Chapter 02

Electricity and its heating and chemical effects

Charge
 It is the property of some of the fundamental particles (e.g. electron, proton) due to which they
interact (i.e. attract or repel) with each other.
 There are two types of charges viz., positive and negative.
 The force between the two charges is given by the formula;
kq1q2
F=
r2
Properties of charge
 Charge is a scalar quantity.
 Charge is quantized.
 Charge is conserved.
 Like charges repel each other while unlike attract.
Charging a body
 A body can be charged by (i) friction (ii) conduction (iii) induction
 A neutral body has equal number of positives (protons) and negatives (electrons). When it is
rubbed with some other body, there is transfer of electrons from one body to another and due to
this transfer of electrons two bodies get charged. This is charging a body by friction.
 In conduction an uncharged body is touched with a charged body and then there is flow of
electrons between the two bodies.
Electrostatic Potential
 When a charged particle is moved in an electric field, some work has to be done by the charge or
on the charge.
 The electric potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
W
V = Q : - charge on the charged particle
Q
moved
 The difference in the potentials of two points or the amount of work done in bringing a unit
positive charge form one point to another in an electric field is known as the potential difference.
 1 volt – If the work done in bringing 1C charge from infinity to a point is 1J, the electric potential
of that point will be 1 volt.
1J
1V =
1C
 The SI unit of electric potential is volt.
 Electric potential or the potential difference is a scalar quantity.
 Potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called voltmeter. Voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across the points where the potential difference is to be measured. A voltmeter
has a high resistance ideally infinity.
Electric Current
 The rate of flow of electric charge is known as the electric current i.e.
Q
I =
t
 If 1C of charge flows through any point in a circuit in one second, the electric current flowing
through it is said to be 1A.

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  Its SI unit is ampere or A.
 It always flows from higher potential (positive) to lower potential (negative).
 It is measured by an instrument known as ammeter. Ammeter is always connected in series in the
circuit. Ammeter has a very low resistance ideally zero.
Ohm’s Law
 According to Ohm’s law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to potential difference across its ends i.e.
I ∝ V or V ∝I or V = IR
where R is constant of proportionality and is the resistance of a conductor. It depends on the nature
of material, length, area of cross-section and temperature of the wire.
 The graph between I and V is a straight line.

I Slope = 1/R

Resistance of a Conductor
 The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of electric current through it is
called resistance. It is the ratio of potential difference across and current through the conductor i.e.
V
R=
I
 It depends on the nature of material, length, area of cross-section and temperature of the wire i.e.
R ∝ L − − − −(i )
1
∝ − − − (ii )
A
Combinig (i ) & (ii ),
L L
R∝ ⇒ R =ρ where ρ is a constant known as resistivit y.
A A
Combination of Resistances
 The resistances can be combined in two ways viz., series and parallel.
 Series Combination
(i) When two or more resistances are joined in such a way that the current through each one of
them is same, they are said to be connected in series.

(ii) Resistances are joined in series to increase the resistance.

(iii) In series, V divides so,
V = V1 + V2
⇒ IR = IR1 + IR2
⇒ R = R1 + R2
i.e. the total resistance is the sum of the individuals.
(iv)In series, I = constant so from Ohm’s law
V1 R
V ∝R ⇒ = 1
V2 R2
V divides in the ration resistances.
(v) The resultant resistance is greater than the greatest individual e.g. the resultant of 2Ω and 3Ω
in series is 5Ω and is greater than 3Ω .

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  Parallel Combination
(i) When two or more resistances are joined in such a way that the potential difference across
each one of them is same, they are said to be connected in parallel.

(ii) Resistances are joined in parallel to decrease the resistance.

(iii) In parallel I divides so,
I = I1 + I 2
V V V 1 1 1 1 ( R1 + R2 )
⇒ = + ⇒ = + ⇒ =
R R1 R2 R R1 R2 R R1 R2
R1 R2 Pr oduct
⇒ R= =
( R1 + R2 ) Sum
(iv)In parallel V =constant so by Ohm’s law,
1 I R
I∝ ⇒ 1 = 2
R I 2 R1
i.e. the current divides in the inverse ratio of resistances.
(v) The resultant resistance is smaller than the smallest individual e.g. resultant of 3Ω and 6Ω in
parallel will be 2Ω which smaller than 3Ω .
Heating Effect of Electric Current
 When current is passed through a conductor, it gets heated. This is known as the heating effect of
current.
 When current flows through a wire, electric energy is converted into heat.
 When we pass current through a conductor, es- collide with atoms and other es- in going from one
point to another in the wire. The work done by the es- in this process is produced as heat.
 The heat produced is only because of the resistance of the conductor. The resistance in electric
circuits plays the same role as friction in mechanics.
 Expression for the heat produced: - Suppose a current I is passed through a conductor of
resistance R for time t. The voltage and the charge delivered by the battery are V and Q
respectively, the amount of work done by the battery will be,
W =Q ×V
From the definition of the current,
Q
I= ⇒ Q = It − − − − − (ii )
t
and from Ohm’ law,
V = IR − − − − − − − − − −(iii )
Putting (ii) & (iii) in (i),
W = It × IR = I 2 Rt − − − − − (iv )
so the heat produced will be,
H = I 2 Rt − − − − − − − − − −(v)
Applications of heating effect of current
 The heating effect of electric current is utilized in the electrical heating appliances such as electric
iron, room heater, water heater, etc.
 The heating effect of electric current is utilized in electric bulb for producing light.
 An electric fuse is an important application of heating effect of electric current.

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Electric Power
 Electric work done per unit time is known as the electric power i.e.
W
P=
t
 SI unit of electric power is watt.
 Electric energy consumed is generally expressed in kWh and 1kWh = 3.6 ×10 6 J . This is known
as the commercial unit of electric energy consumed.
 Other formulae for electric power are as follows;
V2
P = VI = I 2 R =
R

Chemical Effects of Electric Current

 When electric current is passed through certain liquids, they decompose into ions and produce
some new compounds this is known as the chemical effects of electric current.
 A substance which decomposes into ions when electricity is passed through its solution in water is
4known as the electrolyte.
 The process of decomposition of electrolyte into ions on passing electricity is known as the
electrolysis.
 During electrolysis the electricity is carried by ions (cations & anions).
 The apparatus used for electrolysis is known as the electrolytic cell. It consists of a vessel
containing two metal electrodes which are partially dipped into the electrolytic solution and are
connected by a battery to pass the current into the solution.
 Reactions in copper voltameter: - As we mix copper sulphate in water, it decomposes into Cupper
and sulphate ions.
2−
CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO4
Reactions at cathode: - Cu 2 + Ions go to Cu cathode, give up the charge and deposit as Cu atom.
C u2+  +→
2e
Cu
2−
Reactions at anode: - SO 4 ion goes to anode and take out on one Cu atom and makes CuSO4
Cu −
2e
→Cu 2 +
2−
Cu 2+ + SO 4 → CuSO 4
Applications of Chemical Effect of Electric Current
 The uses are as follows;
(i) Electroplating
(ii) Extraction of metals
(iii) Purification of metals
(iv)Production of compounds
 Electroplating: - The object to be electroplated is made cathode. Any salt of anion is taken as the
electrolyte. The metal of anode is deposited on the cathode as the reaction goes on. This reaction
can continue till the whole anode is used up.
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
 First Law: - The mass deposited on or liberated from an electrode is directly proportional to the
amount of charge passed through the cell i.e.
m ∝Q ⇒ m = zQ
Q = It ⇒ m = zIt
where z is a constant known as the electrochemical equivalent. It is defined as the mass (in grams)
deposited on passing 1C of charge.
 Second Law: - If the same charge is passed through different electrolytic cells connected in series,
the masses deposited in different cells are directly proportional to their chemical equivalents i.e.

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 m1 E1
m∝E ⇒ =
m2 E2
where E is chemical equivalent of the substance and is the ratio of the atomic mass and valency.
Electrochemical Cells
 Cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 There are two types of cells (i) Primary (Non-rechargeable) (ii) Secondary (Chargeable)
 Dry Cell: -
(i) Construction: - It consist of a carbon rod (or graphite rod) R placed at the centre of a zinc
container C. The space between the carbon rod and the zinc container is filled with a moist paste
of ammonium chloride ( NH 4Cl ) and zinc chloride ( ZnCl 2 ) mixed with manganese dioxide (
MnO 2 ) and powered carbon. In dry cell, the carbon rod acts as positive electrode (cathode); the
zinc container acts as negative electrode; and the ammonium chloride and zinc chloride paste acts
as the electrolyte. Manganese dioxide removes the hydrogen gas formed during the working of the
dry cell (by oxidizing it), and prevents it settling on the positive electrode of the cell (so that it
may not interfere the working of the cell). Actually, manganese dioxide works as a depolarizer
(Depolarizer is a chemical which removes hydrogen and prevents it settling on the positive
electrode of the cell). The presence of carbon reduces the internal resistance of the cell. The cell is
sealed at the top with sealing wax to prevent the evaporation of the moisture, and the carbon rod
has a brass cap for better electrical contact. The zinc container has an outer insulation of card-
board case. The card-board case, however, does not cover the bottom of the cell. In dry cell, the
zinc container is the producer of the electrons for the usable current.

(ii) Working: - when dry cell is connected in circuit, Zn atoms in contact with electrolyte ionize.
Zn → Zn 2 + + 2e −
+
NH 4Cl → NH 4 + Cl −
+
The electrons flow into the circuit. The NH 4 ions remove electrons from the carbon rod.
+
2 NH 4 + 2e − → 2 NH 3 + H 2
The hydrogen further reacts with MnO 2
H 2 + 2 MnO 2 → Mn 2O3 + H 2 O
2+ −
The Zn ions combines with Cl
Zn 2 + + 2Cl − → ZnCl 2
The potential difference produced is 1.5 V.

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