A

Seminar Report
On

SECURITY IN MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEMS

Submitted By :-

Pankaj Menaria
Yash Vyas
Kamlesh Jain
 A
Seminar Report
On

SECURITY IN MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEMS

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

In

Computer Engineering

SUBMITTED BY:

Pankaj Menaria
Yash Vyas
Kamlesh Jain

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Ajay Prasad

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING

 PAGE INDEX

SN Topic

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 SECURITY IN MOBILE DATABASE

1.2 MOBILE DATABASE
1.3 MOBILE SECURITY
1.4 DATABASE SECURITY
1.5 NEED FOR MOBILE DATABASE

2. MOBILE DATABASE SYSTEMS

2.1 Fully Connected Information Space

2.2 Personal Communication System (PCS)
2.3 Mobile Database Systems (MDS)
2.4 Transaction Management
2.5 Query Processing
2.6 Location and Handoff Management
2.7 Wireless Information Broadcast

3. MOBILE DATABASE SECURITY

3.1 MOBILE CONDITIONS

3.2 PROTECTION OBJECTS AND ACTION

4. CONCLUSION

5. REFERENCES
 developing mobility support in database
1. INTRODUCTION context. The confidentiality of mission-
critical data must be ensured, even though
most mobile devices do not provide a secure
The importance of databases in modern environment for storage of such data.
businesses and governmental institutions is Security requirements that apply to a central
huge and still growing. Many mission- company database should apply similarly and
critical applications and business processes in an appropriate manner to the parts of the
rely on databases. These databases contain database replicated on mobile devices in the
data of different degree of importance and field. A mobile database security
confidentiality, and are accessed by a wide infrastructure is needed to accomplish this
variety of users. Integrity violations for a goal. When developing such an infrastructure
database can have serious impact on business we can benefit from the results of traditional
processes; disclosure of confidential data in database security work. But we also need to
some cases has the same effect. Traditional adapt the existing techniques and strategies
database security provides techniques and to the mobile context, and we need to
strategies to handle such problems with develop new ones that attack certain issues
respect to database servers in a non-mobile specific to use of database systems in a
context. mobile environment.
1.1 SECURITY IN MOBILE DATABASE 1.2 MOBILE DATABASE
With the rise in popularity of smartphones A mobile database is a database that can be
has come an increasing need to secure them. connected to by a mobile computing device
Since their introduction mobile phones have over a mobile network. The client and server
becoming increasingly smaller, more have wireless connections. A cache is
powerful with increasing storage capacity maintained to hold frequent data and
and have remained expensive items. With the transactions so that they are not lost due to
rise of their popularity so has the need to connection failure. A database is a structured
secure the devices from theft, as well as way to organize information. This could be a
traditional threats that effect computers such list of contacts, price information or distance
as malware and the need to back and protect travelled.
the data on the devices.
The use of laptops, mobiles and PDAs is
Database security is also a specialty within increasing and likely to increase in the
the broader discipline of computer security. future[citation needed] with more and more
applications residing in the mobile systems.
While those same analysts can’t tell us
For many businesses applications are going
exactly which applications will be the most
mobile that means using enterprise data in a
popular, it is clear that a large percentage
mobile context, thus using a mobile DBMS.
will require the use of a database of some
With these new developments the business
sort. Many applications such as databases
data of an enterprise can be made available
would require the ability to download
to an even larger number of users and a
information from an information repository
wider range of applications than before.
and operate on this information even when
To work on business data anytime and out of range or disconnected.
anywhere is the major goal pursued by
An example of this is a mobile workforce. In unintended activity. Unintended activity can
this scenario user would require to access be categorized as authenticated misuse,
and update information from files in the malicious attacks or inadvertent mistakes
home directories on a server or customer made by authorized individuals or processes.
records from a database. This type of access
and work load generated by such users is Traditionally databases have been protected
different from the traditional workloads seen from external connections by firewalls or
in client–server systems of today. With the routers on the network perimeter with the
advent of mobile databases, now users can database environment existing on the internal
load up their smart phones or PDAs with network opposed to being located within a
mobile databases to exchange mission- demilitarized zone. Additional network
critical data remotely without worrying about security devices that detect and alert on
time or distance. Mobile databases let malicious database protocol traffic include
employees enter data on the fly. Information network intrusion detection systems along
can be synchronized with a server database at with host-based intrusion detection systems.
a later time.
Database security is more critical as
1.3 MOBILE SECURITY networks have become more open.

With the rise in popularity of smartphones Databases provide many layers and types of
has come an increasing need to secure them. information security, typically specified in
Since their introduction mobile phones have the data dictionary, including:
becoming increasingly smaller, more
powerful with increasing storage capacity  Access control
and have remained expensive items. With the  Auditing
rise of their popularity so has the need to  Authentication
secure the devices from theft, as well as  Encryption
traditional threats that effect computers such  Integrity controls
as malware and the need to back and protect
the data on the devices.
1.5 NEED FOR MOBILE DATABASE
A recent report from McAfee titled" 2011
 Mobile users must be able to work
Threats Predictions", outlines the company’s
without a wireless connection due to
concerns about the changing ―threats
poor or even non-existent connections.
landscape‖ thanks in part to increases in
 Applications must provide significant
malware sophistication and targeting and
interactivity.
how they relate to seven areas — including
 Applications must be able to access
social media, mobile Apple-related products
local device/vehicle hardware, such as
and applications.
printers, bar code scanners, or GPS
Although viruses are a key concern, the units (for mapping or Automatic
actual number of viruses targeting mobile Vehicle Location systems).
 Bandwidth must be conserved (a
phones in the wild has not been widespread.
common requirement on wireless
1.4 DATABASE SECURITY networks that charge per megabyte or
data transferred).
Database security is the system, processes,  Users don't require access to truly live
and procedures that protect a database from data, only recently modified data.
  Limited life of power supply(battery) the mobile unit's transaction and data support
 The changing topology of network to whichever base station covers the mobile
unit's new location.
If your application meets any of those
requirements, the chances are good that you 2) Products
will be required to build a mobile database
application with synchronization. Sybase Inc.’s SQL Anywhere dominates the
mobile-database field, with about 68 percent
Mobile database system architecture of the mobile database market. IBM’s DB2
Everyplace is a relational database and
For any mobile architecture, things to be enterprise synchronization server that
considered are: extends enterprise applications to mobile
devices. Microsoft SQL Server Compact and
 Users are not attached to a fixed Oracle9i Lite are similar mobile databases.
geographical location Products from lesser-known vendors, such as
 Mobile computing devices: low-power, SQLBase from Gupta Technologies LLC of
low-cost, portable Redwood Shores, Calif., HanDBase from
 Wireless networks DDH Software Inc. of Lake Worth, Fla.and
 Mobile computing constraints Database Viewer Plus from Cellica
Corporation NY, might serve your needs
1) Three parties equally well.
Mobile databases typically involve three 3) Sybase's SQL Anywhere
parties: fixed hosts, mobile units, and base
stations. Fixed hosts perform the transaction SQL Anywhere offers enterprise-caliber
and data management functions with the help databases that scale from 64-bit servers with
of database servers. Mobile units are portable thousands of users down to small handheld
computers that move around a geographical devices. SQL Anywhere’s data exchange
region that includes the cellular network (or technologies extend information in corporate
"cells") that these units use to communicate applications and enterprise systems to
to base stations. (Note that these networks databases running in mission-critical
need not be cellular telephone networks.) frontline environments. Design and
Base stations are two-way radios, management tools within SQL Anywhere
installations in fixed locations, that pass enable developers to implement and deploy
communications with the mobile units to and frontline applications and equip
from the fixed hosts. They are typically low- administrators to easily manage and support
power devices such as mobile phones, them.
portable phones, or wireless routers.

When a mobile unit leaves a cell serviced by

a particular base station, that station
transparently transfers the responsibility for
 SQL Remote: SQL Remote technology is
based on a store and forward architecture that
4) SQL Anywhere Technologies allows occasionally connected users to
synchronize data between SQL Anywhere
SQL Anywhere Server is a high performing databases using a file or message transfer
and embeddable relational database- mechanism.
management system (RDBMS) that scales
from thousands of users in server 5) IBM DB2 Everyplace (DB2e)
environments down to desktop and mobile
applications used in widely deployed, zero- DB2e stores, retrieves, organizes and
administration environments. manages data on a handheld device. The data
on the handheld device is synchronized to a
Ultralite: UltraLite is a database- server-based relational database management
management system designed for small- system (RDMS). DB2e is currently available
footprint mobile devices such as PDAs and for Palm OS, EPOC, Neutrino, Windows CE
smart phones. and embedded Linux DB2e on the handheld
device includes:
Mobilink: MobiLink is a highly-scalable,
session-based synchronization technology for  IBM DB2 Database Engine
exchanging data among relational databases  IBM Sync
and other non-relational data sources.  Query By Example (QBE)

QAnywhere: QAnywhere facilitates the

development of robust and secure store-and-
forward mobile messaging applications.
DB2e includes a component called Borland JDataStore 6 is a fast, versatile Java
Synchronization Server, which: database for truly portable embedded,
mobile, and Web server applications.
 Allows synchronization between DB2e Compliant with Java and SQL92 standards,
and server database the JDataStore database features a very small
 Mobile Device Administration Center footprint, requires practically zero
(MDAC) maintenance, and delivers the performance,
 Table encryption for version 8.1.1 scalability, and synchronization capabilities
 Java ME Sync Client for cell phones of a full-power database.
and pagers
MobiSnap

MobiSnap, a research project that aims to

6) Microsoft SQL Server Compact support the development of SQL based
(formerly SQL Server 2005 Mobile applications for mobile environments,
Edition) providing conquerable support for data
divergence control and connectivity
Microsoft SQL Server Compact (SSC) is a abstractions. MobiSnap aims at developing a
small footprint embedded database designed middle-ware infrastructure that allows access
for developers who target Microsoft to relational database systems from mobile
Windows mobile-based devices or desktops. computers with a clear semantics in all
It provides synchronization with Microsoft operational scenarios (from high to
SQL Server, programming APIs, integrated unavailable connectivity). This platform will
development experience through Visual isolate programmers from the problems
Studio and a Management Studio. related to mobility and disconnection,
allowing them to easily develop new
7) Oracle9i Lite applications for mobile environments,
focusing only on application specific
This is a complete solution for mobile or
problems. MobiSnap will be based on SQL,
wireless applications that require the use of a
thereby also providing close integration to
relational database on the mobile client. It
legacy information systems.
includes support for Win32, Windows CE,
PalmOS, and EPOC database clients,
integration with Oracle's Advanced Queuing
(AQ) mechanism, and data and application
synchronization software (to enterprise
Oracle databases. The Oracle9i Lite
relational database is surprisingly[citation needed]
powerful. The database supports 100% Java
development (through JDBC drivers and the
database's native support for embedded SQLJ
and Java stored procedures) as well as
programming from any development tool
that supports ODBC (Visual Basic, C++,
Delphi, and so on).

8) Others
Borland's JDataStore
 2. MOBILE DATABASE
SYSTEMS

2.1 Fully Connected Information Space

 Each node of the information space has

some communication capability.
 Some node can process information.
 Some node can communicate through
voice channel.
 Some node can do both

Can be created and maintained by integrating

legacy database systems, and wired and
wireless systems (PCS, Cellular system, and
GSM)
2.2 Personal Communication System (PCS)

A system where wired and wireless networks are integrated for establishing communication.

PSTN
AC HLR

VLR M SC (M TSO) M SC (M TSO)

EIR
MS BS MS Wire le ss compone nt

PSTN: Public Switched Network.

MSC: Mobile Switching Center. Also called MTSO
(Mobile Telephone Switching Office).
BS: Base Station.
MS: Mobile Station. Also called MU (Mobile Unit)
or Mobile Host (MH).
HLR: Home Location Register.
VLR: Visitor Location Register.
EIR: Equipment Identify Register.
AC: Access Chanel.

PCS refers to variety of wireless access Cellular telephony overview

(communication) and personal mobility
services provided through a small terminal at Four popular cellular telephony networks
any place, and in any form. Business are:
opportunities (E-commerce) for such  Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
services are tremendous, since every person,  Global System for Mobile
every organization, etc., could be equipped. Communication (GSM)
Several PCS systems have been developed to  EIA/TIA IS-136 Digital Cellular System
meet rapid growth prompted by market  EIA/TIA IS-95 Digital Cellular System
demand. Most of them are connected to
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
to integrate with the wired service.
Two of the most popular PCS systems AMPS was the first cellular system, which
are: was developed during the 1970s by Bell Lab.
 Cellular telephony From 1974 to 1978, a large scale AMPS trial
 Cordless and low-tier PCS telephony was conducted in Chicago. Commercial
AMPS service has been available since 1983.
It is based on frequency division multiple
access (FDMA), AMP was designed as a
high capacity system based on a frequency
reuse scheme. A total of 50 MHz in the 824- times that of AMPS. An existing AMPS
849 MHz and 869-894 MHz bands is system can be easily upgraded to IS-136 0n a
allocated for AMPS.This spectrum is divided circuit-by-circuit basis.
into 832 full-duplex channels using 1664
discrete frequencies, that is, 832 downlinks EIA/TIA IS-95 Digital Cellular
and 832 uplinks. In AMPS, the typical System
frequency reuse plan employs either a 12-
group frequency cluster using This digital cellular system was
omnidirectional antennas or a 7-group cluster developed by Qualcomm, and has been
using three sectors per base stations. Thus, operating in USA since 1996. IS-95 is based
there are about 50 channels per cell. on Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
technology. It allows many users to share a
Global System for Mobile common frequency/time channel for
Communication (GSM) transmission. The channel bandwidth used
by IS-95 is 1.25 MHz, which has been
GSM is a digital cellular system extended to 5 MHz in the third generation
developed by Groupe Special Mobile of wideband CDMA proposal. The speech
Conference Europeenne des Postes et coding rate for IS-95 is 13 Kbps or 8 Kbps.
Telecommunications (CEPT) and its IS-95’s capacity is estimated to be 10 times
successor European Telecommunications that of AMPS.
Standard Institute (ETSI). GSM combines
time divisioin multiple access (TDMA) and Cordless Telephone, Second
FDMA. With TDMA, the radio hardware in Generation (CT2)
the base station can be shared among
multiple users. In GSM the frequency carrier Developed in Europe, and has been
is divided into eight time slots where the available since 1989. CT2 is allocated 40
speech coding rate is 13 Kbps. In a GSM FDMA channels with a 32-Kbps speech
base station, every pair of radio transceiver-coding rate. For a user, both baseptop
receiver supports eight voice channels, handset signals and handset-to-base signals
whereas an AMPS base station needs one are transmitted in the same frequency. The
such pair for every voice channel. The GSM maximum transmit power of a CT2 handset
development process was similar to that of is 10 mW. In the call setup procedure, CT2
AMPS, except that no large scale trial was moves a call path from one radio channel to
conducted. another after three seconds of handshake
failure. CT2 also supports data transmission
EIA/TIA IS-136 Digital Cellular rates of up to 2.4 Kbps through the speech
System code and up to 4.8 Kbps with an increased
rate. CT2 does not support handoff and in a
This system is also referred to as public CT2 system, call delivery is not
digital AMPS (DAMPS), American Digital supported.
Cellular (ADC), or North American TDMA
(NA-TDMA), IS-136, the successor to IS-54, Digital European Cordless Telephone
supports a TDMA air interface similar to that (DECT)
of GSM. IS-54 was renamed IS-136 when it
reached revision C. It supports three voice The Digital European Cordless
channels, where the speech coding rate is Telephone has been replaced by Digital
7.95 Kbps. IS-136 capacity is around three Enhanced Cordless Telephone to denote
global acceptance of DECT. DECT supports
high user density with a picocell design.
There are 12 voice channels per frequency
carrier. Sleep mode is employed to converse
handset power. DECT also supports
seamless handoff. DECT is typically
implemented as a wireless-PBX (Private
Brach Exchange) connected to PSTN.
DECT can interwork with GSM to allow user
mobility.

Low-tier PCS telephony overview

Personal Handy Phone System

(PHS)

PHS is a standard developed by the

Research and Development Center for Radio
Systems (RCR), a private standardization
organization in Japan. PHS is a low-tier
digital PCS system that offers
telecommunication services for homes,
offices, and outdoor environment, using
radio access to the public telephone network
or other digital networks. PHS uses TDMA.
Sleep mode enables PHS to support five
hours of talk time, or 150 hours of standby
time. PHS operates in the 1895-1918.1 MHz
band. The bandwidth is partitioned into 77
channels, each with 300 KHz bandwidth.
The band 1906.1-1918.1 MHz (40 channels)
is designed for public systems, and the band
1895-1906.1 MHz (37 channels) is used for
home/office applications.

Personal Access Communications

Systems (PACS)

PACS is a low-power PCS system

developed at Telcordia (formerly Bellcore).
TDMA is used in PACS with eight voice
channels per frequency carrier. In FDD
mode, the PACS uplink and downlink
utilizes different RF carriers, similar to
cellular systems.
Cordless and low-tier PCS telephony overview

System High-tier Cellular Low-tier PCS Cordless

Cell size Large (0.4-22 mile) Medium (30-300’) Small (30-60’)

User speed High ( 160 mph) Medium ( 60 Low ( 30 mph)

mph)

Coverage Large/Continuous Medium. Micro Small/Zonal, picocell

area macrocell and picocell

Handset High Low Low

complexity

H-set High (100-800 mW) Low (5-10 mW) Low (5-10 mW)
power use

Speech Low (8-13 Kbps) High (32 Kpbs) High (32 Kpbs)
coding
rate
Delay or High ( 600 ms) Low (10 ms) Low ( 20 ms)
latency

Wireless Components

Base Station (BS): A network element that are call processing, signaling, maintenance,
interconnects the mobile station (or Mobile and diagnostics. The BS communicates to its
unit (MU)) to the network via the air mobile unit via the air interface, and to
interface. Each cell in the network has a BS MTSO by dedicated communication link
associated with it. The primary function of a such as T1 trunks. Communication links on
BS is to maintain the air interface, or the BS to the MTSO interface are also
medium, for communication to any mobile classified into voice links and signaling link.
unit within its cell. Other functions of BS
Mobile Units (MU): conversation. This can be a laptop, a
palmtop, or a cell phone, or any other mobile
Also called Mobile Systems (MS) or Mobile device. A MU also stores (a) Mobile
Hosts (MH). It consists of three components: Identification Number (MIN), (b) Electronic
(a) transceiver, (b) antenna, and (c) user Serial Number (EIN), and (C) Station Class
interface. The user interface exists only at Mark (SCM). These are transmitted upon
MU, which consists of a display, a keypad power on, cell initiated sampling, and cell
for entering information, and an audio origination.
interface for speaking and hearing voice

MSC (MTSO)

BS

MS Wireless
MS
component
Cell

Mobile cell the system has a large number of very

small hexagons (cell). The greater the
Within the cellular allocation the USA number of hexagons, the more
is divided into Metropolitan Statistical simultaneous calls the system can
Areas (MSAs) and Rural Statistical handle. However, larger number of
Areas (RSAs). There are six PCS hexagons increases the cost of
service providers authorized to provide implementation. Thus, cell coverage
mobile service in each of these areas. is a dynamic activity, which is
Within their geographical region, each constantly changing in response to
service provider divides their area into increases in demand.
smaller segments called cells. Each of
this cell has a Base Station. Ideally,
 Metropolitan area Metropolitan area

BS
Base Station BS BS

Coverage area in one cell Coverage area in three cells

Large cells.
Low density

Small cells.
High density
Smaller cells.
Higher density

The entire coverage area is a group of a number of cells. The size of cell depends upon the
power of the base stations.

MSC PSTN
Problems with cellular structure  Service providers must be able to
communicate with each other. Needs
 How to maintain continuous some standard.
communication between two parties in the  Mobile station constraints.
presence of mobility?  Integration of a new service provider
Solution: Handoff into the network. A roaming
subscriber must be able to detect this
 How to maintain continuous new provider.
communication between two parties in the  Service providers must be able to
presence of mobility? communicate with each other. Needs
Solution: Roaming some standard.
 Quick MU response to a service
 How to locate of a mobile unit in the provider’s availability.
entire coverage area?  Limited battery life.
Solution: Location management
Two basic operations in roaming
Roaming management are

Roaming is a facility, which allows a Registration (Location update): The
subscriber to enjoy uninterrupted process of informing the presence or arrival
communication from anywhere in the entire of a MU to a cell.
coverage space.  Location tracking: the process of
A mobile network coverage space may locating the desired MU.
be managed by a number of different service
providers. They must cooperate with each Registration (Location update): There are six
other to provide roaming facility. different types of registration.
Roaming can be provided only if some  Power-down registration. Done by the
administrative and technical constraints are MU when it intends to switch itself
met. off.
 Power-up registration. Opposite to
Administrative constraints power-down registration. When an
MU is switched on, it registers.
 Billing.  Deregistration. A MU decides to
 Subscription agreement. acquire control channel service on a
 Call transfer charges. different type of network (public,
 User profile and database sharing. private, or residential).
 Any other policy constraints.
Registration (Location update): There are six
Technical constraints different types of registration.

 Bandwidth mismatch. For example,  New system/Location area

European 900MHz band may not be registration: when the location area of
available in other parts of the world. This the MU changes, it sends a registration
may preclude some mobile equipment for message.
roaming.  Periodic registration: A MU may be
instructed to periodically register with
the network.
  Forced registration: A network may,
under certain circumstances, force all
MUs to register.

2.3 Mobile Database Systems (MDS)

 Vulnerable to physical activities
What is a Mobile Database System  Hard to make theft proof.
(MDS)?
MDS capabilities
A system with the following structural
and functional properties  Can physically move around without
 Distributed system with mobile affecting data availability Can reach to
connectivity the place data is stored
 Full database system capability  Can process special types of data
 Complete spatial mobility efficiently
 Built on PCS/GSM platform  Not subjected to connection restrictions
 Wireless and wired communication  Very high reachability
capability  Highly portable

MDS Applications To build a truly ubiquitous information

processing system by overcoming the
 Insurance companies inherent limitations of wireless architecture
 Emergencies services (Police, medical,
etc.)
 Traffic control
 Taxi dispatch
 E-commerce MDS Issues
 Etc.
 Data Management
MDS Limitations  Data Caching
 Data Broadcast (Broadcast disk)
 Limited wireless bandwidth  Data Classification
 Wireless communication speed
 Limited energy source (battery power)  Transaction Management
 Less secured
 Query processing
 Transaction processing
 Concurrency control
 Database recovery
A Reference Architecture (Client-Server model)

PSTN
DB DB HLR VLR

DBS DBS M SC M SC

BSC BSC
Fixe d host
Fixe d host BS
MU
MU
MU BS
BS
MU MU

MDS Data Management Issues frequency and download the desired data
from the broadcast to their local cache. A
How to improve data availability to user broadcast (file on the air) is similar to a
queries using limited bandwidth? disk file but located on the air. The
contents of the broadcast reflects the data
Possible schemes demands of mobile units. This can be
 Semantic data caching: The cache achieved through data access history,
contents is decided by the results of which can be fed to the data broadcasting
earlier transactions or by semantic system. For efficient access the broadcast
data set. file use index or some other method.
 Data Broadcast on wireless channels
Semantic caching How MDS looks at the database data?
 Client maintains a semantic
description of the data in its cache Data classification
instead of maintaining a list of pages  Location Dependent Data (LDD)
or tuples.  Location Independent Data (LID)
 The server processes simple predicates
on the database and the results are Location Dependent Data (LDD)
cached at the client.
The class of data whose value is functionally
Data Broadcast (Broadcast disk) dependent on location. Thus, the value of
A set of most frequently accessed data is the location determines the correct value of
made available by continuously the data.
broadcasting it on some fixed radio Location Data value
frequency. Mobile Units can tune to this Examples: City tax, City area, etc.
 LDD must be processed under the
Location Independent Data (LID) location constraints. Thus, the tax data
of Pune can be processed correctly
The class of data whose value is functionally only under Pune’s finance rule.
independent of location. Thus, the value of Needs location binding or
the location does not determine the value of location mapping function.
the data. Location binding or location mapping
can be achieved through database
Example: Person name, account schema or through a location mapping
number, etc. The person name remains the table.
same irrespective of place the person is
residing at the time of enquiry.
Location Dependent Data (LDD)
Location Dependent Data (LDD) Distribution
Example: Hotel Taj has many MDS could be a federated or a multidatabase
branches in India. However, the room system. The database distribution
rent of this hotel will depend upon the (replication, partition, etc.) must take into
place it is located. Any change in the consideration LDD.
room rate of one branch would not One approach is to represent a city in
affect any other branch. terms of a number of mobile cells, which is
Schema: It remains the same referred to as ―Data region‖. Thus, Pune can
only multiple correct values exists in be represented in terms of N cells and the
the database. LDD of Pune can be replicated at these
individual cells.

Concept Hierarchy in LDD

In a data region the entire LDD of that location can be represented in a hierarchical
fashion.

City data

County 1 data County 2 data County n data

Subdivision 1 data Subdivision data Subdivision m data

 2.4 Transaction Management

Transaction fragments for distribution

PSTN fragment eij is a partial

An execution
DB DB HLR order eij = {j, j} where VLR
 i = OSj  {Ni} where OSj =
DBS DBS M SC kOjk, Ojk {read, write},
M SC
and Nj {AbortL, CommitL}.
BSC BSC
Fixe d host
Fixe d host
BS

MU
MU
MU BS
BS

MU MU

Transaction fragments for distributed  For any Ojk and Ojl where Ojk = R(x) and
execution Ojl = W(x) for data object x, then either
Ojk j Ojl or Ojl j Ojk.
Execution scenario: User issues transactions
from his/her MU and the final results comes
back to the same MU. The user transaction Mobile Transaction Models
may not be completely executed at the MU
Kangaroo Transaction:
so it is fragmented and distributed among
database servers for execution. This creates It is requested at a MU but processed
a Distributed mobile execution. at DBMS on the fixed network. The
management of the transaction moves
A mobile transaction (MT) can be defined as with MU. Each transaction is divided
Ti is a triple <F, L, FLM>; where into subtransactions. Two types of
F = {e1, e2, …, en} is a set of execution processing modes are allowed, one
fragments, ensuring overall atomicity by requiring
L = {l1, l2, …, ln} is a set of locations, and compensating transactions at the
FLM = {flm1, flm2, …, flmn} is a set of subtransaction level.
fragment location mapping where j, flmi (ei)
= li
Reporting and Co-Transactions: Semantics Based:

The parent transaction (workflow) is The model assumes a mobile transaction to

represented in terms of reporting and co- be a long lived task and splits large and
transactions which can execute anywhere. A complex objects into smaller manageable
reporting transaction can share its partial fragments. These fragments are put together
results with the parent transaction anytime again by the merge operation at the server. If
and can commit independently. A co- the fragments can be recombined in any
transaction is a special class of reporting order then the objects are termed reorderable
transaction, which can be forced to wait by objects.
other transaction.

Clustering: Serialization of concurrent execution.

A mobile transaction isdecomposed into a set  Two-phase locking based (commonly

of weak and strict transactions. The used)
decomposition is done based on the  Timestamping
consistency requirement. The read and write  Optimistic
operations are also classified as weak and
strict.

Mobile Transaction execution

DBS1
DBS2
T2(e4, e5)

MU1 T1(e1, e2, e3) MU3

MU2

DBS3
DBS4
Reasons these methods may not work Protocol: TCOT-Transaction Commit
satisfactorily On Timeout

 Wired and wireless message overhead. Requirements

 Hard to efficiently support disconnected Coordinator: Coordinates transaction
operations. commit
 Hard to manage locking and unlocking Home MU: Mobile Transaction (MT)
operations. originates here
Commit set: Nodes that process MT
Serialization of concurrent execution. (MU + DBSs)
Timeout: Time period for executing a
New schemes based on timeout, fragment
multiversion, etc., may work. A scheme,
which uses minimum number of messages, Protocol:
especially wireless messages is required.
TCOT-Transaction Commit On
Database update to maintain global Timeout
consistency.  MT arrives at Home MU.
 MU extract its fragment, estimates
Database update problem arises when timeout, and send rest of MT to the
mobile units are also allowed to modify the coordinator.
database. To maintain global consistency an  Coordinator further fragments the
efficient database update scheme is MT and distributes them to
necessary. members of commit set.
 MU processes and commits its
Transaction commit. fragment and sends the updates to
the coordinator for DBS.
In MDS a transaction may be fragmented and  DBSs process their fragments and
may run at more than one nodes (MU and inform the coordinator.
DBSs). An efficient commit protocol is  Coordinators commits or aborts
necessary. 2-phase commit (2PC) or 3-phase MT.
commit (3PC) is no good because of their
generous messaging requirement. A scheme Transaction and database recovery
which uses very few messages, especially
wireless, is desirable. Complex for the following reasons
One possible scheme is ―timeout‖ based  Some of the processing nodes are
protocol. mobile
 Less resilient to physical use/abuse
Concept: MU and DBSs guarantee to  Limited wireless channels
complete the execution of their fragments of  Limited power supply
a mobile transaction within their predefined  Disconnected processing capability
timeouts. Thus, during processing no
communication is required. At the end of Desirable recovery features
timeout, each node commit their fragment  Independent recovery capability
independently.  Efficient logging and
checkpointing facility
 Log duplication facility
  Independent recovery capability Possible approaches
reduces communication overhead.
Thus, MUs can recover without any  Agent broadcast on a dedicated wireless
help from DBS channel
 Efficient logging and  Pool of agents at every processing node
checkpointing facility conserve  Agent migration to a required node.
battery power
 Log duplication facility improves
reliability of recovery scheme Mobile E-commerce

Possible approaches What is E-commerce?

 Partial recovery capability Mapping of business activity on the network.
 Use of mobile agent technology The network may be mobile of ad-hoc in
which case the scope of business activities
Possible MU logging approaches significantly increases.
 Logging at the processing node
(e.g., MU) Why mobile E-commerce?
 Logging at a centralized location To make business activity free from spatial
(e.g., at a designated DBS) constraints. This allows tremendous
 Logging at the place of registration flexibility to customers as well as to vendors.
(e.g., BS)
 Saving log on Zip drive or floppies. Important gain: Making information
available at the right time, at the right
location, and in a right format.
Mobile Agent Technology
Requirements for a mobile E-system
A mobile agent is an independent software  Security
module capable of  Reliability
 Efficient
 Migrating to any node on the network  Customer trust
 Capable of spawning and eliminating  Quality of service
itself
 Capable of recording its own history
These requirements are difficulty and
A mobile agent can be used for the following complex to achieve
activities, which are essential for recovery.
Security
 Centralized and distributed logging Conventional key approaches needs revision.
 Log carrier. A Mobile unit may need to
carry its log with it for independent Reliability
recovery Hard to provide mainly because of the
 Log processing for database recovery unreliability and limitations of resources.
 Transaction commit or abort
Efficient
This capability can be easily improved
mainly because of the elimination of spatial
constraints.
Customer trust 2.6 Location and Handoff Management
A time consuming activity. Customer do not
easily trust electronic communication and The handoff process is provided and the
always wants to see a reliable backup topic of location management is introduced.
service. It first explains how these processes work
and then discusses their relevance to
Quality of service transaction management in mobile database
Mobility and web provides ample scope for systems. Quite a few location management
improving the quality of service. An schemes have been proposed recently, but
integration of mobility, web, data none of them have been implemented in any
warehousing and workflow offers commercial system, so they are not
tremendous growth potential and a very discussed. The working of existing handoff
controlled way of managing business and location mechanisms given in IS-41 is
activities explained.

Location Management
2.5 Query Processing
In cellular systems a mobile unit is free to
MDS Query processing move around within the entire area of
coverage. Its movement is random and
Query types therefore its geographical location is
 Location dependent query unpredictable. This situation makes it
 Location aware query necessary to locate the mobile unit and
 Location independent query ecord its location to HLR and VLR when a
call has to be delivered to it.
Location dependent query
A query whose result depends on the Thus, the entire process of the mobility
geographical location of the origin of the management component of the cellular
query. system is responsible for two tasks:

Example (a) location management- that is,

What is the distance of Pune railway identification of the current geographical
station from here? location or current point of attachment of a
The result of this query is correct only mobile unit which is required by the MSC
for ―here‖. (Mobile Switching Center) to route the call-
and
Location dependent query (b) handoff- that is, transferring (handing off)
the current (active) communication session to
Situation: Person traveling in the car desires the next base station, which seamlessly
to know his progress and continuously asks resumes the session using its own set of
the same question. However, every time the channels. The entire process of location
answer is different but correct. management is a kind of directory
Requirements: Continuous monitoring of the management problem where locations are
longitude and latitude of the origin of the current locations are maintained
query. GPS can do this. continuously.
One of the main objectives of efficient together to form a location area, and the
location management schemes is to minimize paging area is constructed in a similar way.
the communication overhead due to database In some situations, remote cells may be
updates (mainly HLR) [6,9, 151. included in these areas. It is useful to keep
The other related issue is the distribution of the same set of cells for creating location and
HLR to shorten the access path, which is paging areas, and in most commercial
similar to data distribution problem in systems they are usually identical. This
distributed database systems. Motivated by arrangement reduces location update
these issues, recently a number of innovative frequency because location updates are not
location management schemes have appeared necessary when a mobile unit moves in the
in the research world [ 141. The current point cells of a location area. A large number of
of attachment or location of a subscriber schemes to achieve low cost and infrequent
(mobile unit) is expressed in terms of the cell update have been proposed, and new
or the base station to which it is presently schemes continue to emerge as cellular
connected. The mobile units (called and technology advances.
calling subscribers) can continue to talk and
move around in their respective cells; but as A mobile unit can freely move around in
soon as both or any one of the units moves to (a) active mode,
a different cell, the location management (b) doze mode, or
procedure is invoked to identify the new (c) power down mode.
location.
The unrestricted mobility of mobile units In active mode the mobile actively
presents a complex dynamic environment, communicates with other subscriber, and it
and the location management component may continue to move within the cell or may
must be able to identify the correct location encounter a handoff which may interrupt the
of a unit without any noticeable delay. The communication. It is the task of the location
location management performs three manager to find the new location and resume
fundamental tasks: (a) location update, (b) the communication. In doze mode a mobile
location lookup, and (c) paging. In location unit does not actively communicate with
update, which is initiated by the mobile unit, other subscribers but continues to listen to
the current location of the unit is recorded in the base station and monitors the signal
HLR and VLR databases. Location lookup is levels around it, and in power down mode
basically a database search to obtain the the unit is not functional at all. When it
current location of the mobile unit and moves to a different cell in doze or power
through paging the system informs the caller down modes, then it is neither possible nor
the location of the called unit in terms of its necessary for the location manager to find
current base station. the location. The location management
These two tasks are initiated by the MSC. module uses a two-tier scheme for location-
The cost of update and paging increases as related tasks.
cell size decreases, which becomes quite
significant for finer granularity cells such as The first tier provides a quick location
micro- or picocell clusters. The presence of lookup, and the second tier 4earch is initiated
frequent cell crossing, which is a common only when the first tier search fails.
scenario in highly commuting zones, further
adds to the cost. The system creates location
areas and paging areas to minimize the cost.
A number of neighboring cells are grouped
Handoff Management
is called the degradation interval . The
This section discuses how a handoff is objective is to complete a handoff process
managed to provide continuous connectivity. while the mobile unit is still in the overlap
Figure illustratesthe presence of an overlap area. This implies that the handoff must not
region between Cell 1 and Cell 2. A mobile take more than the degradation interval to
unit may spends some time in this overlap complete he process. If for some reason the
area and the value of this duration depends process fails to complete in this area or
upon the movement speed of the mobile unit. within degradation interval, then the call is
The duration a mobile unit stays in this area dropped.

Fig. Cell overlap region.

A handoff may happen within or outside a identifies new channels to be assigned

registration area. If it happens within a for continuous connectivity.
registration area, then it is referred to as
intra-system handoff where the same MSC  Transfer of radio link: The identified
manages the entire process. An intersystem channels are allocated to the mobile
handoff occurs between two separate unit.
registration areas where two MSCs are
involved in handoff processing. In each of Handoff Detection
these cases the handoff processing is
completed in three steps: Handoff processing is expensive, so the
detection process must correctly detect a
 Handoff detection: The system detects genuine and False Handoff which also
when a handoff process needs to be occurs because of signal fading. There are
initiated. three approaches for detecting handoff
effectively and accurately.
 Assignment of channels: During handoff A brief description of these approaches,
processing the system which are applied on GSM system but also
used in PCS, is presented here and further signal strength occasionally, and in
details can be found in Ref. [lo]. They are collaboration with BSs the handoff situation
called: is detected. The MAHO scheme shares some
detection steps of NCHO. Necessary
 Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO) resources for setting up a call or to process a
 Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO) handoff request may not always be available.
 Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO) For example, during a handoff the
destination BS may not have any free
Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO): channel, the MU is highly mobile and has
requested too many handoffs, the system is
This scheme is implemented in second- taking too long to process a handoff, the link
generation systems where TDMA technology transfer suffered some problem, and so on. In
is used. In this approach, every mobile unit any of these cases the handoff is terminated
continuously measures the signal strength and the mobile unit loses the connection.
from surrounding base stations and notifies
the strength data to the serving base station. Radio Link Transfer
The strength of these signals are analyzed,
and a handoff is initiated when the strength The last phase of handoff is the transfer of
of a neighboring base station exceeds the the radio link. The hierarchical structure of
strength of the serving base station. The cellular system (PCS and GSM) presents the
handoff decision is made jointly by base following five-link transfer cases for which
station and Mobile Switching Center (MSC) handoff has to be processed.
or base station controller (BSC). In case the  Intracell handoff Link or channel
Mobile Unit (MU) moves to a different transfer occurs for only one BS. In this
registration area, an intersystem handoff is handoff a MU only switches channel.
initiated. Figure 3.10 illustrates the scenario.
 Intercell or Inter-BS handoff The link
Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO): transfer takes place between two BSs
which are connected to the same BSC.
In this scheme the Mobile Unit (MU) is Figure 3.1 1 illustrates the scenario.
responsible for detecting a handoff. The MU  Inter-BSC handoff: The link transfer
continuously monitors the signal strength takes place between two BSs which are
from neighboring base stations and identifies connected to two different BSCs and the
if a handoff is necessary. If it finds the BSC is connected to one MSC. Figure
situation for more than one handoff, then it 3.12 illustrates the scenario.
selects the base station with strongest signal  Intersystem or Inter-MSC handoff The
for initiating a handoff. link transfer takes place between two BSs
which are connected to two different
Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO): BSCs. These two BSCs are connected to
two different MSCs. Figure 3.13
In this scheme, Mobile Unit (MU) does not illustrates the situation.
play any role in handoff detection. The BS
monitors the signal strength used by MUs As discussed in Ref. [ 101, typical call
and if it falls below a threshold value, the BS holding time is around 60 seconds. Some
initiates a handoff. In this scheme also BS real-life data indicates that there could be
and MSC are involved in handoff detection. around 0.5 inter-BS handoff, 0.1 inter-BSC
In fact the MSC instructs BSs to monitor the
Fig. 3.10 Channel transfer in intracell handoff.

Fig. 3.11 Channel transfer between two BSs with one BSC.
handoff, and 0.05 inter-MSC handoff. The important for minimizing the call waiting
data also indicate that the failure rate of time. There are two ways to achieve link
inter-MSC handoff is about five times more transfer. One way is referred to as Hard
than inter-BS handoff. It is quite obvious that Handofland the other as Soft Handoff.
efficient processing of handoff is quite

Fig. 3.72 Channel transfer between two BSs connected to two BSCs.

Hard Handoff:
2. The MS sends a ―handoff request
In this handoff process the user experiences a message― to the network through the new
brief silence or discontinuity in BS. The new BS then sends a ―handoff
communication which occurs because at any acknowledgement― message and marks the
time the MU is attached to only one BS and slot busy. This message indicates the
when the link is transfer the connection is initiation of the handoff process.
broken temporarily resulting in a silence. The
steps of the handoff for MCHO link transfer 3. This acknowledgment message indicates
is described below. to MU that the handoff process has started,
and so MU returns to the old channel it was
1. MS sends a ―link suspend‖ message to the using and resumes voice communication
old BS which temporarily suspends the while network process the handoff.
conversation (occurrence of silence).
4. When the new BS receives the handoff In the later case, since it is between two
request message, then two cases arise: different BSCs, the BS must complete some
security check. It gets the cypher key from
(a) It is an intra-BS handoff or the old BS and associates it with the new
(b) it is an inter-BS handoff. In the former channel.
case the BS sends a handoff
acknowledgment message and proceeds with 6. The MSC bridges the conversation path
handoff. and the new BS.

Fig. 3.13 Channel transfer between two BSs with two BSCs connected to two MSCs.

6. On the command of the network, the MS message through the new channel and
processes the handoff where it releases the resumes the voice communication. A
old channel by sending an ―access release‖ detailed discussion on hard handoff for other
message to the old BS. In this rocess the kinds of link transfer.
voice communication is briefly interrupted
again. The MU sends a ―handoff complete‖
 2.6 Wireless Information Broadcast

The data dissemination discipline gives an mobility in information management, and the
illusion that the space is an infinite size wireless data dissemination took mobile
persistent data storage from where a user can systems one step further and allowed the user
download desired information. For example, to tune and access and process desired
information about airline schedule, weather, information from anywhere in the world.
stock quotes, etc., can be downloaded from Accessing data from wireless channel is a
the broadcast. Initially, data dissemination very useful facility because it allows users
system appeared as an information to get desired data through many
dissemination tool similar to radio broadcast, computationally enabled devices such as
but with advances in wireless and satellite cellular phones, PDAs, other new devices.
communication, it is becoming an Manufacturers continue to develop
information management system as well. increasingly powerful mobile devices while
This chapter discusses data dissemination decreasing their size and cost. If it is
technology and development of schemes assumed that there is an abundance of
such as indexing, push and pull, data staging, wireless channels, then servers can continue
surrogates, and so on, for incorporating to push all data users can ever need on these
transactional facility. The discussion in this channels and users can pull whatever they
chapter is based mostly on research reports require. This is an ideal scenario. In reality,
because a truly data broadcast system has not wireless channels are always less than the
been developed and deployed for commercial number required to satisfy users’ demands.
use. It also discusses in detail the architecture Thus, the task of data dissemination
and working of a reference data technology is to develop ways for satisfying
dissemination and processing system called users’ data demand with limited wireless
DAYS (DAta in your Space). resources.

The discipline of data dissemination Data broadcast is predominately user-

through wireless channel, that is, data independent. The users are passive in that
broadcast, has added another dimension in they can only read what is contained in a
the area of mobile computing. The mobile broadcast. While this model fits well into
database systems, discussed in preceding some types of data dissemination (such as
chapters, provided terminal and personal local traffic information), it is not general
enough for many different types of
applications. Some examples can help to
identify its usefulness and limitations.
Data Broadcast Mode battery power; these activities must be
disabled whenever possible. The Hobbit chip
The mode of data transfer is essentially from AT&T allows the operation in two
asymmetric, that is, the capacity of the modes:
transfer of data from the server to the mobile (a) active mode – the full operational
client downstream communication is mode where CPU and all other components
significantly larger than the client or mobile are in running state and
user to the server upstream communication. (b) doze mode - the power conserving
mode where the CPU is inactive.
The effectiveness of a data
dissemination system is evaluated by its The power consumption in the active
ability to provide a user his required data mode is 250 mW, and the power
ubiquitously. There are two basic modes of consumption in doze mode is 50 pW. The
data dissemination. These modes are ratio of power consumption in the active
motivated mainly by limited power mode to doze mode is 5000.
consideration. The lifetime of a battery is
expected to increase only 20% over the next When the mobile unit (palmtop) is
10 years 1221. A typical AA cell is rated to listening to the channel, the CPU must be in
give 800 mA/hour at I .2 V (0.96 Whour). the active mode for examining data buckets
The constant power dissipation in a CD- in the broadcast. The CPU consumes more
ROM (for disk spinning itself) is about 1 W, power than some receivers, especially if it
and the power dissipation for display is has to be active to examine all incoming
around 2.5 W. The available power source is buckets. Therefore, it will be beneficial if the
likely to last for 2.7 hours and to preserve CPU can be switched to the doze mode
whenever it is not being used and switched
back to active mode when the data of interest Hybrid Mode: In this mode, broadcast
arrives on the broadcast channel. This facility and on-demand modes are combined. The
is called selective tuning. server allows individual data requests from
Transmitting and accessing data also clients through uplink channel and allows
consumes power. A number of factors like data broadcast through downlink channel. It
the terrain, landscape, the height and kind of also, if necessary, broadcasts on-demand data
trees, foliage, season, rain, etc., play an if its popularity matches the popularity of
important role in determining the power broadcast data.
required in data dissemination. With distance
the power requirement increases significantly Pull Process
1261. For large cells the energy required for
transmission could reach tens of watts. Pull process is user (client)-oriented. A
user assumes that the desired information is
For example, a Wavelan card consumes 1.7 available in the wireless space, and he pulls it
W with the receiver powered on and 3.4 W by tuning the channel. For example, a user
with the transmitter powered on. The keys in a URL on the web browser and pulls
effective bandwidth of wireless network is the desired information. The server is not
only a fraction of the bandwidth that is concern with the individual user’s access. It
available in wired networks. The current is also immaterial whether the user finds the
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) desired data or encounters an error or delay
standards are designed to yield a bandwidth occurs in downloading the data. In day-to-
of up to 622 Mbps. This bandwidth is day activities, pull process is frequently
projected to go up to gigabits [20]. The applied: borrowing a book from a library,
wireless bandwidth varies from 1.2 kbps for renting a movie or music CD, buying an
slow paging channels to about 2 Mbps of the airline ticket, and so on. It is clear from these
wireless LAN. examples that in pull the user initiates a
conditional information flow where the
Data broadcast can be managed with condition is defined by the user with an
three different modes to satisfy user needs. understanding that the condition is likely to
These modes are further elaborated later in be satisfied-for example, renting a movie
this chapter as Push and Pull technology. with a particular title, purchasing a ticket for
Broadcast Mode: In this mode the broadcast a particular destination, and so on. Using an
server periodically broadcast most popular e-mail facility may appear to follow pull
data on some wireless channels from which process, but actually it is not so. A recipient
users can listen and, if necessary, download of an e-mail does not select the e-mails he
the required data. There is no uplink channel receives; rather they are dropped in the user’s
involved in this mode. Simple filtering of space without his knowledge and they just
broadcast data stream according to a user appear on his e-mail directory, some as spam
specified filter [6] is applied to access data. but some quite useful. It is also clear that
what a user intends to pull may or may not
On-Demand Mode: This mode allows be present in the pulled information. For
a client to request specific data which is not example, pulling information from Google
available in the current broadcast or may with some condition brings quite a lot of
never appear in the broadcast. The client trash along with the desired information. An
sends the query for the required data through intelligent pull technique such as a semantic
an uplink channel. web has yet to be fully developed.
 and downloaded information at these
Advantages of Pull: It is user-friendly intervals. This was the beginning of an
and provides interactive capability to users effective way of reaching a larger number of
for accessing the information through query. customers. Developers and researchers found
The user does not need to search in the the push scheme quite useful; since then, it
wireless information space by tuning several was deployed on the internet in many ways
channels. such as webcasting or netcasting. Sometimes
it is also called PointCusting to honor the
Disadvantages of Pull: In wireless company which invented it.
data dissemination platform, the pull
approach is resource-intensive. A user The main objective of push technology
requires a separate channel to send the was to handle the problem of information
request as a SQL query or in some other overload due to low bandwidth which
form to the server for the desired restricted users to receive multimedia
information. The server, after receiving the contents. The push scheme provided an
request, composes the result and must send it effective means to pre-deliver much larger
to the user on a back channel (downstream) packages of audio, large graphics, or short
known to the user. Thus every pull needs two video clips. The push technology can be
channels for completing the process augmented with a number of mechanisms to
successfully. If there are a large number of increase its scope and effectiveness. For
users and they need identical information, example, message indexing can be
then each user will occupy two channels with implemented to speed up broadcast search,
identical data on all back channels. This caching can be used to reduce data miss, data
cannot be easily afforded because of narrow staging can be augmented to enhance data
bandwidth available for wireless availability, personalization of channel
communication. It appears from these contents can help to satisfy specific user, the
limitations that pull is good for special cases smart-pull approach can assist users to get
of data retrieval. specific information, and so on. These topics
are discussed in detail in subsequent sections.
Push Process
Push Application
In the push process, the server
broadcasts data (pushes data) on one or The push technology has been
multiple channels. For example, it can push deployed for sometime in many real-world
weather information on one channel, traffic activities such as in the financial world to
information on another channel, and so on. broadcast stock quotes, mutual funds costs,
Clients, depending upon their data real state costs and inflation status, news,
requirements, tune the appropriate channel. cable television broadcast, etc. Nearly all
In a push system a client cannot send a software manufacturers use push to broadcast
specific query to the server, nor is the server application and system updates and fixes to
broadcast client-specific. The push clients’ machines. Many companies use this
technology was introduced somewhere technology for advertisement. In fact, most
around April 1996 by an internet company of the commercials on broadcast media such
called PointCast Inc. The company started as television, radio, etc., are pushbased.
push scheme by broadcasting selected news Companies are at a great advantage for
and stock quotes to a client’s machine at making use of the push technology which
predefined intervals [ 141. The client tuned allows them to make instant changes in the
broadcast or refresh it entirely based on significantly minimized through efficient
users’ feedback to increase their effect on indexing and carefully composing the
consumers. It is not now necessary for them broadcast. Such arrangements actually create
to rely on a human operator to search a site a notion of smart-pull where client can pull
for outdated material. The push technology exactly the information he wanted with
applies to entertainment and leisure equally minimum redundancy. However, even
effectively. though push applications are not really push,
The push technology is especially there is a difference in them. The difference
useful in the intranet market. Companies can is the automation of the process both for the
push on their intranet corporate information server and the client. There are a couple of
to employees using a predefined schedule. It true push technology applications-for
guarantees identical message delivery, which example, products like AirMedia Live and
is highly desirable, to all employees. Wayfarer (INCISA).

Accessing Information from Broadcast Push Advantages and Disadvantages

Push technology has been a favorite
Clients can access and download choice of data dissemination because of its
required information in a variety of ways, several advantages. It has, however, several
which depends upon how the broadcast was disadvantages which makes it unsuitable,
composed and pushed on the channel by the especially for providing transactional facility.
server. In a channel the push is strictly
sequential. Data are dropped in the channel, Advantages
one at a time. This can be viewed as a string  In a large information flow it minimizes
of different categories of data. For example, the burden of acquiring data. The server
if the broadcast is composed of weather can keep the information up to date by
information, traffic information, and dining broadcasting it on a regular interval;
places information, then they will appear on consequently, the user always has the
the broadcast sequentially in the order they latest information. A user is aware of the
were dropped in the channel. The client will broadcast channel carrying the
receive the broadcast in the order sent by the information and the exact location of the
server. data in the broadcast. This setup
significantly reduces the search time.
At the client’s end the Fimplest way to
access the information is sequentially. In  Sends the user the time-critical data for
most cases this access is time consuming. A immediate attention.
client, if interested only i n dining
information, has to tune and wait until the  Helps organizations (academic, business,
dining information appears in the broadcast. or commercial) to identify, focus, and
In a wireless platform, any waiting-let alone reach those users with precision who are
waiting for information to appear-is quite more likely to benefit from their products
resource-expensive, especially from a or services.
bandwidth viewpoint. An ideal scheme is to
tune when the desired information appears  Automatically delivers directly to clients’
(e.g., selective tuning) and download the machines software upgrades and fixes
data; that is, the waiting time for information faster and, at the same time, reduce or
access is zero. It is impossible to implement eliminate the shipping cost. This facility
the ideal scheme, but the access time can be requires a mechanism to check clients’
 machines for software and configuration Identifying the location of the desired
and then modify these configurations. information in the broadcast and
downloading the multimedia contents
 Uses incremental updates where only new require a huge amount of disk storage.
and changed information has to be sent to
the computer which significantly reduces  It suffers a number of unresolved
access and download time. bandwidth problems. Problems arise due
to the enormous bandwidth that push
 Helps server to reserve more processing technologies can require when feeding
time for data production by avoiding to data to thousands of end users. Caching
handle numerous client requests proxy servers, for example, as well as
individually. multicast solutions, will likely solve many
of the bandwidth problems of push and
 Shortens response time. allow it to scale. Some providers allow
users to choose when the information is
 Easily protects user privacy because push downloaded, so users can schedule it for
applications run mostly at the client times that they will be away from their
machine and client’s profile and the log computer.
information about the client’s behavior
are stored on the client’s computer.  The push scheme is still not that useful
for individual users; however, the
 Enables intelligent information filtering emergence of music P2P systems has
based on personalized user profiles made it quite popular. Its usefulness is
describing required information needs. still confined to organizations that have a
good customer base.
 Satisfies a large client base using few
resources.  In multiple push a user can get frequent
interruption. For example, during a song
Disadvantages broadcast, some urgent message can
appear to notify user of some serious
The push technology, while it is useful event. Although users get the information,
in a number of situations and does conserve they may have to live with constant
resources and energy, has a number of interruption. Such interruptions cannot be
limitations and disadvantages [ 141. Some preplanned because they may occur
important ones are given below. randomly.

 Push applications are complex, and the  Push system software may suffer with
development cost (time and resource) are incompatibility problem. Many vendors-
generally high compared to creating static Air Media, Alpha Microsystems,
pages. Static pages can be viewed by any Berkeley Systems, IntraExpress,
browser on any operating system, but the Marimba, Pointcast, to name a few,
push system requires specific tools and develop application software with
applications. minimum portability and scalability.
Competition to dominate the information
 It requires more powerful hardware and space in this technology is growing fast
specialized software to provide push and vendors are unable to develop
service. software compatible to all systems. The
 push technology is not good for the in a consistent wrapper and push it to
typical knowledge worker who mines users’ workstations.
information from a variety of sources and
then draws conclusions by digesting that  Platform provider: The products of this
information [ 141. category-for example, BackWeb-are
similar to content aggregators, except
 Creating and maintaining user profiles is they are actually infrastructure to deploy
time-consuming. This becomes more content delivery systems.
expensive with number of users. One of
the main reasons is that users’  Real-time data transfer: The products of
information needs are constant to some this category-for example, TIBCO and
degree only. Wayfarer (1NCISA)-offer the advantage
of multicasting. It is expensive to
 There is no reliable solution to achieve implement, but they guarantee timely
secured broadcast. Security safeguards are delivery of information possible.
highly needed.
 Push information delivery models can be
 Standards are currently lacking in this categorized at least into three main
area (competing de facto industry categories :
standards are pushed by companies) .
 Push Server Model: It is the most
Market for Push Technology common Push Server Model which
provides a client, a server, and
Microsoft Corp. and Netscape development tools. A proprietary client is
Communications Corp. are the two leading supplied, and the applications may use a
competitors proprietary protocol. Both users and
in the push technology. Microsoft is pushing content providers have control over the
the Extensible Markup Language (XML)- content. Some examples of this model are
based Channel Definition Format (CDF) for BackWeb and Marimba’s Castanet.
defining push updates. Netscape is using the
Meta-Content Format (MCF), which was  Web Server Extension Model: In this
invented by Apple Computer. For example, model, the push vendor directs feedback
Marimba Inc. has begun cooperation with and demographic information to an
Netscape. Microsoft and Netscape each have external server, so that information can be
created their own push clients for use in retained by the push vendor. No
conjunction with their latest browsers. The proprietary client is required. These run
push market can be divided into four basic within the user’s installed browser, such
categories : as Pointcast or the server delivers content
using e-mail, such as ChannelManager
 Application Distributor: The products and InfoBeat.
of this category such as Marimba’s
Castanet provide automatic delivery of  Client Agent Model: This model uses a
application software to end users. ―client agent‖ to retrieve the information
from the web. Each agent is designed to
 Content aggregator: The products of this provide different search results and allows
category-for example, PointCast Business us to establish an anonymous relationship
Network-gather and format the contents between the vendor and the subscriber.
 The user is responsible for deployment majority of users. This approach created the
and the search type extensibility. notion of multiple disks spinning at different
speeds on a single broadcast channel to
create an effect of a fine grained storage
BROADCAST DISK hierarchy. The broadcast data on a faster disk
are pushed (repeated) more frequently than
In this section a novel broadcast scheme the dataon slower disks channel). Users tune
called broadcast disk is discussed. The main to these disks (channels) and download their
idea of this scheme is to efficiently use the desired data .
available bandwidth to push data to a

Fig. 9.3 A simple broadcast disk setup.

The relative speed of these disk3 in the

Figure 9.3 illustrates a simple air (airdisks) significantly affects the
broadcast set up using broadcast disk broadcast configuration. The speed can be
approach. The broadcast station has a tweaked to satisfy a variety of information
channel on which it continuously broadcasts needs of users. In a similar manner, a set of
(pushes) data items A, B, C and D in that different types of information such as
order. The oval represents a broadcast disk weather, traffic, stock quotes, airline
(channel) which if accessed (tuned) by a few schedule, news flashes, and so on, can be
mobile devices. If the broadcast station has a transmitted on different speed channels.
number of channels with different capacity,
then each channel can be used ac a different- Bandwidth Allocation
size disk. This arrangement can be compared
with radio broadcast where different The way a set of information is arranged and
programs are transmitted over different pushed on to the broadcast channels is called
stations (frequencies). schedule. In an ideal schedule the latency
time and tuning time are minimum. Latency
Time: Similar to conventional disk access, it client must be able to quickly tune to the
is the total time for (a) a client request to right channel to get the data.
arrive at the server and (b) the time when the
desired data is available in the broadcast Access Time: Another parameter
channel. This time becomes important which is called access time is the total time
especially in interactive applications such as to download the desired data from the
video games which require fast scan. Tuning broadcast channel to a client's local storage.
Time: It is the total time required to tune to In the push approach, an increase in length of
the channel which is broadcasting the desired the broadcast can lead to an unacceptably
data. This time becomes important for fast long access time for the user.
changing data such as stock quotes. The

Figure 9.4 illustrates access and tuning depends on broadcast size, and the tuning
time. A client submits a request at To and time depends on the identification of exact
receives the desired response at time T7. If data location in the broadcast which is
the client listens continuously from the time achieved through selective tuning.
the query was submitted and until the Unfortunately, selective tuning requires extra
response is received, then the access and information to be appended to the broadcast
tuning times can be expressed as AT = TT = data which increases the size of the
(T7 ~ To). If, on the other hand, the client broadcast. This increase in size affects access
slips into doze mode intermittently, that is, time. An efficient broadcast scheme,
tunes selectively (selective tuning), then the therefore, must balance this trade-off.
actual tuning time will be 7T = (T7 - Ts)+ (Ts The broadcast program can be
- T4) + (Ts - TL)+ (TI- 2'0). Tn selective addressed in terms of bandwidth allocation.
tuning the mobile unit will be in doze mode An efficient bandwidth allocation scheme is
(DM) for (TL- TI ) + (T4 ~ Tj) + (TG - T5). If directly linked with data popularity among
DM > 7T then the tuning time saves energy the client population. Client information
and the saving will be highest only if the requirement is highly random. Different
client has accurate information about the samples of client populations may have
tuning time for accessing data. The task, orthogonal data requirements. In some client
therefore, is to find optimal points in the 2D population, geographical information may be
space of access and tuning times. This is highly important and accessed most
quite difficult because there is a trade-off frequently while some population may
between these two times. The access time frequently access stock quotes, and so on.
 Thus, the relationship among data with the help of popularity computation,
popularity, client samples, and geographical broadcast indexing, and broadcast
domain becomes very complex, which makes composition an efficient schedule can be
it very hard, if not impossible, to develop an created.
optimal schedule for all situations. However,

Figure 9.5 presents three broadcast

samples [4]. Schedule So far a data broadcast has been seen
(a) is a flat schedule where data items set D1,
as a push-based system while a mobile
D2, and D3 continuously appear in the database has been seen as pull-based, where
broadcast. Schedule users initiate all kinds of transactions. The
(b) is a skewed broadcast where data item D1 trend now is to integrate both facilities into
appears twice one after another followed one infrastructure. A new generation of data
by D2 and D3. Schedule management system is thus capable of
(c) is a regular broadcast where the inter- disseminating data for universal access and
arrival time of each page is the same. The at the same time efficiently process all types
difference between schedule (a) and (b) is of transactions with full database support as
quite obvious. In (b), data item D1 is treated
we are used to.
as more frequently accessed than other items The main components of such a
on the broadcast. system are
(a) data access frequency,
The benefit of a particular broadcast (b) broadcast schedules, and
schedule can be understood by thcir expected (c) data access from the broadcast.
access delay. These components are discussed in detail
below.
BROADCAST INFRASTRUCTURE

The usefulness of data dissemination Data Access Frequency

system lies in its ability to broadcast a huge
amount of data on a number of topics such as The aim of the broadcast server is to achieve
weather, stock, entertainment, traffic, and so the highest hit rate for every type of data it
on. The future broadcast systems are likely to pushes. This makes it necessary that the
be used as a large data warehouse storing server must first identify a high demand set
(pushing) a large amount of data on all of data, arrange them in a specific order
topics. It may provide yellow pages services, considering the size of broadcast channel,
encyclopedia, dictionary, etc. This will and broadcast them. The access frequency
require not only efficient broadcast schedules identification can be done in many ways, for
but also a faster way to reduce the search example, by (a) monitoring current access
space of requested data. pattern by some means, (b) reaching active
clients to look at their data access history, (c) RL). This reflects the anticipated departure of
studying the market trends, and so on. All the client whose request caused the 7th
these approaches essentially identify the increment. In reality the client population is
access probability. For achieving the highest very large, as is the database to support their
data hit rate and highest channel utilization, requests. Since the increment and decrement
static and dynamic approaches can be used. are frequently invoked operations, one way
In the static approach a user notifies the to implement them is through an abstract
broadcast server regarding its present and data type-for example, a PF queue with these
future data pull and approximate duration for operations.
their use. The server will continue to
broadcast the static data set for the defined Data Staging with Surrogates
period.
In the dynamic approach the data Staging data in a surrogate allows users to
requirements will be identified using (a) extend their limited caching capacity. This is
Residence done by borrowing storage space from the
latency (RL) and Expected Departure Time surrogate and by joint operation of the client
(EDT) [8], (b) Popularity Factor (PF) and proxy of the mobile user, the file server in
Ignore Factor (IF), (c) user movement, and the base station (broadcast tower), and the
(d) channel tunability. surrogate where data is to be staged. The
surrogate is connected to the file server with
RL and EDT: When the server decides a high-speed wired network. It is only a
to include an item in its broadcast, it also single wireless hop away from the mobile
needs to decide the length of time the item unit and connected by wireless technologies
will remain in its broadcast set. To identify such as 802.1 1. The client proxy
the esidency duration of a data item an RL continuously monitors the data access
value is associated with each data set. The operation of the mobile user. It maintains a
RL value for a specific data set is the average log file into which it stores the three types of
length of time a mobile user resides in a cell, control information of each page: BT, PT,
and it can be computed a priori based on the and T . The control information it stores is
advanced knowledge of user movement for the broadcast and pages which are pulled
patterns and cell geography. A data item’s by the user. Thus, it is able to store the
EDT from a broadcast can be computed by information of the user access pattern
adding the item’s entry into the broadcast without using much cache area. Since it is
and data’s RL. working internally and does not need to log
on to the wirelesq channel continuously, the
PF: Popularity factor of a data set D at power consumption of the mobile unit does
time T identifies the number of clients in the not increase. Based on the information stored
cell at time T who are interested in D. It can in the log file, the proxy generates a periodic
be denoted as PFS or just PFn. One way to routine which contains the information about
maintain PF of a data item at the rerver in a what the mobile user is most likely to access
cell is to increment it by 1 when a client at any time. The routine contains the control
requests D. The server also records the information about the pushed data which is
corresponding time. Let the timestamp of the requested and the information about a
ith increment to PFD be denoted by Th. The particular pulled data which has been
popularity of D goes down after its RL value, frequently accessed by the user. The proxy
and a corresponding decrement of 1 is continuously maintains and upgrades this
performed on the value of PFn at time (Th + routine.
 Fig. 9.27 Data staging in DAYS.

Figure 9.27 shows the data staging Let time required for a broadcast = n
architecture. It consists of a surrogate, which minutes. Thus, total number of broadcasts in
is connected to the mobile user by wireless a day is 24 x 601n. Let size of the data pages
technologies such as 802.1 1 and to the file = M kbytes. The channel bandwidth for
server with a high speed wired network. The broadcast is B kbps. So, the number of pages
client proxy present in the mobile user has a broadcast per second = B / M pages.
periodic routine which contain information Let approximate number of pages in a
about the data the user is most likely to broadcast be N ( N may vary, but it is fixed
access at any point of time. Based on the for
amount of storage available, the surrogate this calculation). Total time taken for a
allows the user to use a certain amount of broadcast is N/(B/M) = ( ( N x M ) / B ) .
space for staging data. The user sends the Thus, the average wait for any page in the
periodic routine to the surrogate. The time of broadcast is ((N x M)l(2 x B)). Let the size of
dispatch of the periodic routine is arbitrary. It an index page be I kbytes where I << M .
may send it periodically or at the time the There is a time bound for accessing the index
user requests a data. Since the public data is which is interleaved in the broadcast so that
staged in the machine, we believe that proper the user does not have to wait for the entire
handling of data storage in a surrogate can broadcast to access the index. Let the time
significantly increase the efficiency of data bound for getting the index be Ttndcz = 5,
access, and thus the overall latency time can where n: << ( N x M)IB is total time for each
be reduced. Figure 9.28 shows accesses of broadcast. Thus, on an average, the user has
data from the surrogates by a mobile user. to wait for Tindez/2 units of time to receive
The overall aim of data staging is to allow the index. So, the index should be
the user to access data at a minimum latency. broadcasted after every (B/M) x:l; number of
For this, we calculate a time bound, Tbound, pages by the base station.
for the user to access a data.
 3. MOBILE DATABASE which people and objects in the environment
SECURITY stay.

Mobile work using mobile devices and Supporting mobile work involves
wireless links comprehends a row of providing access to interesting data at the
problems concerning security issues like appropriate location, time and device, i.e.
availability, con dentiality, integrity and where and when the data are used based on
accountability. These requirements occur for user aims, preferences, knowledge and
network components as well as database skills.For this purpose we require di erent
systems. Mobile work including mobile information regarding the current
database access makes ubiquitous computing, infrastructure,available mobile resources,
anywhere and anytime possible. The connectivity, costs and duration of
mobility requires suitable hardware and connections, and bandwidths. Mobile work is
software. Mobile devices like handhelds characterized by infrequent and temporary
connected via wireless networks support short connections to the fixed network (low
mobile users, especially in connection with connectivity) and by a variety of access types
position searching tools. New risks and (register and query data). The mobile user
challenges for security and privacy occur in accesses data that are also accessed by other
this environment. The goal is the protection users or itself on different locations and
of mobile users and their data. devices, respectively.

Security measures must take into The mobile context includes mobile
account the distribution of data and their work and communication attending metadata
heterogeneous handling regarding to security to support users. This meta-information is
models. Scarce mobile resources make covered in four parts of the mobile context:
insecure communication necessary to
replicate used data and increase the risk of  human factors, their tasks, roles, other
restricting or dismissing security measures. persons
 location (and changing location in
3.1 MOBILE CONDITIONS time), hard- and software (mobile site
and network characteristics, equipment
Mobile work is context-sensitive work and tools)
with contexts describing environmental  information, application characteristics
characteristics and the relationships between (like type, size)
them. In Lubinski, 1998], the special
problems of database systems in such a These mobile circumstances, and
mobile environment are described more especially their dynamics, and restrictions
detailed. In this section, we summarize the like frequent disconnections make a mobile
main mobile circumstances causing various work with database systems di cult. This is
threats. Applications and required data are the reason for various di culties in securing
location dependent, but their access must be mobile work and for requiring a new
location transparent. Determined tasks are viewpoint to well known security measures,
applicable on special whereabouts. The or demand new ones.
mobile infrastructure restricts the available
volume and type of data and the data transfer.
Context information comprehends further
 3.2 PROTECTION OBJECTS AND E.g., the distribution and heterogeneity leads
ACTIONS to typical distributed security problems
including data exchange between systems
Assuming distributed and/or replicated with differing models and aims. Moreover,
databases, we must take into account mobile systems are characterized by very
protection of the main action types mobile hardware.
management, accesses and transfer to
protection objects data and metadata. The thread of lost confidence by loss
of devices is often underrated. Wireless links
Metadata are used on di erent levels. are predestinated to be eavesdropped on.
Database systems manage object types, Profiles of communicating users are simply
keys,and integrity rules. Transfer creatable. Attacks and security for mobile
components need at least receiver and sender communication are described in[ Federrath,
addresses of messages. Metadata include 1999].
necessarily mobile context data and security
relevant information like security policies. We focus in this paper database related
Data and metadata are the items which must mobile security issues and ignore
be protected,whereas metadata are communication security. Our approach
additionally used for their protection. consists in three main tasks to keep mobile
work secure (see also[ Lubinski, 1998]), the
Combining possible actions with restriction of database transparencies, a
protection items gets the following table. The horizontal and vertical separation of
first row and column shows the possible metadata and an adaptation of security.
items and actions to be protected and
characterize them in a short manner. The
body of the table illustrates the special
problems, threats or desired security
characteristics, respectively, for the
particular combinations of actions and items
appearing in the special mobile environments.
 Vertical separation supports
 Restrict transparencies: confidentiality requirements by protecting
users from tracing their movement. It allows
Database transparencies like distribution only a view to a (role dependent) section or a
and replication transparency is soften to facet of mobility patterns and behaviour.
allow user's participation. This requirement Additionally, audit data should be
concerns transparent security management anonymized or pseudonymized.
and control, too. However, every
transparency must be remain controlled by Horizontal separation represents a
the system to avoid insecure system states. layered view and constitutes a prevention of
undesired information flow between different
 Separate metadata: system layers outside the controlled area.

Because of the opportunity to misuse Inner-database-communication

context information, a useful protection lies has to be unobservable by intruders
in separation or anonymization of it. The (encrypted) as well as by underlying services.
sensitive aggregation of user identifying data
and other contexts must be avoided. A  Adapt security:
powerful access control realize this type of
separation. Separated physical context There are a few papers which focus
management improves the acces control. security in heterogeneous database systems
meeting requirements of integration and
We distinguish two kinds of data access to data of various policies. But the
separation, vertical and horizontal. The essential criterion in mobile environments is
accessed and as a rule location dependent their dynamics due to possibly very dynamic
data gives information to the whereabout of mobile contexts.
users.
 A flexible adaptation to the changing 4. Conclusions
environment characteristics decides about
suitable choice of applicable security Wireless network is becoming a
mechanisms. We enforce a resource aware commonly used communication platform. It
approach but assure a minimal security. provides a cheaper way to get connected and
in some cases this is the only way to reach
people. However, it has a number of easy
and difficult problems and they must be
solved before MDS can be built. This
tutorial discussed some of these problems
and identified a number of possible
approaches.

The emerging trend is to make all

service providing disciplines, such as web,
E-commerce, workflow systems, etc., fully
mobile so that any service can be provided
from any place. Customer can surf the
information space from any location at any
time and do their shopping, make flight
reservation, open bank account, attend
lectures, and so on. This is what the wireless
technology driving us to.
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Approved by (Signature):

Guide : Mr Ajay Prasad Mr Arun Kumar

Asst. Pro. (CSE) HOD (CSE Dept.)