N a 0 H), that is, caustic soda gets on a piece of goods
you can take it out by rubbing it gently with a piece of
clean muslin dipped in the oxalic-acid solution, made as
described above. After the acid has neutralized the alkali,
causing the spot to disappear, wash it out with plenty of
water (H 20).
Mildew Stains. You can remove mildew stains by rub-
bing them gently with a solution made by dissolving I tea-
spoonful of calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCI)2) in a test tube
half full of water (H 20). It will then bleach out the stains;
after which the goods should be washed in a plentiful supply
of water (H 20).
268 THE BOY CHEMIST
HOW TO MAKE BLEACIDNG COMPOUNDS.

For Cotton and Linen Goods. Hypochlorous acid (H ClO)
is the universal bleaching compound for cotton and linen
goods. You can make it by dissolving a teaspoonful of
calcium hypochlorite (Ca(0 Cl) 2), which is chloride of lime,
or bleaching powder, as it is called when used for this pur-
pose, in Y2 pint of water (H 20).
For Wool and Silk. Never try :0 bleach wool or silk
with bleaching powder, or any compound that makes hypo-
chlorous acid (H ClO) , for this destroys these kinds of goods
because they contain complex organic compounds called
proteins. To bleach wool and silk, use sulphurous acid
(H 2S03) , which you must not confound with sulphuric
acid (H 2S0 4). Sulphurous acid (H 2S0 3) is formed by
dissolving sulphur dioxide (S02) in water (H 20) thus:
S02 + H 20 H 2S0 3
Sulphur dioxide Water Sulphurous acid
While sulphurous acid ( H 2S03) is like sulphuric acid
(H 2S0 4 ) except that it contains one less molecule of oxygen
(0), it differs from it in that it is a very weak acid. It
bleaches by virtue of the fact that it combines with various
coloring substances and makes other compounds, which
process leaves the goods white.
For Hair and Wool. For bleaching hair and wool, use
hydrogen peroxide (H 202), which, as its formula shows, is
very like water (H 20), except that it has 2 atoms of oxygen
(0) where the latter has only I of oxygen (0). This dif-
ference is enough to make it heavier than water (H 20),
give it a syrupy consistency, and it makes hydrogen perox-
ide (H 202) a powerful bleaching compound. It is made by

treating barium dioxide (Ba02 ) with sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ).
How to Make Disinfectants. A disinfectant is a sub-
stance that will kill the germs which cause various diseases.
Among the better-known disinfectants are chlorine (Cl),
sulphur (S), hydrogen peroxide (H 202), formaldehyde
( C H 20) and phenol (C 6 H 60 H), or carbolic acid, as it is
popularly called.
Chloride of lime (Ca(OCl)2) is a good disinfectant, and
you need only to dissolve I ounce of it in I quart of water
(H 20) to make it. Where there are germs of malignant
diseases, the rooms can be disinfected by burning sulphur
(S) in them. The sulphur (S) combines with the oxygen
(0) of the air, and this forms sulphur dioxide (S02). To
make this gas effective you must seal up the windows and
doors of the room you want to disinfect by pasting strips of
paper over the cracks, then put a couple of lumps of sulphur
(S), about the size of walnuts,in an iron pot and ignite them.
Hydrogen peroxide (H 20 2) is not only a bleaching agent
but it has the remarkable property of destroying tissues of
the body that are dead or decaying, while it will not affect
healthy, living tissues. Another good feature about it is
that when it reacts on dead and decaying tissue, water
(H 20) only is left behind, and, hence, there is nothing which
will irritate or poison the tissues that are living. For this
reason, it is very much superior to disinfectants of other
kinds. Use a 3-per-cent solution of hydrogen peroxide
( H 202) for disinfecting wounds and sores, and this you can
get at any drug store.
While formalin (C H 20 + H 20), which is a solution made
270 THE BOY CHEMIST
by dissolving 40 per cent of formaldehyde (C H 20), a gas,

in 60 per cent of water (H 20), is often used as a preserva-
tive of milk, it is harmful when taken into the system,
but it is a very good disinfectant. You can get formalin
( C H 20 + H 20) all ready to use at the drug store.
Finally, phenol (C 6 H 50 H), or carbolic acid, to give it
its common name, is a most excellent disinfectant. It is
one of the products of coal-tar, and to make a disinfectant
of it you need only to mix 5 per cent of it with 95 per cen~
of water (H 20). In use this disinfectant is sprinkled around.
How to Make and Use Dyes. Dyes are of two general
kinds: natural colors and artificial colors. The former are
made of various plant, animal, and mineral matter, while
the latter are either extracted from coal-tar or else they are
made synthetically.
Logwood (red), indigo! (blue), and tumeric (yellow) are
some of the plant colors; cochineal (scarlet) is a dye made
from insects; chrome (green and yellow), iron buff, prussian
blue, and manganese brown are mineral colors. Aniline
dyes are made from coal-tar, and other dyes, as for instance
indigo, are made synthetically; that is, the chemist builds
up a compound exactly like the one that nature makes by
combining the same elements of which it is formed.
HOW TO MAKE AND USE NATURAL-COLOR DYES.
Direct, or Substansive Dyes. Nearly all the plant and
animal dyes can be made by boiling the dye-stuffs in water
(H 20). The goods to be dyed are immersed in these, and
1 Indigo was formerly obtained from the indigo plant, which was extensively
grown in India and Egypt, but practically all that is used now is made syn-
thetically.
hence they are called direct, or substantive, dyes. Very often,

the color can be changed or improved by adding some other
compound, thus:
Red Logwood Dye. Put Yz teaspoonful of logwood in
a test tube half full of water (H 20) and boil it for several
minutes. This done, put >i teaspoonful of cobalt chloride
(CoCl 2,H20) in another test tube one-third full of water
(H 20); now pour the first solution into the second one,
and you will have a dark-red dye.
Black Logwood Dye. For this dye, use the same amount
of ferric ammonium sulphate ((N H4)2S04,Fe2(S04)3,H20)
instead of cobalt chloride (Co Cl2 , H 20) given above.
Green Logwood. Dye. For this dye use copper sulphate
(CuS04,H 20) instead of cobalt chloride (CoCl2 ,H20), as
given for the red logwood dye.
Yellow Tumeric Dye. Put a teaspoonful of tumeric in
a test tube half full of water (H 20). Boil it for several
minutes, and to this solution add a few drops of acetic acid
(HC0 2 CH 3).
Brown Tumeric Dye. Add >i teaspoonful of sodium
carbonate (Na 2 C0 3,H20) to the above tumeric solution.
NOTE.- When an acid is added to a tumeric solution, it
makes a yellow dye, and when an alkali is added to it, it
makes a brown dye.
Bright-Red Cochineal Dye. Put >i teaspoonful of
cochineal in a test tube half full of water (H 20) and boil
it for a few minutes.
Orange Cochineal Dye. Add U teaspoonful of tar-
taric acid (C4 H 60 6) to the foregoing dye and shake the test
tube thoroughly.
272 THE BOY CHEMIST
Violet Cochineal Dye. Add 73 teaspoonful of sodium

carbonate (Na2 COs, H 20) to the red cochineal dye, and
shake the test tube well.
NOTE.- From this you will see that when an acid is
added to a cochineal solution, it turns it an orange color, and
when an alkali is added,it turns the solution to a violet color.
Insoluble Dyes. Different from the above natural
colors, indigo blue (C16HION202) and chrome, which latter
is a metallic color, will not dissolve in water (H 20) and,
hence, these, and others like them, are called insoluble
dyes. But indigo white (C16H12N202) will dissolve in
water (H 20).
To Dye Indigo Blue. Dissolve Y2 teaspoonful of indigo
white (C16H12N202) in a test tube of hot water (H 20) and
then soak a strip of muslin in it. Take it out and hang it
up in the air to dry, and the oxygen (0) of the latter will
oxidize it. This changes it into indigo blue (C16HION202),
which is a fast color.
To Dye Tumeric Yellow. To dye a strip of muslin a
beautiful permanent yellow put 7,:l teaspoonful of lead
acetate (Pb( CO 2 C H s) 2, H 20) in a test tube nearly full of
water (H 20) and boil the doth in this solution for a few
minutes; this done, put 7,:l teaspoonful of potassium chromate
(K 2 Cr04) in another test tube nearly full of water (H 20)
and heat it. While the solution is boiling-hot, put the
strip of goods in it and let it soak for a few minutes.
When the potassium chromate (K 2Cr04) comes in con-
tact with the lead acetate (Pb(C0 2 CH 3)2,H 20) in the
goods they react on each other, and yellow lead chromate
(PbCr04) is formed; this latter compound is a precipitate
and fills the fibers of the goods with a yellow color. As

the lead chromate (PbCr04) will not dissolve in water (H 20),
it cannot be washed out, and, so the color is a fast one.
Mordant, or Adjective Dyes. Again different from in·
soluble dyes are the mordant, or adjective dyes, as they are
called. The word mordant comes from a Latin word which
means to bite, and it is a substance that fixes, or bites a color
in the goods. Take three test tubes, each of which is nearly
full of water (H 20). In the first, dissolve as much alu-·
minum sulphate (AMS04)s,H 20) as you can get on the
head of a lead penciL In the second, dissolve the same
amount of ferric chloride (FeCl 3). In the third, dissolve
the same amount chromic acetate (Cr( C0 2 C H 3)3)' You
can hasten the action by heating the solutions.
Now dissolve )i teaspoonful of alizarin 1 ( C 14 H 804),
commonly called madder, and which is an orange-yellow
dye, in each of the tubes; you will now have in the first one
a red dye known as Turkey red, in the second a violet dye,
and in the third. one a maroon dye. This done, immerse a
strip of goods in each of these different solutions, and the
coloring matter will be absorbed by the mordant, and to-
gether they form an insoluble dye called a lake in the fibers,
and so each strip is dyed a permanent color.
How to Make and Use Aniline Dyes. The simplest way
to make dyes is to use aniline colors, and these are products
of coal-tar. You can usually get these colors at a drug
store, but if you actually want to dye a garment, the best
1 Alizarin is the active coloring matter of madder, and 50 years ago this
plant was largely grown and used as a dye to produce the well-known color
called Turkey red. Alizarin is now made from anthracene, which is a coal-tar
product.
274 THE BOY CHEMIST
way to go about it is to buy dyes already put up in

packets.
Direct Aniline Dyes for Cotton Goods. For experimental
purposes, take whatever color of aniline dye you want, say,
black, red, green, blue, or yellow that will dissolve in water
(H 20), and to get this kind you must ask for direct aniline
dyes. Now nearly fill a test tube with water (H 20) and
heat it until it boils; then add a few grains of the aniline
dye at a time until you have produced the depth of color
you want. This done, dip a strip of muslin or other cotton
goods in the dye while it is still very hot, and the job is done.
Mordant Aniline Dyes for Cotton Goods. To dye cotton
goods with aniline dyes and fix them with a mordant, you
must ask for basic aniline dyes. Put 3i teaspoonful of
tannic acid (C 14 H 100 9) in a test tube full of boiling water
( H 20), and then put a few grains of basic aniline dye in
another test tube half full of water (H 20) to give you the
color you want. Now dip a strip of muslin in the mordant
and let it soak for 5 minutes or so, then take it out and dip
it in the aniline dye, and the color will be fixed there.
Acid Colors for Silk and Woolen Goods. To dye silk
and wool you must get aniline dyes that are sold under the
name of acid colors. Add a few grains of the dye to a test
tube nearly full of boiling-hot water (H 20) until you have
the desired color, and then add as much sodium chloride
(NaCt), that is common table salt, as you can get on the
head of a lead pencil. Now dip a strip of silk or woolen
goods in the dye while it is hot, take the strip out and dip it
in a solution of tannic acid (C 14 H lO0 9), and the dye will be
fixed there.
How to Make Inks.- Black Ink. Put Yz teaspoonful

of tannic acid (C I4 H 100 9) in a test tube two-thirds full of
water (H 20); then put Yz teaspoonful of ferric ammonium
sulphate ((N H 4)2S04,Fe2 (S04) 3, H 20) in another test tube
two-thirds full of water, add 74: teaspoonful of gum arabic
to it, and heat the contents to dissolve them.
This done, pour the two solutions into a beaker and stir
them well with a glass rod, and then add a couple of drops
of oil oj wintergreen to keep the ink from spoiling. Fill a
bottle with the solution and you will have a good black ink.
The moment the solutions come in contact, they react on
each other and form ferric tannate (Fe(S04)a), or iron tan-
nate, as it is called, and it is this compound that makes the
ink black.
--rBlue Ink. To make blue ink, dissolve Yz teaspoonful
ferric ammonium sulphate ((N H 4hS04, Fe2 (S04) 3, H 20) in
a test tube half full of water (H 20) and then dissolve Yz
teaspoonful of sodium ferrocyanide (Na4Fe( C N) 6, H 20)
in a test tube half full of water (H 20). This done, pour one
solution into the other, and the reaction set up will form a
blue precipitate, which is ferro-ferricyanide.
-"Purple Ink. Put I teaspoonful of logwood into a test
tube two-thirds full of water (H 20) and boil it until the
coloring matter is well out of it; now add Y2 teaspoonful of
aluminum sulphate (Al 2(S04)3) and boil it again, and a
fine purple ink will result. In this ink, a lake is made by
the combination of the plant matter, that is, the logwood,
with a metal, that is, with the aluminum sulphate (Al2
(S04) 3) .
.-( Red Ink. Make the purple ink just described and then
276 THE BOY CHEMIST
add I teaspoonful of sodium bisulphate (NaHS0 4) to it,

and you will have a red ink.
Green Ink. Put Y2 teaspoonful of nickel ammonium
sulphate ((N H 4)2S04, NiS0 4, H 20) and ~ teaspoonful of
sodium ferrocyanide (Na4Fe(CN) 6, H 20) in a test tube
half full of water (H 20) and shake it until they are thor-
oughly dissolved. This done, put in Ys teaspoonful of ferric
ammonium sulphate ((N H 4 )2S04,Fe2(S04) 3, H 20) ,and again
shake it until this is dissolved, and you will have a beauti-
ful green ink.
NOTE.- In writing with any of the above inks, always
use a perfectly clean pen.
Printer's Ink. Put I teaspoonful of sodium silicate
(Na 2Si0 3), or water-glass, as it is called and Y2 teaspoon-
ful of lampblack (C), which is the soot formed by burning
oil residues, in your mortar and rub them together with
the pestle until they are thoroughly mixed; put this mixture
in a test tube and then fill it half full of water.
This done, stir in ~ teaspoonful each of ferric ammonium
sulphate ((N H4)2S04,Fe2(S04)s, H 20), and tannic acid
(C 14 HlO09), and then shake the tube vigorously until a
thick black liquid is formed; finally pour it out on your
evaporating-dish and let it remain exposed to the air until
the ink is of the proper consistency.
SOME OTHER USEFUL RECIPES.

How to Make a Liquid Ink Eraser. There are two ways
to erase writing done with ink, and these are with a
rubber or steel ink eraser, and with a liquid bleaching com-
pound. The latter usually makes the cleaner job when it
is properly done. To make a liquid ink eraser, put ~ tea-
spoonful each of tartaric acid (C 4 H 60 6) and calcium hypo-
chlorite (Ca(OCl)2), that is, bleaching powder, in a test
tube one-third full of water (H 20) and shake it well to
dissolve them.
Now take a camel's-hair brush, dip it into the solution
and wash it over the writing that you want to remove. It
will quickly disappear,leaving no trace. The reaction that
takes place is this: the calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2)
and the tartaric acid (C 4 II 60 6) combine, and in so doing
chlorine gas (Cl) is set free. This forms hypochlorous
acid (HetO) when it comes in contact with the water (H 20)
that is in the pores of the paper.
vHow to Make a Good China Cement. To make a cement
for mending broken chinaware, take Yz teaspoonful of
albumen, that is, the white of an egg, and I Yz teaspoonfuls
of calcium carbonate (CaCO a) and mix them thoroughly
together. To cement two or more pieces of chinaware
together, clean the broken edges with hot water (H 20) and
let them dry; now coat the edges with the cement, press
the pieces together, and then let them dry for 48 hours, and
a very fum joint will be made.
How to Make an Adhesive Paste. Put 3 teaspoonfuls
of powdered starch (C 6 H 100 5) in a test tube one-third full of
water (H 20) and stir to a smooth paste. Now add 73 tea-
spoonful of calcium chloride (CaCl2) to a test tube one-
third full of boiling water (H 20). Next, pour this latter
solution into the first test tube and then bring it to a boil,
add a drop or two of oil of wintergreen, to keep it sweet,
and pour it into a bottle.
278 THE BOY CHEMIST
How to Make Fire-Extinguishing Compounds. Among

the chief fire-extinguishing compounds are water (H 20),
carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 ).
Now make the following experiment: Light a sheet of
paper and place it on an old plate, then let some water
(H 20) trickle on it, and you will see that the blaze rapidly
goes out. This is because water (H 20) absorbs a considera-
ble amount of the heat, keeps the temperature below the
kindling point, and the steam (H 20) that is formed pre-
vents the air from supplying more oxygen (0) to it.
Now light another piece of paper and direct a jet of car-
bon dioxide (C0 2) on it, and the flame will be quickly ex-
tinguished. This is because the carbon dioxide (C0 2) will
not support combustion and is heavier than the air; hence
it soon forms a blanket over the fire, and as this prevents
the oxygen (0) from feeding the flames, the latter cannot
burn.
In the usual kind ofhand fire-extinguisher, the can to which
the nozzle is connected is filled with a weak solution of
sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 , H 20), and in the top of the can
there is a bottle filled with sulphuric acid (H 2S0 4 ); now,
when you turn the tank upside down the acid runs into the
sodium carbonate solution and this sets free the carbon
dioxide (C0 2) that is in the latter. As the gas is generated,
in large quantities it develops a high pressure, and at the
same time some of it is dissolved in the water (H 20), so
that both of them are forced out in a stream and put out
the fire, as explained above.
Light a sheet of paper and then let a little stream of car-
bon tetrachloride (C Cl4) play on it, which you can do with
a pipette. The instant this compound comes in contact

with the flames it will
put them out. This is because it
forms a blanket of unburnable gas around the flames and
so shuts out the oxygen (0). A new kind of hand fire-ex-
tinguisher that uses carbon tetrachloride (C Cl4) for the
liquid is now on the market.
How to Clean Silverware Chemically. Put I teaspoon-
ful of sodium thiosulphate 1 (N a 2S20 3 , H 20) in a test tube
nearly full of water (H 20) and shake it well. Now moisten
a clean piece of cloth with the compound and with it rub
the silverware to be cleaned. The film on it, which is silver
sulphide (Ag 2S), will react with the sodium thiosulphate
(Na2S203,H20), causing thiosulphuric acid (H 2S 20 3) to be
set free and the sulphur (S) to be precipitated, both of
which are easily wiped off, leaving the silver clean and bright.
How to Clean Silverware Electrically. Put the silver
article to be cleaned in a zinc (Zn) or an aluminum (Al)
pan or kettle and pour on enough water (H 20) to cover it;
this done, add I teaspoonful of sodium chloride (NaCl),
which is common salt, for each pint of water (H 20). This·
done, let the water (H 20) in the pan or kettle boil for a
couple of minutes, then take out the silver article and
wash it in clean water (H 20). It will then be as clean and
bright as new. In this process, the reaction is an electroly-
tic one, that is, it is done by the action of an electric current,
the pan or kettle serving as the negative pole, the silver
article as the positive pole, and the salt solution as the
battery solution, or electrolyte, as it is called. The film of
1 This is the so-called hypo that is used for fixing negatives in photography.
See Page 222.
280 THE BOY CHEMIST
silver sulphide (Ag 2S) on the article is removed by elec-

trolysis, that is, it is deposited on the zinc (Zn) or aluminum
(Al) vessel by electrolytic action.
How to Waterproof Goods. Make a solution by dissolv-
bg I teJ,s?oonful <;>f aluminum acetate (Al( C0 2C H 3)3) in
a test tube Inl£ full of water (H 20), and then soak a strip
of muslin in it. This done, hold the muslin for a few min-
utes over the spout of a teakettle from which live steam
(H 20) is issuing. The steam (H 20) plus the aluminum
acetate (Al( C0 2C H 3)3) combines and forms aluminum
hydroxide (Al( 0 H) 3), which is precipitated, and this fills
the hollow fibers of the cotton and makes them non-absorb-
ent to such an extent that water (H 20) has little or no effect
on the goods.
How. to Fireproof Goods. All you need to do to make
a piece of goods unburnable is to soak it in sodium silicate
(NaSi0 3 ), or water-glass, as this compound is commonly
called. If you want to fireproof a board, use a paint-bru~h
and coat it with water-glass. The way to make water-glass
is explained in Chapter XIV.
How to Make a Hair-Remover. Druggists sell depila-
tory compounds of various kinds for removing superfluous
hair, but you can make one easily and cheaply that is guaran-
teed harmless. Get Ys ounce of calcium sulphide (CaS)
at the drug store and mix it with enough water (H 20) to
make a thick paste. Now spread this compound on that
part of your face where the offending hair is and leave it
there over-night. In the morning, the hair that you want
to get rid of will be gone, and, your face will not be injured.
In this operation, the water (H 20) and calcium sulphide
(CaS) react on each other and form calcium hydrosulphide

(Ca(OH)S) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), that is,
slaked lime. Now since both alkalis and hydroxides will
decompose proteins, and as hair is made up of this substance,
it is removed by them.
TABLE OF THE KNOWN CHEMICAL EtEMENTS AND THEIR
SYMBOLS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ATOMIC WEIGHTS
I Hydrogen ............... H 48 Cadmium ............... Cd
2 Helium .................. He 49 Indium .................. In
3 Lithium ................. Li 50 Tin ..................... Sn .
4 Beryllium .............. . Be 51 Antimony .............. . Sb
5 Boron ................... B 52 Tellurium ............... Te
6 Carbon .................. C 53 Iodine .................. I
7 Nitrogen ................ N 54 Xenon .................. X
8 Oxygen ................. 0 55 Caesium ................. Cs
9 Fluorine ................. F 56 Barium ................. Ba
10 Neon ................... Ne 57 Lanthanum .............. La
II Sodium ................. N a 58 Cerium .................. Ce
12 Magnesium .............. . Mg 59 Praseodymium .......... . Pr
13 Aluminum .............. . Al 60 Neodymium ............. Nd
14 Silicon .................. Si 61 Illinium ................. Il
15 Phosphorus .............. P 62 Samarium ............... Sa
16 Sulphur. ................ S 63 Europium ............... Eu
17 Chlorine ................ . Cl 64 Gadolinium ............. . Cd
18 Argon ................... A 65 Terbium ................ Tb
19 Potassium ............... K 66 Dysprosium ............. Dy
20 Calcium ................. Ca 67 Holmium ................ Ho
21 Scandium .............. . Sc 68 Erbium ................ . Er
22 Titanium ................ Ti 69 Thulium ................ Tnt
23 Vanadium ............... V 70 ytterbium ............... Yb
24 Chromium ............... Cr 71 Cassiopeium ............. Cp
25 Manganese .............. Mn 72 Hafnium ................ Hf
26 Iron ................... . Fe 73 Tantalum ............... Ta
27 Cobalt. ................. Co 74 Tungsten ................ W
28 Nickel. ................. Ni 75 Rhenium ................ Re
29 Copper ................. . Cu 76 Osmium ................ . Os
30 Zinc ................... . Zn 77 Iridium ................. Ir
31 Gallium ................ . Ca 78 Platinum ................ Pt
32 Germanium ............. . Ce 79 Gold .................... Au
33 Arsenic .................. As 80 Mercury ................ Hg
34 Selenium ................ Se 81 Thallium ................ Tl
35 Bromine ................. Br 82 Lead .................... Pb
36 Krypton ................ Kr 83 Bismuth ................. Bi
37 Rubidium ............... Rb 84 Polonium ................ Po
38 Strontium ............... Sr 85
39 yttrium ................. Y 86 Radon .................. Rd
40 Zirconium ............... Zr 87
41 Niobium ................ Nb 88 Radium ....... , ......... Ra
42 Molybdenum ............ M 0 89 Actinium ................ Ac
43 Masurium .............. . Ma 90 Thorium ................ Th
44 Ruthenium .............. Ru 9 1 Protactinium(Pa) or (Ura-
45 Rhodium ................ Rh nium X) .............. Ux
46 Palladium ............... Pd 92 Uranium ................ U
47 Silver ................... Ag
282
INDEX
Absorbent Paper, I4 Air, How to Show There is Carbon

Accordion in Hydrogen, An, 94 Dioxide in, 45
Acid Colors, 274 Air, Liquid, 25
Acid Dyes for Silk and Woolen Goods, Air is Liquefied, How, 25
274 Air is made of, What the, 2I
Acid, Experiments with Hydrochloric, Air a Mechanical Mixture, 24
I33 Air, Metals that Will Not Oxidize in
Acid, Experiments with Sulphuric, I25 the, 30
Acid is made, How Chloroplatinic, 124 Air, Other Elements in the, 24
Acid, How to make Hydrochloric, 131 Air as a Physical Substance, 25
Acid, Hydrofluoric, 136 Air in a Rarefied State, 25
Acid, How to make Nitric, 127 Air, Water Vapor in the, 24
Acid, How to make Sulphuric, 12I Air has Weight, Experiment to Show
Acid, Sulphuric, II9 the, 2I
Acid, Sulphurous, 268 Air-Waves Defined, 210
Acids, Bases and Salts, 139 Air, Weight or Pressure of, 20
Acids, Characteristics of, !I8 Albumen, 223
Acids Defined, !I8 Alcohol, Methyl, 3, 81
Acids are Formed, How, !I8 Alcohol Lamp, A Bought, 3
Acids the Great Solvents, !I8 Alcohol Lamp, How to make an, 3
Acids, Most Useful, !I8 Alizarin, I09
Action of Light on Silver Chloride, 214 Alizarin Dye, 273
Activity of Metals, The, 151 Alkalis, 139
Adhesive Paste, How to make an, 277 Alkali Spots, How to Remove, 267
Adjective, or Mordant Dyes, 273 Alloy, Bronze, 180, 181
Affinity of Hydrogen Chloride for Alloy, Chrome-Vanadium Steel, 179
Water, 130 Alloy, German Silver, 181
Agricola, 172 Alloy, Gold Coin, 182
Air, Ammonia in the, 24 Alloy, Gun-Metal, 181
Air at Atmospheric Pressure, 25 Alloy, Invar-Steel, 180
Air, Carbon Dioxide in the, 24 Alloy is, What an, 178
Air as a Chemical Substance, 25 Alloy, Magnalium, 179
Air, Compressed, 25 Alloy, Manganese Steel, 179
Air Defined, 18 Alloy, Monel Metal, 18I
Air is Formed of, What, 24 Alloy, Nickel-Steel, 180
Air is Good for, What the, 25 Alloy, Pewter, 180
283
284 INDEX
Alloy, Silver Coin, 181 Ammonium Chloride, 134

Alloy, Solder, 180 Analyze Water, How to, 75
Alloy, Type Metal, 180 Aniline Dyes, 270, 273
Alloy, Wood's Metal, 180 Aniline Dyes fN Cotton Goods, 274
Alloys, Brass, 181 Animal Inhales Air, What Takes Place
Alloys, Gold, 181 When an, 29
Alloys of Copper, 180 Animal Matter, Oxidation of, 28
Alloys of Iron and Steel, 179 Anions, 79
Alloys of Magnesium and Aluminum, Anthracite Coal, 207
17 8 Anthrocene, 273
Alloys of Tin and Lead, 180 Antimoniuretted Hydrogen is Made,
Alloys, Silver, 181 How, 173
Alum, 159 Antimony, 172, 173
Alumen, 159 Apatite, 156
Aluminum, 159, 160 Apparatus Consists of, What, 2
Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys, 178 Apparatus for Distilling Water on a
Aluminum Silicate is, What, 144 Larger Scale, 63
Aluminum Sulphate, 109, 159 Apparatus for Making Lead and Tin
Amalgam is, What an, 174, 182 Rust, 27
Amalgams, 182, 183 Apparatus for the Scintillating Watch-
Amalgams, Dental, 183 spring, 38
Ammonia in the Air, 24 Apparatus for the Self-lighting Match,
Ammonia, Characteristics of, 98, 109 36
Ammonia, Concentrated Liquid, lIO Apparatus for Separating Water Into
Ammonia Defined, 109 its Original Gases, 77
Ammonia Defined, Concentrated Li- Apparatus You Need, The, I
quid, lI4 Aqua Ammoni:l, lIO, lI6
Ammonia Dissolves in Water, How, lI2 Aqua Regia, 177
Ammonia, Experiment with Concen- Aqua Regia, Formula for, 92
trated Liquid, lI6 Aqua Regia is Made, How, 124, 135
Ammonia, Experiments with, 109 Argentum is, What, 175
Ammonia Gas Liquefied, lI4 Argon, 24, 191
Ammonia, How to make Concentrated Arrow Means, What an, 194
Liquid, lI4 Artificial Color Dyes, 270
Ammonia, How to make, 110, I I I Artificial Production of Life, 237
Ammonia-Operated Fountain, How to Artificial Silk is Made, How, 171
make, lI3 Asbestos, 124
Ammonia as a Refrigerant, II6 Atmosphere, 18
Ammonia, Some Uses of Aqua, lI6 Atomizer, The Magical, 232
Ammonia with the Heat of Your Hand, Atoms Defined, 189
Boiling, lI6 Atoms Form Molecules, How, 188
INDEX 285
Atoms, How Electrons Form, 188 Blue Paper, How to Make and Use,225
Atoms, Negatively Charged, 78 Bluestone, 171
Atoms of Oxygen, 190 Blue Vitriol, 126, 171
Atoms of Ozone, 190 Boiler Scale, 60
Atoms, Positively Charged, 78 Boiling Ammonia with the Heat of
Atoms Split Up by Rutherford, 22 Your Hand, II6
Aurum Means, What, 177 Boil Water, How to, 59
Bottle, Two- and Three-Necked, 8
Bacteria, 25 Bottle, Woulff's, 8
Baking Soda, 154 Bottles, Stoppers for, 8
Balance or Scales, Hand, II Bottles, Wide-Mouth, 8
Balance or Scales, Use of, 10 Brass Alloys, 181
Bandanna Handkerchief, How to Make Brass, Cyprium, 170
a, 107 Bread Dough Rise, What Makes, 25
Barometer, 19 Breathing a Picture on Glass, 234
Bases, 139, 140 Brittleness, 184, 187
Battery Plates, Amalgamating, 182 Bromine was Named, How, 191
Beakers, Nest of, 6 Bronze Alloys, 180, 181
Bend Glass Tubing, How to, 17 Brown Tumeric Dye, 271
Bengal Lights, How to Make, 258 Burning and Combustion, About, 25
Bengal Saltpeter Defined, 127 Burning Process Is, What the, 195
Benzine, 265 Bunsen Burner, A Bought, 3
Bismuth, 172 Bunsen Burner, Experiments with a,
Bismuth Glance is, What, 172 202
Bituminous Coal, 207 Bunsen Burner, How to Light a, 202

Blackboard Crayon, 48 Bunsen Burner, How to Make, 3
Black Ink, How to Make, 275 Bunsen Burner is Made, How, 202
Black Logwood Dye, 271 Bunsen Burner, Luminous Flame of a,
Bladder for a Gas Bag, How to Pre- 203
pare a, 88 Bunsen Burner, Non-Luminous :flame
Bleaching Agent, Chlorine as a, !O3 of a, 203
Bleaching, Art of, 103 Bunsen Burner Works, How a, 202
Bleaching Compounds, How to Make, Bunsen, German Scientist, 202
268 Burner, A Bunsen, 3
Bleaching Liquid, How to Make a, 107 Burns, How a Candle, 198
Bleaching Powder, 106 Bussy, French Chemist, 158
Bleaching Power of Chlorine, 104
Blue Flash Paper, 254 Cadmium, 180
Blue Indigo Dye, 272 Calcined Magnesia, 158
Blue Ink, How to Make, 275 Calcium, 156
Blue Litmus Paper, 14 Calcium Carbonate Defined, 46
286 INDEX
Calcium, Experiments with, 157 Cellulose, 171, 214

Calcium Fluoride, 136 Cement, How to Make a China, 277
Calcium Hydroxide, 140, 141 Centrifugal Force, 18
Calcium Oxide, 141 Charcoal is Made, How, 206
Calx, 156 CharcO:tl, How to Make, 205
Camera, How to Make a Pinhole, 216 Chemical Action, Light by, 197
Camera is Made, How a Real, 217 Chemical Affinity, 189
Candle from its Flame, How to Sepa- Chemical Compound Is, Experiments
rate a, 54 to Show what a, 23
Candle Burns, How a, 198 Chemical Compound, Making a, 23
Capillary Attraction, 198 Chemical Compounds, 22
Carat Means, What, 181 Chemically, How to Clean Silverware,
Carbolic Acid Is, What, 269 279
Carbonate of Lime, 46 Chemicals, How to Keep, 12
Carbon Dioxide Defined, 45 Chemicals, How to Label, 12, 13
Carbon Dioxide Destroys Life, To Chemicals, Your Supply of, I I
Show that, S2 Chemistry of Photography, 212
Carbon Dioxide, Experiments with, 32, Chemistry Simply Explained, 184
45 Chemistry, White Magic of, 227
Carbon Dioxide has Weight, To Show Chili Saltpeter Defined, 127
tha., 53 China r:ement, How to Make, 277
Carbon Dioxide, How to Make, 47, 50 Chloride of Lime, 106, 266, 269
Carbon Dioxide in Air, How to Show, 45 Chlorine Acts on Flame, How, 102
Carbon Dioxide in the Air, 24 Chlorine as a Bleaching Agent, 103, 104
Carbon Dioxide Is, What, 25 Cblorine, Characteristics of, 98
Carbon Dioxide, and Oxygen, Magical Chlorine Disinfectant, 269
Experiment with Air, 52 Chlorine, Experiments with, 99
Carbon Dioxide, To Show that You Chlorine, How to Dry, 104
Exhale, 46 Chlorine, How to Make, 100
Carbon Dioxide Will Not Support Com- Chlorine; How to Test for, I02
bustion, How to Show, 51 Chlorine, How to Test the Bleaching
Carbon, How to Change Sugar into, 125 Power of, 104
Cassiterite, 168 Chlorine was Named, How, I91
Catalysis, 35, 125 Chloroplatinic Acid is Made, How, 124
Catalytic Agent, 35, 124 Chrocoisite, I64
Catalyzers, 125 Chrome-Vanadium Steel Alloy, 179
Cations, 78 Chromite, 164
Caustic Lime, 140 Chromium, 164
Caustic Potash, 142 Chromium Crystals Burst Into Flame,
Caustic Soda, 141 How to Make, 165
Cavendish, 75 Cinnabar, 175
INDEX 287
Clean Silverware Chemically, How to, Compounds of Nickel, 167
279 Compounds of Platinum, 178
Clean Silverware Electrically, How to, -Compounds of Potassium, 153
-279 Compounds, Silver, 176
Coal, 207 Compounds of Sodium, 154
Coal Gas, How to Make, 208 Compounds of Tin, 168
Coal-Tar and Coke, 208 Compressed Air, 25
Coal-Tar Dyes, 270 Concentrated Liquid Ammonia, lIO
Cobaltite, 151 Concentrated Liquid Ammonia De-
Cochineal Dye, 264 fined, II4
Cochineal Dye, Orange, 271 Concentrated Liquid Ammonia, How
Cochineal Dye, Red, 271 to Make, II4
Cochineal Dye, Violet, 272 Concentrated Nitric Acid Defined, 127
Coke and Coal-Tar, 208 Concrete Is, What, 144
Colored Fire, How to Make, 256 Condensation, Process of, 62
Colored Flames, How to Make, 204 Contact Agent, 124
Colored Flash Paper, How to Make, 254 Copper, 170
Colored Soap, How to Make, 264 Copper Alloys, 180
Colors, Acid, 274 Copper as a Conductor of Electricity,
Combustion and Burning, About, 25 171
Combustion, Carbon Dioxide Will Not Copper, How to Electroplate with, 171
Support, 51 Copper Sulphate, 126, 171
Combustion, How Ventilation Affects, Copperas, 126, 162
198 Cork-Borer, A, 8
Combustion Is, What, 195 Cork, How to Make a Hole in a, 8
Combustion, Spontaneous, I02 Corrosive Sublimate Is, What, 168, 240
Commercial Nitric Acid Defined, 127 Cotton Goods, Bleaching Compound
Common Salt Defined, 98 for, 268
Common Table Salt Is, What, 146 Cotton Goods, Dyes for, 274
Compounds of Antimony, 173 Crucible, Porcelain, 8
Compounds of Bismuth, 172 Crystallization Is, What Water of, 65
Compounds of Calcium, 156 Crystals, How to Make Rock-Candy, 66
Compounds of Chromium, 164 Crystals, Watch, 9
Compounds of Copper, 17I Cuper, 170
Compounds of Gold, 177 Cupric Sulphate, How to Make, 126
Compounds of Iron, 165 Cuprium, 170
Compounds of Lead, 169 Cylinder, Graduated, 10
Compounds of Lithium, ISS
Compounds of Magnesium, 158 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 152, 154, 157, 159
Compounds of Manganese, 162 Decahydrate and Hydrate, 65
Compounds of Mercury, 175 Deliquescence, 65, 149
288 INDEX
Deliquescent Substances, 97 Dyes for Silk and Woolen Goods, 274

Dental Amalgams, 183 Dyes from Coal Tar, 208
Depilatory Compound, 280 Dyes, How to Make and Use, 270
Develop a Dry Plate or Film, How to, Dyes, How to Make and Use Aniline,
220 273
Developer, How to Make a, 221 Dyes, How to Make and Use Natural
Developing-Out-Print, How to Make a, Color, 270
225 Dyes, Insoluble, 272
Diffusion, 86 Dyes, Mordant or Adjective, 273
Diffusion of Hydrogen, 85 Dyes, Natural Color, 270
Direct Aniline Dyes for Cotton Goods, Dyes, Synthetic, 270
274
Direct or Substantive Dyes, 270 E[-florescence, 65
Disinfectant, Oxygen as a, !O7 Electric Bell in Hydrogen, An, 93
Disinfectants, How to Make, 269 Electric Cell, Electrolyte for, 163
Dissociation, 78 Electric Cell, How to Make a Simple,
Distil Water, How to, 60 163
Distilled Water, Test for the Purity of, Electric Spark to Make Ozone, 31
63 Electric Spark, Synthetic Water with
Distilling Water on a Larger Scale, an, 79
Apparatus for, 63 Electrically, How to Clean Silverware,
Drummond Light, How to Make a, 39 279
Dry-Cleanse Goods, How to, 146 Electricity, 184, 187
Dry-Cleansing, 265 Electricity, Charges of, 189
Dry the Negative, How to, 222 Electrodes, 79
Dry Plate, How to Develop a, 220 Electrolysis, 279
Dry Plate, How a Picture is Made on, Electrolysis of Water, 76, 78
220 Electrolyte, 76
Dry Plates are Made, How, 217 Electrolyte for an Electric Cell, 163
Ductility, 184, 187 Electromagnetic Waves, 197
Dye, Blue Indigo, 272 Electrons, 188, 189
Dye, Brown Tumeric, 271 Electroplate with Copper, How to, 171
Dye, Green Logwood, 271 Elements, 190
Dye, Red Cochineal, 271 Blements and their Symbols, List of,
Dye, Violet Cochineal, 272 282
Dye, Yellow Tumeric, 271 Elixir Vitae, or the Artificial Production
Dyes, Aniline, 270 of Life, 237
Dyes, Artificial Color, 270 Emeralds, How to Make Imitation, 135
Dyes, Coal Tar, 270 Emulsion, How to Make a Silver Bro-
Dyes, Direct or Substantive, 270 mide, 218
Dyes for Cotton Goods, 214 Emulsion, 219
INDEX 289
Epsom Salts, 63, 127 Experiment with Spontaneous Com-

Equations are, What, 193 bustion, 102, 129
Eraser, How to Make a Liquid Ink, 276 Experiment with Tin, 168
Etch Glass, Easy Way to, 138 Experiment with, What You Need to, I
Etch Glass with Fluorine Gas, How to, Experiment with Zinc, 163
13 6 Experiments to Show what a Chemical
Ether Is, What the, 197 Compound Is, 23
Ether, Light Waves in the, 209 Experiments with Ammonia, 109
Ether Waves, 210 Experiments with Antimony, 173
Eudiometer, The, 79 Experiments with Bismuth, 172
Evaporating-Dish, Porcelain, 9 Experiments with a Bunsen Burner,
Exhale Carbon Dioxide, To Show that 202
You, 46 Experiments with Calcium, 157
Experiment, Great Smoke, 133 Experiments with Carbon Dioxide, 45
Experiment in Ventilation, 199 Experiments with Chlorine, 99
Experiment Showing How a Safety Experiments with Chromium, 164
Lamp Works, 199 Experiment3 with Hydrochloric Acid,
Experiment to Show Impenetrability 133
185 Experiments with Hydrogen, 75, 87
Experiment to Show that Air is Used Experiments with Hydrogen and Sound,
when Iron Rusts, 27 93
Experiment to Show that Metals Rust, Experiments with Hydroxides, 144
26 Experiments with Magnesium, 158
Experiment to Show the Air has Weight, Experiments with Nitric Acid, 129
21 Experiments with Nitrogen, 41
Experiment to Show what a Mechanical Experiments with Oxygen and Carbon
Mixture Is, 22 Dioxide, 46
Experiment with Air, Carbon Dioxide Experiments with Oxygen, Nitrogen
and Oxygen, Magical, 52 and Carbon Dioxide, 32
Experiment with Aluminum, An, 159 Experiments with a ~ilver Nitrate Solu-
Experiment with Concentrated Liquid tion, 213
Ammonia, rr6 Experiments with Sulphuric Acid, 125
Experiment with Copper, An, 171 Explosive Matches, How to Make, 249
Experiment with Gold, An, 177
Experiment with Iron, An, 165 Ferric Defined, 24
Experiment with Lithium, An, 156 Ferric Oxide as a Catalytic Agent, 124
Experiment with Manganese, An, 162 Ferric Oxide Is, What, 26
Experiment with Mercury, An, 175 Ferric Sulphide, How to Make, 166
Experiment with Potassium, An, 153 Ferrous Chloride Crystals, 135
Experiment with Silver, An, 176 Ferrous Defined, 24
Experiment with Sodium, An, 154 Ferrous Sulphate, How to Make, 126
290 INDEX
Ferrum Is, What, 24 Flash-Light Experiment, How to Make,

Fertilizer, Ammonia as a, II7 15 8
Film, How to Develop a, 220 Flash-Light, How to Make a, 248
Film, How a Picture is Made on a, 220 Flash Light, How to Make a Green, 252
Films are Made, How, 217 Flash-Light, How to Make a Red, 252
Filter Paper, 7 Flash-Light, How to Make a White, 251
Filter Paper, How to Crease, 58 Flash-Light Powder, How to Make,
Filter Water, How to, 58 159
Fire-Damp Is, What, 199 Flash-Lights are Made, How, 158
Fire-Eating Trick, The Great, 256 Flash Paper, How to Make, 253
Fire Extinguishing Compound, How (0 Flash Paper, How to Make Colored, 254
Make, 278 Flask, Erlenmeyer, 6
Fire, Hew to Make Green, 258 Flask, Spherical, 6
Fire, How to Make Red, 256 Flasks, Annealed Glass, 6
Fire, How to Make Yellow, 258 Flexibility, 184, 188
Fire Ink, How to Write with, 247 Floating Soap, How to Make, 264
Fire Is, What, 195 Fluorescence, 239
Fire Originated, How the Word, 195 Fluorescent Secret Ink, How to Make,
Fire without a Match, How to Make a, 239
247 Fluoride, 156
Fireproof Goods, How to, 280 Fluorine, Characteristics of, 136
Fireworks, Safe and Sane, 246 Fluorine Gas, How to Etch Glass with,
Fix the Image, How to, 221 13 6
Fixing Bath, How to Make a, 221 Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid, About,
Flame, How Chlorine Acts on, 102 13 6
Flame, How Hydrogen Acts on, 87 Fluor Spar, 136, 156
Flame, How to Make a Hydrogen, 86 Forceps or Tweezers, 9
Flame, How to Separate a Candle from l'orecaster, How to Make a Weather, 68
its, 54 Formaldehyde Disinfectant, 269
Flame Is, ·What, 196 Formalin, How Made, 269
Flame of an Alcohol Lamp, 200 Formula is, What a, 192
Flame of a Bunsen Burner, 203 Fountain, How to Make an Ammonia
Flame of a Candle, 198 Operated, II3
Flame Organ Pipe, A Hydrogen, 95 Fountain, How to Make a Hydrogen
Flame, Self-Lighting, How to Make, 91 Chloride, 133
Fhme, Synthetic Water with an Alco- Fourth of July Sparklers, How to Make,
hol,80 25°-
Flames, How to Make Colored, 204 Fuming Nitric Acid, 129
Flash Handkerchief Is, What a, 254 Funnel, Glass, 7
Flash Handkerchiefs, How to Make, 254 Fur in the Kettle, 60
Flashing Charcoal Pill, The, 36 Fuse, How to Make a Safe, 248
INDEX 291
Gahn, 161 Green Vitriol, 126, 162

Galena, 169 Guncotton is, What, 253
Gases, The Rare, 24 Gun Metal Alloy, 181
Gas Bag, How to Use a Bladder for a,
88 Hair, 'Bleaching Compound for, 268
Gas Lamps Burn, How, 201 Hair in Lime, 144
Gas-Light Print, How to Make a, 225 Hair Remover, How to Make a, 280
Gasoline, 265 Hand Balance or Scales, I I
Gauze, Iron, 4 Handkerchiefs, How to Make Flash, 254
Geissler Tube, Phosphorescent Light Hard Coal, 207
of the, 197 Hard Soap Experiment Works, How
German Silver Alloy, 181 the, 145
Glass, Easy Way to Etch, 138 Hard Soap, How to Make, 145
Glass, German Soft, 16 Hardness, 184,187
Glass, How to Etch, 136 Heat by Chemical Action, 197
Glass Nozzle, How to Draw a, 17 Heat, How to Make, 197
Glass Stirring Rod, 5 Heat is, What, 196
Glass Tube, How to Cut a, 16 Heat of your Hand, Boiling Ammonia
Glass Tube, How to Smooth Up the with the, II6
Edges of a, 16 Heat, The Sensation of, 196
Glass Tubing, German Soft, 10 Heat, Sun the Source of all, 197
Glass Tubing, How to Bend, I7 Heat Sympathetic Ink, How to Make,
Glass Tubing, How to Work, 16 23 8
Glass with Fluorine Gas, How to Etch, Heat without Light, 197
13 6 Helium, 191
Glauber's Salt defined, 65 Hematite, 165
Glauber's Salt is, What, 147 High-Speed Steel, 179
Glycerine Soap, How to Make, 264 Household Recipes, Useful, 263
Gold Alloys, 181 Hydrargyram, 174
Gold Chloride is Made, How, 177 Hydrate and Decahydrate Defined, 65
Gold Coin Alloys, 182 Hydrochloric Acid, 130, 131
Graduated Cylinder, IO Hydrochloric Acid, Experiments with,
Graduated Glass, 8 133
Gravitational Force, 18 Hydrofluoric Acid for Etching Glass,
Grease Spots, How to Take Out, 265 13 8
Green Fire, How to Make, 258 Hydrofluoric Acid and Fluorine, About,
Green Flash-Light, 252 13 6
Green Flash Paper, 254 Hydrogen, An Accordion in, 94
Green Ink, How to Make, 276 Hydrogen Acts in Flame, How, 87
Green Logwood Dye, 271 Hydrogen Acts on Sound, How, 93
292 INDEX
Hydrogen, Characteristics of, 75 Ice, How to Make, 64

Hydrogen Chloride Experiment Works, Ignite a Paper with a Piece of Ice, How
How, 132 to, 256
Hydrogen Chloride for Water, Affinity Ignite a Paper without a Flame, How,
of, 130 to, 254
Hydrogen-Chloride Fountain, How to Illuminating Oils, 201
Make, 133 Image, How Light Forms an, 216
Hydrogen Chloride Gas, 130 Image, How to Fix the, 221
Hydrogen Chloride, How to Make, 131 Imitation Emeralds, How to Make, 135
Hydrogen, Diffusion of, 85 Impenetrability, 184, 185
Hydrogen, An Electric Bell in, 93 Indelibly on Cotton Goods, How to
. Hydrogen, Experiments with, 87 write, 126
Hydrogen Flame, How to Make, 86 Indestructibility, 184, 185
Hydrogen Flame Organ Pipe, 95 Indicator Papers and Solutions, 13
Hydrogen Flame Organ Pipe Works, Indicators, Phenolphthalein and Litmus
How the, 96 Paper, 63
Hydrogen Gas, How to Dry, 97 Indigo Blue Dye, 272
Hydrogen Gas, How to Purify, 96 Induction Coil, 79
Hydrogen, How to Make, 82 Inhale Oxygen, To Show that you, 46
Hydrogen, How to Pour Out, 85 Ink Eraser, How to Make a Liquid, 276
Hydrogen on the Voice, Curious Ink, How to Make Black, 275
Effect of, 94 Ink, How to Make Printer's, 276
Hydrogen and Oxygen, 95 Ink, How to Make Secret Writing, 67
Hydrogen Peroxide, 268, 269 Ink, How to Write with Fire, 247
Hydrogen, Squeaking Head in, 93 Ink into Water and Vice Versa, How to
Hydrogen Soap Bubbles,Howto Blow,88 Change, 229
Hydrogen was Named, How, 191 Ink Spots, How to Take Out, 226
Hydr9gen without an Acid Works, How Inks, How to Make Colored Writing,
the Experiment of Making, 84 275, 276
Hydrogen without an Acid, How to Inks, Sympathetic, 238
Make, 83 Insoluble Dyes, 272
Hydroxide D~fined, 140 Invar Steel Alloy, 180
Hydroxide is Made, How Lithium, 156 Ions defined, 78
Hydroxides are Formed, How, 140 Ionization defined, 78
Hydroxides, Experiments with, 144 Iron, 165
Hydroxides, How to Make the, 141 Iron Gauze, 4
Hypochlorous Acid, 102 Iron got its Name, How, 24
Iron, How to Test Water for, 74
Ice Defined, 57 Iron Pyrites, 150
Ice, How to Ignite a Paper with a Piece Iron Rust is, What, 165
of, 256 Iron Rust Stains, How to Remove, 267
INDEX 293
Iron Rusts, Experiment to Show how, Lights, How to Make Bengal, 258
26,27 Lights, How to Make Rainbow, 249
Iron and Steel Alloys, 179 Light-Waves, are, What, 209
Iron Suplhate, 126 Light-Waves, How a Candle Sends Out,
Iron Tannate, 275 212
Lime, 139
Kalium, 152 Lime, Derivation of the Word, 156
Krypton, 24, 191 Lime, Things Made of, 144
Lime-Light, How to Make a, 40
Labeling Chemicals, 12, 13 Lime-Water, How to Make, 45
Laboratory Method of Making Sul- Linen Goods, Bleaching Compound ior,
phuric Acid, 121 268
Lake Defined, 273 Linen Goods, How to Bleach, 268
Lamp Burns, How an Alcohol, 200 Liquefied Ammonia Gas, II4
Lamp, How to Make an Alcohol, 3 Liquid Air, 25
Lamp Works, How a Safety, 199 Liquid Air, Nitrogen from, 41
Lamps Burn, How Oil and Gas, 201 Liquid Ammonia, Concentrated, 110
Lapidolite, ISS Liquid Ammonia Defined, 114
Lead, 169 Lithium, ISS, 156
Lead Oxide is, What, 27 Lithium Hydroxide is Made, How, 156
Lead Rust, Apparatus for Making, 27 Litmus Paper Acts, How, 14
Lead and Tin Alloys, 180 Litmus Paper, Blue, 14
Lead-Tree, How to Make a, 169 Litmus Paper as an Indicator, 63
Levitation of a Soap Bubble, 55 Local Action is, What, 175
Life, Artificial Production of, 237 Lodestone is, What, 161
Life, To Show that Carbon Dioxide Logwood Dye, Black, 271
Destroys, 52 Logwood Dye, Green, 271
Light Acts on Silver Salts, How, 212 Logwood Dye, Red, 271
Light by Chemical Action, 197 Luminous Flame of a Bunsen Burner,
Light Forms an Image, How, 216 203
Light, How to Make an Oxy-Calcium, Luminous Paint, 157, 242
39 Lunar Caustic, 213, 238
Light is, What, 196, 209 Lycopodium Powder, 91
Light on Compounds, Action of, 212
Light on Plants and Animals, Action of, Madder Dye, 273
212 Magical Atomizer, The, 232
Light on Silver Chloride, Action of, 214 Magical Experiment with Air, Carbon
Light Sympathetic Ink, How to Make Dioxide and Oxygen, 52
a,23 8 Magnalium Alloy, 179
Light Travels, How, 216 Magnes, 161 ,
Light without Heat, 197 Magnesite, 127
294 INDEX
Magnesium, 157, 158 Metric System of Measurements, 10

Magnesium Alba, 158 Microscope, Matter Through a, 188
Magnesium and Aluminum Alloys, 178 Microscope, Molecules Under the, 196
Magnesium Sulphate, To Make, 129 Mildew Stains, How to Remove, 267
Magnetite, 165 Milk,266
Malachite, 151 Mineral Wool, 124
Malleability, 184, 187 Minium, 169
Manganese, 161 Mirrors are Made, How, 182
Manganese-Steel Alloy, 179 Molecules, 189
Marum and Ozone, 30 Molecules, How Atoms Form, 188
Mass Defined, 189 Molecules Under the Microscope, 196
Match, A Self-Lighting, 35 Monel Metal Alloy, 181
Match, The Self-Extinguishing, 44 Mordant, or Adjective Dyes, 273
Matches, How to Make Explosive, 249 Mordant Aniline Dyes for Cotton
Materialization of Mysteria, 241 Goods, 274
Matter, 184, 188 :Mortar, How to Make, 144
Measurements, English System of, I I Mortar and Pestle, 7
lYIeasurements, Metric System, 10 Muriatic Acid, 106
Measuring Glass, 8 Mystic Metals, The ISO
Mechanical Mixtures, 22 Mysteria, Materialization of, 241
Medicine Dropper or Pipette, 5
Medicines from Coal-Tar, 208 Natrium, 154
Mercury, 174 Natural Color Dyes, How to Make and
Mercury, the Base of Amalgams, 182 Use, 270
Mercury, How to Amalgamate with, Negative Electrode Defined, 79
175 Negative, How to Dry the, 223
Metal Activities, Table of, 151 Negative, To Make a Print from, 223
Metal is, What a, ISO Negative, How To Wash the, 222
Metal Ores, Kinds of, ISO Negative Ions, 78
Metals, Active, 151 Negatively Charged Atoms, 78
Metals, the Activity of, 151 Neon, 24, 191
Metals that Dissolve in Water, 139 Neutralize Defined, 140
Metals, How Nitric Acid Acts on, 129 Nickel, 167
Metals, Inactive, 151 Nickel-Plate a Coin, How to, 167
Metals, The Mystic, ISO Nickel-Steel Alloy, ISO
Metals, The Noble, 136 Nitrates, 129
Metals Occur in Nature, HOW,ISO Nitre, 121
Metals Rust, To Show that, 26 Nitric Acid, About, 127
Metals that will not Oxidize in Air, 30 NitIic Acid Acts on Metals, How, 129
Methyl Alcohol, 3, 81 • Nitric Acid, Experiments with, 129
Methyl Orange Acts, How, 15 Nitric Acid, How to Make, 127
INDEX 295
Nitro-Cellulose is, What, 253 Oxygen, To Show that You Inhale, 46

Nitrogen, Experiments with, 32, 41 Oxygt'n will not Affect, Su bstances that,
Nitrogen, How to Make, 4I, 4 2, 43, 44 30
Noble Metals, The, 136 Ozone, 30, 31
Non-Luminous Flame of a Bunsen Ozone, Atoms of, 190
Burner, 203 Ozone, How to Change Water into, 138
Non-Metal, ISO Ozone Test Paper, How t.oMake, 31
Nozzle, How to Draw a GI~ss, 17
Paint Spots, How to Take Out, 266
Oil Lamps Burn, How, 201 Paper, Filter, 7
Oil of Vitriol, 82, II9 Paper, How to Make Flash, 253, 254
Orange Cochineal Dye, 271 Paper is Made of, What, 214
Ores, Kinds of, ISO Paper without a Flame, To Ignite, 254
Organ Pipe, A Hydrogen-Flame, 95 Paper with a Piece of Ice, How to Ignite
Organic Matter, How to Test Water a, 256
for, 71 Papers, Kinds of Photographic, 223
Organic Matter is, What, 213 Passing Smoke Invisibly into a Tumbler,
Organic Substances, 71 235
Oxidation Causes Decay, How Slow, 28 Paste, How to Make an Adhesive, 277
Oxidation is, What, 26, 196 Pearl White is, What, 172
Oxidation of Vegetable and Animal Perfumed Soap, How to MakE', 264
Matter, 28 Perfumes from Coal-Tars, 208
Oxidation of Zinc, The Rapid, 248 Permanent Hardness, How to Test for
Oxidize in the Air, Metals that will not, and Get Rid of, 70
30 Permanent Hardness in Water, 60, 69
Oxidizing Agent, Oxygen as, I06 Pewter Alloy, 180
Oxy-Calcium Light, To Make an, 39 Pharaoh's Serpents, How to Make, 260
Oxygen Apparatus, To Set Up the, 34 Pbenol Disinfectant, 269
Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent, I06 Phenolphthalein, 14, 63
Oxygen, Atoms of, 190 Phosphine Smoke Rings, To Make, 258
Oxygen as a Disinfectant, I07 Phosphorescence, 243
Oxygen Changed into Ozone, 31 Phosphorescent Light, 197
Oxygen, Experiments with, 32 Phosphoretted Hydrogen, 259
Oxygen Experiment Works, How the, Phosphorite, 156
35 Phosphorus, Action of Oxygen on, 38
Oxygen, How to 11ake, 3 2 , 33 Phosphorus, Kinds of, 39
Oxygen, How Sulphur Burns in, 41 Photographic Papers, Kinds of, 223
Oxygen and Hydrogen, 75 PI,otographic Print, How to Tone a, 224
Oxygen, Magical Experiment with Air, Photographic Print, To Make a, 223
Carbon Dioxide and, 52 Photographs, How to Make, 209
Oxygen on Phosphorus, Action of, 38 Photography, Chemistry of, 212
296 INDEX
Photography, Physics of, 216 Rare Gases, The, 24

Pinhole Camera, How to Make a, 2I6 Rainbow Lights, How to Make, 249
Pipette or Medicine Dropper, 5 Rainbow Liquid, How to Make a, 233
Plaster, I44 Recipes, Useful Household, 263
Platina, I78 Red Cochineal Dye, 271
Platinized Asbestos as a Contact Agent, Red Congo Acts, How, 15
I24 Red Fire, How to Make, 256
Platinum, I78 Red Flash-Light, 252
Platinum, Spongy, 92 Red Flash Paper, 254
Plumbum, I69 Red Ink, How to Make, 275
Poisonous Chemicals, How to Label, I7 Red Lead, 169
Porcelain Crucible, 8 Red Litmus Paper, 14
Porcelain Evaporating-Dish, 9 Red Logwood, Dye, 271
Portland Cement, I44 Red Phosphorus, 39
Positive Electrode, 79 Reduction, 29
Positive Ions, 78 Residue, I29
Positively Charged Atoms, 78 Resin Bubbles, How to Blow, 90
Potash Beds of German), 148 Refrigerant, Ammonia as a, II6
Potash, 152 Retort, Glass, 9
Potash Lye, 139, 142 Ring Stand, A Bought, 2
Pot-ashes, I52 Ring Stand, How to Make, 2
Potassium, 152, 153 Rock-Candy Crystals, How to Make, 66
Potassium Chloride, How to Make, I48 Roses White, How to Make Red, 106
Potassium Nitrate, 127, 149 Rouge, 26
Pressure or Weight of the Air, 20 Royal Water, 135
Print, To Make a Photographic, 223 Ruby Copper, ISO
Printer's Ink, How to Make, 276 Rubber Stoppers for Bottles, 8
Printing Out Paper, 223 Rubber Tubing, 10
Properties of Matter, 184 Rust, 26
Pumice Stone, 204 Rutherford Splits Up the Atom, 22
Pure Nitric Acid, 127
Purify Hydrogen Gas, How to, 96 Safe Dry-Cleansing Compound, A, 265
Purify Water, How to, 58 Safe and Sane Fireworks, 246
Purple Ink, How to Make 275 Safety Lamp Works, How the, 199
Pyrolusite, 161 Sal Ammoniac, 64, I I I
Sal Soda, 141
Quicklime, 45, 141 Salt, Common Table, 146, 147
Quick-Match, 255 Saltpeter, I49
Salts Are, What the, 140
Radium, 191 Salts, Bases and Acids, 139
Rarefied Air, 25 Salts, How to Make Various, 146
INDEX 297
Sand,144,265 Smoke Invisibly Into a Tumbler, How

Sapolio, How to Make, 265 to Pass, 235
Saponification, 145, 264 Smoke Rings, To Make Phosphine, 252
Saturated Solution Defined, 67 Smoke-Screen, How to Make a, 102
Scale in the Boiler, 60 Smooth the Edges of a Glass Tube, How
Scales or Balance, 10 to, 16
Scales or Balance, Hand, I I Soap Bubble, Levitation of a, 55
Scandium, 191 Soap-Buhble Solution, 89
Scheele, 99, 161 Soap Bubbles, To Blow Cauliflower, 89
Schonbein and Ozone, 30, 31 Soap Bubbles, To Blow Hydrogen, 88
Secret Writing Ink, To Make, 67, 237 Soap, How to Make Colored, 264
Self-Extinguishing Match, The, 44 Soap, How to Make Floating, 264
Self-Lighting Flame, How to Make a, 91 S;)ap, How to Make Glycerine, 264
Self-Lighting Match, A, 35, 36 Soap, How to Make Hard, 145
Sensation of Heat, The, 196 Soap, How to Make Perfumed, 264
Serpents, How to Make Pharaoh's, 260 Soap, How to Make Soft, 146
Siderite, 165 Soap, H:Jw to Make Toilet, 263
Silic.1, 249 Soap-and-Water Cleans, How, 146
Silk, Bleaching Compound for, 268 Soaps are, What, 145
Silk and Woolen Goods, Acid Dyes for, Soaps, How to Make, 263
274 Soda, 142, 154
Silver, 175, 176 Soda Lye, 139, 141
8ilver Alloys, 181 Soda Water Fizz, What Makes, 25
Silver as a Conductor of Electricity, 171 Sodium, 154
Silver Bromide Emulsion, How to Make Sodium Amalgam, 182
a,218 Sodium Chloride Flame, Ghastly Ap-
Silver Chloride, Action of Light on, 214 pearance of, 205
Silver Chloride, How to Make, 214 Sodium Chloride, How to Make, 146
~ilver Coin Alloy, 181 Sodium Hydroxide, 141, 142
Silver, How Ligl,t Acts on, 12 Sodium Nitrate, 127, 148
Silver Nitrate, 213 Sodium Sulphate, How to Make, 147
Silver Paper, 223 Soft Coal, 207
Silverware Chemically, How to Clean, Soft Soap, How to Make, 146
279 Solder, Roofing, 180
Silverware Electrically, How to Clean, Solder, Tinware, 180
279 Soldering Fluid, How to Make a Good,
Slacked Lime, 140, 141 134, 135
Slow Oxidation Causes Decay, How, 28 Solio Paper, 223
Smithsonite, 163 Solvent, Water the Greatest, lI8
Smoke Experiment, The Great, 133 Solvents, Acids the Great, lI8
298 INDEX
Sound, How Hydrogen Acts on, 93 SympatheticInk, To Make a Heat, 238

Sound-Waves are, What, 210 Sympathetic Ink, To Make a Light, 238
Sound-Waves, How a Bell Sends Out, Synthetic Compound, 57
2II Synthetic D)cs, 270
Spark Coil, The, 79 Synthetic Water, 57
Sparklers, To Make Fourth of July, 250 Synthetic Water with an Alcohol Flame,
Sphalerite, 162 80
Spirit, How to Materialize a, 241 Synthetic Water with an Electric Spark,
Spirit ~f Salt, 99, 130 79
Spirit Pictures, How to Make, 239
Spontaneous Combustion, 29, !O2, 129 T and Y Glass Tui'es, 10
Spongy Platinum, 92 Table of Metal Activities, 151
Spots, How to Take Out, 265 Temperature of Water, How to Lower
Stabine, 173 the, 64
Stains, How to Take Out, 265 TemperatUle of Water, How to Raise
Stalactites, 157 the, 63
Stalagmites, 157 Temporary Hardness of Water, 59, 69
Stannum, 168 Test for Oz')ne, How to, 31
Steam, 57 Test-Tube Brush,S
Steel, I79~ Test-Tube Holder, 5
Stibnite, 151 Test Tubes, 5
Stirring Rod, Glass,s Test W'lter for Iron, How to, 74
Substance Defined, 22 Test Water for Mineral Substances,
Substantive Dyes, Direct, 270 How to, 71
Sugar into Carbon, How to Change, I25 Test Water for Odor and Color, To, 70
Sugar of Lead is, What, 169 Test Water for Organic Matter, To, 71
Sulphide Test Paper Acts, How, IS Test Water for Sulphur, How to, 74
Sulphur Burns in Oxygen, How, 41 Tests for the Purity of Distilled Water,
Sulphur Dioxide, II9 63
Sulphur Dioxide, How to Make, 122 Theory of Ionization, 78
Sulphur Disinfectant, 269 Thermal Nerves of the Body, 196
Sulphur, How to Test Water for, 74 Thermit Experiment, To Make a, 160
Sulphur Trioxide, II9, 121, 122 Thermit Process, 160, 164
Sulphuric Acid, II9, 121, 125 Tin, 168
Sulphurous Acid, 268 Tin Amalgams, 182
Sun's Rays, Refraction of the, 20 Tin-Foil, 168
Symbols, List of Elements and Their, Tin and Lead Alloys, 180
282 Tin Oxide is, What, 27
Symbols Mean, What the, 191 Tin Rust, Apparatus for Making, 27
Sympathetic Ink, How to Make a Tin-Stone, ISO, 168
Fluorescent, 239 Tincture of Irun is, What, 228
INDEX 299
Toilet Soap, How to Make, 263 Wash the Negative, How to, 222
Tone the Print, How to, 224 Watch Glasses, 9
Toning Solution, How to Make a, 224 Water, Affinity of Hydrogen Chloride
Tube, How to Cut a Glass Tube, 16 for, 130
Tubing, German Soft Glass, 10 Water, How Ammonia Dissolves in, lI2
Tubing, How to Work Glass, 16 Water Bath, 90
Tl!bing, Rubber, 10 Water, Characteristics of, 56
Tuhing, T and Y, 10 Water Cleans, How Soap-and-, 146
Tumeric Dye, Brown, 271 Water of Crystallization, 65, 126
Tumeric Dye, Yellow, 271 Water, Electrolysis of, 76, 78
Tungsten, 179 Water for Iron, How to Test, 74
Tumeric Yellow, To Dye, 272 Water for Milieral Substances, How to
Turkey Red Defined, 109 Test, 71
Turkey Red Dye, 273 Water for Odor and Color, To Test, 70
Twilight, Length of, 19 Water for Sulphur, How to Test, 74
Tweezers or Forceps, 9 Water-Glass, 249
Two-Necked Bottle, 8 Water the Great Solvent, lI8
Type-Metal Alloy, 180 Water, Hard, 69
Water, How to Analyze, 75
U-Tube, As-inch, 9 Water, How to Boil, 59
Useful Househnld Recipes, 263 Water, How to Distil, 60, 63
Uses of Aqua Ammonia, Some, II6 Water, How to Filter, 58
Universal Bleaching Compound, 268 Water, How to Lower the Temperature,
of,64
Valentino, 173 Water, How to Purify, 58
Vanadium, 179 Water, How to Raise the Temperature
Vegetable Organism, Microscopic, 25 of,63
Vegehble Matter, Oxidation of, 28 Water is Good for, What, 56
Velox Print, How to Make a, 225 Water into Ink and Vice Versa, How to
Venetian Red is, What, 26 Change, 229
Ventilation Affects Combustion, How, Water into Its Original Gases, Separat-
19 8 ing, 77
Vibration, 210 Water into Ozone, How to Change, 138
Vibrations of a Bell, 209 Water is Made of, What, 57
Violet Cochineal Dye, 272 Water is Soft or Hard, How to Tell if,69
Violet Flash Paper, 254 Water, Kinds of, 68
Voice, Curious Effects of Hydrogen on Water, Metals that Dissolve in, 139
the, 94 Water, Permanent Hardness in, 60, 69
Volcano, How to Make a Miniature, 174 Water, Soft, 69
Volume, 193 Water, Synthetic, 57
300 INDEX
Water, Temporary Hardness of, 59, 69 Wizardy of Water, The, 56

Water, Tests for Purity of Distilled, 63 Wood's Metal Alloy, r80
Water Vapor, 24, 25 Wool, Bleaching Compound for, 268
Water-Waves, How a Stone Sends Out, Woolen and Silk Goods, Acid Dyes for.
209 274
Water and Wine from t.he Same Pitcher, Woulff's Bottle, 8
How to Pour, 227 Write Indelibly on Cotton Goods, How
Water with Ammonia, To Soften, ll6 to, 126
Water with an ElectricSpark,Synthetic, Write with Fire Ink, How to, 247
79 Writing Ink, How to Make, 275
Water, The Wizardy of, 56
Waterproof Goods, How to, 280 Xenon, 24, 19r
Waves in the Air, 210
Waves in the Ether, 210 Y and T Giass Tubing, ro
Weather Forecaster, How to Make a, 68 Yellow Dye, Tumeric, 272
Weight or Pressure of the Air, 20 Yellow Fire, How to Make, 258
White Flash-Light, 251 Yellow Phosphorus, 40
White Lead, r69 Yellow Tumeric Dye, 271
White Magic of Chemistry, 227
White Phosphorus, 39 Zinc, r62, 163
White Vitriol, 126, r63 Zinc Amalgam, 182
Wiessmatte means, What, 172 Zinc Blende, 162
Wine and Water from the Same Pitcher, Zinc, The Rapid Oxidation of, 248
How to Pour, 227 Zinc White, r63
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THE BOY CHEMIST

THE BOY ASTRONOMER

LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO., BOSTON

(From Painting by Teniers.)

WITH FRONTISPIECE AND ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-TWO

LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO.

By LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO.

All Rights Reserved

THE BOY CHEMIST

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

means of light, heat, and electricity, and separate them

About Sulphuric Acid - The Easiest Way to Make Sulphuric Acid-

The Alchemist (From Painting by Teniers) Frontispiece

FIG. 31 - How to Draw a Glass Nozzle ..... 17

FIG. 143 - A Miniature Gas Works . 207

WHAT YOU NEED TO EXPERIMENT WITH

II. One or Two Flasks.

What the Apparatus Consists of. Now before we go any

The proper kind of an alcohol lamp to use is shown in

FIG. I.-A Bought Ring-Stand. FIG. 2.-A Home-Made Ring-Stand.

one, take a piece of iron pipe Ys inch in diameter, inside

sheets 4 by 4 inches on the sides, and you can also buy it

holder, as shown in Fig. 9. A regular test-tube rack is

FIG. S.-A Test-Tube Brush.

because one goes inside another, and the smallest can be

not be easily tipped over, it can be set only on a ring-stand

FIG. Io.-A Bought Test-Tube Rack.

FIG. II.-A Home-Made Test-Tube Rack.

if these are bottles, as well as for filtering solutions. A

FIG. 12.-A Glass Stirring Rod.

FIG. 13.-A Pipette or Medicine Dropper.

tubes. In experiments where two or three glass tubes have

FIG. I4.-A Nest of FIG. Is.-An Ordinary FIG. r6.-An Er"en-

evaporating small quantities of solutions, and you should

of glass tubing that is sold under the trade name of German

FIG. 17.-A Glass Funnel. FIG. IS.-A Mortar and Pestle.

While I have given the amounts of chemicals to be used

of ten, and this is, consequently, much more simple than

FIG. 2I.-A Four-

FIG. 2o.-A Woulff's

$.75. Both of these you will eventually require in order

have named below for their price-lists of chemicals. 1 These

FIG. 23.-A Porcelain Crucible. FIG. 24.-A Glass Retort.

While many of the chemicals come in the form of solid

betical order so that you will know at a glance just what

FIG. 2S.-A Watch Crystal.

FIG. 26.-A Porcelain

FIG. 27.-A Five-Inch U-Tube. FIG. 2S.-A Pair of Tweezers.

Indicator Papers and Solutions. Indicators are papers or

How Litmus Paper Acts. Litmus is a blue coloring

FIG 29.-How to Cut a Glass Tube.

graduation of color, by which is meant that the depth of

low temperature. This kind of tubing comes in 2-foot

FIG. 30.-How to Bend a Glass Tube.

burner, and turn it rapidly around. As soon as it is hot

red heat you can bend it to whatever shape you want.

FIG. 3r.-How to Draw a Glass Nozzle.

The word atmosphere is generally used to mean the

can be shown that the upper limit of it is only about 50