Chapter 1

4. Discuss examples of recent macro political risk events and the effect they have
or might have on a foreign subsidiary. What are micro political risk events? Give
some examples and explain how they affect international business.

Micro political risk is the risk of loss of assets or income that is specific to one
company or one industry. For example, a McDonald's restaurant is destroyed in
Indonesia as the result of a fundamentalist uprising against American companies.
Other micro political risks can occur in more vulnerable industries such as mining
and extraction in which locals may feel that the MNC is stealing their natural
resources. The recent political events in Venezuela focused attention on a Coca-
Cola bottling plant where army officials took control of the planet and distributed
products to local residents. This occurred under the eye of the Venezuelan
government. Only one firm (Coca-Cola) was victimized. Students can search for
additional examples and show how the events caused management of those local
operations to change their operating procedures.

5. What means can managers use to assess political risk? What do you think is the
relative effectiveness of these different methods? At the time you are reading this,
what countries or areas do you feel have political risk sufficient to discourage you
from doing business there?

Political risk assessment techniques include: issues monitoring systems, use of

experts or consultants, consultation with internal staff, computer modeling;
quantification of variables into ranking systems, and use of consulting ratings.
These assessment techniques have varying effectiveness, depending on the region
of the world involved and the extent to which subjective, rather than objective, data
must be used and interpreted. Analysts should remember to distinguish between
systems that are based on past events rather than current assessments of key
stakeholder conflicts.

6. Can political risk be “managed”? If so, what methods can be used to manage
such risk, and how effective are they? Discuss the lengths to which you would go to
manage political risk relative to the kinds of returns you would expect to gain.
Managing political risk can be achieved but at different levels. On one level, they
can decide to suspend their firm’s dealings with a certain country at a given point –
either by the avoidance of investment or by the withdrawal of current investment.
On another level, if they decide that the risk is relatively low in a particular country
or that a high-risk environment is worth the potential returns, they may chose to
start operations there and to accommodate that the risk through adaptation to the
political regulatory environment. Adaptation can take many forms, each designed
to respond to the concerns of particular local area. Some forms of adaptation are;
equity sharing, participative management, localization of the operation, and
development assistance.

Other forms of managing political risk available to managers are dependency and
hedging. Some means that managers might use to maintain dependency – keeping
the subsidiary and the host nation dependent on the parent corporation are; input
control, market control, position control, and staged contribution strategies. The
events that managers use of hedging are; political risk insurance and local debt
financing.

Multinational corporations also manage political risk through their global strategic
choices. Many large companies diversify their operations both by investing in many
countries and by operating through joint ventures with a local firm or government or
through local licensees. By involving local people, companies, and agencies, firms
minimize the risk of negative outcomes due to political events

7. Explain what is meant by the economic risk of a nation. Use a specific country as
an example. Can economic risk in this country be anticipated? How? How does
economic instability affect other nations?

A country’s ability or intention to meet its financial obligations determines its

economic risk. The economic risk incurred by a foreign corporation usually falls into
one of two main categories. Its subsidiary in a specific country may become
unprofitable if (1) the government abruptly changes its domestic monetary of fiscal
policies or (2) the government decides to modify its foreign-investment policies.
The latter situation would threaten the company’s ability to repatriate its earning
and would create a financial or interest-rate risk. Furthermore, the risk of
exchange-rate volatility results in current translation exposure to the firm when the
balance sheet of the entire corporation is consolidated and may cause a negative
cash flow from the foreign subsidiary. Currency translation exposure occurs when
the value of one country’s currency changes relative to that of another.

For example, when the Russian ruble was devalued in 1998, it was unfortunate for
the Russian people because their money could buy so much less and for Russian
firms because they did not have enough buying power to purchase products from
overseas, which meant that the sales of foreign companies declined. On the other
hand, foreign companies suddenly had more purchasing power in Russia to
outsource raw materials, labor, and so on.

Economic risks can be anticipated, but not controlled, through the use of
quantitative, qualitative, and checklist techniques.

Quantitative method – this method is arrived by assigning different weights to

economic variables in order to produce a composite index used to monitor the
country’s creditworthiness over time and to make comparisons with other countries.

Qualitative method – this approach evaluates a country’s economic risk by

assessing the competence of its leaders and analyzing the types of policies they are
likely to implement.

Checklist approach – this approach relies on a few easily measurable and timely
criteria believed to reflect or indicate changes in the creditworthiness of the
country.

These techniques combine both objective and subjective analysis and data to
produce some sort of index used to monitor the country's creditworthiness.

9. Discuss the effects of various forms of technology on international business.

What role does the Internet play? Where is all this leading? Explain the meaning of
the “appropriability of technology.” What role does this play in international
competitiveness? How can managers protect the proprietary technology of their
firms?

It is clear that we are in a global information society and corporations must

incorporate into their strategic planning and their everyday operations the
accelerating macro-environmental phenomenon of technoglobalism – in with the
rapid developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs) are
propelling globalization and vice versa.

New technology specific to a firm’s products represents a key competitive

advantage to firms and challenges international businesses to manage the transfer
and diffusion of proprietary technology, with its attendant risks. Whether it is a
product, a process, or a management technology, an MNC’s major concern is the
appropriability of technology – that is, the ability of the innovating firm to profit
from its own technology by protecting it from competitors.

The most common methods of protecting proprietary technology are the use of
patents, trademarks, trade names, copyrights, and trade secrets. Various
international conventions do afford some protection in participating countries; more
than eighty countries adhere to International Convention for the Protection of
Industrial Property, often referred to the Paris Union, for the protection of patents.

Internet has had a considerable impact on how companies buy and sell goods
around the world – mostly raw materials and services going to manufacturers.
Internet-based electronic trading and data exchange are changing the way
companies do business, while breaking down global barriers of time, space,
logistics, and culture. It has introduced a new level of global competition by
providing efficiencies through reducing numbers of suppliers and slashing
administration costs throughout the value chain. E-business is “the integration of
systems, processes, organizations, value chains, and entire markets using Internet-
based and related technologies and concepts.” E-commerce refers directly to the
marketing and sales process via the Internet. Firms use e-business to help build
new relationships between businesses and customers.

Chapter 2

2. Discuss the criticisms that have been leveled against MNCs in the past regarding
their activities in less developed countries. What counterarguments are there to
those criticisms?

MNCs have been criticized for disrupting the social, technological, and political
climates in host nations. Governments often have a “love-hate” relationship with
MNCs because they want the economic advantages produced by the presence of
MNCs, but they regret the negative impacts MNCs often have on the political and
social environments. MNCs can defend themselves by pointing out that, without
their presence, host nations would not have as many jobs or trade opportunities, as
well as opportunities to appropriate technology.

3. What does moral universalism mean? Discuss your perspective on this concept.
Do you think the goal of moral universalism is possible? Is it advisable?

This means to address the need for a moral standard that is accepted by all
cultures. Class discussion is likely to be divided on this issue. Some students will
argue that there are or should be moral absolutes. Others will argue that morals are
culturally driven and will, therefore, need to reflect differences in cultures. Some
students may note that communication and technology are creating a greater
cultural interaction, which may result in a universalism over a long period of time.
Ethics are what one believes to be right or wrong, and morals describe how one acts
in the light of one's own ethics. I would say that moral universalism is not possible
unless there is ethical universalism.

4. What do you think should be the role of MNCs toward human rights issues in
other countries? What are the major human rights concerns at this time? What
ideas do you have for dealing with these problems? What is the role of corporate
codes of conduct in dealing with these concerns?

I think that MNCs should seek to strike a better balance between their responsibility
to shareholders and to society at large. They underestimate the influence that they
have in countries like China, who want the investment as much as the companies
do. I believe that they should push their host country partners for human rights
improvements by explaining to them that it is economically beneficial in the long
run, to have international public opinion on their side.

Some of the major human rights concerns currently involve forced labor in factories
(or sweatshops), where workers of all ages are operating in poor conditions for
meager wages. Then there is the more visible media censorship that goes on in
many countries. Most companies in response to similar problems have created
codes of conduct or taken it a step further and banded together to have a unified
charter. They’ve had success in at least publicizing issues. Solutions to the above
are deceptively complex though.

For one, crudely branding factories “sweatshops” and forcing broad reforms will
raise manufacturing costs and put companies out of business. The jobless workers
may end up resorting to illegal professions or working in hazardous landfills
collecting scrap metals. MNCs should instead be mandated to have reviews of their
factories done by independent agents to see where improvements are needed.

Media censorship is done in order to maintain a level of control over the population.
In order to have these controls loosened the offending government would have to
be convinced that they don’t have to fear social upheaval. In fact, censorship often
has the opposite effect by making a situation more volatile. This is an impossible
task for a MNC, but if done incrementally by a company with direct dealings with
the issue (Google, Yahoo, etc), than some gains can be made.

5. What is meant by international business ethics? Should the local culture affect
ethical practices? What are the implications of local norms for ethical decisions by
MNC managers?
 It is generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer
guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise
in the course of doing business. International business ethics refers to the business
conduct or morals of MNCs in their relationships to all individuals and entities with
whom they come into contact. Since local business practices differ substantially
between regions of the world, it is difficult to find ethical standards subscribed to by
all MNCs and their managers. Generally, codes of ethics prescribe only the lower
level of limits on ethical behavior; there is widespread disagreement on the upper
level limits.

8. What do you think are the responsibilities of MNCs toward the global
environment? Give some examples of MNC activities that run counter to the
concepts of ecological interdependence and sustainability.

The management of environmental interdependence includes the need to consider

ecological interdependence, as well as economic and social implications of MNC
activities. Examples of problem areas in environmental interdependence include the
export of hazardous wastes from developed countries to less-developed ones and
the exporting of pesticides.

Chapter 3

1. What is meant by the culture of a society and why is it important for international
managers to understand it? Do you notice cultural differences among your
classmates? How do those differences affect the class environment? How do they
affect your group projects?

The culture of a society comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions,

and goals that are passed down through generations and imposed by members of
the society. These unique sets of cultural and national differences strongly influence
the attitudes and expectations and therefore the on- the- job behavior of individuals
and groups. It is important for managers to understand the cultural variables
because these determine basic attitudes toward work, time, materialism,
individualism, and change. Such attitudes affect an individual's motivation and
expectations regarding work and group relations, and ultimately affect the
outcomes that can be expected as a result of those work and group relations.
Students will have differing perceptions of their international classmates.

2. Describe the four dimensions of culture proposed by Hofstede. What are the
managerial implications of these? Compare the findings with those of Trompenaars
and the GLOBE project team.

The four dimensions of culture proposed by Hofstede was a framework for

understanding how basic values underlying organizational behavior:

Power distance – this is the level of acceptance by a society of the unequal

distribution of power in institutions. In the workplace, inequalities in power are
normal, as evidenced in hierarchical boss-subordinate relationships. However, the
extent to which subordinates accept unequal power is societally determined. In
countries in which people display high power distance employees acknowledge the
boss’s authority simply by respecting that individual’s formal position in the
hierarchy, and they seldom bypass the chain of command. This respectful response
results, predictably, in a centralized structure and autocratic leadership. In
countries where people display low power distance, superiors and subordinates are
apt to regard one another as equal in power, resulting in more harmony and
cooperation. An autocratic management style is not likely to be well received in
low-distance countries.

Uncertainty avoidance – this level refers to the extent to which people in a society
feel threatened by ambiguous situations. Countries with a high level of uncertainty
avoidance tend to have strict laws and procedures to which their people adhere
closely, and a strong sense of nationalism prevails. In a business context, this value
results in formal rules and procedures designed to provide more security and
greater career stability. Managers have a propensity for low-risk decisions,
employees exhibit little aggressiveness, and lifetime employment is common. In
countries with lower levels of uncertainty avoidance, nationalism is less
pronounced, and protests and other such activities are tolerated. As a
consequence, company activities are less structured and less formal, some
managers take more risks, and high job mobility is common.

Individualism – this level refers to the tendency of people to look after themselves
and their immediate families only and to neglect the needs of society. In countries
that prized individualism, democracy, individual initiative, and achievement are
highly valued; the relationship of the individual to organizations is one of
independence on an emotional level, if not on an economic level.

Masculinity – this level refers to the degree of traditionally “masculine” values –

assertiveness, materialism, and a lack of concern for others – that prevail in a
society. In comparison, femininity emphasizes “feminine” values – a concern for
others, for relationships, and for the quality of life. In highly masculine societies,
women are generally expected to stay home and raise a family. In organizations,
one finds considerable job stress, and organizational interests generally encroach
on employees’ private lives. In countries with low masculinity one finds less conflict
and job stress, more women in high-level jobs, and reduces need for assertiveness.

These four value dimensions have a profound impact on organizational behavior

and the kinds of management activities needed to productively manage workers
within a given cultural setting. Through his research, Fons Trompenaars confirmed
some similar dimensions, and found other unique dimensions: obligation, emotional
orientation, privacy, and source of power and status. The GLOBE project team of
170 researchers in 62 countries concluded the presence of a number of other
dimensions, and ranked countries on those dimensions, including assertiveness,
performance orientation, future orientation, and humane orientation. Gupta et al.
from that team found geo-graphical clusters on nine of the GLOBE project cultural
dimensions

3. Discuss the types of operational conflicts that could occur in an international

context because of differences in attitudes towards time, change, material factors,
and individualism. Give examples relative to specific countries.

International managers often face conflicts in the workplace as a result of

differences in these four basic values of time, change, materialism, and
individualism. If these operational value difference and their likely consequences
are anticipated, managers can adjust expectations, communications, work
organization, schedules, incentive systems, and so forth to provide for more
constructive outcomes for the company and its employees.

To Americans time is a valuable and limited resource; it is to be saved, scheduled,

and spent with precision, lest we waste it. The clock is always running – time is
money. Therefore, deadlines and schedules have to be met. Similar attitudes
toward time are found in Western Europe and elsewhere. In many parts of the
world, however, people view time from different and longer perspectives often
based on religious beliefs, on beliefs in destiny, or on pervasive social attitudes.
The word bukra in Arabic can mean “tomorrow” or “sometime in the future.” While
Americans usually regard a deadline as a firm commitment, Arabs often regard a
deadline imposed on them as an insult. They feel that important things take a long
time and therefore cannot be rushed. International managers have to be careful
not to offend people – or lose contracts or employee cooperation – because they
misunderstand the local language of time.

Based largely on long-standing religious beliefs, values regarding the acceptance of

change and the pace of change can vary immensely among cultures. Western
people generally believe that an individual can exert some control over the future
and can manipulate events, particularly in a business context – that is, individuals
feel they have some internal control. In many non-Western societies, however,
control is considered external; people generally believe in destiny, or the will of
their God, and therefore adopt a passive attitude or even feel hostility toward those
introducing the “evil” of change.

In large part, Americans consume resources at a far greater rate than most of the
rest of the world. Their attitude toward nature – that is there to be used for their
benefit – differs from the attitudes of Indians and Koreans, for example, whose
worship of nature is part of their religious beliefs. Whereas Americans often value
physical goods and status symbols, many non-Westerners find these things
unimportant; they value the aesthetic and the spiritual realm. Such differences in
attitude have implications for management functions, such as motivation and
reward systems, because the proverbial carrot must be appropriate to the
employee’s value system.

In general, Americans tend to work and conduct their private lives independently,
valuing individual achievement, accomplishments, promotions, and wealth above
any group goals. In many other countries, individualism is not valued. In China, for
example, much more of a “we” consciousness prevails, and the group is the basic
building block of social life and work. For the Chinese, conformity and cooperation
take precedence over individual achievement, and the emphasis is on strength of
the family or community – the predominant attitude being, “We all rise or fall
together.”

4. Discuss how the internet and culture interact. Which most affects the other, and
how? Give some examples.

5. Discuss collectivism as it applies to the Japanese workplace. What managerial

functions are affected?
The principle of war in Japan places a supreme emphasis on peace and harmony in
the workplace and among social relationships. The Japanese have disdain for
rugged individualism, stating that “The nail that stands out gets hammered down.”
The system of war causes a great emphasis to be placed on harmonious working
relationships on teams. This leads to an emphasis on participative management,
consensus problem-solving, and decision- making within a patient, long-term
perspective. Conflict is avoided along with “loss of face.”

6. Discuss the role of Islam in cross-cultural relations and business operations.

Muslims believe in the Five Pillars of Islam. These are 1) declaration of faith, 2)
almsgiving, 3) prayer (5 times daily), 4) fasting, and 5) pilgrimage to Mecca.
Managers may need to accommodate these beliefs by providing time for Muslim
employees to pray and offering a prayer room, by using flexible holidays to
accommodate different religious holidays and the opportunity for employees to
make a pilgrimage. In addition, because Muslims do not eat pork or drink wine,
dietary preferences should be taken into account at business dinners. The opening
segment on Saudi business also provides advice on business practices in Islamic
cultures. Recently relations between Christian and Muslim countries have become
strained. Additional understanding on the part of both groups will go a long way in
improving these cross-cultural relations.

Chapter 4

1. How does culture affect the process of attribution in communication? Can you
relate this to some experiences you have had with your classmates?

Cultural differences induce additional noise into the communication process. A

sender's message contains the meaning intended by the encoder. When the
message reaches the receiver, it undergoes a transformation which is influenced by
the receiver's culture.

3. What is the relationship between language and culture? How is it that people
from different countries who speak the same language may still mis-communicate?
 Language is inseparable from culture; language cannot be interpreted without an
understanding of culture. Spoken or written language, of course, is a frequent cause
of miscommunication, stemming from a person’s inability to speak the local
language, a poor or too literal translation, a speaker’s failure to explain idioms, or a
person missing the meaning conveyed through body language or certain symbols.
Even among countries that share the same language, problems can arise from the
subtleties and nuances inherent in the use of language.

More than just conveying objective information, language also conveys cultural and
social understandings from one generation to the next. Examples of how language
reflects what is important in a society include the 6,000 different Arabic words used
to describe camels and their parts and the fifty of more classifications of snow used
by the Inuit, the Eskimo people of Canada. In as much as language conveys culture,
technology, and priorities, it also serves to separate and perpetuate subcultures. In
India, 14 official and many unofficial languages are used, and over 800 languages
are spoken on the African continent.

4. Give some examples of cultural differences in the interpretation of body

language. What is the role of such nonverbal communication in business
relationships?

Americans look straight at you when communicating, whereas the British keep your
attention by looking away. Arabs prefer to touch and stand very close when
communicating. Koreans speak more loudly to emphasize a point; Americans speak
loudly when they are angry. Kinesic behavior refers to communication through body
movement – posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. Although such
actions may universal, often their meaning is not. Because kinesic systems of
meaning are culturally specific and learned, they cannot be generalized across
cultures. Most people in the West would not correctly interpret many Chinese facial
expressions; sticking out the tongue expresses surprise, a widening of the eyes
shows anger, and scratching the ears and cheeks indicates happiness.

Many business people and visitors react negatively to what they feel are
inappropriate facial expressions, without understanding the cultural meaning
behind them. Japanese feel uncomfortable when faced with the Americans’ eye-to-
eye posture. They are taught since childhood to bow their heads out of humility,
whereas the automatic response of Americans is “look at me when I’m talking to
you!”
It is helpful for U.S. managers to be aware of the many cultural expectations
regarding posture and how they may be interpreted. In Europe and Asia, a relaxed
posture in business meetings may be taken as bad manners of the result of poor
upbringing. Managers can also familiarize themselves with the many different
interpretations of hand and finger signals around the world, some of which may
even represent obscene gestures.

Improper non-verbal communication can add a significant level of noise to the

communication process. The listener may attribute meaning to the noise that might
damage the business relationship.

5. Explain the differences between monochromic and polychronic time systems. Use
some examples to illustrate their differences and the role of time in intercultural
communication.

In monochromic cultures time is experienced in a linear way, with a past, a present,

and a future, and time is treated as something to be spent, saved, made up, or
wasted. Classified and compartmentalized, time serves to order life. This attitude
is a learned part of Western culture, probably starting with the Industrial Revolution.
Monochromic people, found in individualistic cultures, generally concentrate on one
thing at a time, adhere to time commitments, and are accustomed to short-term
relationships.

In contrast, polychromic cultures tolerate many things occurring simultaneously and

emphasize involvement with people. Two Latin friends, for example, will put an
important conversation ahead of being on time for a business meeting, thus
communicating the priority of relationships over material systems. Polychromic
people – Latin Americans, Arabs, and those from other collectives’ cultures – may
focus on several things at once, be highly distractible, and change plans often.

The relationship between time and space also affects communication. Polychromic
people, for example, are likely to hold open meetings, moving around and
conducting transactions with one party and then another, rather than
compartmentalizing meeting topics, as do monochromic people.

6. Explain the differences between high- and low- context cultures, giving some
examples. What are the differential effects on the communication process?

In high-context cultures, the context in which the communication takes place is vital
to the communication of the message-the message is implicit. In low-context
cultures, the context in which the communication takes place is secondary to the
communication-the message is explicit.

Chapter 5

1. Discuss the stages in the negotiation process and how culturally-based value
systems influence these stages. Specifically, address the following:

Explain the role and relative importance of relationship-building in different

countries.

The five interrelated phases in the negotiation process are: preparation, relationship
building, exchange of task information, persuasion, and concessions and
agreement. Relationship building, the second stage, is more important in other
parts of the world than it is in the US. This process in regarded with much more
significance in most parts of the world than it is in the United States. U.S.
negotiators are, generally speaking, objective about the specific matter at hand and
usually want to waste no time in getting down to business and making progress.
This approach, well understood in the United States, can be disastrous if the foreign
negotiators want to take enough time to build trust and respect as a basis for
negotiators want to take enough time to build trust and respect as a basis for
negotiating contracts.

In such cases, American efficiency interferes with the patient development of

mutually trusting relationship – the very cornerstone of an Asian business
agreement. In many countries, such as Mexico and China, personal commitments
to individuals, rather than legal system, form the basis for the enforcement of
contracts. Effective negotiators allow plenty of time in their schedules for such
relationship building with bargaining partners. This process usually takes the form
of social events, tours, and ceremonies, along with much nontask sounding –
general, polite conversation and informal communication before meetings – while
all parties get to know each other.

Discuss the various styles and tactics that can be involved in exchanging task-
related information.

Exchanging task-related information – each side typically makes a presentation and

states its position; a question-and-answer session usually ensues, and alternatives
are discussed. From an American perspective, this represents a straightforward,
objective, efficient, and understandable stage. However negotiators from other
countries continue to take a more indirect approach at this stage. Negotiators
should focus not only on presenting their situation and needs but also on showing
an understanding of their opponents’ viewpoint. Focusing on the entire situation
confronting each party encourages the negotiators to assess a wider range of
alternatives for resolution, rather than limiting themselves to their preconceived,
static positions.

Describe differences in culturally- based styles of persuasion.

The majority of the persuasion takes place over one or more negotiating sessions.
International managers usually find that this process of bargaining and making
concessions is fraught with difficulties because of the different uses and
interpretations of verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Although variations in such
behaviors influence every stage of the negotiation process, they can play a
particularly powerful role in persuasion, especially if they are not anticipated.
Studies of negotiating behavior have revealed the use of certain recognizable
tactics, which skilled negotiators recognize and use. Comparing the use of various
tactics (promises, threats, and so forth) among Japanese, Americans, and Brazilians.
The results indicate that the Japanese and the Americans tend to be more alike in
the use of these behaviors, whereas the Japanese and Brazilians are less alike. For
example, the Brazilians use fewer promises and commitments than the Japanese or
the Americans (only half as many), but they use commands far more often. The
Japanese and the Americans use threats twice as often as the Brazilians and they
use commands only about half as often as the Brazilians. The Brazilians and the
Japanese seldom behave similarly.

Discuss the kinds of concession strategies a negotiator might anticipate in various

countries.

In the last stage of negotiation – concessions and agreement – tactics vary greatly
across cultures. Well-prepared negotiators are aware of various concession
strategies and have decided ahead of time what their own concession strategy will
be. Familiar with the typical initial positions that various parties are likely to take,
they know that the Russians and the Chinese generally open their bargaining with
extreme positions, asking for more than they hope to gain, whereas the Swedes
usually start with what they are prepared to accept. At the final stage of agreement
and contract, cultural values determine how these agreements will be honored.
Whereas Americans take contracts very seriously, Russians often renege on their
contracts. The Japanese, on the other hand, consider a formal contract to be
somewhat of an insult and a waste of time and money in legal costs, since they
prefer to operate on the basis of understanding and social trust.

2. Discuss the relative use of nonverbal behaviors, such as silent periods,

interruptions, facial gazing, and touching, by people from various cultural
backgrounds. How does this behavior affect the negotiation process in a cross-
cultural context?

The most subtle behaviors in the negotiation process, and often the most difficult to
deal with, are usually the nonverbal messages – the use of voice intonation, facial
and body expressions, eye contact, dress, and the timing of the discussions.
Nonverbal behaviors are ingrained aspects of culture used by people in their daily
lives; they are not specifically changed for the purposes of negotiation. In a
comparative study of nonverbal negotiating behaviors of Japanese, Americans, and
Brazilians, Graham assessed the relative frequency of the use of silent periods,
conversational overlaps, facial gazing, and touching. He found that the Brazilians
interrupted conversation about twice as often as the Japanese and the Americans
and used much more touching and facial gazing. Needless to say, they scored low
on silent periods. The Japanese tended to use more silent periods and interruptions
than the Americans evidenced no touching whatsoever, other than handshaking,
during a thirty-minute period.

4. What are some of the differences in risk tolerance around the world? What is the
role of risk propensity in the decision- making process?

According to research, people from Belgium, Germany, and Austria have a

considerably lower tolerance for risk than people from Japan or the Netherlands.
American managers appear to have the highest tolerance of risk. The extent to
which negotiators tolerate risk will have a major impact on how bold they are in the
negotiating process.

5. Explain how objective versus subjective perspectives influences the decision-

making process. What role do you think this variable has played in all the
negotiations conducted and decisions made by Iraq and the United Nations?

People from Western nations generally take a very rational approach to decision-
making, stressing the role of information heavily. This is in contrast with Latin
Americans, for example, who are more subjective and emotional. Objectives versus
subjective perspectives involve the extent to which information versus emotion are
major variables in the decision making process. Iraq, as a Middle Eastern country,
likely handles negotiations using expressive-oriented styles. That means that the
situation is handled indirectly and implicitly and there is no clear delineation of the
situation from the person handling it. In such a case, the negotiators try to avoid
confrontations and if they cannot reach agreement through emotional appeals, they
will use evasion and avoidance. This has likely been frustrating for the UN, which
must follow a low-context, instrumental-oriented style of basing decisions on factual
and logical analysis.
6. Explain differences in culturally- based value systems relative to the amount of
control a person feels he or she has over future outcomes. How does this belief
influence the decision- making process?

Some managers feel they can plan on certain outcomes because they are in control
of events that will direct the future in the desired way. In contrast, other managers
believe that such decisions are of no value because they have little control over the
future – which lies in the hands of outside forces, such as fate, God, or nature.
American managers believe strongly in self-determination and perceive problem
situations as something they can control and should change. However, managers in
many other countries, Indonesia and Malaysia among them, are resigned to
problem situations and do not feel that they can change them. Obviously, these
different value systems will result in a great difference in the stages of
consideration of alternative actions and choice of a solution, often because certain
situations may or may not be viewed as problems in the first place.

Chapter 6

3. Discuss the ways in which managers arrive at new strategic directions— formal
and informal. Which is the best?

Managers can use formal planning techniques like industry structure analysis
leading to a SWOT analysis of the firm. They can carefully screen countries and
opportunities to find a match between their resources and opportunities. Informally,
they can use their intuition and their network of contacts and employees, to
develop and implement venture ideas. Formal planning is by definition more
systematic and is, therefore, more likely to uncover weaknesses in the company,
threats in the environment, and / or strengths upon which to build and opportunities
to exploit.
4. Explain the process of environmental assessment. What are the major
international variables to consider in the scanning process? Discuss the levels of
environmental monitoring that should be conducted. How well do you think
managers conduct environmental assessment?

Environmental assessment is the process of gathering information and forecasting

and evaluating information about variables and events around the world that may
pose threats or opportunities to the firm. Environmental scanning is the process of
gathering information and forecasting relevant trends, competitive actions, and
circumstances that will affect operations in geographic areas of potential interest.
The three levels of environmental monitoring are global, regional, and national.
Scanning should focus on the future interests of the firm and should cover the
following major variables:

Political instability. This variable represents a volatile and uncontrollable risk to the
multinational corporation, as illustrated by the upheaval in the Middle East in recent
years. MNCs must carefully assess such risk because it may result in a loss of
profitability or even ownership.

Currency instability. This variable represents another risk; inflation and fluctuations
in the exchange rates of currencies can dramatically affect profitability when
operating overseas.

Nationalism. This variable, representing the home government’s goals for

independence and economic improvement, often influences foreign companies.
The home government may impose restrictive policies – import controls, equity
requirements, local content requirements, limitations on the repatriation of profits,
and so forth.

International competition. Conducting a global competitor analysis is perhaps the

most important task in environmental assessment and strategy formulation. The
first step in analyzing the competition is to assess the relevant industry structures
as they influence the competitive arena in the particular country (or region) being
considered.

Environmental Scanning. Managers must also specifically assess their current

competitors – global and local – for the proposed

5. How can managers assess the potential relative competitive position of their firm
in order to decide on new strategic directions?

The firm’s managers perform a competitive analysis to assess the firm’s capabilities
and key success factors compared to those of its competitors. They must judge the
relative current and potential competitive position of firms in that market and
location – whether that be global position or that for a specific country or region.
Like a chess game, the firm’s managers also need to consider the strategic intent of
competing firms and what might be their future moves (strategies). This process
enables the strategic planners to determine where the firm has distinctive
competencies that will give it strategic advantage as well as what direction might
lead the firm into sustainable competitive advantage – that is, one that will not be
immediately eroded by emulation.

The result of this process will also help to identify potential problems that can be
corrected or that may be significant enough to eliminate further consideration of
certain strategies. This stage of strategic formulation is often called a SWOT
analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats), in which a firm’s
capabilities relative to those of its competitors are assessed as pertinent to the
opportunities and threats in the environment for those firms. Most companies
develop their strategies around key strengths, or core competencies. Core
competencies represent important corporate resources because, as Prahalad and
Hamel explain, they are the “collective learning in the organizations, especially how
to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of
technologies.

6. Discuss the relative advantages of globalization versus regionalization/

localization.

Globalization is a term that refers to the establishment of worldwide operations and

the development of standardized products and marketing. Many analysts, like
Porter, have argued that globalization is a competitive imperative for firms in global
industries. In a global industry, a firm must, in some way, integrate its activities on
a worldwide basis to capture the linkages among countries. The rationale behind
globalization is to compete by establishing worldwide economies of scale, offshore
manufacturing, and international cash flows. The pressures to globalize include (1)
increasing competitive clout resulting from regional trading blocs; (2) declining
tariffs, which encourage trading across borders and open up new markets; and (3)
the information technology explosion, which makes the coordination of far-flung
operations easier and also increases the commonality of consumer tastes.
Globalization is inherently more vulnerable to environmental risk, however, than
regionalization strategy.

The regionalization strategy is one in which local markets are linked together within
a region, allowing more local responsiveness and specialization. Top managers
within a region decide on their own investment locations, product mixes, and
competitive positioning. Since there are pressures to globalize – such as the need
for economies of scale to compete on cost – there are opposing pressures to
regionalize, especially for newly developed economies (NDEs) and less developed
countries (LDCs).
7. What are the relative merits of the entry strategies discussed in this chapter?
What is their role in an integrative global strategy?

For a multinational corporation a more specific set of strategic alternatives, often

varying by targeted country, focuses on different ways to enter a foreign market.
Managers need to consider how potential new markets may best be served by their
company in light of risks and the critical environmental factors associated with their
entry strategies. The following examine the various entry strategies available to
firms:

1) Exporting – a relatively low-risk way to begin international expansion or to test

out an overseas market. Little investment is involved, and fast withdrawal is
relatively easy. Small firms seldom go beyond this stage, and large firms use this
avenue for many of their products. Because of their comparative lack of capital
resources and marketing clout, exporting is the primary entry strategy used by
small businesses to compete on an international level.

2) Licensing – grants the rights to a firm in the host country to either produce or
sell a product, or both. This agreement involves the transfer of rights to patents,
trademarks, or technology for a specified period of time in return for a fee paid by
the licensee. Licensing is a relatively low-risk strategy because it requires little
investment, and it can be a very useful option in countries where market entry by
other means is constrained by regulations or profit-repatriation restrictions.

3) Franchising – the franchisor licenses its trademark, products and services, and
operating principles to the franchisee for an initial fee and ongoing royalties.
Franchising can be an ideal strategy for small businesses because outlets require
little investment in capital or human resources. An entrepreneur can use the
resources of franchisees to expand.

4) Contract Manufacturing – involves contracting for the production of finished

goods or component parts. These goods or components are then imported to the
home country, or to other countries, for assembly or sale. Alternatively, they may
be sold in the host country. If managers can ensure the reliability and quality of the
local contractor and work out adequate means of capital repatriation, this strategy
can be a desirable means of quick entry into a country with a low capital investment
and none of the problems of local ownership.

5) Service Sector Outsourcing – an increasing number of firms are outsourcing

“white collar” jobs overseas in an attempt to reduce their overall costs. Often they
enter overseas markets by setting up local offices, research laboratories, call
centers, and so on to utilize the highly skilled but lower-wage “human capital” that
is available in different countries.
6) Turkey operations – a company designs and constructs a facility abroad trains
local personnel, and then turns the key over to local management. Critical factors
for success are the availability of local supplies and labor, reliable infrastructure,
and acceptable means of repatriating profits.

7) Management contract – gives a foreign company the rights to manage the daily
operations of a business but not to make decisions regarding ownership, financing,
or strategic and policy changes.

8) International joint ventures – at a much higher level of investment and risk joint
ventures present considerable opportunities unattainable through other strategies.
A joint venture involves an agreement by two or more companies to produce a
service together. IJVs are a common strategy for corporate growth around the
world. They also are a means to overcome trade barriers, to achieve significant
economies of scale for development of a strong competitive position, to secure
access to additional raw materials, to acquire managerial and technological skills,
and to spread the risk associated with operating in foreign environment. The joint
venture reduces the risks of expropriation and harassment by the host country.

9) Fully owned subsidiaries – an overseas operation started or bought by a firm that

has total ownership and control; starting or buying such an operation is often used
as an entry strategy.

Chapter 7

1. Discuss the reasons that companies embark on cross- border strategic alliances.
What other motivations may prompt such alliances?

The text notes five motives for cross border alliances: 1) to avoid import barriers,
licensing requirements and other protectionist legislation; 2) to share the costs and
risks of the research and development of new products and processes; 3) to gain
access to specific markets; 4) to reduce political risk while making inroads into a
new market; and, 5) to gain rapid entry into a new or consolidating industry, and to
take advantage of synergies.

2. Why are there an increasing number of mergers with companies in different

industries? Give some examples. What industry do you think will be the next for
global consolidation?
There are a variety of reasons. In some cases, companies in different industries still
can share resources in ways that create operating synergies. In other cases,
companies can capitalize on the intangible resources of its new partner- resources
like brand names and proprietary processes. Sometimes cross border mergers and
acquisitions accompany the deregulation of industry, as it did in telecoms. If so, a
likely candidate will be insurance, financial services and banking, all of which are
undergoing substantial deregulation in world markets.

3. Discuss the problems inherent in developing a cooperative alliance to enhance

competitive advantage, but also incurring the risk of developing a new competitor.

Effective global alliances are usually tediously slow in the making but can be among
the best mechanisms to implement strategies in global markets. In a highly
competitive environment, alliances present a faster and less risky route to
globalization. It is extremely complex fashion such linkages, however, especially
where many interconnecting systems are involved, forming intricate networks.
Many alliances fail or end up in a takeover in which one partner swallows the other.
Problems with shared ownership, the integration of vastly different structures and
systems, the distribution of power between the companies involved, and conflicts in
their relative locus of decision making and control are but a few of the
organizational issues that must be worked out.

Often, the form of governance chosen for multinational firm alliances greatly
influences their success, particularly in technologically intense fields such as
pharmaceuticals, computers, and semiconductors. Cross-border partnership, often
become a “race to learn” – with the faster learner later dominating the alliance and
rewriting its terms. In a real sense, an alliance becomes a new form of competition.
All too often, cross-border allies have difficulty collaborating effectively, especially
in competitively sensitive areas; this creates mistrust and secrecy, which then
undermine the purpose of the alliance. The difficulty that they are dealing with is
the dual nature of strategic alliances – the dangers of introducing new competition
through sharing their knowledge and technological skills about their mutual product
or the manufacturing process. Managers may fear that they will lose the
competitive advantage of the firm’s proprietary technology or the specific skills that
their personnel possess.

8. Explain how the host government may affect strategic implementation— in an

alliance or another form of entry strategy.

Host governments influence, in many areas, the strategic choices and

implementations of foreign firms. The profitability of those firms is greatly
influenced, for example, by the level of taxation in the host country and by any
restrictions on profit repatriation. Other important influences are government
policies on ownership by foreign firms, on labor union rules, on hiring and
remuneration practices, on patent and copyright protection, and so on. For the
most part, however, if the corporation’s managers have done their groundwork, all
these factors are known beforehand and are known beforehand and are part of the
location and entry strategy decisions. However, what hurts managers is to set up
shop in a host country and then have major economic or governmental policy
changes after they have made considerable investment. Political change, in itself,
can, of course, bring about sudden change in strategic implementation of alliances
of foreign firms with host-country projects.

9. How might the variable of national culture affect strategic implementation? Use
the Mittal Steel example to highlight some of these factors.

National culture influences everything, including strategy implementation. As in the

Mittal Steel example, the typical approach to employee involvement employed by
Mittal Steel has to be developed in Japan, as most employees are not quick to offer
their opinions.

Chapter 8

1. What variables have to be considered in designing the organizational structure

for international operations? How do these variables interact, and which do you
think are most important?

Major variables include the firm’s strategy, size, and appropriate technology, as well
as the environment in those parts of the world in which the firm operates. Given
the increased complexity of the variable involved in the international context, it is
no easy task to design the most suitable organizational structure and subsystems.
In fact, research shows that most international managers find it easier to determine
what to do to compete globally (strategy) than to decide how to develop the
organizational capability (structure) to do it. Additional variables affecting
structural choice – geographic dispersion as well as differences in time, language,
cultural attitudes, and business practices – introduce further layers of complication.

2. Explain the need for an MNC to “be global and act local.” How can a firm design
its organization to enable this?
In their rush to get on the globalization bandwagon, too many firms have sacrificed
the ability to respond to local market structures and consumer preferences.
Managers are now realizing that – depending on the type of products, markets, and
so forth – a compromise must be made along the globalization – regionalization
continuum, and they are experimenting with various structural configurations to “be
global and act local.” Colgate-Palmolive’s organizational structure is geographic –
that is, localized. The presidents of four major regions – North America, Europe,
Latin America, and Asia Pacific – report to the COO while other developing regions
such as Africa, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East report to the chief of operations
of international business development. Then that person reports to the CEO of
Colgate-Palmolive, who oversees the centralized coordinating operations (that is,
the “globalized” aspects), for technology, finance, marketing, human resources
management, and so on.

3. What is a transnational organization? Since many large MNCs are moving toward
this format, it is likely that you could at some point be working within this structure.
How do you feel about that?

A transnational organization is an emergent structural form that provides the

company with the ability to manage across national boundaries, retaining local
flexibility while achieving global integration. This capability involves linking foreign
operations to each other and to headquarters in the flexible way, thereby
leveraging local and central capabilities. Whatever the names given to the
organizational forms emerging to deal with global competition and logistics, the
MNC organizational structure as we know it, with its hierarchical pyramid,
subsidiaries, and world headquarters, is gradually evolving into a more fluid form to
adapt to strategic and competitive imperatives. Facilitating this change, Kilmann
points out, is the information technology explosion fueled by computers, fax
machines, teleconferencing, the Internet, and so forth. In this new global web, the
location of a firm’s headquarters is unimportant. The web is woven by decisions
made by managers around the world, both decisions within the company and those
between other companies. Various alliances tie together units and subunits in the
web.

4. Discuss the implications of the relative centralization of authority and decision

making at headquarters versus local units or subsidiaries. How would you feel about
this variable if you were a subsidiary manager?

When a company makes drastic changes in its goals, strategy, or scope of

operations, it will usually also need a change in organizational structure. However,
other, less obvious indications of organizational inefficiency also signal a need for
structural changes: conflicts among divisions and subsidiaries over territories or
customers, conflicts between overseas units and headquarters staff, complaints
regarding overseas customer service, and overlapping responsibilities are some of
these warning signals. At persistent signs of ineffective work, a company should
analyze its organizational design, systems, and work flow for the possible causes of
those problems. The nature and extent of any design changes must reflect the
magnitude of the problem.

In choosing a new organizational design or modifying an existing structure,

managers must establish a system of communication and control that will provide
for effective decision making. At such times, managers need to localize decision
making and integrate widely dispersed and disparate global operations. Besides
determining the behavior of the organization on a macro level (in terms of what the
different divisions, subsidiaries, departments, and units are responsible for), the
organizational design must determine behavior on a micro level. For example, the
organizational design affects the level at which certain types of decisions will be
made.

Determining how many and what types of decisions can be made and by whom can
have a drastic consequences; both the locus and the scope of authority must be
carefully considered. This centralization-decentralization variable actually
represents a continuum. The level of centralization imposed is a matter of degree.
In general, centralized decision making is common for some functions that are
organized for the entire corporation, whereas other functions are more
appropriately decentralized. Two key issues are the speed with which the decisions
have to be made and whether they primarily affect only a certain subsidiary or
other parts of the company as well.

6. What is the role of information systems in the reporting process? Discuss the
statement “Inadequate MIS systems in some foreign affiliates are a control problem
for MNCs.”

“Since control depends upon information, and information comes from managed
systems of information, it is the MIS, which is the key to control of subsidiary
divisions of a corporation.

Chapter 9

1. What are the major alternative staffing approaches for international operations?
Explain the relative advantages of each and the conditions under which you would
choose one approach over another.

Alternate philosophies of managerial staffing abroad are known as the ethnocentric,

polycentric, regiocentric, and global approaches.Firms using an ethnocentric
staffing approach fill key managerial positions with people from headquarters – that
is, parent-country nationals (PCNs). Among the advantages of this approach, PCNs
are familiar with company goals, products, technology, policies, and procedures –
and they know how to get things accomplished through headquarters. This policy is
likely to be used where a company notes the inadequacy of local managerial skills
and determines a high need to maintain close communication and coordination with
headquarters. It is also the preferred choice when the internationalization stage of
strategic expansion.

With a polycentric staffing approach, local managers – host-country nationals

(HCNs) – are hired to fill key positions in their own country. This approach is more
likely to be effective when implementing a multinational strategy. If a company
wants to “act local,” staffing with HCNs has obvious advantages. These managers
are naturally familiar with the local culture, language, and ways of doing business,
and they already have many contacts in place.

In addition, HCNs are more likely to be accepted by people both inside and outside
the subsidiary, and they provide role models for other upwardly mobile personnel.
With regard to cost, it is usually less expensive for a company to hire a local
manager than to transfer one from headquarters, frequently with a family and often
at a higher rate of pay. Transferring from headquarters is a particularly expensive
policy when it turns out that the manager and her or his family does not adjust and
have to be prematurely transferred home. Rather than building their own facilities,
some companies acquire foreign firms as a means of obtaining qualified local
personnel. Local managers also tend to be instrumental in staving off or more
effectively dealing with problems in sensitive political situations. Some countries, in
fact, have legal requirements that a specific proportion of the firm’s top managers
must be citizens of that country.

The regiocentric approach recruits managers on a larger regional basis, thus

allowing the company to have a specific mix of local, national, and regional
managers at its disposal. The global approach hires the best managers regardless
of their nationality. This is necessary in sophisticated organizations, which require
the very best, most experienced management expertise available.

2. Why is the HRM role so much more complex, and important, in the international
context?

Poor IHRM management has been shown by research to be a major determinant of

success or failure in international business. Because the human resource
requirements for overseas assignments are so highly specialized and demanding,
the IHRM role is much more complex and challenging. Not every employee is
equipped with the adaptation, language, and technical skills to succeed abroad.
Indeed research demonstrates that a very large percentage of expatriate
employees are only marginally successful.

3. Explain the common causes of expatriate failure. What are the major success
factors for expatriates? Explain the role and importance of each.

Expatriate failure is most frequently linked to the following causes: selection based
on headquarters criteria rather than assignment needs; inadequate preparation and
training; alienation from headquarters; inability to adapt to local cultures; problems
with spouse and children; insufficient compensation; and poor programs for career
support and repatriation.

4. What are the common training techniques for managers going overseas? How
should these vary as appropriate to the level of globalization of the firm?

Three critical areas of training include cultural training, language instruction, and
familiarity with everyday, practical matters. Tung specifies training in 1) area
studies, 2) culture assimilators, 3) language training, 4) sensitivity training, and 5)
field experiences. While it is difficult to argue for less training, organizations with
less extensive global operations will probably develop less extensive training
methods.

5. Explain the balance sheet approach to international compensation packages.

Why is this approach so important? Discuss the pros and cons of aligning the
expatriate compensation package with the host- country colleagues compared to
the home- country colleagues.

The balance sheet approach is a compensation technique that strives to equalize

the pay package an expatriate manager receives while working abroad in
comparison with what he/she would receive at home. Standard of living is a key
aspect of the balance. Without attention to balanced compensation problems,
many companies would lack adequate incentives for sending people abroad.

While pay equity and perceived fairness may be advantages of aligning expatriate
compensation to local standards, the difficulty of finding qualified people for foreign
assignments and their happiness in the assignment may argue against such an
approach.
 Chapter 10

1. What steps can the company’s IHRM department take to maximize the
effectiveness of the expatriate’s assignment and the long-term benefit to the
company?

The steps company’s can take to maximize the effectiveness of the expatriate’s
assignment and the long term benefit to the company are including information
from and contract with the home organization, as well as career guidance and
support after the overseas assignment. The company need to :

1). Maximize long -term retention and use of international cadre through career
management so that the company can develop a top management team with global
experience.

2). Develop effective global management teams.

3). Understand, value, and promote the role of women in international management
in order to maximize those underutilized resources.

4). Work with the host-country labor relations system to effect strategic
implementation and employee productivity.

2. Discuss the role of reverse culture shock in the repatriation process. What can
companies do to avoid this problem? What kinds of skills do managers learn from a
foreign assignment, and how can the company benefit from them? What is the role
of repatriation in the company’s global competitive situation?

Management of the reentry phase of the career cycle is as vital as management of

the cross-cultural entry and training. Many expatriates and their families have a
difficult time readjusting to their old culture and its different behavioral
expectations. The longer the person is away, the more difficult it is for them to
reintegrate into the organization and get back into the swing of things. The family
may have lost social contacts or jobs and feel out of step with their contemporaries.
There may be feelings of alienation from what was perceived as home. A mentor-
program is perhaps the best method for companies to use in avoiding the reverse
culture problem.
There are four general sets of skills that are likely to be learned abroad:
management rather than technical skills; tolerance for ambiguity; multiple
perspectives; and, ability to work with and manage others. Two of those skills,
tolerance for ambiguity and multiple perspectives seem best suited to overseas
assignments. Few companies have the diversity in-house that an employee would
encounter overseas. This in-depth immersion into cultural diversity requires a
major adjustment on the part of the expatriate manager. In the home country,
managers may be able to succeed without making this adjustment.

In an overseas assignment, there is no option – managers adjust or they fail.

Managers in foreign assignments are usually given much broader responsibilities
than they have experienced in their home country. After completing an
international assignment, repatriation to the home country presents major
challenges as well. Despite the challenges of international careers, more and more
CEOs assert that international experience is an essential feature of a high-
performance career.

3. What are the reasons for the small numbers of female expatriates? What more
can companies do to use women as a resource for international management?

It has been proposed that female expatriates' acceptance by host nationals may, be

predicted by the values and beliefs of the host nationals towards women at work.
From

a series of qualitative research studies, Adler (1987, 1993) found that decision
makers

in American MNCs tend to make two assumptions, based on popular beliefs (myths),

which result in the disproportionately small number of female expatriates? One,

women

do not seek international assignments; and, two, host-country nationals refuse to

transact business with women. A major reason for small numbers of female
expatriates is the assumption that culturally bases bias may limit the opportunities
and success of female managers and employees.

4. What is a virtual global management team? How do the members interact?

Discuss the advantages and the challenges faced by these teams. Give some
suggestions as to how to maximize the effectiveness of virtual teams across
borders.
Virtual teams include people who do not work for the team leader directly and may
not be full time members of the team. Global management teams offer greater
opportunities for competition by sharing experiences, technology, and international
managers and greater opportunities for cross-cultural understanding and exposure
to different viewpoints. Virtual teams are often also "remote" - they are spread
across more than one location. Virtual Global Management Teams have a working
relationship with colleagues in many locations, without the need for as many
meetings as traditionally needed. To maximize the effectiveness of virtual teams
across boarders

human resources around the world requires attention to the many categories and
combinations of people, including expatriates, host-country managers, third
country nationals, female resources, global teams, and local employees.

Chapter 11

1. What have you learned from the research on work centrality and the relative
importance of work dimensions to people around the world?

I have learned for most people, the basic meaning of work is tied to economic
necessity (money for food, housing, and so forth) for the individual and for society.
Another way to view work is through its relationship to the rest of a person’s life.
Studies on the meaning of work in eight countries were carried out by George
England and a group of researches who are called the Meaning of Work
International Research Team. It sought to determine a person’s idea of the relative
importance of work compared to that of leisure, community, religion, and family.
They called this concept of work- work centrality, defined as “the degree of general
importance that working has in the life of an individual at any given point in time.

2. What are the implications for motivation of Hofstede’s research findings on the
dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and
masculinity?

Motivation effects various levels of effort, performance, and satisfaction result from
interactions, on an individual and a group level. A reexamination of motivation
relative to Hofstede’s dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism, and masculinity provides another perspective on the cultural contexts
that can influence motivational structures.

7. How can we use Hofstede’s four dimensions— power distance, uncertainty

avoidance, individualism, and masculinity— to gain insight into leader– subordinate
relationships around the world? Give some specific examples.

Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions provide a good stating point to study leader-
subordinate expectations and relationships. For example employees that rank high
on power distance are more likely to prefer an autocratic leadership style and some
paternalism because they are more comfortable with a clear distinction between
managers and subordinates rather than with a blurring of decision-making
responsibility. Employees in countries that rank low on power distance are more
likely to prefer a consultative, participative leadership style, and they expect
superiors to adhere to that style.

8. Describe the autocratic versus democratic leadership dimension. Discuss the

cultural contingency in this dimension and give some examples of research findings
indicating differences among countries.

Autocratic leadership is a classical leadership style with the following

characteristics:

1. Manager seeks to make as many decisions as possible

2. Manager seeks to have the most authority and control in decision making

3. Manager seeks to retain responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation

4. Consultation with other colleagues in minimal and decision making becomes a

solitary process

5. Managers are less concerned with investing their own leadership development,
and prefer to simply work on the task at hand.

The autocratic leadership style is seen as an old fashioned technique. It has existed
as long as managers have commanded subordinates, and is still employed by many
leaders across the globe. The reason autocratic leadership survives, even if it is
outdated, is because it is intuitive, carries instant benefits, and comes natural to
many leaders. Many leaders who start pursuing leadership development are often
trying to improve upon their organizations autocratic leadership style.
 Democratic Leadership is the leadership style that promotes the sharing of
responsibility, the exercise of delegation and continual consultation. The style has
the following characteristics:

1. Manager seeks consultation on all major issues and decisions.

2. Manager effectively delegate tasks to subordinates and give them full control and
responsibility for those tasks.

3. Manager welcomes feedback on the results of intiatives and the work

environment.

4. Manager encourages others to become leaders and be involved in leadership

development.

9. Discuss how you would develop a profile of an effective leader from the research
results from the GLOBE project. Give an example.

I would develop a profile by a chart representing countries. The chart will have a
total of seven columns representing effective leaders. The first column will be the
sample size N within that country. The scores for each country on those leadership
dimensions will be based on a scale from 1 (the opinion that those leadership
behaviors would not be regarded favorably) to 7 (that those behaviors would
substantially facilitate effective leadership). Reading it from top to bottom on a
single dimension allows comparison among those countries on that dimension.
Reading from left to right allow development of an effective leadership style profile
for that country.

The second column will have Charisma- someone who is a visionary, an inspiration
to subordinates, and performance- oriented. The third column will be for Team- a
team oriented leader is someone who exhibits diplomatic, integrative , and
performance-oriented. The fourth column will be Self-Protective- it’s a dimension
that describes a leader who is self centered, conflictual, and status conscious. The
fifth column will be the Participative- leader who delegates decision making and
encourages subordinates to take responsibility. The sixth column will be Humane-
leaders who are compassionate to their employees. And finally, the seventh column
will be Autonomous- a leader who as expected , an individual, so countries that
ranked participation as important tended to rank autonomy in leadership as
relatively unimportant.

INTERNATIONAL CULTURE & BUSINESS