Training Manual on

Role of Balanced Fertilization for Horticultural Crops

Edited by Dr. N. Kumar Professor (Hort.)

Horticultural College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore - 3

Sponsored by International Potash Institute Switzerland

TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

COIMBATORE - 641 003, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Dr. C. RAMASAMY Vice - Chancellor

FOREWORD India is endowed with varying ecological situations and it is possible to grow almost all groups of Horticultural Crops. India produces 45.5 million tones of fruits annually from an area of 3.8 million ha, resulting in 88 g per capita availability daily as against a recommended consumption of 120 g per capita/day. Besides, its productivity of 12.0 t/ha is also very low when compared to many countries. Now India has emerged as the second largest producer of vegetables with a total estimated production of 88.62 million tones from an area of 6.15 million ha with productivity level of 14.4 tones/ha. The productivity level of vegetables is still very low mainly because of some limitations, which require immediate attention and can be taken up as new challenges in 21st century for increasing farm level income of the vegetable growers. India, Land of Spices is the worlds largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices, grown in 3.2 million ha with a production of 3.76 million tones. Of which, exports accounted for Rs.20, 8671.02 lakhs were exported. To meet the internal consumption and international demand, an annual growth rate of 8-10% is envisaged. Plantation crops grown in an area of 7.32 million ha with a production of 16.0 million tones earn a foreign exchange of more than Rs.10, 000 crores through export of various products, besides contributing towards environment protection and sustaining large number of agro based industries. Floriculture has emerged as a viable diversification option in the agri-business. Though the commercial cultivation of flowers in open field conditions is the mainstay of Indian horticulture, protected cultivation opens up newer avenues for quality production and export to earn valuable foreign exchange. A consistent increase of 10-15% jump in the flower trade has been visualized during the last few years, which is largely due to the adoption of modern technologies (Hi-tech horticulture).

There are several constraints in increasing the area under horticultural crops and their production. Yet to sustain the production and increase the productivity of these crops, judicious nutrition management is one of the options. I understand that International Potash Institute, Switzerland is committed to this cause by supporting research and extension activities in different parts of the world including India. Further, I am happy to note that it is organizing a one day training programme on Role of Balanced Fertilization for Horticultural Crops for the benefit of the Extension functionaries in the development departments of Agriculture / Horticulture in Tamil Nadu in collaboration with Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. I am sure that this manual which is a compilation of extensive research work done on the nutrient management of horticultural crops by TNAU scientists and other National Institutes will be quite useful for the extension functionaries and the enthusiastic horticulturists. I congratulate Dr.N.Kumar, Prof. (Hort.,) at this occasion for his concerted efforts in compiling and bringing out this manual.

(C. RAMASAMY) Coimbatore November 21, 2007

INTERNATIONAL POTASH INSTITUTE

BAUMGARTLISTRASSE,17.P.O.BOX 569.CH-8810 HORGEN. SWITZERLAND

Mr. Hillel Magen

IPI Director

Dr. Vladimir Nosov IPI Coordinator India, Bangladesh and SriLanka

MESSAGE
The International Potash Institute (IPI), based in Switzerland, is an International Research Organization supporting research and extension activities with respect to adequate and balanced nutrition of crops to sustain productivity and production in different parts of the world. IPI has a network of regional coordinators. To meet its goals of promoting balanced fertilization, the institute sponsors research projects, organizes seminars, symposia and workshops, conducts research and demonstration experiments and publishes scientific literature in different languages, worldwide. Concern of a global food production to feed the growing population of the world requires increased efforts to develop new expedients for the future. Tamil Nadu accounts for nearly 6% of the area under fruits and 4% of the area under vegetables in India. In terms of production, the States share is nearly 10% in fruits and 6% in vegetables. The state ranks second in the production of mango and third in the production of sapota. In cooperation with TNAU, IPI conducted demonstration experiments in papaya crop in Coimbatore, Dindigul, Theni and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu. These activities well proved the highest efficiency of fertilizer application practices recommended by TNAU scientists (paper by Dr. N. Kumar in this Manual). This booklet summarizes results obtained in long-term experiments in most important horticultural crops in Tamil Nadu by prominent researchers from TNAU, providing best fertilizer management practices for farmers. We hope it will be a helpful tool for both state extension functionaries and farmers.

(Hillel Magen)

(Vladimir Nosov)

Contents S.No
1. 2.

Topic
Balanced fertilization for Soil Fertility Management Balanced fertilization for horticultural crops with particular reference to potassium: IPI results

Pg.No
1 17

3. 4. 5. 6.

Balanced fertilization for Mango, Citrus and Sapota Balanced fertilization for Banana Balanced fertilization for Papaya Balanced Production fertilization for Hybrid Vegetable

38 48 64 72

7. 8. 9. 10.

Balanced fertilization for Spices Balanced fertilization for Turmeric Balanced fertilization for Coconut Balanced fertilization for Important Cut Flower Crops

82 96 111 128

11.

Physiological basis of Balanced fertilization for Horticultural Crops

142

Balanced Fertilization for Soil Fertility Management

P.Subbian and S.Radhamani Department of Agronomy Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore 3

Increasing global population warrants higher demand for cereals as food by 2020. To match the expected cereal demand, cereal yields must be increased from current 2.9 t/ha to almost 4.9 t/ha, and rice yields by 60 to 70%. Another crisis is the decreasing rate in the availability of arable lands. The per capita land availability will decline from currently 0.14 ha to 0.10 ha in 2025, due to severe competition from urbanization, industrialization and civic needs etc. According to a conservative estimate the food grain demand in India for the years 2010 and 2020 is projected to be 246 and 294Mt, respectively (Table 1), indicating the need to increase our food grain production in the years to come. This warrants increasing in our production and productivity of cereals which is highly dependent upon the judicious nutrient management practices.

Table 1. The current production and future demands of food grains in India Food grain Rice Wheat Total cereals Pulses Total foodgrains Production(Mt) in 2001-02 93.1 71.8 198.8 13.2 212.0 Estimated demand (Mt) 2010 103.6 85.8 224.4 21.4 245.8 2020 122.1 102.8 265.8 27.8 293.6

Source : FAI (2003) and Kumar (1998)

Global fertilizer consumption status Increases in cereal production in the past 40 years were well associated with corresponding increases in fertilizer consumption (Fig.1) in developing countries (FAO, 2000).

Fig. 1. Growth in fertilizer use and cereal production in developing countries (1961-1995) Subsequently, use of nitrogen fertilizer recovered fairly well whereas use of phosphate and especially of potash fertilizers is still below the level achieved during the late eighties although crop output continued to increase further. This resulted in fertilizer usage becoming unbalanced in two respects: Nutrient ratio, especially of N to K. The ratio of fertilizer nutrient to nutrient removed by crops, i.e the input/output ratio. Fertilizer Scenario in India Even though India is the third largest fertilizer user, average rate of nutrient application is 90 kg/ha-1(65% as N, 25% as P2O5, 10% as K2O). The fertilizer consumption in the country ranges from 1.1-325 kg N ha-1, 0.8-153.8 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 0.2-129 kg K2O ha-1. There are a lot of disparities in the fertilizers consumption pattern both between and within the eco-regions in India. The current fertilizer use in Tamil Nadu is 112 kg ha-1 consisting of 60.1, 24.6, and 27.3 kg ha-1N:P2O5:K2O, respectively with the use ratio being 2.2:0.9:1.0. While most of the nitrogen is applied in the form of urea, the major phosphatic and potassic

sources continue to be DAP (46% P2O5) and muriate of potash (60% K2O), respectively. This ratio is certainly much better than the northern states mainly because southern region has high value crops where the crops are being fed better than the cereals, oilseeds and pulses dominated cropping systems in the northern region (Tiwari and Rao, 2005) (Table 2). Table 2. State wise consumption of P2O5 and K2O in relation to N (2001) in southern region State in descending order of P Karnataka Kerala Pondicherry Andra Pradesh Tamil Nadu All India N applied kg ha-1 54.5 26.2 317.4 86.8 76.2 58.7 kg P2O5 State in applied/ descending 100kg N order of K 53.8 Kerala 48.9 47.3 46.1 40.7 38.8 Tamil Nadu Pondicherry Karnataka Andra Pradesh All India N applied Kg ha-1 26.2 76.2 317.4 54.5 86.8 58.7 kg K2O applied/ 100kg N 83.2 45.1 39.7 32.5 19.1 14.8

Source : Tiwari and Rao, 2005 Changing Soil Fertility Scenario in India Indian agriculture is operating under the pressure of multi nutrient deficiencies. Nitrogen deficiency in soils is almost universal. Phosphorus deficiencies are not far behind those of N as in 95 per cent districts, the P fertility is either low or medium. Many years ago, it was found that out of 361 districts, soils in 47 districts were of low K status, in 192 were medium and in 22 districts were high in K fertility. Since then K deficient areas have increased and crops in many areas are responding to K where they were not responding some years ago. Crops in general remove as much or more K than they remove N but average consumption of K2O ha-1 is still 8.7 kg while that of N is 58.7 kg ha-1 at a highly unbalanced N:K2O ratio of 7:1. In the long-term fertilizer experiments, there are indications that when exchangeable K is not rapidly replenished, crops start drawing on the non-exchangeable K, resulting in soil mining and depletion of soil K reserves (Tiwari and Rao, 2005). The results of the LTFE of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore reveal that the K removal by intensive cropping is disproportionately higher than the amount of K added through fertilizer (Murugappan, 2001) (Table 3). 3

With intensive cultivation of high yielding varieties, deficiencies of secondary and macronutrients caused declining productivity of crops in many soils. Among secondary nutrients, sulphur deficiency is an important problem in many states and soils in 130 districts are considered to be suffering from S deficiency to varying extent. Though it is believed that magnesium deficiency occurs in acid soils or where exchangeable Mg is below 1 meq 100g-1 or less than 10 per cent of soil CEC is occupied by Mg++ but the problem seems to be of greater magnitude than expected. Among micronutrients zinc, boron and iron deficiencies were found most common problem. Soil application of zinc, boron and sulphur was found more effective than their foliar application and vice-versa for iron and manganese. Table 3. Nutrient budgeting in a long term fertilizer experiment in Tamil Nadu (from 23 crop cycles of Finger millet-Maize-Cowpea) Nutrient added per cycle (Kg/ha) N P2O5 K2O 250 250 125 250 375 375 163 82 163 245 163 27 53 80 53 Nutrient removed per cycle (Kg/ha) N P2O5 K2O 76 99 233 199 234 258 280 22 28 71 64 79 89 100 95 122 287 265 321 352 386

Treatment Control 100% N 100% NP 50% NPK 100% NPK 150% NPK 100% NPK + FYM

Balanced Fertilization and Agricultural Production Balanced fertilization is the key to increased plant use efficiency of applied nutrients. A balanced fertilization programme does more than simply replace the amount of any nutrient removed by the crop. It ensures that fertilizers are applied in adequate amounts, and correct ratios for optimum plant growth, and it ensures, sustenance of soil and crop productivity. The long-term fertilizer experiments being conducted at different locations of the country have clearly demonstrated the need for balanced fertilization (Swarup et al. 1998).

Large number of long term field experiments at many locations indicated the effects of balanced nutrient supply on grain yield of wheat. Each added nutrient other than N greatly increased grain yield over the N application alone. Continuous use of N alone leads to severe depletion of other nutrients, with a corresponding decrease in the grain yield (Fig. 2). The substantial increase in grain yield by Zn application in addition to the NPK application indicate critical importance of these nutrients in crop production (Tandon, 1995).

Fig. 2. Wheat grain yield based on long term multi location experiments

Studies by Saxena (1995) also support the concept of balanced fertilization in achieving higher yield in crop plants (Fig.3).

Fig. 3. Long term effect of balanced fertilization on wheat yield, 1970-88 (Saxena,1995)

Balanced fertilization, used in conjunction with other best management practices (BMPs), is essential for optimum N utilization. It should take into account the crop removal of nutrients, the economics of fertilizers and profitability, farmers investment ability, agro techniques, soil moisture regime, weed control, plant protection, seed rate, sowing time, soil salinity/alkalinity, physical environment, microbiological condition of the soils, soil status of available nutrients, cropping sequence, etc. The BMP system will encourage quicker ground cover, more crop residues, greater root growth and more leaf area, all of which will improve N use efficiency and reduce erosion. Organic Inputs in Soil Fertility Management The organic inputs to soil (animal manure and composts, crop residues, green manures, urban wastes etc.) are known to have favorable effects on soil physical, chemical and biological processes and its overall health. Organic materials generally improve the soil organic matter (SOM), a basic indicator of soil health and resilience, in addition to supply of substantial quantities of plant nutrients to enrich soil fertility. Though abundant quantities of organics are generated annually, the entire quantity is not available for returning to soils because of several competing alternate uses in rural India. Tandon (1997) estimated organic resources availability to be 246 and 307 Mt in 2010 and 2025 AD, respectively in India (Table 4). If used properly, these quantities of organic resources can supply plant nutrients (N+P2O5+K2O) to the tune of 6.24 and 7.75 million tones in 2010 and 2025 AD, respectively and certainly help minimize the negative nutrient balances. Table 4. Some projections on the tappable* organic resources and their nutrient supply (N+P2O5+K2O) for agriculture in India during 2010 and 2025 AD Resource Human excreta Livestock dung Crop residues Total 2010 AD Tappable Nutrient quantity (mt) supply (mt) 15 1.80 119 112 246 2.10 2.34 6.24 2025 AD Tappable Nutrient quantity (mt) supply (mt) 17 2.10 128 162 307 2.26 3.39 7.75

* Tappable = 80% of excreta, 30% of dung and 33% of crop residues (Source : Tandon,1997).

According to Krishnamurthy et al. (2001), substituting 50 per cent NPK with organic sources proves to be beneficial in terms of soil quality and nutrient uptake, both in rice and mustard after six years (Table 5). Table 5. Soil fertility status after rice- mustard cropping systems under integrated nutrient management
Soil nutrient status Treatment pH Initial Control 100% NPK 50% NPK + FYM 50% NPK Crop residue + 50% NPK + green manure 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.0 EC
(dsm-1)

Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) Rice Mustard K (kg/ ha) 304 135 179 210 188 174 N 54.6 97.8 105.9 131.0 128.5 P 5.0 21.9 23.1 16.3 28.1 K 37.1 99.3 97.4 100.1 131.1 N 13.7 42.4 51.7 44.8 50.0 P 1.5 9.1 8.6 11.6 14.9 K 15.7 35.4 38.4 32.9 39.1

0.37 0.45 0.39 0.36 0.32 0.47

P (kg/ ha) 0.52 18.0 O.C (%) 0.53 9.8

0.48 21.5 0.48 25.6 0.46 21.2 0.45 23.9

Addition of organics enhances the soil microbial population. Chowksey (1991) reported a decline in the count of bacteria and actinomycetes with inorganic fertilizer application. The counts of all the microbes were substantially increased when inorganics was combined with organics (Table 6). Table 6. Effect of INM on viable microbial population in soil Microbial population (number / g of soil) Treatments No fertilizer application NPK 20:80:20 kg/ha NPK 20:80:20 FYM 15 t/ ha Bacteria (x109) 32.08 21.60 95.25 Actinomycetes (x106) 2.90 1.40 6.20 Fungi (x106) 0.17 0.53 0.83 Rhizobia (x106) 16 104 150

Integrated Nutrient Management Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply (IPNS) system refers to the maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of 7

plant nutrients in an integrated manner (Roy, 1995). Conceptually, the IPNS strives to achieve: (a) regulated nutrients supply for optimum crop growth and productivity, (b) maintenance or some times an improvement in soil fertility, and (c) minimum adverse impact on agro-ecosystem quality by means of striking a balance among various nutrient sources viz., soil fertilizers, organic manures and bio-inoculants (Fig.4).

Fig. 4 .The concept of Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply

(Source : Subba Rao and Damodar Reddy, 2005)

Green Manures Green manures, especially the leguminous green manures are of great value for improving soil fertility. The beneficial effects of green manures include the build up of organic matter content and available plant nutrients and improvement in the microbiological and physical properties of soil. Green manures are particularly recognized for their nitrogen supplying capacity. Sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) and kolingi (Tephrosia purpurea) are the important drought tolerant leguminous green manures for rainfed areas. About 45 to 60 days old crops can accumulate about 100 to 200 kg N ha-1. Green leaf manures like Gliricidia maculata can be grown in the roadsides and bunds. Nitrogen accumulation ranges from 25 to 199 kg/ha for tropical legumes, 56 to 330 kg/ha for winter legumes, 134 to 295 kg/ha for tree legumes, 40 to 240 kg/ha for green legumes and 98 to 532 kg/ha for stem nodulating legumes (Yadvinder singh et al. 1992). Following are the relative biomass production and N accumulation of some common green manures (Table 7).

Table 7. Biomass production and N accumulation in some common green manures Local Name Sunnhemp Daincha Pillipesara Greengram Cowpea Guar Senji Khesari Berseem Botanical Name Crotolaria juncea Sesbania aculeata Phaseolus trilobus Vigna radiata Vigna unguiculata Cyamapsis tetragonoloba Melilotus alba Lathyrus sativus Trifolium alexandrium Out put in 45 60 days Season Green matter N accumulation (t/ha) (kg/ha) Wet 21.2 91 Wet Wet Wet Wet Wet Dry Dry Dry 20.2 18.3 8.0 15.0 20.0 28.6 12.3 15.5 86 201 42 74 68 163 66 67

According to Yadav et al. (2000), incorporation of green manure resulted in additional increase in grain yield of rice and prevented yield decline in wheat. Green manure and farmyard manure applied along with reduced rate of NPK were able to reduce the mineral fertilizers as much as 50 per cent (Table 8). Table 8. Grain yields in long term rice-wheat system fertilized with NPK alone or with different organic materials Yield (t/ha) Rice Wheat 1967 1065 3180 451 4242 4007 4465 2321 3506 3629 3468 3532

Treatment Control 50 % NPK 100 % NPK 50 % NPK+ Farmyard manure 50 % NPK + Crop residues 50 % NPK + Green manures

Tanie et al. (2001) has reported about the in situ growing of common green manures, neglected green manures and cover crops in the coconut basin, their nutrient

accretion and available nutrient contents in soil and suggested in situ organic matter production as a component of INM (Table 9). Table 9. Biomass and nutrient accumulation in green manures and available nutrient content in coconut basins (0-15cm depth) two months after incorporation of green manures Treatment Sesbania aculeata Sesbania speciosa Crotolaria juncea Crotolaria striata Cassia tora Pureria phaseoloides Calapagonium muconoides Mimosa invisa Control CD (0.05) Bio mass (kg/basin) Fresh wt 13.66 6.91 5.50 15.08 18.50 23.00 16.50 18.25 3.96 Dry wt 2.73 1.72 1.10 3.77 3.07 4.60 3.30 3.65 0.53 Available nutrient content (g/basin) (2MAI) N P K 110.64 38.6 490 50.73 31.2 480 38.87 31.3 390 122.92 83.5 430 63.66 47.0 440 150.83 77.8 540 83.38 39.6 460 68.83 21.84 20.66 45.8 17.3 9.10 440 320 110

Short duration legumes like cowpea and greengram are very effective in higher biomass production and N contribution in cropping systems (Table 10). Table 10. Quantity of nitrogen fixed by different pulse crops Crop Alfa-alfa Black/Greengram Clover Cluster bean Chickpea Cowpea Fenugreek Groundnut Lentil Pea Pigeonpea Soybean N fixed (kg/ha) 100-300 50-55 100-150 37-196 85-100 80-85 44 50-60 90-100 52-57 168-200 60-80

10

The effect of preceeding legumes on succeeding non-legumes is well established. In ICRISAT, Hyderabad, maize grown after groundnut had the residual effect equivalent to 15 kg N ha-1. Sole crop of cowpea left a residual effect of 25-50 kg ha-1. According to Reddy and Surekha (1999), rotation with legumes like chickpea confers increased P availability by its acidic root exudates in addition to N benefit (Table 11). Table 11. Rice yields and soil available N and P in chickpea rice rotation Treatments Control (fallow) Chickpea + P -0 Chickpea + P -20 Chickpea + P -40 CD (0.05) Biofertilizers Biofertilizers including Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorhiza (VAM) are known to play a key role in integrated nutrient management in crop plants. Phosphobacteria solubilize phosphorus from the insoluble fraction and render it available to crops. This enhances phosphorus uptake and crop growth. Anthoniraj and Thangaraju(2001) reported the highest yield in sorghum through the application of phosphobacteria (Table 12). Table 12. Combined effect of inorganic and biofertilizers on rainfed sorghum during rabi season Grain yield (t ha-1) Treatment
Control Azospirillum + Phosphobactiria 100% N + 100% P 100% N + 50% P 100% N + 50% P + Phosphobacteria 50% N + 50% P 50% N + Azospirillum + 50% P + Phosphobacteria 50% N + 100% P 50% N + Azospirillum + 100% P C.D. (P=0.05)

Rice grain yield (kg/ha) 775 1543 1726 2226 178

Soil available N (kg/ha) 163 192 202 2012 7.35

Soil available K (kg/ha) 7.6 13.4 16.2 16.6 2.08

1992-93
2.26 2.63 3.57 3.30 3.65 2.98 3.24 3.04 3.20 2.2

1993-94
1.06 1.23 1.87 1.52 1.69 1.32 1.26 1.18 1.23 1.8

Economics Net B:C Ratio Return

3139 4419 7297 6591 7528 5478 6268 5556 6117 1.60 1.83 2.25 2.16 2.31 2.00 2.10 1.98 2.08

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Crop Residues The annual production of crop residues in India is estimated to range from 313 to 356 million t with nutrient potential of 6.3 to 7.5 million t. If about one third of the residues produced is available for direct recycling on the land, it would contribute 3.54 million t of N, P2O5 and K2O annually. Crop residues fed to animals get recycled through FYM whereas residues placed in compost pits are recycled as rural compost. Continuous addition of crop residues for five years was observed to enhance 25 per cent of maize yield in Bangalore. There was organic matter improvement to the tune of 0.9 per cent when maize residue was added at 4 t ha-1. At Akola, crop residue addition enhanced sorghum + pigeonpea intercropping by 26 per cent (Singh et al., 2000).The soil fertility particularly the available K status of the soil was increased by coir pith application. The available N did not vary much but the available K increased by 80 per cent (Nagarajan et al. 1989) (Table 13). Table 13. Effect of coir pith on soil properties after groundnut crop Treatments Control N alone PK alone NPK alone Coir pith Composted coir pith Coir pith + N Coir pith + NP Coir pith + NPK Composted coir pith + N Composted coir pith + NP Composted coir pith + NPK CD NS NS 41 NS 36 pH 6.8 6.8 7.0 6.9 6.8 7.0 6.8 6.7 6.8 6.7 6.9 6.8 EC (mhos/cm) 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.07 Available nutrients (kg/ha) N 216 257 234 228 187 234 263 257 239 234 198 249 P 72 85 71 56 66 71 72 82 63 78 82 82 K 251 285 275 288 344 368 384 400 428 396 388 372

12

Rajalingam and Kumar (2001) reported that application of digested coirpith compost and biofertilizers improved the physical, chemical and biological properties of the tea soil including the infection by VAM (Table 14).

Table 14. Certain physical, chemical and biological properties of tea soil as affected by DCC and biofertilizers application 75% of estate practice + biofertilizers 52.34 (50.16)* 4.80 (4.70) 0.16 (0.11) 4.22 (7.82) 7.90 (7.82) 21.00 (5.30) 75% of estate practice along with DCC 3 tonnes + biofertilizers 53.26 (51.32) 4.50 (4.80) 0.12 (0.12) 5.74 (4.10) 9.55 (7.88) 27.0 (9.00) 100% of estate practice along with DCC 3 tonnes 53.24 (51.96) 4.70 (4.60) 0.17 (0.15) 4.27 (4.12) 8.30 (8.00) 27.00 (13.30)

Physical parameters Water holding Soil pH EC Organic matter CEC Percent infection VAM

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the initial value Conclusion So long as agriculture remains a soil-based industry, there is no way that required yield increases of the major crops can be attained without ensuring that plants have an adequate and balanced supply of nutrients. The appropriate environment must exist for nutrients to be available to a particular crop in the right form, in the correct absolute and relative amounts, and at the right time for high yields to be realized in the short and long term. In this regard it is important to analysis the nutrient cycles to have a better basis for determining the flow of plant nutrients in and out of soils. Adequate testing and monitoring systems are to be established to gather data on the nutrient cycle and nutrient balances in representative areas throughout their rural economies. Further, research is to be focused for developing modern varieties and appropriate integrated nutrient systems

13

for harsh climatic environments. Research should also be promoted on biological nitrogen-fixation as a low-cost organic approach to increasing nitrogen availability and organic matter content in soils. The application of targeted, sufficient, and balanced quantities of inorganic fertilizers will be necessary to make nutrients available for high yields without polluting the environment. Necessary steps are to be taken to facilitate the widespread and responsible use of chemical fertilizers. At the same time, every effort should be made to improve the availability and use of secondary nutrients and micronutrients, organic fertilizers, and soil-conservation practices.

14

References Anthoniraj, S. and Thangaraju, M. 2001. Biofertilizers for Dryland Agriculture. In : Dryland Green Revolution in Tamil Nadu The perspectives. Eds. S.Kannaiyan, T.M.Thiyagarajam, M.Subramanian, T.N.Balasubramanian and R.Selvaraju, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Pp. 119-125. Chowksey. 1991. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis JNKVV. Jabalpur, India. Cited by Manorama Menon. (1994). Recovering from green revolution. Conf. of Inter. Federation in Organic Agricultural movement held in Christchurch, Linocoln University. USA : 11-16. Dec-1994 CPCRI. 1993. Crop management. CPCRI Annual report. 1993. p.62. FAI 2003. Fertilizer Statistics 2002-2003. The Ferti. Assoc. of India, New Delhi. FAO 2000. Fertilizer requirements in 2015 and 2030. FAO, Rome. Krishnamurthy, K., Abdul Khalak and G.M. Sujith. 2001. Integrated nutrient supply and management for sustenance of rice and wheat based cropping systems in India. In : Training manual on Advances in INM system for sustaining crop productivity and soil fertility. CAS in Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore. P: 248-253. Kumar, P. 1998. Food Demand and supply position for India. Agric. Econ. Policy Paper 98-01, IARI, New Delhi. Murugappan, V. 2001. Integrated plant nutrition system and soil quality. In : Training manual on Advances in INM system for sustaining crop productivity and soil fertility. CAS in Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore. P: 185-192. Nagarajan,R., Ramasamy,K., Savithri,P. and Manickam,T.S. 1989. Coir waste in crop production. AC&RI, Madurai and Coir board. Pp.39. Rajalingam, G.V. and Kumar, N. 2001. Effect of digested coirpith compost (DCC) and biofertilizers on green leaf yield of tea in National Seminar on Changing Scenario in the Production Systems of Horticultural Crops, South Indian Horticulture, Vol. 49 :142-144. Reddy, M.N. and Surekha, K. 1999. Role of chickpea in enhancing available P in chickpea upland rice system in vertisol. J. Indian Society of Soil Science, 47 (4): 805-808. Roy, R.N. 1995. In: Integrated Plant Nutrition Systems. FAO Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin, p. 3-22.

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Saxena, S. K. 1995. India: Constraint and opportunities for fertilizer use. Agro-chemicals News in Brief 18 (No.2). Singh, H.P., Sharma, KlL., Srinivas, K. and Venkateswarlu, B. 2000. Nutrient management strategies for dryland farming. Fertilizer News, Vol. 45 (5) : 43-50 and 5-54. Subba Rao,A. and Damodar Reddy, D. 2005. Meeting challenges of food security and soil quality. In: Perspectives of agricultural research and development. A compilation of articles for centenary seminar on recent advances in agricultural research held on 5.09.2005 at TNAU, Coimbatore. Swarup, A., Damodar Reddy, D. and Prasad, R.N.(eds) (1998) Proc. Natl. Workshop on Long-term Soil Fertility Management through Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply. Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal. pp 335. Tandon, H.L.S, 1995. Major nutritional constraints to crop production and the soil fertility management strategies in different agroclimatic regions of Asia. In: Proceedings of the International Potash Institute Colloquium on Potassium in Asia: Balanced Fertilization to Increase and Sustain Agricultural Production. Pp.43-72. Chiang Mai, Thailand, 21-24 February, 1995. International Potash Institute, Basel. Tandon, H.L.S. 1997. In: Plant Nutrient Needs, Supply, Efficiency and Policy Issues : 2000-2005. NAAS, New Delhi, pp 15-28. Tanie, T., John P.S. and Mercy George. 2001. Subjective analysis of select plants for in situ green manuring in coconut basin. Tiwari, K.N. and Nagendra Rao, T. 2005. Changing face of soil fertility and nutrient management. In: Perspectives of agricultural research and development. A compilation of articles for centenary seminar on Recent advances in agricultural research held on 5.09.2005 at TNAU, Coimbatore. Yadav, R.L, Dwivedi, B.S., Prasad, K, Tomar, O.K., Shurpali, N.J. and Pandey P.S. 2000. Yield trends, and changes in soil organic C and available NPK in a longterm rice-wheat system under integrated use of manures and fertilizers. Field Crops Res. 68 : 219-246. Yadvinder Singh, Khind, G.S. and Bijay Singh. 1991. Efficient management of leguminous green manures in wetland rice. Adv. Agron., 45 : 135-189.

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Balanced Fertilization for Horticultural Crops with Particular Reference to Potassium: IPI results
V. Nosov Coordinator India East, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka International Potash Institute1 C/o IPC, P.O. Box 486, Moscow 119034, Russia Tel.: +7 495 258 61 81, Fax: +7 495 258 61 91, E-mail: vladimir.nosov@ipipotash.org

Introduction It is well recognized that among all the cultivated crops species, banana removes extremely high amounts of potassium from the soil. Very high amounts of potassium are removed by such fruit crops as citrus and pineapple. Tuber crops like potato, cassava and sweet potato have also high K requirements as do a number of vegetable crops such as cabbage and cauliflower. The root and tuber crops are notable in that they need to take up large amounts of potassium most of which is removed from soils in the roots and tubers. On the whole, the above indicated horticultural crops uptake more potassium than nitrogen or phosphorus. Thus, an adequate fertilization with potassium is a major precondition for obtaining high yields of these crops. Among the major nutrients, potassium not only improves yields but also benefits various aspects of crop quality. Below are summarized the most important benefits from potash fertilizer application, originated from the key role potassium plays in the growth and development of plants: - increase in crop yield; - improvement in both the appearance and marketability of crop production (i.e. size, shape, colour, hygienic properties); - enhancement of nutritional value of crop production (i.e. the content of vitamin C and antioxidants, starch content in potato); Head Office: Baumgrtlistrasse 17, P.O. Box 569, CH-8810, Horgen, Switzerland Tel.: +41 43 810 49 22, Fax: +41 43 810 49 25, E-mail: ipi@ipipotash.org Web: www.ipipotash.org 17
1

- decrease in both the incidence and severity of pest and diseases attacks; - improvement of plant resistance to drought conditions; - decrease of storage losses, enhancement of shipping quality and extending of shelf life of crop production; - improvement in the processing quality of crop production. The present paper summarizes findings from collaborative projects with IPI partnership conducted during the last 10 years in Europe; Middle East; East, South and South-East Asia; and Latin America. Results from both research field experiments and demo trials laid out in farmers fields are discussed here within such groups of horticultural crop as fruits (grape wines, apple and citruses), nut crops (cashew) and vegetables (onion, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, okra, carrot, lettuce and watermelon). The importance of balanced fertilization with potassium in tuber crops (potato, sweet potato and cassava) is also discussed as a special chapter. In all the experiments, potassium chloride was used if not mentioned otherwise. IPI has a long association with India and the institute had several site-specific collaborative projects in horticultural crops in cooperation with local universities and research institutes. Results from these experiments are also presented in this paper.

1. Fruit crops The effect of different forms of K-fertilizers on the yield of grape wines was studied in the research experiment conducted during three years on alluvial-delluvial soil in Septemvri, Plovdiv County, Bulgaria (Popp, 2002). As compared with the NP treatment, the application of three different forms of potash fertilizers, i.e. potassium chloride, potassium sulphate and kalimagnesia (potassium magnesium sulphate), at a rate of 200 kg K2O/ha increased grapes yield by 22%, 35% and 41%, respectively (Fig. 1). Generally, especially in dry climatic conditions, potassium sulphate is considered as a preferable form of potash fertilizer for obtaining the highest yield of grape wines compared to potassium chloride. The highest efficiency of kalimagnesia in this trial may be attributed to the deficiency of Mg in the soil. Heavy potassium applications can also reduce the uptake of magnesium by plants. Nevertheless, costs of different forms of

18

potash fertilizer need to be taken into calculation for providing farmers with economically optimal recommendations.

26 24 Yield, t/ha 22 20 18 16 14 N45 P40 + K100 MOP + K200 MOP + K200 SOP + K200 Mg66 Kalimagnesia

Fig. 1. Effect of different forms of K-fertilizer on the yield of grape wines, Septemvri, Plovdiv county, Bulgaria: the average yield for three years, 2000-2002 (Popp, 2002)

The fertigation experiment in young apple trees was conducted on brown soil in Penglai, Shandong province of China (Ivanova, 2006). In this research experiment, 30% of total N, 70% of total P and 40% of total K were applied as a base fertilizer and the rest of NPK was fertigated. As shown in Table 1, the application of the highest rate of K (540 kg K2O/ha) produced the highest cumulative yield of apples for two years compared to the medium (405 kg K2O/ha) and lowest K rates (270 kg K2O/ha), with yield increment by 45% and 63%, respectively. Such apple quality parameters as size and firmness of fruits were also enhanced when 540 and 405 kg K2O/ha were applied as compared with the lowest rate of 270 kg K2O/ha.

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Table 1. Effect of K-fertilizer application on the yield and quality of apple, Penglai, Shandong province, China (Ivanova, 2006) Treatment N315P225K270** + K405 + K540 Firmness, kg/cm2 13.06 14.38 13.44 Weight, g/apple 161.1 177.8 193.7 Yield* kg/5 trees 30.6 34.4 50.0 t/ha 4.13 4.64 6.75

* The cumulative yield for two years (2005, the first year of bearing, and 2006) ** + organic manure

Experiments in different locations of Syria allowed determining the threshold for K-fertilizer recommendations to apple according to the content of exchangeable potassium in soils of various types (Marchand, 2004). Fig. 2 presents the harvest index of mature apple trees referred to the control treatment without K taken as 100% (recommended rates of N- and P-fertilizers were applied at all the treatments). With the highest content of exchangeable potassium in the soil (297 ppm), apple responded to Kfertilizer application only up to the rate of 50 kg K2O/ha, and the further increase in K rates was not effective. Soils with the lower content of exchangeable potassium (111 ppm and 145 ppm) required K-fertilizer application to apple up to 100 kg K2O/ha. This experiment well demonstrates the importance of soil analysis for recommending best fertilizer management practices.
125 Harvest index, % 120 115 110 105 100 95 0 25 50 K2O, kg/ha 75 100 Kexch. = 111 ppm Kexch. = 145 ppm Kexch. = 297 ppm

Fig. 2. Apple response to K-fertilizer application at different levels of exchangeable K in the soil, Syria: results for one year, 2003 (Marchand, 2004)

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Magen and Youguo (2001) investigated the effect of potash fertilizer use on the yield and quality of tangerine in the experiment laid out on sandy soil in Quzhou, Zhejiang province, China. The experiment with mature trees was conducted at farmers field during three years. With the maximum K-fertilizer rate of 420 kg K2O/ha, the cumulative yield of tangerine for three years was 15% higher as compared with the control treatment in which only N- and P-fertilizers were applied (Fig. 3). The lower rates of K-fertilizer (300-360 kg K2O/ha) were less effective and gave 5-8% increase in the yield of tangerine fruits. As regards the positive effect of K on fruit quality, farmers harvested up to 21% more large-sized fruits (>6 cm) due to K application. Moreover, juice content in fruits increased by 10-12% when K-fertilizer was applied.

A
125

B
90 Weight split of 4 trees, kg 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
K 30 0 + K 36 0 + K 42 0

Cumulative yield, t/ha

120 115 110 105 100

P2 30 0 36 0 K K K 42 0 70

>6 cm <5.5 cm

45 0

0 N 45

P2 70

21

75 Juice content, %

A: The cumulative yield of fruits for three

70 65 60 55

years (1999-2001) B: Weight split of 4 trees for large and small fruits (the average for three years, 19992001) C: Juice content (the average for two years, 2000-2001)

K 30 0

K 36 0

Fig. 3. Efficiency of balanced fertilization with K in tangerine, Quzhou, Zhejiang province, China (Magen and Youguo, 2001)

The interaction of nitrogen and potassium in lemon was studied in a research experiment conducted in Famailla, Tucuman province of Argentina (Imas, 2004). In this experiment, fertigation technique was used for N- and K-fertilizer application (the soil had the high content of phosphorus). Results obtained during four years of the experiment starting the first commercial harvest of lemon are shown in Fig. 4. The application of the lowest N-fertilizer rate (60 kg/ha) in combination with the maximum K-fertilizer doze (160 kg K2O/ha) had practically the same effect on lemon yield as the application of higher N rates (60-120 kg/ha) but without K. Thus, K-fertilizer use considerably increased the efficiency of N application because of higher nitrogen utilization rate by plants when K was applied. The combination of 90-120 kg N/ha with 160 kg K2O/ha gave the highest yield of lemon fruits in this experiment.

N 45

K 42 0

P2 70

22

350 Cumulative yield, kg/tree 300 250 200 150 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 K2O, kg/ha N60 N90 N120

Fig. 4. Interaction of N- and K-fertilizer application on the yield of lemon in Famailla, Tucuman province, Argentina: the cumulative yield for four years, 2000-2003 (Imas, 2004)

The interesting investigation of the effect of potash fertilizer application on the yield of Satsuma mandarin (mature trees) cropped with saline irrigation water was done in Izmir, Turkey (Marchand, 2005). Salinity is an important problem in arid and semiarid regions. In this research experiment, two rootstocks (Poncirus trifoliata and T. citrange) were tested under three salinity levels in irrigation water (0, 3.5 and 6.5 dS/m) and three rates of K (0; 600 and 1,200 g K2O/tree). Recommended rates of N- and P-fertilizers were applied in all the treatments. As shown in Fig. 5, yield increment through the application of K was 3-11% over the control K0 treatment when the irrigation with fresh water was done. However, the addition of K-fertilizer increased fruit yield by 5-19% when using saline water for irrigation. Thus, potash fertilizer application helped to overcome the salinity stress in citrus trees and the scale of this positive effect depended on the rootstock salt tolerance.

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30 28 26 Yield, t/ha 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 K0 K1 K2 K0 K1 T. citrange K2 K0: 0 g K2O/tree K1: 600 g K2O/tree K2: 1,200 g K2O/tree S0: fresh water S1: 3.5 dS/m S2: 6.5 dS/m

P. Trifoliata

Fig. 5. Yield of the Satsuma mandarin as a function of rootstocks, salinity and doses of K-fertilizer, Izmir, Turkey: results for one season, 2003-04 (Marchand, 2005) 2. Nut crops The response of dwarf cashew to potash fertilizer application was observed in an experiment conducted on light textured Red-Yellow Latosol in Pacajus, Ceara state, Brazil (Naumov, 2003). Cashew was grown under rainfed conditions. A four-year cumulative nut yield, starting the forth year after transplanting, is shown in Fig. 6 (A). As compared with the NP treatment, K-fertilizer application at 24.5 kg K2O/ha increased the cumulative nut yield of cashew by 8% but the higher K rate of 49 kg K2O/ha was 2% less efficient. The effect of potash fertilizer use on the yield of cashew considerably increased during plant development and the most noticeable influence of K was observed over the last year of the experiment (Fig. 6, B). One explanation of this effect is growing crop demand in nutrients with increasing age of the trees. The nut yield of cashew plants reached maximum six years after seedling transplant. A depletion of soil potassium reserves can be also a reason for increased efficiency of potash fertilizer use after several years of observation.

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A
5,200 Cumulative yield for 4 years, kg/ha 5,000 4,800
Yield, kg/ha 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800

4,600 4,400 N153 P* + K24.5 + K49

N153 P* + K24.5 + K49

A: The cumulative yield of nuts for four years, 1999-2002 (transplanting in 1995) B: Annual yield
*P-fertilizer rate: 150 g P2O5/plant/year

600

Fig. 6. Response of dwarf cashew to K-fertilizer application, Pacajus, Ceara state, Brazil (Naumov, 2003) 3. Vegetable crops The on-farm field demonstrations (2004-05) were conducted in winter and summer season vegetables on Alfisols, Inceptisols and Entisols in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh state, India. Results obtained in onion, brinjal, cabbage and okra are discussed below. As shown in Table 2, potash fertilizer use at a rate of 30-90 kg K2O/ha considerably increased the yield of onion over the control NP treatment, up to 14-23%. With balanced fertilization, onion bulbs noticeably increased in size. Of the treated plots, where K-fertilizer was applied, an application of 60 kg K2O/ha produced the highest average bulb diameter of 8.5 cm as compared with 6.9 cm at the zero K treatment. Moreover, the storage behavior of onion was appreciably improved due to K application.

19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02

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After 60-days storage at room temperature, the percentage of rotted bulbs was 17% when using potash fertilizers at a rate of 90 kg K2O/ha compared to 31% rotted bulbs at the zero K treatment.

Table 2. Effect of K-fertilizer use on the growth, yield and quality of onion, Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India (Sarnaik and Nosov, 2007) Rotting Yield, after q/ha storage*, % 136 155 167 167 31 26 21 17

Plant Treatment height, cm N100P80 + K30 + K60 + K90 17.6 18.0 19.1 20.0

Number of leaves per plant 8.5 8.4 9.4 9.2

Neck girth, cm 1.39 1.39 1.57 1.61

Bulb diameter, cm 6.9 7.5 8.5 8.2

Bulb weight, g 83.0 96.0 121.5 133.0

* Storage at room to during 60 days Note: The average results of 6 farmers fields per one season (2004-05)

In brinjal demonstrations from the same set of experiments in Chhattisgarh state of India, the highest yield of fruits of 376 q/ha was obtained when using 75 kg K2O/ha as compared with the yield of 233 q/ha harvested at the zero K treatment (Table 3). Application of K noticeably improved such growth and quality parameters of brinjal as plant height; number of branches per plant; length, girth and weight of fruits. It is important to indicate that crop resistance to diseases and insects was slightly increased as resulted from potash fertilizer application.

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Table 3. Effect of K-fertilizer use on the growth, yield and quality of brinjal, Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India (Nosov, 2004)

Treatment

Plant height, cm

No. of branches per plant

Fruit length

Fruit girth

cm 12.9 14.2 16.9 15.9 16.6 16.8 18.3 18.3

Fruit weight, g

Diseases incidence*

Insects damage*

% 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.2 8.3 8.0 6.2 5.8

Yield, q/ha

N150P100 + K50 + K75 + K100

55.8 49.3 67.1 66.5

7.0 8.9 11.6 10.9

125.6 137.4 185.9 172.1

233 277 376 332

*60 days after planting Note: The average results of 5 farmers fields per one season (2004)

The importance of balanced fertilization with K was also revealed in cabbage demo experiments conducted in the same state of India. With increasing potash fertilizer application from 0 to 90 kg K2O/ha, cabbage yield grew continuously from 196 to 280 q/ha (Table 4). K-fertilizer use increased the girth and especially the weight of cabbage heads. For instance, the average head weight was 1.49 kg at the treatment in which the highest rate of 90 kg K2O/ha was applied. Without potash fertilizer application, the average head weight reached only 1.16 kg or 0.33 kg less compared to the K90 treatment. Table 4. Effect of K-fertilizer application on the yield and quality of cabbage, Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India (Nosov, 2005) Treatment N150P100 + K30 + K60 + K90 Leaf length 9.5 10.1 10.0 10.3 Leaf width cm 9.0 9.7 9.8 9.8 18.5 18.8 20.1 20.1 Head girth Head weight, kg 1.16 1.21 1.33 1.49 Yield, q/ha 196 229 260 280

Note: The average results of 6 farmers fields per one season (2004-05)

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In the same series of demo experiments, the application of 60 kg K2O/ha to okra was optimal in terms of both the yield and quality (Table 5). K-fertilizer use up to the above-indicated rate increased plant height and improved all the quality parameters of okra fruits, e.g. length, girth and weight. The marketable yield of okra increased by 13% and 23% over the control NP treatment due to potash fertilizer application at 30 and 60 kg K2O/ha, respectively.

Table 5. Effect of K-fertilizer application on the growth, yield and quality of okra, Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India (Nosov, 2005) Plant height 46.6 58.0 70.6 67.8 Fruit length cm N100P60 + K30 + K60 + K90 10.7 11.8 13.5 13.4 5.0 5.2 5.5 4.5 Fruit girth Fruit weight, g 9.6 10.8 11.7 11.4 Yield, q/ha Total 43 46 50 49 Marketable 39 44 48 48

Treatment

Note: The average results of 4 farmers fields per one season (2005)

A two-year research experiment at Dabuleni, Dolj county, Romania, revealed high efficiency of tomato fertilization with K (Uebel, 1998 & 1999). At the lowest level of N and P application (75 kg N/ha and 60 kg P2O5/ha), yield increment due to K addition at a rate of 60 kg K2O/ha reached 29% (Fig. 7). With two times higher N and P doses (150 kg N/ha and 120 kg P2O5/ha), the yield of tomato grew up by 9% as resulted from K-fertilizer application at 120 kg K2O/ha. Thus, the former combination of NPK was found to be optimal in these conditions. A one-season field experiment was laid out in Zhangqiu, Shandong Province of China to study whether nutritional factors are able to improve the seed production of Chinese onion (Hardter, 1998). The effect of both K and B on seed yield was investigated in this trial. Onion seed yield was generally low because of bad weather conditions (with many cloudy and rainy days during the onion blooming and fruiting). However, with K application, seed yield was increased by 8% over the control NP treatment and the

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combined application of both K and B produced the highest seed output (Fig. 8). This experiment well explains that all the limiting factors including micronutrient deficiencies need to be taken into consideration to recommend best management practices for crop fertilization.
40 35 Yield, t/ha 30 25 20 N75 P60 + K60 N150 P120 + K120

Fig. 7. Efficiency of K-fertilizer application to tomato at two levels of N - and P-fertilizers, Dabuleni, Dolj County, Romania: the average yield of fruits for two years, 1998 and 1999 (Uebel, 1998 & 1999)

720 Seed yield, kg/ha 680 640 600 560 N70 P120* + K150 + K150 B3

*+ organic manure

Fig. 8. Efficiency of balanced fertilization with K and B on seed yield of Chinese onion, Zhangqiu, Shandong province, China: results for one season, 1998 (Hardter, 1998)

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The efficiency of potash fertilizer application to different vegetable crops was investigated on various soil types in three locations (Qingshen, Pengzhou and Pengshan) in Sichuan province of China (Magen, 2004). Such crops as cauliflower, watermelon and lettuce were grown in three demo experiments at farmers fields (one in each location) during one-two years. Results from these experiments are presented below. In cauliflower demonstrations conducted during two seasons, the additional yield due to K application was 5.3-7.8 t/ha depending on the season of observation (Fig. 9). The percentage of yield increase with K addition was 17-24%. The same series of demo experiments with another vegetable crop, watermelon, demonstrated that farmers achieve the additional yield of 14.4 t/ha through the application of 150 kg K2O/ha as compared with the zero K treatment (Table 6). The percentage of fruit yield increase due to K was as high as 47%. Such quality parameters as vitamin C and sugar content were also improved as resulted from potash fertilizer application at the above-indicated rate. Importantly, experimental data indicate that the percentage of cracked watermelon fruits at the NP treatment was 44% vs. 25% at the treatment in which K was applied at 150 kg K2O/ha.

45 40 Yield, t/ha 35 30 25 20 2003 2004 *2003: N 2004: N NP* + K150

Fig. 9. Response of cauliflower to K-fertilizer use, Sichuan province, China: the average results of 3 farmers fields per year (Magen, 2004)

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Table 6. Effect of K application on the yield and quality parameters of watermelon, Sichuan province, China (Magen, 2004) No. of fruits per ha 5,833 7,837 Cracked fruits, % 44 25 Vitamin C content, mg/100 ml 6.48 7.14 Sugar content, g/100 ml 6.33 6.80

Treatment N465P360 + K150

Yield, t/ha 30.30 44.68

Note: The average results of 3 farmers fields per one season (2003)

The same set of demonstrations at farmers fields in Sichuan province of China also revealed the high response of lettuce to balanced fertilization with potassium. As compared with the NP treatment, the additional lettuce yield obtained by potash application at 68 kg K2O/ha was 5.8 t/ha that is equivalent to the yield increment by 13% (Table 7). In this experiment, K application decreased the content of nitrates 1.3 and 2.5 times over the control NP treatment in lettuce leaves and stems, respectively. The effect is explained by the higher nitrogen utilization rate by plants when using potash fertilizer at optimal balanced dozes. Hence, with balanced fertilizer practices, less nitrates are accumulated in crop production and crop biomass is safer for human consumption. It is interesting to indicate the relationship between potassium application and nitrates concentration in crop production in yet one field trial that is a long-term research experiment conducted during 25 years on alluvial loamy soil in Bykovo, Moscow region, Russia (Prokoshev, 2000). On average for 25 years, the application of potassium at 180250 kg K2O/ha resulted to 1.3 and 1.2 times less accumulation of nitrates in cabbage heads and carrot roots, respectively, as compared with the zero K treatment (Fig. 10). Of the treated plots, crop production harvested only from treatments in which K-fertilizers were applied in balance with N- and P-fertilizers was acceptable for processing of vegetable mixtures for feeding infants in accordance with country standards for nitrate concentrations.

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Table 7. Effect of K application on the yield and nitrates accumulation in lettuce, Sichuan province, China (Magen, 2004) Treatment N248P203 + K68 Yield, t/ha 46.13 51.97 NO3-N content, mg/kg Leaves 480 360 Stem 2,000 800

Note: The average results of 3 farmers fields per one season (2003)

500 460 NO3-N, mg/kg 420 380 340 300 Cabbage Carrot N90 P60 + K180-250

Fig. 10. Nitrates accumulation in vegetables as affected by K-fertilizer application, Bykovo, Moscow region, Russia: the average results for 25 years, 1975-2000 (Prokoshev, 2000)

4. Tuber crops IPI conducted a lot of field experiments in potato as compared with other crops because potato is cropped in both countries within temperate zones and tropical regions of the world. Some of the most important tuber quality parameters positively affected by potassium nutrition are: tuber size, percentage of dry matter, starch content, storability and resistance to mechanical damage. Potassium also decreases such a physiological disorder in potato tuber as internal blackening.

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The potato experiment in Jalandhar, Himachal Pradesh state, India, was conducted on Typic Ustrochrepts at farmers fields (Imas and Bansal, 1999). Three K doses were combined with three levels of N (Table 8). K-fertilizer was applied in two splits (half at planting and half at earthing up). There was a significant positive interaction between N and K: at each level of N increasing levels of K increased the yield of tubers. Application of 150 kg K2O/ha increased tuber yield over the zero K treatment by 35%, 54% and 61% at 80, 160 and 240 kg N/ha, respectively. K and N application also improved tuber size by increasing the yield of medium and large sized tubers and decreasing the yield of medium and small sized tubers. On average, K application increased the percentage of large tubers from 29% (0 kg K2O/ha) up to 40% (75 kg K2O/ha) and further up to 44% (150 kg K2O/ha). Table 8. Effect of N- and K-fertilizer use on the yield and tuber size of potato, Jalandhar, Himachal Pradesh state, India (Imas and Bansal, 1999) Treatment N80P100 + K0 + K75 + K150 N160P100 + K0 + K75 + K150 N240P100 + K0 + K75 + K150 Tuber yield, q/ha Medium Large (25-75 g) (> 75 g) 75 33 82 88 82 106 101 81 101 108 75 82 88 58 62 41 69 97 44 94 104 33 58 62

Small (< 25 g) 14 13 15 15 13 16 17 15 15 14 13 15

TOTAL 123 154 166 138 188 213 141 211 227 123 154 166

Note: The average results of 6 farmers fields per one season (1998-99)

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In recent demonstration experiments conducted on Alfisols, Inceptisols and Entisols in Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India, potash fertilizer application considerably increased the yield of potato (Table 9). Moreover, the storage behavior of potato tubers was also improved through potash fertilizer use. Importantly to indicate that the percentage of rotted tubers after 60-days storage period at room temperature was lower when potash fertilizers were applied. For instance, the percentage of rotted tubers was 15% when using potash fertilizers at 150 kg K2O/ha compared to 36% rotted tubers at the zero K treatment. Table 9. Growth, yield and quality parameters of potato as affected by K application, Raipur, Chhattisgarh state, India (Sarnaik and Nosov, 2007)

Tuber weight Treatment Number of tubers/plant g kg/plant

Tuber girth, cm

Yield, q/ha DM, % Total

Rotting after Marketable storage*, (> 25 g) %

N150P100 + K50 + K100 + K150

4.9 3.9 5.3 5.6

63.3 97.4 73.6 76.8

0.31 0.38 0.39 0.43

6.2 7.1 7.1 7.7

16.7 18.4 19.1 20.8

145 166 193 182

110 132 151 154

36 34 24 15

* Storage at room to during 60 days Note: The average results of 7 farmers fields per one season (2004-05)

The role of potassium nutrition in cassava, the important tropical tuber crop, can be shown in a one-season experiment conducted in Hatay province of Vietnam on depleted upland soil, Typical Ferralsol (Hardter, 1998). At N rates of 40 and 80 kg N/ha, the highest K application rate of 160 kg K2O/ha increased the tuber yield over the control K0 treatment by 32% and 46%, respectively (Fig. 11). The lower K application rate (80 kg K2O/ha) was slightly less effective at both N levels.

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25 Tuber yiekd, t/ha 20 K0 15 10 5 N40 P* N80 P* K80 K160

*Recommended rate of P-fertilizer

Fig. 11. Response of cassava to K at different rates of N-fertilizer, Hatay province, Vietnam: results for one season, 1998 (Hardter, 1998)

The high efficiency of balanced fertilization with potassium in sweet potato was found in demonstration experiments conducted on old alluvial yellow soils in Chengdu, Sichuan province of China (Magen, 2000). The demonstrations were laid out at farmers fields during three seasons. Potash fertilizer application increased the tuber yield of sweet potato over the control NP treatment by 5.4-6.7 t/ha when organic manure was applied (Table 10). Without organic manure application, the yield increment due to K addition was more significant and reached 7.6-8.6 t/ha. Moreover, the share of large-sized tubers was tended to be higher as resulted from potash fertilizer application. At the same time, the share of small-sized tubers noticeably decreased when using K. The yield of sweet potato aerial parts mostly composed of vines (vines may be utilized as animal feed) was also considerably improved in a result of K application: the increment in vine yield due to K application was 3.3-5.3 t/ha.

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Table 10. Efficiency of potash fertilizer application to sweet potato, Chengdu, Sichuan province, China (Magen, 2000) Tuber size by grades, % of total yield Small 37 30 31 38 35 32 Medium 33 31 30 31 30 31 Large 30 40 39 31 35 37 Yield, t/ha Tubers 13.78 21.37 22.40 16.60 22.04 23.28 Vines 14.16 18.91 19.43 14.58 17.83 19.75

Treatment N35P45 + K45 + K65 N35P45 + OM* + K45 + K65

* OM = organic manure at 6 t/ha Note: The average results for three years (1998-2000) with 7 farmers fields per year

Acknowledgement Special thanks to IPI team for help in experimental data presenting: Mr. H. Magen (Director), Dr. S. Ivanova (Former Coordinator China), Dr. P. Imas (Coordinator India), Dr. A. Naumov (Coordinator Latin America), Dr. T. Popp (Coordinator Central Europe) and Mr. M. Marchand (Coordinator West Asia & North Africa).

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References Hardter, R., 1998. Internal IPI Report. Hardter, R., 2001. Internal IPI Report. Imas, P., 2004. Fertilization of lemon and fertigation. Paper presented at the IPI Fertigation Symposium, 1st November 2004, Tucuman, Argentina. Imas, P. and Bansal, S.K., 1999. Potassium and integrated nutrient management in potato. Paper presented at the Global Conference on Potato, 6-11 December 1999, New Delhi, India. Ivanova, S., 2006. Internal IPI Report. Magen, H., 1999. Internal IPI Report. Magen, H., 2000. Internal IPI Report. Magen, H. and Youguo, T., 2001. An Interim Project Report submitted to IPI. Magen, H., 2004. Internal IPI Report. Marchand, M., 2005. Internal IPI Report. Naumov, A., 2003. Internal IPI Report. Nosov, V., 2004. Internal IPI Report. Nosov, V., 2005. Internal IPI Report. Popp, T., 2002. Internal IPI Report. Prokoshev, V., 2000. Internal IPI Report. Sarnaik, D.A. and Nosov, V., 2007. Promotion of balanced fertilization in vegetable crops through demonstrative experiments at farmers fields in Chhattisgarh. Poster presented at the IPI-PAU Int. Symp. on Balanced Fertilization for Sustaining Crop Productivity, 22-25 November 2006, Ludhiana, India. Uebel, E., 1998. Internal IPI Report. Uebel, E., 1999. Internal IPI Report.

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Balanced fertilization for Mango, Citrus and Sapota

S. Balasubramanian1, R.M. Vijayakumar2 and N. Kumar3
1

Department of Fruit Crops, Horticultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Periyakulam 625 604, India.

2 and 3

Department of Fruit Crops, Horticultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003, India.

1. Mango Mango grows well even in poor soils because of its deep and extensive root system. However, in view of the vegetative growth it makes annually and the removal of nutrients through the harvest, it needs regular fertilization for maintaining proper growth and heavy yield of crop every year. As 82 to 88.5% of the active roots are located within a radius of 300 cm with the highest activity at 120 cm from the trunk, fertilizers are to be applied one meter away from the main trunk under the drip circle and mixed thoroughly. Nutritional requirements vary depending upon the type and nutrient status of the soil and age of the tree etc. Pre bearing trees After planting the pre bearing stage extends to 4-8 years depending upon variety and environment. Since the plants during this period continue to grow in size, manurial dose needs to be scheduled according to their age. The Central Institute for Research on Subtropical Fruit Crops, Lucknow recommends that during the non bearing stage the plants should be supplied with 73 g N, 18 g P2O5 and 68 g K2O per tree per year of age. On the other hand, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University recommends 10 kg farm yard manure, 20 g N, 20 g P2O5 and 30 g K2O per tree per year for one year old tree with an annual increase of 10 kg, 0.2, 0.2 and 0.3 kg respectively till it attains fifth year. Bearing trees In most parts of India, bearing mango trees are not at all manured, however, evidence indicates that regular manuring of bearing trees is essential to maintain the productivity of the trees. Most of the earlier manurial recommendation for mango

38

consisted of applying farm yard manure, neem cake, bone meal, wood ash, ammonium sulphate, and super phosphate etc, the quantity varying from region to region. Subsequently, recommendations of inorganic fertilizers were made for different regions. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University recommends 50 kg farm yard manure, 1.0 kg each of N and P and 1.5 kg K year-1 bearing tree-1 (Anon, 2004). Ladani et al. (2004) suggested application of 1.5 kg N, 0.5 kg P and 1.2 to 1.5 kg K tree-1 to get higher yield. The ratio of N and K is known to affect the growth and yield in mango. Higher N and low K (1.5 and 0.5 kg per plant, respectively) promoted vegetative growth, whereas higher N and K (both 1.5 kg per plant) promoted fruiting in mango cv. Fazli (Banik et al., 1997). Recently, it has been established that incorporation of SOP at 25-50% of K requirement (i.e., 1.5 kg K2O/plant) of mango increased the fruit yield besides improving the fruit quality particularly T.S.S, ascorbic acid and carotenoid contents etc (Kumar et al. 2007). Similarly, foliar spraying of SOP at 2-4% thrice; first during peanut stage followed by two sprays at an interval of 15 days, improved the yield and quality of fruits (Fig-1) especially the pulp colour (Kumar et al. 2007).
Fig. 1. Effect of SOP spray on yield and quality in mango
20 20 15 10 5 0 Control 0.5% SOP 1% SOP Yield TSS 2 % SOP 3% SOP 4% SOP Carotenoid 15 10 5 0

kg/tree (or) brix

Treatments
Ascorbic acid (x10)

Fertigation studies in mango is lacking. However, Sivakumar (2007) conducted an experiment in mango cv. Ratna planted under HDP during 2005-07 to study the influence of N and K nutrients applied through fertigation. The results showed that fruit weight, number of fruits per tree and per tree yield besides the fruit quality parameters were improved by application of 100 per cent Recommended dose of nutrients through fertigation (Table 1 & 2 ).

mg/100g

39

Table 1. Effect of fertigation on yield characters in mango cv.Ratna

Treatments Number of fruits tree-1 Mean fruit weight (g) Fruit yield (kg tree-1) Estimated fruit yield (t ha-1)

100% of RDF as soil application 100% N + 100 % P + 50 % K of RDF through fertigation 100% N + 100 % P + 75 % K of RDF through fertigation 100% N + 100 % P + 100 % K of RDF through fertigation CD(0.05) RDF: (800:400:800 g NPK plant -1 year-1)

116.5 126.7

364.6 340.8

40.8 40.2

17.98 17.69

142.7

436.3

54.0

23.78

160.0

465.3

59.8

26.34

6.14

12.50

1.43

0.63

Table 2. Effect of fertigation on quality parameters in mango cv.Ratna

Fruit TSS (o Brix) Total sugar content (%) Titrable Acidity (%) Ascorbic acid content (mg 100 g-1) Caroten oid content (mg 100g-1) Fruit shelf life (days)

Treatments

100% of RDF as soil application 100% N + 100 % P + 50 % K of RDF through fertigation 100% N + 100 % P + 75 % K of RDF through fertigation 100% N + 100 % P + 100 % K of RDF through fertigation CD(0.05)

19.66 19.96

15.69 15.23

0.46 0.46

36.95 39.56

4.18 4.16

6.05 5.38

22.69

17.36

0.42

44.62

5.28

8.05

24.93

19.84

0.38

48.92

5.82

14.77

1.09
-1

0.57 year )
-1

0.01

2.12

0.15

0.30

RDF : (800:400:800 g NPK plant

40

2. Citrus The importance of nutrients for citrus has been well established in India. Improper and inadequate nutrition is one of the major causes of citrus decline in India (Chadha et al.1970). Studies on the decline of mandarins in Kerala showed that poor nutrient status of soil (Iyer and Iyengar, 1956) and neglect and lack of manuring are the main causal factors. Thirty tonnes of citrus fruits remove 270 kg N, 60 kg P2O5, 350 kg K2O, 40 kg MgO and 15 kg S from the soil ( Tandon and Kemmler, 1986). Different states recommend different amounts of NPK for mandarin and other important citrus species in India which vary from 300-400 g of N, 200 to 375 g of P2O5 and 100 to 600 g of K2O per plant per year. Recently, integrated nutrient management (INM) is being advocated in citrus. Studies conducted at Tinsukia (Assam) by Borah et al. (2001) revealed that maximum yield with appreciable tree vigour and fruit quality of Khasi mandarin could be obtained from balanced nutrition of the plants through combinations of organic (neem cake) and inorganic fertilizers (Table 3. ). Results of a study (Seshedri and Madhavi, 2001) conducted on 20 year old seedling trees of sweet orange cv. Sathgudi revealed that the maximum yield, cost benefit ratio with better fruit quality could be obtained by the balanced nutrition of 400:150:300g NPK plant-1 year-1 along with organic (castor cake @ 7.5 kg) (Table 4). Similarly, integrated nutrient management studies conducted at Akola revealed that application of neem cake along with chemical fertilizers significantly increased the yield with better quality fruits in acid lime (Ingle et al. 2001). Table 3. Effect of organic and inorganic nutrition on yield and quality of Khasi mandarin plants Treatments 600:300:600g NPK /plant 600:300:600g NPK /plant + Neem cake @15 kg/plant CD (0.05) No of fruits / plant 805 Yield (kg/plant) 118.01 Juice (%) 46.33 Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 48.27 TSS (Brix) 14.35

1072 19.66

203.55 10.45

55.66 1.05

57.26 3.50

15.26 0.21

41

Table 4. Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on yield of sweet orange Fruit number / plant 1960

Treatments T1 (Inorganic fertilizers @ 800:300:600 g NPK/ plant/year) T2 (Castor cake @ 7.5 kg/plant/year + 50 % of T1) F Value

Yield/ plant (kg) 296.27

Weight of fruit (g) 160.76

Juice (%) 42.04

TSS (Brix) 12.86

2539

399.87

170.71

41.68

13.28

NS

NS

Experiment conducted in Tamil Nadu revealed that application of P enriched farm yard manure (0.5 kg P2O5 tree-1 mixed with 20 kg farm yard manure) along with 700 g N and 600 g K2O tree-1 recorded the highest yield and improved the fruit quality of mandarin. Ingle et al. (2003) found that in Nagpur mandarin, number and weight of fruits and total soluble sugars were highest with application of 800 g N, 300 g P2O5, and 600 g K2O along with 7.5 kg neem cake per plant per year. Tiwari et al. (1999) also obtained maximum yield of sweet orange with the application of 800 g N, 300 g P2O5, 600 g K2O + 15 kg neem cake tree-1 year-1 . Mycorrhizal association with citrus species has been well established. Shamshiri and Usha (2004) found that application of G. manihotis, G. gigospora and their combinations increased the trunk diameter, height and leaf area in Kinnow mandarin. Integrated nutrient management studies conducted at Andhra Pradesh revealed that 50% of the recommended dose of fertilizers besides 100g each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria + 5 kg of vermicompost resulted in higher fruit yield (15.48 t/ha) as against 13.98 t/ha with farmers practice (Umajyothi et al. 2004). At Lower pulney Hills, Saravanan ( 2007 ) investigated the effect of

bioinoculants viz., Azospirillum lipoferum, phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus megaterium), Arbuscular mycorrihizae and Pseudomonas fluorescens in combination with farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of mandarin

42

orange during 2005-2007 and found 100 per cent RDF along with all bioinoculants registered higher fruit number , fruit yield with good quality fruits than the pure inorganically fertilized trees ( Table 5 ). Table 5. Effect of bioinoculants in combination with organic manure and inorganic fertilizers on yield and fruit quality of mandarin orange
Fruit weight (g) Number of fruits per tree Yield per tree(kg) Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)

Treatments

TSS (OBrix)

Recommended g NPK plant-1)

dose

of

91.50

100.97

9.00

8.89

21.80

fertilizers (RDF) (600:200:400

100
75

per per

cent cent

RDF RDF

+ +

84.50 86.00 01.75

147.95 140.95 8.06

12.90 12.00 00.08

9.44 9.51 0.26

23.13 22.47 00.62

Bioinoculants* Bioinoculants * CD (0.05)

* Arbuscular mycorrhiza (500 g plant-1) +Azospirillum lipoferum (100 g plant-1) + Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (100 g plant-1) + Pseudomonas fluorescens (100 g plant-1). Fertigation has been recently introduced in citrus and varying response has been reported. Shirgure et al. (2001) found that fertigating Nagpur mandarin with 50:140:70 NPK kg/ha is good in improving the tree vigour, yield and quality of fruits. Application of 75% recommended amount of N and K through drip irrigation was found ideal for sweet oranges under Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab conditions. Secondary and micronutrient deficiencies are common in almost all citrus species. Each state has its own recommendations which involve application of ZnSO4 (0.3 to 0.5 %), Mg SO4 (0.2 to 0.3%), MnSO4 (0.1 to 0.3%), CuSO4 (0.3%), FeSO4 (0.2 to 0.3%) and Borax (0.05 to 0.1%) two to three times on the new flushes to get good yield and quality fruits (Bojappa and Bhargava, 1993).

43

3. Sapota No systematic studies on the nutrient uptake or removal in sapota are available. However, Avilan et al. 1980 reported from the analysis of fruits and seeds of 8 to 10 year old sapota trees that the plants required 1.69 kg K2O, 1.16 kg N, 1.12 kg Ca, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.14 kg MgO to produce 1000 kg of fruits. Annapurna et al. (1988) reported that recently matured leaf which comes out to be 10th leaf position should be utilized for diagnosis and such leaves on healthy trees indicated a levels of 1.66 % N, 0.083 % P, 0.80 % K,0.83 % Ca , 0.48 % Mg and 0.066 % S. Sapota growing states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra and Tamil Nadu recommend different doses for obtaining higher yield (Table 6). Integrated nutrient management has also gained popularity in many states. In Andhra Pradesh, sapota trees are fertilized with 100 kg farm yard manure, 6 kg castor cake and 2 kg super phosphate per tree (Narasimham, 1966); while in Maharashtra, ten years old trees are fertilized with 40 kg farm yard manure and 6 kg of caster cake (Singh et al. 1963). In Karnataka, the recommended dose for trees of 11 years and more is 40 kg farm yard manure, 400 g N, 160 g P and 450 g K per tree (Anon., 1975). According to existing knowledge, a tree of 10 years and above age should be fed with 50 kg farm yard manure, 1000 g N, 500 g P2O5 and 500 g K2O per annum. Application of 5 kg vermi compost with 150 g N, 40 g P2O5 and 150 g K2O per plant per year for 9 year old trees of Kalipatti at Karnataka and PKM-1 at Tamil Nadu conditions recorded significantly higher growth and yield, while at Gujarat conditions, application of 25 kg farm yard manure per 5 kg vermin compost with 300 g N, 50 g P2O5 and 200 g K2O per plant for 15 years old Kalipatti sapota recorded significantly higher growth.

44

Table 6. Fertilizer recommendation for sapota in certain states of India

States Andra Pradesh

Age 1-3 year

P2O5 Kg/ha 20

K2O

Farm Yard Manure (kg/ tree) 50

50

75

4-6 year 7-10 year 11 & above Karnataka 1-3 year 4-6 year 7-10 year 11 & above Maharashtra 1-10 year 10th year Tamil Nadu Annual increase I year Adult

100 200 400 50 100 200 400 50 g /yr 500 30

40 80 160 20 40 80 160 --30

150 300 450 75 150 300 450 --50

50 50 -50 50 50 50 -10-15 10

30 150

30 150

50 250

10 50

45

References Annapurna, K., Bojappa, K.M. and Bhargava, B.S. 1988. Leaf sampling guide for sapota cv. Cricket Ball. Crop Res. 1: 69-75. Anonymous, 1975. Cultivation practices of fruits, UAS, Department of Horticulture, IIHR, Bangalore, pp.31-34. Avilan, R.C., Leberenum, E.S., Figueroa, M. and Rangel, C. 1980.Nutrient extraction by a crop of sapodilla. Agronomia Tropical, 30(1-6): 7-16. Banik, B.L., Mitra, S., Sen, S.K. and Bose, T.K. 1997. Effect of zinc and boron sprays on the physico chemical composition of mango fruits cv. Fazli. Orissa J. Hort. 25(1): 5-7. Bojappa, K.M. and Bhargava, B.S. 1993. Citrus Nutrition. In Advances in Horticulture. Vol 2 Fruit Crops. Pp. 829 852. Borah, S.C., Barbora, A.C. and Bhattacharyya, D. 2001. Effect of organic and inorganic manuring on growth, yield and quality of Khasi mandarin (Citrus reticulate). South Indian Hort. 49: 115-118. Chadha, K.L., Randhawa, N.S., Bindra, O.S., Chohan, J.S. and Khorr, L.C. 1970. Citrus decline in India. Pub: PAU, USAID, Punjab, India. Ingle, H.V., Athawale, R.B. and Ingle, S.H., 2003. Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizer on yield and quality of Nagpur mandarin. Orissa J. Hort. 31(1):10-13. Ingle, H.V., Athawale, R.B., Ghawde, S.M. and S.K. Shivankar. 2001. Integrated nutrient management in acid lime. South Indian Hort. 49:126-129. Iyer, T.A. and Iyengar, T.R. 1956. A study of the decline of orange in Wynad. South Indian Hort. 4: 70-81. Ladani, R.H., Khimani, R.A., Makawana, A.N. and D.V. Delavadia. 2004. Nutritional survey of mango cv. Kesar orchard in south saurashtra region of Gujarat. Improving Productivity, Quality, Post-harvest management and trade in horticultural crops. First Indian Horticulture Congress. pp: 222-223. Munniswamy, D. 1970. Application of manures and fertilizers for mango crop. Lal Baugh, 15: 7-8. Narasimham, 1966. Horticulture part I. Agricultural College, Bapatla, Andra Pradesh, pp.200-201.

46

Saravanan, T. 2007. Effect of Bioinoculants in combination with organic manure and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco). M.Sc Thesis submitted to TNAU, Coimbatore. Seshadri, K.V. and Madhavi, M. 2001. Effect of organic and inorganic manuring on twenty years old seedlings of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) cv. Sathugudi. South Indian Hort. 49: 122-125. Shamshiri, M.H. and Usha, K. 2004. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus on growh parameters in Kinnow. Improving Productivity, Quality, Post-harvest

management and trade in horticultural crops. First Indian Horticulture Congress. pp: 243. Shirgure, P. S., Shrivastava, A. K. and Shyam Sundar. 2001. Fertigation and drip irrigation in Nagpur Mandarin (Citrus reticulate L.). South Indian Hort., 49: 95 97. Singh, S., Krishnamurthy, S. and Katyal, S. L. (1963). Fruit culture in India, ICAR, New Delhi, pp.192-98. Tandon, H.L.S. and Kemmler,C. 1986. Potassium Sulphate for Quality Crops in India. Intern. Potash Instt. Worblanfen Borne, Switzerland. Uma Jyothi, K., Anka Rao, A. and Vishnu Sankara Rao, D. 2004. Integrated nutrient management strategies on yield and economics of sapota. Improving Productivity, Quality, Post-harvest management and trade in horticultural crops First Indian Horticulture Congress. pp: 257.

47

Balanced fertilization for banana

T.N.Balamohan, N.Kumar, P.Jeyakumar, L.Nalina and M.Kavino Department of Fruit Crops, Horticultural College & Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641 003 Bananas and plantains are the fourth most important commodity and are grown in more than 130 countries across the world, in an area of 8.25 M ha producing 97.38 M tones. India is the largest producer of banana, contributing 19.71% of the global production with a total production of 19.19 M tones from 0.565 M ha. The major banana growing areas are: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, West Bengal and Orissa. Tamil Nadu has the largest area while Maharashtra is second largest producer with highest productivity level. This is attributed to monoculture of high yielding Robusta and Grand Naine clones coupled with adoption of improved production technologies like use of micro- propagated material under micro irrigation coupled with fertigation. Adoption of improved technologies has enhanced the production largely due to an increase in productivity during the decade. However, there is a regional disparity in adoption of technologies indicating variation in productivity level ranging from 7.6 to 62.90 tones, but still there is a wide gap between the potential yield and the average yield obtained in farmers field. This would need immediate attention so that production could be increased from the same area by increasing productivity. Another aspect under concern is the per capita consumption which is very low (9 kg) in India compared to other countries (15 kg). It is projected that our requirement could be 25 M tones by the year 2020. This also warrants us to increase the production and productivity of banana. Judicious nutrient management is often regarded as one of the important aspects to increase the productivity of fruit crops particularly banana. Efficient and rational use of the fertilizers is imperative not only for obtaining more yields per unit area on a sustainable basis, but also to ensure safe food and to conserve the environment. Banana generally requires high amount of mineral nutrients for proper growth and production. Studies conducted by different authors indicated that banana crop requires more of K than N and P (Table 1). 48

Table 1. Variations in the uptake of nutrients by banana Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) N 50-75 50 250 250 38 300 300 321.84 180-450 P 15-20 12.50 60 90 8 80 80 72.86 49-309 K 175-200 150 1000 350 285 800 800 1179.67 964-2440

Yield (t/ha) 30.00 25.00 25.00 28.00 16.75 30.00 25.00 57.50 77.00

Reference Jacob and Vonvexkull (1960) Martin-Prevel (1964) Montagut and Martin-Prevel (1965) Martin-Prevel et al. (1968) Joseph (1971) Shanmugam and Velayutham (1972) Veeraraghavan (1972) Veerannah et al. (1976) Martin-Prevel (1992)

These nutrients are also varyingly required at different growth stages (Fig.1), more during the fruit bud initiation and differentiation stage. Fig 1. Nutrient uptake in banana at different growth stages
60 50 Nutrient uptake (%) 40 30 20 10 0

Vegetative stage

Fruit bud initiation and Shooting to fruit harvest differentiation stage Growth stages N P K

49

Studies on uptake of nutrients in tissue culture banana cv. Robusta (AAA) also revealed that N, P, K uptake increased up to shooting stage (Nalina, 2002). The distribution of N, P, and K within different organs of banana plant is found in the order of the bunch > leaves > pseudostem > corm for N and P, and pseudostem > bunch > leaves > corm for K. Banana cultivation in India is polyclonal with an array of varieties under different methods of cultivation. The systems of culture are diverse; therefore, fertilizer recommendations are also diverse. However, it is indicated that, in all fertilizer recommendations, the quantity of K fertilizers are higher than nitrogenous fertilizers. Further, as banana is cultivated under different production systems in Tamil Nadu, TNAU recommends different NPK doses for different systems and varieties (Table 2). Table 2. Fertilizer recommendations for banana under different methods of cultivation Details N P (g/plant/year) Garden land Varieties other than Nendran Nendran Wetland Nendran Rasthali Poovan, Robusta Hill bananas After forming semicircular basins on uphill side, apply 375 g of 40:30:40 NPK mixture, plus 130 g muriate of potash per clump per application during October, January and April. Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria 20 g each at planting and 5th month after planting preceding chemical fertilizer application. *For tissue culture banana apply 50% extra fertilizers at 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th month after planting 210 210 160 35 50 50 450 390 390 110* 150 35* 90 330* 300 K

50

The time of fertilizer application and availability of nutrients in adequate amounts in accordance with the crop needs during different growth stages are vital for optimum growth and productivity in any crop particularly for banana. Though banana requires nutrients throughout its growing period, application of N and K before shooting, especially during flower bud initiation (4-6 MAP) ensures uninhibited growth and has greater influence in deciding the bunch size, number of fingers and hands per bunch, ultimately the yield (Simmonds, 1982). Splitting of N, P and K helps in accumulation of photosynthates and also helps in better availability of nutrients during crop period and thus favours the yield and quality improvement (Agrawal et al. 1997). Leaf nutrient concentration in banana plant provides information on the nutrient status of the plant. Any management practice, especially with nutrient programme should reflect on optimum leaf concentration of major nutrients to aid in proper growth and development of banana crop. Scanning of literature on the above line showed that critical levels of N varied from 2 to 3 %, P from 0.08 to 0.5 % and K from 3 to 4.5% for banana (Table 3). Table 3. Critical level of nutrients in banana cv.Robusta Leaf (%) Reference N 2.85 2.80 2.09 2.98 3.01 P 0.20 0.52 0.10 0.32 0.36 K 4.69 3.80 4.48 2.53 2.28 Kohli et al. (1981) Ray et al. (1981) Nalina (1999) Mahalakshmi (2000) Kavino (2001)

Banana, being a potassium loving crop, the farmers in India are applying potassium @ 800 to 1600 kg per ha depending upon the available soil K status. As Muriate of Potash (MOP) is commonly used as the source of potassium, the chloride toxicity is often met in banana, hindering crop growth, yield and quality especially at 51

amounts greater than 1200 kg per ha (Nalina, 2002). Hence, SOP has been tested as a substitute for MOP in banana at TNAU. Ramesh Kumar (2004) tried various combination of SOP and KCl to supply the recommended dose of K2O i.e. 330 g of K2O per plant to cv. Robusta and found that soil application of SOP improved the bunch weight and quality (Fig. 2 and 3) as compared to 100% through MOP. But, the prohibitive cost of SOP is the limiting factor.

Fig 2. Influence of sources of potassium (SOP vs MOP) on bunch and finger weight in banana
28.5 28 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 No K 100 % MOP 2/3 MOP + 1/2 MOP + 1/3 MOP + 100 % SOP 1/3 SOP 1/2 SOP 2/3 SOP Treatm ents Bunch w eight (kg) Finger w eight

Bunch weight (kg)

27.5 27 26.5 26 25.5 25 24.5

Fig 3 .

Influence of sources of potassium (SOP vs MOP) on quality traits in banana

22 20 Per cent 18 16 14 12 10
No K 100 % MOP TSS 2/3 MOP 1/2 MOP 1/3 MOP + 1/3 +1/2SOP +2/3 SOP SOP Ascorbic Acid 100% SOP

Total sugars

As potassic fertilizers are exclusively imported, their exorbitant cost and scarcity at times especially during the critical growth period of banana is a serious limitation as

Finger weight (g)

52

many farmers are not able to apply potash timely and in adequate quantities. This will lead to nutritional imbalance in soil and deteriorate the soil fertility also. As most of the Indian soils are rich in K, this problem may not be visualized in the early stage, but in the long run, it cannot be solved by simple means. In such a situation, potash rich industrial wastes are found to be an alternate source of potassium in agriculture. One such industrial waste, Cement Kiln Flue Dust (CKFD), containing nearly 20% potassium may prove as an useful alternative. Shanthi (2004) found that application of 50% K through MOP + 50% K through CKFD had a positive response to plant growth in terms of height, girth, number of leaves, bunch weight and number of fingers in banana cv. Karpooravalli and Poovan (Table 4). Table 4. Influence of Cement Kiln Flue Dust on yield characters of banana Karpooravalli Bunch weight (kg) 19.42 23.46 0.92 2.12 No. of hands 13.59 14.39 0.93 NS No. of fingers 174.08 187.93 2.51 5.78 Finger weight (g) 120.07 129.73 1.02 2.05

Treatment 100 % K through MOP 50 % K through MOP + 50 % K through CKFD SEd CD (0.05)

Poovan Treatment 100 % K through MOP 50 % K through MOP + 50 % K through CKFD SEd CD (0.05) Bunch weight (kg) 15.83 19.14 No. of hands 12.00 12.65 No. of fingers 144.66 179.13 Finger weight (g) 103.14 118.09

0.72 1.65

0.42 NS

7.83 18.05

2.84 6.56

53

Sources of nitrogen It is well known that next to potassium, nitrogen is required in larger proportions for banana. However, Simmonds (1966) indicated that under tropical conditions, application of nitrogen in the soil will be leached rapidly due to various factors. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate and CAN are the various sources of nitrogenous fertilizers used, however, the most common being Urea only. The efficiency of different sources of nitrogen on banana cv. Ney Poovan was assessed at TNAU and the result showed that combined application of 25 per cent of N as CAN + 25 per cent of N as Urea + 50 per cent of N as Ammonium sulphate had resulted in better vegetative growth, physiological attributes, soil and leaf nutrient status culminating in an increased yield in terms of bunch weight and other economical traits (Table 5) (Keshavan, 2004). Table 5. Influence of different N sources on yield characters of banana cv.Ney Poovan Treatment Control 25 per cent of N as CAN + 25 per cent of N as urea + 50 per cent of N as ammonium sulphate SEd CD (0.05) 0.39 0.81 0.29 0.60 1.01 2.11 4.12 8.58 Bunch weight (kg) 8.44 12.10 No. of hands 10.20 11.82 No. of fingers 44.32 59.25 Finger weight (g) 157.93 173.25

Fertigation for banana Banana production needs a shift from the present peasantry farming system to large-scale corporate cultivation to meet worldwide consumer demands. This cannot be achieved with cultural operations viz., annual replanting, manual fertilizer application, irrigation and weeding, etc, which are highly labour intensive and constitute a major portion of the input costs. Adoption of a new system for an easy, efficient and costeffective cultivation of banana with considerably minimum labour involvement for

54

increasing productivity at lesser cost is essential. One such improved technology is fertigation (application of soluble fertilizer through micro-irrigation system). In this context, fertigation experiment conducted with cv. Robusta (AAA) revealed that fertigation treatment with 50 to 75 % of recommended NPK (200:30:300g NPK/plant) registered the maximum bunch weight, more number of hands and fingers both under normal and high density planting system (Table 6) (Mahalakshmi et al. 2001).

Table 6. Influence of fertigation on banana cv. Robusta (AAA) Water + Fertilizer Bunch Yield % increase No. of weight (t/ha) over hands (kg) conventional Normal planting system (Single plant / pit) 38.00 95.00 61.07 9.34 No. of fingers TSS

Plant crop 25LPD + 100:30:150 g NPK* Ratoon crop 25 LPD + 150:30:225 g NPK **

163.94

19.29

44.42

111.05

61.07

13.47

261.27

20.10

High density planting system ( 3 plants / pit) 50 LPD + 450:90:675 g NPK** Conventional (Single plant / pit) 200:30:300 g NPK/ plant * 50 percent recommended dose ** 75 percent recommended dose 23.59 58.98 8.12 118.01 22.13 34.99 174.88 196.51 10.22 173.38 21.20

The effect of fertigation on the growth, yield, quality and physiological parameters of banana cv. Red banana (AAA) revealed that planting of one plant / pit along with 100% of RDF (110:35:300 g NPK) through fertigation resulted in higher bunch weight (22.55 kg), number of fingers (98.92) and finger weight (255.36 g) (Suganthi, 2002). Conventional fertilizers are equally effective as that of water soluble fertilizers for fertigation in banana besides reducing the cost (Kavino, 2001). 55

Further, fertigation experiments conducted at various parts in India revealed that application of 75 per cent recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF- 200 g each of N and K2O per plant per year) at Arabhavi (Robusta), Gandevi (Gandevi selection), Jalgaon (Grand Naine ) and Kannara (Robusta) and 50% recommended dose of fertilizres at Kovvur through drip was sufficient for Karpura Chakkerakeli (AAB, Mysore). Balanced nutrition for tissue cultured bananas Tissue-cultured (TC) banana cultivation is expanding in India as farmers are now realizing its advantages due to its rapid growing, early and high yielding characters. As they produce significantly high yields than the conventional suckers, the requirements of macro as well as micronutrients might be more. Application of 150% of recommended doses of NPK (i.e.165:52.50:495 g) in four splits was found essential to increase the plants growth and development, yield and quality in the plant and ratoon crops of TC banana (Table 7) (Nalina, 2002). The dose of 300 g N and K2O each and 100 g P2O5 per plant per crop was observed to be optimum for tissue culture banana cv.Robusta under irrigated, low fertility, lateritic soils of coastal Orissa (Pandey et al. 2005). Table 7. Response of Tissue culture derived banana to increased dose of nutrients Bunch weight (Kg) Treatments PC Recommended dose (110:35: 330 g N, P2O5, K2O) in 3 split doses 150% of recommended dose (i.e. 165:52.5:495 g N, P2O5, K2O) in 4 split doses CD (0.05) PC: Plant crop 1.09 R1: First ratoon 1.22 1.55 0.25 0.28 0.27 35.18 37.0 25.28 20.50 20.63 20.18 26.87 30.0 17.55 18.10 18.46 18.16 R1 R2 PC R1 R2 TSS in fruit (Brix)

R2: Second ratoon

56

Balanced fertilization by foliar nutrition Banana is known to respond well to foliar nutrition especially for the major, secondary and micro nutrients. To assess the effect of post-shooting spraying of sulphate of potash (SOP) on yield and quality of banana and to integrate SOP into the nutrient management practices, an experiment was conducted in banana cv. Ney Poovan (Ramesh Kumar and Kumar, 2007). Plants were sprayed twice, initially after the opening of the last hand (i.e. 7th month after planting) and 30 days later. The entire plant canopy was sprayed including the developing bunches. Foliar spray concentration had a significant and positive impact on bunch weight, total number of fingers and finger weight (Table 8). Table 8. Effect of foliar spraying of SOP on bunch traits of banana cv.Ney Poovan Treatment Control 0.5% SOP spray 1.0% SOP spray 1.5% SOP spray SEd CD (P=0.05) Bunch weight (kg) 10.80 11.53 12.63 14.27 0.50 1.02 Total no. of fingers 182.30 209.00 221.00 233.30 4.30 8.79 Finger weight (g) 55.70 67.70 71.40 75.10 4.58 9.36 TSS (%) 24.40 27.90 27.90 28.90 1.01 2.06

Similarly, post- shoot application of KH2PO4 + Urea + 2, 4-D had significant influence on the bunch weight and TSS of commercial banana cultivars (Fig.4&5) (Ramesh Kumar, 2004). Fig. 4. Influence of post shooting spray of certain nutrients on bunch weight
35
30

Fig.5. Influence of post shooting spray of certain nutrients on TSS of fruits

30
25

25 Bunch weight (kg)

TSS (%)

20 15 10 5

20 15 10

5 0 Neypoovan Control 1.5% SOP Robusta Nendran

Neypoovan

Robusta

Nendran

0.5%KH2PO4+1% Urea+20 ppm 2,4-D

1.5%SOP

Control

0.5% KH2PO4 + 1% Urea + 20 ppm 2,4- D

57

Kumar and Jeyakumar (2001) assessed the importance of micronutrients in banana and reported that foliar application of ZnSO4 (0.5%) + FeSO4 (0.2%) + CuSO4 (0.2%) + H3BO3 (0.1%) during 3rd, 5th and 7th month after planting, in addition to the recommended fertilizer dose of NPK@ 110:35:330g/plant/year improved the leaf micronutrient status and resulted in higher bunch weight besides better fruit quality. Influence of plant growth regulators / bio regulators on nutrient use efficiency Cavendish group of bananas are known to be very vigorous and foliar spray of certain growth regulators play a significant role in improving the yield through increasing the fertilizer use efficiency. Foliar spray of chlormequat chloride @1000 ppm during 4th and 6th month after planting (MAP) in addition to the soil application of NPK@ 110:35:330g/plant/year resulted in improved physiological efficiency, nutrient status and fruit yield including fruit quality (Jeyakumar et al., 2003) (Table 9). Table 9. Influence of chlormequat chloride application on banana CEC (me g-1) 9.25 16.43 0.70 1.42 Bunch weight (kg) 24.80 33.62 0.81 1.76 TSS (brix) 20.00 23.60 0.68 1.40

Treatment Control Chlormequat chloride 1000 ppm SEd CD(0.05)

N (%) 1.51 1.94 0.02 0.04

P (%) 0.505 0.745 0.01 0.03

K (%) 2.01 2.98 0.03 0.07

Sea weed based bioregulators are widely used in the recent years to increase the nutrient use efficiency in various agricultural and horticultural crops. Foliar spray of 0.2 % plantozyme during fourth and sixth month after planting, in addition to the fertiliser dose of 200:40: 200 g N: P2O5 : K2O per plant per year revealed the influence of nutrients and amino acids in plantozyme on higher cell wall plasticity and dry matter accumulation resulting in better yield besides improving the leaf nutrients status (Jeyakumar and Kumar, 2002) (Table 10).

58

Table 10. Effect of bio regulator application on leaf nutrient, yield and quality of banana Treatments Control Plantozyme 0.2% SEd CD(0.05) N (%) 1.72 2.07 0.018 0.038 K (%) 3.11 3.92 0.031 0.064 NR (g NO2 g-1 h-1) 7.52 9.63 0.57 1.18 Bunch weight (kg) 18.0 26.3 0.77 1.56 Total sugars (%) 14.0 16.6 0.28 0.54 TSS (%) 19.7 25.7 0.63 1.22

Bio fertilizers for balanced fertilisation Continuous application of inorganic fertilizers to soil can cause ecological niche and reduce the beneficial soil microbes population. Hence, integrated approaches are needed to involve organic amendments and biofertilizers for sustainable crop production. Vidhya (2004) found that application of 100 per cent of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) along with 50 g in each of Azospirillum, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) in banana cv. Robusta resulted in better yield traits (Table 11). Table 11. Influence of bio fertilizers on yield characters of banana Bunch weight (kg) 24.47 No. of hands 9.14 No. of fingers 137.08 Finger weight (g) 164.85

Treatment 100 percent of recommended dose of fertilizers alone 100 per cent of the (RDF) along with 50 g in each of Azospirillum, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae SEd CD (0.05)

26.10

10.63

142.75

173.36

0.34 0.75

0.21 0.46

0.94 2.04

2.06 4.49

59

Conclusion Balanced fertilization, which takes care of all nutrients according to site and cropspecific assist the farmer to comply with the demand from the consumer. Higher yields and improved quality due to balanced fertilization indicate the better use efficiency of the natural resources (land and energy) coupled with environmental safety. The future research on nutrition on banana should encompass: 1. Systematic long term experiments with graded levels of primary, secondary and tertiary nutrients so as to assess the individual effect of these nutrients and also their interaction on yield and quality. 2. Considering the present situation of environmental security, it is necessary to go for integrated nutrient management, involving various sources of organic manures, organic cakes and bio fertilizers including mycorrhiza besides chemical fertilizers in almost all tropical fruit crops. 3. Nutrient recycling as the high biomass sometimes affect the nutrient response. 4. Improvement of nutrient use efficiency through water management and plant growth regulators.

60

References Agrawal, S., Pandey, S.D. and Tiwari, B.L. 1997. Studies on the effect of high status of nitrogen and potassium on qualitative characters of in vitro banana fruit cv. Robusta. The Orissa J. Hort., 25 (1): 67-72. Jacob, M and Vonvexkull. 1960. Fertilizer use, nutrition and manuring of tropical crops. Second edition, Mannover. Jeyakumar, P and Kumar, N. 2002. Bioregulators for increased fertilizer use efficiency in banana cv. Dwarf Cavendish. In. Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium of the CIEC, Gazi osmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey. P.70-82. Jeyakumar, P., Kumar, N and Kavino, M. 2003. Physiological response of banana cv. Robusta (AAA) to foliar applied growth regulators on productivity. Madras Agric. J., 90(10-12): 702-706. Joseph, K.T. 1971. Nutrient content and nutrient removal in bananas as an initial guide for assessing fertilizer needs. Planter, 47: 7-10. Kavino, M. 2001. Standardization of fertigation technique for the ratoon crop of banana cv. Robusta (AAA) under high density planting system. M.Sc.(Hort.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Keshavan, G. 2004. Effect of different sources of nitrogen on yield and quality of banana cv.Ney Poovan (AB). M.Sc.(Hort.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Kohli, R.R., Randhawa, G.S. and Chacko, E.K. 1981. Growth and yield response of Robusta banana to different spacing and nutrition. In: Nat. Sem. Banana Prodn. Tech., Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp. 104-106. Kumar, N and Jeyakumar, P. 2001. Influence of micronutrients on growth and yield of banana cv. Robusta. In: Plant Nutrition (Eds) Walter Horst et al. Kluwer Academic Publishers. The Netherlands .p.354-356. Mahalakshmi, M. 2000. Water and fertigation management studies in banana cv. Robusta (AAA) under normal planting and high density planting systems. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

61

Mahalakshmi, M., Kumar, N., Jeyakumar, P and Soorianathasundaram, K. 2001. Fertigation studies in banana under normal system of planting. South Indian Hort., Vol.49:86-91. Martin- Prevel, P. 1964. Nutrient elements in the banana plant and fruit. Fertilite N, 22: 3-14. Martin-Prevel, P. 1992. Banana. In: Wichman, W. Ed.IFA, World fertilizer manual. International fertilizer industry association, Paris, pp.398-409. Martin-Prevel, P., Lacoevilhe, J.J. and Marshall, J. 1968. Mineral elements in the Gros Michael banana plant in Cameroon. Potash Rev. Sub., 27 (3): 65. Montagut, G and Martin-Prevel, P. 1965. Essais sol-plate sur bananeirs. 1. Besoins en engrais des bananeraries antillaises. 2. (et Lacoeuilhe, J.J) Nutrition minerale comparee dans six essais. Fruits, 20 : 265-273, 398-410. Nalina, L. 1999. Studies on high density planting in banana cv. Robusta (AAA).M.Sc.(Hort.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Nalina, L. 2002. Standardisation of fertilizer requirement for tissue cultured banana cv.Robusta .Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to TNAU, Coimbatore-3. Pandey, V., Kumar, D and George, S. 2005. Response of micropropagated Robusta banana to varying combinations of N, P, K nutrition in lateritic soils of coastal Orissa. Indian J. Hort., 62(2):122-126. Ramesh Kumar, A and Kumar, N. 2007. Sulfate of potash foliar spray effects on yield, quality and post harvest life of banana. Better crops, Vol.91: 22-24. Ramesh Kumar, A. 2004. Studies on the efficacy of sulphate of potash (SOP) on growth, yield and quality of banana. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Ray, D.P., Farida, G.N. and Chatterjee, R.K. 1988. Nutritional concentration in leaf tissue with different nutritional levels in Robusta banana. Indian Agriculturist., 32(4): 249-256. Shanmugam, K.S. and Velayutham, K.S. 1972. Better manure your bananas. Agric. Dig., 3: 17-29.

62

Shanthi, V.P. 2004. Utilization of Cement Kiln Flue Dust (CKFD) as a source of potassium for banana production. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Simmonds, N.W. 1966. Planting and management. In: Bananas. 2nd edn., Longman Group Limited, London and New York. pp. 156-204. Simmonds, N.W. 1982. Bananas. 2nd edn., Longman Group Limited, London and New York. Suganthi, L. 2002. Fertigation management studies in banana cv. Red Banana (AAA) under different planting densities. M.Sc.(Thesis), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3. Veerannah, L., Selvaraj, P.and Alagiamanavalan, R.S. 1976. Studies on the nutrient uptake in Robusta and Poovan. Indian J.Hort., 33: 203-208. Veeraraghavan, P.G. 1972. Manuring cum liming experiment on Nendran banana. Agric. Res.J.Kerala, 10 (2): 116-118. Vidhya, D. 2004. Studies on the effect of bio-fertilizers on banana cv. Robusta (AAA) and varying doses of inorganic fertilizers. M.Sc.(Thesis), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3.

63

Balanced fertilization for Papaya

N.Kumar, J.Suresh and M.I.Manivannan Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore India is emerging as a large papaya producing country, ranking fourth place in the world. It is grown in about 70,300 ha with an annual production of 1.7 million tonnes in India, accounting for four per cent of gross fruit production in our country and occupying itself at fourth position; first three being banana, mango and citrus. Papaya is mostly consumed as a table fruit besides small quantities are exported. Recently, there is a heavy demand for its latex, which has got high export potential. The nutritional demand of papaya differs from other fruit crops because of its tremendous yield potential, precocious bearing and indeterminate growth habit with simultaneous vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting. The nutrient uptake studies conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (Veerannah and Selvaraj, 1984) revealed that uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg is more between flowering and harvesting stages, more so between fruit development and harvest stages (Table 1). Table 1. Nutrient uptake by whole plant of papaya cv. CO 1 (kg -1ha-1) Growth stage Seedling Vegetative Pre flowering Flowering Fruit development Harvest 305.58 103.68 524.02 327.40 183.34 N 0.02 0.29 9.04 53.37 56.76 P 0.0005 0.074 0.808 15.41 44.59 K 0.02 0.67 18.58 203.36 515.19 Ca 0.02 0.05 1.46 4.10 30.74 Mg 0.02 0.05 0.99 2.30 6.32

Among the important nutrients, the demand for K was more nearly twice as that of nitrogen in papaya (Fig-1).

64

The nutrient requirement for papaya has been recommended by many workers in different parts of India (Table -2). It is evident that N requirement varies from 200 g/plant to 375 g/plant, P205 from 110-375 g/plant and K20 from 200 to as high as 500 g/plant. Fig 1. Total removal of nutrients by papaya plant
700 Nutrient removal, Kg/ha 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO Total removal of nutrients by papaya plant Nutrient removal(kg/ha)

Table 2. Nutrient requirement for papaya N P2O5 g/plant/year 1. 2. 3. 4. 250 250 375 375 110 250 250 375 415 250 250 375 Purohit (1984) Irulappan et al. ( 1992) Balamohan et al. (1992) Kumar (1995) K2O

Sl.No.

Authority

Role of balanced fertilization with N, P and K has been well established in many crop plants. However, information on this line is lacking in fruit crops like papaya. Trials conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in collaboration with IPI revealed the importance of potassium nutrition in papaya (Kumar et al. 2006). Experiments conducted with two cultivars (CO-2 and CO-7) at four locations of Tamil Nadu showed that potassium nutrition significantly influenced fruit weight, fruit number and fruit yield per plant (Fig 2).

65

Fig 2. Effect of potassium on yield traits in papaya (Average of results with four farmers field)
250 77 76

g x 10 (or) kg / plant

200

75

150

73 72

100

71 70

50

69 68

0 K0 K150 K300 K450

67

Fruit weight

Treatments Fruit yield

Fruit number

Potassium is recognized as a quality element .In the above mentioned experiments potash fertilizer use improved major quality parameters of papaya fruits such as pulp thickness, i.e., edible part size of papaya fruits, the sweetness of papaya (TSS) besides decreasing acidity content(Table-3).The increase in pulp thickness may be related to the role of potassium in influencing the developing fruit which is acting as a stronger sink for K than for other nutrients. Potassium is also known to help in sugar translocation in plants, thus its application increased the sugar contents as well as TSS in the papaya fruit. Table 3. Effect of potash fertilizer application on fruit quality of papaya cv.Co-2 (Average results with four farmers field) Treatment N300 P300 +k150 +K300 +K450 Pulp thickness (cm) 2.21 2.48 2.59 2.60 TSSo Brix 10.81 11.57 11.87 12.50 Acidity (%) 0.65 0.52 0.47 0.33

number/plant

74

66

Demonstration experiments laid out at farmers fields at two locations (a)Thondamuthur and (b) Chandrapuram of Tamil Nadu state indicated that balanced fertilization is very much important for papaya latex production and quality( Table 4).

Table 4. Effect of Potash application on the yield and quality of Latex (a)Thondamuthur(11 months after planting) Yield,Kg/ha N300 P300 +K150 +K300 32.0 36.6 35.0 TSSo Brix 15.84 15.76 16.62 (b)Chandrapuram(14 months after planting) Yield,Kg/ha 181.2 181.0 155.2 TSSo Brix 16.7 16.8 16.9

Treatment

The quality of latex is assessed in terms of Total Soluble Solids (TSS) content. Its the important quality criterion by which the latex procuring industries make the payment to the growers. With increased potash fertilizer level, there was an increase in the TSS content, highlighting the role of potassium nutrition on the TSS of the latex. Papain produced from papaya latex is useful in tenderizing meat and other proteins through the process of hydrolysis (or breakdown) of proteins. Thus, enzyme activity is an important quality parameter of papain. The enzyme activity of latex as assessed in terms of Tyrosine unit/mg of papain (Table.5) revealed that during two seasons, the influence of potassium nutrition was perceptibly noticed on it. With the increase in potassium level, there was an increase in the tyrosine activity of latex upto K300 thereafter it declined at K150 (Table 5).

67

Table 5. Effect of potash application on the enzyme activity (Tyrosine unit / mg of papain) in the latex of cv.C0-2 Treatment(g/plant/year) N300 P300 +K150 +K300 +K450 Tyrosine,Tu/mg ( Dec06) 99.54 100.44 136.62 195.90 Tyrosine,Tu/mg (June07) 109 129 185 172

With the increased application of potassium fertilizers, there was a dramatic increase in tyrosine activity, highlighting the role of potassium on the enzyme activity of papaya latex. Split application of Fertilizers Papaya being a perennial crop and the nutrient is required at all stages of growth continuously, split application of fertilizer is found beneficial. In Solo variety, 250 g N, 250 g P2O5 and 200 g K2O per plant per year applied in 6 split doses was the best when spaced at 2x 2 m (Sulladmath et al. 1984). Results of experiments conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore revealed that six split applications (Irulappan et al., 1984) was found to be good while Ravichandrane et al.,2002 recommended twelve splits instead of six as it resulted in higher yield and quality of fruits in CO2 papaya (Table 6). Table 6. Effect of split application of nutrients on yield and quality of papaya cv.Co2
Treatment Number of fruits/plant Yield of fruits (Kg) Fruit weight (kg) TSS (Brix) Carotene (mg/100g of pulp) Enzyme activity (TU/mg)

300 g each of NPK/plant/year in six split doses 300 g each of NPK/plant/year in 12 split doses CD (0.05)

86.59

167.01

1.97

12.25

3.39

231.49

101.29

213.64

2.11

14.40

3.64

266.96

3.28

16.55

NS

NS

68

Recently, studies conducted at West Bengal with cv.Coorg Honey Dew revealed that application of 250 g of nitrogen, 500 g of phosphorous and 250g of potassium per plant in six splits resulted in production of higher yield with heavier and better quality fruits. Fertigation Drip irrigation is known to improve the fertilizer use efficiency, fruit yield and quality of many fruit crops. Fertigation studies conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University with CO7 revealed that 75% of recommended doses of N and K through fertigation along with soil application of super phosphate 278 g per plant at bimonthly intervals improved growth, yield and quality characteristics in papaya cv. CO7 (Jeyakumar et al. 2001). The fertigation of nutrients (N and K) were scheduled here at weekly intervals. Integrated Nutrient Management Papaya plants receiving inorganic nutrients alone (200 g each of N, P2O5, K2O plant-1 year-1) recorded the highest yield, but inclusion of an organic source of nutrient (farmyard manure/neem cake) produced better quality fruits. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University recommends application of 300g in each of NPK per plant per year at bimonthly intervals along with application of 20 g Azospirillum and 20 g Phosphobacterium at planting and again after six months. Manivannan(2005) investigated the use of humic acid, an organic product derived from lignite on enhancing the biological growth, fruit yield and quality of papaya cv.Co-3.The study highlighted foliar spraying of humic acid at 0.2% concentration once in 15 days from the third month after planting improved the biometric characters, fruit yield and quality attributes viz. TSS, sugar acid ratio and ascorbic acid content besides enhancing the shelf life of the matured fruits.

69

Micro nutrients Micronutrient deficiencies in papaya are not serious as compared to other fruit crops. However, it may affect the growth and development of papaya crop if soils are found deficient. Kavitha et al 2000 a and 2000 b studied the influence of foliar spraying of Zinc and Boran and found significant effect on yield and quality of papaya (Table 7).

Table 7. Effect of certain micro nutrients spray on yield and fruit quality of papaya cv. Co5
Yield of fruits (Kg) Latex Yield per fruit ( g ) TSSo Brix Ascorbic acid( mg/g pulp weight )

Treatments

Number of fruits/plant

Tyrosine, Tu/mg

Control Foliar spraying of Zn 0.5 % + B 0.1 % at 4, 8, 12, 16th Month After Planting

136.98 166.75

230.17 330.68

12.54 15.23

12.30 14.80

45.11 47.14

204.32 205.11

70

References Balamohan, T.N., Sankaranarayanan, R., Sathiamoorthy, S and Arumugam R. (1992). In : Abstr. Natl. Seminar on Production and Utilization of Papaya, Mar 6-7, TNAU,Coimbatore, India. Irulappan, I., Abdul Khader, J.B.M.Md. and Muthukrishnana, S. (1984). Papaya research in Tamil Nadu. Proceedings national seminar on papaya and papain production. Faculty of Horticultuire, TNAU, Coimbatore, p.15-20. Jeyakumar, P., Kumar, N. and K. Soorianatha sundaram. (2001). Fertigation studies in papaya (Carica papaya L.). South Indian Hort. 49:71-75. Kavitha,M.,Kumar,N. and Jeyakumar,P.(2000a).Effect of Zinc and Boron on biochemical and quality characters of papaya cv.CO-5.South Indian Horticulture.48(1-6):1-5. Kavitha,M.,Kumar,N.and Jeyakumar,P.(2000b).Role of Zinc and boron on fruit yield and associated characters in papaya cv.CO-5.South Indian Horticulture.48(1-6):6-10. Kumar, S. Ph.D (Hort.) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore, India (1995). Kumar, N., Meenakshi, N., Suresh, J. and Nosov Vladimir (2006). Effect of potassium nutrition on growth, yield and quality of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Proceedings of the International symposium on balanced fertilization for sustainability in crop productivity held at PAU, Ludhiana, P . Manivannan,K.(2005).Influence of humic acid derived from lignite on fruit yield and quality in papaya(Carica papaya L.).First International Symposium on Papaya, Malaysia, Nov.22-24, pp.76. Purohit, A. G. 1984. Studies on growth, yield and nutrition of papaya. Proc. Natl. sem. On papaya and papain production, Faculty of Hort., Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp. 64 69. Ravichandrane,V., Kumar, N., Jeyakumar, P., Soorianathasundaram, K. and Vijayakumar, R.M. (2002). Influence of planting density and nutrient levels on growth and yield of papaya cv. CO-2. South Indian Hort. 55(1): 23-29. Sulladmath, U.V., Narayan Gowda, T.V. and Ravi, S.V. (1984). Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on yield and quality of papaya. Proc. of Nat. Seminar on papaya and papain production, March 26-27, TNAU, Coimbatore, pp.70-71. Veerannah, L. and Selvaraj, P. (1984). Studies on growth, dry matter partitioning and pattern of nutrient uptake in papaya. Proc. of Nat. Seminar o Papaya and Papain Production, March 26-27, TNAU, Coimbatore, pp.76-78.

71

Balanced Fertilization for Hybrid Vegetable Production

L. Pugalendhi, N. Meenakshi and M. Kavitha Department of Vegetable Crops HC & RI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore The achievements in enhanced agricultural output at the global level, especially in the developed world, are attributed to three main factors: expansion of irrigation, development of improved higher-yielding, disease - resistant crop cultivars and use of chemical fertilizers. Despite the advances that have been made in agricultural production through research and technology transfer in the past half century, many areas of the world still fail to meet the nutritional needs of their people; in some countries the spectra of hunger and malnutrition looms large. If low-income, food-deficit nations are able to feed themselves, Borlaug stressed increase in several fold a chemical fertilizer in the coming decades. The remaining crop nutrients came from organic sources, native soil reserves, and biological nitrogen fixation (Stewart et al. 2005). This scenario underlines the need for emphasizing efficient fertilizer use in order to produce an adequate and quality food supply bearing in mind environmental implications of excessive or inappropriate fertilizer use. The fact that crops need variable amounts of nutrients and that no one essential nutrient can substitute for another raises the issue of "balanced fertilization", in essence a concept that implies tailoring individual nutrient needs of crops according to their physiological requirements and expected yields. Vegetables account for 6245 million hectares of area in India with a total production of 93921 million tonnes and productivity of 13.6 t/ha during 2002-03. The per capita consumption of vegetables is only 210 g/day as against the daily requirement of 285 g/day. To bridge this gap, the production and productivity of vegetable crops need to be increased substantially. In this extent, apart from the high yielding genetic material, the role of nutrition is also highly felt. The balanced fertilization to vegetables can be given either through conventional method or by fertigation. The fertilizer application through fertigation should be scheduled during various stages of crop growth like establishment stage, vegetative stage,

72

pre-flowering, flowering and harvest. The role of balanced fertilization in important hybrid vegetable crops is discussed below: 1. Tomato Tomato responds well to applied nutrients. The F1 tomato hybrids are generally more responsive to fertilizer application and thus creating more biomass for higher photosynthetic activity. In high yielding cultivars, 65 to 75 per cent of total dry matter is accumulated in the fruit end. A crop of tomato yielding 37.8 t/ha removed 104 kg N, 22 kg P and 141 kg K. The recommendation for tomato by TNAU is 150:100:50 kg/ha NPK for open pollinated varieties and 200:300:50 kg/ha NPK for hybrid/varieties. Rajesh Kanna (1999) conducted an experiment in tomato hybrid COTH 1 at HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore imposing different N levels (200, 250 and 300), P levels (200, 250 and 300) and K levels (200, 250 and 300 kg/ha) in all possible combinations and reported that economic yield per hectare with the highest BCR was observed with the application of 200:300:200 kg NPK ha-1 (Table 1). The entire quantity of P and K are given as basal while N is applied in three equal split doses at planting, 30 and 60 days after planting. Table 1. Effect of NPK on yield characters and shelf life of tomato hybrid COTH 1 Treatments NPK @ 200:300:200 kg/ha NPK @ 300:250:200 kg/ha CD (0.05) Another experiment on hybrid tomato COTH 2 conducted at HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore during 2006 (Anon, 2007) revealed that application of SOP 100 kg/ha basal + SOP 50 kg/ha top dressing on 30 DAP + SOP 50 kg/ha top dressing on 60 DAP registered the highest number of fruits per plant, single fruit weight, yield per hectare, TSS, lycopene and firmness (Table 2 and Fig. 1). No. of fruits/cluster 6.21 4.13 Yield (t/ha) 117.30 73.49

73

Table 2. Effect of SOP on yield attributes of tomato hybrid COTH 2 Fruit yield (t/ha) 61.20 70.83 74.52

Treatment No. T1 T2 T3 T4

Treatments Control (No K2O) 200 kg MOP ( basal) 200 kg SOP (basal) 100 kg (basal) + SOP 100 kg (top dressing) on 30 DAP

Fruit per plant 32.00 41.87 46.00

Single fruit weight (g) 43.12 51.37 55.62

BCR 3.09 3.54 3.73

50.15

59.66

78.10

3.90

T5

SOP 100 kg ( basal) + SOP 50 kg (top dressing) on 30 DAP +SOP 50 kg/ha (top dressing) on 60 DAP 60.20 70.24 87.29 4.36

T6

SOP 100 kg (basal) + SOP 50 kg (top dressing) on 30 DAP + SOP 2% (foliar spray) on 60 DAP 55.45 64.10 81.20 4.06

T7

SOP 100 kg (basal) +SOP 50 kg top dressing on 30 DAP + SOP 2% (foliar spray) on 60 DAP and 75 DAP SEd CD 1.46 3.52 1.63 3.12 1.43 3.05 56.32 65.16 83.85 4.19

74

Fig. 1. Effect of SOP on acidity and lycopene content of tomato hybrid COTH 2
Effect of SOP on quality characters of tomato
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 T1 Season I T2 T3 Season II T4 T5 T6 T7 Season II 0.6 0.5

Lycopene (mg/100 g)

0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Treatments
Season I

Fertigation experiments carried out at TNAU, Coimbatore, revealed that 50 kg each of NPK/ha through straight fertilizers as basal, remaining 250 kg NPK/ha as water soluble fertilizer through fertigation along with black polyethylene mulch registered the highest number of fruits/plant (71), yield per hectare (186 t) and BCR (1.76) as compared to control in tomato hybrid SH 7711 (Table 3) grown under polyhouse (Natarajan et al. 2005).

Table 3. Effect of growing media, irrigation regime, fertigation and mulching on growth and yield of tomato hybrid SH 7711

Treatment Soil:FYM: Saw dust + 20 kPa + 50kg/ha SF (basal) + 250 kg/ha WSF (fertigation) + Mulch Soil:FYM: coir pith + 20 kPa + 50kg/ha SF (basal) + 250 kg/ha WSF

No of fruits / plant

Estimated yield/ha (t)

Acidity (%)

0.4

B/C ratio

63.0

113

1.58

71.0

186

1.76

(fertigation) + Mulch CD at 5%
4.7 -

75

2. Chilli Chilli has a long growing season and therefore, needs a judicious management in the application of manures and fertilizers. The fertilizer recommendation for chilli is 120:60:30 kg/ha NPK. Studies on the use of SOP vs MOP revealed the efficacy of SOP even at 60kg/ha in increasing the number of fruits, yield, quality and benefit cost ratio (Ananthi, 2002) (Table 4).

Table 4. Effect of different potassium treatments on yield and quality of chilli No. of fruits (%) 92.00 Yield (t ha-1) 1.99 Capsaicin (%) 0.58

Treatments NPK@60:30:30 as Urea, SSP & MOP + FYM@ 25t/ha 60 kg K2O ha-1 as SOP SEd CD (5%)

BCR 2.08

135.00 4.33 8.98

5.09 0.23 0.47

0.85 0.03 0.06

5.11

3. Sweet pepper Capsicum is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in winter season in Tamil Nadu. TNAU recommends 120 kg N, 60 kg P and 30 kg K for capsicum hybrids. Sasikala et al. (2007) reported that package consisting of Soil:FYM:Coir pith (2:1:1) as growing medium, irrigation at 20 kPa, INM with 50 kg each of NPK ha-1 as basal with straight fertilizer and 150 kg each of NPK ha-1 through fertigation with water soluble fertilizer and mulching in capsicum hybrid Indra recorded the highest number of fruits per plant (48.3), average fruit weight (148 g), yield per hectare (144 t) and B/C ratio (3.72) (Table 5).

76

Table 5. Effect of growing media, irrigation regime, fertigation and mulching on growth and yield of capsicum hybrid Indra

Treatment Soil:FYM: coir pith + 20 kPa + 50kg/ha SF (basal) + 250 kg/ha WSF

No of fruits / plant

Avg. fruit weight (g)

Yield/ha (t)

B/C ratio

48.3

148

144

3.72

(fertigation) + Mulch Soil:FYM: Saw dust + 20 kPa + 50kg/ha SF (basal) + 150 kg/ha WSF (fertigation) + Mulch CD at 5% 3.6 10.6 43.2 134 116 3.21

4. Brinjal Brinjal being a long duration crop requires a good amount of manures and fertilizers. Macro and micronutrient deficiencies had adverse effect on plant height, branch production and finally yield. TNAU recommends 100:50:30 kg/ha NPK for hybrid Brinjal production and 100:50:30 kg NPK/ha for the open pollinated varieties. Prabhu (2001) reported that the highest yield in brinjal hybrid COBH 1 was obtained at 200:100 kg NP ha-1 (Table 6). In TNAU under the precision farming project, 200:150:100 kg/ha NPK was found to be the best in recording the highest number of fruits per plant and yield per hectare in hybrid brinjal.

77

Table 6. Effect of N and P on yield characters of Brinjal hybrid COBH 1 Treatments N and P *(Kg/ha) N100 N125 N150 N175 N200 Number of fruits P50 21.13 24.73 28.60 32.23 34.73 N S.Ed. CD 0.234 0.479 P75 25.12 26.07 30.60 36.34 38.22 P 0.182 0.371 P100 23.73 27.43 32.47 40.48 40.71 NXP 0.406 0.830 P50 15.98 24.05 29.71 41.24 46.06 N 0.170 0.348 Yield / ha P75 18.17 26.24 33.51 46.87 57.56 P 0.132 0.269 P100 22.11 27.68 37.02 58.42 58.51 NXP 0.295 0.602

* Common dose of 100 kg K2O/ha 5. Potato Potato is an exhaustive crop. The tuber yield as well as its quality depends upon the application of various NPK fertilizers and organic manures. TNAU recommends 120:240:120 kg NPK/ha. The entire quantity is normally applied as basal or in two splits by the farmers. Mahendran and Kumar (1998) reported that application of 100 per cent recommended dose of NPK in combination with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria increased the starch content whereas the highest tuber yield was obtained when 100 per cent recommended dose of NPK was applied in two equal splits alongwith Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (Table 7). Table 7. Effect of biofertilizer on tuber yield and quality in potato Tuber yield Starch Crude (t/ha) content (%) protein (%) 100 per cent recommended dose* of NPK 21.07 19.30 9.17 in combination with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria Treatments Two equal splits of 100 % recommended dose of NPK + Azospirillum + PB CD (0.05) * Recommended dose 120:240:120 kg NPK/ha 21.27 0.24 19.00 0.21 9.19 0.26

78

6. Cucurbits All gourds, melons etc., respond well to manuring and fertilizer application. It is difficult to be specific about fertilizer recommendation because of variation in soil types, soil fertility and system of cultivation. However, TNAU recommends 100 g of NPK mixture 6:12:12 per pit as basal and 10 g of N per pit 30 days after sowing for OP varieties/hybrids. Fertigation trial conducted by Meenakshi, 2002 in bitter gourd hybrid, COBgo-H 1 revealed that application of 100 per cent of recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (120:120:60 kg NPK/ha) in water soluble form with micronutrients (polyfeed) recorded maximum number of fruits per plant and yield per hectare (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Effect of macro and micronutrient fertigation on fruit number and fruit yield of bitter gourd hybrid COBgo-H 1

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 No. of fruits/plant yield/ha (t) Characters Fertigation with 100% macro and micronutrients Soil application of 100% recommended dose

7. Cassava Potassium is an important nutrient element for the growth and development of root and tuber crops. The productivity is the highest (38.45 t/ha) in Tamil Nadu, which however offers scope for further increase in yield through adoption of improved production practices like integrated nutrient management. CFTRI recommends 100:50:100 kg/ha N, P2O5 and K2O whereas TNAU recommends 90:90:240 kg/ha N, P2O5 and K2O.

79

The research on nutrient management in cassava revealed that application of recommended dose of NPK (100:50:100 kg/ha) + FYM @12.5t/ha which was on par with the application of half the recommended dose of P, with full dose of N&K and combined application of VAM and Phosphobacteria (Saraswathi, 2005).

Table 8. Effect of biofertilizer in cassava Tuber yield (t/ha) 29.70 Starch content (%) 24.0

Treatments Recommendation dose of N,P,K

(100:50:100 kg NPK/ha) + FYM (12.5 t/ha) Half the recommendation dose of P+ VAM + Full recommendation dose of N&K CD (0.05) 0.74 NS 27.10 23.0

80

References Ananthi, S. 2002. Comparative efficacy of sulphate of potash and muriate of potash on yield and quality of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). M.Sc., (Hort.). Thesis submitted to TNAU, CBE. Anonymous, 2007. Efficacy of sulphate of potash on growth, yield, quality and shelf life of tomato. Final report submitted to K+S Kali GmbH, Kassel, Germany, Department of Vegetable Crops, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore - 3. Mahendran, P. P. and Kumar. N. 1998. Effect of biofertilizers on tuber yield and certain quality parameters of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti. South Indian Hort., 46(1&2): 97 98. Meenakshi, N. 2002. Growth and productivity of hybrid bitter gourd (COBgoH 1) under different macro and micronutrient fertigation levels. Ph.D. (Hort.). Thesis submitted to TNAU, CBE. Natarajan, S., Sasikala, S. and Kumaresan, G.R. 2005. Influence of growing media, irrigation regime, nutrient management and mulching on growth, yield and economics of tomato under polyhouse condition. International Conference on Plasticulture and Precision Farming, November 17-21, 2005. Prabhu, M. 2001. Studies on nitrogen and phosphorus requirement of brinjal hybrid COBH 1. M.Sc., (Hort.). Thesis submitted to TNAU, CBE. Rajesh Kanna, R. 1999. Studies on nutrient requirement of tomato hybrid COTH 1. M.Sc.(Hort.). Thesis submitted to TNAU, CBE. Saraswathi, T. 2005. In: Horticultural Scientist Meet Report of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Sasikala.S., Natarajan, S., Kavitha, M. and Tamil Selvi, C., 2007 Influence of growing media, irrigation region, integrated nutrient management and mulching and the performance of sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L. cv. Grossum) hybrid under poly house condition. Internat. J. Agric. Sci., 3(1): 56-59. Stewart, W.M., Dibb, D.W., Johnston A.E. and Smyth, T.J. 2005. The contribution of commercial fertilizer nutrients to food production. Agron. J., 97: 1-6.

81

Balanced Fertilization for Spices

K. Rajamani and N. Shoba Dept. of Spices & Plantation Crops, HC&RI, TNAU, Coimbatore

No use or low use of fertilizer input is one of the main reasons for the low productivity of spices in the country. Nutrient plays a key role in improving yield and quality of spices. Therefore, proper management of plant nutrients is very important. In spice cultivation, mulching and use of organic manure is a common practice because covering with leaf mulch and terracing not only conserves soil moisture but also enriches the soil on decomposition. Majority of spices are grown in slightly acidic soils. These soils are generally deficient in available P, Ca and Mg. Intensive survey in spice growing areas of Kerala indicated that 57 per cent of sample collected were low in P and judicious application of P is vital in these soils to sustain productivity. The need for balanced fertilization in important spice crops excepting turmeric is described below: 1. Black Pepper Black pepper grows well in well drained virgin red, lateritic and alluvial soils rich in humus content. These soils are acidic and poor in content with respect to P, K, secondary and micronutrients especially zinc. The major pepper growing soils of India can be broadly classified viz., Red loam (Alfisol), Forest loam (Mollisol) and Laterite (Oxisol). Pepper is a nutrient demanding crop. An adult pepper vine removes 233.4 g N, 16.8 g P, 171.9 g K, 18.3 g Mg, 75.0 g Ca, 3656 mg Fe, 281 mg Mn, 104 mg Zn, 89 mg Cu and 60 mg B and hence the major nutrients must be applied in amounts sufficient to meet the uptake in addition to the allowance made for nutrient losses through leaching. Further, the quantities of macro and micronutrients removed through harvesting of produce are directly proportional to the yield. Hence, yield based fertilizer recommendation for black pepper is essential (Mathew et al. 1995). A leaf nutrient

82

concentration of 2.7, 0.1, 3.0, 1.0 and 0.2% of N, P, K, Ca and Mg respectively are essential for its proper growth but exhibiting deficiency symptoms if their levels are below. NPK recommendations have been standardized for pepper by various workers under Indian conditions (Table 1) which revealed that K fertilizers are required more, followed by nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers in order. Table.1 NPK fertilizer recommendations for pepper Sl.No. 1. Dose recommended (kg/ha/year) N: 100 ,P2O5 : 40 K2O : 140 References Pillai and Sasikumaran (1976) 2. 3. 4. N: 50 ,P2O5 : 50 K2O : 200 N: 140 ,P2O5 : 55 K2O : 270 N: 140 ,P2O5 : 55 K2O : 270 Pillai et al. (1987) Sivaraman et al. (1987) Sadanandan (1993)

These fertilizers should be applied 10-15 days after pruning of the live supports. The rate, composition and interval of fertilizer application should be suited to the vine requirement. Other important considerations are: 1. During the first year (on the year of planting)1/3rd of the dosage only should be applied during September. 2. 2/3rd in the second year in two equal splits (i.e., one during May-June and other during September- October). 3. The full dose is given from 3rd year onwards. 4. The fertilizers have to be applied in two split doses. 5. Fertilizers should be applied only when there is sufficient soil moisture. 6. The fertilizers are applied at a distance of about 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thick layer of soil. 7. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of fertilizers with the roots of pepper. 8. If the soil is highly acidic 500g lime per vine also applied in alternate years. Being a surface feeder, most of the feeding roots are distributed on the top 50-60cm layer of the soil. 83

Experiments conducted in AICRP on Spices highlighted the fertilizer requirement under each situation (Table 2). Table 2. Fertilizer recommendations for black pepper developed for different regions under AICRP on Spices Region / State Panniyur and similar areas Medium fertile soil NPK (g/vine) 50 : 50 : 200 100 : 40 : 140

Arecanut and pepper mixed cropping system for 200 : 80 : 280 heavy rainfall Sirsi region of Karnataka Karnataka ( under irrigation) Andhra Pradesh (under rainfed conditions) Chintapalli area of Andhra Pradesh Lateritic soils of Kerala where soil N and K are low 150 : 60 : 210 50 : 50 : 150 100 : 60 : 160 140 : 55 : 270

The above table insists site specific application of essential instead of a blanket recommendation. This is highlighted by many workers especially for K response. Pillai et al.(1987), after conducting field trials with Panniyur-1 pepper, found that 200 g of K2O per vine was optimum dose for obtaining maximum yields.Sadanadan (1993) reported that 270 kg K2O /ha was the optimum for obtaining high yields in pepper by fitting response function (Fig.1).

Fig 1. Yield response curve for K application in black pepper

84

Experiments conducted at NRCS have shown that application of Ca and Mg increase the exchangeable Ca and Mg in the soil as well as in the plant indicating the necessity of these elements in balanced dose of black pepper (Table 3). Therefore, application of lime at 600 g per vine during April-May in alternative year is recommended. Table 3. Effect of application of Ca and Mg on soil organic matter, soil and leaf status of Ca and Mg Organic matter (%) 2.75 3.35 3.01 Soil Ca (mg/kg) 268 986 1278 Leaf Ca (g/kg) 27.0 22.0 34.0 Soil Mg (mg/kg) 64 46 45 Leaf Mg (g/kg) 2.8 3.0 2.9

Treatment check N50:P50:K140 N50:P50:K140 : Ca 50:Mg 0 N50:P50:K140 : Ca 0:Mg 50 N50:P50:K140 : Ca 50:Mg 50

3.18

742

22.0

65

3.5

3.35

1368

24.0

79

2.8

In early years of cultivation, prawn dust , fish and bone meal, farm yard manure, liquid cattle manure, compost, castor, soyabean, cotton seed, coconut and groundnut cakes are used besides green leaves to replenish the soil nutrient status. Liberal manuring with a mixture of cowdung, compost and oil cakes increased the yield under Assam conditions (Choudhury, 1947). Studies conducted at IISR, Calicut also highlighted the importance of use of organic manures particularly goat, poultry and pig (Sadanandan and Hamza, 1999). Further studies conducted at IISR, Calicut also highlighted the

significance of INM in pepper ( Table 4 ). Another experiment was conducted on eight year old pepper vines Panniyur 1(P1) and Panniyur 2 (P2) on the INM aspects of pepper at TNAU. The results revealed that application of Azospirillum, FYM and chemical fertilizers as N, P and K in addition to FYM resulted in the highest dry berry yield in pepper ( Table 5 ) .

85

Table 4. Effect of integrated nutrient management in pepper Treatment Check NPK FYM+CC+NPK FYM+CC+1/2 NPK+BF CD (P=0.05) 0.41 0.15 0.19 Yield (t /ha) 2.33 3.62 2.98 4.03 Piperine (%) 6.94 6.74 7.12 6.99 Oleoresin (%) 9.19 9.08 7.11 7.08

Table 5. Organic and Biofertilizers on yield of Black Pepper Dry Yield(Kg/vine) Treatment T1-50% N as FYM +Azospirillum+50% P as inorganic +P solubilizers +100%K as inorganic T2-50% N as FYM + Azospirillum + 50% N and P as inorganic + Azospirillum + P solubilizers + AMF+100%K as inorganic T3- Recommended package of practices 2. Cardamom The major soils of cardamom area come under the order alfisol with pH from 5 to 6.5 and organic matter 3.2 to 7.8 percent. Deep soils with good drainage are well suited. Cardamom is commonly cultivated as undergrowth of shade trees in the forest generally high in fertility status due to addition of leaf fall and recycling where on an average, 5-8 tonnes of dry leaves fall from shade trees annually in a hectare of cardamom estate adding 100-160 kg nitrogen, 5-8 kg phosphorus, 100- 160 kg potash, 10-16 kg calcium and 25-40 kg magnesium per hectare, taking a modest estimate leaf nutrient status of forests litter as N 2.0 per cent, P2 O5 0.1 per cent, K2O 2.0 per cent, CaO 0.2 per cent and MgO 0.5 percent, respectively. These shade trees add to the surface soil, the nutrients they take up from lower horizons through leaf shedding and thus help in 86 1.216 1.097 1.355 1.427 Panniyur 1 1.001 Panniyur 2 2.077

maintaining a fairly high fertility particularly nitrogen status and a favorable soil pH. The shade trees thus have a dual function- the regulation of solar radiation and maintenance of soil fertility (Korikanthimath, 1994). Survey in major cardamom growing areas of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu reported that 68% soils are deficient in zinc, 49% deficient in boron, 28% deficient in Mo and 9% deficient in manganese (Srinivasan et al. 1998). Micronutrient deficiency in cardamom growing areas is one of the limiting factors of cardamom production as average productivity of cardamom could reach only 120 kg/ha in spite of regular NPK application. Cardamom is considered as a nutrient exhaustive crop. The total uptake by bearing clumps were 26 kg N, 4.4 kg P, 52 kg K, 14 kg Ca and 3.5 kg Mg per hectare(Kulkarni et al. 1971).The ratio of uptake of N,P,K, Ca and Mg is as 6:1:12:3:0.8 respectively. It has been also estimated that for production of one kg cardamom capsule, 0.122 kg N, 0.414 kg P, 0.20 kg K are removed by the plant which highlighted the need for judicious nutrient management practices. Besides, continuous cultivation of cardamom on the same piece of land leads to depletion of nutrients resulting in poor growth and yield. Studies conducted over a period indicated that there is a steady absorption and utilization of nutrient through out the life cycle of cardamom, and for sustained productivity regular fertilizer application is essential. Considering all these factors, various fertilizer recommendations are made by different cardamom growing states (Table 6). Table 6. Fertilizer recommendations for cardamom developed for different regions Region / State Mudigree , Karnataka 75 : 75 : 150 NPK (kg/ha)

High density planting, (5000 plants/ha) 120 : 120 : 240 Karnataka Pampadumpara, Kerala Tamil Nadu 100 : 100 : 175 75: 75: 150 in two splits during JuneJuly and October November

87

Application of fertilizer nutrients at the rate of 125: 125: 200 kg/ha/year in two splits (just before and after summer monsoon) increased the yield significantly under Pampadumpara rainfall climatology (Murugan et al. 2007) ( Fig.2 ).

Fig1: Effect of different doses of NPK and Neem cake on yield of dry Cardamom capsule variety PV-1
700

600

500

Yield (kg/ha)

400

1999 2000 2001

300

2002

200

100

0 NPK 0:0:0 NPK "(75:75:150) NPK 100:100:175 NPK 125:125:200 NPK 150:150:225 NPK 75:75:150+Neem cake 0.5 kg/plant

Treatments (kg/ha/yr)

Studies also confirmed that boron and molybdenum play an important role along with other management practices in increasing yield. Application of boron in the form of disodium tetraborate @ 20 kg/ha and molybdenum in the form of sodium molybdate @ 0.25kg/ha mixed with appropriate quantity of FYM @ 1kg/plant applied with onset of monsoon increased cardamom yield by 20%. Organic manures like compost or cattle manure may be given @ 5kg/clump. Neem oil cake may also be applied @ 1kg/clump. Application of 500 or 750 ppm of zinc (Zinc sulphate) foliar application is found to enhance yield and quality of cardamom (Srinivasan et al. 1998). Based on DRIS norms Sadanandan et al. (2000) found that the optimum levels for high yield are Fe 253 ppm, Mn 371 ppm, Zn 33 ppm, Cu 28 ppm and Mo 0.56 ppm.

88

3. Ginger Ginger adapts widely to different soils like sandy loams, clay loams and literate soil but virgin forest soils that are rich in fertility are ideal. Higher yield requires well drained and deep friable soils. Shallow soil can also be used satisfactorily by proper bedding and mulching. The development of ginger follows three distinct growth phases namely active vegetative growth (90-120 DAP), slow vegetative growth (120-180 DAP) and senescence (180 DAP to harvest) in which the rhizome development continues till harvest (Sushama and Jose, 1994)). The uptake of N, P and K in leaf and pseudostem increase up to 180th day and then decrease, whereas that of rhizome uptake steadily increases till the harvest. Ginger rhizomes were mainly N and K exhausting, intermediary in P and Mg removal and the least in Ca removal (Nagarajan & Pillai, 1979). A heavy ginger crop removes 35-50 kg P/ha). Fertilizer response of ginger varies with variety, soil type and climate and hence the fertilizer dose also vary in different states of India (Table 7). Table . 7 Fertilizer recommendations made in different regions/ states for ginger Region / State Kerala Orissa Punjab Karnataka FYM (t/ha) 10-30 N (kg/ha) 50 125 100 150 P2O5 (kg/ha) 50 70 50 75 K2O (kg/ha) 100 150 50 50

Organic nutrition has been reported to increase the yield and improve the quality of ginger. Ginger performs well with good supply of humus and organic matter, which is positively correlated with yield. The various organic sources used for ginger cultivation In India are FYM, poultry manure, press mud, oil cakes and bio fertilizers. The quantity of organic manures applied varies between 5-30t/ha, depending upon the availability of the material and cost. However, cultivators of Maharashtra apply heavy dose of FYM to the extent of about 40 to 50t/ha. Application of organic cakes increased nutrient availability, improved physical condition of the soil, increased the yield and oleoresin production and reduced the rhizome rot incidence. However recently through AICRP on Spices revised its recommendations for various states as indicated in Table 8.

89

Table 8. Manure and fertilizer recommendations developed for ginger through AICRP on Spices Region / State Kerala Fertilizer / Manure FYM 30 tons/ha, NPK 70: 50: 50kg/ha. The entire dose of P and K are applied at planting. Half the quantity of N is applied at 60DAS. The remaining quantity of N and K are applied at 60DAS. FYM / compost 25 tons/ha, NPK 100: 50: 50 kg/ha. The entire dose of P and K is applied at planting, Half quantity of N is applied at 30 40 DAS and other half at 60-70 DAS. FYM 25 tons/ha, NPK 125: 100: 100 kg/ha. Full P and half K applied as basal in furrows before planting and N and K in 2 splits at 45th and 90th day. FYM 20-30tons/ha, NPK 100: 50: 60 kg/ha. Superphosphate and potash are applied at the time of planting and N in 3 equal doses first at the time of planting and subsequent 2 doses in 1 month interval, K2O also applied in splits half at sowing and other half at rhizome initiation. NPK @ 60: 60:120 kg/ha 75: 50:50 N, , P2O5, K2O kg/ha NPK @ 150: 125: 125 kg/ha

Karnataka

Orissa

Himachal Pradesh

Bihar Andhra Pradesh Chattisgarh

Application of micronutrients such as Zn, B and Mo @ 5, 2 and 1 kg/ha also increased rhizome yield by 48 per cent (5.2t of dry rhizome/ha) and oleoresin content over control. 4. Garlic Garlic is an important crop grown in the hills of Tamil Nadu. The recommended application is 50t /ha of FYM, 75, 75, 75 kg/ha of NPK+ Neem cake 1t/ha + 50kg of MgSO4 /ha. Rubbering is a serious problem and whenever this disorder is noticed, the following recommendation can hold good. 120: 50:50 kg NPK + ZnSo4 @ 12.5 kg and biofertilizers (Azospirillum and phosphobacterium) @ 2kg each per hectare (Table 9) (Mahendran & Kumar, 1996).

90

Table 9. Effect of biofertilizers on Garlic Nutrient Uptake ( Kg/ha ) N 207 P 39.2 K 184

Treatment T1

Recommended dose

Yield / ha

120:50:50 Kg N&K and ZnSo4 5.52 @12.5Kg/ha

T2

120:50:50 Kg N&K and ZnSo4 @12.5Kg/ha

+

6.35

240

45

205

biofertilizers

(Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium @2Kg each/ha

5. Vanilla Decomposed mulch is the main source of nutrients to vanilla. It also retains enough moisture for the vines and gives a loose structure for the roots to spread out. Therefore, it is very important that easily decomposable organic matter is deposited around the vines at two or three times in a year. However, care should be taken not to apply animal manures, as the orchids in general, do not favor them. The quantity of fertilizer to be applied may vary according to the fertility status of the soil. However, general recommendation is 40 to 60 g N, 30 g P2 O5 and 60 to 100 g K2O per grown up vine annually. If fertilizer is given in two or three splits, it will increase the efficiency of uptake. Vanilla responds well to foliar applications and therefore it is recommended that a part of the fertilizer dose to be given as foliar spray before the flowering season. Nutritional studies carried out at Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Pampadumpara has indicated that vanilla yield can be enhanced by soil application of 20: 10: 30 g NPK per vine per year and foliar application of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash at the rate of 1.0, 0.5 and 1.5 % respectively during January, May and September. Fertigation, employing conventional and water soluble fertilizer is known to improve the yield by 14% with harvesting of more percentage of A grade pods (Kumar, Personal communication, 2002).

91

6. Seed Spices Coriander Coriander is a tropical crop and can be cultivated as a Rabi crop. A dry weather favours high seed production. Irrigated coriander can be cultivated almost all types of soil by giving sufficient organic manure. Unirrigated crop survives only on heavier type of soil having good water retention capacity. For getting economic yield of coriander N @ 20-30 kg, P 40 kg and K2O 20 kg/ha along with 10 tonnes of FYM as basal dose are recommended under Andhra Pradesh condition. In Madhya Pradesh recommendation of NPK is @ 10, 30, 20 kg/ha for irrigated crop and 10 kg each of N & P/ha for rainfed drop. Thakar et al. 1991 reported that application of 60 kg N/ha in two equal splits, half at sowing and another 60 days after sowing gave maximum yield. Tamil Nadu recommends FYM 10t/ha, 20: 40: 20 NPK kg/ha. In respect of other minor seed spices, Gujarat and Rajasthan are the leading states and their recommendation are presented in Table 10.

Table 10. Fertilizer recommendations for seed spices in different growing regions
Region FYM t/ha Gujarat Rajasthan Cumin N (kg/ha) 25 30(2 splits) P (kg/ ha) 20 K (kg/ ha) 20 FYM t/ha 25 Fennel N P (kg/ (kg/ ha) ha) 30 30 90 (3 splits) Fenugreek N P (kg/ (kg/ ha) ha) 20 60 20 50

K (kg/ ha) -

FYM t/ha -

K (kg/ ha) 30 -

Rethinam & Sadanandan(1994)

7. Tree spices Tamil Nadu and Kerala Agricultural University recommended the following balanced fertilization for these crops (Table 11).

92

Table 11. Balanced fertilizer recommendations for tree spices

Nutmeg N:P:K g/tree Clove N:P:K g/tree Tamarind biofertilizer g/tree FYM Kg/ tree N:P:K g/tree Bioferti -lizer g/tree

Region Tamil Nadu i. First year of planting

FYM Kg/ tree 15

biofertilizer g/tree -

FYM Kg/tree 15

20: 20: 60

20: 20: 60

ii. Adult trees Kerala i. First year of planting ii. Adult trees (15 years)

50

300:300 : 960

50 g in each of Azospirillum and

phosphobacteria

50

300 : 300 : 960

50 g in each of Azospirillum and

phosphobacteria

25

200: 150 : 250

15

20: 18 : 50

15

20 : 18 : 50

50

500:250: 1000

50

300 : 250 : 75

93

References Choudhury, S. 1947. Black pepper growing in Assam. Indian Fmg., 8 : 557 -559. Kanthaswamy, V., Pillai, O.A., Natarajan, S. and Thamburaj,S. 1996.Studies on the nutrient requirement of black pepper (var Pannitur-1). S.Indian Hort.44:3-4. Kandiannan, K., Sivaraman, K., Anandaraj, M. and Krishnamurthy, K.S. 2000. Growth and nutrient content of black pepper cuttings as influenced by inoculation with biofertilizers. J. Spices and aromatic Crop, 9(2): 145-147. Korikanthimath, V. S. 1994. Nutrition of cardamom. In: Advances in horticulture. Vol 9, Plantation Crops (eds.). Chadha, K.L. and Rethinam, P. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India,pp:467476. Kulkarni, D.S., Kulkarni, S.V., Suryanarayannan Reddy, B. and Pattanshetty, H.V. 1971. In: Proc. International Symposium on soil fertility Evaluation. New Delhi: 293296. Mahendaran, P.P and Kumar. N. 1996. A note on the effect of biofertilizers in garlic (Allium Sativum L.). South Indian Hort. 44 (5 & 6): 170-171. Mathew, P.G., Wahid, P.A. and Nai S.G. 1995. J. Plantation Crops, 23: 109-11. Murugan, M., Backiyarani. S., Josephrajkumar. A., Hiremath, M.B. and Shetty, P.K. 2007. Yield of small cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum M ) variety PV 1 as influenced by levels of nutrients and neem cake under rain fed condition of southern western ghats, India. Caspian J. Env. Sci. 5 (1): 19-25. Nagarajan, M. and Pillai, N.G. 1979. Madras agric.J., 66 :56-59. Pillai, V. S., Sasikumaran, S. and Ibrahim, K.K. 1987. Agric. Res. J. Kerala, 25(1) : 74-80. Pillai, V.S. and Sasikumaran, S. 1976. Arecanut Spices Bull., 8 : 13-14. Rethinam, P. and Sadanandan, A.K. 1994.In: Adv. In Hort.(Eds) K.L. Chadha and P. Rethinam., Vol.9 (1) : 499-510. Sadandan, A.K.1992.Sustainable pepper production in India.In proc.National seminar on pepper and cardamom (Sarma,Y.R.,Devasahayam,S. and Anandaraj, M.,Eds .). Indian society of spices, calicut.17-19 May 1992.pp.1-5.

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Sadanandan, A.K. 1993. In: Proc National Seminar on Potassium on Plantation Crops (Mahatim Singh and M.K. Mishra, Eds.)Potash Research Institute of India, Gurgaon, Haryana,p.75-88. Sadanandan, A.K. and Hamza, S. 1999. Effect of organic farming on soil quality, crop productibity and quality of spices. In : Proc. 3rd IFOAM Asia Scientific Conference and General Assembly on food Security in Harmony with Mature, shivashankar, K. (ed.), 90-94. Sadanandan, A.K. and Hamza, S., Bhargava, B.S. and Raghupathi, M.B. 2000. Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) norms for black pepper growing soils of south India. In: Recent advances in Plantation Crops Research (eds.) Muraleedharan, N. and Raj Kumar, R. (PLACROSYM XIII) Allied Publishers Limited, New Delhi, 203-205. Sivaraman, K. Sadanandan, A.K. and Abraham, Jose. 1987.National Seminar on Recent Advances in Soil Research, Pune, 12-15 November, p.46. Srinivasan, K., Krishnakumar.V. and Potty S.N. 1998. In : Proc. National seminar on water and nutrient management for sustainable production and quality of spices (eds.) Sadanandan et al. ISS & IISR Calicut p.27-33. Sushama.P.K. and Jose, A.I. 1994.In Advances in Horticulture (Eds) K.L. Chadha and P. Rethinam, Vol. 9 : 491-498. Thakar, R.N. Sharma, B.N., Katiyal D.S. and Vijai singh, 1991. Indian J. Agron, 36(1) : 116-118.

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Balanced Fertilization for Turmeric

K. Soorianathasundaram, P.K. Selvaraj and M. Balusamy Agricultural Research Station, TNAU, Bhavanisagar-638451 Turmeric is considered as a major and sacred spice of India and is exploited for its manifold uses. India is the leading producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) is the major principle responsible for the yellow colour and it is present normally at a range of 34% in the rhizomes. It is shown to have excellent pharmaceutical attributes with its antioxidant, antiarthritic, antimutagenic, antitumorous, antithrombotic, antivenomous, antimicrobial properties and acts against Alzheimers disease. Research on turmeric is primarily focused on improving rhizome yield and quality attributes. Besides improved cultivars, good nutrient management especially balanced fertilization is of paramount importance to sustain productivity and quality. Turmeric is considered as a nutrient exhaustive crop. It is a heavy feeder of N and K nutrients and comparatively, K uptake is higher than N (Table.1). Table 1. Uptake of Nutrients by Turmeric at Harvest Location Kasargod Soil Type Laterite Nutrients ( N: P2O5: K2OKg/ha) 124 30 236 Reference Nagarajan and Pillai (1979) Vellanikkara Bhavanisagar Laterite Sandy loam Coimbatore Clay loam 187 37 327 Sivaraman (1992) 72-115 166 14-17 37 141-233 285 KAU (1991) Sivaraman (1992)

According to Saifudeen (1981), the uptake of nutrients increased with the increase in dry matter production and generally the phase of active vegetative growth is the period during which there is maximum uptake of nutrients. Further, it was evident

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from studies conducted that the uptake of nutrients was higher up to third month for potassium, up to fourth month for nitrogen and up to fifth month for P indicating the need for earlier application of N, P and K fertilizers for improving the plant growth (Rao and Rao, 1988). Turmeric is reported to remove 16.5 kg N, 3.1 Kg P2O5 and 44.5 kg K2O per tonne of produce (PPIC, 2001). Many studies have clearly brought out that the nutrient uptake is also influenced by factors such as size and type of planting material, climate, soil fertility level, water quality, crop growth stages, shade levels and cropping systems. Fertilizer recommendations Different states recommend various NPK dosages for turmeric. Researchers have also made specific recommendations for a locality or a variety in many instances (Tables 2 &.3). Table 2. Fertilizer Recommendations for Turmeric in different states in India State Andhra Pradesh - Rudrur Andhra Pradesh - Anathrajpet Assam Kerala Maharshtra Meghalaya Mizoram Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh FYM (t/ha) 25 25 20 40 NA NA NA 15-20t NA N 250 300 30 30 120 40 90 125 100 P205 80 125 30 30 60 20 60 60 60 K2O 200 200 60 60 60 60 90 108 60 N: P2O5:K2O ratio 3.12: 1 : 2.5 2.4:1:1.6 1:1:2 1:1:2 2:1:1 2:1:3 1.5:1:1.5 2.1: 1:1.8 1.6:1:1 Reference APAU ( 1989) APAU ( 1989) Rathaiah ( 1986) KAU ( 2002) (Yamgar and Pariwar ( 1991) Govind et al (1990) Saha ( 1988) TNAU ( 2004) Singh & Singh (1988)

A- not mentioned / information not available

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Table 3. Recommendations based on soil type and variety in India Location & State Wynad, Kerala N: P2O5:K2O ( Kg /ha) 100:100:120 N:P2O5:K2O applied ratio 1:1:2

Soil Type Clay loam, laterite

Variety Armoor

Reference Muralidharan and Balakrishnan ( 1972) NRCS (1991,1992) Govind et al. (1990) Rao and Reddy,(1977) Rao and Swamy, (1984) Subramaniam et al. (1978)

Laterite Red Sandy Loam Red Sandy Loam

Sudharsana Calicut, & Suguna Kerala Lakadong CL-325 Gorakhpur & Mydukur Barapani, Meghalaya Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh

60:60:120 60:40:60 375 :175:237 .5 187.5:62.5:125

1:1:2 1.5:1:1.5 2.14:1:1.9 3:1:2

Sandy Loam

Local

Bhavanisagar, Tamil Nadu

124:30:51

4.1: 1: 1.6

Research on balanced fertilization in turmeric At TNAU, many experiments were conducted to study the influence of balanced fertilization in turmeric. Nitrogen Studies taken up at Coimbatore,Tamil Nadu on effect of nitrogen on turmeric revealed that the response was higher at 100 to 140 kg/ha (Ahmed Shah and Muthuswamy, 1981; Balashanmugam and Chezhiyan, 1986). On the contrary, in Muthuvel et al.

another study taken up at Bhavanisagar, Erode district, Tamil Nadu,

(1989) found no significant response to higher nitrogen levels of 120 or 150 kg/ha when compared to 90 kg/ha. The differences in response in these two studies reflect probable influence of soil conditions and varieties involved on nutrient uptake.

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Table 4. Yield and Yield components of turmeric as influenced by Nitrogen levels Treatments No Nitrogen ( control) N at 100 kg /ha N at 120 kg/ha N at 140 kg /ha N at 160 kg/ha 22.32 21.98 22.91 21.92 52.88 50.55 56.92 50.14 Yield of fresh rhizomes ( t/ha) 14.60

Per cent increase over control

--

Note : 10 t FYM + 60 kg in each of P2O5 and K2O was common for all the treatments (Ahmed Shah and Muthuswami, 1981) Table 5. Influence of varied doses of N and K on turmeric at Bhavansisagar

N levels
84-85 N 90 kg/ha N 120 kg/ha N 150 kg/ha SE CD 51.1 51.1 53.4 2.7 NS

Raw Rhizome yield ( t/ha) 85-86 33.4 33.2 33.6 1.25 NS 86-87 34.9 38.2 38.4 3.38 NS

Mean
39.8 40.8 41.8

K levels
84-85 K60 kg/ha K90 kg/ha SE CD 50.9 52.8 2.7 NS

Raw Rhizome yield ( t/ha) 85-86 33.1 33.8 1.25 NS 86-87 36.3 38.1 3.38 NS

Mean
40.1 41.6

(Muthuvel et al. 1989)

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In a pot culture study involving labeled

15

N, Jagadeeswaran et al. (2004)

demonstrated that split application of nitrogen keeps the nutrient availability throughout the active growth stages. Maximum crop recovery and soil retention coupled with minimal loss of N can be achieved with application of N in four splits. Phosphorus In general the response to applied phosphorus seems to be lesser than compared to N and K nutrients. In studies taken up at Andhra Pradesh, the response to applied phosphorus has been reported up to 175 kg /ha in combination with other nutrients (Rao and Reddy, 1977). The requirements of phosphorous in Tamil Nadu seem to be lesser and in general 60 kg P2O5/ ha is recommended. Phosphorous is not applied as top dressing but given as a basal dressing as its uptake is better and higher in the early growth phase of the crop. Potassium Potassium application in turmeric has significantly increased plant height, number of tillers, number of leaves and number of primary and secondary rhizomes (Rathinavel, 1983). Though potassium application at 240 kg / ha registered highest numbers for the above parameters, increases were not significant beyond 180 kg K2O /ha at Coimbatore (Mohan Babu 1981, Rathinavel, 1983). Rathinavel (1983) also observed a steady increase of curcumin, oleoresin and essential oil content of the rhizome upto 180 kg K2O /ha. However, Ahmed Shah et al. (1988) registered higher curcumin content in mother rhizomes and primary rhizomes at a dosage of 60 or 90 kg K20/ ha than at a higher dosage of 120 or 150 or 180 kg/ ha. Muthuvel et al. (1989) recommended 60 kg K2O /ha for CO.1 turmeric at Bhavanisagar conditions as they did not observe any significant difference over the application rate of 90 kg K2O /ha (Table 5). Field experiments were conducted during 1987-88 at Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar to study the effect of potash fertilization on growth and yield attributes of BSR 1 variety. The experiment involved three dosages of potash viz., 30, 60 and 90 kg applied in either full or in three or four or five splits. A common dosage of 120 kg N/ha was applied in five splits at monthly intervals up to 120 day and 60 kg P2O5/ha applied basally. It was found that the application of 90 kg K2O/ha in four splits 100

resulted in higher uptake and yield of 28.9 t/ha (Balashanmugam and Subramanian, 1991). These studies illustrate that the demand and response to nutrients can be variety / location specific. Table 6. Influence of K levels on Yield of BSR.1 turmeric and K uptake Total uptake of K by whole rhizomes at Harvest ( Kg/ ha) 226.3 299.2 262.1 Total uptake of K by whole plant at Harvest (Kg/ ha) 421.5 387.2 320.9

K levels 30 kg K2O/ha 60 kg K2O/ha 90 kg K2O/ha

Yield / ha ( t) 23.5 24.9 29.7

(Balashamugam and Subramanian, 1991) Micronutrients Micronutrients such as iron, zinc and boron are required in sufficient levels for proper growth and development of turmeric and very often the crop suffers when these nutrients are limiting. Iron deficiency is usually observed in turmeric grown in calcareous or alkaline soils. The symptoms of iron deficiency first appear as interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, which then leads to chlorosis of entire leaf and make it to turn almost white. Application of ZnSO4 at the rate of 15 kg / ha was recommended to overcome Zinc deficiency (Velu, 1988; Balashanmugam et al. 1990). A general recommendation for correcting deficiency of micronutrients especially Boron, Iron and Zinc has been prescribed (TNAU, 2004). This involves application of 375 g Ferrous sulphate, 375 g Zinc sulphate, 375 g Borox, 375 g of Urea dissolved in super phosphate slurry solution (15 kg super phosphate is dissolved in 25 lit of water stored overnight and the supernatant solution is made upto 250 lit). Spraying of the above solution twice at 25 days interval is recommended. Senthil Kumar et al (2004 a) computed nutrient norms for N, P, Ca, Mg, Na, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in turmeric by Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated system (DRIS) and Compositional Nutrient diagnosis (CND) approaches from a data base

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generated by sampling 500 commercial turmeric growing plots across Erode district, Tamil Nadu. The evolved CND norms for important major and important micronutrients are given in Table 7. Table 7 . Optimal CND norms for leaf nutrient concentration in Turmeric Nutrient N ( %) P( %) K( %) Ca ( %) Mg ( %) Zn (ppm) Fe (ppm) Mn (ppm) B (ppm) Deficient <1.19 <0.44 <3.61 <0.19 <0.67 45.3 313 65.9 <14.4 Optimum Range 1.20-2.99 % 0.45-1.31 % 3.62-6.99% 0.20-0.31% 0.67-1.24% 45.4-92.4 45.4-92.4 65.8-250 14.5-27.2 Excess >3.00 >1.32 >7.00 >0.32 >1.25 >92.5 >92.5 >251 >27.3 (Senthil Kumar et al. 2004a ) They reported zinc and boron deficiencies to the extent of 72 and 62 % respectively and that the availability of these two micronutrients were suppressed due to higher pH, Na , Ca and Mg . Based on computed nutrient imbalance index (NII) values of the leaves, 17 % of the growing areas were classified as severely limited by mineral nutrition and about 32 % of the growing areas were identified as having possible imbalances. Based on the order of requirement the predominance of Zn deficiency was well indicated by CND than DRIS. In a study to find out the effect of Zn enriched organic manures on yield and curcumin content of turmeric at Agricultural Research Station Bhavanisagar, it was found that application of Zn SO4 at 50 kg / ha and FeSO4 at 100 kg / ha as zinc and iron enriched coir pith ( 1 t /ha) as basal dressing along with recommended dose of NPK + FYM and a zinc solubilizing bacteria (ZSB- Bacillus sp) resulted in higher rhizome yield

102

and better soil and plant nutrient status. Application of FYM, FYM+ ZSB and soil and foliar application of 0.5%Zn SO4 and 1%FeSO4 enhanced the uptake of all the major nutrients right from the early phase of crop growth to harvest (Senthil Kumar et al. 2004 b). Table 8. Effect of FYM and Zinc in Turmeric Treatment M1-control M2-NPK+FYM M3-NPK+FYM+Zn solubilizer (Senthil Kumar et al. 2004 b) Integrated Nutrient Management In conventional turmeric farming, usually large quantities of organic manures are applied to the field. The organic manures such as FYM, oil cakes, vermicompost etc have been known to play a crucial role in maintaining soil health and beneficial microbial population leading to improved soil characteristics and enhanced fertility levels. It is a common practice in many turmeric-growing areas in Tamilnadu to add tank silt to improve soil fertility. Sheep penning is also practiced to improve soil fertility. The general recommendation in many states is 25- 30 t of FYM or compost along with inorganic fertilizers. In addition to organic manure, addition of plant residues also helps to improve the fertilizer use efficiency in turmeric. Addition of organic matter to the soil by way of incorporating green manures and mulching with leaves of daincha ( Sesbania aculeata) and sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) were found to be useful. In rainfed cultivation at Kerala (Wyanad), application of 100 kg N/ha along with a basal dose of 15 t/ha of FYM and 50 t of green leaves mulch applied at planting and again 60 DAP was found to maximize yield (Muralidharan and Balakrishnan, 1972). Rhizome Yield ( t/ha) 23.5 25.6 28.6 Curcumin content ( %) 4.04 4.38 4.53

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Trials conducted at TNAU also highlight the importance of INM in turmeric. Balashanmugam et al. (1989) reported 37 per cent higher fresh rhizome yield by addition of 25 t FYM/ ha over the recommended NPK doses applied as inorganic form.Sadanandan and Hamza (1998) from Kerala reported higher curcumin yields with application of neem cake, groundnut cake and cotton cake when compared to NPK

fertilizers but rhizome yield was highest with NPK fertilizers as compared to the oil cakes. In a study conducted at farmer's field by Krishnamurthy et al. (1999) at Gobichettipalayam of Erode district, Tamil Nadu in red sandy loam soil with low available Nitrogen (192 kg/ha), medium phosphorus (12.6 kg/ha) and high potassium (296 kg/ha) , the highest fresh rhizome yield of turmeric was registered in the treatment of NPK with poultry manure as compared to NPK + sheep manure or FYM or cattle manure or compost. Digested coir pith compost was also found to increase the yield of turmeric rhizomes (Krishanamoorthy et al. 2002). Selvarajan and Chezhiyan (2001) studied the effect of Azospirillum along with graded doses of nitrogen on growth and yield of turmeric cultivar BSR 2 and indicated that 50 % of nitrogenous inorganic fertilizer could be saved by application of

Azospirillum @ 25 kg /ha.

Addition of biofertilisers viz., Azospirillum (10kg /ha )

and Phosphobacteria ( 10 kg /ha) along with FYM 15 t /ha and digested coir compost ( 10t /ha ) and 125 : 60 : 90 kg of NPK was reported to enhance the uptake of nutrients and physiological parameters in turmeric accession CL 147 leading to higher yields. This was attributed to better mobilization of nutrients by increased level of microbial population in the organically amended soil (Padmapriya, 2004). Fertigation Not much published information on the influence of fertigation studies is available. However, fertigation studies taken up at ARS, Bhavanisagar revealed the significance of fertigation (Table 9).

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Table 9. Influence of Irrigation & Fertigation levels on Turmeric yield ( t/ha) Irrigation & Fertigation Levels Irrigation at 80 % PE Irrigation at 60 % PE Irrigation at 40 % PE Mean Surface irrigation, 5 cm, 0.90 IW/CPE, 100% of N & K through soil 75 % N&K 34.76 33.69 29.98 32.81 50 % N&K 33.62 34.12 29.49 32.41 CD 3.54

100 % N& K 32.91 33.26 29.70 31.96 22.50

Mean 33.76 33.69 29.72

The required N and K fertilizers were divided into 20 equal splits and applied at weekly intervals through fertigation commencing from 30 days after sowing. The studies revealed that at even at 50 % of the recommended dosage of N & K when supplied through drip resulted in higher yields as compared to application of 100 % recommended NPK dose through soil application of fertilizers and surface irrigation. This study clearly reveals that it is possible to enhance nutrient and water use efficiency and improve yield by adopting fertigation in turmeric. Future Thrust There has been a good progress made so far in assessing and understanding major and micronutrient requirements, uptake pattern, influence of organic sources and biofertilizers on turmeric. Not many studies have been taken up on fertigation. While much information on fertilizer requirements of turmeric has been generated across the country, popularization of correct nutrient management practices among growers is essential. As in the case of many other important field or horticultural crops, research on nutrient inflows and outflows and nutrient balance estimates in various turmeric growing regions is lacking. If proper estimates could be arrived at, then it may be possible to

105

improve the level of nutrient use efficacy in these areas by strategic research and reduce wastage and pollution. Studies have revealed that it is possible to effectively employ DRIS and CND norms to arrive at Nutrient Imbalance Indices. Similar studies are necessary in all turmeric growing zones to identify and solve nutrient related problems. It is necessary to popularize fertigation and INM practices, which have proven to improve yield and enhance nutrient use efficiency. Research on response to graded dosages of nutrients in problem soils and studies on influence of addition of organics, bio regulators and other amendments in nutrient uptake is worth pursuing to formulate effective nutrient management strategies.

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References Ahmed Shah, H. and Muthuswamy, S. 1981. Studies on the influence of N on the yield and yield components of turmeric. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices J., 5: 9-10. Ahmed Shah, H.A., Vedamuthu, G.B.P., Khader, Md. A. and Prakasam, V. 1988. Influence of different levels of potassium on yield and curcumin content of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.).In: Proc. Natl. Seminar on chillies, ginger and turmeric, Hyderabad, India. Jan. 11-12, 1988, pp. 109-113. APAU, 1989. 25 years of Progress. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University , Rajendra Nagar, Spl.Pubn. Balashanmugam, P.V. and Subramanian, K.S. 1991. Effect of split application of potassium in turmeric. South Ind. Hort. 39 (3) : 139-142. Balashanmugam, P.V. and Chezhiyan, N. 1986. Effect of differential application of nitrogen on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Madras Agric. J., 73(6): 439-442. Balashanmugam, P.V., Vanagamudi,K. and Chamy, A. 1989. Studies on the influence of farm yard manure on the rhizome yield of turmeric Ind.Coconut Arecanut and Spices J. 12 : 126. Balashanmugam, P.V., Vijayakumar, R.M. and Subramanian, K.S. 1990. Effect of zinc and iron on turmeric yield. South Ind. Hort. 38 : 284-285. Govind S., Gupta, P.N. and Ram, C. 1990. Response of N and P levels on growth and yield components of turmeric in acid soils of Meghalaya. Ind. J. Hort., 47(1): 7984. Jagadeeswaran, R., Arulmozhiselvan, K., Govindaswamy, M. and Murugappan,V. 2004. Studies on nitrogen use efficiency in turmeric using 15N tagged urea J. Nuclear Agric. Biol., 33 (2) : 69-76 KAU. 1989. Package of Practices Recommendations, Kerala Agricultural University, Directorate of Extension, Trichur, Kerala. KAU. 2002. Package of Practices Recommendations: Crops, (12th Edn) Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, Kerala.

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Krishnamurthi, V.V., Manickasundaram, P., Tamilmani,D., Vaiyapuri, K. and Gnanamurthy, P. 2002. Role of digested coirpith, zinc, and iron on the yield of turmeric. In: Proc. Natl. Seminar on Emerging Trends in Horticulture, Department of Horticulture, Annamalai University, pp.141. Krishnamurthi, V.V., Rajkannan, B. and Kumar, K. 1999. Effect of organics on rhizome yield of turmeric. Spice India 12(7):21. Mohanbabu, N. 1981. Studies on the influence of potassium on growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Muralidharan, A. and Balakrishnan, S. 1972. Studies on the performance of some varieties of turmeric (Curcuma sp.) and its fertilizer requirements. Agric. Res. J. Kerala, 10: 112-115. Muthuvel, P., Rajkannan,B., Selvaraj, K.V., Kulandaivelu, R. and Chamy, A. (1989). Irrigation , nitrogen 37(1):61-63. Nagarajan, M and Pillai, N.G. (1979) A note on the nutrient removal by ginger and turmeric rhizomes. Madras Agric. J. 66(1), p. 56-59. NRCS, 1991. Annual Report (1990-91). National research center for Spices, Calicut. NRCS, 1992. Annual Report (1991-92). National research center for Spices, Calicut. Padmapriya, S. 2004. Studies on effect of shade, inorganic, organic and bio fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) genotype- CL 147, Ph.D., (Hort) Thesis, submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. PPIC 2001. Nutrient removal by crops- Fertiliser knowledge No.1 .Potash and Phosphate Institute of Canada- India Programme, Gurgaon pp-4. Rao, M.R., and Rao. D.V.R. 1988. Studies on crop improvement of turmeric. In: Proc. Natl. Seminar on chillies, ginger and turmeric ( G.Sathyanaraayana et al., Eds), Jan. 11-12, 1988, 84-96, Spices Board and Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Hyderabad, India. and Potash requirement of turmeric.South Ind. Hort

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Rao, D.V.R., and Swamy, G.S. 1984. Studies on the effect of N, P and K on growth, yield and quality of turmeric. South Indian Hort., 32: 288-291. Rathaiah, Y.1986. Turmeric cultivation in Assam. Indian Arecanut and spices J. 9(4): 91-93. Rathinavel, M. 1983. Effect of potassium application and time of harvest on growth, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). M.Sc.(Hort.) Thesis, submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Sadanandan, A.K. and Hamza, S. 1998. Effect of organic manures on nutrient uptake, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.,). In: Developments in plantation crops research (Eds: Mathew, N.M, Kuruvill Jacob, C, Licy J., Joseph, T., Meenatoor, J.R and Thomas, K.K) Allied Publishers, New Delhi, pp.175-181. Saha, A.K. 1988. Note on response of turmeric to manure and source of N and P under terrace terrace conditions of mid-attitude of Mizoram. Indian .J Hort., 45:139140. Saifudeen, N. 1981. Foliar diagnosis, yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) in relation to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, submitted to Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India. Senthil Kumar, P.S., Aruna Geetha, S , Savithri, P, Mahendran , P, Jagadeeswaran, R and Ragunath, K.P 2004a. Comparison of CVA, DRIS, MDRIS and CND norms in leaves of turmeric crop in erode district of Tamil Nadu state, India. Ind. J.environ. & Ecoplan. 7 (3) : 511-518. Senthil Kumar, P.S., Aruna Geetha, S , Savithri, P, Mahendran , P, Jagadeeswaran, R and Ragunath, K.P 2004b. Effect of Zn enriched organic manures and zinc aolubilizer application on yield , curcumin content and nutrient status of soil under turmeric cultivation. J.Applied Hort.6(2):82-86. Selvarajan, M. and Chezhiyan. N. 2001. Studies on the influence of Azospirillum and different levels of nitrogen on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). South Indian Hort., 49: 140-141.

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Singh, N.P and Singh, R.S. 1988. A note on the effect of various levels of nitrogen on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa. L). Haryana J. Hort. Sci., 17 (1-2): 125-126. Sivaraman, K.1992.Studies on the productivity of turmeric , maize and onion intercropping systems under varied population and nitrogen levels. Ph.D Thesis, submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Subramaniam, S., Selvaraj, K.V., Ramasamy , K.P., and Ramasamy, P.P. 1978. A note on the manurial requirements and time of harvest of turmeric,( Curcuma longa L). Madras Agric. J. 65 : 818-819. Subramanian, K.S., Sivasamy, N. and Thangaraj, T. 2001.Integrated Nutrient Management for turmeric. Spice India .14(12):25-26. TNAU. 2004. Crop Production Techniques of Horticultural Crops, Tamil Nadu Coimbatore and Directorate of Horticulture and

Agricultural University

Plantation Crops, Chennai. pp 289. Yamgar, V.T. and Pawar, H.K.1991. Studies on the fertilizer sources on yield of turmeric. J. Plantation Crops, 19(1): 61-62.

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Balanced Fertilization for Coconut

H. Hameed Khan1 and R. Venkitaswamy2
1 2

Project Coordinator (Palms), ICAR Retd, New Delhi, India

Professor (Agronomy), Directorate of Soil & Crop Management Studies, TNAU, Coimbatore

Coconut is cultivated in 159 districts, 17 states and 3 Union territories in India , accounting for 1.947 million hectares with an annual production of 14811 million nuts and an average productivity of 7608 nuts /ha. The southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh are the leading states in coconut production, however, the average productivity of Kerala and Karnataka is lower than the average national productivity of 7608 nuts/ha, while rest of the states exceed the same. Coconut is a small holders crop, as nearly 90 % of the five million coconut holdings in the country are less than one ha in size. In Kerala 89.90 %, Karnataka 95.4%, Tamil Nadu 95.20 % and Andhra Pradesh 97.90 % of the holdings are less than one ha. In majority of the cultivated area, palms receive mostly organic manures and later dressings with mineral fertilizers often fail to increase yields to desired levels. Since the crop is mainly

concentrated in the small sector, its production is one of the most important activity at the farm level. The average productivity in India for the past 10 years is only around 6200 nuts/ha or less than one ton copra / hectare. The general variation in productivity is mainly due to variation in climate (number of sun shine hours, rainfall), irrigation, soil type and adoption of cultural practices. The variation in productivity can be further elaborated due to predominance of small and marginal farmers in this sector, rain-fed cultivation, low income coupled with less investment, continuing disease problems in Kerala (root wilt disease) and Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (Basal Stem Rot (Thanjavur wilt) : Ganoderma), pests like

Eriophyid mite, unprecedented drought conditions (Tamil Nadu), drought and semiarid conditions in parts of Karnataka, low inputs, poor technology adoption, general fertility status of soil, cost of labour in adopting technologies and unscientific management.

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These constraints in productivity of coconut gardens will continue to remain and shall be the major issue to be addressed in the years to come (Nampoothiri and Khan, 2002). Why productivity should be increased? 1. Around 30 % of the palms in the premier coconut growing states are senile and showing declining trend in productivity. 2. Of the 14800 million nuts produced in the country, 50 % is used as raw nut of which 95 % goes for domestic consumption and 5 % for industrial use. While 10 % is used as tender coconut and 35- 40 % is converted as copra which is further used for oil extraction and a fraction as edible copra. Thus a marginal amount of production is available for other value added products for export. 3. More production and change in supply of coconuts will bring changes in processing and marketing sector and pressure to innovate. 4. The technology to produce virgin coconut oil, diet coconut fiber and its health benefits are being realized through out the world ( Kabara, 2000; Rethinam et al. 2004; Rajan,2006) and in India through the campaigns of the Coconut Development Board. This is going to increase the demand for coconut oil more in the western countries and in India. 5. Export and trade analysts say that the demand for lauric oils (63% of which is shared by coconut oil) is bound to increase by 2.3 % a year (Boceta, 2003). 6. Inability of the industry to meet the demand for coconut oil, thereby increase its price in domestic market. 7. Coconut farming will continue to be a major profession and hence its productivity has to be increased to improve the standard of living of the coconut farmers. 8. Studies on the age of plantations and net return in Kerala suggest that it will ideal to replace coconut palms with new plantings after 65 years.

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9. The productivity analysis indicates that the over all contribution of area to production is higher than that of productivity. The domestic demand for coconut, copra and coconut oil in India by 2025 AD would be 21971 million nuts, 1241 (00 mt copra) and 745 (00 mt oil) (Sairam et al.2004). 10. Thus to meet the domestic requirement of coconut and its products , the country needs to further augment its productivity through balanced nutrition, better adoption of technologies in its production, processing and marketing sectors. Balanced nutrition of the palms is one of the priority areas to be addressed in sustaining productivity. Plants should be provided with the correct balance of nutrients to increase crop yield and quality and to increase farm income productivity. It is also observed that deficiency of any one of the essential nutrients would limit growth and utilization efficiency of other nutrients. Assessing and managing a balanced nutrition for perennial crop like coconut is different from that of annual crops. Information has to be obtained through well planned agronomic experiments over a period of research at nursery stage, pre-bearing and adult stage of the palms. Balanced nutrition for coconut starts from the nursery itself. The seed nut contains adequate nutrients to meet the growing needs of the plant at least up to field planting stage. As their nutrient reserve form the endosperm decreases from the fourth month onwards after germination and as also indicated by the leaf analysis of the growing parts of seedlings in the nursery, it is stressed in reports from India, Sri Lanka, Philippines and IRHO, Ivory Coast to fertilize the nursery to produce healthy and vigorous seedlings. Application of balanced fertilizers consisting of N, P, K, Ca and Mg to the nursery seedlings improved the vigour and quality of seedlings. The seedlings obtained from seed nuts collected from palms manured with K displayed better vigour and growth than those obtained from un-manured plots (Nelliat, 1973). Further, it is indicated that to produce healthy seedlings, facilitate better establishment, faster growth and early bearing in the main field, application of 40 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha to the nursery was suggested thrice (December, February, April) under west coast conditions.

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Nutrient management of palms at pre-bearing age Young transplanted seedlings require adequate nutrients for better growth on all soils. With a very active root system, they respond well to manuring, grow better and start bearing early. An enhanced rate of leaf production leading to larger number of leaves on the crown results in larger total leaf area, which may probably increase building up of adequate carbohydrate reserves in the stem. Since there is a correlation between chlorophyll content in the leaves, rate of apparent photosynthesis and annual yield, our efforts should be such that the vegetative phase is completed early managed by a good balanced nutrition. Studies suggest that N driven systems are not desirable (Remoney and Smith, 1965) and damage caused by K deficiency in the early stages cannot be fully repaired by later K dressings (Table 1) (Fremond and Ouverier, 1971). Although later applications of K enabled re-establishment of good physiological functioning, the palms which suffered from K deficiency during pre-bearing age remained on an average 15 % less productive than those which never suffered from K deficiency.

Systematic studies at Veppankulam, Tamil Nadu under the All India coordinated research project on palms indicated that application of 0.34 kg N, 0.23 kg P2O5 and 0.45 kg K2O/ palm induced flowering one year ahead of unfertilized-control plots (Hameed Khan, 1993). When the fertilizer dosage was doubled, pre-bearing age was further reduced by four months. In a comparative performance of D x T, T x D and WCT fertilizer application indicated that 50% of D x T palms receiving 500 g N, 500 g P2O5 and 1000 g K2O/ palm flowered in the eighth year while T x D and high yielding WCT palms flowered in 9th year and in unfertilized palms 50 % of flowering stage was not recorded even at the end of 10 th year in any of this cultivars.

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Table 1. Timing effects of first potash fertilizer application on the performance of young coconut palms Time of K application From field From bearing age planting only 8.89 256 124.1 11.7 2,560 2,480 17,344 7.69 233 105.4 10.7 272 2,272 2,096 12,704

Year 1956 1958 1959 1960 1962 1966 1970 1961-1970

Characteristics observed No. of fronds Length of frond (cm) Girth (cm) No. of fronds in a year kg copra/ ha kg copra/ ha kg copra/ ha Cumulative yield (kg /ha)

Based on the extensive research conducted at CTCRI, Kassorgode, the need for balanced application to young prebearing palm has been stressed (Table 2). Table 2. Fertilizer recommendation for Coconut (CPCRI / Kerala) Nutrients gram/palm/year N 50 160 330 500 500 340 P2O5 40 120 240 320 300 170 K2O 135 405 910 1200 1000 680

Age seedling/palm 3 month old seedling* Second year* Third year* Fourth year onwards* (Adult palm dosage) For sandy soils (Onattukkara)## For average management *

* Fertilizers applied in two splits: 1/3 dose in May and 2/3 dose in September-October ** Green leaves or compost 50 kg/palm/year in August-September ## apply additional 3 kg Mg SO4/palm/year

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TNAU also recommends balanced fertilization for pre-bearing palms (Table 3). Table 3. Fertilizer recommendation for coconut in Tamil Nadu
Nutrients gram/palm/year*, ** Age seedling/palm Second year Third year Fourth year Fifth year onwards (adult palm dosage) N 140 280 420 560 P2O5 80 160 240 320 K2O 300 600 900 1200

*Fertilizers applied in two splits: 50 % June-July and 50 % dose in November- December **Green leaves or compost 50 kg/palm/year in October-November Source: TNAU Crop Production Manual

Nutrient Management of Adult Palm Before proceeding further one has to understand the nutrient removal by the palm, its distribution to various parts etc which will serve as a guide for approximating the quantity of nutrients and the proportion in which they are to be applied. Coconut palm produces fronds and nuts through out the year and hence demands continuous supply of nutrients from the soil. In a coconut system nutrient replacement needs increase at a faster rate than uptake and removal and due to limited root area for absorption, it is important to maintain nutrient supplies at a level of slight luxury consumption (Hameed Khan, 1993). The nutrient removal values indicate a close agreement on the ratio of N and K removed by the palms (Table 4).

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Table 4. Nutrient exhaust by coconut palms reported in different countries Nutrients (kg/ha) Country India 1 Yield 175 palms/ha 40 nuts/palm 1.2 t India 2 copra (173 palms/ha) Ivory Coast 3 Sri Lanka 4 Hybrid palms (PB 121) 6-7 t copra/ha 70 palms/ha 174 10.2 20.0 2.4 249 12.9 1.0 1.0 0.12 0.23 1.43 1.26 56.0 12.8 70.19 1.0 0.23 1.25 N 97.3 P 21.0 K 121.1 N 1.0 Ratio P 0.22 K 1.24

In studying nutrient balance and evolving a recommendation one has to consider the substantial proportion of nutrients retained in the growing part of the stem, besides leaves, parts of inflorescence and nuts which are removed from the garden. It is interesting to note that hybrid palms (PB 121) require more N and P as compared to tall palms and utilize higher proportion of absorbed N and P for the production of more nuts (Table 5). In tall palms these nutrients are utilized more or less equally in the production of nuts and for growth. For both cultivars, the K removal through bunches is 78 % of K uptake. Calcium is utilized more for the production of leaves and stem and least for nuts. About 60 % of Mg removed is utilized for the growth of stem and leaves to meet the photosynthetic needs. The total chlorine exhausted by coconut is equal to that of potassium and equally partitioned for vegetative and reproductive growth of the palm. Its importance is next to K and hence Cl bearing fertilizers assume significance in coconut nutrition. Sodium and sulphur are more utilized for the growth of stem and leaves than for the development of nuts (Table 5). This comparison of the data of Pillai and Davis (1963) from India and Ouvrier and Ochs (1978) form Ivory Coast suggest that the dominant

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requirement of the palm is for potassium and probably chlorine. The above data further suggest that regular fertilizer application is necessary to maintain a balanced supply of nutrients for sustained productivity (Hameed Khan, 1993). Table 5. Coconut nut yield and copra yield as influenced by integrated management practices in root wilt affected palms
Nutrients Cultivar Part(s) of palm N West Coast Tall PB 121* (MAWA hybrid) P 50 K S 70 30 Ca 77 23 87 13 Mg 59 41 62 38 Na 63 37 Cl 50 50

Stem + leaves Nuts Stem + leaves Nuts

49 51 38 62

22 78 22 78

50 25 75

Application of 340 g N, 340 g P2O5 and 680 g K2O/palm/ year improved the nut yield by 35 % and copra out turn by 44 % in the cultivators gardens where the palms were hitherto un-manured. Further, where response to fertilizer application was not observed, significant increase was obtained when K level was raised to 900 g K2O/palm/year (John and Jacob, 1959). In a 33 NPK factorial experiment on sandy loam soil at Kasaragod, higher level of N had an adverse effect on copra content while K levels showed positive response (Muliyar and Nelliat, 1971). Further, they reported that potassium improved all the nut characters studied viz. weight of whole nut, weight of husked nut, volume of husked nut and copra weight per nut, whereas nitrogen had an adverse effect. The palms yielding less than 60 nuts annually, the optimum dose of N ranged between 400 and 650 g and that of potash between 890 and 1210 g per palm per year. In a long term fertilizer experiment in red loam soil, Wahid et al., (1988) recorded significantly higher nut yield with potassium application. Further, they observed that early bearing was also achieved with increased levels of K application. The yield was 7,

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68 and 77 nuts palm-1 year-1 in the 21st year after planting under no fertilizer, 450 g K2O and 900 g K2O palm-1 year-1 respectively. In a recent study at Veppankulam in Tamil Nadu potash response to coconut in soils adequately supplied with potassium has been established (Table 6) (AICRPP, 2000). Table 6. Response of coconut to application of potash (Selected treatments) Veppankulam Plant nutrient (%) (Frond 14) N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NOPOKO NOPOK1 N1POK1 NOPOK2 N1POK2 N1P1K1 N2P2K2 0.91 1.28 1.26 0.98 1.26 1.26 1.62 K 0.81 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.10 0.96 1.20 Soil available nutrients (ppm) N 164 173 170 144 179 174 276 K 84 99 102 118 122 108 135 Yield nuts/palm 108 126 149 134 154 159 201

Sl. No.

Treatment

N1 : 500g; N 2 : 1000 g; P1 : 250 g; P2 : 500 g; K1 : 1000 g; K2 : 2000 g In coastal sandy soils of the Konkan region of Maharashtra, importance of N on coconut yield was well established from the results of a long term fertilizer experiment. The behavior of N in the nutrition of the palms and its interaction with P and K in the balanced nutrition is well established (Table 7). A field experiment with Chawghat Orange Dwarf x West Coast Tall (var.

Chandra Sankara hybrid) was started in 1988 from the seedling stage with different combinations of N, P and K. Results of 14 years of fertilizer application in different combinations indicated that a combination of 500 g N with 250 g P2O5 and 1000 g K2O per palm per year produced a yield of 155 nuts per palm compared to 49 nuts per palm under control treatment. No further increase in yield was also observed when the fertilizer.

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Table 7. Effect of fertilizers on yield of coconut in a long term experiment at Ratnagiri

Treatment/ palm/year P2O5 g/palm/year 0 225 450 mean 0 K2O g/palm/year 225 450 mean

-------------------------------------------------Yield nuts / palm /year--------------------------------N O N 375 g N 750 g Mean 32.8 78.2 89.8 66.9 25.3 87.1 89.8 67.0 27.9 86.1 88.7 68.1 25.7 83.8 90.3 36.9 90.6 89.6 67.8 19.0 76.4 76.1 63.5 30.2 84.5 95.3 70.7 28.7 89.0 89.6 -

SE plus for main effect 1: CD at 5 % for main effect 11.9 : SE for interaction of NP and NK 7.1

dose was doubled. Further an increase in 11 nuts was recorded when the N dose was increased to 1000 g N per palm. Application of phosphorus though beneficial in combination with N and K had only marginal effect on yield (Venkitaswamy, 2004). This study also indicates the involvement of time factor in evolving a balanced nutrient schedule for (hybrid) coconut. Irrigation is widely practiced in the country for sustaining productivity of coconut especially in the east coast of India and depending upon the rainfall pattern in the northern districts of Kerala. One is well aware of the influence of judicious irrigation in enhancing the efficiency of balanced nutrition. Venkitaswamy and Khan (2004) observed that the VHC-2 hybrid palms with recommended dose of fertilizer application (Table 3) when brought under drip irrigation equal to 100% Eo, yielded 130-140 and in situations of water scarcity 122 and 89 nuts palm / year with drip irrigation at 66% Eo and 33% Eo respectively ( Table 8 ). The corresponding quantity of water applied to realize the yields was 13591, 8970 and 4484 litres palm / year. With drip irrigation at 66%, 100% Eo and basin irrigation, the palms were in sufficiency range of nutrition for N and P and in a slightly higher status for K as judged by leaf analysis. The benefit cost ratio for drip irrigation equal to 100 % Eo was 2.11. 120

Table 8. Summary of yield parameters influenced by different levels of irrigation to coconut VHC-2 hybrid, Aliyarnagar
Treatment Water applied/palm No irrigation Drip 33 % Eo 4485 L* Drip 60 % Eo 8790 L Drip 100 % Eo 11359 L Basin irrigation 13533 L Leaf production 13.38 13.68 Mean values for four years VHC hybrid coconut Functional leaves 32.48 33.52 Bunch production 8.63 9.83 Female flowers 174 196 Nuts / palm 68 89 (+21) 122 (+54) 147 (+79) 146 (+78) % increase 31

14.33

36.55

11.5

253

79

15.08

38.25

12.78

306

116

15.11

37.23

13.03

315

114

*Exclusive of rainfall contribution of 5848 litres

Source: Venkitaswamy and Khan (2004)

The necessity and importance of integrated nutrient management is well conceived in coconut. In the perennial crop husbandry practices fertilizing the palms with bulky organic manures is a traditional practice in coconut growing states especially in Kerala. The coconut system offers excellent scope for INM practices in view of the biomass generated with in the system (Biddappa et al. 1996). To evolve appropriate technology of INM to improve and sustain productivity of coconut groves utilizing the resources available in different areas, country wide experiments were started under the aegis of the AICRPP during 1996. The interim results of these experiments presented in table 10 are to be viewed on merits for individual centers. A comparison of the results of different areas is not intended here (Table 9). Thomas et al. (2006) compiled the

information on low cost technologies for sustainable coconut cultivation mostly employing organic resources available in the coconut growing system.

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Table 9. Yield of coconut under Integrated Nutrient Management treatments

Yield nuts / palm Treatments Aliyarnagar Tamil Nadu 171 180 178 174 159 * NS 13.8 Arsikere Karnataka 60 81 101 99 93 * 24.4 18.7 Veppankulam Tamil Nadu 89 113 * * 99 96 21.76 Ratnagiri Maharashtra 70 91 71** 88** 88 * 6.99 -

Farmers Practice Recom. Chemical Fertilizers (CF) Composted Coir Pith (CCP) 50 % CCP + 50 % CF Neem cake + Bone meal + Ash 50 % Composted Coir Pith (CCP) CD CV
Aliyarnager: Res Sandy loam Ratnagiri: Castal alluvium ( sandy loam) spread instead of CCP

Arsikere: Red sandy loam (semi arid) Veppankulam: Alluvial soil * : Treatments not imposed ** : Ccoconut wastes cut and

The productivity of coconut in Kerala is low mainly because of prevalence of root (wilt) disease, a non-lethal, debilitating malady caused by phytoplasma, a vascular limited pathogen. There are no therapeutic control measures for the disease. A comprehensive study on the nutritional factors of the disease by Pillai et al. (1975) indicated that the palms in the disease affected areas, whether apparently healthy or visibly diseased, were in a state of imbalanced nutrition, possibly the result of a relatively higher content of N, P and K on the one hand and lower content of Ca, Mg and S on the other. Balanced nutrition in diseased palms could be achieved following integrated nutrient management practices. Rethinam et al. (1991) reported that integrated

management increased the nut yield from 28 to 51 nuts per palm per year within 3 years in mildly affected area and 23.4 nuts per palm per year on an average in disease affected area. Integrated nutrient management practices coupled with adopting high density multi-species cropping system under root (wilt) affected garden resulted in improvement in growth of palms with reduction in the root (wilt) symptoms ( Maheshwarappa et al.

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2003). The increase in nut yield (five years average) was to the tune of 54.5 %, 52 %, 48.3 % and 40.9 % under apparently healthy, disease early, disease middle and disease advanced palms compared to pre-experimental yield (Table 10). Table 10. Coconut nut yield and copra yield as influenced by integrated management practices Mean yield (nuts/palm) Pre experimental 1997-2002 1991-93 44 68.0 Copra content (g/nut) 2001-02 179.3 Copra content (kg/palm) 2001-02 15.6

Disease index Apparently Healthy (12 palms) Disease Early (33 palms) Disease Middle (59 palms) Disease (8 palms) Advanced

40

60.8

182.4

13.5

36

53.4

181.7

10.0

21

29.6

180.6

4.7

In all the coconut growing regions in the country fertilizer use is low, although responses can be substantial. There is often a tendency to erratic use of inorganics only when the prices are good and or made available under assistance schemes and projects, withdraw when the assistance is stopped. This is common for all crops, but affects the balanced nutrition for a crop like coconut to a large extent considering the time lag between fertilizer application and yield of palms. Long term studies in the coconut growing tracts have brought out the necessity of balanced nutrition in realizing optimum yields in coconut. In the balanced fertilization concept in relation to perennial crops several aspects are to be considered. For a crop like coconut balanced nutrition should be practiced from the juvenile phase to exploit the full potential of the palm. Creating a soil nutrient rich environment considering the rooting pattern of the crop, type of soil, its interaction with the applied nutrient elements, soil

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moisture deficit in relation to the crop, time lag between fertilizer application and its reflect on yield, the physiological condition of the crop, past history of nutrient management etc. play a role in evolving a recommendation for adult palms for sustaining productivity. These studies indicate that one has to depend on the results of long term studies and study the crop with reference to the environment in which it is growing, and use ones ingenuity in prescribing a recommendation for a balanced nutrition.

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References AICCAIP.1983. Progress Report 1982-83. All India Coordinated Coconut and Arecanut Improvement Project, CPCRI, Kasaragod. p. 40-43 (mimeo). Boceta, M. Norberto. 2004. The challenges of making coconut industry globally competitive. In : Souvnier, XXXVII COCOTECH meeting, International Coconut Conference, July 2004, Chennai, India.pp1-7. Biddappa, C.C., Khan, H.H., and Cecil, S.R. 1993. Potassium in coconut growing soils. In: Proc. Sym. Potassium for plantation crops held at Bangalore on Nov. 6-8, 1990. Dr.Mahatim Singh et al. (eds) Potash Research Institute of India, Gurgaon, 111-120. Biddappa, C.C., Upadhyay, A.K., Hegde,M.R. and Palaniswamy, C. 1996. Organic matter recycling in plantation crops. J.Plantn Crops 24 (2): 71-85. Dhanapal, R., Maheshwarappa, H.P., Sairam, C.V., Subramanian, P and Ajay Kumar Upadhyay. (2004). Influence of drip irrigation on growth and yield of coconut (Cocos nucifera L) in laterite soil. J. Plantn Crops, 32 (3): 26-30. Fremond, Y. and Ouvrier, M. 1971. Importance to the young coconut palm of suitable mineral nutrition from the time of field planting on beach sand. Oleagineux, 26: 609-618. Hameed Khan. H. 1993. Fertilizer management in Coconut, In: Tandon,H.L.S. (Ed).1993. Fertilizer Management in Commercial Crops. Fertilizer Development and Consultation Organisation, New Delhi, viii. Hameed Khan, H. 2002. Integrated Nutrient Management in coconut based cropping/ farming system for sustained productivity. In: Strategic agenda to make coconut industry globally competitive. Proc of the XXXIX COCOTECH Meeting. 1-5 July 2002, Pattaya, Thailand. Hameed Khan, H., Gopalasundaram, P., Joshi, O.P. and Nelliat, E.V. 1986. Effect of NPK fertilization on the mineral nutrition of coconut genotypes. Fert. Res., 10: 185-190. John,C.M. and Jacob.,K. 1959. Fertilizer demonstrations in coconut in West Coast A review. Proc. First Conf. Cocon. Res. Workers, Trivandrum, India.

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Kabara, J.J, 2000. Health oils from the tree of life ( Nutritional and health aspects of coconut oil). Proceedings of the 37th COCOTECH Meeting / ICC 2000, 24-28 July 2000. Chennai, India. APCC publication. pp 101-109. Mary G. Enig, Ph.D. 1996. Health and Nutritional Benefits from Coconut Oil: An Important Functional Food for the 21st Century Presented at the AVOC Lauric Oils Symposium, Ho Chi Min City, Vietnam, 25 April, 1996. Muliyar, M. K. and Nelliat, E. V. 1971. Response of coconut palm to N, P and K application on the West Coast of India. Oleagineux, 26 (11): 687 689. Maheshwarappa,H.P., Anitha Kumari, P., Kamalakshi Amma,P.G. and Shanawas, M. 2003. Influence of integrated nutrient management and high density multi-species cropping system on soil properties, plant nutrition and yield in root (wilt) affected coconut palms. CORD, 2003. Namboothiri, K.U.K. and Hameed Khan, H. 2004. Towards sustainable coconut production. In : Souvnier, XXXVII COCOTECH meeting, International Coconut Conference, July 2004, Chennai, India.pp1-7.Nelliat, E.V. 1973. NPK nutrition of coconut-A review. J. Plantn Crops, (suppl):70-80. Raghava Rao,D.V., Srinivasulu, B., Sujatha,A, Chalapathy Rao, N.B.V. and Kalpana, M. 2007. Five decades of coconut research in agricultural research station, Ambajipeta. Indian Cocon. J., 37(9):15-19. Rajan,R. 2006. Coconut oil-The healthiest oil on earth. Indian Cocon. J., 37 (2): 15-18. Rethinam, P. Antony, K.J. and Muralidharan, A. 1991. Management of coconut root (wilt) disease. Abstract of papers. pp. 60. Second International Symposium of Coconut Research and Development. CPCRI, Kasaragod, India. Rethinam,P., Singh, H.P. and Muhartoyo. 2004. Coconut oil for health and nutrition. Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, Jakarta, Indonesia.31 p. Robert Cecil, S. 1981. Mineral nutrition of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) in health and disease with special emphasis on calcium and magnesium. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala. Remoney, D.H. and Smith, R.W. 1965. Improvement of tree crops by modern cultural methods. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Caribbian Region,13:173-175.

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Sairam, C.V., Arul Raj,S. and Bosco,S.J.D. 2004. Technology prioritization for improving coconut productivity in India. J. Plantn Crops, 32 (Suppl.):465-473. Standon, H. L. S. and Ranganathan, V. 1988. Fertilizers and their management in plantation crops. In: Fertiliser management in Plantation Crops - A Guide book. H.L..S. Tandon (Compl.,& Ed.). Fertilizer Development and Consultation

Organization, New Delhi, pp 26-60. Thomas.V. George., Krishna Kumar, V., Dhanapal, R., Murali Gopal. and Alka Gupta. 2006. Production technology for sustainable coconut cultivation. Indian Cocon. J. 37 (2):2-9. Thomas, V. George., Prabhu, S.R. and Subramaniam,P. 2004. Bioresource management for organic farming in coconut under coastal ecosystem. J.Indian Soc. Coastal agric. Res., 22 (1 & 2): 146-151. Venkitaswamy, R. 2004. Effect of levels of NPK on dwarf x tall hybrid coconut (COD x WCT) in Tamil Nadu. J. Plantn Crops, 32 (Suppl.):169-172. Venkitaswamy, R and Hameed Khan, H. 2004. Response of coconut to drip irrigation in the southern tropical low rainfall zone of India. In: Proceedings I. Review papers and guest presentations.75th anniversary of Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka. September , 8-11, 2004. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Wahid, P. A., Nambiar, P. K. N., Jose, A. I. and Rajaram, K. P. 1988. Soils and nutrition. In: Six Decades of Coconut Research; Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Trichur, pp. 46-80.

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Balanced Fertilization for Important Cut Flower Crops

M. Jawaharlal and K. Padmadevi Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Horticultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 3

All over the world, the floriculture sector undergoes rapid changes. Due to globalization and its effect on income development in different regions of the world, growing per capita consumption in most countries is realized. The export of floricultural products from India has been on the increase in the past five years with the introduction of new floriculture products and ever increasing demand from the importing countries. This warrants efforts to boost the productivity and quality of the produce which meet the required international standards. To ensure maximization of productivity in any crop, balanced nutrient supply is an important factor and these cut flowers are not an exception. Efficient nutrient use results from balanced fertilization and sound management practices. When balanced fertilization is practiced, it increases the efficiency of others through a synergistic effect. The balanced fertilization in important cut flowers is discussed below:

Rose Rose is an important cut flower appreciated as Queen of flowers. Under field conditions, roses respond well to fertilizer application. In addition to the basal dose of well decomposed FYM, rose requires 200-400 kg of N/ha. This dose may be split into two, once at pruning and the second dose after about 20 days. The requirement of phosphorus and potash can be met by adding 150 kg/ha of each at the time of pruning. The above basal dose of fertilizers is supplemented with foliar feeding ; consisting of 2 parts urea, 1 part dihydrogen ammonium phosphate, 1 part potassium phosphate and 1 part potassium nitrate. 3 g of this mixture dissolved in l of water is sprayed at one week or 10 days interval till flowering. Micro nutrients @ 1 part each of ferrous sulphate, manganese suplhate, magnesium sulphate and borax part is mixed and sprayed at the rate of 1 g/l water from two months after planting.

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Field grown roses for cut flower require different nutrients. Application of NPK @ 50, 150, 75 g / m2 has been recommended for rose cultivar Happiness under Bangalore conditions. Cultivar Super Star receiving 30:12:12 g / m2 of N : P : K along with 6 or 12 g multiplex responded best in terms of growth, yield and quality of cut roses.In soils deficient in micronutrients, foliar application of a solution prepared from the mixture containing 15 g manganese sulphate, 20 g magnesium sulphate, 10 g chelated iron and 5 g borax at the rate of 2 g/l has been found effective for obtaining good quality foliage and flowers. The concentration of spray solution should never exceed 0.3%. Gurav et al. (2004) observed in First Red cultivar of rose that 400: 200: 200 ppm NPK / plant / week increased the yield of flowers under Pune conditions. Integrated nutrient management tried in rose (Singh and Jauhari, 2005) found the flower production to be influenced by N, Azotobacter and application of FYM (Table 1).

Table 1. Effect of N, Azotobacter and FYM on flowering attributes in ROSE Treatment Days taken to No. of bud flowers/m2 appearance during I flush 116.14 103.75 111.24 124.01 6.86 103.33 166.25 12.83 No. of Weight of Weight of 2 2 flowers/m flowers/m I flowers/m2 during II flush(g) II flush(g) flush 195.17 464.57 814.54 210.42 226.67 1.52 463.90 493.58 40.70 859.27 1081.59 43.57

20g/m2 40g/m2 60g/m2 CD at 5% Azotobacter Uninoculated Inoculated CD at 5% Levels of FYM O Kg/m2 5 Kg/m2 CD at 5%

106.63 127.64 5.60

101.11 114.44 10.48

199.11 222.39 1.24

427.56 508.47 33.23

851.58 985.35 35.57

106.52 127.75 5.60

104.78 110.78 NS

206.83 214.67 1.24

448.33 487.70 33.23

916.05 920.87 NS

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Carnation Carnation is one of the important cut flowers of the world. The demand is increasing day by day, but the flowers of carnation with proper stalk length, with appropriate size in desired number per plant are not available. Nutrient management plays an important role in production of carnation. An average carnation plant contains 434 mg N, 81 mg K; 253 mg Ca, 74 mg Mg and 46 mg S. Apart from major nutrients like N, P and K, Ca, Mg, B and Fe also play a crucial role in carnation nutrition. At the time of land preparation sufficient quantity of organic manure must be added. A basal dose of N, P, K at the rate of 20:20:10 g/m2 is applied three weeks after planting. Fertigation is done with N at 100 ppm and K at 140 ppm twice in a week along with other nutrients like Ca, Mg, Fe, B, Mn, Cu and Zn. Excess potassium cause magnesium and boron deficiency. Carnations are very sensitive to boron deficiency. It may cause excessive calyx splitting and abnormal opening of flower buds. Iron,

manganese, boron, copper and zinc are taken as a source from Fe-EDTA, manganese sulphate, boric acid, copper sulphate, zinc sulphate and applied in 30 mg/l, 2.3 mg/l, 2.5 mg/l, 0.98 mg/l and 6 mg/l concentrations, respectively (Singh, 2006). In TNAU, it was found with cv. Malaga that application of 2 % Panchagavya + 4 % Manchurian mushroom tea in addition to common basal dose of FYM 2 kg/m2 / yr + DCC 200 g/m2 + Azospirillum 2 g + Phosphobacteria 2 g + VAM 2 g / plant at 2 month intervals + Trichoderma 20 g /m2 /year resulted in good vegetative growth, flowering, yield and quality attributes (Table-2). Flowers obtained from this treatment when pulsed with 10% sucrose + 1mM STS + 300 ppm Al2 (SO4)3 + 25 ppm BAP, treated with a holding solution consisting of 300 ppm Al2 (SO4)3 and wrapped in polyethylene sleeves of 100 gauge thickness recorded the longest post harvest life under Ooty conditions. (Punitha, 2007).

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Table 2. Effect of biostimulants on number of flowers and petals in carnation

Treatments T1 - Panchagavya 2% T2- Manchurian mushroom tea 4% T3 - T1 + T2 T4 - Control CD at 5%

Number of flowers/ plant 7.47 9.03 11.53 7.23 0.420

Number of petals/ flower 56.27 56.53 73.83 52.63 0.940

Sunita Devi et al. (2005) reported that number of days taken for initiation of floral bud in carnation was not altered by the application of N & P. But increased levels of N reduced the number of days taken for opening of flower bud besides improving the yield (Table 3 and 4).

Table 3. Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on number of days taken for opening of Carnation flower from the date of bud initiation Treatments Levels of nitrogen 0 10 20 30 CD at 5% 0 27.30 23.58 22.77 19.05 Levels of phosphorus (g/m2) 10 25.50 23.38 19.30 18.80 20 24.66 23.11 19.08 18.49 Mean 25.82 23.36 20.38 19.78

N = 4.57, P = NS, N x P = NS

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Table 4. Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on number of flowers per plant in Carnation Treatments Levels of nitrogen 0 10 20 30 CD at 5% 0 0.83 2.08 3.00 4.17 Levels of phosphorus (g/m2) 10 1.40 2.00 3.16 4.33 20 1.83 2.66 3.66 4.86 Mean 1.35 2.25 3.27 4.45

N =1.61, P = NS, N x P = NS

Anthurium Anthurium is grown for its colourful showy longlasting flower and foliage. For better growth of the plants manuring with dried cow-dung once in a month during the period other than rainy season is followed. In rainy season application of cow-dung causes excess water retention thereby favouring development of fungal growth and mould leading to danger for plant survival. Therefore, in rainy season instead of cow dung, powdered goat manure is fortified with 2-3 g dolomite per pot. Fertilization is done by means of foliar application upto age of four month. Fertilizers like NPK in ratio of 30:10:10 may be sprayed at 0.05% as a foliar application twice a week. In later stages it should be sprayed at 0.5% once a week. Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are other important elements required in anthurium nutrition. Split application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at 30, 20 and 50 g/m2 at 3, 6 and 9 months after planting increased number of suckers, stalk length, length and width of spathe, number of flowers per plant, improved flower weight and resulted in early flowering. Calcium deficiency causes colour break down of the spathe which can be corrected by the application of calcium nitrate @ 5 g per m2 (Singh, 2006). In TNAU, application of NPK @ 30:10:10 at 0.2 per cent spray + Azospirillum + phosphobacteria + VAM + GA3 200 ppm in anthurium cultivar Temptation has been found to influence the number of flowers per plant, besides improving the floral attributes (Table 5, Padmadevi and Jawaharlal, 2004).

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Table 5. Effect of nutrients, biofertilizers, and growth regulator on flower production in Anthurium andreanum cv. Temptation

Treatments T1 - NPK @ 30:10:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm T2 - T1 + Azospirillum T3 - T1 + Phosphobacteria T4 - T1 + VAM T5 - T1 + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria T6 - T1 + Azospirillum + VAM T7 - T1 + Phosphobacteria + VAM T8 - T1 + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + VAM T9 - NPK @ 15:10:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + Azospirillum T10 - NPK @ 30:5:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + Phosphobacteria T11 - NPK @ 30:5:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + VAM T12 - NPK @ 15:5:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + Azospirillum+ Phosphobacteria T13 - NPK @ 15:5:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + Azospirillum + VAM T14 - NPK @ 30:0:10 at 0.2 % spray and GA3 200 ppm + Phosphobacteria + VAM T15 - NPK @ 15:0:10 at 0.2% spray and GA3 200 ppm + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + VAM T16 - Control (no fertilizer + no biofertilizer) SE (d) CD (p=0.05)

Number of flowers/plant 1.33 2.33 3.67 3.67 3.33 3.33 4.00 5.67 3.33 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.33 4.00 4.33 0.33 0.39 0.79

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Further study was conducted in TNAU to investigate the effect of nutrients and growth regulator on flowering in Anthurium (Table 6, Anand and Jawaharlal, 2004 ).

Table 6. Effects of nutrients and growth regulators on days to first flowering in Anthurium

Growth regulator(G) Fertilizer(F) Control NPK@ 20:20:20 at 0.25% NPK@ 20:20:20 at 0.50% NPK@ 20:20:40 at 0.25% NPK@ 20:20:40 at 0.50% NPK@ 20:40:40 at 0.25% NPK@ 20:40:40 at 0.50% Mean F SE(d) : 0.72 1.47 BA 250 ppm 269.20 245.00 250.00 210.00 235.50 205.00 235.00 235.67 G 0.54 1.11 BA GA3 GA3 250 ppm 250 ppm 250 ppm 270.20 268.30 269.00 241.00 248.00 215.00 230.00 210.50 230.00 234.79 225.00 230.00 186.50 210.50 220.00 225.00 223.89 FXG 1.43 2.93 230.00 233.00 198.00 215.00 223.45 234.00 228.82 Mean 269.18 235.25 240.25 202.38 222.75 214.74 231.00

CD(5%) :

Foliar spray of both nutrient solutions and growth regulators drastically reduced the number of days taken for inflorescence emergence to spathe unfurling (Table-6). The nutrient level NPK @ 20:20:40 @ 0.25% with growth regulator GA3 at 250 ppm took the lowest period of 186.50 days to reach flowering as well as inflorescence emergence to spathe unfurling.

Chrsanthemum Chrysanthemum is one of the important flower crops of the family Asteraceae. The standard types are used as cut flowers. It is well known fact that the successful growth and flowering depend upon the application of balanced nutrition. Since

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Chrysanthemums are heavy feeders of nutrients, use of NPK plays an important role from the beginning. TNAU recommends farm yard manure @ 25t/ha + 125:120:25 kg NPK/ha, half of the N and entire dose of P & K are to be applied basal before planting. The other half of N is to be applied 30 days after planting. The same dose has to be repeated if a ratoon crop is allowed. Experiments conducted with integrated nutrient management revealed that the plants supplied with 50% of recommended dose fertilizers (RDF = 125: 120: 120 kg / ha) + vermicompost (5 t/ha) + 3% Panchagavya was superior in respect of all the economic floral parameters (ICAR Annual report, 2006 07, Table 7).

Table 7. Integrated nutrient management studies in chrysanthemum cv.CO1

S. No.

1.

Days taken for first bud appearance after planting 100% of Recommended dose of 64.55 FYM and inorganic fertilizers ( RDF) (control)

Treatments

No. of flowers/ spray/ plant 71.54

Flower diameter (cm) 1.01

2. 3. 4. 5.

50% (RDF) 50% RDF + 3% Manchurian tea 50% of RDF + 3% Panchagavya 50% of RDF + 3% Panchagavya + 3% Manchurian tea

65.13 63.36 61.92 60.76

73.27 81.49 83.53 89.44

1.26 1.64 2.15 2.55

6. 7.

50% RDF + vermicompost (5 t / ha) 50% of fertilizers + vermicompost (5 t / ha)+ 3% Manchurian tea

56.89 59.34

104.16 95.96

4.03 3.58

8.

50% of fertilizers (500 g/m2 - twice a year) + vermicompost (5 t / ha) + 3% Panchagavya CD (P=0.05)

54.23

110.36

4.77

3.17

2.98

0.24

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Gerbera Gerbera is one of the majestic floricultural crops grown for its cut flower. Application of balanced nutrients plays a prime role in its production.. Phosphorus and Calcium are best given before planting as a basal dressing. Depending upon the Ca levels in the soil, P can be given as TSP (triple super phosphate) or SSP (single super phosphate). Application of 15 g N, 20 g P2O5 and 20 g K2O / m2 yielded maximum number of flowers per plant in poly house conditions. Magnesium can be given in the form of finely powdered dolomite limestone if pH also needs to be raised. Magnesium can also be added in the form of water soluble magnesium sulphate, either before or after planting (Singh, 2006). Being a cut flower grown under green house, fertigation holds good. Different researchers have tried to determine the best ratio in N, P and K and their results varied from ratios 1:1:1 to 3:1:5. This indicates that there is no perfect mix but the right fertilizer regime depends on several conditions. Young vegetative plants require a ratio as 20:20:20 or 18:18:18 for the development of a strong root system and foliage. When the plants start to flower, the ratio should be increased in its level of K to increase flower production. Under open ventilation and fan pad system of poly houses, supply of 150 ppm of N, 60 ppm of P2O5 and 150 ppm of K2O per plant on alternate day produced maximum flowers per plant. Scheduling is done in such a way that up to 2-3 weeks after planting, no fertilizers are applied. From 3-12 weeks, N:P:K with ratio of 20:20:20 should be applied at 0.75 g/l/day and from 12 weeks onwards, 15:8:35 at 1-1.5 g /l/day can be applied. This is a general schedule that has to be amended by taking and analyzing soil samples at regular intervals. Total soluble salt levels (electrical conductivity level) for gerberas should be less than 2 mhos x 10-3 at 250 C (Singh, 2006). Maximum number of flowers /plant and per sq. m. was recorded with improved floral characters when applied with higher levels of N & P (10 N + 15 g P2O5 / m2). Maximum flower diameter and vase life were obtained with N & P levels of 10 g N + 12. 5 P2O5 g /m2 and 5 g N + 15 g P2O5 /m2 respectively (Pimple et al. 2006).

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Gladiolus Gladiolus is an important bulbous plant cultivated for its beautiful spike and appreciated as cut flower. For successful cultivation nutrient management is of prime importance to obtain good quality flowers. Corms of gladiolus are rich in stored food which is sufficient to sustain plant growth for initial few days. Though cormels require fairly good amount of fertilizers due to their small size, the macronutrients are needed in large quantity. Organic manure should be mixed through the top soil before planting to improve the structure of the soil. Nitrogen should be applied at 300 kg/ha which may be reduced in medium and heavy soils. It is applied in two doses, first at 3 leaf stage and second at 6 leaf stage. Cormels may be given with nitrogen in 4-5 applications at about 3 weeks intervals starting from one month age of the crop. Mainly N should be applied in nitrate form and application should be stopped at least six weeks prior to harvesting the corms. Phosphorus should be given as basal dose ranging from 150-200 kg/ha depending upon soil test. In heavy soils phosphorus application should be delayed till plants reach 2-3 leaf stage and develop good root system. Potassium imparts resistance to diseases and increases photosynthetic efficiency of leaves. Gladiolus requires around 120-150 kg K2O/ha at the time of planting of corms. Vikrant kumar (2006) reported that P levels of 200 kg/ha resulted in maximum vegetative growth, no. of flowers per plant and no. of spikes per corm. Iron deficiency is common in north-west plains of India and causes interveinal yellowing of new leaves. The deficiency is more pronounced in alkaline soils and in severe conditions emerging spikes turn light green to yellow. This can be corrected by spraying ferrous sulphate at 0.2 per cent, twice or thrice at 10 days interval.

Orchids Orchids are one of the best known cut flowers. Regular scheduling of nutrients is important for its consistent production and improved quality. The type of nutrients, their quantity and frequency of application depend largely on the type of orchid, potting medium, season of the year, growing conditions, stage of development of the plant, etc.

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Since most of the cultivated orchids are epiphytic in nature, the media used are highly porous. Hence, if the nutrients are applied in the media, the nutrients are leached down, making it unavailable to the plants. Hence, in orchids, foliar feeding is ideal. Small quantities of fertilizers should be applied in shorter intervals than using large quantities at longer intervals. This helps the plants to grow steadily without any deficiency throughout their growth period. The quantity also depends upon the frequency of application. Since inorganic fertilizers are applied as foliar spray, the quantity of nutrients used per plant should be relatively very low, otherwise it will be toxic to the plants. For younger plants the concentration should be very low. During rainy period also the requirement is low. In the case of plants that are transplanted or freshly planted, no fertilizer application is necessary till new roots are formed. A fertilizer complex containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in equal proportion (like 17:17:17 complex) is ideal for general application. The concentration may be adjusted between 0.2 and 1.0 per cent depending upon the situation. However another recommendation is during vegetative phase a 30:10:10 combination of N, P and K should be used which may be changed to 10:20:20 formulation during flowering stage. A concentration of 0.2% should be sprayed twice a week. Organic manures like cow-dung, neem oil cake, poultry manure, etc. are also used for orchids. These are found to be more ideal for monopodial types. These may be soaked in water for 4-5 days for fermentation, diluted 10-15 times with water, filtered and sprayed over the plants. Fresh coconut water, cows urine (1:20-25 with water) are also useful as foliar spray. The frequency of application could be from thrice a week to once in two weeks under tropical conditions, though twice a week is the usual recommendation. The type and quality of nutrient and their application time play an important role on the quality of flowers. As flower buds begin to form interior sheaths, a mixture containing more of phosphorus is useful in improving the quality of spike. Application of inorganic fertilizer should be stopped about three days prior to harvest of spikes since it may otherwise reduce the shelf life of flowers. At TNAU, application of 50% of Recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) (NPK 30:10:10 @ 0.2% twice a week + FYM spray @ 1:10 ratio once a week) + 3%

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vermiwash + 3% panchagavya in Dendrobium variety Sonia 17 was found to be superior in respect of all the vegetative parameters as well as flowering parameters including vase life (Table 8, ICAR Annual report, 2006 07).

Table 8. Integrated Nutrient Management in Orchid- Dendrobium Treatments Plant height (cm) 34.7 2.98 NPK 30:10:10 @ 0.1% * NPK 30:10:10 @ 0.1% *+ 3% vermi wash +3% panchagavya CD (P=0.05) 31.2 34.4 3.00 2.9578 0.5621 197.65 13.9150 3.12 199.42 210.45 Internodal length (cm) Days to flowering

NPK 30:10:10 @ 0.2%*

at twice a week + FYM spray @ 1:10 ratio once a week (non flowering stage)

As Dendrobium is epiphytic in nature, the media or substrate may be devoid of nutrients and it necessitates a regular schedule of fertilizing in liquid form. In Dendrobium hybrid New pink x Emma, maximum no. of shoots (5.5) were produced by spraying with NPK 30:10:10 at 0.2 per cent and 17:17:17 at 0.1 per cent level as alternate sprays (Sobhana et al. 2004).

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References Anand. S. and Jawaharlal, M. 2004. Effect of foliar spray of nutrients and growth regulators on inflorescence emergence and spathe unfurling in Anthurium andreanum var. Temptation. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, V.7 (3-4): 117 -121, July December. Gurav, S.B., Singh, B.R., Katwate, S.M., Sabale, R.N., Kakade D.S. and Dhane, A..V. 2004. Influence of NPK nutrients on yield and quality in rose under protected conditions. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 7 (3-4): 239 242 (July Dec.). ICAR Annual Report 2006 07. Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore. Padmadevi, K., Jawaharlal, M. and Vijayakumar, M. 2004. Effect of Biofertilizers on floral characters and vase life of Anthurium (Anthurium andreanum Lind.) cv. Temptation. South Indian Hort. V. 52: 228-231. Pimple, A.G., Dalal., S.R., Nandre, D.R., Ghawade, S.M. and Swarupa Utgikar. 2006. Yield and quality of gerbera influenced by N & P levels under poly house conditions. Internat. J. agric. Sci., 2 ( 2 ) (July): 320 321. Punitha, A. 2007. Studies on the effect of preharvest management and post harvest techniques in Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) under polyhouse condition. Ph.D Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Singh, A.K and Jauhari, S. 2005. Growth and flowering in Rose as influenced by Nitrogen, Azotobacter and farmyard manure. Progressive Horticulture. V. 37(2): 444 447. Singh, A.K. 2006. Flower crops cultivation and management. New India Publishing Agency. Pitampuram, New Delhi. Sobhana, A. and Rajeevan, P.K. 2004. Effect of nutrient solutions and bio regulators on the growth of Dendrobium hybrid seedlings. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 7 (3-4): 313-319 (Dec).

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Sunita Devi,. Sehrawat, S.K and Gupta, A.K. 2005. Effect of nitrogen and Phosphorus on flowering in Carnation cv. Cabaret. Haryana J. Hortic. Sci., 34 (3-4): 290 - 291 Vikrant Kumar, Neeraj Rajwal and Sirohi. H. S. 2006. Performance of Phosphorus levels on gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) cv. Happy end. International J. of Plant Sci., 1 (2): 320 321.

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Physiological Basis of Balanced Fertilization for Horticultural Crops

P. Jeyakumar, T.N. Balamohan, N. Kumar and M. Kavino Department of Fruit Crops, Horticultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641 003 The idea of balanced fertilization does not mean a certain definite proportion of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium or other nutrients to be added in the form of fertilizer, but it has to take into account the crop removal of nutrients, economics of fertilizers and profitability, farmers ability to invest, agro-techniques, soil moisture regime, weed control, plant protection, seed rate, sowing time, soil salinity, alkalinity, physical environment, microbiological condition of the soil, available nutrient status of soil, cropping sequence, etc. Balanced use of plant nutrients corrects nutrient deficiency, improves soil fertility, increases nutrient and water use efficiency, enhances crop yields and farmers income, betters crop and environmental quality. To reap the benefits of balanced use of plant nutrients, it is important to have good quality seed, adequate moisture and better agronomic practices with greater emphasis on timeliness and precision in farm operations. Crop production under intensified agriculture over the years has resulted in large scale removal of nutrients from the soil, resulting in negative balance and declining soil fertility. Benefits of balanced fertilization

Promotion of more extensive root systems, increasing nutrient and water uptake for higher yields, and holding the soil in place against wind and water erosion

Providing a quicker canopy cover, exposing more leaf area to sunlight to increase photosynthesis, and covering the soil surface, reducing the erosive impact of rainfall

Supporting the production of more residue, above and below ground, to build soil organic matter and nutrient reserves and to stabilize the soil

Improving water use efficiency of the growing crop Increasing crop resistance to stresses such as drought, pests, heat and cold

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In recent decades, farmers rely primarily on nitrogen fertilizers to maximize crop yields, rather than targeting optimal achievable yields determined by local agronomic, economic and environmental conditions. However, high levels of nitrogen fertilization without appropriate balance may result in negative effects on the soil and the environment (nitrogen losses through leaching or volatilization) and increased incidence of crop lodging, weed competition and pest attacks. In some crops, high nitrogen content decreases quality, in particular storage ability. On the other hand, too little nitrogen results in low yields and farmer profits, inefficient use of other plant nutrients, and potential damage to the environment. An adequate supply of phosphorus is essential because of its functions in vital molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids that govern plant's life. Phosphorus stimulates root development and is necessary for cell division. Potassium is of vital importance for cells and their enzymatic and metabolic functions. Both phosphorus and potassium help to protect plants against stress, such as that caused by pests, diseases, drought or frost. They also considerably improve the efficiency of nitrogen uptake. Truly balanced fertilization requires supplying adequate amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, plus other nutrients such as magnesium, sulphur and micronutrients, as determined by soil tests and crop requirements. Crops require an adequate supply of nutrients. Proper balance is also required to produce optimum yields, while protecting the environment. Fruits play an important role in overcoming iron, zinc, vitamin A and other deficiencies and in achieving nutritional security of Indian population. Unbalanced use of plant nutrients led to low yields with poor quality fruits. Correction of deficiencies of micronutrients is essential to realize the benefits of applied N, P and K. Use of organics helps both substitutions of nutrients and improving fruit quality. Neither soil testing nor tissue testing alone can help in recommending fertilizer application schedule for fruit crops. An integrated soil and tissue testing approach along with economical considerations is needed for recommending fertilizers to fruit crops.

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Nutrient uptake mechanisms The process of nutrient uptake by plants refers to the transfer of the nutrient ions across the soil root interfaces into the plant cell. The energy for the process is provided by the metabolic activity of the plant and in its absence, no absorption of nutrients take place. Nutrient absorption involves the phenomenon of ion exchange. The root surface, like soil, carries a negative charge and exhibits cation-exchange property. The most efficient absorption of the plant nutrients takes place on the younger tissues of the roots, capable of growth and elongation. In this respect, root-systems are known to vary from crop to crop. Hence their feeding power differs. The extent and the spread of the effective root-system determine the soil volume trapped in the feeding-zone of the crop plant. This is indeed an important information in a given soil-plant system which helps us to choose fertilizers and fertilizer-use practices. The absorption mechanisms of the crop plants are fairly known now. There are three mechanisms in operation in the soil-water-plant systems. They are:(i) the contact exchange and root interception, (ii) the mass flow or convection, and (iii) diffusion. 1. Contact exchange and root interception In the case of contact exchange and root interception, the exchangeable nutrients ions from the clay-humus colloids migrates directly to the root surface through contact exchange when plant roots come into contact with the soil solids. Nutrient absorption through this mechanism is, however, insignificant as most of the plant nutrients occur in the soil solutions. Scientists have found that plant roots actually grow to come into contact with only three percent of the soil volume exploited by the root mass, and the nutrient uptake through root interception is even still less.

2. Mass flow or convection The second mechanism is mass flow or convection, which is considered to be the important mode of nutrient uptake. This mechanism relates to nutrient mobility with the movement of soil water towards the root surface where absorption through the roots takes place along with water. Some are called mobile nutrients. Others which move only a few millimetres are called immobile nutrients. Nutrient ions such as nitrate, chloride and

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sulphate, are not absorbed by the soil colloids and are mainly in solution. Such nutrient ions are absorbed by the roots along with soil water. The nutrient uptake through this mechanism is directly related to the amount of water used by the plants (transpiration). It may, however, be mentioned that the exchangeable nutrient cations and anions other than nitrate, chloride and sulphate, which are absorbed on soil colloids are in equilibrium with the soil solution do not move freely with water when it is absorbed by the plant roots. These considerations, therefore, bring out that there are large differences in the transport and root absorption of various ion through the mechanism of mass flow. Mass flow is, however, responsible for supplying the root with much of the plant needs for nitrogen, calcium and magnesium, when present in high concentrations in the soil solution, but does not do so in the case of phosphorous or potassium. The nutrient uptake through mass flow is largely dependent on the moisture status of the soil and is highly influenced by the soil physical properties controlling the movement of soil water.

3. Diffusion The third mechanism is diffusion. It is an important phenomenon by which ions in the soil medium move from a point of higher concentration to a point of lower concentration. In other words, the mechanism enables the movement of the nutrients ion without the movement of water. The amount of nutrient-ion movement in this case is dependent on the ion-concentration gradient and transport pathways which, in turn, are highly influenced by the content of soil water. This mechanism is predominant in supplying most of the phosphorous and potassium to plant roots. It is important to note that the rhizosphere volume of soil in the immediate neighbourhood of the effective plant root receives plant nutrients continuously to be delivered to the roots by diffusion. It is a fact that the roots of the growing plants continuously remove nutrient ions from the soil solutions. At the same time, the breakdown of the soil minerals and the generation of more exchangeable cations, the biological activity and the additions made to the anions, e.g. nitrates, continuously change the composition of the soil solution. At a given point of time, therefore, the available plant nutrients in the soil solution may range from a tiny amount to larger quantities. Under favourable conditions, crop plants, in

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general, require larger amounts of plant nutrients than the quantity found in soil solution at any given time. Hence, the situation of nutrients supply to plants becomes a limiting factor, specially, at the critical stages of plant growth and results in low crop yields. The knowledge of the specific role of each essential element in the growth of crop plants and their amounts required for efficient crop production is considered necessary in adopting scientific fertilizers use. Physiological roles of essential nutrients Some elements are essential, meaning that the absence of a given mineral element will cause the plant to fail to complete its life cycle; that the element cannot be replaced by the presence of another element; and that the element is directly involved in plant metabolism. However, this principle does not leave any room for the so-called beneficial elements, whose presence, while not required, has clear positive effects on plant growth. Major functions of essential nutrients in plants

Nutrient

Functions Necessary for formation of amino acids, the building blocks of protein Essential for plant cell division, vital for plant growth

Nitrogen

Directly involved in photosynthesis Necessary component of vitamins Aids in production and use of carbohydrates Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer and cell division Promotes early root formation and growth

Phosphorus

Improves quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains Vital to seed formation Helps plants survive harsh winter conditions Increases water-use efficiency Hastens maturity

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Carbohydrate metabolism and translocation of starches Increases photosynthesis Increases water-use efficiency Potassium Important in fruit formation Activates enzymes and controls their reaction rates Improves quality of seeds and fruit Improves winter hardiness Increases disease resistance Utilized for continuous cell division and formation Involved in nitrogen metabolism Calcium Reduces plant respiration Aids translocation of photosynthesis from leaves to fruiting organs Increases fruit set Essential for nut development in peanuts Stimulates microbial activity Key element of chlorophyll production Magnesium Improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus Activator and component of many plant enzymes Increases iron utilization in plants Influences earliness and uniformity of maturity Integral part of amino acids Helps develop enzymes and vitamins Sulphur Promotes nodule formation on legumes Aids in seed production Necessary in chlorophyll formation Essential for germination of pollen grains and growth of pollen tubes Boron Essential for seed and cell wall formation Promotes maturity Necessary for sugar translocation Affects nitrogen and carbohydrate

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Chlorine

Not much information about its functions Interferes with P uptake Enhances maturity of small grains on some soils Catalyzes several plant processes Major function in photosynthesis

Copper

Indirect role in chlorophyll production Increases sugar content Intensifies color Improves flavor of fruits and vegetables Promotes formation of chlorophyll

Iron

Acts as an oxygen carrier Reactions involving cell division and growth

Manganese

Functions as a part of certain enzyme systems Aids in chlorophyll synthesis Increases the availability of phosphorus and calcium Required for nitrate reductase, which reduces nitrates to ammonium in

Molybdenum

plant Aids in the formation of legume nodules Needed to convert inorganic phosphates to organic forms in the plant Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system Necessary for chlorophyll production

Zinc

Necessary for carbohydrate formation Necessary for starch formation Aids in seed formation

Balanced fertilisation and physiological changes Any crop management practice should aim at keeping the physiological processes of the plants in active mode, so that the plants can produce more biomass with least destructive processes. The physiological efficiency of crops can be improved through balanced fertilization effecting changes in stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, plant water status, activities of enzymes such as nitrate reductase, peroxidase, catalase, 148

crop growth rate and total dry matter production. Experiments conducted in different horticultural crops show that applied nutrients have significant role in altering the physiology of the crop resulting in improved yields. Balanced application of plant nutrients is essential to achieve quality fruit production. In many fruit crops, higher levels of N may reduce yield and needs P and K application to produce good quality fruits (Ganeshamurthy et al., 2004). The role of different sources of nitrogen, potassium, micronutrients and plant growth regulators on physiological characters and nutrient use efficiency resulting in better yield and quality are discussed here. Nitrogen (N) In banana, plants with medium pseudostem height and more girth are desirable as these traits reflect on the bunch size and other related characters, apart from providing better anchorage. Keshavan et al (2006) reported that soil application of 25% N as CAN + 25% N as urea + 50% N as ammonium sulphate (AS) recorded better plant height, girth and LAI due to physiological changes in banana cv. Poovan (Table 2). Higher available nitrogen and magnesium in the soil, leaf nitrogen and magnesium content due to this treatment might be the reason to register higher total chlorophyll content. Higher nitrate reductase (NRase) activity helped the crop to have better photosynthetic efficiency by registering higher soluble protein. Higher NRase indicates higher levels of protein synthesis and accumulation of soluble protein. This in turn indicates that nitrogenous compounds in the plant are utilized for various metabolic activities and resulted in higher bunch weight (Table 1).

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Table 1. Effect of different sources of nitrogen on morpho-physiological traits and yield of banana cv. Ney Poovan NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1) 825.34 Soluble protein (mg g-1) 47.73 Bunch weight (kg) 8.44

Nitrogen sources 100% N as Urea 25% N as CAN + 25% N as Urea + 50% N as AS CD (0.05)

Height (cm) 295.26

Girth (cm) 58.65

LAI 3.164

Chl. (mg g-1) 1.39

313.15

63.45

3.827

1.90

892.62

60.20

12.10

4.06

2.58

0.29

0.02

4.79

2.69

0.81

Tamilselvi (2004) reported that soil application of 200 g N plant-1 and 2% urea spray during 3rd, 5th and 7th month after planting + salicylic acid 100 ppm resulted in significant physiological changes and bunch weight in banana cv. Neypoovan. Supplementation of N through urea spray helped the crop to have higher chlorophyll content, soluble protein and NRase (Table 2a). The combination of salicylic acid with urea imparted stress tolerance by registering higher chlorophyll stability index (CSI) and relative water content (RWC). Leaf nitrogen (N) was also found high favouring better physiological efficiency and bunch weight (Table 2b). Table 2a. Influence of nitrogen and salicylic acid on physiological characters Treatments 110: 35: 330 g NPK 200 g N + 2% urea + 100 ppm salicylic acid CD (0.05) 0.05 0.02 1.41 0.01 1.23 3.81 1.55 84.40 0.87 33.26 LAI 2.85 Chl. (mg g-1) 1.35 CSI (%) 68.68 Fv/Fm 0.59 Sol.protein (mg g-1) 19.91

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Table 2b. Influence of nitrogen and salicylic acid on physiological characters and yield NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1) 164.3 IAA oxidase (g auxin g-1h-1) 600.1 Bunch weight (kg) 9.85

Treatments 110: 35: 330 g NPK 200 g N + 2% urea + 100 ppm salicylic acid CD (0.05)

RWC (%) 64.0

Leaf N (%) 1.90

278.5

853.8

84.0

2.55

13.65

4.03

12.59

1.32

0.05

0.17

Potassium (K) Sources of potassium are also known to influence the physiology of horticultural crops. Ramesh Kumar et al. (2006) found that application of 150% of recommended dose of potassium (RDK) as sulphate of potash (SOP) to banana cv. Robusta influenced the physiological parameters and resulted in higher yield (Table 3a). The treatment exhibited significant changes in chlorophyll and soluble protein favouring enhanced

photosynthesis. Higher RWC and K/N ratio facilitated better nutrient use efficiency while catalase and peroxidase activities helped for abiotic stress tolerance. The resistance offered by K to biotic stress is due to the role of K on the production of lignin and soluble polyphenols in higher quantities. Accumulation of excess N in the sap due to K deficiency i.e. at low K/N ratio causes the tissues becoming soft with little resistance for penetration by nematode like pests. Thus, application of 150% of RDK as SOP favoured for higher bunch weight (Table 3b).

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Table 3a. Influence of SOP on physiological characters in banana cv. Robusta

Treatment 110: 35: 330 g NPK 110: 35: NP and 150% of RDK as SOP CD (0.05)

Chl. (mg g-1) 1.265

RWC (%) 79.15

Sol. Protein (mg g-1) 51.23

NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1) 843.38

K/N ratio 1.54

1.426

87.18

60.81

898.93

1.71

0.154

2.02

4.38

25.73

0.43

Table 3b. Influence of sources and levels of potassium on leaf K/N ratio, catalase, peroxidase and bunch weight of banana cv. Robusta

Treatment 110: 35: 330 g NPK 110: 35: NP and 150% of RDK as SOP CD (0.05)

Catalase (mol H2O2 100g-1min-1) 66.40 77.30

Peroxidase (g g-1hr-1) 46.42 60.50

CGR (g m-2 d-1) 4.31 5.38

Bunch weight (kg) 24.81 27.14

5.38

4.32

0.159

1.00

A recent study at Department of Fruit Crops, TNAU revealed that application of 50% K through MOP + 50% K through Cement Kiln Flue Dust (CKFD) had positive influence on physiological characters and resulted in higher bunch weight in banana cv. Karpooravalli (Shanthi, 2004). Combined application of MOP and CKFD favoured for better plant water status, stomatal conductance (gs) and net photosynthesis (Pn). The significant alterations in the gas exchange characteristics resulted in higher bunch weight (Table 4).

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Table 4. Influence of Cement Kiln Flue Dust on yield characters of banana gs (mmol m-2 s-1) 536.66 Pn (mol m-2 s-1) 15.75 RWC (%) 65.50 Bunch weight (kg) 19.42

Treatment 100 % K through MOP 50 % K through MOP + 50 % K through CKFD CD (0.05)

636.67

20.25

70.71

23.46

5.80

2.65

1.15

2.12

The studies on fertigation in papaya cv. Co 7 revealed that application of 10 litres water/day + 50 g each in N, P and K in bimonthly intervals resulted in significant changes in physiological characters and higher fruit yield. Fertigation improved the plant nutrient status (N&K) and resulted in higher chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), net photosynthesis (Pn), water use efficiency (WUE) and relative water content (RWC) (Jeyakumar et al. 2001). The alterations in the physiological characters of the plant due to fertigation resulted in more number of fruits (Table 5). Table 5. Effect of fertigation on physiological characters. nutrient status and fruit yield in papaya Soil application (50g in each of N, P & K) 0.71 12.45 262 3.47 70.45 1.26 2.23 76.40 Fertigation (50g in each of N, P & K) 0.87 18.66 375 4.72 79.64 1.54 2.67 94.73

Physiological characters Chlorophyll Fluorescence (Fv/Fm) Net Photosynthesis (mol m-2 s-1) Stomatal conductance (mmol m-2 s-1) Water use efficiency (Pn/E) Relative water content (%) Leaf Nitrogen (%) Leaf Potassium (%) Number of fruits

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Nalina (2002) reported that application of 150% of recommended dose (i.e. 165:52.5:495 g NPK) in 4 splits enhanced the physiological activities and resulted in higher bunch weight in tissue cultured banana cv. Robusta. The improvement in bunch weight might be due to efficient photosynthesis as evidenced by soluble protein, specific leaf weight (SLW), NRase and crop growth rate (CGR ) (Table 6). Apart from the maintenance of plant water status, K has significant role in quality improvement of fruits and vegetables. The studies on nitrogen and potassic fertilizers on tomato revealed that application of 125 kg N & 75 kg K2O/ha resulted in improved physiological efficiency as evidenced by higher ascorbic acid, lycopene content, total soluble solids (TSS) and fruit yield (Table 7) as reported by Ingole (2005). Table 6. Physiological characters and fruit yield of tissue cultured banana cv. Robusta due to fertilizer application Soluble Treatments protein (mg g ) 110: 35: 330 g NPK in 3 splits 165:52.5:495 g NPK in 4 splits CD (0.05) 44.7
-1

NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1)

SLW (g cm-2)

CGR (g m-2 day-1)

Bunch weight (kg)

827.25

87.27

11.47

26.87

60.05 1.01

863.30 2.19

98.82 1.23

21.79 0.74

35.18 1.09

Table 7. Influence of N and K on fruit quality and yield in tomato Ascorbic Treatments acid (mg 100g ) 75kg N & 50kg K/ha 125 kg N & 75 kg K/ ha CD (0.05) 40.92 45.99 0.43
-1

Lycopene (mg 100g -1) 3.46 3.88 0.01

TSS (brix) 5.33 6.06 0.02

Yield (ton/ha) 28.65 31.14 0.45

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Being a perennial fruit crop, mango exhausts the available soil nutrients continuously and hence, nutrient supplementation is very much essential to get sustained yield. Vijayalakshmi (1997) reported that foliar spray of KNO3 1 % in addition to the recommended fertiliser dose as soil application resulted in more number of fruits by improving the physiological efficiency of the plant through alterations in photosynthetic characteristics, carbohydrate levels, C/N ratio and enzymatic activities (Table 8). KNO3 1% also favoured for higher activities of enzymes such as catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX) and NRase aiding in abiotic stress tolerance and enhanced fruit yield (Table 9). Table 8. Physiological characters of mango influenced by KNO3 spray SLA (gcm-2) Chl. (mg g-1) gs (mmol m-2 s-1) 45.67 Pn (mol m-2 s-1) 4.27 Leaf N (%) Sol.protein (mg g-1)

Treatments 1 kg in each of N, P and K/tree KNO3 1 %* CD (0.05)

2.72

0.463

1.12

14.05

3.47 2.85

0.715 0.007

68.0 5.25

6.43 0.37

1.36 0.01

18.09 0.91

* in addition to soil application of 1 kg in each of N, P and K/tree Micronutrients Kumar and Jeyakumar (2001) assessed the importance of micronutrients in banana and reported that foliar application of ZnSO4 (0.5%) + FeSO4 (0.2%) + CuSO4 (0.2%) + H3BO3 (0.1%) during 3rd, 5th and 7th month after planting, in addition to the recommended fertilizer dose of NPK@ 110:35:330g plant-1 year-1 improved the leaf micronutrient status, chlorophyll content and resulted in higher bunch weight besides better fruit quality (Table 10). The higher accumulation of chlorophyll associated with the micronutrients which act as coenzymes in major metabolic pathways. The combined spray of micronutrients was able to increase the pseudostem girth and number of leaves possibly helping in synthesis and translocation of greater quantities of photosynthates necessary for enhanced bunch yield.

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Table 9. Physiological characters and fruit yield of mango influenced by KNO3 spray
CAT (mol 100g-1 min-1)

Treatments

C/N

POX (g g-1hr-1)

NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1)

IAA (g g-1h-1)

Fruit yield (kg tree-1)

Fruit no. tree-1

1 kg in each of N, P and K/tree KNO3 1%* CD(0.05)

5.19 7.32 0.11

5.31 16.25 0.1

2.33 4.76 0.06

0.66 1.32 0.03

298.17 421.97 19.40

13.0 26.92 1.86

82 197 5.15

* in addition to soil application of 1 kg in each of N, P and K/tree

Table 10. Effect of micronutrients on physiological characters in banana cv. Robusta Treatments 110:35:330g NPK ZnSO4 (0.5%) + FeSO4 (0.2%) + CuSO4 (0.2%) + H3BO3 (0.1%) spray * CD (0.05) 0.22 3.40 7.0 2.6 5.1 2.26 1.1 2.03 37.2 93.0 18.2 23.1 23.1 19.1 Chl. (mg g-1) 1.67 Zn (ppm) 29.0 Fe (ppm) 74.0 Cu (ppm) 10.1 B (ppm) 17.2 Bunch weight 18.3 TSS ( brix) 17.0

* in addition to soil application of 110:35: 330g NPK plant-1 year-1

Jeyakumar et al (2001) observed significant physiological changes due to foliar spray of Zn (0.5%) + H3BO3 (0.1%) during fourth and eighth month after planting in papaya cv. Co 5 (Table 11). The higher number of fruits (80.63) could be due to better fruit set owing to Zn mediated protein and IAA synthesis and, B mediated stimulation of pollen germination, pollen tube growth, fertilization process and higher metabolite synthesis. The higher TSS could be due to efficient translocation of photosynthates to

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fruit pulp promoted by Zn and hydrolysis of complex polysaccarides into simple sugars aided by B. Table 11. Effect of micronutrients on physiological characters and fruit yield in papaya Chl. (mg g-1) 1.43 Pn (mol m-2 s-1) 9.04 Zn (ppm) 44.62 B (ppm) 33.35 No. of fruits 70.44 Fruit weight 1.78 TSS (brix) 12.30

Treatments 50g in each of N, P and K ZnSO4(0.5%)+ H3BO3(0.1%) spray * CD (0.05)

1.87 0.25

12.46 0.49

63.44 1.23

39.89 1.17

80.63 1.86

2.22 0.12

14.80 0.40

* In addition to soil application of 50g in each of N, P and K at bimonthly intervals.

Sujatha (1997) reported that combined spray of Zn (0.2%), B (0.1%), CaNO3 (0.1%) and CaCl2 (0.1%) prior to flowering caused significant changes in chlorophyll content, soluble protein and activities of enzymes such as NRase, IAA oxidase, peroxidase and catalase (Table 12a). The changes in the physiology and biochemistry of the plant resulted in higher dry matter accumulation (DMA) and more number of fruits in tomato cv. PKM 1 (Table 12b). Table 12a. Effect of micro nutrients on physiological characters in tomato Treatments 75: 100: 50 kg NPK/ha Zn (0.2%), B (0.1), CaNO3 (0.1%) and CaCl2 (0.1%) * CD (0.05) Chl. (mg g-1) 2.098 Sol. Protein (mg g-1) 19.71 NR (g NO2 g-1h-1) 2.97 IAA oxidase (g auxin g-1h-1) 27.43

3.24 0.10

28.34 3.5

3.11 0.006

10.813 0.14

* in addition to soil application of 75: 100: 50 kg NPK/ha

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Table 12b. Influence of micro nutrients on biochemical traits and yield characters of tomato
Treatments POX (g g-1hr-1) CAT (mol H2O2 100g-1min-1) TDMA (g) No. of fruits plant-1 Yield (g plant-1)

75: 100: 50 kg NPK/ha Zn (0.2%), B (0.1%), CaNO3 (0.1%) and CaCl2 (0.1%)* CD (0.05)

0.02

0.394

120.37

26.17

1387.9

0.03

0.426

175.66

40.66

2440.3

0.001

0.004

10.9

5.443

297.78

* in addition to soil application of 75: 100: 50 kg NPK/ha

Plant growth regulators and nutrient use efficiency Cavendish group of bananas are known to be very vigorous and foliar spray of plant growth regulators play a significant role in improving the yield through increased fertilizer use efficiency. Foliar spray of chlormequat chloride @1000 ppm during 4th and 6th month after planting in addition to soil application of NPK@ 110:35:330g/plant/year resulted in improved physiological efficiency, nutrient status and fruit yield as given in Table 13a (Jeyakumar et al., 2003). Higher photo chemical efficiency (Fv/Fm), net photosynthesis (Pn) and better water/nutrient use efficiency y registering enhanced chlorophyll fluororescence. the higher nutrient and water use efficiency might have helped for improved fruit yield (Table 13b). Table 13a. Influence of chlormequat chloride application on banana Pn (mol m-2 s-1) 19.40 25.30 3.12 E (mol m-2 s-1) 5.04 4.24 1.82 RWC (%) 80.20 87.70 4.26 WUE 3.84 5.96 1.32

Treatment 110:35:330g NPK Chlormequat chloride 1000 ppm * CD(0.05)

Fv/Fm 0.71 0.86 0.05

* in addition to soil application of 110:35: 330g NPK plant-1 year-1

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Table 13b. Influence of chlormequat chloride application on banana CEC (me g-1) 9.25 16.43 1.42 Bunch weight (kg) 24.80 33.62 1.76

Treatment 110:35:330g NPK Chlormequat chloride 1000 ppm* CD(0.05)

N (%) 1.51 1.94 0.04

P (%) 0.505 0.745 0.03

K (%) 2.01 2.98 0.07

* in addition to soil application of 110:35: 330g NPK plant-1 year-1

Sea weed based bioregulators are widely used in the recent years to increase the nutrient use efficiency in various agricultural and horticultural crops. Foliar spray of 0.2 % plantozyme during fourth and sixth month after planting, in addition to the fertiliser dose of 200:40: 200 g N: P2O5 : K2O per plant per year revealed the influence of nutrients and amino acids in plantozyme on higher cell wall plasticity and dry matter accumulation resulting in better yield besides improving the leaf nutrients status in banana cv. Dwarf Cavendish (Jeyakumar and Kumar, 2002).The higher LAI due to plantozyme enabled the plant to make more effective use of solar energy during

photosynthesis. The increase in leaf area could be due to the osmotic uptake of water facilitated by K (Table 14a). The higher N and K status in plants due to plantozyme favoured the plants to have more dry matter production by influencing net photosynthesis, transpiration and activities of enzymes such as NRase and IAA oxidase (Table 14b). Table 14a. Effect of bio regulator on physiological and bio chemical characters of banana Treatments 110:35:330g NPK Plantozyme 0.2% * CD(0.05) LAI 2.34 3.37 0.49 LTR 50.10 34.50 6.28 E (mol m-2 s-1) 4.89 7.62 0.54 IAA Oxidase (g auxin g-1h-1) 0.56 0.77 0.02 NRase (g NO2 g-1h-1) 7.52 9.63 1.18

* in addition to soil application of 110:35: 330g NPK plant-1 year-1

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Table 14b. Effect of bio regulator on leaf nutrient status and fruit yield of banana N (%) 1.72 2.07 0.038 K (%) 3.11 3.92 0.064 Bunch weight (kg) 18.0 26.3 1.56 Total sugars (%) 14.0 16.6 0.54 TSS (%) 19.7 25.7 1.22

Treatments 110:35:330g NPK Plantozyme 0.2% * CD(0.05)

* in addition to soil application of 110:35: 330g NPK plant-1 year-1

Conclusion The studies on balanced fertilization in different horticultural crops revealed the significance of nutrients on improvement in physiological efficiency of the crops by influencing photosynthesis, water use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency, enzyme activities, hormonal balance, crop growth rate and dry matter production. Irrespective of the crops, balanced fertilization with macro nutrients, micronutrients and plant growth regulators helped the crops to give more yield and improved quality of the produce. Scientific trials clearly demonstrate that if any plant nutrient is deficient, crop growth will be affected. A true balanced fertilization requires supplying of adequate amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, plus other nutrients such as magnesium, sulphur and micronutrients, as determined by soil tests and crop requirements. Acid and sodic soils must undergo remediation for effective fertilizer use. Applying lime to acid soils and gypsum to sodic soils is critical to effective nutrient management. To finalize a balanced nutrition programme, a farmer has to choose the nutrient sources, the appropriate way to apply fertilizers (e.g. soil broadcasted or foliar application) and when to apply them. This is important since the timing of application of each nutrient may vary for optimal efficiency. While nitrogen is more required during the vegetative stages of plant development to support new shoot growth, calcium is important during the early development and potassium during the rapid expansion of fruits and tubers. The same is true for micronutrients (e.g. boron is often required for good pollination and fruit setting). A balanced fertilization strategy is the only way to ensure a sustainable agriculture that can provide the world population with high quality food while minimizing the impact on the environment.

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References Ganeshamurthy, A.N., Reddy, Y.T.N., Anjaneyalu, K and Kotur, S.C. 2004. Balanced fertilization for yield and nutritional quality in fruit crops. Fertiliser News, 49 (4): 71-80. Ingole, G.I. 2005. Effect of nitrogen and potassic fertilizers on fruit growth and quality of tomatoes. Annals of Plant Physiology, 19(2): 187-190. Jeyakumar, P. and Kumar, N. 2002. Bioregulators for increased fertilizer use efficiency in banana cv. Dwarf Cavendish. In. Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium of the CIEC, Gazi osmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey. P.70-82. Jeyakumar, P., Kumar, N and Kavino, M. 2003. Physiological response of banana cv. Robusta (AAA) to foliar applied growth regulators on productivity. Madras Agricultural Journal, 90(10-12): 702-706. Jeyakumar, P., Kumar, N. and Soorianathasundaram, K. 2001. Fertigation studies in papaya. South Indian Horticulture, 49: 71-75. Jeyakumar, P, Durga Devi, D and Kumar, N. 2001. Effects of zinc and boron fertilization on improving fruit yields in papaya (Carica papaya L.) cv. Co5. In: Plant Nutrition (Eds) Walter Horst et al. Kluwer Academic Publishers. The Netherlands. p.354-356 Keshavan, G., Kavino, M. and Ponnuswami, V. 2006. Sources of nitrogen fertilizers on morphophysiological traits of banana cv. Neypoovan (AB). In. Proceedings of the International Symposium on balanced fertilization for sustaining crop productivity, PAU, Ludhiana, India, Nov 22-25, 2006. p. 472- 473. Kumar, N. and Jeyakumar, P. 2001. Influence of micronutrients on growth and yield of banana cv. Robusta. In: Plant Nutrition (Eds) Walter Horst et al. Kluwer Academic Publishers. The Netherlands. p.354-356 Nalina, L. 2002. Standardisation of fertilizer requirement for tissue cultured banana cv.Robusta. Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to TNAU, Coimbatore-3. Ramesh Kumar, A., Kumar, N. and Poornima, K. 2006. Influence of sources and levels of potassium on nematode population and yield of banana. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on balanced fertilization for sustaining crop productivity, PAU, Ludhiana, India, Nov 22-25, 2006.p. 477- 479.

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Shanthi, V.P. 2004. Utilization of Cement Kiln Flue Dust (CKFD) as a source of potassium for banana production. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Sujatha, A. 1997. Physiology of nutrient sprays for higher yield and quality in tomato. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Tamilselvi, C. 2004. Effect of nitrogen levels and certain plant growth regulators on growth and yield of banana cv. Ney Poovan. M.Sc.(Ag) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Vijayalakshmi, D. 1997. Physiological effects of chemicals and growth regulators on flowering and fruit set in off year mango cv. Alphonso. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

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