Water Treatment
Water Treatment
Water Treatment
Being responsible is our foundation. We know that we have a responsibility towards the people who are Grundfos, towards the innovative soul of Grundfos as well as towards the surrounding world. Whatever we do, we make sure that we have a firm and sustainable basis for doing it.
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Thinking ahead makes the innovations possible. We encourage a certain Grundfos way of thinking which is founded upon the belief that everyone must contribute by using his or her judgement and foresight. We are looking for commitment and ideas in everything we do in order to make the best solutions. We think and then we act.
Innovation is the essence. It is the innovations that make Grundfos unique. We stand out because of our ability to constantly create new solutions to the ever-changing demands of the pump business. We meet every challenge and we are never afraid of taking the initiative remaining true to our ideals calls for renewal. Innovation is the soul of Grundfos.
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Copyright 2002 by GRUNDFOS A/S DK-8850 Bjerringbro Denmark All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publisher. Drawings: h@idi - grafisk design Translation by Network Communications A/S Printed in Denmark by Repro & Tryk A/S
Foreword
Water treatment is an almost inexhaustible topic, and progress within this field has been explosive in recent years. There are numerous books available describing water treatment processes, filter technology and so on. This book, Pumps in water treatment is intended to , supplement these. It focuses on water purification systems where the pump forms an essential part of the system. Therefore, rather than providing a complete picture of the field of water treatment, it covers water treatment with the pump as a central element.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Mogens Ellegaard, who wrote this book in collaboration with Grundfos. Thanks are also due to the following companies and individuals, who provided data and assistance for the writing of the book: Alfa Laval Water Technologies A/S / Steen Hinge / Fig. 63, Fig. 64 and Fig. 73 Boll & Kirch Filter Skandinavien Aps Danish Separation Systems A/S / Jrgen Nielsen Harald V. Lassen A/S / Fig. 19 Heco International A/S HOH Vand & Milj A/S / Poul Rasmussen / Fig. 37 and Fig. 58 Houseman (Scandinavia) A/S Huhnseal Aps / Kim Hemmingsen / Fig. 17, Fig. 18 and Fig. 20 Union Engineering a/s / Fig. 26 UNIQ Filtration Technologies a/s / Fig. 53 and Fig. 55
Contents
1. Introduction 8
1.1 WHY WATER TREATMENT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.1 Treatment of drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.2 Treatment of process water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.3 Requirements for water treatment pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2 THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2.1 Gases dissolved in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2.2 The conductivity of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2.3 The hardness of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.4 The pH value of water (degree of acidity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.5 Other ions in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.6 Content of organic and inorganic substances in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3 CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.2 The corrosion cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.3 Causes of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.4 Corrosion of pump materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.5 Service-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.3.6 Cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
18
2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2 GROUND WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.2 Treatment of ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.3 Ground-water-based waterworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2.4 Sand filter in closed tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2.5 Organic substances in ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2.6 Corrosion connected with ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 SURFACE WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.2 Types of water treatment for surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.3.3 Drinking water based on surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.4.1 Pesticides and nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.2 Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.3 Localised pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.4 Can water treatment do anything about environmental pollutants? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.5 PROCESS WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3. Standard filtration
28
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.1.1 Filtration elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.1.2 Types of filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.2 CHOICE OF PUMP FOR STANDARD FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.3 TYPES OF FILTER FOR STANDARD FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.3.1 Cartridge filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Contents
3.3.2 Bag filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.3.3 Slot filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3.4 Drum filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.3.5 Band filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.4 THEORY: FILTER FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.4.1 Filter permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.2 The significance of filter area in filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.3 The significance of the liquid temperature in filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.4 The significance of the filter scaling and fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.5 Pulsating filter operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4. Ion exchange
42
4.1 DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.2.1 Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.2.2 The ion exchange process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.2.3 Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.2.4 Application of ion exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.3 ION EXCHANGE SYSTEMS FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.3.1 Desalination of water (demineralisation, deionisation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.3.2 Total desalination of water in mix-bed ion exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.3.3 Removal of silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.3.4 Structure of industrial ion exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.3.5 Drawbacks of standard ion exchange systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.3.6 CIE systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.4 PUMPS IN ION EXCHANGE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.1 Material requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.2 Pressure drop in ion exchange systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.3 Flow rate in ion exchange systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.4 Pumps for regeneration liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.5 Pumps in very large ion exchange systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5. Membrane filtration
48
5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.2 MEMBRANE FILTRATION IS CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.3 APPLICATION OF MEMBRANE FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.4 THE PROPELLING FORCE IN MEMBRANE FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.4.1 Electrical propelling force in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.4.2 Chemical propelling force in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.4.3 Applied pressure as the propelling force in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.5 TYPES OF MEMBRANE FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.5.1 Materials in membrane filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5.6 MEMBRANE FILTRATION MODULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.6.1 Tubular module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.6.2 Hollow fiber module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5.6.3 Spiral wound module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 5.6.4 Plate and frame module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 5.7 MEMBRANE FILTRATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Contents
5.7.1 Single membrane filtration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.7.2 Christmas-tree layout of membrane filtration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.7.3 Loop setup of membrane filtration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.7.4 Calculations for membrane filtration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.8 PUMPS IN MEMBRANE FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.8.1 Material selection for pumps in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.8.2 Membrane filtration of process wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.8.3 Example: Pumps in brackish water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.9 MEMBRANE FILTRATION OF SEA WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.9.1 Energy recovery in sea water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.9.2 Pumps in sea water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.9.3 Sea water systems built into a container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.10 THEORY: MEMBRANE FILTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.10.1 Liquid flow in micro and ultra filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.10.2 Liquid flow in nano and reverse osmosis filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 5.10.3 Technical specifications for filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 5.10.4 Membrane capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6. Distillation
64
6.1 DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.2 THE DISTILLATION PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.3. DISTILLATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.3.1 Distillation system with steam compression, type VVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.3.2 Single-stage distillation system, type Single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.3.3 Multi-effect distillation system, type MED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.3.4 Multi-stage distillation system, type MSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.4 PUMPS IN DISTILLATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.4.1 Sea water pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.4.2 Brine transport pump (blow down pump) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.4.3 Brine circulation pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.4.4 Drinking-water pump/distillate pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.4.5 Condensate pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.4.6 Dosing pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5 THEORY: DISTILLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5.1 Schematic sketch of single-stage distillation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.5.2 Multi-effect distillation system, type MED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.5.3 Distillation system with steam compression, type VVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7. UV and ozone
70
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.2 WATER TREATMENT WITH UV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.3 WATER TREATMENT WITH OZONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.4 WATER TREATMENT WITH BOTH UV AND OZONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.5 UV SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.6 OZONE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 7.7 PUMPS IN UV AND OZONE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.8 THEORY: UV AND OZONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.8.1 Ultraviolet light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Contents
7.8.2 Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
74
8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 8.2 LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHEMICALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 8.3 DOSING PUMP APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 8.3.1 Dosing in distillation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 8.3.2 Installation of dosing pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 8.4 SAMPLE CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 8.5 THEORY: CHEMICAL TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 8.6 THEORY: DOSING PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
84 86
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.1 Why water treatment?
1. Introduction
1.1 Why water treatment?
Pure water [H2O] is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid. It plays a huge part in everyday life: 70% of the earths surface is covered by water in the form of oceans, and the rest of the planet has large quantities of water in the form of lakes, rivers and watercourses, ice and snow, and humidity, as well as the principal element of animal life (>50%) and plants (approx. 80%). When we talk about water in general, we usually mean water for some specific purpose, e.g. drinking water or process water for industry. This is where the term water treatment comes into the picture, as the available water resources or that provided by nature is not always of a suitable quality for immediate use for the specific purpose. Drinking water must be pure, and should preferably taste good too, and it must not contain substances that could cause problems with daily use. Process water, which is water that forms a direct and important part of a process or product in industry, must have a chemical composition and temperature that is precisely suited to the specific requirements. The list indicates recommended and/or upper limits for the concentration of these substances in drinking water. The waters microorganism content is also considered. WHOs list, as a matter of routine, also takes into consideration non-health factors by including recommended quantities for substances that improve water and make it suitable for ordinary practical purposes in other respects. Recommended and maximum permissible concentrations for some of the most important substances in drinking water are listed in table 1 below. This list is by and large identical to WHOs recommendations.
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.1 Why water treatment
Element or property
Colour Turbidity pH Conductivity Permanganate number TDS Calcium Magnesium Total hardness Sodium Potassium Ammonium Iron Manganese Bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate) Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Fluoride Oxygen Hydrogen sulphide Methane Chlorine, free and total Bacteria Bacterial count (at 21C)
Unit
mg Pt/l FTU S/cm mg KMnO4/l mg/l mg/l mg/l dH mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l Number/100 ml Number/100 ml
Recommended value
5 0.3 7.0 8.0 > 300 6 See total hardness 30 5 to 30 20 0.05 0.05 0.02 >100 50 50 25 >5 Should not be quantifiable Should not be quantifiable approx. 1 Should not be quantifiable
10
Table 1: Recommended and maximum permissible values for some of the most important substances in drinking water
If water treatment sometimes removes too many of these important substances, it is fairly common for the treatment to be supplemented by re-addition (dosing) of some of these substances. This is particularly important in areas where the daily diet lacks some of the vital substances, such as fluorine and iodine. Not all water for drinking purposes must undergo major water treatment before it can be drunk. A large proportion of the worlds drinking-water resources is still drinkable direct from the source. There are many springs, rainwater pools and glacial watercourses that are excellent drinking-water resources. Even water from wells is also frequently designated as good water.
cific requirements regarding chemical composition and physical state, i.e. temperature and pressure. It covers a very wide range at one end, for example, might be pure, clear water for the brewing of beer, in which it would be desirable that the water contain most normal substances, while at the other end might be ultrapure water for use in medical products in the pharmaceutical industry, from which any dissolved substances and microbes should be completely removed. Another form of process water is the water used as an auxiliary resource in various processes, such as cooling, heating, flush-ing and rinsing. The requirements for this type of water are generally not particularly strict, and ordinary water (water from wells and surface water) is often used without much in the way of preliminary treatment. Water for washing and cleaning purposes is one of the most common in this category, and it is generally only the hardness of the water that is adjusted.
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.2 The chemistry of water
Substance
Ammonium Calcium Iron Magnesium Manganese Potassium Sodium
Chemical symbol
NH4+ Ca++ Fe++(+) Mg++ Mn++ K+ Na+
Substance
Bicarbonate Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Nitrate Phosphate Silicate Sulphate
Chemical symbol
HCO3CO3-ClFOHNO3PO4--SiO3-SO4--
Note: The measuring units for ions are usually given in mg/l or mval/l. 1 mval contains naturally as many mg of the ion as its equivalent weight states. The equivalent weight is the ions atomic weight (molecular weight) divided by the number of charges (see below). E.g.: Calcium has an atomic weight of 40. 1 mval Calcium/l is therefore: 40/2 = 20 mg/l.
10
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.2 The chemistry of water
100 80 60 40
NH2
What is most commonly understood by hardness is the waters total content of Ca++ and Mg++ ions. This is designated total hardness. A high calcium and magnesium content produces hard water, while a low content gives soft water. Permanent hardness is defined as the difference between total and temporary hardness and can be loosely explained as the quantity of calcium and magnesium that corresponds to sulphate [SO42-] and chloride [Cl-]. Permanent hardness is characterised by the fact that it cannot be removed by boiling etc. The correlation between the different specifications of hardness is that total hardness is equal to temporary hardness plus permanent hardness. Hardness can be specified in several ways: The German hardness degree, dH, is defined as the hardness that corresponds to the equivalent quantity of CaO/l. 1dH is equal to 10 mg CaO/l. The French hardness degree, F, is defined as the hardness that corresponds to the equivalent quantity of CaCO3/l. 1F is equal to 10 mg CaCO3/l. A commonly used unit for hardness, which is used by experts in water treatment technology, is the hardness that corresponds to the equivalent quantity of CaCO3 and is measured directly in mg/l. The relationship between these three methods of measuring hardness is:
HC l H2 SO Na 4 O KO H H
Na Cl
20
Conductivity, S/cm
CO2
10 8 6 4
0.2
Concentration,
g/m3
(mg/l)
Hardness
Very soft water Soft water Moderately hard water Fairly hard water Hard water Very hard water
dH
0-4 4-8 8 - 12 12 - 18 18 - 30 Over 30
F
0-7 7 - 14 14 - 22 22 - 32 32 - 54 Over 54
CaCO3 mg/l
0 - 70 70 - 140 140 - 220 220 - 320 320 - 540 Over 540
The equilibrium could also be written with Mg++ in place of Ca++. The interesting thing about the equilibrium is that it expresses something about the hardness of the water (the quantity of Ca++ ions) and its CO2 aggressiveness, i.e. the ability to dissolve lime scale [CaCO3] and corrode metal surfaces. Depending which direction the equilibrium is shifted to, the water will be hard (a shift to the left) or aggressive/soft (a shift to the right). By removing CO2 (e.g. by heating or degassing) the equilibrium will be shifted towards the right, Ca++ and HCO3- will form CaCO3, which is deposited (limestone), and the hardness in the water is thus reduced. This hardness is called carbonate hardness or temporary hardness, as it can be removed in this simple way.
The hardness of the water has no effect on the taste, smell and appearance of the water or on health, but it can be a major nuisance, as it causes scaling (calcarous deposits) in pipes, boilers and sanitary appliances.
11
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.3 Corrosion
The pH value of water expresses its degree of acidity, and for ground water is normally determined by the temporary hardness and the carbon dioxide content. pH = 7 is equivalent to a neutral reaction, above pH 7 the water is alkaline (basic), and below pH 7 it is acidic. CO2-aggressive water (see the section on the hardness of water) will have a pH value below 7, and has the adverse property of corroding ordinary carbon steel, cast iron, hot-dip galvanised steel and copper.
There are various ways of indicating organic and inorganic substances. One of these is SDI (Silt Density Index), which can resemble turbidity, which expresses the cloudiness of the water caused by suspended, undissolved substances. The units of measurement are called FTU (Formazin Turbidity Units) or NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). If the water is discoloured, this can also be measured. The unit is called mg Pt/l, and water discolouration is measured by comparing a water sample with some known solutions of a platinum compound (Pt is the chemical symbol for platinum). Finally, in connection with polluted water, we have microorganisms such as bacteria. A common measurement here is the number (germs) per 100 ml of water. WHO also specifies limits for the number of different microorganisms in drinking water. See Table 1. The chemical composition of the water is not of particularly crucial significance for the pump, except where it causes corrosion or deposits, affecting a pumps ability to function at a consistent level of performance over a long period.
1.3 Corrosion
1.3.1 Introduction
Definition: Corrosion is usually defined as the deterioration of a metal or its properties caused by a reaction with its environment. Most metals occur naturally in the form of oxides and are usually chemically stable. When exposed to oxygen and other oxidising agents, the refined metal will try to revert to its natural oxide state. In the case of iron, the oxides will be in the form of ferrous or ferric oxide, commonly known as rust. Metallic corrosion generally involves the loss of metal at a particular location on an exposed surface. Corrosion occurs in various forms ranging from a generalised attack over the entire surface to a severe concentrated attack. In most cases, it is impossible or economically impractical to completely arrest the corrosion process; however, it is usually possible to control the process to acceptable levels.
12
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.3 Corrosion
1/2 O
Cathode
e Corrosion current
Fig. 2: The corrosion cell
what extent depends upon the environment to which the metal is exposed. Four conditions must be met for corrosion to occur. Anode - the oxidation reaction occurs here. Electron release and metal loss (corrosion) are associated with this reaction. Cathode - the reduction reaction occurs here. Electron consumption and metal protection are associated with this reaction. Electrolyte - the environment to which both the cathode and the anode are exposed. The electrolyte must have the capacity to conduct electrical current through the flow of ions (e.g. salt water). Metallic path - the anode and the cathode must be connected via a metallic connection that conducts electrical current flow through the flow of electrons.
er causes of corrosion cells include the effect of contact with different soil types, oxygen availability, salt content and microbiological growth. In a mechanical construction like a pump, joining materials that are too different is avoided as far as possible in order to prevent galvanic corrosion of individual components. This involves the galvanic electrochemical series where the metals are arranged according to corrosion tendency. This is how the most commonly used metals are arranged:
Less noble (most susceptible to corrosion) Magnesium Zinc Aluminium Cast Iron Bronze Stainless Steel (passive) Titanium (passive) Graphite Gold Platinum More noble (least susceptible to corrosion)
13
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.3 Corrosion
composites will generally be suitable. In instances where process water, for example, may contain chemical solvents etc., however, composite components could also be attacked. Corrosion of the following materials is described below: Cast iron Bronze Stainless steel, types AISI 304, AISI 316 and 904 L. Titanium Note: Several types of stainless steel are used, but in terms of corrosion they can be grouped with the types above. The following parameters may influence corrosion of pumps in ordinary water: Aggressive carbon dioxide [CO2] Aggressive ions (particularly chloride, [Cl-]) Free chlorine [Cl2] Oxygen [O2] Acidity [pH] Hydrogen sulphide [H2S] Temperature Cast iron: With cast iron, which is the most vulnerable of the above-mentioned materials, the pH value of the water will affect its corrosion resistance. It is normally recommended not to use cast iron with pH values below 6.5. The presence of aggressive carbon dioxide will cause problems for cast iron, while other pump materials will not be affected. Nevertheless cast-iron pumps are used, giving satisfactory results, in ground water and rainwater with a pH value as low as 5. In these cases resistance will be determined by temperature, water composition and operating conditions for the specific application. The risk of discolouration, caused by iron contamination, will be greater, however. Cast iron is very widespread for applications in ground water, and it is suitable in most instances. Even though corrosion will occur in a cast-iron pump, it is generally acceptable, provided the rate of corrosion remains at a suitably low level. Usually corrosion of less than 0.5 mm/year will be acceptable provided a corrosion allowance of several millimetres of material thickness is taken into account. In brackish water and sea water, however, the corrosion resistance of cast iron will be limited. Surface coating is also applied to cast iron, but this sets high requirements with regard to both the quality of the coating, which must be free of porosity, and the handling of the pumps, to avoid damage to the coating. Bronze: Bronze is generally a better material than cast iron and can be used for ground water, brackish water and salt water. However, with bronze, as with cast iron, one must be
aware of the water treatment processes that involve cleaning with various chemicals. Cleaning with acids in particular is the most critical. With bronze specifically there is also a risk of corrosion attack if it comes into contact with ammonia compounds. For the aforementioned reasons, the use of cast iron or bronze pumps for membrane filtration is prohibited, so the choice will usually come down to stainless steel or titanium. For water treatment, therefore, most pumps supplied by Grundfos will be different grades of stainless steel and titanium. Stainless steel: The term stainless steel covers a wide range of iron-based alloys with a variable content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum primarily, but also nitrogen and copper etc. This yields materials very diverse in mechanical properties and in corrosion resistance. One common feature of stainless steel, however, is that the corrosion resistance depends on the formation of an invisible oxide film (passive film) on the surface. To achieve this the chromium content must be at least 12%. If this passive film breaks down locally and is not re-formed immediately, localised corrosion (pitting) may occur. See Fig. 4a. Similarly localised corrosion (crevice corrosion) may occur in crevices and under deposits where there is insufficient oxygen to maintain the passive film. See Fig. 4b. The propagation of localised corrosion is fairly unpredictable, and it cannot be calculated using a corrosion allowance in the same way as uniform corrosion.
Table 4 shows a range of the stainless steel grades that Grundfos uses for manufacturing pumps. The table shows the content of
14
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.3 Corrosion
forming regular flushing with fresh water, AISI 904 L can also be used in salt water at moderate temperatures. Grundfos uses diagrams like Fig. 5 as an aid for material selection. The diagrams are based on experience with the various stainless steels in ground water, brackish water and sea water respectively. The following are rules of thumb: 500 mg/l chloride is designated the maximum limit for ground water 500 5000 mg/l chloride is designated brackish water, and over 5000 mg/l chloride is designated sea water. However, sea water typically has a content of around 20,000 30,000 mg/l chloride (approx. 3.3 5% NaCl).
Fig. 4b: Picture showing crevice corrosion on a stainless steel flange used in fish farming in Norway. Pumped liquid: sea water.
The relation between chloride content and % sodium chloride [NaCl] is as follows: NaCl % x 6100 = mg/l chloride [Cl-]
AISI
431 304 316 316 L 329 *)SAF2205 904 L *)254 SMO
W.-Nr.
1.4057 1.4301 1.4401 1.4435 1.4460 1.4462 1.4539 1.4547
Cr.
17 18 17 17 26 22 20 20
Ni
2 9 12 14 5 5.5 25 18
Mo
2.3 2.8 1.4 3.0 4.5 6.1
N
0.1 0.2
PRE
17 18 24.6 26.2 30.6 34.2 34.9 43.3
The diagram Fig. 5 shows maximum application temperatures for various types of stainless steel and titanium in relation to specific chloride content.
Table 4: Stainless steel grades with alloy elements [w%] and PRE values
principal alloying elements (chromium [Cr.], nickel [Ni] and molybdenum [Mo] ) and the nitrogen [N] content. The right-hand column gives the PRE value (Pitting Resistance Equivalent), which is used to rank the resistance of various stainless steels to pitting (localised corrosion). The PRE value is calculated according to the formula: Weight % Cr + 3.3 x weight % Mo +16 x weight % N. Stainless steel with a PRE value above 40 is considered to be resistant to sea water up to 30C. However, Grundfos produces pumps from AISI 904 L for use in sea water despite the fact that the PRE value - which also appears in the table above - is below 40. This is due to the fact that operating conditions have a great influence on the corrosion resistance of stainless steel in sea water. If certain procedures are observed, including avoiding long shutdown periods and per-
Fig. 5: Corrosion diagrams for AISI 304, AISI 316, AISI 904 L and titanium
Titanium: Unlike stainless steel, titanium is very corrosion resistant in chloride-containing environments. The oxide film (passive film) on titanium is not attacked by chlorides in the same way as the oxide film on stainless steel, and titanium can be used in sea water up to 80C with no risk of pitting and crevice corrosion.
15
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
1.3 Corrosion
This pump material is therefore expected to be widely used in water treatment in the future. For the present, however, there is only a limited range of pumps (CRT) made of this material.
bles will then be formed (local boiling), which will collapse again on pressure increase. The impact effect from the collapse of the steam bubbles is so violent that the material can be destroyed. See Fig. 6. Insufficient inlet pressure to the pump is a typical cause of cavitation. Once again, cast iron and bronze are more susceptible to cavitation than stainless steel and titanium. Fatigue: The phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses having a maximum value less than the tensile strength of the material. Corrosion can accelerate fatigue by increasing the crack rate.
1.3.7 Summary
For modern high-performance pumps that must work with sea water and other liquids with a high content of chloride and/or other corrosive substances, the correct choice of materials will often be complex, and the choice of pump will be based on a water analysis. Grundfos has detailed information on the corrosion-based problems, and in most instances can carry out an evaluation of the specific problem. Grundfos has also developed software to help select the most suitable pump for a given application.
Cavitation: Cavitation occurs if the pressure in a liquid locally drops below the liquids vapour pressure. Unstable steam bub-
16
1. Introduction
CHAPTER
17
CHAPTER
Country
Belgium West Germany France Holland Sweden Switzerland Denmark
Proportion of groundwater
67% 64% 64% 59% 25% 32% 99%
2.2.2.1 Aeration
Once the water reaches the waterworks, aeration is the first stage of the water treatment. Ground water normally has a low oxygen content, or may be oxygen-free. To achieve a good taste it must have a minimum of 5 mg oxygen/l. Aeration may proceed by allowing the water to run freely from a sprinkler or down a cascade aerator. In this way it absorbs oxygen from the air. Another option is injection of air (by compressor) into the water. At newer waterworks pure oxygen is sometimes injected. During aeration (degasification) it is possible to remove any hydrogen sulphide [H2S], methane [CH4], ammonium [NH4+] and aggressive carbon dioxide [CO2], if the concentrations are not too high. High concentrations require special methods. For instance, the water would be treated with lime for high content of aggressive carbon dioxide. Aeration also assists in removal of iron and manganese. Dissolved iron and manganese compounds in the water react with the oxygen to produce slightly soluble compounds that form flakes in the reaction vessel positioned under the aeration system. The iron compound is red (ferric oxide) and the manganese compound is black (manganese dioxide). Both compounds are subsequently trapped in the sand filter. With a high content of iron and/or manganese two sand filters are used, one after the other: A primary filter and a secondary filter.
A major explanation for this is the very widespread pollution of many of the earths lakes and watercourses, that if of surface water. At a ground water well, however, you bring up ground water, which over many years has been filtered and purified in a natural way by passage down through the soil layers. As ground water is prepurified in this way the treatment is much less complicated than treatment of surface water. In certain desert regions, where for good reasons no new ground water is formed, you can nevertheless fetch up water from underground. Submersible pumps bring up 1000-year-old water (fossil water).
18
36
3 6
4
CHAPTER
Filtration
Backwashing
Fig. 7: Sand filter during filtration (left) and during backwashing (right)
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Filter sand Channel for filtered water (out) and rinsing water and possibly air (in) Draining valve for rinsing water
Pos.
4 5 6
Description
Jets for surface flushing during backwashing V-shaped inlet for untreated water (raw water) Overflow for rinsing water
ers of stones of decreasing grain size, ending with a top layer of sand, which provides the actual filtration, as the water, from its own weight (gravitation), sinks from above down through the filter layer. See Fig. 7. Although the sand filter is designated as a mechanical filter, deliberate biological activity also takes place, as microorganisms develop in the top layer of the filter (the filter skin). Cleaning of the sand filter: During operation the sand gradually becomes choked with sludge, and the filtration rate decreases sharply. At an appropriate time the filter should be cleaned, once the differential pressure is ~ 0.1 bar (1.45 p.s.i.), see section 3.4 Theory: Filter flow. Water is directed through the filter from the bottom up, often at such a high speed that the sand is set in lively motion (the sand is fluidised), and the sludge that has stuck to the grains of sand is stripped off and washed away. This process can be accelerated by using compressed air together with the rinsing water. The process is called backwashing. During the cleaning process the dirty rinsing water is directed to a number of basins where the sludge can settle. When, after repeated use, the settling basin has been filled up with sludge, the sludge is dug up and taken away.
Pump choice for sand filters: The filtration rate is between 7 and 20 m/h. The sand depth is around 1 m. Sand grain size is 0.7 2 mm. Filter area is up to 100 m2 per basin. A 100 m2 basin will have a capacity from 700 to 2,000 m3/h. A well site consisting of 4 to 10 large Grundfos pumps of the SP type would be able to supply a filter basin like this. Pumps for backwashing are quite different. The flow here is from 7 to 15 m3/h x m2 (+ air: 50 60 m3/h x m2), so the flow for backwashing must be from 700 to 1,500 m3/h, using only one pump. The head is just a few metres. A Grundfos pump of the NK type would be suitable.
19
3 12 15
CHAPTER
4 7 5 8
11
2
9 6 1 10 13 14
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Description
Borehole Dosing pump Lime tank Cascade aerator Reaction vessel Settling basin Sand filter, primary filtration Sand filter, secondary filtration
Pos.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Description
Backwashing Compressor Dosing pump Chlorine tank Clean-water reservoir Clean-water pump Water tower
tank or direct out to the consumer using special pumping facilities, such as a booster system. Disinfection of waterworks water: Not all countries permit the use of chlorine in drinking water. It often gives a noticeable taste and smell. Chlorine is used in cities in particular, as the drinking water is often extracted from surface water and/or comes from far away. An alternative to disinfection of the water with chlorine that is in use today is ozone treatment and irradiating the water with UV light. See chapter 7. UV and Ozone. Pump choice for treated water: CR or NK type pumps, often several in parallel with cascade operation. With water towers the pumps are level-controlled, and with hydrophores they are pressure-operated. In both cases one or more of the pumps may be frequency-controlled. Corrosion in ground-water-based waterworks: The content of aggressive carbon dioxide in raw water means that it has a low calcium [Ca++], magnesium [Mg++] and bicarbonate [HCO3-] content. In other words, the water is also soft. This type of water can result in corrosion and the consequences are solution of heavy metals in the drinking water. deterioration of the grid network and fittings. At small waterworks the water is generally directed through basic filters that are closed tanks filled with granulated lime (e.g. calcined dolomite). The aggressive water reacts with the lime
and forms bicarbonate in solution, and the pH value increases slightly. The lime gets used up and the tank must be replenished occasionally. At large waterworks the lime is dosed as calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], either in dry form (powder) or in suspension (lime milk), directly into the raw water.
20
The closed sand filter starts with a differential pressure (p), after cleaning, of 0.1 0.2 bar (1.45 2.9 p.s.i.) and finishes with a differential pressure, before cleaning, of ~1.5 bar (21.75 p.s.i.). The filtration rate goes up to 20 m/h, and backwashing is 1.5 to 2 times higher. The diameter ranges from approx. 0.5 m up to approx. 3 m. The material selection is usually glass-fibre reinforced plastic, coated or hot-galvanised sheet steel or stainless steel. Fig. 9 shows a sand filter in a closed tank with accompanying piping and valve battery for routing water flow during operation and cleaning.
works, in certain cases it may be necessary to use dosing pumps, DM. For the clean-water pumps in a small waterworks a cascade setup with frequency control on one or all of the pumps will often be best, particularly if the accompanying pressure storage tank is too small or it does not have one.
CHAPTER
2 4
Backwashing pipe
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Sand Distribution point To sewer Raw water inlet
Pos.
5
Description
Filtered water outlet Direction of filtration Direction of backwashing
Cleaning of sand filter in closed tank: Sand filter tanks are often arranged with several in parallel operation. This makes it possible to backwash or clean one tank, while the others are in operation. If the number of tanks in parallel operation is sufficient, the purified water can be taken from the common collecting pipe and used for the backwashing. If the cleanwater reservoir is too small, and the number of sand filters is also too small, i.e. less than 3 4, it is often necessary to have a separate pump for backwashing, and possibly a compressor. Pump choice for sand filter in closed tank: Pump choice for a small waterworks is SP in the boreholes, CR or CRN in clean-water systems and CLM as backwash pump. As with large water-
21
Natural surface water almost always contains a mixture of dissolved suspended organic and inorganic substances in various quantities. These include salts, plant residues, clay, fertiliser residue, microorganisms, animalcules, humus and all possible decomposition agents from organic material. In addition, modern society contributes to this with various chemicals, sewage, artificial fertilisers and pesticides of all kinds.
and clear and ready to drink, e.g. in the form of a babbling brook or a clear forest or mountain lake.
CHAPTER
22
Rainfall
Percolati o n
Evaporation
Surface flow
1) Lower salt content. 2) Lower total hardness (typically below 10dH). 3) Lower content of iron and manganese. 4) Higher KMnO4 figure (COD and BOD). 5) Higher pH value, generally. 6) Discoloured, bad smell and cloudy.
Sea
The pollution in major rivers around the world, which are widely used for water supply, is for the most part caused by effluent from both households and industry. In the last few decades agriculture has also contributed substantially to this. In some places the pollution in rivers is so severe that all forms of water treatment have been abandoned. It is simply too expensive to clean. Production of drinking water from surface water is, all things being equal, significantly more complicated than production based on ground water. However, surface water can be clean
1) Pumping in of raw water from a river or lake. At the intake for raw water, which is located at or slightly above the bottom, is a coarse filtration system (bar screen with aperture size above 5 mm). 2) On land the raw water is directed to a sedimentation tank equipped with sludge scraper, where particles between 0.1 and 5 mm in size are deposited. See Fig. 11. Retention time 1 2 hours. An alternative to the sedimentation tank is filtration in a rotating drum filter (see 3.3.4 Drum filters) with an aperture size of 100 200 m, possibly followed by another drum filter of 25 40 m. 3) After this, possible pre-chlorination can be carried out.
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Inlet Sludge Sludge scraper
4) Addition of flocculation chemicals (coagulants) for coagulation of colloidal particles in the raw water. The most widely-used flocculation chemicals are aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)], ferric chloride [FeCl3] and various polymers of organic origin. Without the addition of flocculation chemicals, sedimentation of the colloidal particles would be practically impossible. The table below shows the settling time in water for some of the materials that are found in water.
Material
Gravel Coarse sand Fine sand Clay Bacteria Colloids
Size in mm
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
nying dosing equipment. 5) After vigorous stirring the water is directed to a settling basin, possibly equipped with sludge scraper. Retention time is 4 5 hours. These settling basins are also used within other variants of surface-water purification that combine chemical mixing, flocculation and sedimentation in one assembly. See Fig. 12. 6) Following precipitation further pH adjustment is performed before the water is clarified in a sand filter system like the type used for ground water treatment. See section 2.2 Ground water. 7) Unlike ground water treatment, surface water always has a disinfection process added in the final phase before the finished drinking water is pumped to the hydrophore or water tower. It is also fairly common for the treatment to conclude with flavour enhancement. This may involve dosing with potassium permanganate [KMnO4], ozone [O3] or chlorine dioxide [ClO2]. An overall schematic sketch of a system for purification of surface water is shown in Fig. 13 The plant has a capacity of 3,800 m3/h and is located near Paris, obtaining its raw water from the Seine. This is only one example. There are a large number of variants for purification systems for surface water.
CHAPTER
The addition of the flocculating agents results in an increase in the electrical cohesive attraction between the colloids, after which they form flocks, which in turn by means of mass cohesive attraction agglomerate in even larger particles. An explanation for the behaviour of the flocculating agents is that, like the colloids, they are charged ions, but with opposite charge, and therefore form a kind of cement between the colloids (e.g. + +), see section 8.5 Theory: Chemical treatment. The particles enlarged in this way subsequently have an acceptable settling time (3 4 hours). This can also be seen in Stokes Law. A modified version of this is shown below:
The formula shows that the particles settling rate is proportional to the square of the particles radius, which of course is a great advantage seen in the light of the aforementioned formation of flocs and lumps during flocculation.The flocculation takes place during pH adjustment with the accompa-
23
5
CHAPTER
6 8 4 1 10 7 9
Fig. 12: Accelerator in which chemical mixing, flocculation and sedimentation take place.
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Sludge drainage Outlet Drainage Concentrator
Pos.
5 6 7 8
Description
Addition of chemicals Secondary zone Primary mixing and reaction zone Clear water
Pos.
9 10
Description
Inlet Stirrer
2.4.2 Phosphate
When talking about nitrate, phosphate [PO4---] should also be mentioned, as it often occurs together with nitrate, in artificial fertilisers, for instance. In addition, domestic detergents also have a high phosphate content. However, phosphate is transformed more quickly/easily than nitrate on the journey down through the soil layers, and is therefore hardly ever present in ground water. This is not the case with surface water. Here you will find phosphate, which together with all the other substances finds its way via small watercourses and rivers out to the sea, where they cause other kinds of pollution problems.
24
3 Seine river 4 1 2
7 56
10
CHAPTER
14 15 8 9 11 12 13 16 17
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Description
Coarse filtration Macro-filtration (1.5 mm) Preliminary oxidation (chlorine) Reaction vessel Dosing of flocculating agent Auxiliary dosing Addition of active carbon (only in emergencies) Settling tank (with lamella separator) Sand filter
Pos.
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Description
Dosing of flocculating agent Ozoniser Ozon dosing Sand filter pH regulation (dosing) Disinfection (dosing) Clean-water reservoir Pumping out of drinking water
substances every year. It is obviously impossible to keep track of such a large number of chemicals and even more difficult to assign purification methods for just a small portion of them.
for good water quality. The water has an empty taste (flat taste). In addition, the ion-exchange process may risk adding microorganisms to the water, as ion-exchange material (like active carbon) is an excellent breeding ground for microorganisms. In the case of ion exchange it is currently possible to produce ion-specific ion-exchange materials, i.e. the ion exchanger can only remove certain substances, e.g. nitrate. Great things are expected from this process in the future. Reverse osmosis does not remove the nitrate. It ends up together with all the waters other natural salts in a partial current, the concentrate, and is transported to the sewer, for example. The other partial current (permeate/drinking water), which forms the greater part, has become nitrate-free. In denitrification special bacteria are used that can convert nitrate into nitrogen. The nitrogen disappears up into the air, avoiding the problem of effluent. The process requires input of energy in the form of ethanol, methanol or acetic acid. This causes the problem of introducing bacteria into the waterworks operation. The presence of the microorganisms means that the water must be disinfected before distribution to consumers.
25
CHAPTER
26
27
CHAPTER
3. Standard filtration
3.1 Introduction
3. Standard filtration
3.1 Introduction
Standard filtration is a process in which solid particles are separated from either a gas or a liquid. As the topic of this book is water treatment, it only deals with particle separation in liquids. Standard filtration is dead end filtration. See section 5.2 Membrane filtration is cross-flow filtration . solid material is often required to either remove the original liquid and/or flush out any impurities, using another liquid. Many mechanical filters can be reused after having filled up with solid material: The filter can be removed and washed, or backwashing can be carried out with the filtering medium still in place. The latter is called Cleaning In Place (CIP). Smaller types of filter, cartridge filters, are often disposable, i.e. they are replaced with a new one once blocked.
CHAPTER
Pressure filters
Fig. 14: Filtration elements Bag filters Cartidge filters Centrifugal filters Filter presses Leaf filters Sand filters Slot filters
Open filters
Band filters Drum filters Nutsche filters Sand filters
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Liquid with suspension Filter deposits (filter cake) Filter (filtering medium) Purified liquid (filtrate)
Separation in filtration is of a mechanical nature, as solid particles are retained by a porous filtering medium that the liquid is forced through. Driving pressure is required to force the liquid through the filtering medium, i.e. the system needs a pump of a certain size. In a few cases, where there is natural pressure in the system, e.g. from gravitational force, a pump will not be needed. For instance, if the supply is from a higher reservoir. There are other methods for separating solid particles from a liquid, e.g. sedimentation or distillation of the liquid. See chapter 2. Aeration and sand filtration and 6. Distillation. Washing off the filter cake and cleaning the filter: The advantage of standard filtration is that the solid material (on the filter) can be washed. After completion of filtration, flushing out of the
28
3. Standard filtration
3.2 Choice of pump for standard filtration
p0
p1
p2
gle Q-H curve (top right) for a CR pump. In this instance it is a CRN 2-20. From the graph we can see that even the smallest CRN 2 is too big, unless p0 is relatively small and p2 is relatively large, or the excessive head can be restricted over the valve (V) after the pump. The best solution would naturally be a frequencycontrolled pump that makes the valve unnecessary and thus ensures optimal operation without a regulating valve. Example of calculation for choice of pump, small filters: Ex.: p0 = 3 bar (43.5 p.s.i.), p2 = 3.5 bar (50.75 p.s.i.), p = 0.2 bar (2.9 p.s.i.) and Q = 40 l/min. (= 2.4 m3/h). The necessary head for the pump is: H = (3.5 3 + 0.2) x 10.2 = 7.1 m. CRN 2 20 at 2.4 m3/h produces approx. 12 m, i.e. the difference of 4.9 m (= 12 7.1) can subsequently be suitably restricted by the valve V. Fig. 30 shows that it is desirable to follow the differential pressure, p curve, over time. With the valve you can regulate the differential pressure to 0.68 bar (9.86 p.s.i.) (= 0.2 + 4.9/10.2), which will be quite suitable for the filters final state.
CHAPTER
Pos.
p0 p1 p2
Description
Feed pressure Pump pressure System pressure
Pos.
V F
Description
Valve Filter
In Fig.16 we see a Q-p curve for a random selection of filters, all having the same physical dimensions (10), but with different pore sizes, see section 3.4 Theory: Filter flow. It also shows a sin-
P.s.i.
Bar 1.2
0.3 m
0.8
0.5 m 1 m 3 m 5 m 10 m
60
70
80
29
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
This regulation will be economically disadvantageous for the customer. As the customer will hardly want to devote equipment to monitoring the ps progress over time in order to interrupt filtration if the curve shoots up, the supplier recommends an initial differential pressure and a terminal differential pressure. It is often around 1 bar (14.5 p.s.i.), so the slightly larger pump, CRN 2-30, will be more suitable, and the valve V would restrict the pressure even more throughout the entire process. Therefore a decision is often made to install a pump that is slightly too large and accept the fact that the filter will not be running at optimum for the entire processing time. Large filters: For larger filters the frequency-controlled pump solution will naturally be best, as it will be a more economic solution in the long term. Filters for relatively high p values: Many of the standard filters are also available designed for relatively high p values (higher than stated above). For instance, they are available equipped with strong support/stiffening material and can withstand drops in pressure of several bars without breaking down. A special type of filter in this context is the tubular slot filter, see section 3.3.3 Slot-filters. In this type of filter the filter cloth and stiffening material are the same, and the filters degree of fineness is therefore never under 25 m.
CHAPTER
Fig. 17: Cartridge filter: The cartridges are produced either as a compact unit of felt or spun to look like a reel of yarn.
30
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
Types of cartridge filter: Cartridge filters can be surface filters like a filter cloth, but are usually depth filters, i.e. the suspension penetrates the filter element, going in deep, and in this way contributes to a greater extent to the actual filtration. This can be an advantage in itself, but is also a drawback, as it makes the cartridges unsuitable for backwashing or washing. Only in particular instances of shortages of new cartridges, or if economising is necessary, will the cartridges be washed. Cartridge filter materials: The material selection for cartridges covers a huge range. The most common materials are polypropylene, cotton, polyester, nylon and glass-fibre yarn. The wide range of materials for cartridges combined with the fact that the filter housing is also available in a variety of materials means that with regard to corrosion a cartridge filter can almost
always be obtained for any kind of medium. In this context there will often be other components in a specific installation, such as a pump, that will be the limiting factor. Filtration grade of cartridge filters: The filtration grade ranges from a bacteria size of around 0.5 m to around 100 m. From here on it is a matter of sieves, and the filter holes are visible to the naked eye. The curves in Fig. 16 show typical performance curves for a randomly-selected cartridge filter, and the picture in Fig. 19 shows a selection of cartridge filters.
CHAPTER
3
3.3.2 Bag filters 3.3.2.1 Bag filters, general description
When the load is too great for a cartridge filter, i.e. when the medium contains many particles to be filtered, a bag filter is often selected. As well as having a large filter surface, a bag filter also has the capacity to hold a large quantity of dirt in the bottom of the bag. In addition, a bag filter solution is less costly than a cartridge filter solution. Application of bag filters: The spheres of application are the same as for cartridge filters.
31
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
Filtration grade of bag filters: The degree of fineness ranges from approx. 0.5 m to 100 m.
Re-using the filter bag: An interesting feature of a bag filter is that the bag is easy to clean for re-use (5-10 times). Some filter bags can be cleaned in a washing machine. Others cannot, as the fibres break down, affecting the bags filtration properties. Choice of pump for bag filters: The calculation for choice of pump is as for cartridge filters, and as described in section 3.2 Choice of pump for standard filtration.
CHAPTER
3 2
Structure of off-line purification systems: A special kind of application of bag filters is off-line purification in district heating mains. Off-line filters are installed parallel to the main return pipe, and 5 to 10% of the medium is directed through this filter and back into the main pipe. In this way the water in the system is continuously purified of small and medium-sized impurities. To drive the filter process a circulator pump is installed ahead of the filter. Fig. 22 shows a system of this kind. Note: The connections to the district heating main are at the bottom, so that as much dirt as possible comes down into the filter. Installing a permanent magnet (e.g. Neodymium) in the off-line filter clearly increases its efficiency by retaining magnetic and erosive particles generated within the system, i.e. magnetite and small iron particles detached from the pipe system or that come from machining in manufacture or maintenance of the district heating system. Fig. 22 also shows a dosing system for pH regulation of the district-heating water: A dosing pump adds leaching solution or acid controlled by a pH meter with a pH electrode installed in a bypass pipe above the actual filter. Instead of - or, even better - together with a bag filter, it can be advantageous to employ reverse osmosis in off-line filtration of district-heating water. The purpose of this is to reduce the content of dissolved salts.
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Inlet for untreated water Outlet for purified water Basket with filter bag Valve for venting
Structure of bag filters: The bag is a filter cloth (surface filter) shaped like a bag and mounted inside a sturdy filter basket that functions as a support. Fig. 21 shows a sectional drawing of a bag filter: The liquid enters at the top via (1), and is conveyed down into the bag, which is fitted inside the basket (3). After passing through the bag and basket the filtrate leaves the filter at the bottom via (2). At the top is a valve (4) for ventilation of the filter housing prior to commissioning. The largest of the filters is 1.2 m in height and has a filter capacity of approx. 25 m3/h. Bag filters are also supplied in rows, with several bags in a large filter housing. These can easily achieve a capacity of several hundred m3/h. See Fig. 20. Bag filter materials: As with cartridge filters, the filter housings and bags are available in a wide range of materials.
32
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
CHAPTER
3
8 2
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5
Description
Connection at bottom of district heating main Circulator pump Bypass pipe Bag filter Electrode for pH regulation
Pos.
6 7 8
Description
pH-value gauge Dosing pump for addition of leaching solution or acid for regulating pH value for district-heating water Other type of dosing
Advantages of off-line purification systems: An off-line filter offers the following advantages: Removes particles from the system. Extends the life of most installed instruments. Ensures correct readings from instruments and energy gauges. Counteracts erosion in the system. Minimises under-deposit corrosion in the system. Minimises galvanic corrosion in the system. Increases the time between servicing of pumps, thermostats and other components with moving parts. Choice of pump for off-line purification system: A cast-iron pump will be adequate for an off-line filter (the district heating
main is steel piping). The initial differential pressure will typically be 0.1 0.2 bar (1.45 2.9 p.s.i) and the terminal differential pressure, before the bag filter is cleaned or replaced, will be around 1 bar (14.5 p.s.i.). This will mean a diminish-ing flow over time. Users of these systems would like to see a constant flow over time, and frequency-controlled pumps have opened up this possibility.
33
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
Pressure drop
P.s.i. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.6 Bar 0.8
CHAPTER
4 3 2 1
10
15
20
m3/h
Structure of tubular slot filter: Slot filters are usually called tubular slot filters, since for strength reasons they are tubeshaped. The direction of flow in the slotted tube can be either from the outside in or from the inside out. The slots in the tube are wedge-shaped, with the narrower end of the wedge turned towards the liquid stream, see Fig. 23. This minimises the risk of blockage of the slot. Thanks to a very robust construction tubular slot filters can withstand high system pressure. The filter shown in Fig. 23, with stainless-steel housing, can withstand up to 80 bar (1160 p.s.i.). The direction of flow is from the outside in. Filtration grade of tubular slot filters: Tubular slot filters are more of a sieve-type filter, as their degree of fineness ranges from 25 m upwards. Tubular slot-filter materials: The filter housings are often cast iron, steel or stainless steel and the slotted tube is stainless steel. Tubular slot filter curve: The fact that tubular slot filters are open like a sieve means that their Q-p curve does not follow Darcys law, see 3.4 Theory: Filter flow, and have a straight course, but on the contrary follows the law of flow resistance in general, with a parabolic course (p = k x Q2). Fig. 23 shows a tubular slot filter with accompanying Q-p curve, which is distinctly parabolic. Choice of pump for tubular slot filters: Pump calculations do not apply for tubular slot filters, and the pressure drop across the fil-
ter is less important than with other types of filter, as they are easy to dismantle and quick and easy to clean.
34
3. Standard filtration
3.3 Types of filter for standard filtration
mon inlet (1) to the internal sides of a large number of concentrically-positioned slotted tubes (2). The filtrate collects in a large shared chamber (3) and leaves the filter via a common outlet (4). When the pressure drop across the slotted tubes reaches a certain value, or when indicated by a timer, a gear motor located on top of the filter will start the back-flushing: In one tube at a time the filtrate (flushing liquid) is now forced through from the outside in, and takes the dirt with it down through the interior of the tube to a rotating unpressurised port (5) linked to atmospheric pressure. The entire cleaning process takes only 13 sec. (standard setting), during which all the tubes, except the one being back-flushed, will be in normal filtration mode. So the filter can continue normal filtration during the entire backflushing process.
Filtration grade of self-purifying tubular slot filters: Selfpurifying tubular slot filters have a degree of fineness down to approx. 50 m and capacities up to several thousand cubic metres per hour. Pressure drop across the filter: The pressure drop across the filter during operation is between 0.1 bar (1.45 p.s.i.) and 0.5 bar (7.25 p.s.i.). Max. operating pressure: 25 bar (362.5 p.s.i.). Self-purifying tubular slot filter materials: The material selection is stainless steel for the slotted tubes, and welded sheet steel and cast iron for the housing.
CHAPTER
3
3.3.4 Drum filters
Drum filters are often designated continuous rotating filters and, in contrast to older types of filter such as filter presses and leaf filters, which are chargeable working filters, require much less effort. However, they are very costly and are therefore primarily used for large-scale production requiring good utilisation. Application of drum filters: A typical application is filtration of large volumes of surface water and process water in industry, where the water in question is not particularly polluted, as a drum filter is not suitable for slow-filtering liquids. A major reason for this is that the pressure drop across the cloth/sieve can only be measured in a few cm of water column.
2
Structure of drum filters: Fig. 25 shows a simplified diagram of a drum filter. The water is directed into the interior of the drum (1) and filters through the sieve (2) to the external side of the drum, from where it runs away freely. The sieve is kept clean by the sprinklers (3) that continuously backwash it. The dirty backwash water runs away down the channel (4). Choice of pump for drum filters: Pumpwise it is a question of possibly transporting the water to and from the filter drum. Pump requirements will often concern material selection and shaft seal. The latter can be problematic, when the water, as is often the case, contains vegetable fibre. A typical example of this is the paper industry, where large volumes of process and rinsing water are pumped round in connection with production. The Oliver filter: Another type of rotating drum filter is the Oliver filter. In an Oliver filter the drum has a partial vacuum inside, and the cake builds up on the outside of the drum as it rotates, submerged in the liquid to be filtered. The filter is equipped with a scraping device for continuous abrasion of the cake. Sprinklers for continuous washing of the cake can also be fitted.
5 1
Filtering
Back-flushing
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Inlet for untreated water Slotted tube Shared chamber
Pos.
4 5
Description
Outlet for purified water (filtrate) Rotating unpressurised port
35
3. Standard filtration
3.4 Theory: Filter flow
3 2 4
Choice of pump for band filters: The pumps are usually immersible pumps of the SPK or CRK type designed to operate in applications with abrasive particles.
1
CHAPTER
3
Fig. 25: Schematic sketch of drum filter
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Inside of drum Sieve Sprinklers
Pos.
4
Description
Channel for dirty backwash water
Fig. 26: Central system with two bands, holding tank, cooling system and pumps
36
3. Standard filtration
3.4 Theory: Filter flow
characteristics in Q-H curves. The curves are related to individual types of filter with curve variants as a result of: 1. Filter size (area). 2. Liquid temperature. 3. Time for or degree of contamination. Note: Contamination depends on the composition of the feed (suspension) to the filter and the resulting build-up of the filter cake and/or blockage of the actual filtering medium.
CHAPTER
Where: p = pressure drop across the filter [N/m2] = the permeability coefficient (1/ is the filters resistance figure, often designated R) Q = flow through the filter [m3/s] = the liquids dynamic viscosity [kg/ms] t = the filter thickness [m] A = the filter area [m2]. If you look through brochure material for standard filters, you will find this formula in an even more simplified version or merely depicted as simple curves corresponding to installation
<p
In
Pressure drop
ea cr sin g
ea ar
Flow
37
3. Standard filtration
3.4 Theory: Filter flow
<p
Decreasing Pressure drop
g esi
nt
em
e tur era p
Fig. 29: Influence of the filter cake on pressure drop over time
Pressure drop
CHAPTER
Increasing
Flow
<p
g sin
Time
38
3. Standard filtration
3.4 Theory: Filter flow
<p
Pressure drop
Fig. 30: Working area for filter with cumulative filter cake
Working area
CHAPTER
Beginning End
To begin with, the curve rises relatively quickly as the fresh filter rapidly builds up a cake or a slight blockage of the filter medium before subsequently increasing its filtering resistance at a slower rate. When we reach the point where the curve begins to rise sharply, the filter must be replaced, backwashed or washed. Fig. 29 also indicates several filter areas (various A values) to show that a larger filter, for the same capacity, has a longer life: With constant feedwater composition and temperature a specific flow will result in lower filter strain, and consequently slower formation of cake and naturally also slower head-loss increase across the filter. The next curve in this series, Fig. 30, shows the same as Fig. 29, but here an adequate working area for the filter is marked: The actual filtration starts once the filter has built up its initial cake and ends when the pressure drop rises relatively steeply. The corresponding p limits can be appropriately monitored by specially designed pressure alarms. A good pump solution for this kind of filter is a constant-pres-
3 Time
sure-controlled pump. This could be a frequency-controlled pump with a stop/alarm for the upper p limit. The new frequency-controlled pumps open up the possibility of this type of control. The flow of the filtered liquid will usually be controlled by the requirements of the subsequent apparatus and by the inlet pressure to the filter. And it will naturally result in a very variable flow through the filter, and consequently variable strain on the filter. This in itself is undesirable. However, it must be remembered that the quantity of dirt the filter collects in total is unchanged, and only the operating time changes. The previously mentioned phenomenon can be understood by looking at Fig. 31, which is constructed in the same way as Fig. 30: Greater flow through the filter can only be generated by an increased p. This means that the curve will also be higher on the diagram, and the time (T2) that elapses before the upper limit (blockage of filter) is reached is visibly shorter than previously (T1).
<p
Pressure drop
Fig. 31: Increased differential pressure results in comparatively quicker blockage of the filter
T2 T1
Time
39
3. Standard filtration
3.4 Theory: Filter flow
<p
Fig. 32: Pulsating filter operation extends the filters process time
3 Time
3.4.5 Pulsating filter operation
Standard filtration is often called Dead End Filtration, because the suspended particles end up in the filter, unlike membrane filtration (Cross-Flow Filtration), for example. With membrane filtration the flow-off is divided into two streams, whereby the suspended particles are continuously washed away. Nevertheless a little of this rinsing process can be achieved by introducing pulsating filter operation. In this way it is possible to constantly loosen a little of the cake on the filter, which subsequently falls to the bottom of the filter, where it collects in a reservoir. In this way the process is extended, as shown in Fig. 31. The filters process time (before replacement or cleaning) is significantly extended, as shown in Fig. 32. Note: This result can only be achieved with filters where the impurities rest on the surface of the filter, i.e. not with depth filters. A frequency-controlled pump can provide pulsating operation. In the case of operation with several filters in parallel, pulsating operation can be achieved by alternating operation.
40
Pressure drop
CHAPTER
3. Standard filtration
41
CHAPTER
4. Ion exchange
4.1 Definition
4. Ion exchange
4.1 Definition
Ion exchange is a reversible process in which ions are released from an insoluble permanent material (resin) in exchange for other ions in a surrounding solution; the direction of the exchange depends upon the affinities of the ion exchanger for the ions present, and the concentrations of the ions in the solution. Ion Exchange Bed cation + anion resin Simple Ion-Exchange Reaction
Cation Resin Ca2+ Na+ Mg2+ NO3ClH2O CHAnion Resin SO42-
CHAPTER
4.2 Introduction
Even though the principles of ion exchange were discovered and investigated more than 125 years ago and were first used commercially for conditioning of water around 95 years ago (1905), proper application only really got going within the last half of the century. Many natural materials display the ability to exchange ions. These include green sand, clay, sulphonated carbon and peat. Natural soils contain solids with charged sites that exchange ions, and certain minerals called zeolites are quite good exchangers. Ion exchange also takes place in living materials because cell walls, cell membranes, and other structures have charges. In natural water and in wastewater, there are often undesirable ions and some of them may be worth recovering. For example, cadmium ion is dangerous to health but is not usually present in concentrations that would justify recovery. On the other hand, silver ions in photographic waste are not a serious hazard, but their value is quite high. In either case, it makes sense to substitute an ion such as sodium for the ion in the wastewater. However, it was only in 1944, when DAlelio developed the first synthetic ion exchange materials (resins), that modern use of ion exchange really picked up.
H+
been exhausted (saturated), the activity of the resin has to be restored (regenerated) before reuse. See section 4.2.3 Regeneration.
4.2.1 Resins
Resin beads are formed by suspension polymerisation of styrene and divinyl benzene as a cross-linking reagent with an organic peroxide catalyst. Beads 0.5 to 2 mm diameter are formed in this manner. The ion exchange sites are introduced into the beads by a further chemical reaction stage. The resin is contained in a tank or vessel, see Fig. 34, equipped with valves, piping and other components necessary for proper operation. These vessels are commonly referred to as columns. Depending on the type, the raw water is directed through the vessel either from above and down, from the bottom and up or from the middle up and down. Once the resins capacity has
42
4. Ion exchange
4.3 Ion exchange systems for industrial purposes
The cation resin exchanges cations in solution for other cations from the resin. See Fig. 33. In softening, calcium [Ca++] and magnesium [Mg++] are removed from a solution in exchange for a chemically equivalent number of sodium anions [Na+] from the anion exchange resin.
4.2.3 Regeneration
Before reuse the resin must be regenerated using a solution containing the ion initially present in the resin. The basic operating cycle consists of: Service cycle: The solution to be treated is passed through the column until the resin is saturated. Backwash cycle: Water is flushed through the column in reverse direction to the service cycle to redistribute the resin. Regeneration cycle: A solution rich in hydrogen ions [H+] (or [Na+] in case of softening) such as 10% hydrochloric acid [HCl] or 4% sulphuric acid [H2SO4] is passed through the cation resin. The concentration of hydrogen ions in the acid solution is high enough to force any other cations off the resin in preference for the hydrogen ions. The anion resin is treated with 5% sodium hydroxide [NaOH] so that its exchange sites are loaded with hydroxyl ions [OH-]. The direction of flow is generally in reverse of the service cycle. Rinse cycle: Water is passed through the exchanger to remove excess regenerant.
CHAPTER
1 4 6
7 2 8 5 3
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Description
Vessel Inlet for raw water Outlet for treated water Raw water distribution unit Collection conduit for treated water Inlet for regeneration liquid ion exchange resin Base (gravel)
43
4. Ion exchange
4.3 Ion exchange systems for industrial purposes
The installation of mixed-bed ion exchange units after two-bed systems also increases system capacity and further raises water purity. See section 4.3.2 Total desalination of water in mix-bed ion exchanger. Standard packaged deionizers are supplied with either manual or automatic regeneration controls. Standard packaged deionizers are skid-mounted, fully assembled and include the necessary piping and valves to begin immediate operation.
CHAPTER
Raw water Ca(HCO3)2 Mg(HCO3)2 CaSO4 MgSO4 CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl SiO2 H-exchanger
HCl
CO2
NaOH
Deaerator
OH-exchanger
Fig. 35: Schematic sketch of a cation and anion exchanger with CO2 deaerator
44
4. Ion exchange
4.3 Ion exchange systems for industrial purposes
A
Raw water
D
Air
CHAPTER
Treated water
Backwash water
HCl
Air
4
Fig. 36: Cycle in a mix-bed ion exchanger
Pos.
A B C
Description
Operation Seperation (statification) of resin with water Regeneration of anion exchanger using sodium hydroxide
Pos.
D E
Description
Regeration of cation exchange using hydrochloric acid Mixing of resin with air
deposits on the turbine blades), so the ion exchanger contains extra ion exchangers positioned in series for the purpose of reducing the silica content as much as possible.
Fig. 37: Standard ion exchange system for 2 x 10 m3/h for industrial application. The pumps in the foreground ensure the pressure after the deaerator and before the anion exchangers. The pumps are stainless steel, as the water is aggressive.
45
4. Ion exchange
4.3 Ion exchange systems for industrial purposes
Fig. 37: The systems air-operated adjustment valves are partially hidden between the two rows of tanks. There are 12 fibre-glass tanks in total with 4 valves each. Very large ion exchangers: The very large ion exchange systems can be equipped with a large number of parallel and series-connected strong and weak cation exchangers, strong and weak anion exchangers, deaerators and mix-bed ion exchangers, plus traditional treatment of the raw water consisting of a variety of mechanical filtration, flocculation and sedimentation. This can result in demineralised water of a high quality: conductivity of 0.05 0.1 S/cm a silica [SiO2] content of 5 55 g/l, and a pH value of 7. The capacity of large systems can be up to several hundred cubic metres per hour.
4 2 8 7
CHAPTER
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Description
Inlet for raw water Outlet for purified water Valve for used ion exchange resin Valve for regenerated resin Inlet for regeneration liquid Tank for ion exchange Flushing tank Tank for regeneration of ion exchange resin
fluidisation in countercurrent, it receives the regeneration liquid from above via a pipe (5). The regenerated resin is conveyed via a valve (4) into the flushing tank (7), where an upward water flow rinses the ion exchange resin clean of residue of regeneration liquid and impurities. The contaminated rinsing water leaves the system out above the large pipe (above 7). The ion exchange resin subsequently sinks down past the ball (below 7) and ends up, still fluidising, in the tank (6) where the actual ion exchange takes place. In the tank (6) the resin settles in countercurrent with the raw water, which is added to the system via a pipe (1). Finally the resin is conveyed via a valve (3) back to its starting point in the regeneration tank (8). The purified water (deionate) is drawn off via a pipe (2). To ensure that the CIE systems extra sub-processes (fluidisation, liquid flow and separation) proceed satisfactorily, setting up the system must be carried out with greater precision than is
46
4. Ion exchange
4.4 Pumps in ion exchange systems
The filtration rate is very wide-ranging: From 2 m/h for raw water with a high salt content to 80 m/h for condensate that only requires supplementary purification (polishing). If the flow varies, and there is no storage tank for purified ewater, it can be advantageous to use a frequency-controlled pump.
CHAPTER
Stainless steel or titanium pumps if the liquid does not contain acid, otherwise a composite pump should be used. The pressure is fairly low and the flow depends on the type of system. The pump can be controlled in accordance with level in chemical tank. An ejector driven by the regeneration water (deionate is normally used for this) sucks chemical solution from a tank. The pump that powers the ejector must provide additional pressure compared to the pump mentioned above. To have optimum control of the quantity of regeneration chemicals for the ion exchanger, dosing pumps are often used. The dosing quantity can be altered according to varying requirements, e.g. for varied raw water composition. Optimum automatic operation of the ion exchange system can be achieved by using programmable dosing pumps.
47
5. Membrane filtration
5.1. Introduction
5. Membrane filtration
5.1 Introduction
Membrane filtration is physical separation of a substance by means of a semi-permeable membrane. The presence of a gradient, i.e. a propelling force, across the membrane drives the process. The propelling force can be electrical, chemical or may use pressure. This force pushes the smallest molecules (the substances building blocks) in a given solution through the membrane and keeps back the larger molecules. Membrane filtration has been known for many years, but was not worked on seriously until after 1960. The reason was that until that time the membranes would block up to a great extent or foul, as it is called in technical jargon, when a layer builds up on membranes. In addition, the familiar membrane materials in chemical terms were so sensitive that they were practically impossible to clean. In 1960 two students, Loeb and Sourirajan, at the University of California successfully produced membranes of cellulose acetate. These membranes showed satisfactory retention (filtration ability) of various salt solutions, and the capacity was also acceptable.
3 4
5 1 2
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Membrane Porous base Raw water
Pos.
4 5
Description
Permeate Concentrate
CHAPTER
48
5. Membrane filtration
5.5 Types of membrane filtration
Cathode (-)
Na+ Na+
Na Na+ Na
+
Cl-
Cl- Na
Cl
Cl
Na
+ -
ClCl
+
ClNa+ Na
+
Membrane
Cl
-
Na Na
Concentrate
Cation -Transfer Membrane Anode (+)
CHAPTER
Cl
Na Na+
Na
Na
barriers are commonly known as ion-exchange, ion-selective or electrodialysis membranes. See Fig. 40. One of the problems in water desalination processes is that membranes and other active surfaces tend to become fouled or scaled over time by organic and inorganic substances present in the water. The electrodialysis reversal (EDR) process was developed and introduced by Ionics in the early 1970s to deal with this problem. By reversing the electrical current and exchanging the fresh product water and the concentrate wastewater streams within the membrane stack several times per hour, fouling and scaling constituents that build up on the membrane surface in one cycle are removed in the next reversing cycle. This process was formerly very widely used for drinking-water production, but due to the high electricity consumption and corrosion problems it has now been replaced by reverse osmosis.
49
5. Membrane filtration
5.5 Types of membrane filtration
The chart in Fig. 42 shows the ion/particle sizes and typical media that fall within each of the four types of membrane filtration. For the sake of comparison standard filtration, particle filtration, as described in chapter 3. Standard filtration, has also been included. Ion exchange belongs to the left of the superfine filtration, which involves sizes of less than 1 millionth of 1 mm (1 nanometer). Fig. 43 also shows a comparison of the four types of membrane filtration. You can see what is retained and what goes through the membrane. Another parameter that distinguishes the four types of membrane filtration from one another is the pressure under which they normally operate. Fig. 41 shows four curves, one for each type, where the flux (the capacity of purified water, permeate, measured in l/m2 membrane per hour) is depicted as a function of the feed pressure. In the case of micro filtration (MF) and ultra filtration (UF) the optimum pressure (1 and 4 5 bar (14,5 and 58 72.5 p.s.i.)) can also be observed, while nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) come much higher up (20 40 bar (290 580 p.s.i.) and 40 100 bar (580 1450 p.s.i.). Above the optimum pressure clogging of pores occurs and the membrane is compacted.
10
Flux (l/m2/h)
RO NF
8 6
UF 4 2 0 MF 0 0 2 30 4 60 6 90 8 120 10 145
Bar P.s.i.
Pressure Fig. 41: Flux as a function of pressure for the four types of membrane filtration
CHAPTER
Optical Microscopy
Macro Molecular Micro Particle Range Range
10-1 10 104 105
Molecular Range
10-2
Angstrom
10
102
103 500000
Latex Emulsions Oil Emulsions Sugars Carbon Black Endotoxins (Pyrogen) Virus Soluble Salts (Ions) Mycoplasm Colloids Metal Ions Reverse Osmosis Nanofiltration Ultrafiltration Note: 1 Angstrom Unit = 10-10 Meters = 10-4 Micrometers (Microns) Particle filtration Proteins / Enzymes Microfiltration Bacteria Red Blood Ceels Human Hair Point Pigment Yeast Cells
Sand
Fig. 42: Comparison of filtration grade for the different types of membrane filtration
50
5. Membrane filtration
5.6 Membrane filtration modules
Fig. 43: Comparison of filtration grade for the four types of membrane filtration
Membrane
5
Micro Filtration (0.2-4 bar / 2.9 58 p.s.i.)
Water
Salts
Molecules
Particles
Membrane
51
5. Membrane filtration
5.6 Membrane filtration modules
Application: The tubular module is used in the food-processing industry, as the system is easy to clean. Due to the tube-shaped membranes the pressure drop, even with a flow rate of 6 m/s, will be limited, and it will therefore also be possible to filter viscous liquids. Drawbacks are that the system requires a high volume flow rate, is not particularly compact and has a high price per installed square metre of membrane.
Structure: Hollow fiber modules consist of numerous small tubes with diameters ranging from less than 1/10 mm up to several mm and so the direction of flow of the permeate can also be in both directions. The completed system consists of large bundles of these small tubes, set up in larger pressure vessels. See Fig. 45. The system has very high integrity with up to several thousand square metres of membrane surface per cubic metre. The pressure drop in the raw water concentrate direction is as low as for the tubular module. The module can tolerate backwashing, i.e. against normal permeate flow direction. Therefore it is often easier to clean than other module types, which cannot tolerate this treatment without the membranes being damaged. Application: The hollow fiber module is very popular within drinking-water production.
CHAPTER
6
Fig. 44: Tubular module
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Inlet for raw water Perforated tube Porous base
Pos.
4 5 6
Description
Outlet for permeate Membrane Outlet for concentrate
2 5
3 1
5 6
Fig. 45: Hollow fiber module
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Inlet for raw water Outlet for permeate Outlet for concentrate
Pos.
4 5 6
Description
Fibre support Hollow fibres Pressure vessel
52
5. Membrane filtration
5.6 Membrane filtration modules
7 7
8 2 3 2
1 9 10 4 11 10 5 12
CHAPTER
6
Fig. 46: Spiral wound module
5
Pos.
6 7 8 9
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5
Description
Inlet for raw water Outlet for concentrate Outlet for permeate Flow direction for raw water Flow direction for permeate
Description
External housing cover (sleeve) Seal ring between module and pressure vessel Perforation in central pipe Concentrate spacer
Pos.
10 11 12
Description
Membrane Permeate spacer Glue joint of envelope
The modules are installed in series of up to 7 in a pressure tube, pressure vessel. This is crucial in order for the modules to be able to withstand the often very high system pressures. Fig. 46 shows a cross section of a coiled spiral wound module. During operation the raw water is directed into the end of the module and flows axially through the module in the aforementioned spacers. The permeate penetrates the membranes and into the spacer inside the envelopes, where it flows in a spiral until it reaches the central permeate pipe, from which the permeate can be drained from the ends (3). As the spacers in the module are not very thick (0.75 2.2 mm), and the meshing in the spacer produces great resistance, the flow resistance is very high.
53
5. Membrane filtration
5.6 Membrane filtration modules
Feed Permeate
Drain Holes Down Fig. 47: Pressure vessel for spiral wound modules
Fig. 47 shows a complete standard pressure vessel of glass-fibre reinforced plastic for 8 (200 mm) spiral wound modules including two supports. Application: Spiral wound is the most widespread membrane filter module within water treatment.
The flow rate across the membranes falls somewhere between the rates for spiral wound and tubular modules, i.e. around 3 m/s. As the pressure drop across the membranes is relatively large, the module is divided into several parallel courses, so you achieve greater raw water flow and a lower pressure drop. The fact that the liquid flows fairly easily across the membranes means that the plate and frame module is more suitable for viscous liquids than, for example, the spiral wound module.
5
2
4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 1
Pos. Description
1 2 3 Inlet for raw water Outlet for concentrate Outlet for permeate
Pos. Description
4 5 Spacer with flow channels Perforated membrane support plate
54
5. Membrane filtration
5.7 Membrane filtration systems
Application: Sanitary purposes, e.g. within the food-processing industry, as the membranes are easier to clean after use. One market where plate and frame systems are currently in evidence is for clarification of process water and process wastewater.
A membrane must be kept clean by means of a certain flow rate across the membrane. The flow supplied by the feed pump, see Fig. 49, is not always sufficient. Therefore an extra pump, with greater flow than the feed pump, is often incorporated. This pump is called a recirculation pump, see Fig. 50. Increased flow can also be established by conveying some of the concentrate back to the suction side of the feed pump. In this instance the feed pump must be made correspondingly larger in flow terms. The system shown in Fig. 49 is very widely used for nano-filtration and reverse osmosis. The system in Fig. 50 is mostly used for micro filtration and ultra filtration, where the water often displays a greater tendency for fouling. See section 5.10.4 Membrane capacity. Recirculation is also used because it makes the system more flexible, so it is better able to tackle variations in capacity and chemical composition of the raw water. For example, reduction of the raw water flow with capacity control will be less significant for maintaining the necessary flow across the membrane. In reverse osmosis systems for sea water it is unnecessary to have recirculation pumps. The water utilisation factor (permeate flow/raw water flow) here is so low (~ 0.3) that the flush flow, even in a long series of modules (6 7), is still adequate in the last module in the series.
CHAPTER
5 4
5 4
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Feed pump Recirculation pump Membranes (modules)
Pos.
4 5
Description
Concentrate pressure relief valve Permeate
Another type of layout for modules/pressure vessels is a series of loops, where several successive groups of parallel runs are positioned in series. Each of the parallel groups has its own recirculation pump. This setup is widely used in ultra filtration for very polluted liquids, where very high concentrations are also required. Fig. 52 shows a system like this consisting of a feed section and three loops.
55
5. Membrane filtration
5.7 Membrane filtration systems
Permeate
Feed
Boost
Boost
Concentrate
CHAPTER
Fig. 51: Membrane filtration: Pressure vessels in Christmas tree layout
5
5.7.4 Calculations for membrane filtration systems
There are computer programs available for calculations for membrane filtration systems. However, they are only valid for nano-filtration and reverse osmosis systems. Many membrane suppliers send out diskettes with this type of calculation program at regular intervals. Information on raw water analysis, required capacity, water utilisation factor, temperature and estimated number of filtration modules is entered in the program. The program will then state raw water flow, raw water pressure, pressure drop across modules and chemical composition of permeate and concentrate.
Permeate
Feed
Loop
Loop
Loop
Concentrate
Fig. 52: Membrane filtration with loops
56
5. Membrane filtration
5.8 Pumps in membrane filtration
the chemical industry and others. Titanium is offered by Grundfos in the CRT range and would be an excellent alternative for reverse osmosis systems for brackish water, where the pressure is generally below 30 bar (435 p.s.i.). For reverse osmosis systems for sea water with a feed pressure above 40 bar (580 p.s.i.), Grundfos offers the BM and BMET ranges in 904 L (indicated by R). Shaft seals: Shaft seals for reverse osmosis of brackish water rarely cause major problems. In the event of crystallisation on the atmospheric side of the seal, a Grundfos type Q (Quench) shaft seal with external flushing can be used. In the case of the BM range, the pump is hermetically sealed in a stainless steel sleeve. Micro and ultra filtration systems operate in the range from 1 - 6 bar (14.5 87 p.s.i.), see Fig. 41, and often with recirculation, see Fig. 50 and 52, while nano-filtration and reverse osmosis go right up to 100 bar (1450 p.s.i.) pressure.
CHAPTER
Fig. 53: Membrane system for filtration of brewery wastewater including two dosing systems
57
5. Membrane filtration
5.8 Pumps in membrane filtration
2 1
5 6 7 8 9 10
12
11
14
13
Fig. 54: Reverse osmosis system for brackish water with sand filter (preliminary filtration) and recirculation
Pos.
CHAPTER
1 2 3 4 5
Description
Raw water pump Dosing of flocculating agent Sand filter Dosing of acid Dosing of antiscaling agent
Pos.
6 7 8 9 10
Description
Microfilter (e.g. bag filter) High-pressure feed-water pump Feed-pressure control valve Recirculation pump Modules/pressure vessels
Pos.
11 12 13 14
Description
Concentrate pressure relief valve Dosing of leaching solution (for adjustment of pH valve) Permeate tank Permeate pump
across the recirculation pump will, as stated above, be included in the computer calculation. Friction loss is not added to the computer calculation, so this must be included in the total calculation for the system. Many manufacturers neglect using a recirculation pump. In this case it is the high-pressure feed-water pump that must be able to achieve a discharge pressure equal to the calculated inlet pressure on the membranes. Dosing pumps: Most membrane filtration systems, like the system shown, include several dosing pumps. Fig. 54 shows the following four dosing points: dosing of flocculating agent before sand filter (2) dosing of acid and anti-scaling agent after sand filter (4, 5), and adjustment of pH value with leaching agent (sodium hydroxide) in the permeate (12). Several of the dosing pumps shown could advantageously be controlled by either flow or pH value. Capacity regulation: If you wish to regulate the capacity of a system as shown in Fig. 54, there are two options: by means of a pressure control valve (pos. 8) on the discharge side of the high-pressure feed-water pump. by means of a frequency-controlled high-pressure feedwater pump, e.g. controlled by the permeate flow or by a level transmitter in the permeate tank.
58
5. Membrane filtration
5.9 Membrane filtration of sea water
a pressure release valve or to an energy recovery system. After this the unpressurised concentrate is conducted back to the sea.
6 5 4
2 3
3
CHAPTER
5 4
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Description
Sand filter (preliminary filter) Dosing unit Stand with feet pump and recirculation pump CIP tank Pressure vessel with actual membrane filter Control panel
5
Fig. 56: Reverse osmosis system without ERT, Energy Recovery Turbine
1 5 7 6
Fig. 57: Reverse osmosis system with ERT, Energy Recovery Turbine
Pos.
1 3 4
Description
Main pump (BME) Membranes Concentrate relief valve
Pos.
5 6 7
Description
Permeate Turbine Turbine-operated pump (BMT)
59
5. Membrane filtration
5.10 Theory: Membrane filtration
Fig. 56 and 57 are diagrams of a simplified reverse osmosis system for salt water with and without energy recovery for the concentrate. The energy recovery process shown follows the ERT principle, Energy Recovery Turbine, where a turbine is driven by the concentrate. The turbine either powers a separate feedwater pump, e.g. Grundfos BMET, or supplements the motor for the main pump, i.e. pulls on the same pump shaft. Energy consumption without and with ERT system is as follows:
Pump/system type
Piston pumps Centrifugal pumps ERT system, dependent on size of centrifugal pump
Energy consumption
From approx. 7.5 kWh per m3 permeate 9 10 kWh per m3 permeate 5 7 kWh per m3 permeate
CHAPTER
Fig. 58: Reverse osmosis system built into a container with a Grundfos BMET pump
tration on the other hand. Micro and ultra filtration are similar to standard filtration and follow Darcys law, as described under chapter 3. Standard filtration, while nano and reverse osmosis filtration are also dependent on the osmotic pressure of the liquid.
Where: Jw is the liquids (waters) flux (capacity measured in l/m2/h) C is a constant is the liquids viscosity p is the pressure drop through the membrane (p = pump pressure permeate pressure (~ 0))
60
5. Membrane filtration
5.10 Theory: Membrane filtration
The equation expresses the fact that the pressure drop through the membrane is directly proportional to the flux and viscosity. It can be said that micro and ultra filtration proceed like standard filtration, but in contrast to this they handle much finer grain sizes. It is a question of molecule sizes, i.e. large molecules like proteins and carbohydrates (e.g. starch and sugar).
semi-permeable membrane in an attempt to equalise the difference in concentration. As the membrane is not permeable for salt the difference in concentration cannot be equalised by the salt from the solution in the right side pushing through the membrane and mixing with the pure water. This phenomenon is called osmosis and, as mentioned previously, is a natural phenomenon. After a while the process will come to a standstill and a state of equilibrium will occur. The difference in the level of the two liquid levels is designated the osmotic pressure head () or the osmotic pressure for the salt solution in question in relation to water. If hydraulic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure () is exerted on the salt solution (see the beaker on the right), the process will reverse and go in the opposite direction, i.e. the pure water will leave the salt solution and the liquid level of the pure water on the left side of the membrane will rise. This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis and does not occur naturally.
CHAPTER
The liquid flow in nano and reverse osmosis filtration can be expressed by the following equation:
Reverse Osmosis
61
5. Membrane filtration
5.10 Theory: Membrane filtration
The viscosity dependence is gone, and instead , which is the difference in osmotic pressure on the feed water and the permeate, appears. A is a constant. The viscosity will naturally also have an effect on nano and reverse osmosis filtration, but this will only be reflected in the pressure drop across the membrane, i.e. in the feed water concentrate direction. Retention of dissolved substances: Jw is the flux of the pure water (water flux), which goes through the membrane, but a little of the dissolved substance also goes through the membrane with the water. In nano-filtration quite a lot of the dissolved substance may go through with the water, while in reverse osmosis, which is a much denser membrane, only a little goes through. Common salt [NaCl] is at around 50% with nanofiltration and around 2% with reverse osmosis. This property is called retention of dissolved substances or ions. Retention (filtering ability) for various other substances is shown in Fig. 42 and 43.
Max. operating pressure [bar] Max. operating temperature [C] Max. tolerance to chlorine [mg/l] Max. turbidity in feed water [NTU] Max. undissolved substance in feed water [SDI] Membrane type Minimum salt retention in % measured in chloride [Cl-] pH value limits Type designation Typical salt retention in % measured in chloride [Cl-].
The technical specifications for a nano-filters membrane are often supplemented by information on retention of larger molecules, such as sodium nitrate, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium sulphate and glucose.
CHAPTER
It is by and large true that the membrane capacity (flux) for nano and reverse osmosis filtration depends on the feed pressure and the osmotic pressure in the solution and the retention depends on physical conditions in the membrane (its density).
Permeate
Feed
Brine (concentrate)
62
5. Membrane filtration
5.10 Theory: Membrane filtration
Lith Sod ium ium chlo chl ride orid Sea wa e ter Eth yl a lco ho l
P.s.i.
Bar
p ha te
580
40
Osmotic pressure
435
30
290
20
145
10
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Suc ros e
Zin c
CHAPTER
It is not just concentrations and membrane conditions that determine the capacity, not in the long term anyway. In every form of membrane filtration concentration of the raw water across the membrane takes place, and solutions thus approaching their saturation point will display a tendency to deposit. Across the membrane the pure water will leave the solution to continue more or less alone through the membrane, and the solution remaining will therefore be even more concentrated. The result is (can be) precipitation of solid substances across the membrane. In nano and reverse osmosis filtration this is called scaling, and in micro and ultra filtration fouling. Scaling is often a hard layer of lime and gypsum, while fouling passes more into a softer layer (sludge) of the substance that may now be in the solution. With both types the result is reduced capacity over time. Once the capacity becomes too low, CIP-type cleaning must be carried out by recirculation of a cleaning agent, which can be acid, leaching solution, detergents (surfactants) or enzymes. With nano and reverse osmosis filtration it is possible to extend
the intervals between CIP by dosing the anti-scaling agents into the feed water. Computer programs are available for calculating the dosing quantity of anti-scaling agent based on water analyses, raw water flow and concentration grade.
63
6. Distillation
6.1 Definition
6. Distillation
6.1 Definition
Distillation refers to a process where concentration intensification takes place in a solution, as the solvent is removed by boiling off. The boiled-off solvent is subsequently condensed on a cold surface and is collected. With water treatment the solvent will be water and the solution will normally be salt water. In an industrial enterprise the solution may be effluent, from which the water is evaporated, for recovery for process water, for instance. Other types of solution, where the solvent is not water, fall outside the subject of water treatment. water, exhaust gas and waste steam from a thermal electricity generating station. There are other types that use vapour compression in a singlestage or multi-stage system, and even in combination with input of thermal energy. With the latter the steam is added by a steam ejector, which simultaneously sucks in and compresses the low-pressure steam that comes from the last stage in the multi-stage system.
CHAPTER
64
6. Distillation
6.3. Distillation systems
Degassing 1 Draining
Seawater
B 7 A
Vapour
11
10
13
12 6
3 9
Seawater
Fig. 62: Diagram of distillation system with steam compression, type VVC
CHAPTER
Pos.
1 A B 2 3
Description
Distillation boiler (consisting of A + B) Evaporation chamber Condensation chamber Brine circulation pump Brine transport pump (blow down pump)
Pos.
4 5 6 7 8 9
Description
Stream compressor Vacuum system Distillate pump Condenser for ventilation Brine/sea water preheater Distillate/sea water preheater
Pos.
10 11 12 13
Description
Electric heater (only for start-up of system) Automatic self-purifying filter (0.5 mm) Anti-scaling dosing unit Control panel
Fig. 63: VVC distillation system for 400 m3 drinking water per 24 hours
65
6. Distillation
6.4 Pumps in distillation systems
CHAPTER
66
6. Distillation
6.5 Theory: Distillation
Under these conditions (low pressure and relatively high temperature) the pump must run slowly and have good flow conditions. The following are recommended: Speed: Max. 1,400 min-1 (i.e. a pump with disproportionately large dimensions) Flow rate: Max. 0.5 m/s in delivery pipe. Piping: Reduction of pipe diameter just before pump. NPSH: 0.5 2 m. Material selection: The medium contains up to approx. 10% salt at approx. 50C, and stainless steel type 904 L and sea water-resistant bronze can be used. In practice stainless steel of the type AISI 316 L is used. The reason that this is possible is probably that the brine is deficient in oxygen due to the deaeration that takes place during the evacuation. In addition, the corrosion hazard to stainless steel peaks at a salt content of around 5%. With distillation of salt water the salt content in the brine is typically above 5%. Shaft seals function well, even standard versions. Only in rare instances have double seals with barrier fluid (type Q - Quench) been used. Pump type: Can be CRN, CRT and NK in bronze.
pump must be able to produce 0.2 800 m3/h, and the head will often be a few metres. Material selection: The material selection is generally bronze, but stainless steel is also used, type AISI 304. Pump type: Can be NK, CRN and CHI. Shaft seals in standard version.
CHAPTER
67
6. Distillation
6.5 Theory: Distillation
Where Q is the quantity of heat [kWh (Kcal)] is the time unit [hours] U is the thermal transmittance [KWh (Kcal) /m2 x h x C] A is the area of the heating surface [m2] t is the temperature difference across the heating surface [C]
6.5.3 Distillation system with steam compression, type VVC 6.5.1 Schematic sketch of single-stage distillation system
It is different with distillation systems where mechanical steam compression is used, see Fig. 67. A single-stage system produces 1 m3 drinking water for approx. 11 kWh, and a threestage system produces 1 m3 for approx. 8 kWh. Distillation systems can achieve high levels of efficiency, equivalent to reverse osmosis systems. Mode of operation: See Fig. 67. The steam from the steam zone (4) is compressed in the compressor (5), increasing the temperature of the steam. In the heat exchanger (6) the steam condenses at the same time as the brine is heated for boiling in the boiling zone (3). The recirculation pump (2) recirculates a mixture of brine and salt water (1). Drinking water is removed via a pipe (7), and excess brine is removed via a pipe (8). The ratio between drinking water and brine is typically one to one, i.e. the water utilisation ratio is 50%. The schematic sketch does not show all necessary pumps and external heat exchangers. See these in Fig. 62.
7
CHAPTER
1 3 5 6 2 4
Fig. 65: Schematic sketch of single-stage distillation system. Energy consumption: Approx. 750 kWh/m3 distillate
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Description
Inlet for salt water Salt water for evaporation Excess of salt water Drain for concentrated salt water (brine) Drain for distillate (drinking water) Input of heating medium Outlet for non-condensable gases
68
6. Distillation
6.5 Theory: Distillation
9
Steam
6 8
10
7
Seawater inlet
1 3
Distillate
Condensate
5 4
Brine
Fig. 66: Multi-effect distillation system, type MED, with two stages
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5
Description
Heat exchanger Condenser Distillate pump Brine pump Condensate pump
Pos.
6 7 8 9 10
Description
Feed-water pump Ejector pump Feed-water filter Dosing system Air ejector
CHAPTER
4 1 3 6
Pos.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Description
Inlet for salt water Recirculation pump Boiling zone Steam zone Steam compressor Heat exchanger Outlet for drinking water Outlet for brine
7 8
69
7. UV and ozone
7.1 Introduction
7. UV and ozone
7.1 Introduction
UV refers to water treatment by means of irradiation with ultraviolet light, and ozone refers to water treatment by dosing of O3 (ozone). UV and ozone can be used for disinfection of water, i.e. to kill the microorganisms that are present in almost all types of surface water, and, in rarer cases, also in ground water. The presence of microorganisms will generally impair the quality of the water. Drinking water may become undrinkable, even directly toxic. UV is often used in combination with reverse osmosis and ion exchange for production of ultra-pure water for use in the pharmaceutical industry, for example. There are a number of different alternatives for disinfection of water, such as ... 1. removal of microorganisms by filtration, e.g. micro filtration and slow sand filtration. 2. inactivation of microorganisms by chemical means, e.g. treatment with chlorine, chlorine dioxide and ozone. 3. inactivation of microorganisms by physical means, e.g. boiling and UV irradiation. Filtration through micro filters and sand filtration, pt. 1, and dosing of chlorine and chlorine dioxide, pt. 2, are dealt with under chapters 2, 3 ,5 and 8.
CHAPTER
7.5 UV systems
Fig. 68 shows a sectional drawing of a U-shaped UV irradiation chamber with a UV lamp in each branch of the U-pipe. The actual lamp is either like an ordinary fluorescent tube (low-pressure mercury lamp), but without the fluorescent coating on the internal side of the tube, so the UV light escapes directly, or a
70
7. UV and ozone
7.6 Ozone systems
1 2
3 4 5 6 7
special version (medium-pressure mercury lamp). The lamp is installed in a protective tube of quartz glass. The water to be irradiated flows around the protective tube at a depth of only a few cm. Greater depths can cause problems with the penetration capability due to possible cloudy water. A photoelectric cell is mounted alongside the outer tube (external wall), to monitor the light intensity of the lamp and report if either the light intensity is too weak (cleaning of quartz tube necessary) or the lamp is not lighting at all (replacement). In large systems many lamps are positioned in parallel operation in the same pipe or housing.
4 5 8
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Plug Protective cap Turbulence device UV lamp
Pos.
5 6 7 8
Description
Quartz tube Photoelectric cell Irradiation chamber External wall
As with UV apparatus, ozone elements are integrated in larger units in parallel operation for greater capacities. Fig. 70 shows a unit like this with the elements positioned as a tube bundle in a drum-shaped container. The capacity is 15 25 kg ozone/h, depending on supply of air or oxygen.
CHAPTER
Pos.
1 2 3
Description
Gap between the two electrodes Central pipe electrode Electrode Dielectric medium between the two electrodes Gap between the two electrodes Removal of ozone-containing air and oxygen Cooling water
HV 1
4 5 6 7
71
7. UV and ozone
7.7 Pumps in UV and ozone systems
HV 4
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Inlet for air or oxygen Outlet for ozone-containing air or oxygen Inlet for cooling water Outlet for cooling water
Fig. 70: Large unit with ozoniser elements positioned as a tube bundle in a drum-shaped container
Description of the U-tube reactor ozone system: The U-tube reactor is constructed from two concentric pipes, see Fig. 71. The raw water enters the system at (6) via a pipe and has an ozone/air mixture added via the nozzles (3). During the descent through the pipe (1) the gas bubbles will become less and less due to the increasing static pressure in the water.
By these means a gas/water emulsion with good contact area between water and ozone is achieved. After leaving the inner pipe (4) water and gas rise in the outer pipe (2), where the bubbles become larger and larger before finally being released at the surface (5). The ozone-treated water flows from the system via a pipe (7). For the system to run at optimum the relations between the downward rate in the inner pipe, the gas/water ratio and the pressure drop through the entire system must be precisely adapted. It is therefore necessary to have a recirculation pump positioned between outlet (7) and inlet (6) to keep a constant flow. Without this the system would not be able to operate satisfactorily with varying loads.
CHAPTER
6
Pos.
1 2 3 4
Description
Pipe Water and gas rise in the outer pipe Nozzle for ozone/air mixture Water and gas leaves the inner pipe Surface Inlet for raw water Outlet for ozone-treated water
5 6 7
72
7. UV and ozone
7.8 Theory: UV and ozone
The pumps are usually transport pumps, as the drops in pressure through the systems are slight. If ozone residue is present in the water around rubber components in the pump (including shaft seals) elastomers resistant to ozone should be selected.
7.8.2 Ozone
Ozone is an unstable gas created by the effect of oxygen in a powerful electric field. By supplying a high voltage (up to 20 kV) from a generator, an electric field (corona) is formed between two electrodes, by which means dry oxygen [O2], which is passed between the electrodes (plates), undergoes a partial separation into atoms [O] and almost immediately after combines in threes to form ozone [O3]. The disinfecting influence is due to the fact that ozone (like chlorine) has powerful oxidising properties that cause all organic material to decompose, including infectious bacteria. The normal ozone dosage in drinking water is up to 0.4 g/m3, and for river water up to 2 g/m3. With it the energy consumption is significantly greater than with application of UV irradiation (approx. 0.02 kWh/m3 water against approx. 0.001 for UV). However, ozones disinfecting properties are also much greater than those of UV irradiation.
CHAPTER
ionizing radiation
optical radiation
radioradiation
7
nm cosmic rays gamma rays x-rays ultra rays light m infrared mm m radio waves km wavelength
UV - C
UV - B
UV - A
280
315
Fig. 72: The ultraviolet spectrum compared with other electromagnetic waves
73
Chemicals
Aluminium sulphate (alum), [Al2(SO4)3] Polyaluminiumchloride (PAC) Ferric chloride, [FeCl3] Iron sulphate, [Fe2(SO4)3] Cationic polymer (e.g. polydimethyl-diallyl-ammonium chloride) Anionic polymer (e.g. polycarboxylates) Noionic polymer (e.g. polyacrylamides)
CHAPTER
Disinfectants:
Chemicals
Sodium hypochlorite, [NaClO] Sodium chlorite, [NaClO2] Ammonium sulphate, [(NH4)2SO4] Calcium hypochlorite, [Ca(ClO)2] Sodium hydrogensulphite, [NaHSO3] (preservation) Quaternary ammonium compounds Diverse biocides (e.g. bromine compounds)
74
pH control:
Chemicals
Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), [Ca(OH)2] Soda lye (sodium hydroxide), [NaOH] Sodium carbonate, [Na2CO3] Sulphuric acid, [H2SO4] Hydrochloric acid, [HCl]
Chemicals
Potassium permanganate, [KMnO4]
Corrosion control:
Chemicals
Zinc orthophosphate Soda lye (sodum hydroxide) [NaOH]
Chemicals
Fluosilicic acid, [H2SiF6] Sodium fluoride, [NaF] Sodium fluorosilicate, [Na2SiF6] Solution of sodium, potassium and iodate salts
Algae control:
Chemicals
Copper sulphate, [CuSO4]
CHAPTER
Scaling control:
Chemicals
Sodium hexametaphosphate, [NaPO3]6 Trisodium phosphate, [Na3PO4]
Chemicals
Sodium hydroxide Hydrochloric acid Salt (saturated NaCl-solution, brine)
75
Chemicals
Biocide: - Sodium hypochlorite - Benz-iso-thiazolinon - Poly-hexamethylene-biguanide Corrosion inhibitor: - Zinc salts - Phosphonates - Polycarboxylates - Tolytriazole (TTA)
Chemicals
Scaling control: - Tannins - Phosphates Oxygen scavenger: - Sulphites Corrosion inhibitors: - Sodium hydroxide - Amines - Phosphonates
Before designing a dosing unit, it is important to find out about the quality of the raw water (composition), the requirements for the finished water and this waters ability for being treated at all. These factors will determine what type(s) of chemicals must be used, and how much must be dosed into the raw water (e.g. in mg/l). Many suppliers of chemicals have simple computer programs for calculation of dosing quantities: The input required for the computer is the composition of the raw water and required treatment, and the output is type and quantity of chemical. Other factors that should be considered are the characteristics of the individual chemicals, effective life, storage temperature, salubrity, combustibility and danger of explosion, local conditions, delivery method, safety directions during transport, ability to supply, price, local safety regulations and storage facilities. On the whole, in the case of chemicals in general, you must be sure that your conduct in these matters is correct.
pump is set to the required dosing quantity. Distillation systems generally operate with fixed capacity, so flow-proportional control of the dosing pump is not necessary.
CHAPTER
76
Variation:
The minimum requirement is usually from 1 to 100 % of maximum capacity. The best is either: flow-proportional control by a water meter, cf. Fig. 74, or closed-loop control where the pump is controlled by an instrument (such as a pH controller) based on a water quality measurement, cf. Fig. 75. Manual setting of the dosing quantity should also be possible.
Control mode: Type: Diaphragm pump. Note: This description refers to diaphragm pumps only. As a starting point a dosing pump should be set up with a maximum capacity equivalent to approx. 2 times the required dosing flow. From 1 to 10 bar (14.5 145 p.s.i.). In exceptional cases, up to 16 bar (232 p.s.i.).
+/- 1.0% of maximum capacity is preferable.
Capacity:
Counter pressure:
Precision:
Material selection: Dosing pumps are typically used for corrosive media and the materials will therefore be polymers such as PP, PVDF, PTFE and elastomers such as EPDM and FKM.
Flow-proportional control
Flow meter Water of consistent quality
F
Point of injection Dosage proportional to flow Dosing pump Signal proportional to flow Chemical tank
Fig. 74: Chemical dosing controlled by flow meter
CHAPTER
Closed-loop control
Water of variable quality Measurement Actual value
pH
Dosing pump
Chemical tank
77
Chemical tank:
Corrosion-resistant materials. Stainless steel is sometimes used, but plastic (e.g. polyethylene, PE) is most common. Remember to take into consideration frost and venting in the event of unpleasant odours or discharge of toxic vapours. The volume of the tank should be equivalent to approx. 15 days consumption, unless the chemical solution does not have an effective life of 15 days. The tank should be equipped with level indicator to signal an almost empty tank via an alarm connected to the central control panel. If the solution in the tank has a tendency to settle, or the solid matter is difficult to dissolve during the actual preparation of the solution in the tank, an electrically-operated agitator should be used. The suction line (PE or PVC) will often be fitted with a nonreturn valve in the bottom of the chemical tank, and a filter as well, if the dosing liquid contains suspended substances.
The suction pipe should be no longer than 2 m, and the internal diameter is adjusted for a flow of max. 0.8 m/s, measured by the flow during the suction stroke. Discharge line: The discharge line (PE, PTFE or stainless steel) has the same flow as the suction line. The pressure will be substantially higher than in the suction line, due to the counter pressure at the dosing point and pressure drop in any injection valve. To prevent ruptures of the equipment from any blockage of the discharge line or valve, a pressure relief valve with backflow to the chemical tank can be installed, see Fig. 76. To dampen pressure peaks, pulsation dampers can be installed. Pulsation dampers are primarily used in very long discharge lines.
Suction line:
2 3 4
CHAPTER
Fig. 76: Dosing system with pressure relief valve (2) and counter pressure valve (3)
Pos.
1 2
Description
Dosing pump Pressure relief valve
Pos.
3 4
Description
Counter pressure valve Isolating valve
78
whereby the pump will be customised for this precise application. If the water treatment system is fitted with a flow meter, with either a pulse or an analog signal (4 20 mA), in the pipeline where the dosing is to be performed, the dosing pump can be set so that the dosing quantity is always flow-proportional. The same applies if a similar signal from an instrument controlling the quality of the treated water (e.g. pH) is used. In both cases the dosing pump must nevertheless be dimensioned as shown above. The materials PP and EPDM are suitable for a 25% sodium hydroxide solution. Discharge and suction tubing of PE and PVC are also suitable. At temperatures above 40C PTFE or stainless steel should be used. The question of material resistance in a dosing pump should be dealt with by means of a material resistance list. The correct choice of material is crucial to avoid pump failure.
CHAPTER
Fig. 77: Dosing of base for pH control of the water in district heating system and boiler
79
Pos.
6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Description
Buffer tank Alternative dosing spot Make-up water meter Drain water meter Drainage valve Control panel
Control panel
Process
D 2 1 4
Priming water 3
Fig. 78: Application of dosing in a cooling tower system: One dosing of acid, one dosing of inhibitor and two dosings of biocides
Example of dosing in cooling tower system Schematic sketch of structure of dosing systems in a cooling tower application is shown in Fig. 78. Illustrated chemical treatment:
Pos.
CHAPTER
A B C and D
Description
Dosing of acid (generally sulphuric acid) for minimisation of lime precipitation. Dosing of corrosion inhibitor to protect steel components from attack by acid. Dosing of biocide for inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms.
linking the circulator pump and the dosing pump (A), so that A cannot run without the circulation pump running. (3) is a make-up water meter and (4) is a drain water meter. Both assist in controlling the dosing pumps by means of flow signals to the control panel. The dosing tanks are all equipped with alarm/stop for low level (not shown for C and D).
The variety of chemicals within the category of biocides is huge, as the type of microorganisms can vary from cooling tower to cooling tower. Local ratios and conditions for the microorganisms also play a part. Dosing of the chemicals should be carried out either directly into the buffer tank/cooling-tower tank (1) or alternatively directly into the circulating cooling-water pipe on the pressure side of the circulator pump (2). If dosing acid directly into the pipeline, we recommend
80
see section 2.3 Surface water, by which dissolved metallic compounds (e.g. calcium, magnesium and iron) and also microorganisms (BOD) are removed by subsequent sedimentation and filtration. In the treatment of wastewater the spectrum of undesirable substances is even greater: It includes fairly fine particles (suspended substances), chemical residue from fertilisers, phosphates, toxic metallic compounds (heavy metals) and microorganisms. The terms coagulation and flocculation are often confused and used indiscriminately for the same thing. Coagulation is the process of destabilisation of the charge (predominantly negative) on particulates and colloids suspended in water. Destabilisation lowers the repelling character of particulates and colloids and allows them to become attached to other particles so that they may be removed in subsequent processes. See Fig. 79. The particulates in raw water (which contribute to colour and turbidity) are mainly clays, silt, viruses, bacteria, fulvic and humic acids, minerals (including asbestos, silicates, silica, and radioactive particles), and organic particulate. Flocculation means a process to enhance agglomeration of destabilised particles and colloids toward settleable (or filterable) particles (flocs). Normally flocculation involves an intentional and defined process of gentle stirring to enhance contact of destabilised particles and to build floc particles of optimum size, density, and strength to be subsequently removed by sedimentation or filtration.
Addition of too much polymer can reverse the situation back to the smaller particles again, see Fig. 80. Therefore it is important that the dosing quantity of polymer flocculating agents is correct.
(a) Bridging
(b) Restabilization
Fig. 80: (a) Large flocs are formed by means of polymer bridging. (b) Small particles are re-formed by overdosing of polymer, called restabilization
CHAPTER
Coagulant addition
Fig. 79: Addition of a coagulant compresses the repellent double layer between the particles, after which they bunch together
81
Q-H curves
Piston pump Diaphragm pump H bar Centrifugal pump Theoretical Q l/h
Fig. 81: Correlated Q-H curves for piston, diaphragm and centrifugal pumps
Therefore in Fig. 81 we see that the flow output (Q) e.g. per pump stroke becomes less and less, the higher the counter pressure: The Q-H curve bends as with a centrifugal pump, but to a much lesser extent. A piston/diaphragm pump, in which a piston activates the diaphragm via a parting liquid (e.g. oil), generally provides the optimum dosing pump solution, combining the advantages of both pump types.
CHAPTER
82
83
CHAPTER
Pump function
1. Sea water pump 2. Brine recirculation pump 3. Dosing pump 4. Drinking-water pump/distillate pump 5. Brine transport pump
Reference chapter
Chapter 6
2 3 5 4
Ion exchange
1
CR, CRN CR, CRT (if liquid does not contain acid) CR, CRN, BMQ, BM
Chapter 4
Membrane filtration
1. Raw water pump High-pressure feed water pump 2. Recirculation pump Other pumps: Permeate pump Dosing pump (pre-treatment and post-treatment)
Chapter 5
CRN DM
CHAPTER
Sand filtration
1
SP NK/NB DM
Chapter 2
84
Pump function
1. Transport pump
Reference chapter
Chapter 3
UV and ozone
Transport pump
CR, CHI, BM
Chapter 7
85
CHAPTER
Pump name
BM / BM-R BME/T CHI CLM CR CRK CRN CRT DM NK/NB SPK SP / SP-R
Description
Booster Module with SP pump. BM-R in AISI 904 L. Booster Module with External motor, with/without recovery Turbine Multistage Centrifugal pump, Horizontal, for Industrial application. Single-stage Centrifugal pump, in-Line, M = 4-pole. Multistage Centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pump, Condensate. Multistage Centrifugal pump, Niro (316 L). Multistage Centrifugal pump, Titanium. Dosing/Metering pump. Single-stage standard (Norm) pump. Submersible pump, Condensate. Submersible pump. SP-R in AISI 904 L.
CHAPTER
10
86
87
CHAPTER
10
Source references
Source references
The following sources have been used in the writing of this book: Brief introduction into the technics of dosage, JESCO Dosiertechnik. Coagulants and Flocculants, Yong H. Kim. Drikkevand en truet resurse, NOAH. Integrated Design of Water Treatment Facilities, Susumu Kawamura. Ion Exchange, Rohm & Haas. Kemiske Enhedsoperationer, L. Alfred Hansen and P. Sltoft. Membrane Filtration Handbook, Jrgen Wagner. Water Treatment Handbook, Degrmont. Stahlschussel, 18. Auflage, 1998 General Chemistry, McQuarrie and Rock Corrosion, Volume 13, Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition BetzDearborn Handbook of Industrial water Conditioning, Ninth Edition 1991
88
List of figures
List of figures
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 1: The conductivity of various ions in water at different concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2: The corrosion cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3: Metals arranged according to nobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4a: Picture showing pitting on a stainless steel component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 4b: Picture showing crevice corrosion on a stainless steel flange used in fish farming in Norway. Pumped liquid: salt water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5: Chloride corrosion diagrams for titanium, AISI 304, AISI 316 and AISI 904 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 6: Cavitation in impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 7: Sand filter during filtration (left) and during backwashing (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 8: Ground-water-based waterworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 9: Sand filter in closed tank, pressure filter type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 10: The natural cycle of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 11: Sedimentation tank with sludge scraper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 12: Accelator in which chemical mixing, flocculation and sedimentation take place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 13: Purification of river water near Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 14: Filtration elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 15: Simplified diagram of filter and pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 16: Example of filter and pump curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 17: Cartridge filter: The cartridges are produced either as a compact unit of felt or spun to look like a reel of yarn . . . . . . . . . 30 18: Several cartridge filters mounted in a filter housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 19: Selection of cartridge filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 20: A row of bag filters mounted in a filter housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 21: Sectional drawing of bag filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 22: System for off-line purification in district heating main . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 23: Tubular slot filter with accompanying Q-p curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 24: Self-purifying tubular slot filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 25: Schematic sketch of drum filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 26: Central system with two bands, holding tank, cooling system and pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 27: Pressure drop for various filter areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 28: Pressure drop for various liquid temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 29: Influence of the filter cake on pressure drop over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 30: Working area for filter with cumulative filter cake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 31: Increased differential pressure results in comparatively quicker blockage of the filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 32: Pulsating filter operation extends the filters process time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 33: The principle for desalination in a double ion exchange system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 34: Standard ion exchange vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 35: Schematic sketch of a cation and anion exchanger with CO2 deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 36: Cycle in a mix-bed ion exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 37: Standard ion exchange system for 2 x 10 m3/h for industrial application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 38: CIE system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 39: Cross-flow filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 40: Electrodialysis principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 41: Flux as a function of pressure for the four types of membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
89
List of figures
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 42: Comparison of filtration grade for the different types of membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 43: Comparison of filtration grade for the 4 types of membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 44: Tubular module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 45: Hollow fiber module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 46: Spiral wound module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 47: Pressure vessel for spiral wound modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 48: Typical plate and frame module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 49: Single membrane filtration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 50: Membrane filtration system with recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 51: Membrane filtration: Pressure pipes in Christmas tree layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 52: Membrane filtration with loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 53: Membrane system for filtration of brewery wastewater including two dosing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 54: Reverse osmosis system for brackish water with sand filter (preliminary filtration) and recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 55: Small-scale reverse osmosis system for brackish water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 56: Reverse osmosis system without ERT, Energy Recovery Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 57: Reverse osmosis system with ERT, Energy Recovery Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 58: Reverse osmose system built into a container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 59: Osmosis and reverse osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 60: Typical spiral module (element) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 61: Osmotic pressure for various solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 62: Diagram of distillation system with steam compression, type VVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 63: VVC distillation system for 400 m3 drinking water per 24 hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 64: Single-stage distillation system of the type Single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 65: Schematic sketch of single-stage distillation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 66: Multi-effect distillation system, type MED, with two stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 67: Distillation system with steam compression, type VVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 68: UV irradiation in U-pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 69: Tubular ozoniser element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 70: Ozoniser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 71: U-tube reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 72: The ultraviolet spectrum compared with other electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 73: MED distillation system with dosing unit for anti-scaling agent (front right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 74: Chemical dosing controlled by flow meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 75: Chemical dosing controlled by measurement of water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 76: Dosing system with pressure relief valve (2) and pressure retention valve (3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 77: Dosing of base for pH adjustment of the water in district heating system and boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 78: Application of dosing in a cooling-tower system: One dosing of acid, one dosing of inhibitor and two dosings of biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 79: Addition of a coagulant compresses the thickness of the repellent double layer between the particles, after which they bunch together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 80: (a) Large flocs are formed by means of polymer bridging. (b) Small particles are re-formed by overdosing of polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 81: Correlated Q-H curves for piston, membrane and centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
90
List of tables
List of tables
Table Table Table 1: Recommended and maximum permissible values for some of the most important substances in drinking water . . . . . . . 9 2: Chemical symbols for various soluble substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3: Hardness of various types of water specified in three different units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 4: Stainless steel grades with alloy elements [w%] and PRE values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Table 5: The proportion of ground water in the drinking-water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 6: Settling time in water for selected materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Table 7: Examples of pressure filters and open filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
91
Glossary
Glossary
BOD CIE CIP Coagulation COD Corrosion Cross-flow filtration Dead end filtration Distillation Biological Oxygen Demand. - Method of measuring the content of (some) oxidable organic substances in the water. Continuous Ion Exchanger. Cleaning in Place. Washing carried out with the filtering medium still in place. The process of destabilisation of the charge (predominantly negative) on particulates and colloids suspended in water. Chemical Oxygen Demand. - Method of measuring the content of all oxidable substances in the water. The deterioration of a metal or its properties caused by a reaction with its environment. Filtration by which the flow-off is divided into two streams, whereby the suspended particles are continuously washed away. Filtration by which the suspended particles end up in the filter. Distillation refers to a process where concentration intensification takes place in a solution, as the solvent is removed by boiling off. The boiled-off solvent is subsequently condensed on a cold surface and is collected. With water treatment the solvent will be water and the solution will normally be salt water. Electrodialysis process. Electrodialysis reversal process. Energy Recovery Turbine. Reverse osmosis system principle according to which a turbine is driven by the concentrate. The process of enhancing agglomeration of destabilised particles and colloids toward settleable (or filterable) particles (flocs). The capacity of purified water, permeate, measured in l/m2 membrane per hour. Precipitation of solid substances on the membrane in micro and ultra filtration. Formazin Turbidity Units. Unit of measurement for the content of inorganic substances in the water. Similar to NTU. A substance that does not contain carbon chemically bound to hydrogen. Carbonates, bicarbonates, carbides and carbon oxides are considered inorganic substances, even though they contain carbon. A reversible process in which ions are released from an insoluble permanent material (resin) in exchange for other ions in a surrounding solution; the direction of the exchange depends upon the affinities of the ion exchanger for the ions present, and the concentrations of the ions in the solution. Multiple-Effect Distillation system. Membrane filtration is physical separation of a substance by means of a semi-permeable membrane. The presence of a gradient, i.e. a propelling force, above the membrane drives the process. Membrane filtration is cross-flow filtration. Micro filtration. Type of membrane filtration. Multi-stage Flash. Multi-effect distillation system. Nano-filtration. Type of membrane filtration. Nephelometric Turbidity Units. Unit of measurement for the content of inorganic substances in the water. Similar to FTU. A substance that contains carbon chemically bound to hydrogen. It often contains other elements (particularly O, N, halogens or S). Ozone refers to water treatment by dosing of O3 (ozone). Ozone can be used for disinfection of water, i.e. to kill the microorganisms that are present in almost all types of surface water, and, in rarer cases, also in ground water. The difference between total and temporary hardness of water, explained as the quantity of calcium and magnesium that corresponds to sulphate [SO42-] and chloride [Cl-]. Permanent hardness is characterised by the fact that it cannot be removed by boiling etc. Pitting Resistance Equivalent. Reverse Osmosis filtration. Type of membrane filtration. Stress Corrosion Cracking. Corrosion characterised by cracking caused by the simultaneous effects of mechanical tensile stresses and corrosion. Precipitation of solid substances on the membrane in nano and reverse osmosis filtration. Silt Density Index. Index expressing the cloudiness of the water caused by suspended, undissolved substances, such as clay. Suspended Solids. Small undissolved particles. Standard filtration is a process in which solid particles are separated from either a gas or a liquid.
ED process EDR process ERT Flocculation Flux Fouling FTU Inorganic substance Ion exchange
MED Membrane filtration MF MSF NF NTU Organic substance* Ozone Permanent hardness of water PRE RO SCC Scaling SDI SS Standard filtration
92
Glossary
Total Dissolved Solids. The total content of dissolved substances in water, other than dissolved gases.
After the treatment the water contains other, fewer or very few salts.
deionate (or deionised or demineralised water) or softened water distillate filtrate permeate UF UV
ion exchange.
Ultra filtration. Type of membrane filtration. UV refers to water treatment by means of irradiation with ultraviolet light. UV can be used for disinfection of water, i.e. to kill the microorganisms that are present in almost all types of surface water, and, in rarer cases, also in ground water.
VVC
Units used in this book: S/cm (microSiemens per cm); Siemens = mho = ohm-1 mg/l (equal to ppm) AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) mval (millivalens)
93
Subject index
Subject index
A
accelator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 anion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 anion resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 corrosion in waterworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 corrosion of pump materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 corrosion, caused by ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 corrosion, causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 corrosion, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 corrosion, service-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 cross-flow filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 48
B
backwashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 21, 28, 34 back-flushing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 bag filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 bag filters for off-line purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 band filter, nutsche type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 band filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 batch operation, ion exchange system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 blow down pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 BOD, Biological Oxygen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 brackish-water filtration by reverse osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 brine circulation pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 brine transport pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
D
Darcys law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 dead end filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 48 deionisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 demineralisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 desalination of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 discharge line, dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 distillate pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 dosing pump application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 dosing pump, distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 dosing pumps in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 dosing unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 dosing, most important chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 drinking-water pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 drum filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
C
capacity regulation in membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 cartridge filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 choice of pump for standard filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 choice of pump, calculation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 CIE ion exchange system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 CIE, Continuous Ion Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 CIE, single exchanger type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 CIP, Cleaning in Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 cleaning of the sand filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 coagulation, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 condensate pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 control mode, dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 cooling tower system, dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
E
ED, electrodialysis process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 EDR, electrodialysis reversal process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 energy consumption of pump types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 environmental pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 environmental pollutants, water treatment of . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 ERT, Energy Recovery Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
F
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 filter permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
94
Subject index
filters, technical specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 filtration elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 flocculation, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50, 60 fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 FTU, Formazin Turbidity Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
G
ground-water-based waterworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
H
hardness of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 high-pressure feed-water pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58, 63 hollow fiber module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
membrane filtration of sea water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 membrane filtration system, Christmas-tree layout . . . . . .55 membrane filtration system, Loop setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 membrane filtration system, single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 membrane filtration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 membrane filtration, application of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 membrane filtration, chemical propelling force in . . . . . . . . .49 membrane filtration, electrical propelling force in . . . . . . . . .48 membrane filtration, filtration grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 membrane filtration, propelling force in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 membrane filtration, pumps in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 membrane filtration, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 metals according to corrosion tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 metering pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 MF, Micro Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 mg Pt/l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 microSiemens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 mix-bed ion exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 MSF, Multi-Stage Flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 multi-effect distillation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66, 68
I
inorganic substance, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 insoluble substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 installation of dosing pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 ion exchang, industrial purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 ion exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 ion exchange process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 ion exchange systems, flow in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 ion exchange systems, pressure drop in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 ion exchange, application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 ion exchange, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 ion exchange, mixed-bed units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 ion exchange, two-bed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 ion exchangers, industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
N
NF, Nano-filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
O
oliver filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 organic substance, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 osmosis and reverse osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 osmotic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 ozone system, description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 ozone systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
L
land-based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 liquid flow, nano and reverse osmosis filtration . . . . . . . . .61, 62 localised pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
P
permeate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 pH value of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 plate and frame module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Poiseuilles equation for laminar flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 PRE, Pitting Resistance Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 process water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9, 26 pulsating filter operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
M
MED, Multiple-Effect Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 membrane capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 membrane filters, materials in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 membrane filtration modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 membrane filtration of process wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
95
Subject index
pumps for regeneration liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 pumps for standard filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 pumps in brackish-water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 pumps in distillation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 pumps in ion exchange systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 pumps in sea water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 pumps in UV and ozone systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
suspended particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
T
tangential filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 TDS, Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 theory, chemical treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 theory, evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 theory, filter flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 theory, membrane filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 theory, UV and ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 tubular module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 tubular slot filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 types of filter, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
R
raw-water pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 readily soluble substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 recirculation pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58, 69 regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 removal of silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 reverse osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49, 61 Reverse osmosis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 RO, Reverse Osmosis filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
U
UF, Ultra Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 UV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 UV systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
S
sample calculation, dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 sand filter in closed tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 sand filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 SCC, stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 SDI, Silt Density Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Sea-based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 sea water pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 sea water systems built into a container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 sea water systems, energy recovery in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 self-purifying process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 self-purifying tubular slot filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 settling rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 significance of filter area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 significance of filter scaling and fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 significance of liquid temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 single, distillation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 single-stage distillation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 slightly soluble substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 slot filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 spiral wound module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 SS, Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 standard filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 standard filtration, choice of pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Stokes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 suction line, dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
V
VVC, evaporation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 VVC, Vacuum Vapour Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
W
water treatment with both UV and ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 water treatment with ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 water treatment with UV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 waterworks based on ground water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 WHOs list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
96
97