Screen Printing HB

Handboo
Handbook for screen printers
Published by: Sefar Inc. Printing Division
Handbook for screen printers
Published by:
Sefar Inc. Printing Division CH-9425 Thal/SG Switzerland February 1999
Copyright by SEFAR
Foreword
Welcome to this, the first edition of the Sefar Screen Printing Handbook. It is intended as a comprehensive, up-to-date reference work for screen printers. Written by and for screen printers, it aims to cover all aspects of the screen printing applications. WE SHARE OUR KNOWLEDGE: This is a cornerstone of the Sefar Groups business philosophy. In this book, we offer a comprehensive body of reference material to screen printers. We have always considered customer feedback essential to our success as mesh manufacturers. This handbook is an ideal reference to our screen printing courses and customer-specific training programmes. We have gathered the knowledge and experience of Sefars application technologists. We would like to thank everyone who contributed to this book and provided text and illustrations.
Sefar Inc. Printing Division Applications Technology Thal
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Introduction
Contents
1. Monofilament screen printing fabrics 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Raw materials Physical fabric properties Elongation characteristics of polyester fabrics Geometry of screen printing fabrics Coloured screen printing fabrics Calendered screen printing fabrics History and development of screen printing fabrics Conveyor belts for textile printing dryers
1.1 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.6 3.12 3.13 3.15 3.17 3.21 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6
2. Screen printing frames 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Materials used for screen printing frames Sections Frame size Pre-treatment of frames
3. Stretching 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Hand stretching Mechanical stretching Pneumatic stretching Stretching at an angle Multiple stretching Correct stretching Recommended tensions Sefar tension control instruments
4. Gluing 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Preparation Marking stretched frames Adhesives Gluing the fabric to the frame Screen storage Stretching services
ii
Contents
5. Diapositive manufacture 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Manually made diapositives Photographically made diapositives (films) CTS (Computer to Screen) Tips for external production of diapositive films
5.1 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.4 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.14 6.15 6.17 6.19 6.22 6.25 6.25 6.26 6.28 6.29 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.14 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.4 8.7 8.10 8.11 8.14
6. Stencils 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Pre-treatment of screen printing fabrics Mechanical stencils Photomechanical stencils Direct stencils with emulsion Troubleshooting direct stencils with emulsion Stencils for water-based inks Direct stencils with film and emulsion Direct stencils with film and water Indirect stencils
6.10 Exposure 6.11 Step exposures 6.12 Rinsing 6.13 Influence of coating thickness on print sharpness 6.14 Influence of stencil thickness on ink volume 6.15 Hardening stencils for printing water-based colours 6.16 Reclaiming 7. Register 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Summary of key recommendations Problems of accurate register The diapositive The stencil The printing substrate
8. Raster printing 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 AM raster (amplitude modulated rastering) FM raster (frequency-modulated rastering) Types of raster rulings Raster ruling Tone values of half-tone dots Raster printing process line Printing control strip
Contents
iii
8.8 8.9
Types of stencils Avoidance of moir effects
8.16 8.16 8.20
8.10 General recommendations
8.11 Improved printing stability through achromatic reproduction 8.23 8.12 Heuristic rastering for textile printing 8.13 Objectives of heuristic half-tone printing 8.14 Technical considerations 9. Printing 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Setting up of a flat bed machine The squeegee Flood bar (Doctor blade) Printing speed Object printing Single operation multiple colour printing Ink deposit UV inks Printing systems 8.26 8.31 8.32 9.1 9.2 9.4 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.13 9.14 9.15 10.1 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.5 10.5 11.1
10. Measuring instruments 10.1 Coating thickness 10.2 Roughness 10.3 Radiometer (incident radiant energy measurement) 10.4 Hardness meter (Shore measuring instrument) 10.5 Viscosimeter 10.6 Wet coat thickness 10.7 Grindometer for measuring particle size 10.8 Recording thermometer/hygrometer 11. Recommended choice of fabrics
iv
Contents
1.
Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Standard polyester fabrics make ideal stencil material for screen printing. Precision weaving techniques, using state-of-the-art equipment optimised for screen printing applications, results in excellent fabric quality. Polyester fabrics woven from high-viscosity polyester are a further development of standard polyester fabrics. The materials reduced elasticity enhances the already good properties of standard fabrics. These stencil fabrics offer increased process reliability, and significantly higher tensioning that is retained over large print runs and long periods of time. Polyamide fabrics (nylon) have exceptional mechanical durability. This makes them highly suitable for printing abrasive media (ceramic colours, reflective inks). The stencil fabrics high elasticity makes it easier to print uneven surfaces (e.g. shaped objects). Stencil films and emulsions adhere better to polyamide fabrics than normal polyester fabrics. Note: This book uses the abbreviations PET for polyester, PA for polyamide.
1.1 Raw materials

Physical properties The raw materials generally used for screen printing fabrics stencil carriers according to DIN 16610 are monofilament chemical fibres made of synthetic polymers. The fibres most frequently used are: Polyamide, abbreviated to PA 6.6 Polyester, abbreviated to PET They both belong to the group of polycondensation or polymerisation fibres. The group to which they belong governs the fibres physical properties. Polyester PET The main properties of polyester fibres are: high resistance to stretching good mechanical durability good abrasion resistance
1.1
high resistance to light insensitivity to climatic factors Other properties are listed in the table "Fibre properties below. Polyamide PA (Nylon) Polyamide fibres are excellent in the following respects: very good mechanical durability high abrasion resistance good surface-tension characteristics high elasticity good dimensional recovery characteristics (100 % following 2 % elongation) Other properties are listed in the table Fibre properties below. Fibre properties Polyamide PA 6.6 Polyester PET (nylon) monofilament monofilament 1.14 1.38 41 - 67 90 - 95 20 - 35 25 - 40 3.5 - 4 45 - 75 100 15 - 30 15 - 30 0.4
Specific gravity Tensile strength in daN/mm2 (dry) Rel. tenacity (wet) % Elongation at break % - dry - wet Moisture absorption % at 20C and 65% rel. humidity Melting point C Softening point C Temperature resistance C (approximate limiting temperature under dry conditions)
Resistance to light and weather Abrasion resistance
247 - 253 225 - 235 Colour change from white to yellow. The degree of change and strength reduction depends on the temperature and reaction time. Low to average Very good
240 - 260 220 - 240 Dry heat up to 150C Continuous exposure
Good to very good Good
1.2
Chemical resistance Polyamide PA 6.6 Polyester PET (nylon) monofilament monofilament a) Acids generally Sulphuric acid Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Limited poor Reduced resistance or dissolution, dependent on concentration, temperature and reaction time Soluble good Unaffected at low concentrations, temperatures and reaction times
Formic acid Ethanoic acid b) Alkalis generally Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide
Unaffected
Good, temperature- Unaffected dependent Good, temperature- Limited, poor dependent Unaffected at normal room temperature, weakening at higher temperatures Soluble at higher temperatures, concentrations and reaction times
c) Solvents generally Good resistance to common screen printing solvents Remarks: Polyamide (nylon)
Good resistance to common screen printing solvents
Sensitive to acids Fibres are either weakened or destroyed, depending on concentration, temperature and reaction time. Good resistance to alkalis.
Polyester
Sensitive to alkalis Fibres can be weakened to the point of destruction, depending on concentration, temperature and reaction time. Highly resistant to inorganic acids.
1.3
1.2 Physical fabric properties

Screen printing fabrics with differing properties can be produced from the same fibre group by modifying the fibre and/or fabric manufacturing processes.
In any screen printing application, the elongation characteristics of the screen printing fabric are crucial. Elongation characteristics govern: tensioning procedure mesh strength mesh stability
Elongation characteristics have a direct influence on usage characteristics such as: register and dimensional precision of the printed image snap-off behaviour conformance with the object to be printed, important when the substrate has an uneven or irregular surface selecting a fabric type appropriate to the requirements of the printing parameters
Having decided which fibre type to use, printers must then choose between polyamide (nylon) or polyester fabric. Polyamide fabric PA 1000 Nylon fabrics were the first and most enduring monofilament chemical fibres to be used in screen printing. Although a relatively old technology, nylon fabrics still remain viable in certain areas of todays screen printing industry, thanks to their desirable properties: good mechanical durability good abrasion resistance good surface-tension properties relatively high elasticity
1.4
Modified polyamide fabric PA 2000 This type of fabric combines the properties of regular polyamide (nylon) fabrics good mechanical durability, abrasion resistance, and surface tension properties with lower elongation. The benefits: Improved snap-off and ink release, with sufficient elasticity to conform with uneven substrates. Polyester fabrics The classic stencil substrate for screen and textile printing. Correctly handled, it can be used in a wide variety of applications. Property Low elongation Practical benefits Good tensioning behaviour Good snap-off behaviour Good registration accuracy Suitable for long print runs Good reclaiming and re-use characteristics Very good ink penetration Fast ink release high speed printing Good reproduction of detail Good dimensional stability Rapid drying after cleaning, coating and developing
High mechanical durability and chemical resistance Smooth fibre surface
Resistant to changes in climate (humidity / temperature)
1.5
Modified polyester fabric PET 1000 Monofilament polyester fabric with reduced elongation, also known as high-modulus fabric is distinguished from regular polyester fabric by its low elongation and mechanical resistance. Property Very low elongation Practical benefits Able to withstand high tensions Good lift-off and ink release characteristics with minimal off contact Increased registration accuracy Consistent accuracy over long print runs Modest reduction in tension with use Longer production life
1.3 Elongation characteristics of polyester fabrics
High-modulus polyester
Tension (N/cm)
Standard polyester
Fabric elongation (%)
Force/elongation characteristics of screen printing fabrics manufactured by Sefar AG from monofilament synthetic fibres. The elongation characteristics are vital to the performance of the stencil system. This is illustrated in the force/elongation diagram above. The graph shows the relationship between the tensioning force and the resulting fabric elongation, including the force and elongation just before the sample tears. Tensioning tests are an integral part of SEFARs quality control, and are conducted using tension testing machines under constant controlled conditions.
1.6
1.4 Geometry of screen printing fabrics

Fabric geometry describes all two- and three-dimensional aspects of the fabrics structure. The basic factors in fabric geometry are mesh count and thread diameter. Mesh count is specified as the number of threads per cm. The thread diameter is specified as a nominal value, referring to the diameter of the unwoven thread. When selecting fabric for a particular application, fabric geometry is of greater importance than the elasticity character. Fabric geometry directly affects: printability of fine line and half-tone images edge definition in the print ink release characteristics maximum printing speed (in conjunction with ink viscosity) thickness of the ink volume ink consumption ink drying The following values, listed in technical datasheets, such as mesh opening in m, abbreviated to (w) mesh opening in %, abbreviated to (ao) mesh thickness (fabric thickness) in m, abbreviated to (D) theoretical ink volume in cm3/m2, abbreviated to (Vth) are all derived from the mesh count (Fn) and the thread diameter (d). The fundamental geometrical unit is the fabric pitch (t). Pitch (t) is the sum of one mesh opening and thread diameter (t = w + d). This value is calculated as follows: t = 10'000/Fn. The flat surface of a fabric is the result of weaving perpendicular warp and weft threads. A high quality fabric is characterised by extremely close tolerances for both the overall mesh count Fn, as well as mesh counts in the warp and weft directions. Sefar AG products guarantee the closest fabric geometry tolerances; these are published in the technical datasheets.
1.7
Mesh count and thread diameter The terms mesh type or fabric number are similar descriptions of the mesh count per centimetre / inch, together with the thread diameter. Example: 120-34 indicates 120 threads per cm, each with a nominal thread diameter of 34 m. The nominal thread diameter refers to the diameter of the unwoven thread. Mesh type is a relatively new term that replaces the widespread SL/S/M/T/HD nomenclature. New nomenclature 120-31 120-34 120-40 150-27 Old nomenclature 120 S 120 T 120 HD 150 SL
Mesh type description W Y = White = Yellow
CY = spun dyed, yellow PW = Plain Weave TW = Twill Weave OSC = One Side Calendered
Example: PET 1000 140-34Y PW OSC Calendered Plain Weave Yellow Thread diameter Mesh-count Quality Material
1.8
Tolerance of fabric thickness
Tolerance of mesh-count
Thread diameter nominal
Theoretical ink volume
Mesh-opening
Fabric number
Weave
cm 120-31W PW 120-31Y PW 120-34W PW 120-34Y PW 120-40W PW 120-40Y PW 150-27Y PW 150-31W PW 150-31Y PW 150-34W PW 150-34Y PW 150-34W TW 150-34Y TW
inch 305-31W PW 305-31Y PW 305-34W PW 305-34Y PW 305-40W PW 305-40Y PW 380-27Y PW 380-31W PW 380-31Y PW 380-34W PW 380-34Y PW 380-34W TW 380-34Y TW 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 2:1 2:1
+/- n/cm 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
m 49 49 45 45 37 37 36 32 32 23 23 26 26
m 31 31 34 34 40 40 27 31 31 34 34 34 34
% 35.0 35.0 29.6 29.6 20.1 20.1 28.6 23.3 23.3 12.1 12.1 15.4 15.4
m 49 49 55 55 65 65 41 47 47 55 55 62 62
+/- m cm3 / m2 g / m2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 17.2 17.2 16.3 16.3 13.0 13.0 11.7 10.9 10.9 6.6 6.6 9.6 9.6 26 26 34 34 44 44 26 32 32 42 42 42 42
From the Technical data sheet for SEFAR PET 1000 10.99
Weight of fabric
Fabric thickness
Open area
1.9
Weave type The mesh type is specified along with the weave type. This describes the pattern in which the weft and warp fibres cross over each other, and is expressed as a weave number. Screen printing fabrics are either plain or twill weave. Plain weave is a 1:1 weave. Various types of twill weave have differing weave numbers e.g. 1:2 or 2:2.
Plain 1:1 = PW Mesh opening
Twill 1:2 = TW
Mesh opening w is the spacing between adjacent warp or weft threads, and is measured perpendicular to the plane of the fabric. Mesh opening governs: the maximum particle size to be used in a screen printing ink Mesh opening affects: the level of printed detail in line and half-tone artwork ink release characteristics the thickness of the ink volume Note: For adequate ink penetration, the average particle size p of the screen printing ink must be smaller than 1/3 of the mesh opening.
1.10
Resolution characteristics Resolution refers to the level of printed detail in line and half-tone artwork that a given fabric is capable of reproducing. It is governed primarily by the mesh count, and the relationship of thread diameter to mesh opening. Examining the relationship of thread diameter to mesh opening w more closely, screen printing fabrics fall into the following categories: a) Mesh opening greater than thread diameter ( > d) PET 1000 15027PW =36m b) Mesh opening comparable to thread diameter ( d) PET 1000 15031PW =32m c) Mesh opening less than thread diameter ( < d) PET 1000 15034PW =23m In general, fabrics where the mesh opening is greater than the thread diameter are capable of higher resolution than fabrics where the opposite is true. Next to the relationship of thread diameter to mesh opening, the thread diameter itself also affects the printable dot / line size. Secondary factors in the printability of fine line and half-tone artwork are the flow, viscosity and rheology of the screen printing ink.
PET 1000 150-27PW
PET 1000 150-31PW
PET 1000 150-34PW
The theoretical resolution capability Ath for a given screen printing fabric can be estimated from the following formula:
Ath = 2 * t * d/
(t = + d)
1.11
Table: Theoretical resolution Ath for a variety of screen printing fabrics

Fabric number Mesh with m Pitch = t (d + ) m Ath m
PET 1000 100-40 PW PET 1000 110-34 PW PET 1000 110-40 PW PET 1000 120-31 PW PET 1000 120-34 PW PET 1000 120-40 PW PET 1000 140-31 PW PET 1000 140-34 PW PET 1000 150-27 PW PET 1000 150-31 PW PET 1000 150-34 PW PET 1000 165-27 PW PET 1000 165-31 PW PET 1000 180-27 PW
57 54 47 49 45 37 36 31 36 32 23 29 23 22
97 88 87 80 79 77 67 65 63 63 57 56 54 49
96 78 105 72 84 118 82 101 67 86 119 74 103 85
Key: Ath = Fn d = = = theoretical resolution Mesh count Nominal thread diameter Mesh opening
The theoretical resolution value of a fabric should be taken as a relative guideline for better understanding of geometrical factors on the relationship between mesh number, thread diameter and mesh opening.
1.12
Open area, o (open mesh area in %) The sum of all the mesh openings over the total area. A fabric with an o of 30.5% has an open mesh area of 30.5%, and a closed, impervious area of 69.5%. o % is one of the variables used to calculate the theoretical ink volume.
Theoretical ink volume Vth cm3/m2 This value is calculated from the open area and mesh thickness. The volume of the open mesh governs the effective amount of ink that a screen printing fabric can accept. The calculated effective ink volume is higher than, but proportional to, the theoretical ink volume. Under realistic conditions, the degree to which a fabric is filled with ink depends on the squeegee speed, squeegee blade characteristics hardness, angle, and finish and the consistency of the ink itself. Given the difficulty of calculating a value based on so many variables, theoretical ink volume provides a more practical alternative for determining ink consumption and the thickness of the printed volume.
Given optimally filled fabric and clean ink release, the thickness of the wet printing ink deposit can be estimated from the theoretical ink volume:
1.13
Theoretical ink volume cm3/m2
= o * D 100
A fabric with a theoretical ink volume of 18 cm3/m2 produces a printed layer with a thickness (when wet) of 18 m. Basic ink consumption Mf is then estimated by: m2/Lt = 1000 Vth The relative accuracy of the estimated value may be improved by incorporating factors to compensate for the absorbtion of the printing stock and the percentage thinning of the screen printing ink. Compensation factor S for porosity of the printing stock: S for highly porous printing stock S for slightly porous printing stock S for non-porous printing stock = 0.5 = 0.8 = 1.0
Compensation factors for ink thinning percentage (V) V V V V V etc. Taking all these factors into account, the approximate ink consumption Mf can be derived from the screen printing fabrics theoretical ink volume using the following formula: m2/Lt = (theoretical coverage) * S * V = 1000 Vth * S * V 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% = = = = = 1 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20
1.14
Fabric geometry summary

n / cm d / m
d / m
d / m
t / m
/ m Fk / m d / m Fs / m
D / m
Key: D d Fk Fs n t = = = = = = = Fabric thickness (mesh thickness) Thread diameter Warp threads Weft threads Mesh count Pitch = + d Mesh opening
1.15
1.5 Coloured screen printing fabrics

By exposing a direct stencil to light, the illuminated areas become hardened. Light rays striking the white fibres of the fabric are reflected, and scatter under the black edges of the film. Light is also conducted through the fibres themselves, leading to yet more under cutting. The results are unsharp printed edges, causing colour shifts in multicolour half-tone artwork. There is a reduction of the open printing areas, particularly in fine detail work. To keep these phenomena under control, it is necessary to calculate exposure times leading to proper exposure.
White fabric Emulsions and films are sensitive in the UV range, from approx. 350 to 420 nanometres. To be effective, light scatter protection must absorb UV light over this wavelength range. The obvious choice in achieving this is to use the complementary colour, which by definition absorbs the desired wavelengths. Absorption tests show that the most effective absorber in the 350 420 nanometre range is a warm yellow colour. When UV light strikes a yellow fibre, only yellow light is reflected and this has no effect on the emulsion. This is why it is advisable to work with emulsion in yellow light. Emulsions are sensitive only to blue UV light. The results are pin-sharp edges, and open details. Also, because light scatter is no longer an issue, it is now possible to give exposure times that thoroughly harden the emulsion. In general, exposure times on dyed SEFAR fabrics are 75% 125% longer than on their plain white counterparts due to less light scatter of blue UV light; this results in tougher, more durable stencils. Generous overexposure latitude reduces the risk of underexposure.
1.16
Dyed fabric Dyed fabrics should always be chosen for printing the finest lines, text and half tones.
1.17
1.6 Calendered screen printing fabrics

Screen printing inks contain solvents that evaporate during the drying process, thus reducing the thickness of the ink volume. UV-hardening inks , by contrast, contain very little or no solvents. This means that hardening does not significantly reduce the thickness of the ink volume. The high ink film left by UV-hardening inks often produces problems: - UV light does not adequately penetrate a thick ink layer, especially when it is heavily laden with pigment. The ink is incompletely hardened as a result. - Multicolour half-tone printing: If the first two colours are too thickly layered, there is barely space for the third and fourth colours between or on top of the points left by the first two. This results in colour shifts, smeared print, and moir effects. Recent years have seen major progress in weaving technology. This makes it feasible to produce even the finest fabrics in a 1:1 weave. The resulting trend is towards increased use of finer, uncalendered fabrics that offer increased printing resolution and better ink control characteristics. For this reason, the range of calendered fabric types has been reduced.
The current range still includes the following fabric numbers, available with a maximum width of 206 cm:
SEFAR PET 1000 140-34Y PW OSC SEFAR PET 1000 150-31Y PW OSC SEFAR PET 1000 150-34Y PW OSC SEFAR PET 1000 165-31Y PW OSC SEFAR PET 1000 165-34Y TW OSC SEFAR PET 1000 180-31Y TW OSC
These fabrics are suitable for printing with UV inks and lacquers. PET 1000 OSC are one side calendered, yellow-dyed fabrics. The calendered side is shiny, the other side is dull.
1.18
There are two techniques for reducing the ink deposit:
1. By stretching the fabric with the shiny surface facing the squeegee, OSC fabrics reduce the ink deposit by around 10 15% compared to uncalendered fabrics. 2. If the shiny surface is stretched facing the substrate, the ink deposit is reduced by around 15 25%.
The degree of ink volume reduction depends on a variety of additional factors in the printing process, particularly the inks rheological characteristics, which vary depending on the colour. It is therefore impossible to give exact figures.
Fabric cross-sections:
Comparative ink deposit:
Regular fabric
100%
Calendered side = squeegee side (RK)
approx. 1015% reduction
Calendered side = substrate side (DK)
approx. 1525% reduction
1.19
1.7 History and development of screen printing fabrics

Several hundred years separate the first stencils made from human hair, and contemporary high-precision screen printing materials based on modified synthetic fibres. Despite this, screen printing is a comparatively new printing technique, the first documented appearance being a patent submission from 1907 in which Samuel Simons recommended silk gauze (used to sieve flour) as a stencil material. Shortly thereafter, silk weavers began manufacturing plain weave fabrics especially for screen printers, allowing finer printing and improved ink control. The rise of synthetic fibres not only improved screen printing quality, it also increased the range of potential applications. Serigraphy, originally used by artists, thus became an industrial printing technique. Research and development in the weaving industry produced continual advances: fabrics with up to 200 threads per cm, widths up to 365 cm, and extraordinarily high tensioning capability opened radically new vistas for screen printing in all branches of industrial manufacturing. The silk gauze recommended by Samuel Simons was woven from selected multifilament silk yarn. To prevent threads from sliding and blocking the mesh as the flour was sieved, a special technique called twill weaving was used:
Silk gauze, multifilament The first fabrics specially developed for screen printing were also made from multifilament silk yarn, but plain woven. The mesh count could thus be increased to 90 threads/cm. The first synthetic yarns were likewise multifilament, plain woven, but considerably easier to stretch than silk. Furthermore, they were insensitive to water and resistant to chemical attack. These properties represented a breakthrough, because they allowed screen printing technology to be used with every imaginable ink system and printing stock.
1.20
The spinning industrys success in manufacturing monofilament yarns opened the way for a further step in screen printing development. Monofilament yarns can be manufactured in considerably thinner and more consistent diameters than their multifilament counterparts. Thus, fabrics with up to 200 threads/cm could be manufactured, with no loss of mesh opening compared to multifilament fabrics. This opened up entire new markets to screen printing, with applications in electronics, ceramics, packaging, CD labels, etc. Despite satisfying growth in the screen printing industry, research and development continues apace. New materials are being tested, along with varied fabric treatments and novel weaving techniques. The screen printing industry can continue to look forward to new generations of screen printing fabrics, able to keep pace with increasing demands and expectations.
1.21
1.8 Conveyor belts for textile printing dryers
d c a b
Conveyor belt: a = Printer table b = Printed stock c = Conveyor d = Dryer
PET 1000 HD
PET Mono-Multi
PET Mono-Multi PLUS
PET Soft
1.22
Conveyor belts made of strong polyester monofilament, for example PET 1000HD, have the following advantages: Air-current pervious fresh air reaches all sides of the conveyed goods. The benefits: lower drying temperatures are possible higher running speeds are possible energy savings permissible temperatures up to 150 C no squeezing of the conveyed goods anti-static treatment possible good running characteristics minimal soiling, easy to clean. Belts are available with a variety of closures (mainly of the snap variety), or stitched together as an endless belt. Belts are supplied with either a woven or welded edge trim. Both variants can be hemmed with reinforcing tape to protect against fraying. For temperatures above 150 C we recommend conveyor belts made of PTFE coated glass fibre. Textile endless belts are subject to a certain degree of stretching and elasticity. They should therefore be tensioned over compensation rollers. Please address questions and queries to: Sefar Inc. Filtration Division Moosstrasse 2 CH-8803 Ruschlikon Switzerland Phone Fax ++41-1-724 65 11 ++41-1-724 15 25
Internet: http://www.fd.sefar.ch
1.23
2.
Screen printing frames

A screen printing frame is constructed from hollow sections, and designed to hold a tightly stretched piece of fabric. Screen printing frames should be as resistant as possible to mechanical deformation, both during stencil-making and during the printing process. The surface should also be resistant to chemicals used in stencil-making, printing inks, solvents and cleaning materials. Frame sections must be welded to lie perfectly flat, and straightened where necessary. Warped frame sections are a considerable nuisance when printing, and lead to register errors.
2.1 Materials used for screen printing frames

Wooden frames Wooden frames are easily handled, especially the small wooden frames for container printing. They should not be used, however, for precision register prints. Wood swells and shrinks, often within a few hours, due to fluctuating humidity and temperature. Wooden frames have a shorter life than metal frames; they warp in the course of time and no longer lie flat. Painting the wood with a two-component lacquer protects it from water and solvents. Metal frames Aluminium and steel are the metals most commonly used to make screen printing frames. Aluminium is 2.9x more flexible than steel of similar cross-section. To give aluminium comparable strength, the cross-sectional area must be enlarged, the section walls thickened, or an alternative section profile chosen.
2.1
Aluminium frames Aluminiums specific gravity (approx. 2.7) means that even very large frames are easily handled. However, larger frames must be designed with increased cross-sectional area and reinforced walls. Aluminium frames do not rust, but are less resistant to alkalis and acids. Advantages: can be used to stretch all kinds of fabric light weight wide choice of cross sections low-cost good corrosion resistance easily cleaned Disadvantages: less robust than steel Steel frames Given the good rigidity of steel frames, the cross-section can be smaller than a comparable aluminium frame. A major disadvantage, especially with large frames, is their associated weight (specific gravity of steel approx. 7.8). Regular steel frames tend to rust, and require appropriate treatment (galvanising or painting). Advantage: low-cost Disadvantages: susceptible to corrosion heavy require repainting before re-use (unnecessary if two-component glues are used).
2.2
2.2 Sections
Next to the material used, the type of section and the wall thickness are decisive factors influencing the dimensional stability of screen printing frames. We distinguish between rectangular and special sections. Rectangular sections
40
40
40
60
Sections with 4 identical wall thicknesses
Special sections
2
40
4.5
40
30
4.5 50
40
60
Sections with reinforced vertical walls
2.3
55
40 2.5
4.5
50
65
100
Section with sloping inner edge
Section with inner support
4
50
36.7
2 38.6
80
Section with concave edge
Section with concave edge, tapered to the outside (for textile printing)
25
25
25
Special-purpose L-section (e.g. for object printing)
Flat steel strip for CD frames
2.4
Recommended sections, frame dimensions and tension values

Length (cm) at 12 N/cm 75 80 80 85 90 120 130 150 180 180 210 230 250 260 270 280 300 310 400 660 700 800 Length (cm) at 15 N/cm 70 75 75 75 80 100 120 140 150 150 180 200 220 230 240 260 270 280 380 560 600 750 Length (cm) at 20 N/cm 65 68 70 70 75 90 110 125 130 130 150 170 190 210 220 230 250 260 350 ---Length (cm) at 25 N/cm 60 62 63 63 67 85 100 110 120 120 120 130 150 170 180 200 230 240 330 ----
Aluminium section 30 x 30 x 3.0/1.8 38.1 x 24.5 x 2.5 35 x 35 x 2.5 SLOPE 40/30 x 30 x 3.0/1,8 40 x 30 x 2.5 40 x 40 x 2.8/2.0 SLOPE 45/35 x 40 x 3.1/1.8 40 x 40 x 4.5/2.0 50 x 30 x 4.5/2.0 50 x 40 x 3.2/2.0 SLOPE 55/45 x 40 x 3.2/2.0 50 x 40 x 4.5/2.0 60 x 40 x3.0/2.0 SLOPE 65/55 x 40 x 4.5/2.5 60 x 40 x 6.0/3.0 SLOPE 75/65 x 50 x 5.0/2.8 80 x 40 x 6.0/3.0 SLOPE 85/75 x 50 x 5.0/2.8 100 x 40 x 6.0/3.0 SLOPE 135/125 x 50 x 5.0/2.5 150 x 50 x 4.0 SLOPE 180/170 x 60 x 10.0/6.0
2.3 Frame size

The choice of frame size depends on the desired printable area and the type of printing. There should always be an adequate zone reserved outside the printable area, for use as an ink rest. In machine printing the squeegee motion is usually in the direction of the frame width, in other words, contrary to the usual practice in hand printing. The horizontal and in particular the vertical distances between the frame and printable area (the ink rest) has to be determined by test for every type of machine. Too small an ink rest can lead to register difficulties and poor print quality. The sizes a machine can use have to be determined through individual trials. In textile printing, the size of the printable area and the frame must be adapted to the squeegee system, and set up in accordance with the machine manufacturers instructions. In contrast to graphic screen printing, textile printing is generally done in contact, i.e. there is no physical separation between the stencil and the printing stock. (See the chapter on printing.)
2.5
Recommended frame sizes
D C1
B1
B1
B / B1
Format Printable area DIN in mm A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 210 x 300 300 x 420 420 x 590 590 x 840 840 x 1180 1200 x 1600 1400 x 1800 1600 x 2100
Ink rests side/top in mm 150/150 150/150 150/150 160/160 180/180 200/200 220/220 250/250
Aluminium Aluminium sections Steel sections and with various sections and Frame inside wall wall wall dimensions thicknesses thicknesses thicknesses in mm in mm in mm in mm 510 x 600 600 x 720 720 x 890 910 x 1160 1290 x 1540 1600 x 2000 1840 x 2240 2100 x 2600 40/50 3.0 40/60 3.0 40/50 3.0/2.0 40/50 4.5/2.0 60/40 6.0/3.0 80/40 6.0/3.0 100/40 6.4/3.0 40/50 2.0 40/40 2.5-3.0 40/40 2.5/2.0 40/40 1.5
C / C1
Warning:
In textile printing applications, follow only the machine manufacturers instructions. In the case of extreme rectangular dimensions, consult the frame manufacturer for information.
2.6
2.4 Pre-treatment of frames

Screen printing frames should not have any sharp edges or pointed corners, since these can damage the fabric which might tear when tightly stretched. Sandblasted frames Screen printing frames that have been sandblasted must be thoroughly degreased with a solvent (acetone) immediately prior to use. Greasy cleaning agents must not be used. After degreasing, frames that will be used with fine fabrics (OSC fabrics and others with a mesh count of 100 or more) should be primed using the same adhesive that will later be used for gluing. Metal frames that have not been sandblasted Metal frames with a smooth surface must be roughened prior to use. Roughening The recommended way to roughen adhesive surfaces, as well as remove stray glue from used frames, is to use a rotary grinder with an abrasive paper or fibre disc fitted to a rubber backing. The disks themselves should be no. 24 or 36 grit. When working on the frame, it is essential to keep the frame surface truly flat and level, otherwise there could be contact and gluing problems later.
Rotary grinder with integrated dust extractor
Frame surface after grinding
2.7
Belt sander, no. 2436 grit. This technique gives a flatter frame
Frame surface after belt sanding. Because the grooves run parallel to the frame, solvents cannot penetrate between the frame and the fabric.
Ensure that all edges and corners have been de-burred. Shortly before gluing, frames must be thoroughly degreased with a solvent (acetone). Greasy cleaning agents must not be used. After degreasing, frames that will be used with fine fabrics (OSC fabrics and others with a mesh count of 100 or more) should be primed using the same adhesive that will later be used for gluing.
2.8
Cleaning used frames Frames that have been used previously must be stripped of leftover fabric, ink and glue. The edges must be rounded, to avoid the risk of tearing the fabric. Old glue may be left on the frame surfaces, providing it is even (no holes or bumps) and the layer is not too thick.
Poor frame edge must be rounded-off
Frame after rounding-off the glue edges Frames prepared in this way are now ready for gluing.
2.9
3.
Stretching
Stretching systems There are three basic approaches to stretching fabric, offering various degrees of precision. Hand stretching Mechanical stretching Pneumatic stretching
3.1 Hand stretching

The traditional method of stretching fabric on wooden frames by hand (aided by stretching grippers and staples) is still used by some screen printers, especially for printing on solid objects. It is essential that the fabric is also glued to the frame. This technique does not give uniformly, tautly stretched fabric. Warning: staples tend to tear the fabric.
Hand stretching
Stretching
3.1
3.2 Mechanical stretching

Mechanical stretching apparatus produces tensioning forces in the warp and weft directions. Depending on the equipment dimensions, several frames can be stretched at once. Also angled positioning of frames is possible. The ability to stretch several frames at once increases productivity. However, mechanical apparatus is unable to pre-stress the frames. However, this can be achieved using separate equipment. Mechanical stretching apparatus may be classified into two groups: Self-tensioning frames Spindle tensioning machines Self-tensioning frames
Roller frame Fabric is clamped in the frame. Stretching is done by rotating the frame rails, for example. Self-tensioning frames have the advantage that the fabric does not need to be glued to the frame. Caution: Excessive fabric tension and risk of tearing at the corners.
3.2
Stretching
Spindle tensioning machines Spindle tensioning is another mechanical approach. The machine consists of a sub-frame supporting four guide-rails, which in turn carry pin rails or carriage clamps that grip the fabric. The grippers are moved by means of a threaded shaft, which is turned either by a hand-wheel, a ratchet, a torque wrench, or an electric motor. Tensioning is achieved by increasing the distance from the guide rails.
Spindle tensioning machine
During the stretching process, the screen printing frame rests on a height-adjustable holder, to avoid contact with the fabric. The frame is pressed onto the fabric during gluing. When gluing at an angle, the printing frame is laid on the holder at the desired angle, while the fabric is stretched at right angles in the normal way.
Stretching
3.3
Stretching machines with pin rails In this type of machine, the fabric is hung over rigid pin rails attached to the stretching battens.
Pin rails are dangerous, particularly with fine-count fabrics. These require particularly careful handling to reduce the risk of tearing. In stretching machines with rigid, laterally fixed stretching battens, the corners of the fabric must be handled with special care to avoid over-stretching. Over-strained corners often cause torn fabric during and after stretching.
To reduce the possibility of this happening, the corners must be laid free and then gradually pinned, so they have just the right tension after stretching is complete.
3.4
Stretching
Tensioning machines with single clamps This type of machine replaces pin rails with movable clamps. They run on ball bearings and can follow the fabric as it stretches. This accommodates length changes during stretching.
Clamp
Stretching machine
Stretching
3.5
Semi-automatic mechanical stretching machines Semi-automatic mechanical stretching machines provide continuously variable tensioning by mechanical means alone. Force is applied by means of an electromechanical drive mechanism that pulls the stock clamps outwards on both guide-rails at once, or each one in turn. These machines are suited to large-size frames, or for covering several smaller frames at once.
Mechanical stretching machine
3.3 Pneumatic stretching

Pneumatic stretching machines consist of many individual stretching clamps, linked together and acting in concert. The clamps are operated by compressed air, and the number used depends on the frame size.
Tabletop pneumatic stretching machine
3.6
Stretching
The clamps are constructed in such a way that they prop themselves against the printing frame during stretching. The tension applied to the fabric also comes to bear on the frame edges. The frame is thus automatically given the necessary pre-stress to avoid loss of fabric tension after gluing. Since the clamps are held under steady pre-set air pressure, fabric tension remains constant right up to the time of gluing. SEFAR 3 The SEFAR 3 stretching clamp is pneumatically operated, with a manual closure. The fabric is clamped between two dissimilar rubber profiles (round/flat) to prevent slippage. The jaw clamping force may be set using a torque wrench. The clamp is designed to be equally suitable for fine or coarse fabrics, and low to extremely high tensions.
SEFAR 3 stretching clamps are available in jaw widths of 150 mm and 250 mm. Both types can be used simultaneously, one beside the other, since the pulling strength of both clamps is proportionately the same. Therefore, the clamps can be arranged to suit any frame size.
Stretching
3.7
150mm
250mm
Sefar 3 clamps with 150 mm and 250 mm jaw widths
Pneumatic unit with distributor mounted on table SEFAR 4 SEFAR 4 stretching clamps feature a progressive jaw action that applies a steadily increasing clamping force. The force grows in proportion to the fabric tension, preventing slippage. The combination of constantly adjusted clamping force and plastic jaw inserts allows higher tensions than can be achieved with conventional clamping systems.
3.8
Stretching
SEFAR 4 clamps are elevated by a short-throw cylinder during the stretching process. This avoids undesired rubbing of the fabric against the frame. The clamps are propped against the frame, flexing it in proportion to the applied tension. These ensures consistent tension even after the fabric is glued to the frame.
SEFAR 4 stretching clamps feature automatic closing and locking, as well as retracting and opening automatically after stretching is complete. The progressive clamping force means that the clamps may easily be opened and closed by hand. SEFAR 4 stretching clamps are available in jaw widths of 150 mm and 250 mm. Both types can be used simultaneously, one beside the other. Therefore, the clamps can be arranged to suit any frame size. Pneumatic circuits There are two ways to arrange the air supply for pneumatic stretching machines: the one-circuit system, and the two-circuit system. They provide complementary alternatives for optimum, even tensioning of the fabric over any frame size.
Stretching
3.9
One-circuit system The one-circuit system is used for frames with edges up to approx. 150 cm long.
With the one-circuit system, clamp positioning must correspond with the inside edge of the frame. The one-circuit system uses a single control box, with two air outlets. One is connected directly to the first clamp, the other to the clamp diagonally opposite, in order to supply compressed air to both sets of clamps. They are also linked by a pneumatic coupling in the other diagonal corner.
3.10
Stretching
Two-circuit system The two-circuit system is used when the side length exceeds 150 cm.
In the two-circuit system, the clamps on both short sides of the frame must be positioned so that the clamp ends overhang by one frame section width. The clamps on each of the long sides must be spaced 46 cm away from the outside edge of the frame. The two-circuit system uses two independent control boxes. One supplies the short side (warp), the other supplies the long side (weft). This allows pre-tensioning the warp to half its final value, before clamping the weft and likewise pre-tensioning to half the final value. Both circuits can now be adjusted in tandem to attain the final desired tension. This technique improves the evenness of the fabric tension.
Stretching
3.11
3.4 Stretching at an angle

Lines running parallel to the screen frame can be accurately printed when the mesh is stretched at an angle. It is important that the mesh and the lines to be printed are not parallel to each other.
Mesh stretched parallel to the frame.
Mesh stretched at a 15 angle. Stretching methods With mechanical stretching, the printing frame is laid in the stretching machine at the desired angle. With pneumatic stretching, two techniques may be used. The mesh is cut at the desired angle and placed straight into the stretching clamps. Stretching difficulties arise when the mesh angle is greater than 15, because the mesh is not stretched in the direction of the threads. There are fewer problems when using a wooden support board. This is placed into the stretching apparatus, and the screen frame can now be positioned at the desired angle. The mesh is stretched straight in the direction of the threads. There is a loss of tension if the frames are too weak, because the clamps are propped against the support or master frame, and not against the stencil frame.
3.12
Stretching
Aluminium profiles should be at least 80/40/6 mm for lengths up to approx. 2 m. In order to quickly adjust the profile to various formats, bore holes at 3 cm intervals along the profile.
4 adjustable prop profiles transfer the tensioning force to the tensioning frame. This reduces the loss in fabric tension.
3.5 Multiple stretching

Several frames may be covered at once, using a master frame and one stretching machine. Master frames are especially useful for covering small stencil frames. The master frame is tensioned, the small stencil frames are placed on a foam rubber underlay, and the master frame is laid over them. Small weights can be positioned on top, to improve contact between the mesh and the frame.
Stretching
3.13
Covering several small frames with a master frame
A wooden or plastic board can be placed in the stretching apparatus. Several identical or different sized frames can be positioned straight, or at an angle. It is essential to position weights on the fabric between the individual frames, to ensure optimal contact with all the frame edges.
3.14
Stretching
3.6 Correct stretching

After stretching, the screen printing fabric is mounted onto the frame. The permissible tension depends on the tearing strength of the particular fabric. The resistance to stretching of a particular fabric is an important factor in ensuring correct register, and in determining the proper distance between the screen and the substrate. Tension is measured in Newton per cm (1 N = 0.102 kp) with mechanical or electronic equipment placed on the fabric. See also the section Checking fabric tension. Optimum tensioning force for different fabrics. The optimum stretching force to be applied in kg per cm of selvedge depends, as previously mentioned, on the tearing strength and stretching resistance of the particular fabric. The tearing strength and stretching resistance of modern synthetic yarns depends on the material and manufacturing process used. Polyester and polyamide (nylon) have very similar tearing strengths, but considerably different stretching characteristics. Polyester is more stretch-resistant than polyamide, and high-viscosity polyester is more stretch-resistant than standard polyester. Apart from this difference between the tearing strength and the stretching resistance of different yarn materials, for one and the same material it may be stated in principle that both these values will be roughly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the yarn. The cross-sectional area of a round yarn thread is obtained by the familiar expression r2 x p, i.e. 3.14 x square of the radius or .785 x diameter squared. This means that a round thread A that has double the diameter of another thread B of the same yarn material will be about four times as strong in tearing and stretching. With increasing thread diameter, therefore, the strength values increase according to their squares. Stencil fabrics are made in different degrees of fineness (counts). The count represents the number of threads per linear cm. In general, the higher the number, the finer the threads. Coarse fabrics with relatively thick threads can be tensioned more tightly than fine fabrics, even though they stretch less.
Stretching
3.15
77-48
120-40
Moreover, in the same weave counts (same number of threads per linear cm), fabrics can be woven from combinations of thinner and thicker yarns.
120-31
120-34
120-40
Considering the different fabric grades with the same number, i.e. the same mesh count, it is obvious that the grade with the thicker yarn is stronger than the grades with the thinner yarns. This should be taken into account when stretching on printing frames.
3.16
Stretching
Fabric numbers with threads of differing thickness used to be specified as: SL S M T HD = = = = = thinnest thread thinner thread medium thread thicker thread thickest thread
Now, these symbolic terms have been replaced by the nominal thread diameter. Nominal thread diameter refers to the diameter of the unwoven fibre. Fabric number 120 120 120 Thread diameter 31 34 40 former identification S T HD
The complete fabric identification is comprised of: Fabric type + fabric number + thread diameter + special treatment. As yet, there are no standardised symbols for special treatments; fabric manufacturers use their own abbreviations. Example: PET 1000 120-34Y PW
3.7 Recommended tensions

The recommended tensions refer to target values for the fabric in the tensioning apparatus, before it is attached to the printing frame. These are reliably attainable using correct tensioning methods and well-maintained tension measuring equipment. Higher than recommended tensions increase the risk of tearing during handling and printing. Lower tensions may be necessary for specific applications (hand printing, printing solid objects).
Stretching
3.17
Maximum tensions for PET 1000 fabric:

55 50 80 45 40 70 80 80 70 64 64 64 55 55 70 70 70 64 55 48 48 40 70 55 25 20 15 32 43 45 48 51 54 61 64 68 73 77 81 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 165 180 190 40 34 40 34 34 31 31 31 27 27 34 31 27
Nominal thread diameter

80 70 64 48 55 48 40 34 31 48
40 34 31
N/cm
35 30
Mesh count /cm
The tensions listed in the table refer to controls made using the SEFAR Newtontester or TETKOMAT. Preconditions: tensioning system with pre-stressed frame SEFAR-3/4 stretching clamps or other devices capable of providing uniform tension slip-proof fabric clamping system stable frame Applicability The specified tensions are valid for frame edge lengths up to approx. 1m. For larger sizes, the specified tensions should be reduced by 1520% for edge lengths up to approx. 2m, and 2025% for edge lengths up to approx. 3m.
3.18
Stretching
Standard tensioning procedures The fabric can be brought to the desired tension within 1 to 3 minutes. Before fastening the fabric to the frame, wait 10 minutes and again increase the tension to its final value. Repeating this procedure several times will reduce future loss of tension. With modern pneumatic equipment or SEFAR clamps, tensioning time may be reduced to an absolute minimum. (1 minute)
N/cm
Time Rapid tensioning procedure Within 1 to 3 minutes, the fabric can be brought to a tension some 15% higher than desired, then attached to the printing frame without delay (no relaxation phase). N/cm
Time Loss of tension When tensioning procedures are correctly followed, there is a loss of tension of 1520% with standard fabrics, and 1012.5% with PET 1000 fabrics. These values do not take the printing frame characteristics into account. Loss of tension can be reduced by longer relaxation phases.
Stretching
3.19
Possible causes for loss of tension The following points should be investigated if loss of tension is problematic: weak frame sections fabric incorrectly inserted in the stretching clamps stretching clamps pull unevenly: one side of the frame is laying too high large temperature changes insufficient waiting time before gluing Extreme climatic or mechanical influences can also affect the fabric tension. Because the mesh must have a certain degree of elasticity during the printing process, undue demands should not be made on the tension. Differences of 12 N/cm are permissible. Multi-colour graphics printing experience has shown that good register is achieved at mesh tensions above 12 N/cm. It is important that all the meshes used are tensioned similarly. Tension control There is a relationship between the applied stretching force and the resulting elongation of the fabric. The relationship (cause and effect) is, however, not constant for different types of stretching equipment and fabric. We recommend using a commercial measuring instrument, e.g. the SEFAR Newtontester or TETKOMAT, for determining fabric tension. If specialised measuring equipment is unavailable, fabric tension can be roughly checked by monitoring elongation during tensioning. Elongation in percent at 1520 N/cm: Fabric number 10 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100-200 Polyester fabric 1 - 1.5 % 1.5 - 2 % 2 - 2.5 % 2.5 - 3 % Polyamide fabric 2 3 4 5 3% 4% 5% 6%
3.20
Stretching
3.8 Sefar tension control instruments

Newtontester
Screen printing quality largely depends on perfectly controlled screen tension. The Sefar Newtontester instantly controls the screen tension in Newton/cm and displays it on a large, highly legible dial. Sturdy and precise construction guarantees consistent, reliable and exact screen tension reading. Tension values from 560 Newton/cm can be checked. Instructions for use Calibration The accuracy of the indicator dial should be checked periodically. The Sefar Newtontester is placed on the glass plate delivered with the instrument for this purpose: The needle of the dial must be precisely in the 12 oclock position. Any deviation can be corrected by turning the hexagonal set screw at the bottom of the tester. The appropriate Allen wrench is packed with the instrument. The calibration point on the dial should be made to exactly coincide with the indicator needle by turning the outside ring of the dial. The Sefar-Newtontester is now ready for use. Controlling Place the Sefar-Newtontester onto the fabric and read the tension.
Stretching
3.21
Tetkomat
5 TETKOMAT characteristics The TETKOMAT is suitable for all screen printing fabrics. It is a purely mechanical instrument, needing no battery or other electrical supply. The Tetkomat allows reliable and simple checking of fabric tension in warp and weft directions at any time. This makes it possible to produce uniformly tensioned, reproducible stencil sets with a minimum of fuss. Fabric tension control Before starting to use the Tetkomat, check that the display is correct, i.e. the indicator needle must rest exactly over the scale calibration point (see Checks and Adjustments below). To control fabric tension, place the instrument on the tensioned fabric so that the long edge of measuring head (1) is parallel to the thread direction. If the measuring head is aligned with the warp threads (along the fabric), the instrument displays the warp tension. If it is aligned with the weft threads (across the fabric), it displays the weft tension. This allows the tension to be balanced in both directions.
3.22
Stretching
Checks and adjustments To avoid control errors, the instrument should be regularly checked, and adjusted if necessary. Clean the measuring bar and the supplied glass plate of any dirt. Place the instrument on the glass plate. The needle should rest exactly over the scale calibration mark (2). If the needle shows a deviation, loosen the scale set screw (3). Turn the outside ring of the dial (4) so that the needle aligns with the calibration mark (2). Remove and replace the instrument on the glass plate several times, to verify reproducibility. (The instrument should be cleaned if reproducibility is poor.) Tighten the scale set screw (3); the instrument is now ready for use. Important: Minimum distance from frame: 10 cm. To avoid erroneous readings, the instruments contact rollers (5) must lie parallel to the direction of the threads. Follow the mesh tension recommendations in the technical datasheets published by Sefar AG. Loss of tension A newly stretched screen loses approx. 1020% of its tension within the first 24 hours, depending on the type of tensioning device used, the original mesh tension, the frame stability and the waiting time before gluing. For printing jobs with accurate register, therefore, it is recommended to let the screens rest for 24 hours before stencilling. When stretching frames, please take into account this loss of tension. We recommend working with Newton controlling instruments at all times. For multi-colour work, all screens should have the same tension. Checking with a Newton controlling instrument is therefore especially important. Practical experience has shown that variations in screen tension of 12 N on the same or different screens do not have any noticeable effect on screen printing precision.
Stretching
3.23
During long print runs, or after several screen reclaimings, the loss of tension can amount to several Newtons. Caution: Unequal warp and weft tension can result in the following: uncontrollable register deteriorating surface roughness of the ink volume higher ink volume (depending on the squeegee direction) increased mechanical abrasion of the fabric and squeegee
3.24
Stretching
4.
Gluing
Applying two-component glue through the mesh is the technique most used at present for securing fabric to printing frames. One-component glue, UV or reserve adhesives are other alternatives. The choice of glue depends largely on the solvents used by the printing process.
4.1 Preparation
Screen printing frames must be thoroughly cleaned and degreased prior to gluing. There must be no traces of dust, grease or oxidation. The tools used are: a brush with hard bristles, optional brush-holder for storage degreasing agent adhesive tape felt or fibre-tip marker a knife Cleaning and degreasing the printing frame First, the side of the frame to be glued must be cleaned, and ink and adhesive residues removed. If the old glue coating is non-porous and flat, it may be left on the frame. Sharp edges and corners must be rounded off. It is always advisable to roughen the adhesive surface of metal, in particular aluminium, using a coarse emery wheel or emery disk. Sand-blasting the surface to be glued is also a good method. Printing frames should only be roughened or sand-blasted on the side to be glued, otherwise it is more difficult to remove ink residues. Metal frames should be thoroughly degreased shortly before gluing, using a suitable solvent (cellulose thinner, acetone, refined petrol, or alcohol). Prepared frames should be glued right away, to avoid the risk of recontamination. When gluing fabrics with weave counts of 100 and up, it is advisable to pre-coat the frame with the same glue that will be used later. This improves adhesion.
Gluing
4.1
4.2 Marking stretched frames

Before gluing, it is advisable to mark the tensioned fabric along the frame edge, using a felt or fibre-tipped pen. The following information should be recorded: fabric brand weave count, including thread diameter roll/batch number tension in N/cm date operators initials Example: PET 1000 120-34Y PW, 2189203101, 20N.,18.08.98/gh
Next, adhesive tape is applied inside of the marked fabric, approx. 1-2cm from the frame. This helps to give a cleaner glue boundary, and protects the transitional area between the frame and the marked fabric. To make the frame easier to find in a storage rack, a sticker with the same information is applied to the outer edge of the frame. The sticker can be made of self-adhesive plastic film or paper, and written with permanent marker. A piece of polyester film glued over the label protects against solvents.
08 PE T10 00 12 034 , 21 89 20 31 01 .9 8/ gh
Glued and marked fabric
4.2
,2
0N
Gewebefeinheit: .................. Datum: ................... Rollennummer: .................... Winkel: ................... Neuspannung: ..................... Unterschrift: ............
./c
,1 8.
Gluing
4.3 Adhesives
There are various adhesive systems, falling into the following categories: two-component adhesives reserve adhesives UV adhesives contact adhesives
Two-component adhesives Two-component glue is a catalytic mixture consisting of the adhesive itself, plus hardener. This type of adhesive has generally good resistance to solvents, although the adhesive should be tested with the solvent used for ink removal. Adhesive and hardener must be mixed before use, in the proportions specified by the manufacturer. It is important to observe the correct ratio, to avoid impaired adhesion and hardening. Two-component adhesives harden in two phases. The solvent evaporates first, then the chemical hardening process begins. The initial drying (evaporation) time depends on the fineness of the fabric, tension, thickness of the glue coat, room temperature and relative air humidity. With so many variables, it is difficult to recommend precise drying times. It is therefore advisable to follow the manufacturers instructions before removing the frame from the stretcher. As a general rule, the higher the tension and the lower the mesh count, the longer the drying time required. It should also be noted that two-component adhesives only remain workable over a limited period, since the reaction between the adhesive and the hardener begins in the pot. The delay between mixing and the onset of the chemical reaction is known as the pot life.
Gluing
4.3
Reserve adhesives Reserve adhesives are applied to frame in advance. The coated frame can then be stored indefinitely. Painting acetone or some other activator through the tensioned fabric in contact with the frame revives the adhesive. If frames glued in this way are to be used with solvents, the adhesive must be protected by a coat of alcohol-based lacquer. UV adhesives UV adhesives are one-component glues that cure (harden) through exposure to ultra-violet light from a special lamp. The hardening process is faster than with two-component adhesives. UV adhesives are resistant to solvents. Contact adhesives Contact adhesives cause a frame to adhere to a stretched fabric so firmly that no further pressing is required. The process takes about 30 seconds. After several more minutes of drying, the frame can be taken out of the stretcher. The adhesive is applied to the frame as well as onto the stretched fabric. When the adhesive is dry, both glued surfaces are pressed together and the gauze is then smoothed down with a plastic spatula for better contact. Although a hardener is added, this type of adhesive has insufficient resistance to certain powerful solvents. Therefore, the glued surface must be protected with a coat of lacquer.
4.4
Gluing
4.4 Gluing the fabric to the frame

It is important to ensure positive contact between the fabric and the frame during gluing. If there are problems, weights may be placed on the fabric to force it onto the frame surface. It is important to ensure that the frame edges are thoroughly glued to the fabric, so there is no possibility of solvent penetrating and weakening the glue. If the frame is not flat, it is impossible to establish good contact, and the fabric bond is correspondingly weaker. There is a risk of the fabric becoming detached later.
Gluing
Gluing
4.5
4.5 Screen storage
Screen storage and transport
4.6 Stretching services

Efficient networks of SEFAR trade supply houses guarantee prompt and reliable delivery of perfectly stretched screen printing frames. You can be certain that the mesh has been stretched using state-ofthe-art equipment, and the tension checked with appropriate measuring instruments. It should be evident that prefabricated, ready-to-use frames are the safest and best prerequisite for making perfect stencils. Successful printing largely depends on this. A stretching service saves you warehousing costs for various weave counts and widths, as well as the investment in a stretching machine. Put your premises and expensive labour to better use!
4.6
Gluing
5.
Diapositive manufacture
In screen printing, stencil preparation requires a positive transparency of the artwork to be reproduced. It is important that the diapositives are reading right, with the emulsion side up. Diapositives can be made manually, photographically, or digitally.
5.1 Manually made diapositives

Draw with opaque ink on transparent polyester foil. For artistic prints, a wax pencil can also be used. It is preferable to use onesided matt polyester foil. Cut-film process. The diapositive is prepared on a masking film, consisting of a polyester backing and an emulsion coating. Cutting may be done using a special knife, or a computer-controlled plotter. Masking films are available in orange and red. Both types are suitable for screen printing, but for photographic reproduction only red masking films should be used.
5.2 Photographically made diapositives (films)

At present, the conventional technique generally used to make screen printing diapositives requires a positive, reading right film. In this context, reading right means that the artwork must be reproduced the right way round on the emulsion side of the film. This is the opposite to films intended for offset printing. If diapositives are made externally, it is essential to instruct the repro bureau to expose the artwork reading right on the emulsion side of the film. This is important, because it allows during exposure the emulsion side of the film to rest directly on the stencil emulsion. If offset-style reversed films (reading wrong) are used, the film polyester base becomes interposed between the emulsion and the film layer. This causes undercutting, giving stencils that lack sharpness and detail.
5.1
Films (diapositives) are currently produced on laser imagesetters. Computer data is converted to screens and lines by a PostScript RIP (Raster Image Processor), and translated into the imagesetters machine language. The result is then output to film.
5.3 CTS (Computer to Screen)

CTS is a newer process for making diapositives. Just like film production, computer data is converted by a RIP and output on an inkjet plotter. However, no actual film is involved: instead, the plotter sprays UV-opaque ink or wax directly onto the coated mesh. The mesh is then exposed and rinsed in the same way as stencils made from films. This technique does not require vacuum retention during exposure, because the ink or wax is deposited directly on the emulsion surface.
5.2
This technique has the advantage of eliminating expensive films. For producing screen printing stencils, inkjet technology has proved a clear winner over laser techniques (same principle as CTS). Only a few laser machines are in use world-wide; they are much slower and require special emulsions and fabric types.
Conventional
Conventional film-based production vs. CTS
Conventional:
Colour separation Film production Film development Full-sheet production Mount film on stencil Exposure Archive film Develop stencil
CTS:
Colour separation
Spray and expose stencil
Develop stencil
5.3
5.4 Tips for external production of diapositive films

If pre-press facilities are not available in-house, it is necessary to work closely with an expert partner. The best choice is a repro house with an established track record in making screen printing diapositives. Most repro houses are oriented towards offset printing. It is absolutely crucial to discuss the specific job requirements beforehand. 1. Positive films must be made reading right with high density (d 3.5) to UV-A illumination. 2. Raster films must not be made using PostScript round dots. While eminently suitable for offset printing, these are a big problem in screen printing. This is because dots for 50% tones are square, and frequently cause screen printing moirs. 3. Most repro houses offer a wide variety of raster techniques (round, linked, etc.). Trials with various dot shapes are essential. 4. It is a good idea to make a test film with a variety of raster dot shapes with different screen rulings (L/cm or lpi). Proof prints from test stencils made from various film materials on different mesh counts provide a basis for establishing subsequent standardised practice. 5. Multi-colour raster prints present a further dimension. Having established the optimum raster point shape, the best raster angle must then be found. A proof print with various four-colour raster angles is made; the print results then determine which standard raster angle to use. Once all these parameters have been established, there ought to be fewer moir problems in production runs. Informing customers of the optimum parameters beforehand can also save much trouble and expense. To reiterate, here is a summary of the parameters: - correct side (i.e. reading right), with high density - optimum raster dot shape - optimum raster angle - optimum raster ruling
5.4
6.
Stencils
6.1 Pre-treatment of screen printing fabrics

Degreasing Special finishing methods mean that SEFAR screen printing fabrics are fundamentally very clean. Irrespective of this, all fabrics, whether new or old, must be degreased shortly before use. Fabrics can be contaminated by handling, or airborne dust. Degreasing is done with the normal screen printing degreasing products available from dealers. Household detergents must not be used. These often contain other chemical additives, e.g. lanolin for skin protection, which can seriously affect the adhesion of photofilms or photographic emulsions. After degreasing, the fabric should not be touched again. Photofilm or photographic emulsions must be applied immediately after degreasing the mesh. If screens are allowed to lie around, the fabric may again attract grease or dust. Degrease by spreading a modest quantity of degreasing agent over the wet fabric, using a soft brush. Leave to stand for a few minutes, then rinse thoroughly using a high-pressure water jet.
6.2 Mechanical stencils

The hand-cut stencil This type of stencil has the advantage of producing perfectly sharp edges. It is mostly used for lettering and large solid objects. The stencils for the individual colours are easily cut using a special cutting knife, e.g. a swivel knife. Suitable cutting tools and masking films can be obtained through your screen printing dealer. Plotter techniques have created a resurgence in hand-cut stencils.
Stencils
6.1
Water soluble hand-cut film This kind of hand-cut film has the following advantages: film adheres to the fabric by water surface-tension suitable for all solvent-based inks easy removal with hot water Cellulose hand-cut film The following points should be observed with this film: The fabric must be prepared and degreased as with a photo stencil. For perfect adhesion, the solvents recommended by the film manufacturer must be used. Hand-cut films bonded with solvents resist only water-based inks. Can be removed using solvents. Problem causes Hand perspiration, hand cream, or dirt on the film side can create bonding difficulties. When cutting, the hand should rest on a protective sheet of paper to avoid grease-stains. Insufficient pre-treatment and degreasing of the fabric (see the section on pre-treatment). Creased film. Poor contact while bonding. Excess liquid while bonding results in swollen edges. Drying at excessive temperature. Using an unsuitable instrument to lift off the film.
6.2
Stencils
Cutting
Lifting
Stencils
6.3
6.4
Stencils
6.3 Photomechanical stencils
A Direct stencil with emulsion
B Direct stencil with film and emulsion
C D Direct stencil Indirect stencil with film and water (capillary film)
Mesh cross-section Emulsion Film
Mechanical resistance Solvent resistance Contour sharpness Average press run Time and labour Applications
very good good good very good 50 000-75 000 high Printing of flat and shaped objects difficult
very good good very good 20 000-50 000 high
good good very good 10 000-30 000 low
poor good very good 2000-5000 medium
Printing of flat and Printing of flat and Flat print shaped objects certain shaped objects difficult easy easy
Reclaiming
6.4 Direct stencils with emulsion

General procedure Degreasing Before making any stencil, the fabric should be degreased with a suitable degreasing agent. Do not use household detergents. Remove all water by suction. Dry thoroughly at room temperature. Uniform coating with photo emulsion (diazo, photopolymer or dual cure), wet-on-wet. Use a suitable coating trough. Dry the stencil in a horizontal position, print side down. Maximum temperature 40C.
Drying
Coating
Drying
Additional coatings Apply additional coatings on the print side, to smooth out unevenness. Drying Exposure Same drying procedure as after the first coating. Use a suitable light source, e.g. a metal halogen lamp. Determine the correct exposure time using step exposures and a test diapositive. Develop with a moderate water-jet. Observe manufacturers temperature instructions. After development, rinse out the printing side thoroughly with a powerful water-jet. Remaining moisture can be removed by gentle application of unprinted newspaper or window cleaning suede, or using specialised water suction equipment. Final drying in a drying chamber. Pinholes and film edges can be covered with screen filler.
Developing
Drying
Retouching
Stencils
6.5
6.5 Troubleshooting direct stencils with emulsion

Formation of fish-eyes after coating Insufficient degreasing of the fabric. Dust particles on screen fabric. Poorly mixed photo-initiator (diazo) and emulsion. (inhomogeneous coating) Air inclusions during coating Coating too fast can trap air in the mesh openings. (Formation of bubbles leads to premature printing failure.) Poorly bonded photo emulsion after exposure Emulsion insufficiently dried before exposure. Exposure time too short. Failure to compensate for a highly lightabsorbent diapositive. Intensity fall-off in the exposure lamp. (Measure the output using a light integrator.) Insufficiently sensitised emulsion. Incomplete dissolution of the diazo component in water. Some of the diazo sensitiser remains undissolved in the bottle. Caution at very high humidity! The coated screen may feel completely dry, but is only superficially dry due to the high air humidity. Allow for longer exposure times under these circumstances. After coating, leave coarse meshes to dry overnight at room temperature. Undercutting when copying (loss of detail) This can occur with white mesh. Use a dyed fabric. Compared to white fabrics, dyed screen fabrics require a 75125% exposure increase. Only use non-reversed positives.
6.6
Stencils
Saw-tooth effect Poor coating. The coating on the print side is too thin. The coating bridges the mesh openings, but has sunk into the depressions in the fabric structure. Printing sharp outlines requires multiple wet-on-wet coatings. The greater part of the photo emulsion must be, in any case, on the print side. After drying, additional coatings can be applied to smooth out unevenness. Half-tone printing Half-tone screen printing requires thinly coated mesh. Apply an additional coat to the print side. Reclaiming difficulties Underexposed emulsion. Ink was not immediately washed off after printing. Insufficient cleaning after printing. Ink deposits cling to the mesh. After a certain time, the dried ink particles can no longer be completely removed. The stencil is still greasy from solvent. The reclaiming solution cannot dissolve the photo emulsion. Additional degreasing is needed before applying the reclaiming agent. Unsuitable reclaiming agent.
6.6 Stencils for water-based inks

Water-proof emulsions must be used with water-based inks, e.g. for direct printing on textiles or ceramic. Carefully observe the manufacturers instructions. Sensitizers DIAZO and/or PHOTOPOLYMERS are used as sensitizers in screen printing. Important: For environmental reasons, DICHROMATE should no longer be used.
Stencils
6.7
Diazo and photopolymer photo emulsions Both types are characterised by prolonged storage capability for coated screens. Neither material represents an environmental hazard.
;;; ;; ;
1. Coating on print side, 12x
6.8
Stencils
;; ;;; ; ;;; ;; ;;; ; ;; ;; ;; ;; ; ;; ; ; ; ;

3. Dry, 2030 C print side down! 5. Dry, 2030 C 6. Exposure 7. Develop with cold water 8. Dry at 2030 C
;; ;;
2. Coating on squeegee side, 14x
4. Additional coatings on print side, 12x
A uniform coating is crucial to a perfect direct stencil. The fabric should be completely covered by the emulsion, with a slightly thicker coating on the print side of the stencil. The screen is coated 12 times on the print side, followed immediately by 14 times on the squeegee side, wet-on-wet, then dried. The drying temperature must not exceed 40 C. After drying, surface quality can be significantly improved by 12 additional coatings that are allowed to dry between coating. The depth of the surface roughness should be less than 10% of the fabric thickness. With very coarse meshes of 5 40 threads/cm, the screen can, after intermediate drying, be given 12 additional coatings as well on the squeegee side. This improves the stencil life. The number of coatings depends on various factors, partly influenced by the particle content and viscosity of the emulsion, and also by the fineness of the fabric and the demands of the printing job. Coating thickness vs. printing job Lines: Sharply defined prints are attained with a coating thickness of 10 18 m on fabrics with 90 threads/cm and finer. Coating thickness on the printing side approx. 10 - 20% of the mesh thickness. The Rz value is determined using roughness depth measuring equipment. This value represents the average of the highest and lowest points on the surface (see chapter 10). The thinnest possible coat of 4 8 m results in the thin ink volume required for half-tone prints. Coating thickness on the printing side: approx. 10% of the mesh thickness. Roughness depth less than the coating thickness. When printing with UV inks, the ink volume should generally be as low as possible. As a rule, the coating thickness on the print side of the screen should not exceed 5 m.
Rule-of-thumb:
Half-tones:
Rule-of-thumb:
UV inks:
Stencils
6.9
The fineness and quality of the fabric are the determining factors for the number of stencil coatings. Fabric fineness Fabric number 120-34 (T) 150-34 (T) Mesh-opening 45 m 23 m Open area 29.6 % 12.1 % Fabric thickness 55 m 55 m
These examples clearly depict the differing open areas in % in fabrics of similar thickness. The larger mesh-opening causes more emulsion to be pressed through the fabric per coating. Achieving the same coating thickness on both fabrics requires a different number of coatings. Fabric quality Fabric number 120-31 (S) 120-34 (T) 120-40 (HD) Mesh-opening 51 m 45 m 37 m Open area 37.9 % 29.6 % 20.1 % Fabric thickness 49 m 55 m 65 m
Various fabric qualities in the same number also influence the coating thickness, because of differences not only in the mesh opening but also in the fabric thickness. Example: number of coats: Fabric number Open area Fabric thickness + coating D/ R 53 m 61 m 72 m Coating wet-on-wet
120-31 (S) 120-34 (T) 120-40 (HD)
37 % 30 % 22 %
2+1 2+2 2+3
The screen should be coated immediately after degreasing, to avoid recontaminating the fabric with dust, etc. The fabric must be perfectly dry before coating.
6.10
Stencils
Coating example
Correct coating
Coating too thin The easiest way to apply the photo emulsion onto the fabric is with a coating trough. The coating edge must be rounded, and should be cambered over its entire length. This guarantees an overall uniform coating, even in the centre part of the screen.
Stencils
6.11
20
0.1-0.2 %
Hand coating + trough Most DIAZO sensitisers and, consequently, the sensitised emulsions, are strongly acidic. Therefore, photo emulsions should be applied only with a V2A-stainless steel coating trough. Warning: Aluminium is very easily damaged. Galvanised steel troughs oxidise after a short time, which destroys the photo emulsion. This is accompanied by the formation of fine bubbles or scum, which also happens after the photo emulsion has been kept for several hours in an aluminium trough. It indicates that the emulsion can no longer be used. Care should be taken that the photo emulsion never stays in the coating trough for longer than necessary. Covering the trough merely protects against dust and drying out. Technical data for coating troughs: Trough length/mm < 50 50-150 150-1000 > 1000 Trough (stainless steel) profile/mm 30/30/1.5 40/40/1.5 50/50/1.5 50/50/2.0 - 60/60/2.0
For screen sizes over 1000 mm and a fabric of less than 20 threads/cm, we recommend a profile depth of 6080 mm.
6.12
Stencils
;; ;; ;;
1.5 mm
r=0.75 mm
r=0.25 mm
Storage rack for coating troughs
Automatic coating machine
Stencils
6.13
6.7 Direct stencils with film and emulsion

General procedure Degreasing: Before making any stencil, the fabric should be degreased with a suitable degreasing agent. Do not use household detergents. The fabric must be completely dry before transferring the film. To prevent later difficulties, avoid dust when transferring. Place the film on a glass plate, emulsion side up. Bring the stencil, in the printing position, in contact with the film. Avoid trapping dust. Pour the sensitised photo emulsion into the stencil and sweep the emulsion over the film using a soft squeegee. Important: Wait approx. 3 minutes before putting the stencil into the dryer. Drying: For accurate register, dry at room temperature (max. 40 C). Remove the plastic backing sheet after drying, and allow to dry for a few minutes longer. Determine the correct exposure time through step exposures. Underexposure causes poor film adhesion, and reduced coating durability. Rinse with cold water. Dry at room temperature. Excess water can be removed with unprinted newspaper or water suction equipment. Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a water-based screen filler.
Drying:
Transfer:
Exposure:
Developing: Drying:
Retouching:
6.14
Stencils
Troubleshooting direct stencils with film and emulsion Poor film adhesion to the fabric Fabric used is too fine Fabric with low ink penetration prevents sufficient photo emulsion coming into contact with the film. The results are inadequate adhesion of the film on the fabric. Squeegee is too hard or too soft Incorrect squeegee hardness results in insufficient emulsion being pressed onto the film, leading to inadequate film sensitisation. The ideal squeegee hardness is 60 - 70 shore. Trapped dust This results from failure to clean the film with an antistatic cloth before transfer. Dust can also be a problem when there has been a delay between degreasing the mesh and applying the film. Exposure time too short This results in poor adherence of the film on the fabric. Insufficient drying before exposure Also results in poor adherence of the film on the fabric. Unexposed, and hence unhardened particles on the emulsion side are washed out during development. Copying error The film backing sheet was not removed prior to exposure.
6.8 Direct stencils with film and water

General procedure Degreasing: Before making any stencil, the fabric should be degreased with a suitable degreasing agent. Do not use household detergents. Wetting agent encourages the formation of a uniform water film on all fabrics, to facilitate safe transfer of the capillary film.
Wetting agent:
Stencils
6.15
Transfer:
The capillary film is transferrred onto the wet stencil mesh. This procedure has two advantages: 1. No additional drying time. 2. Dust problems are practically eliminated. The film is placed on a flat surface, emulsion side up. The wet mesh fabric is carefully brought into contact with the film. The film is sucked onto the fabric through capillary action. Sweep off excess water with a squeegee. With large sizes in particular, we recommend that the film be tightly rolled, so that it can be easily unrolled on the wet upright screen.
Drying:
For accurate register, dry at room temperature (max. 40 C). Remove the plastic backing sheet after drying, and allow to dry for a few minutes longer. Attention: For large print runs, the capillary film can be further reinforced after drying by applying emulsion to the squeegee side. Determine the correct exposure time through step exposures. Wash out with tepid water, concentrating on the print side until the image is open. Thoroughly rinse the squeegee side. Excess water can be removed with unprinted newspaper or water suction equipment. Dry afterwards. Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a water-soluble screen filler
Reinforcement:
Exposure:
Developing:
Retouching:
Troubleshooting direct stencils with film and water Poor film adhesion to the fabric Inadequate water film on the print side of the mesh when transferring the film. For this reason, it is advantageous to rinse the wetting agent out of the fabric from the squeegee side, so that a homogenous film of water is formed on the print side.
6.16
Stencils
Insufficient exposure time results in poor adhesion of the film on the fabric. Insufficient drying before exposure also results in poor adhesion of the film on the fabric. Unexposed, and hence unhardened particles on the emulsion side are washed out during development. Copying error The film backing sheet was not removed prior to exposure.
6.9 Indirect stencils

Indirect stencils are made independently, then attached to the fabric mesh. Indirect stencils are thin and have little influence on ink volume. Since indirect film is exposed separately from the stencil, fabric colour has no effect on exposure time or stencil edge sharpness. However, there is a uniform amount of light scatter because the exposure is made through the film substrate. The disadvantage of indirect stencils is their loose attachment to the mesh, which makes them insufficiently durable for long print runs. General procedure for making indirect stencils Roughening: New fabric should be roughened on the print side with silicon carbide 500. Before making any stencil, the fabric should be degreased with a suitable degreasing agent. Do not use household detergents. The pre-sensitised indirect film is exposed through the polyester substrate. Important: Determine correct exposure time through step exposures. Fixing: The exposed film is fixed in a bath of hydrogen peroxide, or the manufacturers proprietary powder. Follow the film manufacturers instructions.
Degreasing:
Exposure:
Stencils
6.17
Developing:
Rinse the film in warm water, emulsion side up. Follow the film manufacturers instructions about water temperature. Rinse cold; thorough rinsing is absolutely essential. Place the film emulsion side up on a sandblasted glass plate. Bring a corner of the wet stencil in contact with the film, and let the film draw itself up onto the mesh. Remove excess water from the squeegee side, using unprinted newspaper. Drying must be at room temperature. When thoroughly dry, remove the polyester backing sheet. Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a water-soluble screen filler.
Transfer:
Drying:
Retouching:
Troubleshooting indirect stencils Poor film adhesion to the fabric: Insufficient pre-treatment of the fabric Fabric must always be roughened on the print side with silicon carbide 500. Household scouring powder is an unsuitable abrasive, because the particles are of uneven size and can clog the mesh. Insufficient fabric degreasing Having mechanically abraded the fabric, it must be degreased as well. Roughening and degreasing are not the same thing! Excessive exposure time This is the main cause of poor adhesion of indirect film with the fabric. Longer exposure tends to make the film harder and more brittle, so it cannot attach itself to the fabric during transfer. Inactive developer It is best to use the developer recommended by the film manufacturer. Hydrogen peroxide deteriorates with prolonged storage.
6.18
Stencils
Drying the stencil with warm air Drying an indirect stencil in warm air tends to make the edges curl up. Therefore, indirect stencils should be dried only at room temperature. The polyester backing sheet should be removed only after thorough drying.
6.10 Exposure
Exposing the dried photosensitive layer to UV light causes uncovered areas to harden (polymerisation) and cease to be water-soluble. Unexposed areas remain water-soluble and can later be washed out using cold or lukewarm water. Many UV light sources are suitable for exposing the photo-sensitive layer. The emission spectrum should peak in the range from approx. 350420 nm, to coincide with the maximum sensitivity of stencil films and photo-emulsions.
40 30 20
10 0
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Invisible and visible light spectrum A = wavelength B = spectral emission W/5 nm Suitable UV light sources are: metal halogen lamps from 2000 to 6000 watts mercury vapour lamps high pressure mercury lamps mercury halogen lamps super-actinic fluorescent lamps Although xenon lamps are used in offset printing, their spectral range is not sufficient for screen printing. We recommend a point source (spotlight) for exposure reproducibility.
Stencils
6.19
Light tubes can also be used if fine line or half-tone reproduction is not required. If several tubes are stacked in parallel, their separation must be no more than the distance to the stencil. The larger the area to be exposed, the stronger the light source needed. The distance between the exposure lamp and the copy frame should be at least as great as the diagonal width of the area to be exposed, and also at least 1.5 times the diagonal of the image area to be exposed. Under no circumstances should the angle of the light cone exceed 60. Lamp
1m
1m
Increasing the distance between the lamp and the copy reduces the radiant intensity in proportion to the square of the distance increase. Therefore, to maintain constant exposure, the exposure time must also be increased in proportion to the square of the distance increase. Lamp
1m 1 Lux 2m
1/4 Lux
6.20
Stencils
Formula: new distance New exposure time = old distance Example: new distance old distance old exposure time 150 100 The new exposure time is thus 2 minutes 15 seconds. Bear in mind that coloured fabrics require longer exposure times than white fabrics. Tests with step exposures are therefore vital to determining the correct exposure time. We recommend using a light meter for the following reasons: to compensate for light intensity at various distances. to compensate for reduced light intensity caused by lamp ageing.
2 2
x old exposure time
= 150 cm = 100 cm = 1 minute (60 seconds)
x 60sec.=1.52 x 60sec.= 2.25 x 60sec.=135sec.=2min.15sec.
Exposure too short (squeegee side)
Correct exposure (squeegee side)
Stencils
6.21
6.11 Step exposures

Step exposures are a means of determining the optimum exposure time. Correct exposure time depends on the characteristics of the photo emulsion or film, the fabric, overall thickness, the light source, and the distance between the lamp and the material to be exposed. Underexposed stencils do not harden all the way through; photo emulsion on the squeegee side is washed away during development. A smudged photosensitive layer is a sure sign of underexposure. With inadequate rinsing, some of the dissolved photo emulsion sticks in the open parts of the stencil. A barely visible scum is left behind after drying, which impedes ink flow during printing. Underexposed stencils also have poor resistance to solvents, printing inks and mechanical wear. The stencil is also difficult to reclaim afterwards. Overexposed stencils may suffer from reduced resolution; this is especially noticeable with white fabric. The un-dyed threads of the white fabric reflect light during exposure, which rapidly leads to undercutting problems.
Underexposed
Correctly exposed
Making a step exposure A step exposure is best made with a test positive containing at least 5 identical images featuring positive and negative fine lines and halftones. 5 times are chosen, progressing through 50% 75% 100% 125% 150% of the nominal exposure. If the nominal exposure time is unknown, this must be calculated from the emulsion manufacturers data.
6.22
Stencils
The test positive is laid on the stencil, emulsion side down, and placed in the vacuum frame. Once the vacuum has established firm contact between film and stencil, all five images are exposed for the first step (50%). One image is covered up, and the remaining four given a further 25% exposure. The second image (75%) is then covered as well, and the remaining three given a further 25% exposure. The third image (100%) is then covered as well, and the remaining two given a further 25% exposure. The fourth image (125%) is now covered, and the last image given a final 25% exposure. This provides the fifth step (150%). During development, it becomes apparent that different exposure times produce a varying degree of stencil discoloration. The difference between steps is especially visible if the first two steps (50% and 75%) are underexposed. There should be no colour difference between the remaining steps (100%, 125% and 150%). We can therefore assume that step three (100%) is the minimum exposure time. At step three, the stencil should no longer be smudged on the squeegee side. This indicates a correct exposure. Should there be a colour difference between the fourth and fifth steps (not hardened through), make another step exposure based on a longer exposure time. On the other hand, when there is no colour difference between the first and second steps (already hardened through), make another step exposure based on a shorter exposure time. With diazo coatings, the colour difference between individual steps is highly recognisable. The effect is more subtle with pure photopolymer coatings, although it is possible to judge exposure based on the presence of smudging: no smudging = hardened through.
Stencils
6.23
ESMA test film
The ESMA test film is designed for checking the optimum exposure time for stencil-making. Discoloration through a step exposure (no half-tone factors) is used to find the best compromise between hardening and optimum resolution (sharp details). The test film incorporates the following features: five identical images for step exposures positive and negative details radial lines from 0.5mm to the limiting resolution of the silver film circular lines, and straight lines at varying angles various line widths (0.025 1.00 mm) text at various sizes raster ruling 24 L/cm / 45 / tone values 0% 100%
6.24
Stencils
6.12 Rinsing
For rinsing an exposed stencil, we recommend using a nozzle where the water pressure can be regulated. A water suction unit withdraws excess water from the stencil. This prevents scum formation (clouding) and considerably shortens the drying time.
Rinsing trough with water suction equipment Small screens can be drawn over a stationary water suction nozzle.
6.13 Influence of coating thickness on print sharpness
Direction of squeegee stroke A) stencil too thin B) correct stencil C) stencil too thick sawtooth effect sharp print unclear print
Stencils
6.25
Stencils with direct or indirect film system Stencils using these film systems print the thinnest ink layer (35 m stencil profile on the print side of the mesh) without a saw-tooth effect. The film coating bridges the screen mesh evenly. The problems shown under A, B and C are therefore less important (assuming the correct choice of mesh and film thickness).
6.14 Influence of stencil thickness on ink volume

Printing open areas When printing open areas, and line widths exceeding approx. 1.5 mm, the squeegee can press quite hard onto the substrate. A thick stencil will then give an elevated ink volume at the edges of the area to be printed. A
A) correct stencil B) stencil too thick
uniform ink volume higher ink volume at the edges
6.26
Stencils
Half-tones and fine lines Stencil thickness heavily influences ink volume in half-tone printing. The half-tone dots support the fabric over the entire area to be printed. The greater the stencil thickness, the higher the ink volume. A stencil that is too thick causes: loss of print in the light areas, and smudging of the dense halftone areas (change of tone values) incorrect colour reproduction due to the high ink volume. A
A) correct stencil B) stencil too thick
good ink volume ink volume too high
Stencils
6.27
6.15 Hardening stencils for printing water-based colours

General procedure Exposure and development as with graphic stencils Retouching with the same emulsion, or a special lacquer Dry and re-expose Brush hardener onto both sides, allow it to react for 1520 minutes Blow or suck the mesh free Hardening procedure Textile and ceramic printing generally use water-based inks. Screens are made using photo lacquer, i.e. emulsions that can be processed in the normal way and given a final chemical treatment to make them resistant to water and chemicals. Hardener may be applied using a wide brush (not a polyamide brush), a felt squeegee, or a sponge. Hardener is evenly applied to both sides of the horizontal stencil. Attention: as little excess as possible! It is important for the hardener to penetrate the coating before the stencil is finally fixed. It should therefore rest for approx. 1520 minutes at room temperature. Thereafter, it can be finally hardened by heating at 50 C for 1 hour, or leaving at room temperature for 24 hours. After final hardening, the stencil is practically insoluble and cannot be removed from the mesh by chemicals generally used in screen printing. Take care to follow the lacquer manufacturers instructions. Attention: Most hardeners are acidic, which makes them detrimental to nylon fabric. Polyamides are sensitive even to weak acids. This kind of stencil hardening process is generally used for printing water-based inks used in graphic and ceramic screen printing.
Note:
6.28
Stencils
6.16 Reclaiming
After printing, ink is washed off the screen with the recommended cleaning fluid. Reclaiming is best done immediately after printing, before the cleaning fluid has a chance to dry with any ink particles left on the screen. Reclaiming process: Wash the screen until the screen filler is removed. Apply reclaiming agent to both sides of the screen, until the emulsion dissolves. Wash clean with a high-pressure water jet (50100 bar, 3 5 cm distance) Remove any remaining ink deposits with special solvents. Again, we recommend following the film and emulsion manufacturers instructions.
Stencils
6.29
7.
Register
7.1 Summary of key recommendations

Fabric High-modulus POLYESTER Dimensionally stable Unaffected by heat and humidity Optimum handling and treatment using modern equipment Stencil frames (see also the chapter on frames) Do not use wooden frames Use steel or aluminium frames Use a profile of adequate strength Consider side-reinforced profiles Check frame flatness Select an ideal relationship between the printing area and the size of the frame Stretching machine (mechanical) Use a stretching machine with movable clamps Clamps must hold the fabric without letting it slip Clamps must be free of old glue Ease the strain on the fabric by pulling it out at the corner clamps If possible, pre-stress the frame using suitable equipment Continually check the tension using a measuring device (see TETKOMAT, NEWTONTESTER) Observe the fabric manufacturers recommended tension Stretching machine (pneumatic) Use a stretching machine with movable clamps Clamps must hold the fabric without letting it slip Clamps must be free of old glue Continually check the tension using a measuring device (see TETKOMAT, NEWTONTESTER) Observe the fabric manufacturers recommended tension
Register
7.1
Gluing Use a two-component adhesive to prevent subsequent fabric slippage caused by temperature and solvents Observe the manufacturers recommended ratio of adhesive to hardener Observe correct drying times Observe the glues pot life Printing A perfectly flat printing table is crucial Minimum lift-off Minimum squeegee pressure Optimal lift-off conditions (consistent snap-off angle over the entire printing area) Squeegee speed Print stencil laterally (shorter squeegee travel) In multi-colour printing, always use the same length of squeegee Ink viscosity Conditioning of the working area and printing stock 55 65% RH (Relative Humidity) is considered ideal Room temperature 18 21C High drying tunnel temperatures can affect the dimensions of the print stock. It is common practice to send unprinted stock through the tunnel before the first printing pass.
7.2 Problems of accurate register

We can define accurate register as: Exact congruence between an original (e.g. a diapositive) and the impression on the printing stock; in multi-colour printing, exact congruence between the printed impressions of the various colours (colour register); further, exact agreement of the impressions at the beginning and at the end of a printing run, or between any individual, intermediate impressions. Accurate register further includes constant location of the printed impression on the successive, individual printed units, i.e. constant distance and angle between the printed impression and the margin edges or locating holes in the printing stock.
7.2
Register
Absolute accuracy is unattainable in practice, and we must consequently define what we mean by accuracy in screen printing. This depends firstly on the purpose and intention of the individual screen print, and secondly on the results attainable in screen printing generally. Textile screen printers, poster printers and circuit printers will each have their own ideas on the subject. Despite this individuality of aims and means, we can and must consider all the possibilities of faulty register and for each cause determine the possible order of magnitude. This indicates which points should receive attention if register is to be improved, and in what cases it would be pointless to seek higher accuracy, since the attainable improvement would be insignificant.
7.3 The diapositive

The diapositive consists of a polyester base and a photographic emulsion. As temperature and humidity rise, the diapositive spreads, principally by swelling of the emulsion. The polyester base itself can be considered unconditionally stable for screen printing purposes. Cellulose-based layout or mounting foils are not recommended. The polyester film most commonly used for diapositives is 0.1 mm thick. A temperature increase of, say, 5C causes it to shrink by about 0.135 mm per metre. However, it expands by about 0.21 mm per linear metre in response to a 10% increase in relative atmospheric humidity (RH). A similar drop in temperature and humidity causes the polyester film to respond in the opposite sense. Any hysteresis effect can be disregarded. (Temperature and RH are considered separately; it should be remembered RH falls with rising temperature and constant absolute humidity.) The 0.18 mm polyester diapositive base frequently used in circuit printing responds to temperature changes in a similar way to the thinner film. However, the RH change mentioned above causes the film to change by only 0.16 mm. The comparatively insignificant dimensional changes in diapositive material are of little importance in screen printing, considering the far greater dimensional changes in the printing stock, especially paper and cardboard (see the section on printing substrates, below).
Register
7.3
7.4 The stencil

Steel and light alloy frames Stencil frames are of considerable importance in securing accurate register. a) The linear coefficient of thermal expansion Given our standard temperature increase of 5C, which we have adopted for practical reasons, a steel frame expands by about 0.060.07 mm per linear metre. Aluminium frames expand by about double this amount. b) Frame distortion by fabric pull Screen printing gauze stretched to about 20 Newton/cm exerts a pull of around 2 kg on every centimetre of the frame (i.e. every centimetre of the fabric edge). This works out at around 200 kg per metre. For instance, consider the straight longitudinal section of a DIN A0 steel frame, with a mid-side sag of about 3 mm due to the tension in the stretched gauze. The polyester gauze, initially strained to about 2% elongation, will lose 1/4 of its stretch. The sag increases more than linearly with increasing size, even with the usual reinforced section (cf. recommended frame sizes and profiles).
Concave frame
A permanently sagging frame has less influence on register than a fluctuating sag. The fluctuations depend on the stability or rigidity of the frame, the stability of the fabric, and the distance between the screen and the printing stock. Fluctuations can be minimised in practice by applying countermeasures to the frames:
7.4
Register
Mechanical pre-stressing device
Pre-stressed frame with SEFAR clamps Before gluing the fabric, the frame is given sufficient concave curvature either by a strap, or the force of the stretching clamps as they prop themselves against the outside edge of the printing frame. Fabric pull and frame tension thus balance each other. It is possible to give the long sides a convex bend of approx. 510 mm per metre during frame fabrication, then welding them at this angle which is slightly in excess of 90.
Convex frame
Register
7.5
Frame warping under various mechanical stresses The fabric exerts a powerful pulling force. Depending on the means of securing the frame in the printing machine, the danger of frames becoming warped in use should not be underestimated. Rough handling of printing frames is another common cause of warping. Warped or twisted frames always give difficulties with printing, and in obtaining correct register. The distance between the stencil and the print substrate becomes non-uniform, which interferes with squeegee pressure and uniform ink release. This defect cannot be corrected merely by selecting a frame with a stable cross section. Levelling frames during manufacture or repair requires a very expensive levelling plate or slab, which should be part of every good frame manufacturers equipment. Steel versus aluminium Steel of the type used for screen printing frames has a specific gravity of about 7.8, light alloys about 2.7, or only about 1/3 the weight. On the other hand, sections and sides of aluminium frames have to be somewhat thicker than steel frames. The high weight of large steel frames is a disadvantage, both for labour and equipment. There can be especial difficulties when a hinge of a hand printer is too weak to hold the frame, on one side only. To achieve satisfactory bonding of adhesive to the frame, aluminium requires heavier roughening than steel. Virtually all screen printing frames are now blasted with sand or steel. Steel frames are protected by galvanising or two-component lacquer. New aluminium frames must be cleaned with solvent (e.g. alcohol-based cleaner) before glue is applied for the first time. Recommendations for frame size and profile In machine printing, squeegee motion is usually in the direction of the frame width, in other words, contrary to the usual practice in hand printing. The size of the ink rests, along the sides and in particular at the top and bottom, has to be determined by experiment for every printing machine. Ink reservoirs that are too small give rise to a range of problems, including uncertain register and smeared print. The sizes a machine can use have to be determined through individual trials.
7.6
Register
Insufficiently strong frame profiles inevitably lead to problems such as: loss of tension at the centre of the printing area poor register reduced stencil life, etc. The following table shows the amount of frame flexing (mm) for a given profile and frame length (cm) under a given tension (N/cm). Example: A frame 100 cm long fabricated from 40 x 30 x 2.5 mm profile under a load of 18 N/cm will flex by 0.94 mm.
Profile 40 x 30 x 2.5 40 x 40 x 2.8/1.7 50 x 40 x 3.5/1.8 60 x 40 x 3.0/2.0 80 x 40 x 4.0 100 x 40 x 4.0
Edge length 100 cm 18 N 28 N 0.94 0.76 0.41 0.27 1.46 1.18 0.64 0.42
Edge length 200 cm 18 N 28 N
Edge length 300 cm 18 N 28 N
6.53 4.28 1.49 0.84
10.17 6.66 2.32 1.31 7.54 4.27 11.74 6.64
Flexures in mm
Register
7.7
Frame size and profile sections:
D C1
B1
B1
B / B1
Format Printable area DIN in mm A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 210 x 300 300 x 420 420 x 590 590 x 840 840 x 1180 1200 x 1600 1400 x 1800 1600 x 2100
Ink rests side/top in mm 150/150 150/150 150/150 160/160 180/180 200/200 220/220 250/250
Aluminium Aluminium sections Steel sections and with various sections and Frame inside wall wall wall dimensions thicknesses thicknesses thicknesses in mm in mm in mm in mm 510 x 600 600 x 720 720 x 890 910 x 1160 1290 x 1540 1600 x 2000 1840 x 2240 2100 x 2600 40/50 3.0 40/60 3.0 40/50 3.0/2.0 40/50 4.5/2.0 60/40 6.0/3.0 80/40 6.0/3.0 100/40 6.4/3.0 40/50 2.0 40/40 2.5-3.0 40/40 2.5/2.0 40/40 1.5
C / C1
7.8
Register
Screen printing fabric Non-contact printing with lift-off necessarily distorts the stencil carrier, even before consideration of the fabric shift caused by the squeegee action. The change or distortion of the impression depends primarily on the distance between the stencil and the printing substrate (snap-off). Mesh distortion as a function of the lift-off distance: Internal screen dimension: 1000 mm
125 750 125
; ;;
A
Mesh distortion V, front view: A = 1 mm V = 0.008 mm A = 2 mm V = 0.032 mm A = 3 mm V = 0.072 mm

500
;;
Mesh distortion V, side view: A = 1 mm V = 0.002 mm A = 2 mm V = 0.008 mm A = 3 mm V = 0.018 mm
The friction of the squeegee on the stencil leads to a shifting or distortion of the imprint in the direction of the squeegee motion. Register inaccuracies are influenced by: ink viscosity squeegee pressure squeegee shape and position squeegee hardness printing speed surface condition of the printing substrate screen stability
;;
Register
; ;
7.9
This requires investigation of the qualities of the stencil carrier (fabric) in regard to elongation resistance. a) Polyamide Even with maximum stabilisation, nylon fabrics (polyamide), cannot achieve the stretch resistance of polyester fabrics. They are primarily used for printing curved surfaces, where high stretchability is desirable. b) Polyester / steel For precision-register prints, especially in larger sizes, the choice is between polyester and steel (V2A) screen fabrics. Steel has even higher stretch resistance than polyester. Nevertheless, polyester stencils are often preferred because, correctly tensioned, they satisfy register requirements and are less sensitive to blows and shock. It is impossible to specify reliable coefficients for register differences and the differences between polyester and steel mesh, since other factors previously mentioned always interfere. Numerous comparative tests have been made, particularly by circuit printers. Steels higher susceptibility to fatigue is well known in practice, but cannot be quantified. c) Fabric strength The strength and stretch resistance of a monofilament thread increase in proportion to the square of the diameter, while the strength of the fabric only increases in linear proportion to the mesh count. A fabric woven from relatively thick threads is thus more stretch resistant and prints with better register. The choice of mesh count, and thread diameter depend on the fineness of the print, the desired ink volume, and fabric permeability. d) High-modulus polyester fabrics High-modulus polyester fabrics are characterised by increased strength and dimensional stability. They find use in virtually all screen printing applications. e) OSC fabrics for printing UV inks Calendered (i.e. heat-flattened) fabrics offer less resistance to squeegee motion, hardly move, and promote good register. Calendering inevitably reduces the mesh opening, which can be desirable for very low-viscosity lacquers and UV inks.
7.10
Register
f) Static electricity Electrostatic charging of polyamide and polyester fabrics is prevented by pre-treating the gauze during manufacture on the one hand, as well as by appropriate conditioning of the working area (RH > 55%). Ionisers, and anti-static additives in printing ink, can limit the build-up of electrostatic charge during printing. Optimal fabric tension 1) Degree of stretch: See also the chapter on fabric stretching. The tensioning force is limited by the nature and capacity of the stretching equipment, but even more so by the strength of the fabric and the rigidity of the printing frame. Fabrics woven from high-viscose polyester can be stretched to extraordinary levels. Very high fabric tension allows a small distance between the screen and the printing stock, and precise adjustment of the squeegee pressure. The degree of tension can be measured in different ways: a) pressure gauge on pneumatic stretching equipment b) measuring elongation of a predetermined length of fabric before and after stretching (24% elongation for polyester fabrics, 46% for polyamide) c) using instruments that measure the sag of the fabric under applied weight, and display the result scaled in mm or N/cm (NEWTONTESTER, TETKOMAT) Good quality fabrics have the same stretch resistance in warp and weft, and do not require different degrees of stretching. Differing tensions can be useful in very narrow or curved frames, as used for printing skis, as well as in rotary printing. 2) Choice of stretching machine: Pneumatic stretching equipment is recommended for best register precision, and for stretching frames of generally similar size. Mechanical stretching machines are suited to stretching frames of many differing sizes.
Register
7.11
3) Pneumatic tensioning: The fabric must be clamped parallel to the warp and weft threads. Take care that the sum total of the clamp lengths does not exceed the length of the printing frame. The clamps should line up flush beside each other, and pull uniformly and simultaneously at the fabric. Unsynchronised clamp movements produce shear forces that can tear the fabric. The stretching equipment must be extremely well treated and maintained.
Stretching with pneumatic clamps 4) Stretching with mechanical machines: The fabric must be clamped parallel to the warp and weft threads. Fabric is pulled out a little from the corner clamps, to avoid local over-stretching (see table). The clamps must hold the fabric gently enough not to cause damage, but tight enough to avoid slippage. The warp and weft must be stretched equally.
7.12
Register
Y1
X1 X2
X1 X2
Y2
a a
X2 X1 X1
X2
a = pocket SEFAR PET 1000 Frame length Y1 or Y2 1m 2m 3m 4m Slack at positions X1 and X2 for maximum tensioning force of: 10 N/cm 5 mm 10 mm 15 mm 20 mm 20 N/cm 10 mm 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 30 N/cm 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 30 mm
Gluing fabric to the printing frame 1) Frame pre-treatment: The adhesion surface of new frames must be roughened and degreased. Old glue should be removed from used frames where possible. Sharp edges and corners must be smoothed down. 2) Solvent-proof adhesives (two-component glue): Modern glues are required to be: easily spread, approx. 1 hour pot life fast drying time (depends on fabric number) mechanical tensile strength 80 90 kg per 10 cm of selvedge solvent-proof within less than 24 hours hot water proof (max. 70C)
Register
7.13
7.5 The printing substrate

Importance of air and material conditioning to the dimensional stability of the material to be printed. Composition Composite substrates that have been woven, coated or laminated from several materials should undergo an ink test to determine dimensional changes brought about by the ink and solvents (curling/buckling). Conditioning Optimum climatic conditions exist for achieving high-quality results on paper and cardboard. It is extremely important to allow the substrate to become acclimatised to the environment in the print room. If possible, atmospheric conditions should be the same in the print room and in the warehouse. Paper and cardboard 1) Effect of temperature: Normal changes in room temperature have surprisingly little effect on paper and cardboard characteristics by themselves. (Printers require a certain temperature level and stability more because of ink viscosity and drying characteristics.) However, temperature affects the relative moisture content of the printing substrate, which is extremely important. 2) Effect of relative humidity: All vegetable fibres, of which paper and cardboard are made, are hygroscopic. Water absorption strongly depends on the quality of the paper. Rag papers (made from textile waste) absorb the least water, cellulose (wood pulp) is somewhere in the middle, and mechanical pulp absorbs the most moisture of all. Water absorption is increased by heavy milling, and reduced by high filler content. Papers hygroscopic behaviour further depends on its preconditioning. If the paper has been previously dried, it will absorb less water than if it has been left moist (hysteresis).
7.14
Register
The wet elongation curves for the papers mentioned above are all S-shaped, i.e. they are flattest between 40 60% relative humidity. Moreover, elongation is less along the papers manufacturing length than across its width, because the fibres tend to orient themselves in the machine direction and fibres swell many times more diametrically than longitudinally. Papers with closely compacted fibres spread more. During manufacture, a paper is exposed to stresses that may remain largely latent. As soon as the paper becomes softened by moisture, it tends to contract in the machine direction while expanding transversely. Degree of elongation As a rule of thumb, it can be assumed that under working conditions of around 50% relative humidity, a change of 10% will cause the following dimensional changes in the printing stock: transverse to the machine direction: 0.8 1 mm per linear metre longitudinally to the machine direction: 0.3 mm or less per linear metre. The average dimensional changes between 20 and 80% relative humidity (e.g. for SK* 95 g/m2 offset paper) can be estimated at: transverse: longitudinal: 1.25 mm per linear metre 0.48 mm per linear metre
for a 10% change in relative humidity. Plastics Here again, it is first necessary to establish whether the printing base consists of a single material or a composite: e.g. whether a foil has been rolled on or affixed to a backing. The foil to be printed may, in some cases, be so elastic that it will follow all the dimensional changes of the base or backing to which it is affixed. The same applies, of course, to self-adhesive foils before being attached to a base, if the adhesive is covered with a protective paper.
Register
7.15
Relatively rigid, e.g. polyester-based, foils are an exception, where fluctuating humidity can lead to bulging as the protective paper expands and contracts more than the foil itself. Dimensional changes in plastics, brought about by temperature and humidity fluctuations, vary widely. Conductivity is generally very low, and moisture absorption proceeds so slowly that the plastic can take hours or days to respond to a change in relative humidity. Changes caused by temperature fluctuations are of more importance than those due to varying humidity, which are practically insignificant. The influence of solvents on PVC, however, has to be considered. Dimensional change in mm/linear metre for a temperature variation of 5C: polyester PVC transparent acrylic Glassine foils When printing on glassine foils (transparent viscose foils, which are not counted among the synthetic plastics), considerable dimensional changes must be expected as a result of their strongly hygroscopic nature. It depends on whether these foils are unlacquered (PT foils), or lacquered with cellulose (MSAT foils) or PVDC (MXXT or K foils). Acetate Where accurate printing register is important, acetate foils (viscose treated with ethanoic acid) are preferred, provided no difficulties arise in regard to inks and printing procedures. The dimensional change in response to a 5C temperature change is 0.7 mm per metre, not considering dimensional changes due to moisture. Summary The factors discussed affecting accurate register show that the primary stencil requisites for best printing results are: frame stability correct fabric stretching the stencil making method 0.135 0.35 - 0.5 0.35
7.16
Register
Factors such as dimensional changes of polyester-based diapositives the frame material itself use of polyester or steel as the stencil carrier are less important.
Register is further influenced by: squeegee pressure squeegee hardness ink viscosity lift-off height type of facility printing machine quality Proper conditioning of the print room and printing stock are crucial when printing on paper and cardboard. Below, we again compare the various possible dimensional changes to compare their importance. This is intended to help pinpoint sources of error whose elimination would be advantageous. For dimensional changes caused by temperature and humidity, we use as standards: 5C temperature variation, or 10% change in relative atmospheric humidity We disregard the inverse relationship between temperature and relative humidity. It should further be noted that air conditioning within tolerances of 2C and 5% humidity represents an advanced standard for a modern screen printing facility, and requires highly accurate supervision. In general, the following numerical values will have to be multiplied according to the actual atmospheric fluctuations in each individual case. Data are given in terms of mm per linear metre.
Register
7.17
1) Dimensional changes induced by climatic conditions in mm: 5C temperature change Diapositive, polyester 0.1 mm thick Diapositive, polyester 0.18 mm thick Steel frame Aluminium frame Printing stock: Paper, transverse elongation Longitudinal elongation insignificant insignificant approx. 0.8 - 1 approx. 0.3 0.135 0.135 0.065 0.13 10% rel. humidity change 0.21 0.16 0 0
2) Mechanically induced dimensional changes: Fluctuations in frame warping Distance between stencil and printing stock: 3 mm lift-off DIN A1 5 mm lift-off DIN A1 impression length impression width impression length impression width 0.025 0.065 0.075 0.180 up to approx. 2 mm
Distortion by squeegee friction: Well-stretched steel stencil Well-stretched polyester stencil Indirect stencil: Film shrinkage through washing and drying up to approx. 0.3 approx. 0.02 and over approx. 0.03 and over
7.18
Register
8.
Raster printing
The original artwork to be half-tone printed is frequently a photographic image. Images of this kind cannot generally be raster printed in their original form: photographs are always continuoustone images, where the gradient from light to dark has no discernible point structure. The artwork must first be converted into a printable form. This is done by translating the continuous-tone image into half-tone dots, using an AM or FM raster.
8.1 AM raster (amplitude modulated rastering)

An area of continuous tone is resolved into a grid, with rows of larger and smaller dots. Viewed under a microscope, it becomes clear how the dot size is related to colour intensity, while the distance between the dots is fixed. In other words, we have a fixed dot spacing with variable dot area. If we draw a plot of dot area on the vertical axis against dot spacing on the horizontal axis, the result is a curve whose amplitude changes according to the dot coverage, while the dot spacing remains fixed. The general shape of the curve is not unlike an amplitude modulated waveform, with fixed frequency and changing intensity or amplitude.
Analogue raster with variable area (amplitude)
Raster printing
8.1
Although the printing process is inherently digital (1/0, ink/no ink), the end result is an apparently analogue (smooth tone) representation of the original image. Applied to colour printing, the very nature of the technique encourages moir patterns. Countermeasures, such as angling the individual colour separations, are required to minimise the moirs inevitably produced by multicolour printing.
8.2 FM raster (frequency-modulated rastering)

The ability to produce laser-generated points smaller than the smallest practicable analogue raster dot opens the possibilities of emulating analogue rasters, or pursuing a new, digital half-tone model. The first laser and film recorders were designed merely to reproduce the well-established analogue raster angles and pitches. However, the techniques growing popularity has given rise to new rendering models that go under the general name of frequencymodulated rasters. The recording technology allows representing a continuous-tone image by varying the distribution of uniformly sized, extremely small dots. Varying coverage is achieved by varying the number of recorded dots per unit area. 20 % tone value Conventional (AM) 80 % tone value
Agfa CristalRaster Heidelberg Prepress Diamond Raster UGRA/FOGRA Velvet Raster
Scitex Fulltone
Crosfield
8.2
Raster printing
Examining the dots, it is clear how they are much finer distributed than with an AM raster, as well as being all the same size. If we draw a plot of dot size as amplitude on the vertical axis against dot spacing on the horizontal axis, we obtain curves of constant amplitude, but variable distance between adjacent peaks. The curves general character corresponds to a frequency-modulated waveform which is why we speak of a frequency-modulated raster.
Coverage and frequency modulation Various methods have been devised for positioning the dots in an optimal manner. On a practical level, it is clear that an FM raster results in considerably finer dots on the film, and hence uniform colour coverage. It should also be apparent that this type of half-tone translation virtually eliminates moir effects. In their place come other disturbances such as clustering or heaping. It is important for the raster printer that the FM dots are of a minimum printable and reproducible size. We recommend a dot diameter corresponding to at least 2 threads plus 1 mesh opening of the raster printing fabric.
Raster printing
8.3
8.3 Types of raster rulings

For a half-tone image to be effective at a given size and viewing distance, one must determine a number of factors, including the type and fineness of the raster ruling. Monochrome half-tone images can be achieved using so-called effect rasters. These are: Corn raster Worm raster Line ruling Circular ruling
Corn raster example The uneven structure of corn and worm rasters is less prone to moir effects than line, point or bead-string rulings. For textile printing, there is a long-established type of graining known as the DIRACOP method. Even now, diapositives are often prepared by hand , using transparent foils with a grained surface to achieve the half-tone structure.
8.4
Raster printing
Four-colour printing uses the following dot shapes: round dots ellipsoidal dots (bead ruling) square dots (chequerboard ruling)
1 = Dot raster, dots amalgamate at approx. 70 % 2 = Bead ruling, dots amalgamate at a) approx. 40 % b) approx. 60 %
3 = Chequerboard ruling, dots amalgamate at 50% Dot amalgamation Formation of discontinuities makes the way in which the raster dots amalgamate especially important in raster printing. Here, we examine each dot shape in turn at 46% and 52% coverage respectively.
Raster printing
8.5
Round dots at 46% and52% coverage, and at amalgamation Round dots only amalgamate at 6570%. When this happens, though, it affects four neighbouring dots simultaneously, and this results in a steep tone value transition.
Ellipsoidal dots at 46% and52% coverage With a beaded raster, the dots amalgamate at two distinct tone values. This results in a virtually unnoticeable transition. Dot amalgamation is direction-dependent: two neighbouring dots first chain together, then the two parallel chains combine.
Square dots at 46% and 52% coverage Square dots amalgamate with four neighbouring dots simultaneously, resulting in a steep tone value transition. In raster printing, the effect is further emphasised by the high ink deposit.
8.6
Raster printing
8.4 Raster ruling

The fineness of the raster ruling (L/cm) is always linked with the fineness of the mesh and the type of stencil. Fabric and half-tone fineness The finest details should properly adhere to the gauze. Areas with the highest ink coverage, i.e. where the smallest dots of emulsion must cling to the fabric, are particularly critical. The smallest points should not be allowed to rest on just one thread, or even fall through the mesh opening.
Critical dot sizes Strictly speaking, the diameter of the smallest half-tone dot on the diapositive should be microscopically measured, in order to select a mesh of the correct fineness.
coverage L/cm 20 22 25 28 30 32 34 40 48 54 60 5% 126 114 101 90 84 79 74 63 52 46 42 10% 15% 20% 30% 178 162 142 127 119 111 105 89 74 66 59 218 198 175 156 145 136 128 109 90 81 72 252 229 202 180 168 157 148 126 105 93 84 309 280 247 220 206 193 182 154 128 114 103 70% 80% 85% 90% 95% 309 280 247 220 206 193 182 154 128 114 103 252 229 202 180 168 157 148 126 105 93 84 218 198 175 156 145 136 128 109 90 81 72 178 162 142 127 119 111 105 89 74 66 59 126 114 101 90 84 79 74 63 52 46 42
Table of dot sizes From the examples above, it is clear that the diameter of the smallest dot must correspond to two threads plus one mesh opening, if the raster dot is to be adequately supported by the mesh.
Raster printing
8.7
Ink flow in shadow areas Raster printing is a print-through process and not as in offset a transfer process. The raster printing form (mesh + stencil) produces a thicker ink deposit than a litho plate. This is the characteristic and advantage of raster printing, namely, the intense and effective depth of colour. In half-tone printing, however, the ink deposit should be relatively thin, because the finer the raster ruling and the higher the degree of coverage, the more difficult it is to avoid ink running in the high-coverage, dark print areas (smudging). The thinner and finer the fabric, the less ink is deposited. These fabrics are therefore better suited for fine half-tone printing. When printing areas with low percentage coverage, the ink should flow freely through the smallest mesh openings without any obstruction from fabric threads or stencil thickness. In this respect, a relatively light fabric is more advantageous than one with thick threads.
5 % coverage Fineness and viewing distance
10 % coverage
95 % coverage 90 % coverage
The half-tone simulates continuous tone in as much as the eye cannot distinguish the individual dots anymore. Under normal conditions, the human eye discerns two adjacent points or lines as separate when their images do not impinge on two neighbouring retinal cells (rods or cones). There has to be at least one intervening retinal cell.
8.8
Raster printing
The dots therefore become indistinguishable when their images fall on the same or two adjacent retinal cells. The minimum angular resolution of the human eye is approx. 0.02.
16 L/cm 30 L/cm 80 L/cm 0,1 mm 0,3 mm 0,6 mm
30 cm 1m 2m
Raster rulings discernable to the eye
Guidelines: Format < DIN A4 DIN A4 DIN A3 DIN A2 DIN A1 DIN A0 > DIN A0 Viewing distance < 0.5 m approx. 0.5 m 0.5-1 m 1-3 m 2-5 m 3-10 m 3-20m Half-tone dots per cm 36-48 24-36 18-24 15-20 12-18 12-15 -12
The following factors should be considered when determining whether a given print job is feasible:
Raster printing
8.9
Adapt the raster ruling to the surface structure of the printing material. Glaring or highly intensive colours require a relatively coarser raster ruling than pastel colours. The coarser the half-tone ruling, the higher the contrast of the print. For finer or softer images, choose a finer raster ruling. From the commercial viewpoint, a raster printer is advised to limit himself to about three different raster rulings in order to gather the necessary initial experience. For artistic raster printing, one can choose finer raster rulings than for purely commercial raster prints, such as for advertising.
8.5 Tone values of half-tone dots

Tone value expresses the relative area coverage of the half-tone dots compared to maximum (100%) coverage. In offset printing, the percentage coverage of the dots can range from 95% to 5%, whereas the raster printer must be satisfied with a tone value range from approximately 85% to 10%. This applies to raster rulings of approx. 30 dots/cm and finer. For a perfectly printed dot of, say, 15% lightness, the ink must be relatively fluid in order to keep the dots open in the mesh. This leads, however, to difficulty in obtaining the tonal range, because the dots for 85% coverage tend to smudge if the ink is too thin. On the other hand, if the ink is made more viscous, the smallest dots tend to dry too quickly and block the mesh. Tone value: Therefore, ink viscosity is a compromise in order to prevent smudging in dark areas, while permitting fine dots in the light areas of the image. Tone value of the colour separation: For half-tone raster printing, the repro photographer should calculate the maximum coverage for all four colours together, to reach an optimum density of 300%. For reproductions with predominantly dark areas, the colour black should not attain more than 75% coverage. Yellow, however, can show higher coverage in order to produce the correct tone values for green and red.
8.10
Raster printing
The finer the raster ruling, the greater the difficulties. This illustrates present-day limits to commercial half-tone raster printing. Examples for perfect reproduction of half-tone values in raster printing: up to 24 dots/cm up to 36 dots/cm up to 48 dots/cm 5-90 % 10-85 % 15-80 %
These examples are based on the following general rules: The finest printable dot should have a diameter of 80100 m (This corresponds to the sum of 2 thread diameters + 1 mesh opening in a PET 150-31 fabric).
8.6 Raster printing process line

The process line is the characteristic curve describing the relationship between tone values on the diapositive and those of the corresponding printed image. The raster printing process line serves as a correction guideline, which helps the repro specialist avoid the problems that would otherwise arise in half-tone printing. The raster printer therefore needs no measuring instrument. A halftone step wedge with at least 10 tone values should be printed alongside the artwork. The repro specialist uses a transmission densitometer to measure the half-tone values on the positive film, and a reflection densitometer on the print. The results can be compared on a chart.
Raster printing
8.11
Densitometer Example of a printing process line Film tone value % 99 91 83 76 69 63 53 47 40 32 28 22 17 11 6 1 Print tone value % 100 98 94 89 84 76 59 53 44 35 28 22 15 7 2 0 Dot gain / loss +1 +7 +11 +13 +15 +13 +8 +6 +4 +3 0 0 -2 -4 -4 -1 100 90 80 75 70 65 60 50 40 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
8.12
Raster printing
The variances in tone values, plotted as a curve, result in the socalled process line:
% 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4
10
15
20
30
35
40
50
60
65 70
75
80
90 100 %
Schematic representation of the printing colour scale Every process line must also specify the following operational parameters: raster fabric type of stencil stencil thickness surface roughness ink machine squeegee printing stock lines/cm, type type, threads/cm, tension N/cm emulsion, capillary film, indirect film specified in m Rz value in m type, manufacturer, composition, viscosity type, manufacturer hardness, thickness, clearance, angle, pressure precise description, e.g. type of paper, etc.
The colour scale can be significantly influenced by a change in any single item in the list above.
Raster printing
8.13
8.7 Printing control strip

The FOGRA DKL-S1 control strip has been specially developed for half-tone raster printing, and may be used for visual and densitometric monitoring of the following: Stencil production Changes in tone values Colour caste Colour balance Smearing effect Half-tone field This area features half-tone dots with coverage levels from 5% to 95%. The raster count is 24 dots/cm. This facilitates visual and (preferably) densitometric checks on tone value transfer during printing. Full tone field A further check, which is of utmost importance in raster printing, is to measure the intensity of the printed ink. A reflection densitometer is used to measure the ink intensity of the four colours in the full tone fields. To achieve a good grey balance, all three process colours must lie within a close tolerance range.
Raster and full tone
Example full tone measurement: Colour CYAN YELLOW YELLOW 47B MAGENTA BLACK Required density 1.45 1.00 1.40 1.40 1.85 Tolerance 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.15
Measuring instrument: Densitometer Printing stock: Artistic printing papers
8.14
Raster printing
Overlaid printing fields M/Y, C/M, C/Y, and C/M/Y These areas allow colour acceptance to be assessed both visually and by measurement. It is important to use the same print-colour sequence for proof prints as well as for the production run. M/Y C/M C/Y C/M/Y
Overlaid print Ring field This allows monitoring of transfer errors during printing, which can be caused by smearing effects.
Ring field Balance field The combined three-colour print in the balance area should be a neutral grey, with a tone value approximately equal to the 40% halftone field. This is a very sensitive indicator of shifting colour balance during a print run.
Balance field
Raster printing
8.15
8.8 Types of stencils

Generally speaking, one can use any kind of stencil for half-tone printing. However, one should take into consideration a few points that are typical for this kind of printing. The difficulty with printing single or multi-coloured half-tones is that both light and dark areas must be neatly printed. There should also be no shifts in tone values. To maintain a perfect tonal range, the stencil emulsion should be as thin as possible. The preferred stencils for half-tone printing are therefore indirect stencils, or direct stencils with film and water (capillary film), and minimal film thickness. Direct stencils with photo emulsion are also used for long press runs. However, it is essential that they have a thin coating (510% of fabric thickness) and low Rz value (less than the coating above the fabric in m). Important: Direct stencils should use yellow dyed fabrics to avoid light scatter during exposure. Only impeccable diapositives are suited for half-tone work. For correct reproduction of the complete range of tone values, it is essential that all the dots are completely opaque right up to their edges. (See chapter 5.4)
8.9 Avoidance of moir effects

In repro techniques, suitable angling controls the moir effect produced between the raster lines of the individual component colours. Half-tone angling is often given in two different ways: within 90 for rulings with two axes of symmetry (e.g. chequerboard and dot rulings) within 180 for rulings with one axis of symmetry (e.g. bead ruling)
8.16
Raster printing
Example:
0 Yellow 15 Magenta 45 Black 75 Cyan 75 Cyan 0 Yellow 15 Magenta
135 Black
Within 90
Within 180
Strong colours like CYAN, MAGENTA and BLACK must always be at an angle of 30 from each other. This minimises visible moir patterns due to the interplay of the raster rulings. YELLOW, being a weaker colour, can be set at a 15 angle from a darker colour. In raster printing, yellow should be on the vertical axis of the image, since a moir caused by the stencil mesh is barely perceptible. Angling of 4-colour half-tone rulings Images with a high black content (deep tones) Within 90 YELLOW MAGENTA CYAN BLACK 0 15 75 45 Within 180 0 15 75 135
Images where YELLOW + MAGENTA predominate, e.g. skin tones, orange tones Within 90 YELLOW MAGENTA CYAN BLACK 0 45 75 15 Within 180 0 135 75 15
Raster printing
8.17
Images where YELLOW + CYAN predominate, e.g. green and turquoise tones Within 90 YELLOW MAGENTA CYAN BLACK 0 15 45 75 Within 180 0 75 135 15
General suggestions: The strongest, most dominant colours should be at 45 in the 90 disposition or at 135 in the 180 disposition (45 left). For five, six or more colours, the angling should be chosen in such a way that the light colours coincide with their complementary colours, e.g. dark red and light blue, dark blue and light red. An additional grey plate should be angled in such a manner that it does not coincide with colours strongly related to grey.
Angling of 3-colour half-tone rulings Within 90 Dark colour Light colour 45 15 75 Within 180 a) 45 105 165 b) 135 75 15
Angling of 2-colour half-tone rulings Within 90 Dark colour Light colour 45 75 Within 180 a) 45 105 b) 135 75
Angling of single colour half-tone rulings Within 90 45 Within 180 a) 45
8.18
Raster printing
Moir between the film and the fabric In raster printing, an additional moir effect can result from unsuitable angling of the raster lines of a particular component colour in relation to the raster fabric. This effect is most plainly visible in monochrome prints, whereas multi-colour printing tends to conceal it. The moir effect is most apparent in the 4060% range. The moir can be wholly or partially eliminated in the following ways: 1. By the type of stencil: The moir effect is less apparent with an indirect stencil, since the influence of the fabric is less pronounced than in the case of direct stencils. 2. By the fineness of the fabric: The finer the fabric in relation to the raster ruling, the less visible is the moir effect. Recommended ratio between mesh count and the fineness of the raster ruling: Mesh count/cm 2.50 3.75 5.00 Examples: Fabric PET 140-31 yellow: Ratio 2.50 : 1 3.75 : 1 5.00 : 1 Raster L/cm 56 dots/cm 37 dots/cm 28 dots/cm : : : : Raster L/cm 1.00 1.00 1.00
i.e. the fabric number is divided by the ratio. If these recommendations are followed, there will be hardly any visible moir effect at half-tone angles of 15, 45 and 75. In the rare event of a moir still appearing, it is advisable to increase or decrease the number of half-tone dots/cm by one or two: either or 3. By the fabric angling: a) An ideal, universal angle for the fabric on the raster printing frame lies between 4 and 9, provided the raster lines of the component colours, as in the previous examples, are align with the vertical or horizontal axis. 0.5-2 half-tone dots more 0.5-2 half-tone dots less.
Raster printing
8.19
Angling the fabric, e.g. to 7.5, has the additional advantage that the cause of striped print appearance can be traced with certainty to the fabric, or a poorly ground squeegee blade. Stretching at a certain angle can be ordered from your stretching service. A well-equipped stretching service can provide an evenly straight stretched frame, which is essential for avoiding moir. b) It is impossible to feed an automatic printing machine at other than right angles. Therefore, it is impractical to angle the image on the stencil, and feed the printing stock at a corresponding diagonal. c) There remains the angling of the whole set of diapositives (e.g. +7.5) with respect to the image axis. 4. By the type of half-tone raster a) According to current theory, grained raster, line raster and circular are only suitable for monochrome printing. There is little danger of moir with these types of half-tones. For a line raster, the fabric is angled. b) Half-tones with elliptical dots (bead ruling) can, under certain circumstances, lessen moir development. It is not for this reason that they are selected, but rather to soften abrupt colour-tone transitions.
8.10 General recommendations

A basic requirement for perfect image reproduction is the quality of the diapositive, with opaque half-tone dots right up to the edges. The colour separations and the printing inks should follow the same colour scale, e.g. EUROSCALA. Place the half-tone positive on a glass plate, illuminated from below. Place the stretched raster on the positive, parallel to the image axis. If a moir appears, turn the raster left or right until the moir effect disappears (approx. 7 is sufficient in most cases). The critical zones for the formation of moir lie in the direction of the threads and their cross-overs. Dominant or darker colours tend to cause more moir problems. For 4-colour prints, stable metal frames of the same dimensions should be used.
8.20
Raster printing
All frames are stretched with the same mesh. Use a dyed fabric for direct stencils. Stretch the fabric tightly along the directions of the threads. Stretch all 4 frames with the same tension. A perfectly ground squeegee is crucial to a high quality print. The squeegee blade should be of about 70 shore hardness. The squeegee should be set at an angle of 75. If the squeegee is set at too flat an angle, it tends to smudge. Set it too steep, and there is a greater risk of fabric distortion. The doctor blade should not be set too low. The stroke should leave a thin film of ink on the stencil. If the doctor blade is set too low, the stencil becomes overfilled with ink and the print is smudged. Half-tone images are printed with high-viscosity inks. Initial half-tone printing trials should be carried out with coarse raster rulings. The finest fabrics require relatively high colour pigmentation. UV inks tend to smudge, but do not dry in the mesh. For this reason, the half-tone diapositive should have a tone value range of 580%. In 4-colour printing using UV inks, ensure that the additional stencil thickness and the Rz value are no higher than 5 m. To keep UV ink smearing under control when overprinting colours, we recommend the following colour printing sequence: CYAN MAGENTA YELLOW BLACK For UV inks, the squeegee should have 75 shore hardness, i.e. generally somewhat harder than with conventional inks. The squeegee angle should be approx. 75.
Recommended raster ruling (L/cm) in relation to fabric number (threads/cm) The following basic parameters must be established before making use of the recommendation: a) Type of printing job b) Type of ink c) Fineness of half-tone ruling
Raster printing
8.21
Graphical work, CDs: Ink type Solvent-based inks UV inks Water-based inks Half-tone ruling up to 48 L/cm up to 60 L/cm up to 15 L/cm up to 48 L/cm Fabric threads/cm 120 - 165 140 - 180 90/2 140 - 180 Thread diameter 27, 31 and 34 m 27, 31 and 34 m 34 m 27 and 31 m
Direct printing onto ceramics: Ink type Water-based inks Floor tiles Solvent/water based inks Wall tiles Half-tone ruling up to 24 L/cm Fabric threads/cm 40 - 77 Thread diameter 80, 70, 64, 55 and 48 m
up to 36 L/cm
120 - 140
34 and (31) m
Ceramic transfers: Ink type Solvent-based inks Half-tone ruling up to 48 L/cm Fabric threads/cm 120 - 165 Thread diameter 31 and 27 m
T-Shirt printing: Ink type Pigment ink Plastisol ink Half-tone ruling up to 24 L/cm up to 36 L/cm Fabric threads/cm 61 - 77 90 90 - 140 Thread diameter 64, 55 and 48m 40 m 48, 40, 34 and (31) m
8.22
Raster printing
8.11 Improved printing stability through achromatic reproduction

Helmut Acker, Production Manager in a repro house
Helmut Acker writes about achromatic reproduction from the repro houses point of view. Regardless of the printing process used, multi-colour reproductions, where the various hues are produced by rastering, now tend to originate on scanning equipment. Specialised raster types, and rulings, dot shapes and raster angles are either built-in, or are available from dealers as plug-ins. Modern, customisable colour scanners facilitate colour separations based either on traditional chromatic techniques, or newer achromatic methods. Given the right software, achromatic films can be produced which are just as reliable and accurate as traditional three-colour separations. There are wide differences of professional opinion about the production of achromatic separations. Some authorities maintain that greyscales should be achieved using black alone, and all composite colours obtained from two process colours plus black. This offers the prospect of saving on expensive process colours, while improving or even matching the brilliance of deep colours a result much sought-after by offset printers. A technical discussion of achromatic films must distinguish between achromatic in a narrower sense, and increased UCR (under-colour removal). Practical experience shows that repro specialists must adopt a very different approach to UCR. For technical illustrations of objects like radios, televisions, cameras, binoculars and the like, UCR together with a corresponding combination of full black is very successful in reducing coverage from at least 280% to approx. 200%. This gives a more brilliant result, while avoiding colour interference effects in areas of dark red or green tones.
Raster printing
8.23
On the other hand, illustrations of predominantly full-coloured, dark subjects should be given only minimal UCR, to counter the risk of being unable to use black to compensate for strong colour removal. This is mainly a problem in gravure and offset printing.
100%
50%
0% C M Y K
40% C
50% M
60% Y
30% K
180%
Process colour buildup with under-colour reduction In our experience of making software-generated achromatic separations, we generally assemble the separation from cyan, yellow, magenta, and a skeletal black mainly for enhancing the dark tones. We also remove any trace of impure composite colour and replace it with black. This results in colour separations with much reduced colour saturation and an unusually rich black. As a result, brown tones no longer contain cyan, while green to olive contains no red, for example. The missing colour is always replaced by black. This brings great advantages during the print run. The image generally gains in brilliance, and we notice time and time again: achromatic is more colourful!
8.24
Raster printing
100%
50%
0%
0% C
10% M
20% Y
70% K
100%
Achromatic buildup Experience shows that, while technically possible, it is inadvisable to carry removal of the third process colour to extremes. We know that a grey made up of process colours is more pleasant visually than a half-tone black. We therefore recommend not completely removing the third process colour in impure colours, in order to retain a harmonious effect. This technique is known as achromatic buildup with process addition.
100%
50%
0% C M Y K
25% C
35% M
45% Y
45% K
150%
Achromatic buildup with process addition
Raster printing
8.25
It is fair to ask the reason for discussing achromatic buildup in a raster printing context. It is an established fact that achromatic films offer particular economic and qualitative advantages to offset printers working with four-colour and web offset machines. The same can be said of gravure, where offset films are used. Initial results with raster printing indicate that this process stands to gain most of all from achromatic techniques. The missing process colour in the final result accelerates drying considerably. The reduction in the amount of ink overprinting virtually eliminates velvet effects. Reduced ink usage brings its own set of advantages. Register problems are much less visible, since black is the only detail-printing colour. Given that on-raster assessment of the colour separation is not yet perfect, proof prints remain essential. This inevitably leads to higher film production costs. Extreme use of achromatic technique exacts a price in side-effects and artefacts which have to be taken into consideration. Complete removal the third process colour can make certain tones appear harsh, the absence of certain dots in the colour rosettes may even lead to moirs, and the smallest differences of register can cause white flashes on some print run specimens. All these aspects, in particular the degree of colour removal, must be given due attention by the repro specialist making the colour separations.
8.12 Heuristic rastering for textile printing

Heuristic rastering is a digital colouration and design system in which the desired colour nuances are produced by mixing textile printing inks on the fibres themselves. A precision-calculated raster doses the individual colour elements. A combination of specialised litho work, precision stencil production, and a fine-tuned printing process deposits successive individual ink doses on the fabric fibres, where they subsequently blend together. Four stencils suffice to print a design with a virtually unlimited range of colour nuances. This technique is suitable to producing attractive, multi-coloured designs at low cost, with minimal environmental impact.
8.26
Raster printing
History of half-tone textile printing There was a time when the printer, as well as the colourist, were artisans if not indeed artists. The requirements were primarily aesthetic, and technical resources were limited. Times change. It was no longer considered acceptable for the printing machine to limit the maximum number of colours on a printed fabric. Various half-tone techniques were developed, including half-tone rasters. One well-known example is the DIRACOP process, which uses a kind of corn raster. Even now, suitable colour separations are prepared by hand, using transparent foils with a grained surface to achieve the half-tone structure.
The corn raster is produced photographically using a magenta contact raster. There have been repeated attempts at introducing standardised 4colour half-tone techniques to the textile printing industry. Incentives for developing heuristic rastering The driving forces behind the development of heuristic techniques are: ability to realise attractive designs improved economic factors reduced environmental impact Heuristic half-tone printing can emulate the appearance of the following techniques: half-tone gradation overlay multi-colour half-tone print combinations of the above techniques
Raster printing
8.27
The basic principles of heuristic rastering can also be found in: offset printing ink-jet printing raster printing
Principles of various printing techniques The basic principles of the following printing techniques are summarised here, to aid understanding: traditional raster printing standardised 4-colour half-tone printing heuristic multi-colour half-tone printing Traditional raster printing In traditional textile printing, the design is separated into its individual colours. A separation film is used to make a stencil for each colour. Areas of the stencil are either permeable or impermeable to ink. These areas may also be occupied in whole or part by various half-tone rasters, with due attention to colour overlays and underlays. The choice of stencil fabric depends on the textile material to be printed, and is a factor in determining the amount of ink-paste to apply. Ink-paste is pre-mixed to the right colour and pressed through the stencil onto the appropriate places on the textile. The maximum number of colours allowed in a design is governed by the size of the printing machine. Standardised 4-colour half-tone printing This technique is similar to graphic raster printing in that the design is separated into primary colours: cyan, magenta, yellow and black. The colour parameters used in separation originate from a standard colour scale (e.g. EUROSCALA). The colour separations are used as for graphic raster printing. Recreating an original design using textile dyes is very difficult, needs much experience, and involves a large number of tests and proof prints. One must be prepared to compromise in matters of colour rendition. A restricted colour space and colour elements produces dull, over-saturated designs. Amalgamation of the basic colours is usually unavoidable, and the results are unsatisfactory.
8.28
Raster printing
Heuristic multi-colour half-tone printing (Ciba Specialty Chemicals) In this technique, the first step is to digitise the design. The chosen raster ruling defines the number of lines/cm, as well as the resolution of the final print. This should take account of the characteristics of the textile stock to be printed, the expected viewing distance, and the desired visual effects. The dot size controls the brightness (ink quantity) for every single colour component. The dots are calculated from tone value scales specific to a given substrate and set of printing conditions. The heuristically calculated dots are recorded on film (half-tone separation) The films are used to make printing forms, which reintegrate the individual component dots to reproduce the original design. Correctly sized dots, correctly located, at a calculated angle, on a suitable textile substrate and with the correct inks and concentrations, combine to reproduce the form and colour of the original design. Let us examine the build-up characteristics of inks used in traditional textile printing. Ink build-up is responsible for generating a visually perceptible printed colour depth that is related to the ink-paste concentration. It is also a characteristic of the ink. The way in which the inks build up is affected by the following factors: the substrate pre-treatment ink-paste composition ink-paste volume fixing With heuristic half-tone printing, the tone value behaviour of various raster values is similarly analysed under given production circumstances. The half-tone value describes the proportional size of a dot relative to 100% (maximum) coverage. The tone value behaviour on the textile substrate describes the colour combination (visual colour depth) as a function of percentage coverage (half-tone dot size). The tone value characteristic is fundamental to heuristic half-tone printing, and deserves a corresponding amount of attention.
Raster printing
8.29
Unlike traditional printing, the heuristic method varies the ink-paste concentration. This gives the fully-saturated colour at 100% solid area, while a 1% tone value gives the smallest possible addition to the overall colour mix. The tone value characteristic, coupled with a suitable choice of inks, determines the achievable colour space. In heuristic multi-colour half-tone printing, the colour space is not bound to a fixed number of inks. The original design may contain colours that lie outside the space that is printable using 4 colours. To reproduce a brilliant blue, for example, requires an extra blue ink. It is the same in the orange area, where an orange ink is necessary. Taken to the other extreme, there are designs with a colour space that requires just 3 inks.
Yellow Yellow Orange
Black Black
Magenta Cyan Cyan Violet
Magenta
Example of multi-colour half-tone printing Colour values are first defined, then described in terms of corresponding raster ruling. Separations are then made, based on the textile inks specifically chosen for the job. The basis is the calculated tone value / raster ruling, taking all contributory factors into account (type, raster, angle, stencil fabric, printing sequence, etc.). Production factors are recorded during process analysis, and required degree of reproducibility is achieved through optimisation and standardisation of the individual steps in the process. The raster films are adjusted to the entire gravure technique (specially selected raster printing fabric), technical printing data, colour influences and characteristics of the lithographic material. The resulting stencils, used in correct sequence with the defined ink colours and concentrations, give accurate colour rendition of the original design on a given textile substrate.
8.30
Raster printing
8.13
Objectives of heuristic half-tone printing

more attactive designs cost/economic factors environmental considerations
More attractive designs The Ciba multi-colour technique with 100 brightness levels allows a theoretical palette of 4 million reproducible colours. These can be printed using 4 stencils. Textile printers can achieve soft colour gradations, defined half-tone values, calculated overlays and 3-D effects.
Cost/economic factors Using this technique, even multi-coloured designs require only a minimum number of stencils. This has a strong influence on the overall printing cost. Given that production printing never requires more than a few stencils, the number of personnel operating the printing machine can also be reduced. Retooling times for printing a new design are shorter, since there are fewer stencils to change and the printing inks are the same for all designs, meaning that they do not have to be changed. Heuristic half-tone printing also reduces the workload in the ink mixing shop. It is no longer necessary to calculate ink quantities and mix their individual components. Checks and controls are needed only for the basic colours, which are produced in large quantities with associated economies of scale. The number of expensive proof prints is minimised. Experience has shown that heuristic half-tone technique, correctly applied, eliminates the need for corrections and modifications. Environmental considerations The problem of processing and recyling old ink does not arise with this technique. Where the same ink-pastes are used for all designs, left-over ink is no longer an issue. Whatever is not consumed one day can be used the next.
Raster printing
8.31
Installations like ink scoops, delivery pipework, squeegee systems and ink cisterns no longer need to be rinsed down during every design change; instead they can be used straight away for the next one. With traditional methods, rinsing-down wastes approximately 10 kg of ink per stencil. Eliminating this step reduces the demands on the wastewater system. In half-tone printing, the ink-paste deposit depends not on coverage, but the average colour density of the design. Lighter shades are achieved through a lower ink-paste deposit. From the heuristic designs produced to date (approx. 400), the estimated average colour intensity is around 40%. This in turn represents an approximate 60% reduction in liquid effluent from chemicals in the ink-paste (urea, alginate, additives, etc.).
8.14 Technical considerations

This technique requires cooperation between the end user and Ciba. Successful results depend on the quality of cooperation. A heuristic raster based on incorrect data is unusable. It is absolutely essential that the inks specified in the half-tone calculation are also deployed in production. The half-toning mechanism (mixing ink-pastes on the fibres themselves) necessitates transparent pigments. If non-transparent pigments are used, one can expect reproducibility problems within a production batch. Where half-tone dots overlap, a non-transparent pigment will obscure the previous ink layer.
8.32
Raster printing
9.
Printing
The following are recommendations for screen printing by hand and on flat bed machines. Various factors influence the results of the printing process. The most important are: design and construction of the printing machine: heavy, light, or precision construction stability of the printing bed, type of register adjustment, squeegee action, etc. type of screen fabric, especially the quality of printing form / screen tension squeegee set-up, i.e. blade hardness, accuracy of the ground edge, pressure, speed and angle snap-off distance (distance between the stencil and the substrate to be printed) lift-off adjustment positional accuracy of the print substrate (register stops, print bed stability)
In view of the interplay between all the above factors, it is advisable, where practical, to limit the selection of screen frames to a few standard sizes. To gain practical printing experience in a systematic manner, certain basic rules should be observed, the two most important being: Limit the initial job diversity, i.e. restrict the variety of designs attempted. When proofing, alter only one factor at a time i.e., never attempt to change two or more settings simultaneously.
Printing
9.1
9.1 Setting up of a flat bed machine

For clean prints with accurate register, correct setting of the snap and lift-off distances is important.
a b c
a) b) c) d)
screen substrate printing table snap-off
Snap-off is the distance between the screen and the substrate immediately before printing, when the frame is in the lowered position. The snap-off distance is necessary to prevent the screen from touching and possibly smearing the substrate before printing, and also to allow the tightly stretched screen to rise clear of the print immediately after the squeegee has passed. The snap should be as small as possible, e.g. for a DIN A3 screen for a DIN A0 screen 1 - 3 mm; 3 - 5 mm;
The snap is usually slightly greater for hand printing than on machines with mechanical squeegee action. SEFAR measuring wedge With flat bed printing machines, an even snap-off distance is very important for exact register and a perfect print image. If a stencil is not placed perfectly flat in the machine, squeegee pressure is unbalanced because the blade presses down harder on the raised part of the stencil. This results in an uneven, distorted image.
9.2
Printing
The SEFAR measuring wedge provides a simple means to verify uniform snap distance. Simply slide the wedge under all four edges of the stencil frame and the machine bed in turn, and read off the snap distance in mm. The optimum snap distance depends on the dimensions of the frame and the printed image, the tension of the fabric, on the ink composition, and the desired printing job.
Snap measuring wedge In order to improve clearance between the screen and the substrate, many printing machines incorporate an automatic lift-off mechanism, which raises the screen progressively higher as the squeegee moves forward. The snap-off angle behind the squeegee remains constant from start to finish of each print stroke.
e a b c
a) b) c) d) e)
screen substrate printing table lift-off printing stroke
The quality of stretch, the snap-off and the lift-off all help to raise the screen fabric from the printing immediately after the squeegee passage. If the screen were to remain in contact with the freshly printed substrate, the slightest shift of substrate or screen would smudge the wet ink.
Printing
9.3
All three factors are adjustable: fabric tension (see the section on stretching) snap-off distance lift-off motion
If any of these is increased, the squeegee pressure must also be increased a little. Excessive snap and lift-off are detrimental to accurate register. Reducing the printing speed also helps to reduce the adverse drag effect of the screen on the freshly printed substrate. On cylinder printing machines, no lift-off is necessary as rotation of the cylinder bed gives the same effect.
9.2 The squeegee

Material Squeegees for screen printing are made of natural or synthetic rubber (Neoprene), or of polyurethane (Vulkollan, Ulon, etc.). Those of natural or synthetic rubber wear out faster, but, on the other hand, they are much less prone to accumulating electrostatic charge. Polyurethane squeegees have better abrasion resistance, but a greater tendency to accumulate electrostatic charge during printing. Both materials harden with age, and overlong exposure to solvents causes the squeegee to swell, leaving the blade wavy and unusable. Squeegees should therefore be cleaned and dried immediately after printing. The edges and sides of the squeegee should be free of blemishes like pock-marks and scratches, as these tend to give streaky prints. Squeegees should be frequently re-ground: sharp, clean edges are essential to good quality printing. Hardness Squeegee hardness is expressed in degrees shore, the generally recommended region being 60 75 shore hardness. Harder squeegees (70 75 shore) are suitable for large formats and half-tone printing.
9.4
Printing
Softer squeegees (60 65 shore) are preferable for solid overall patterns and substrates with an uneven surface. Excessive squeegee hardness can cause difficulty in maintaining register, due to the high frictional drag with subsequent distortion of the screen fabric. This also tends to reduce the stencil life. Excessive softness, combined with high pressure, can cause the squeegee to flex backwards. The squeegee angle becomes too shallow, so that ink, instead of being swept over the mesh, is pressed onto an elongated section of the printing substrate. Ink then runs under the stencil. Dimensions
e
a) Squeegee hardness b) Squeegee thickness c) Squeegee (free) height d) Squeegee angle e) Squeegee pressure f) Squeegee speed
mm
10-20
g) Squeegee grinding (profile / surface)
Squeegee profile
3cm 15cm
image area
3cm 15cm
Squeegee front view The dimensions of the printing frame should be such as to leave a clearance of at least 12 cm between the inside edge of the frame and each end of the squeegee. Insufficient clearance can result in visible distortion.
Printing
9.5
Squeegee grinding The condition of the edge of squeegee blade is important to the production of sharp, clear prints. A sharp-edged squeegee will precisely meter the amount of ink passing through the screen. This is an important factor in the production of fine detailed work and half-tones. A blunted or intentionally rounded squeegee edge fails to skim the ink off the screen in a precisely metered fashion. Instead, it forces an excessive amount through to the substrate, smudging details. However, ink application at such high levels may be desirable to give good coverage, especially in solid areas. A badly ground squeegee blade will produce streaky prints; however, this effect can sometimes also be caused by irregularly woven screen fabric. It is often extremely difficult to determine whether the squeegee or the fabric is causing streaky prints. The only certain way is to stretch the screen fabric on the bias (i.e. at an angle to the frame) so that the threads run at an angle to the frame and the printing stroke. Squeegee streaks are cured by carefully rubbing the cleanly-ground squeegee edge with a polishing cloth. The squeegee grinding machine must have a firm clamping device for the squeegee. The blade should be ground parallel to the length, so as to allow accurate re-grinding. Avoid overheating the squeegee during the grinding process. Round-off the squeegee ends. Emery belts are used for squeegee grinding. Belts may be fitted over single or multiple rollers, as shown in the diagrams below.
9.6
Printing
Types of squeegee grinding machine The emery belts should be of. 80 180 grit, depending on the squeegee rubber material and the printing application. Squeegee sections
Squeegee sections
Squeegee grinding profiles
Printing
9.7
Special squeegee grinding for screen printing on circuit-board tracks of 70 m or more 5 30 angle-grind at the squeegee edge. Proof prints are essential. The viscosity of the ink paste has a considerable effect on the result.
10
25-30
75
min. 1.5mm 5-30
Special angle-grinding at the squeegee edge Squeegee angle
75 b c d
Squeegee angle: a) printing stroke b) steep c) normal
d) low
The optimum squeegee printing angle is 75 from the screen. Large deviations from this angle can adversely affect ink metering and accuracy of register.
9.8
Printing
Steep angle: In this position, the flexibility of the squeegee blade is impaired, increasing friction with the screen fabric. The blades increased cutting action reduces the ink deposit, while dragging and stretching the fabric, which causes loss of register. Low angle: The squeegee blade flexes too far backwards, pressing more ink through the stencil mesh. Ink tends to run under the stencil. Notes for textile printing: Rounded squeegee profiles are most commonly used. Depending on the ink absorbency of the printing substrate, profiles with a suitable radius and corresponding hardness are used. Squeegee pressure As already stated, excessive pressure adversely affects the accuracy of register, since the squeegee drags the screen fabric in the direction of the stroke. Therefore, pressure should be kept to the minimum necessary for good print results. Pressure adjustment can be made as follows: Adjust the squeegee so that it is clear of the screen while in the normal printing position. Place the squeegee in the centre of the image area, i.e. the centre of the print stroke. Lower the squeegee until it is just clear of the screen, and parallel to it. Adjust both set screws to bring the squeegee into contact with the printing substrate. Make final adjustments to the squeegee setting during the first trial pulls on waste material. Squeegee pressure must not be altered during the print run, as this can cause colour and register changes. In multi-colour printing, squeegee pressure should be identical for all screens. Raising the pressure lengthens the printed image, leading to register problems. The squeegee should be cleaned immediately after printing. Prolonged exposure to solvents impregnates the blade, making it soft and subsequently useless.
Printing
9.9
RKS squeegee system
Squeegee profiles Advantages of the RKS system are: quick fitting and removal constant blade angle easy control of squeegee pressure low wear RKS squeegees can also be fitted to conventional squeegee holders.
9.3 Flood bar (Doctor blade)

The flood bar or scraper squeegee is attached parallel to the print squeegee, but with a lighter pressure. It spreads a thin film of ink on the screen, which prevents the ink from drying. It is important that the flood bar or scraper edge is not damaged in any way, with no sharp corners or edges, splinters, etc. Camber grinding of the flood bar gives a uniform ink lay on the screen, especially with large formats.
9.10
Printing
9.4 Printing speed

The ink flow or metering effect through the screen depends on several factors, such as printing speed, ink viscosity, type of squeegee, etc. When the printing speed is too high in comparison to the other conditions, the mesh openings are not completely loaded with ink. This results in poor prints. Printing speed should always be set in conjunction with other determining factors, as per example: high ink viscosity thick stencil coatings stencil fabric with fine mesh openings steep squeegee angle to prevent smearing of fine detail large areas requiring good ink coverage. The foregoing are not the only relevant factors affecting print quality, but any of the above will necessitate a reduction in print speed. Changing speed during the print run will result in a corresponding change in the print quality. If printing results are unsatisfactory (smearing, poor register, etc.), one or more of the preceding factors are generally responsible. Bear in mind that in endeavouring to rectify any misprint, only one factor at a time should be checked and, if necessary, altered. The prime condition for success is a well made screen equal to the requirements of the printing task. (See also other chapters of this handbook.)
Printing
9.11
9.5 Object printing

This section deals with the printing of shaped objects such as bottles, glassware, crockery, jars, tools, instruments, boxes, sporting goods, machine parts, etc.
c
a) stationary squeegee b) movement of screen c) direction of rotation Schematic concept for printing round objects: Printing shaped objects needs a more flexible screen to make full contact with the curved surfaces. Polyamide fabrics (PA) have the ideal elasticity to allow a perfect fit to various shaped objects and surfaces. Direct stencils are most frequently used for printing shaped objects, since indirect stencil films are not elastic enough to follow the fabric as it adapts to the shape of the substrate. It is usually uneconomic to reclaim screens used on long print runs with difficult or abrasive printing substrates. Mounting new fabric is often faster, cheaper and more reliable. Squeegees for printing round objects are normally cut with an equal bevel, often referred to as V cut or double cut squeegees. Rectangular squeegee profiles are generally chosen for UV inks, and angled at approx. 75 to the stencil surface. Recommendations laid down by the manufacturer of the printing machine should be duly noted.
9.12
Printing
9.6 Single operation multiple colour printing

Partitioning the squeegee and the stencil allows two colours to be printed in the same pass. This is only possible when the respective colours are separated by 10 mm or more.
Split stencil for two-colour printing The stencil is partitioned by inserting a divider (cardboard, plastic, or a thin wooden batten), secured and sealed with two-component glue.
9.7 Ink deposit

The theoretical ink volume of the fabric is an indication of the wet ink deposit, as well as being used to calculate ink consumption. Example: An ink or paste with 60% solid content, printed with PET 1000 77-48 results in a wet ink deposit of 28 cm3/m2, which corresponds to a thickness of 28 m. During the drying process, the 40% solvent content evaporates. The remaining dry ink deposit is only 17 m.
Printing
9.13
Theoretical ink volume in cm3 per m2
100.0
84.4
80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 30-120 100-40 120-34 150-31 180-27 40-80 51-70 61-64 77-48
57.3 40.2 30.5 28.0 21.1 16.3 10.9 6.5
Fabric number Refer to the technical information in the fabric datasheets.
9.8 UV inks
UV inks have a very high solid content, approaching 100%. Extra thin and fine fabrics (120-31 180-27) are necessary to reduce ink consumption and ink deposit. For extreme ink deposit reduction (UV varnish) we recommend a one side calendered fabric such as SEFAR PET 1000 OSC. In 4-colour half-tone printing, care should be taken that the stencil thickness on the mesh does not exceed 35 m.
9.14
Printing
9.9 Printing systems

Flat bed printing Flat bed screen printing is used for printing both flexible and rigid stock, e.g. paper, cardboard, plastic foils, wooden, plastic or ceramic tiles, textiles, and flat objects.
;; ;;
a = printing direction b = squeegee c = printing frame d = substrate Special technique for industrial textile printing
c b a e f d
The squeegee is a circular steel rod. Ink quantity is controlled by the squeegee diameter and the magnetic force exerted from below the printing machine bed. The stencil is in contact with the substrate.
a = printing direction b = squeegee c = printing frame d = magnet e = magnet carriage f = rubber mat g = substrate
;; ;;
d g
Printing
9.15
Cylinder bed printing Cylinder bed machines are suitable only for flexible print stock like paper, plastic foils, etc.
;; ;;
e
a = printing direction b = squeegee c = printing frame d = back pressure cylinder e = substrate Printing on cylindrical objects These machines use the substrate itself as the back pressure cylinder, e.g. bottles, tubes, jars, etc.
9.16
;; ;;
a
a = substrate
Printing
;; ;;
;; ;
a d
Rotary printing (single substrates) Example: Ceramic tile printing
Rotary printing (reel to reel) Printing occurs continuously, either from a feed to a take-up reel, or on a flat substrate fed by conveyor belt under the rotating cylinder (paper, foils, textiles, ceramic tiles, etc.).
a = print direction b = squeegee c = cylindrical stencil d = substrate (on reels or conveyor belt)
Printing
9.17
10. Measuring instruments

Consistently high printing quality can only be achieved and maintained through the use of internal standards. These in turn demand reproducible data and tolerances, which can only be gathered using suitable measuring instruments.
10.1 Coating thickness
This instrument measures the stencil coating thickness on the mesh. The thickness on the mesh determines edge sharpness, resolution, and the wet thickness of the ink deposit on the printing substrate.
Measuring instruments
10.1
10.2 Roughness
This instrument is used to check the stencil surface. The measuring probe is simply laid on the surface to be measured at an angle of 22.5 to the fabric threads. During the measuring sequence, the probe moves a few millimetres in order to take a predetermined number of measurement samples at the highest and lowest points on the surface. The measured average in m appears on the instruments digital display. A perfectly flat surface would show a value of 0. The Rz value (DIN nomenclature for average roughness) for screen printing stencils should always be less than the measured coating thickness. A relatively smooth stencil surface is essential to printing sharp edges and avoiding saw-tooth effects.
Poor: Rz > coating thickness
12 coating thickness
20 roughness (Rz)
Good: Rz < coating thickness
12 coating thickness
8 roughness (Rz)
10.2
10.3 Radiometer (incident radiant energy measurement)
Stencils cure and harden best when exposed to a good light source. The source should radiate predominantly in the UV range between 350 420 nm. Lamps have a limited life, and the radiant energy falls off as the lamp ages, requiring exposure compensation. A radiometer provides the simplest means for measuring lamp efficiency.
10.4 Hardness meter (Shore measuring instrument)
This instrument is used to check the hardness of the squeegee rubber. The rubber is affected by various solvents and is also subject to a natural ageing process that causes the hardness to change over time. Every colour pass in a printing batch should use the same squeegee size and hardness. Different squeegees lead to register problems and colour shifts.
10.3
10.5 Viscosimeter
The viscosity of the printing medium (ink, lacquer, paste, etc.) has a strong influence on the attainable printing speed, amount of ink passing through the stencil, wet film thickness, edge sharpness, etc. For consistently reproducible printing results, the viscosity of the printing medium must be as constant as possible. A viscosimeter is used either to measure printing medium viscosity, or adjust the viscosity to a predetermined value. Printing medium viscosity is usually measured in Pascal or Poises.
10.6 Wet coat thickness
Certain screen printing applications require carefully controlled and reproducible coating thickness. The solution is this simple device for measuring the thickness of the wet ink deposit. The instrument is rolled carefully over the freshly printed surface. The coat thickness in m is then read off the scale at the point where the ink deposit ceases.
10.4
10.7 Grindometer for measuring particle size
The particle size of the printing medium must be at least 3x less than the mesh opening of the screen printing fabric. A test sample is simply smeared over the grindometer. The particle size in m is read off the scale at the point where the smear ends.
10.8 Recording thermometer/hygrometer
Printing media, printing stock and printing frames are all strongly affected by temperature and atmospheric humidity. Monitoring air quality in the printing room can avoid many problems, or help pinpoint their cause.
10.5
11. Recommended choice of fabrics

Application, sector Polyester fabric PET 1000 Polyester fabric PET 1000 Nylon fabric PA 1000** Conventional inks from to
Conventional inks UV inks *** from to from to Graphical printing Line artwork 90-40* Lacquer overprinting 90-40 Half-tone screens up to 28 L/cm 120-34* 120-31* Half-tone screens from 150-34* 28 L/cm to 54 L/cm 140-31* 150-27* Printed circuit boards Overlay solder mask 12-140 Photosensitive solder mask 24-120 SMT solder paste 32-70 2-component solder mask: Conductor thickness 35 68-55* 70 43-80* UV solder mask Carbon conductive lacquer 36-90 Etch resist 90-48* Plating resist 90-48* Marking print 120-34* Membrane keyboards Insulation lacquer 36-100 Silver conductive paste 48-70* Adhesive 48-70 UV structural lacquer Decor foil 90-48* Transparent windows 120-34 120-34* 140-34* 120-34 140-34 150-34* 140-34* 150-31* 150-34* 165-31* 165-31* 165-27* 18-250 68-55 165-31* 180-31 180-27* 150-31* 180-27*
77-48* 55-64* 68-55* 77-48* 68-55 120-34* 120-34* 140-34* 120-34* 120-34* 140-31* 140-34* 150-31* 68-55 68-55* 77-48 77-48 120-34* 165-31
*) for fine lines and half-tone rulings: **) for large print runs: ***) for minimal ink deposit:
dyed fabric PA 2000 (range is being expanded) calendered fabric PET 1000 OSC Continued
Recommended choice of fabrics
11.1
Continued Application, sector Polyester fabric PET 1000 Polyester fabric PET 1000 Nylon fabric PA 1000** Conventional inks from to
Conventional inks UV inks *** from to from to Designs, T-shirts Glitter Flock adhesive Puff-up colours Overprint Pigment ink printing, areas/lines Plastisol transfer Universal fabric Plastisol direct Pigment inks, half-tone Sublimation transfer Textiles, flat films Heavy dcor fabrics (terry cloth, denim) Smooth, dense fabrics (table cloths, heavy curtain material) Smooth, light fabrics (scarves, light curtain material) Light, porous material (especially detailed effects) Ceramics Glaze printing, coarse, embossed effect Covercoat Glaze printing, medium to fine In and under-glaze (direct printing) Superimposed / decals:: Areas/lines Fine lines / half-tone Gold and lustre inks 10-260 18-180 21-140 32-100 40-80 48-80 48-55 54-64* 61-64* 77-48* 18-180 43-80 54-64 77-48 24-120 48-70 48-70 40-80 68-64 120-34* 120-34* 100-40* 120-34* 48-70 54-64 77-48 120-34
5-450 12-140 21-140 43-80
21-140 32-100 61-64 100-40*
10-350
24-160
24-160 43-90
61-60 100-38*
77-48* 150-31* 100-40* 165-27* 120-34* 165-31*
77-50* 150-30* 100-35* 165-30* 120-35* 180-30*
*) for fine lines and half-tone rulings: **) for large print runs: ***) for minimal ink deposit:
dyed fabric PA 2000 (range is being expanded) calendered fabric PET 1000 OSC Continued
11.2
Continued Application, sector Polyester fabric PET 1000 Polyester fabric PET 1000 Nylon fabric PA 1000** Conventional inks from to
Conventional inks UV inks *** from to from to Glass Automotive glass: Black surrounds for windscreens, rear and side windows Antennas Silver paste (heated windows) Sun-roofs Constructional glass: Curtain windows, doors, windows, shower-cabins, mirrors Cosmetic bottles: Inks Precious metals Pharmaceuticals: Laboratory glassware, bottles Ampoules Beverages: Bottles, glasses Household durables: Fascias for washing machines and ovens (Masks) (Lines and half-tones) Lampshades, table tops, furniture Amusement machines: Front and side panels Souvenirs: Herald pictures Advertising: Hotel, restaurant and shop signs Objects (plastics, etc.) Opaque areas Half-tone and fine lines ) UV inks: PW = 1:1 only
54-64* 77-48* 77-48* 100-40*
77-48* 100-40* 100-40* 120-34*
30-120 77-48*
77-48* 120-34* 77-50* 120-35* 120-35* 150-30* 77-50* 120-35* 120-35* 140-30* 54-60 120-35*
43-80 77-48* 54-64 77-48* 54-64
68-55 100-40* 100-40* 120-34* 100-40*
43-80
77-48*
100-40* 120-34* 140-34* 150-31* 100-38* 150-35* 120-34* 165-27* 150-31* 180-27* 120-35* 180-30*
11.3
Sefar Inc. Printing Division P.O. Box CH-9425 Thal SG Switzerland Tel. ++41 71 886 32 32 Fax ++41 71 886 35 91 E-mail sales@sp.sefar.ch http: // www.sp.sefar.ch
Order n 901 CHF 30.

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Handbook for screen printers

Published by: Sefar Inc. Printing Division

Handbook for screen printers

Sefar Inc. Printing Division CH-9425 Thal/SG Switzerland February 1999

Sefar Inc. Printing Division Applications Technology Thal

Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999

Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999

Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999

Types of stencils Avoidance of moir effects

8.16 8.16 8.20

8.10 General recommendations

Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

1.1 Raw materials

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Resistance to light and weather Abrasion resistance

240 - 260 220 - 240 Dry heat up to 150C Continuous exposure

Good to very good Good

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999

Good resistance to common screen printing solvents

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

1.2 Physical fabric properties

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

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High mechanical durability and chemical resistance Smooth fibre surface

Resistant to changes in climate (humidity / temperature)

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

1.3 Elongation characteristics of polyester fabrics

Fabric elongation (%)

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

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1.4 Geometry of screen printing fabrics

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Mesh type description W Y = White = Yellow

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

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Tolerance of fabric thickness

Thread diameter nominal

Theoretical ink volume

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Plain 1:1 = PW Mesh opening

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

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PET 1000 150-27PW

PET 1000 150-31PW

PET 1000 150-34PW

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Monofilament screen printing fabrics

Table: Theoretical resolution Ath for a variety of screen printing fabrics

96 78 105 72 84 118 82 101 67 86 119 74 103 85

Monofilament screen printing fabrics

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