Ncert Math Class 12

Contents
PART I
Foreword v
Preface vii
1. Relations and Functions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Relations 2
1.3 Types of Functions 7
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12
1.5 Binary Operations 19
2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Basic Concepts 33
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 42
3. Matrices 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Matrix 56
3.3 Types of Matrices 61
3.4 Operations on Matrices 65
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 83
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 85
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix 90
3.8 Invertible Matrices 91
4. Determinants 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Determinant 103
4.3 Properties of Determinants 109
4.4 Area of a Triangle 121
4.5 Minors and Cofactors 123
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 126
4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 133
5. Continuity and Differentiability 147
5.2 Continuity 147
5.3 Differentiability 161
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 170
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 174
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 179
5.7 Second Order Derivative 181
5.8 Mean Value Theorem 184
6. Application of Derivatives 194
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 194
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 199
6.4 Tangents and Normals 206
6.5 Approximations 213
6.6 Maxima and Minima 216
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 247
A.1.1 Introduction 247
A.1.2 What is a Proof? 247
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 256
A.2.1 Introduction 256
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling? 256
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling 257
Answers 268
xiv
There is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics ... . It may
be very hard to define mathematical beauty but that is just as true of
beauty of any kind, we may not know quite what we mean by a
beautiful poem, but that does not prevent us from recognising
one when we read it. G. H. HARDY
1.1 Introduction
Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain,
co-domain and range have been introduced in Class XI
along with different types of specific real valued functions
and their graphs. The concept of the term relation in
mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation
in English language, according to which two objects or
quantities are related if there is a recognisable connection
or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be
the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the
set of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some
of the examples of relations from A to B are
(i) {(a, b) A B: a is brother of b},
(ii) {(a, b) A B: a is sister of b},
(iii) {(a, b) A B: age of a is greater than age of b},
(iv) {(a, b) A B: total marks obtained by a in the final examination is less than
the total marks obtained by b in the final examination},
(v) {(a, b) A B: a lives in the same locality as b}. However, abstracting from
this, we define mathematically a relation R from A to B as an arbitrary subset
of A B.
If (a, b) R, we say that a is related to b under the relation R and we write as
a R b. In general, (a, b) R, we do not bother whether there is a recognisable
connection or link between a and b. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kind of
relations.
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition
of functions, invertible functions and binary operations.
Chapter 1
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Lejeune Dirichlet
(1805-1859)
MATHEMATICS 2
1.2 Types of Relations
In this section, we would like to study different types of relations. We know that a
relation in a set A is a subset of A A. Thus, the empty set and A A are two
extreme relations. For illustration, consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} given by
R = {(a, b): a b = 10}. This is the empty set, as no pair (a, b) satisfies the condition
a b = 10. Similarly, R = {(a, b) : | a b | 0} is the whole set A A, as all pairs
(a, b) in A A satisfy | a b | 0. These two extreme examples lead us to the
following definitions.
Definition 1 A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is
related to any element of A, i.e., R = A A.
Definition 2 A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A
is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A A.
Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial
relations.
Example 1 Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R
in A given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R = {(a, b) : the
difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal relation.
Solution Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = , showing that R is the empty relation. It is also
obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the school has to be
less than 3 meters. This shows that R = A A is the universal relation.
Remark In Class XI, we have seen two ways of representing a relation, namely
roaster method and set builder method. However, a relation R in the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
defined by R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is also expressed as a R b if and only if
b = a + 1 by many authors. We may also use this notation, as and when convenient.
If (a, b) R, we say that a is related to b and we denote it as a R b.
One of the most important relation, which plays a significant role in Mathematics,
is an equivalence relation. To study equivalence relation, we first consider three
types of relations, namely reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Definition 3 A relation R in a set A is called
(i) reflexive, if (a, a) R, for every a

A,
(ii) symmetric, if (a
1
, a
2
) R implies that (a
2
, a
1
)

R, for all a
1
, a
2
A.
(iii) transitive, if (a
1
, a
2
) R and (a
2
, a
3
)

R implies that (a
1
, a
3
)

R, for all a
1
, a
2
,
a
3
A.
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3
Definition 4 A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example 2 Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by
R = {(T
1
, T
2
) : T
1
is congruent to T
2
}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, since every triangle is congruent to itself. Further,
(T
1
, T
2
) R T
1
is congruent to T
2
T
2
is congruent to T
1
(T
2
, T
1
) R. Hence,
R is symmetric. Moreover, (T
1
, T
2
), (T
2
, T
3
) R T
1
is congruent to T
2
and T
2
is
congruent to T
3
T
1
is congruent to T
3
(T
1
, T
3
) R. Therefore, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 3 Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L
1
, L
2
) : L
1
is perpendicular to L
2
}. Show that R is symmetric but neither
reflexive nor transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive, as a line L
1
can not be perpendicular to itself, i.e., (L
1
, L
1
)
R. R is symmetric as (L
1
, L
2
) R
L
1
2
L
2
1
(L
2
, L
1
) R.
R is not transitive. Indeed, if L
1
2
and
L
2
3
, then L
1
can never be perpendicular to
L
3
. In fact, L
1
is parallel to L
3
, i.e., (L
1
, L
2
) R, (L
2
, L
3
) R but (L
1
, L
3
) R.
Example 4 Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.
Solution R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric,
as (1, 2) R but (2, 1) R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) R and (2, 3) R
but (1, 3) R.
Example 5 Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by
R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a b}
is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a a) for all a Z. Further, if (a, b) R, then
2 divides a b. Therefore, 2 divides b a. Hence, (b, a) R, which shows that R is
symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) R and (b, c) R, then a b and b c are divisible by
2. Now, a c = (a b) + (b c) is even (Why?). So, (a c) is divisible by 2. This
shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.
Fig 1.1
MATHEMATICS 4
In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero, as (0, 2), (0, 4)
etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, 1), (0, 3) etc., do not lie in R.
Similarly, all odd integers are related to one and no even integer is related to one.
Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers are subsets of
Z satisfying following conditions:
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to
each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E O.
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by
[0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing 1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that
[0] [1], [0] = [2r] and [1] = [2r + 1], r Z. Infact, what we have seen above is true
for an arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence
relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets A
i
called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
(i) all elements of A
i
are related to each other, for all i.
(ii) no element of A
i
is related to any element of A
j
, i j.
(iii) A
j
= X and A
i
A
j
= , i j.
The subsets A
i
are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation
is that we can go reverse also. For example, consider a subdivision of the set Z given
by three mutually disjoint subsets A
1
, A
2
and A
3
whose union is Z with
A
1
= {x Z : x is a multiple of 3} = {..., 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, ...}
A
2
= {x Z : x 1 is a multiple of 3} = {..., 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
A
3
= {x Z : x 2 is a multiple of 3} = {..., 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}
Define a relation R in Z given by R = {(a, b) : 3 divides a b}. Following the
arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we can show that R is an equivalence
relation. Also, A
1
coincides with the set of all integers in Z which are related to zero, A
2
coincides with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A
3
coincides with the
set of all integers in Z which are related to 2. Thus, A
1
= [0], A
2
= [1] and A
3
= [2].
In fact, A
1
= [3r], A
2
= [3r + 1] and A
3
= [3r + 2], for all r Z.
Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by
R = {(a, b) : both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4, 6}.
Solution Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so
that (a, a) R. Further, (a, b) R both a and b must be either odd or even
(b, a) R. Similarly, (a, b) R and (b, c) R all elements a, b, c, must be
either even or odd simultaneously (a, c) R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all the elements
of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to
each other, as all of them are even. Also, no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be
related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements
of {2, 4, 6} are even.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Determine whether each of the following relations are reflexive, symmetric and
transitive:
(i) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 13, 14} defined as
R = {(x, y) : 3x y = 0}
(ii) Relation R in the set N of natural numbers defined as
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5 and x < 4}
(iii) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(x, y) : y is divisible by x}
(iv) Relation R in the set Z of all integers defined as
R = {(x, y) : x y is an integer}
(v) Relation R in the set A of human beings in a town at a particular time given by
(a) R = {(x, y) : x and y work at the same place}
(b) R = {(x, y) : x and y live in the same locality}
(c) R = {(x, y) : x is exactly 7 cm taller than y}
(d) R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y}
(e) R = {(x, y) : x is father of y}
2. Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as
R = {(a, b) : a b
2
} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Check whether the relation R defined in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.
4. Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
5. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a b
3
} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive.
MATHEMATICS 6
6. Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
7. Show that the relation R in the set A of all the books in a library of a college,
given by R = {(x, y) : x and y have same number of pages} is an equivalence
relation.
8. Show that the relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
R = {(a, b) : |a b| is even}, is an equivalence relation. Show that all the
elements of {1, 3, 5} are related to each other and all the elements of {2, 4} are
related to each other. But no element of {1, 3, 5} is related to any element of {2, 4}.
9. Show that each of the relation R in the set A = {x Z : 0 x 12}, given by
(i) R = {(a, b) : |a b| is a multiple of 4}
(ii) R = {(a, b) : a = b}
is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1 in each case.
10. Give an example of a relation. Which is
(i) Symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
(ii) Transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric.
(iii) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(iv) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Show that the relation R in the set A of points in a plane given by
R = {(P, Q) : distance of the point P from the origin is same as the distance of the
point Q from the origin}, is an equivalence relation. Further, show that the set of
all points related to a point P (0, 0) is the circle passing through P with origin as
centre.
12. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all triangles as R = {(T
1
, T
2
) : T
1
is similar to T
2
}, is equivalence relation. Consider three right angle triangles T
1
with sides 3, 4, 5, T
2
with sides 5, 12, 13 and T
3
with sides 6, 8, 10. Which
triangles among T
1
, T
2
and T
3
are related?
13. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all polygons as R = {(P
1
, P
2
) :
P
1
and P
2
have same number of sides}, is an equivalence relation. What is the
set of all elements in A related to the right angle triangle T with sides 3, 4 and 5?
14. Let L be the set of all lines in XY plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L
1
, L
2
) : L
1
is parallel to L
2
}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find
the set of all lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.
15. Let R be the relation in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4,4),
(1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)}. Choose the correct answer.
(A) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(B) R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
(D) R is an equivalence relation.
16. Let R be the relation in the set N given by R = {(a, b) : a = b 2, b > 6}. Choose
the correct answer.
(A) (2, 4) R (B) (3, 8) R (C) (6, 8) R (D) (8, 7) R
1.3 Types of Functions
The notion of a function along with some special functions like identity function, constant
function, polynomial function, rational function, modulus function, signum function etc.
along with their graphs have been given in Class XI.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of two functions have also been
studied. As the concept of function is of paramount importance in mathematics and
among other disciplines as well, we would like to extend our study about function from
where we finished earlier. In this section, we would like to study different types of
functions.
Consider the functions f
1
, f
2
, f
3
and f
4
given by the following diagrams.
In Fig 1.2, we observe that the images of distinct elements of X
1
under the function
f
1
are distinct, but the image of two distinct elements 1 and 2 of X
1
under f
2
is same,
namely b. Further, there are some elements like e and f in X
2
which are not images of
any element of X
1
under f
1
, while all elements of X
3
are images of some elements of X
1
under f
3
. The above observations lead to the following definitions:
Definition 5 A function f : X Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images
of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x
1
, x
2
X, f (x
1
) = f (x
2
)
implies x
1
= x
2
. Otherwise, f is called many-one.
The function f
1
and f
4
in Fig 1.2 (i) and (iv) are one-one and the function f
2
and f
3
in Fig 1.2 (ii) and (iii) are many-one.
Definition 6 A function f : X Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element
of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y Y, there exists an
element x in X such that f (x) = y.
The function f
3
and f
4
in Fig 1.2 (iii), (iv) are onto and the function f
1
in Fig 1.2 (i) is
not onto as elements e, f in X
2
are not the image of any element in X
1
under f
1
.
MATHEMATICS 8
Remark f : X Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Y.
Definition 7 A function f : X Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is
both one-one and onto.
The function f
4
in Fig 1.2 (iv) is one-one and onto.
Example 7 Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A N be
function defined by f (x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.
Solution No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore,
f must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll numbers of
students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll number of any student of
the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.
Example 8 Show that the function f : N N, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one but not
onto.
Solution The function f is one-one, for f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) 2x
1
= 2x
2
x
1
= x
2
. Further,
f is not onto, as for 1 N, there does not exist any x in N such that f (x) = 2x = 1.
Fig 1.2 (i) to (iv)
Example 9 Prove that the function f : R R, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.
Solution f is one-one, as f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) 2x
1
= 2x
2
x
1
= x
2
. Also, given any real
number y in R, there exists
2
y
in R such that f (
2
y
) = 2 . (
2
y
) = y. Hence, f is onto.
Fig 1.3
Example 10 Show that the function f : N N, given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f (x) = x 1,
for every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.
Solution f is not one-one, as f (1) = f (2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y N, y 1,
we can choose x as y + 1 such that f (y + 1) = y + 1 1 = y. Also for 1 N, we
have f (1) = 1.
Example 11 Show that the function f : R R,
defined as f (x) = x
2
, is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution Since f ( 1) = 1 = f (1), f is not one-
one. Also, the element 2 in the co-domain R is
not image of any element x in the domain R
(Why?). Therefore f is not onto.
Example 12 Show that f : N N, given by
1, if is odd,
( )
1, if is even
x x
f x
x x
+
=

is both one-one and onto.

Fig 1.4
MATHEMATICS 10
Solution Suppose f (x
1
) = f (x
2
). Note that if x
1
is odd and x
2
is even, then we will have
x
1
+ 1 = x
2
1, i.e., x
2
x
1
= 2 which is impossible. Similarly, the possibility of x
1
being
even and x
2
being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. Therefore,
both x
1
and x
2
must be either odd or even. Suppose both x
1
and x
2
are odd. Then
f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) x
1
+ 1 = x
2
+ 1 x
1
= x
2
. Similarly, if both x
1
and x
2
are even, then also
f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) x
1
1 = x
2
1 x
1
= x
2
. Thus, f is one-one. Also, any odd number
2r + 1 in the co-domain N is the image of 2r + 2 in the domain N and any even number
2r in the co-domain N is the image of 2r 1 in the domain N. Thus, f is onto.
Example 13 Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.
Solution Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can be
only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the
co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f must be one-one.
Example 14 Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3} must be onto.
Solution Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.
Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary
finite set X, i.e., a one-one function f : X X is necessarily onto and an onto map
f : X X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8
and 10 show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic
difference between a finite and an infinite set.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Show that the function f : R

R

defined by f (x) =
1
x
is one-one and onto,
where R

is the set of all non-zero real numbers. Is the result true, if the domain
R

is replaced by N with co-domain being same as R

?
2. Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the following functions:
(i) f : N N given by f (x) = x
2
(ii) f : Z Z given by f (x) = x
2
(iii) f : R R given by f (x) = x
2
(iv) f : N N given by f (x) = x
3
(v) f : Z Z given by f (x) = x
3
3. Prove that the Greatest Integer Function f : R R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither
one-one nor onto, where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
4. Show that the Modulus Function f : R R, given by f (x) = | x |, is neither one-
one nor onto, where | x | is x, if x is positive or 0 and | x | is x, if x is negative.
5. Show that the Signum Function f : R R, given by
1, if 0
( ) 0, if 0
1, if 0
x
f x x
x
>
= =
<
is neither one-one nor onto.

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one-one.
7. In each of the following cases, state whether the function is one-one, onto or
bijective. Justify your answer.
(i) f : R R defined by f (x) = 3 4x
(ii) f : R R defined by f (x) = 1 + x
2
8. Let A and B be sets. Show that f : A B B A such that f (a, b) = (b, a) is
bijective function.
9. Let f : N N be defined by f (n) =
1
, if is odd
2
, if is even
2
n
n
n
n
+
for all n N.
State whether the function f is bijective. Justify your answer.
10. Let A = R {3} and B = R {1}. Consider the function f : A B defined by
f (x) =
2
3
x
x

. Is f one-one and onto? Justify your answer.
11. Let f : R R be defined as f(x) = x
4
. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
12. Let f : R R be defined as f (x) = 3x. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
MATHEMATICS 12
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function
In this section, we will study composition of functions and the inverse of a bijective
function. Consider the set A of all students, who appeared in Class X of a Board
Examination in 2006. Each student appearing in the Board Examination is assigned a
roll number by the Board which is written by the students in the answer script at the
time of examination. In order to have confidentiality, the Board arranges to deface the
roll numbers of students in the answer scripts and assigns a fake code number to each
roll number. Let B N be the set of all roll numbers and C N be the set of all code
numbers. This gives rise to two functions f : A B and g : B C given by f (a) = the
roll number assigned to the student a and g(b) = the code number assigned to the roll
number b. In this process each student is assigned a roll number through the function f
and each roll number is assigned a code number through the function g. Thus, by the
combination of these two functions, each student is eventually attached a code number.
This leads to the following definition:
Definition 8 Let f : A B and g : B C be two functions. Then the composition of
f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A C given by
gof (x) = g(f (x)),
x A.
Fig 1.5
Example 15 Let f : {2, 3, 4, 5} {3, 4, 5, 9} and g : {3, 4, 5, 9} {7, 11, 15} be
functions defined as f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4, f (4) = f (5) = 5 and g (3) = g (4) = 7 and
g (5) = g(9) = 11. Find gof.
Solution We have gof (2) = g (f (2)) = g (3) = 7, gof (3) = g (f (3)) = g (4) = 7,
gof (4) = g (f (4)) = g (5) = 11 and gof (5) = g (5) = 11.
Example 16 Find gof and fog, if f : R R and g : R R are given by f (x) = cos x
and g(x) = 3x
2
. Show that gof fog.
Solution We have gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g(cos x) = 3 (cos x)
2
= 3 cos
2
x. Similarly,
fog(x) = f (g(x)) = f (3x
2
) = cos (3x
2
). Note that 3cos
2
x cos 3x
2
, for x = 0. Hence,
gof fog.
Example 17 Show that if
7 3
:
5 5
f

R R is defined by
3 4
( )
5 7
x
f x
x
+
=
and
3 7
:
5 5
g

R R is defined by
7 4
( )
5 3
x
g x
x
+
=
, then fog = I
A
and gof = I
B
, where,
A = R
3
5

, B = R
7
5

; I
A
(x) = x,
x A, I
B
(x) = x, x B are called identity
functions on sets A and B, respectively.
Solution We have
(3 4)
7 4
(5 7) 3 4
( )
(3 4) 5 7
5 3
(5 7)
x
x x
gof x g
x x
x
+
+

+
= =

+

=
21 28 20 28 41
15 20 15 21 41
x x x
x
x x
+ +
= =
+ +
Similarly,
(7 4)
3 4
(5 3) 7 4
( )
(7 4) 5 3
5 7
(5 3)
x
x x
fog x f
x x
x
+
+

+
= =

+

=
21 12 20 12 41
35 20 35 21 41
x x x
x
x x
+ +
= =
+ +
Thus, gof (x) = x,
x B and fog(x) = x,
x A, which implies that gof = I

B
and fog = I
A
.
Example 18 Show that if f : A B and g : B C are one-one, then gof : A C is
also one-one.
Solution Suppose gof (x
1
) = gof (x
2
)
g (f (x
1
)) = g(f (x
2
))
f (x
1
) = f (x
2
), as g is one-one
x
1
= x
2
, as f is one-one
Hence, gof is one-one.
Example 19 Show that if f : A B and g : B C are onto, then gof : A C is
also onto.
Solution Given an arbitrary element z C, there exists a pre-image y of z under g
such that g (y) = z, since g is onto. Further, for y B, there exists an element x in A
MATHEMATICS 14
with f (x) = y, since f is onto. Therefore, gof (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z, showing that gof
is onto.
Example 20 Consider functions f and g such that composite gof is defined and is one-
one. Are f and g both necessarily one-one.
Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined as f (x) = x,
x and
g : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as g(x) = x, for x = 1, 2, 3, 4 and g(5) = g(6) = 5.
Then, gof (x) = x
x, which shows that gof is one-one. But g is clearly not one-one.

Example 21 Are f and g both necessarily onto, if gof is onto?
Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4} and g : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3} defined
as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = f (4) = 3, g (1) = 1, g (2) = 2 and g (3) = g (4) = 3. It can be
seen that gof is onto but f is not onto.
Remark It can be verified in general that gof is one-one implies that f is one-one.
Similarly, gof is onto implies that g is onto.
Now, we would like to have close look at the functions f and g described in the
beginning of this section in reference to a Board Examination. Each student appearing
in Class X Examination of the Board is assigned a roll number under the function f and
each roll number is assigned a code number under g. After the answer scripts are
examined, examiner enters the mark against each code number in a mark book and
submits to the office of the Board. The Board officials decode by assigning roll number
back to each code number through a process reverse to g and thus mark gets attached
to roll number rather than code number. Further, the process reverse to f assigns a roll
number to the student having that roll number. This helps in assigning mark to the
student scoring that mark. We observe that while composing f and g, to get gof, first f
and then g was applied, while in the reverse process of the composite gof, first the
reverse process of g is applied and then the reverse process of f.
Example 22 Let f : {1, 2, 3} {a, b, c} be one-one and onto function given by
f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Show that there exists a function g : {a, b, c} {1, 2, 3}
such that gof = I
X
and fog = I
Y
, where, X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}.
Solution Consider g : {a, b, c} {1, 2, 3} as g (a) = 1, g(b) = 2 and g(c) = 3. It is
easy to verify that the composite gof = I
X
is the identity function on X and the composite
fog = I
Y
is the identity function on Y.
Remark The interesting fact is that the result mentioned in the above example is true
for an arbitrary one-one and onto function f : X Y. Not only this, even the converse
is also true , i.e., if f : X Y is a function such that there exists a function g : Y X
such that gof = I
X
and fog = I
Y
, then f must be one-one and onto.
The above discussion, Example 22 and Remark lead to the following definition:
Definition 9 A function f : X Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function
g : Y X such that gof = I
X
and fog = I
Y
. The function g is called the inverse of f and
is denoted by f
1
.
Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto and conversely, if f is
one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact significantly helps for proving a
function f to be invertible by showing that f is one-one and onto, specially when the
actual inverse of f is not to be determined.
Example 23 Let f : N Y be a function defined as f (x) = 4x + 3, where,
Y = {y N: y = 4x + 3 for some x N}. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse.
Solution Consider an arbitrary element y of Y. By the definition of Y, y = 4x + 3,
for some x in the domain N. This shows that
( 3)
4
y
x

= . Define g : Y N by
( 3)
( )
4
y
g y

= . Now, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g(4x + 3) =
(4 3 3)
4
x
x
+
= and
fog(y) = f (g (y)) = f
( 3) 4 ( 3)
3
4 4
y y
= +

= y 3 + 3 = y. This shows that gof = I
N
and fog = I
Y
, which implies that f is invertible and g is the inverse of f.
Example 24 Let Y = {n
2
: n N} N. Consider f : N Y as f (n) = n
2
. Show that
f is invertible. Find the inverse of f.
Solution An arbitrary element y in Y is of the form n
2
, for some n N. This
implies that n = y . This gives a function g : Y N, defined by g(y) = y . Now,
gof (n) = g (n
2
) =
2
n
= n and fog (y) = ( ) ( )
2
f y y y = = , which shows that
gof = I
N
and fog = I
Y
. Hence, f is invertible with f
1
= g.
Example 25 Let f : N R be a function defined as f (x) = 4x
2
+ 12x + 15. Show that
f : N S, where, S is the range of f, is invertible. Find the inverse of f.
Solution Let y be an arbitrary element of range f. Then y = 4x
2
+ 12x + 15, for some
x in N, which implies that y = (2x + 3)
2
+ 6. This gives
( ) ( )
6 3
2
y
x

= , as y 6.
MATHEMATICS 16
Let us define g : S N by g (y) =
( ) ( )
6 3
2
y
.
Now gof (x) = g(f (x)) = g(4x
2
+ 12x + 15) = g((2x + 3)
2
+ 6)
=
) ( ) ( ( )
2
(2 3) 6 6 3
2 3 3
2 2
x
x
x
+ +
+
= =
and fog (y) =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
6 3 2 6 3
3 6
2 2
y y
f

= + +

=
( ) ( )) ( )
2
2
6 3 3 6 6 6 y y + + = +
= y 6 + 6 = y.
Hence, gof = I
N
and fog =I
S
. This implies that f is invertible with f
1
= g.
Example 26 Consider f : N N, g : N N and h : N R defined as f (x) = 2x,
g(y) = 3y + 4 and h(z) = sin z,
x, y and z in N. Show that ho(gof ) = (hog) of.

Solution We have
ho(gof) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g(f (x))) = h(g(2x))
= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4) . x N
Also, ((hog) o f ) (x) = (hog) ( f (x)) = (hog) (2x) = h ( g(2x))
= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4),
x N.
This shows that ho(gof) = (hog) o f.
This result is true in general situation as well.
Theorem 1 If f : X Y, g : Y Z and h : Z S are functions, then
ho(gof ) = (hog) o f.
Proof We have
ho(gof ) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g(f (x))),
x in X
and (hog) of (x) = hog(f (x)) = h(g(f (x))),
x in X.
Hence, ho(gof) = (hog) o f.
Example 27 Consider f : {1, 2, 3} {a, b, c} and g : {a, b, c} {apple, ball, cat}
defined as f (1) = a, f (2) = b, f (3) = c, g(a) = apple, g(b) = ball and g(c) = cat.
Show that f, g and gof are invertible. Find out f
1
, g
1
and (gof)
1
and show that
(gof)
1
= f
1
og
1
.
Solution Note that by definition, f and g are bijective functions. Let
f
1
: {a, b, c} (1, 2, 3} and g
1
: {apple, ball, cat} {a, b, c} be defined as
f
1
{a} = 1, f
1
{b} = 2, f
1
{c} = 3, g
1
{apple} = a, g
1
{ball} = b and g
1
{cat} = c.
It is easy to verify that f
1
of = I
{1, 2, 3}
, f o f
1
= I
{a, b, c}
, g
1
og = I
{a, b, c}
and go g
1
= I
D
,
where, D = {apple, ball, cat}. Now, gof : {1, 2, 3} {apple, ball, cat} is given by
gof (1) = apple, gof (2) = ball, gof (3) = cat. We can define
(gof)
1
: {apple, ball, cat} {1, 2, 3} by (gof)
1
(apple) = 1,

(gof)
1
(ball) = 2 and
(gof)
1
(cat) = 3. It is easy to see that (g o f)
1
o (g o f) = I
{1, 2, 3}

and
(gof) o (gof)
1
= I
D
. Thus, we have seen that f, g and gof are invertible.
Now, f
1
og
1
(apple)= f
1
(g
1
(apple)) = f
1
(a) = 1 = (gof)
1
(apple)
f
1
og
1
(ball) = f
1
(g
1
(ball)) = f
1
(b) = 2 = (gof)
1
(ball) and
f
1
og
1
(cat) = f
1
(g
1
(cat)) = f
1
(c) = 3 = (gof)
1
(cat).
Hence (gof)
1
= f
1
og
1
.
The above result is true in general situation also.
Theorem 2 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two invertible functions. Then gof is also
invertible with (gof)
1
= f
1
og
1
.
Proof To show that gof is invertible with (gof)
1
= f
1
og
1
, it is enough to show that
( f
1
og
1
)o(gof) = I
X
and (gof)o( f
1
og
1
) = I
Z
.
Now, (f
1
og
1
) o(gof) = ((f
1
og
1
) og) of, by Theorem 1
= (f
1
o(g
1
og)) of, by Theorem 1
= (f
1
oI
Y
) of, by definition of g
1
= I
X
.
Similarly, it can be shown that (gof ) o (f
1
og
1
) = I
Z
.
Example 28 Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Determine whether the functions f : S S defined as
below have inverses. Find f
1
, if it exists.
(a) f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(b) f = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)}
(c) f = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1)}
Solution
(a) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with the inverse
f
1
of f given by f
1
= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} = f.
(b) Since f (2) = f (3) = 1, f is not one-one, so that f is not invertible.
(c) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with
f
1
= {(3, 1), (2, 3), (1, 2)}.
MATHEMATICS 18
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Let f : {1, 3, 4} {1, 2, 5} and g : {1, 2, 5} {1, 3} be given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)} and g = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (5, 1)}. Write down gof.
2. Let f, g and h be functions from R to R. Show that
(f + g) oh = foh + goh
(f . g) oh = (foh) . (goh)
3. Find gof and fog, if
(i) f (x) = | x | and g(x) = | 5x 2 |
(ii) f (x) = 8x
3
and g(x) =
1
3
x
.
4. If f (x) =
(4 3)
(6 4)
x
x
+
,
2
3
x
, show that fof (x) = x, for all
2
3
x . What is the
inverse of f ?
5. State with reason whether following functions have inverse
(i) f : {1, 2, 3, 4} {10} with
f = {(1, 10), (2, 10), (3, 10), (4, 10)}
(ii) g : {5, 6, 7, 8} {1, 2, 3, 4} with
g = {(5, 4), (6, 3), (7, 4), (8, 2)}
(iii) h : {2, 3, 4, 5} {7, 9, 11, 13} with
h = {(2, 7), (3, 9), (4, 11), (5, 13)}
6. Show that f : [1, 1] R, given by f (x) =
( 2)
x
x +
is one-one. Find the inverse
of the function f : [1, 1] Range f.
(Hint: For y Range f, y = f (x) =
2
x
x +
, for some x in [1, 1], i.e., x =
2
(1 )
y
y
)
7. Consider f : R R given by f (x) = 4x + 3. Show that f is invertible. Find the
inverse of f.
8. Consider f : R
+
[4, ) given by f (x) = x
2
+ 4. Show that f is invertible with the
inverse f
1
of f given by f
1
(y) = 4 y , where R
+
is the set of all non-negative
real numbers.
9. Consider f : R
+
[ 5, ) given by f (x) = 9x
2
+ 6x 5. Show that f is invertible
with f
1
(y)

=
( ) 6 1
3
y

+

.
10. Let f : X Y be an invertible function. Show that f has unique inverse.
(Hint: suppose g
1
and g
2
are two inverses of f. Then for all y Y,
fog
1
(y) = 1
Y
(y) = fog
2
(y). Use one-one ness of f).
11. Consider f : {1, 2, 3} {a, b, c} given by f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Find
f
1
and show that (f
1
)
1
= f.
12. Let f : X Y be an invertible function. Show that the inverse of f
1
is f, i.e.,
(f
1
)
1
= f.
13. If f : R R be given by f (x) =
1
3
3
(3 ) x , then fof (x) is
(A)
1
3
x
(B) x
3
(C) x (D) (3 x
3
).
14. Let f : R
4
3

R be a function defined as f (x) =
4
3 4
x
x +
. The inverse of
f is the map g : Range f R
4
3

given by
(A)
3
( )
3 4
y
g y
y
=
(B)
4
( )
4 3
y
g y
y
=
(C)
4
( )
3 4
y
g y
y
=
(D)
3
( )
4 3
y
g y
y
=
1.5 Binary Operations

Right from the school days, you must have come across four fundamental operations
namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The main feature of these
operations is that given any two numbers a and b, we associate another number a + b
or a b or ab or
a
b
, b 0. It is to be noted that only two numbers can be added or
multiplied at a time. When we need to add three numbers, we first add two numbers
and the result is then added to the third number. Thus, addition, multiplication, subtraction
MATHEMATICS 20
and division are examples of binary operation, as binary means two. If we want to
have a general definition which can cover all these four operations, then the set of
numbers is to be replaced by an arbitrary set X and then general binary operation is
nothing but association of any pair of elements a, b from X to another element of X.
This gives rise to a general definition as follows:
Definition 10 A binary operation on a set A is a function : A A A. We denote
(a, b) by a b.
Example 29 Show that addition, subtraction and multiplication are binary operations
on R, but division is not a binary operation on R. Further, show that division is a binary
operation on the set R

of nonzero real numbers.
Solution + : R R R is given by
(a, b) a + b
: R R R is given by
(a, b) a b
: R R R is given by
(a, b) ab
Since +, and are functions, they are binary operations on R.
But : R R R, given by (a, b)
a
b
, is not a function and hence not a binary
operation, as for b = 0,
a
b
is not defined.
However, : R
, given by (a, b)
a
b
is a function and hence a
binary operation on R
.
Example 30 Show that subtraction and division are not binary operations on N.
Solution : N N N, given by (a, b) a b, is not binary operation, as the image
of (3, 5) under is 3 5 = 2 N. Similarly, : N N N, given by (a, b) a b
is not a binary operation, as the image of (3, 5) under is 3 5 =
3
5
N.
Example 31 Show that : R R R given by (a, b) a + 4b
2
is a binary
operation.
Solution Since carries each pair (a, b) to a unique element a + 4b
2
in R, is a binary
operation on R.
Example 32 Let P be the set of all subsets of a given set X. Show that : P P P
given by (A, B) A B and : P P P given by (A, B) A B are binary
operations on the set P.
Solution Since union operation carries each pair (A, B) in P P to a unique element
A B in P, is binary operation on P. Similarly, the intersection operation carries
each pair (A, B) in P P to a unique element A B in P, is a binary operation on P.
Example 33 Show that the : R R R given by (a, b) max {a, b} and the
: R R R given by (a, b) min {a, b} are binary operations.
Solution Since carries each pair (a, b) in R R to a unique element namely
maximum of a and b lying in R, is a binary operation. Using the similar argument,
one can say that is also a binary operation.
Remark (4, 7) = 7, (4, 7) = 4,
(4, 7) = 4 and
(4, 7) = 7.
When number of elements in a set A is small, we can express a binary operation on
the set A through a table called the operation table for the operation . For example
consider A = {1, 2, 3}. Then, the operation on A defined in Example 33 can be expressed
by the following operation table (Table 1.1) . Here, (1, 3) = 3, (2, 3) = 3, (1, 2) = 2.
Table 1.1
Here, we are having 3 rows and 3 columns in the operation table with (i, j) the
entry of the table being maximum of i
th
and j
th
elements of the set A. This can be
generalised for general operation : A A A. If A = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. Then the
operation table will be having n rows and n columns with (i, j)
th
entry being a
i
a
j
.
Conversely, given any operation table having n rows and n columns with each entry
being an element of A = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}, we can define a binary operation : A A A
given by a
i
a
j
= the entry in the i
th
row and j
th
column of the operation table.
One may note that 3 and 4 can be added in any order and the result is same, i.e.,
3 + 4 = 4 + 3, but subtraction of 3 and 4 in different order give different results, i.e.,
3 4 4 3. Similarly, in case of multiplication of 3 and 4, order is immaterial, but
division of 3 and 4 in different order give different results. Thus, addition and
multiplication of 3 and 4 are meaningful, but subtraction and division of 3 and 4 are
meaningless. For subtraction and division we have to write subtract 3 from 4, subtract
4 from 3, divide 3 by 4 or divide 4 by 3.
MATHEMATICS 22
This leads to the following definition:
Definition 11 A binary operation on the set X is called commutative, if a b = b a,
for every a, b X.
Example 34 Show that + : R R R and : R R R are commutative binary
operations, but : R R R and : R
are not commutative.

Solution Since a + b = b + a and a b = b a,
a, b R, + and are
commutative binary operation. However, is not commutative, since 3 4 4 3.
Similarly, 3 4 4 3 shows that is not commutative.
Example 35 Show that : R R R defined by a b = a + 2b is not commutative.
Solution Since 3 4 = 3 + 8 = 11 and 4 3 = 4 + 6 = 10, showing that the operation
is not commutative.
If we want to associate three elements of a set X through a binary operation on X,
we encounter a natural problem. The expression a b c may be interpreted as
(a b) c or a (b c) and these two expressions need not be same. For example,
(8 5) 2 8 (5 2). Therefore, association of three numbers 8, 5 and 3 through
the binary operation subtraction is meaningless, unless bracket is used. But in case
of addition, 8 + 5 + 2 has the same value whether we look at it as ( 8 + 5) + 2 or as
8 + (5 + 2). Thus, association of 3 or even more than 3 numbers through addition is
meaningful without using bracket. This leads to the following:
Definition 12 A binary operation : A A A is said to be associative if
(a b) c = a (b c),
a, b, c, A.
Example 36 Show that addition and multiplication are associative binary operation on
R. But subtraction is not associative on R. Division is not associative on R
.
Solution Addition and multiplication are associative, since (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and
(a b) c = a (b c)
a, b, c R. However, subtraction and division are not

associative, as (8 5) 3 8 (5 3) and (8 5) 3 8 (5 3).
Example 37 Show that : R R R given by a b a + 2b is not associative.
Solution The operation is not associative, since
(8 5) 3 = (8 + 10) 3 = (8 + 10) + 6 = 24,
while 8 (5 3) = 8 (5 + 6) = 8 11 = 8 + 22 = 30.
Remark Associative property of a binary operation is very important in the sense that
with this property of a binary operation, we can write a
1
a
2
... a
n
which is not
ambiguous. But in absence of this property, the expression a
1
a
2
... a
n
is ambiguous
unless brackets are used. Recall that in the earlier classes brackets were used whenever
subtraction or division operations or more than one operation occurred.
For the binary operation + on R, the interesting feature of the number zero is that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, i.e., any number remains unaltered by adding zero. But in case of
multiplication, the number 1 plays this role, as a 1 = a = 1 a,
a in R. This leads
to the following definition:
Definition 13 Given a binary operation : A A A, an element e A, if it exists,
is called identity for the operation , if a e = a = e a,
a A.
Example 38 Show that zero is the identity for addition on R and 1 is the identity for
multiplication on R. But there is no identity element for the operations
: R R R and : R
.
Solution a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a 1 = a = 1 a,
a R implies that 0 and 1 are

identity elements for the operations + and respectively. Further, there is no element
e in R with a e = e a,
a. Similarly, we can not find any element e in R
such that
a e = e a,
a in R
. Hence, and do not have identity element.

Remark Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but it is not identity for the
addition operation on N, as 0 N. In fact the addition operation on N does not have
any identity.
One further notices that for the addition operation + : R R R, given any
a R, there exists a in R such that a + ( a) = 0 (identity for +) = ( a) + a.
Similarly, for the multiplication operation on R, given any a 0 in R, we can choose
1
a
in R such that a
1
a
= 1(identity for ) =
1
a
a. This leads to the following definition:
Definition 14 Given a binary operation : A A A with the identity element e in A,
an element a A is said to be invertible with respect to the operation , if there exists
an element b in A such that a b = e = b a and b is called the inverse of a and is
denoted by a
1
.
Example 39 Show that a is the inverse of a for the addition operation + on R and
1
a
is the inverse of a 0 for the multiplication operation on R.
Solution As a + ( a) = a a = 0 and ( a) + a = 0, a is the inverse of a for addition.
Similarly, for a 0, a
1
a
= 1 =
1
a
a implies that
1
a
is the inverse of a for multiplication.
MATHEMATICS 24
Example 40 Show that a is not the inverse of a N for the addition operation + on
N and
1
a
is not the inverse of a N for multiplication operation on N, for a 1.
Solution Since a N, a can not be inverse of a for addition operation on N,
although a satisfies a + ( a) = 0 = ( a) + a.
Similarly, for a 1 in N,
1
a
N, which implies that other than 1 no element of N
has inverse for multiplication operation on N.
Examples 34, 36, 38 and 39 show that addition on R is a commutative and associative
binary operation with 0 as the identity element and a as the inverse of a in R a.
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Determine whether or not each of the definition of given below gives a binary
operation. In the event that is not a binary operation, give justification for this.
(i) On Z
+
, define by a b = a b
(ii) On Z
+
, define by a b = ab
(iii) On R, define by a b = ab
2
(iv) On Z
+
, define by a b = | a b|
(v) On Z
+
, define by a b = a
2. For each binary operation defined below, determine whether is commutative
or associative.
(i) On Z, define a b = a b
(ii) On Q, define a b = ab + 1
(iii) On Q, define a b =
2
ab
(iv) On Z
+
, define a b = 2
ab
(v) On Z
+
, define a b = a
b
(vi) On R { 1}, define a b =
1
a
b +
3. Consider the binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
a b = min {a, b}. Write the operation table of the operation .
4. Consider a binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by the following
multiplication table (Table 1.2).
(i) Compute (2 3) 4 and 2 (3 4)
(ii) Is commutative?
(iii) Compute (2 3) (4 5).
(Hint: use the following table)
Table 1.2
5. Let be the binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
a b = H.C.F. of a and b. Is the operation same as the operation defined
in Exercise 4 above? Justify your answer.
6. Let be the binary operation on N given by a b = L.C.M. of a and b. Find
(i) 5 7, 20 16 (ii) Is commutative?
(iii) Is associative? (iv) Find the identity of in N
(v) Which elements of N are invertible for the operation ?
7. Is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by a b = L.C.M. of a and b a binary
operation? Justify your answer.
8. Let be the binary operation on N defined by a b = H.C.F. of a and b.
Is commutative? Is associative? Does there exist identity for this binary
operation on N?
9. Let be a binary operation on the set Q of rational numbers as follows:
(i) a b = a b (ii) a b = a
2
+ b
2
(iii) a b = a + ab (iv) a b = (a b)
2
(v) a b =
4
ab
(vi) a b = ab
2
Find which of the binary operations are commutative and which are associative.
10. Show that none of the operations given above has identity.
11. Let A = N N and be the binary operation on A defined by
(a, b) (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
MATHEMATICS 26
Show that is commutative and associative. Find the identity element for on
A, if any.
12. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify.
(i) For an arbitrary binary operation on a set N, a a = a a N.
(ii) If is a commutative binary operation on N, then a (b c) = (c b) a
13. Consider a binary operation on N defined as a b = a
3
+ b
3
. Choose the
correct answer.
(A) Is both associative and commutative?
(B) Is commutative but not associative?
(C) Is associative but not commutative?
(D) Is neither commutative nor associative?
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 41 If R
1

and R
2
are equivalence relations in a set A, show that R
1
R
2
is
also an equivalence relation.
Solution Since R
1

and R
2
are equivalence relations, (a, a) R
1
, and (a, a) R
2
a A.
This implies that (a, a) R
1
R
2
, a, showing R
1
R
2
is reflexive. Further,
(a, b) R
1
R
2
(a, b) R
1
and (a, b) R
2
(b, a) R
1
and (b, a) R
2

(b, a) R
1
R
2
, hence, R
1
R
2
is symmetric. Similarly, (a, b) R
1
R
2
and
(b, c) R
1
R
2
(a, c) R
1
and (a, c) R
2
(a, c) R
1
R
2
. This shows that
R
1
R
2
is transitive. Thus, R
1
R
2
is an equivalence relation.
Example 42 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers
defined by (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (x, y) R (x, y),
(x, y) A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is

reflexive. Further, (x, y) R (u, v) xv = yu uy = vx and hence (u, v) R (x, y). This
shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (x, y) R (u, v) and (u, v) R (a, b) xv = yu and
ub = va
a a
xv yu
u u
=
b a
xv yu
v u
=
xb = ya and hence (x, y) R (a, b). Thus, R
is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
Example 43 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R
1
be a relation in X given
by R
1
= {(x, y) : x y is divisible by 3} and R
2
be another relation on X given by
R
2
= {(x, y): {x, y} {1, 4, 7}} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} {3, 6, 9}}. Show that
R
1
= R
2
.
Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8} and {3, 6, 9} is
that difference between any two elements of these sets is a multiple of 3. Therefore,
(x, y) R
1
x y is a multiple of 3 {x, y} {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8}
or {x, y} {3, 6, 9} (x, y) R
2
. Hence, R
1
R
2
. Similarly, {x, y} R
2
{x, y}
{1, 4, 7} or {x, y} {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} {3, 6, 9} x y is divisible by
3 {x, y} R
1
. This shows that R
2
R
1
. Hence, R
1
= R
2
.
Example 44 Let f : X Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by
R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}. Examine if R is an equivalence relation.
Solution For every a X, (a, a) R, since f (a) = f (a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) R f (a) = f (b) f (b) = f (a) (b, a) R. Therefore, R is
symmetric. Further, (a, b) R and (b, c) R f (a) = f (b) and f (b) = f (c) f (a)
= f (c) (a, c) R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 45 Determine which of the following binary operations on the set N are
associative and which are commutative.
(a) a b = 1 a, b N (b) a b =
( )
2
a b +

a, b N
Solution
(a) Clearly, by definition a b = b a = 1,
a, b N. Also
(a b) c = (1 c) =1 and a (b c) = a (1) = 1,
a, b, c N. Hence
R is both associative and commutative.
(b) a b =
2 2
a b b a + +
=
= b a, shows that is commutative. Further,
(a b) c =
2
a b +

c.
=
2
2
2 4
a b
c
a b c
+
+

+ +

=
.
But a (b c) =
2
b c
a
+

=
2 2
2
2 4 4
b c
a
a b c a b c
+
+
+ + + +
= in general.
Hence, is not associative.
MATHEMATICS 28
Example 46 Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three
symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is
same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.
Example 47 Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1, 2)
and (2, 3) which are reflexive and transitive but not symmetric is four.
Solution The smallest relation R
1
containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}. Now, if we add
the pair (2, 1) to R
1
to get R
2
, then the relation R
2
will be reflexive, transitive but not
symmetric. Similarly, we can obtain R
3
and R
4
by adding (3, 2) and (3, 1) respectively,
to R
1
to get the desired relations. However, we can not add any two pairs out of (2, 1),
(3, 2) and (3, 1) to R
1
at a time, as by doing so, we will be forced to add the remaining
third pair in order to maintain transitivity and in the process, the relation will become
symmetric also which is not required. Thus, the total number of desired relations is four.
Example 48 Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1, 2, 3} containing
(1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Solution The smallest equivalence relation R
1
containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is {(1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. Now we are left with only 4 pairs namely (2, 3), (3, 2),
(1, 3) and (3, 1). If we add any one, say (2, 3) to R
1
, then for symmetry we must add
(3, 2) also and now for transitivity we are forced to add (1, 3) and (3, 1). Thus, the only
equivalence relation bigger than R
1
is the universal relation. This shows that the total
number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Example 49 Show that the number of binary operations on {1, 2} having 1 as identity
and having 2 as the inverse of 2 is exactly one.
Solution A binary operation on {1, 2} is a function from {1, 2} {1, 2} to {1, 2}, i.e.,
a function from {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} {1, 2}. Since 1 is the identity for the
desired binary operation , (1, 1) = 1, (1, 2) = 2, (2, 1) = 2 and the only choice
left is for the pair (2, 2). Since 2 is the inverse of 2, i.e., (2, 2) must be equal to 1. Thus,
the number of desired binary operation is only one.
Example 50 Consider the identity function I
N
: N N defined as I
N
(x) = x x N.
Show that although I
N
is onto but I
N
+ I
N
: N N defined as
(I
N
+ I
N
) (x) = I
N
(x) + I
N
(x) = x + x = 2x is not onto.
Solution Clearly I
N
is onto. But I
N
+ I
N
is not onto, as we can find an element 3
in the co-domain N such that there does not exist any x in the domain N with
(I
N
+ I
N
) (x) = 2x = 3.
Example 51 Consider a function f : 0,
2

R given by f (x) = sin x and
g :
0,
2

R
given by g(x) = cos x. Show that f and g are one-one, but f + g is not
one-one.
Solution Since for any two distinct elements x
1
and x
2
in 0,
2

, sin x
1
sin x
2
and
cos x
1
cos x
2
, both f and g must be one-one. But (f + g) (0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and
(f + g)
2

=
sin cos 1
2 2

+ =
. Therefore, f + g is not one-one.
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1
1. Let f : R R be defined as f (x) = 10x + 7. Find the function g : R R such
that g o f = f o g = 1
R
.
2. Let f : W W be defined as f (n) = n 1, if n is odd and f (n) = n + 1, if n is
even. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse of f. Here, W is the set of all
whole numbers.
3. If f : R R is defined by f(x) = x
2
3x + 2, find f (f (x)).
4. Show that the function f : R {x R : 1 < x < 1} defined by
( )
1 | |
x
f x
x
=
+
,
x R is one one and onto function.
5. Show that the function f : R R given by f (x) = x
3
is injective.
6. Give examples of two functions f : N Z and g : Z Z such that g o f is
injective but g is not injective.
(Hint : Consider f (x) = x and g(x) = | x|).
7. Give examples of two functions f : N N and g : N N such that g o f is onto
but f is not onto.
(Hint : Consider f (x) = x + 1 and
1if 1
( )
1 if 1
x x
g x
x
>
=

=
8. Given a non empty set X, consider P(X) which is the set of all subsets of X.
MATHEMATICS 30
Define the relation R in P(X) as follows:
For subsets A, B in P(X), ARB if and only if A B. Is R an equivalence relation
on P(X)? Justify your answer.
9. Given a non-empty set X, consider the binary operation : P(X) P(X) P(X)
given by A B = A B A, B in P(X), where P(X) is the power set of X.
Show that X is the identity element for this operation and X is the only invertible
element in P(X) with respect to the operation .
10. Find the number of all onto functions from the set {1, 2, 3, ... , n} to itself.
11. Let S = {a, b, c} and T = {1, 2, 3}. Find F
1
of the following functions F from S
to T, if it exists.
(i) F = {(a, 3), (b, 2), (c, 1)} (ii) F = {(a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 1)}
12. Consider the binary operations : R R R and o : R R R defined as
a b = |a b| and a o b = a, a, b R. Show that is commutative but not
associative, o is associative but not commutative. Further, show that a, b, c R,
a (b o c) = (a b) o (a b). [If it is so, we say that the operation distributes
over the operation o]. Does o distribute over ? Justify your answer.
13. Given a non-empty set X, let : P(X) P(X) P(X) be defined as
A * B = (A B) (B A),
A, B P(X). Show that the empty set is the

identity for the operation and all the elements A of P(X) are invertible with
A
1
= A. (Hint : (A ) ( A) = A and (A A) (A A) = A A = ).
14. Define a binary operation on the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} as
, if 6
6 if 6
a b a b
a b
a b a b
+ + <
=

+ +
Show that zero is the identity for this operation and each element a of the set is
invertible with 6 a being the inverse of a.
15. Let A = { 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = { 4, 2, 0, 2} and f, g : A B be functions defined
by f (x) = x
2
x, x A and
1
( ) 2 1,
2
g x x =
x A. Are f and g equal?
Justify your answer. (Hint: One may note that two functions f : A B and
g : A B such that f (a) = g(a)
a A, are called equal functions).

16. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of relations containing (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are
reflexive and symmetric but not transitive is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
17. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
18. Let f : R R be the Signum Function defined as
1, 0
( ) 0, 0
1, 0
x
f x x
x
>
= =
<
and g : R R be the Greatest Integer Function given by g(x) = [x], where [x] is
greatest integer less than or equal to x. Then, does fog and gof coincide in (0, 1]?
19. Number of binary operations on the set {a, b} are
(A) 10 (B) 16 (C) 20 (D ) 8
Summary
In this chapter, we studied different types of relations and equivalence relation,
composition of functions, invertible functions and binary operations. The main features
of this chapter are as follows:
Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R = X X.
Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X X.
Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) R
a X.
Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R implies (b, a) R.
Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R and (b, c) R

implies that (a, c) R.
Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and

transitive.
Equivalence class [a] containing a X for an equivalence relation R in X is

the subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
A function f : X Y is one-one (or injective) if

f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) x
1
= x
2
x
1
, x
2
X.
A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y Y, x X such

that f (x) = y.
A function f : X Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one

and onto.
The composition of functions f : A B and g : B C is the function

gof : A C given by gof (x) = g(f (x)) x A.
A function f : X Y is invertible if g : Y X such that gof = I

X
and
fog = I
Y
.
A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one and onto.

MATHEMATICS 32
Given a finite set X, a function f : X X is one-one (respectively onto) if and

only if f is onto (respectively one-one). This is the characteristic property of a
finite set. This is not true for infinite set
A binary operation on a set A is a function from A A to A.
An element e X is the identity element for binary operation : X X X,

if a e = a = e a a X.
An element a X is invertible for binary operation : X X X, if

there exists b X such that a b = e = b a where, e is the identity for the
binary operation . The element b is called inverse of a and is denoted by a
1
.
An operation on X is commutative if a b = b a
a, b in X.
An operation on X is associative if (a b) c = a (b c)
a, b, c in X.
Historical Note
The concept of function has evolved over a long period of time starting from
R. Descartes (1596-1650), who used the word function in his manuscript
Geometrie in 1637 to mean some positive integral power x
n
of a variable x
while studying geometrical curves like hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. James
Gregory (1636-1675) in his work Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura
(1667) considered function as a quantity obtained from other quantities by
successive use of algebraic operations or by any other operations. Later G. W.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) in his manuscript Methodus tangentium inversa, seu de
functionibus written in 1673 used the word function to mean a quantity varying
from point to point on a curve such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the
slope of the curve, the tangent and the normal to the curve at a point. However,
in his manuscript Historia (1714), Leibnitz used the word function to mean
quantities that depend on a variable. He was the first to use the phrase function
of x. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) used the notation x for the first time in 1718 to
indicate a function of x. But the general adoption of symbols like f, F, , ... to
represent functions was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1734 in the first
part of his manuscript Analysis Infinitorium. Later on, Joeph Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813) published his manuscripts Theorie des functions analytiques in
1793, where he discussed about analytic function and used the notion f (x), F(x),
(x) etc. for different function of x. Subsequently, Lejeunne Dirichlet
(1805-1859) gave the definition of function which was being used till the set
theoretic definition of function presently used, was given after set theory was
developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The set theoretic definition of function
known to us presently is simply an abstraction of the definition given by Dirichlet
in a rigorous manner.
Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of

self-evident things. FELIX KLEIN
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function
f, denoted by f
1
, exists if f is one-one and onto. There are
many functions which are not one-one, onto or both and
hence we can not talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we
studied that trigonometric functions are not one-one and
onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their
inverses do not exist. In this chapter, we shall study about
the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric
functions which ensure the existence of their inverses and
observe their behaviour through graphical representations.
Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.
The inverse trigonometric functions play an important
role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals.
The concepts of inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering.
2.2 Basic Concepts
In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows:
sine function, i.e., sine : R [ 1, 1]
cosine function, i.e., cos : R [ 1, 1]
tangent function, i.e., tan : R { x : x = (2n + 1)
2
, n Z} R
cotangent function, i.e., cot : R { x : x = n, n Z} R
secant function, i.e., sec : R { x : x = (2n + 1)
2
, n Z} R ( 1, 1)
cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R { x : x = n, n Z} R ( 1, 1)
Chapter 2
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Arya Bhatta
(476-550 A. D.)
34 MATHEMATICS
We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if f : XY such that f (x) = y is one-one and
onto, then we can define a unique function g : YX such that g(y) = x, where x X
and y = f (x), y Y. Here, the domain of g = range of f and the range of g = domain
of f. The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f
1
. Further, g is also
one-one and onto and inverse of g is f. Thus, g
1
= (f
1
)
1
= f. We also have
(f
1
o f ) (x) = f
1
(f (x)) = f
1
(y) = x
and (f o f
1
) (y) = f (f
1
(y))

= f (x) = y
Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the
closed interval [1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to ,
2 2

, then it becomes one-one
and onto with range [ 1, 1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals
3
,
2 2

,
,
2 2

,
3
,
2 2

etc., is one-one and its range is [1, 1]. We can,
therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. We denote the
inverse of sine function by sin
1
(arc sine function). Thus, sin
1
is a function whose
domain is [ 1, 1] and range could be any of the intervals
3
,
2 2

, ,
2 2

or
3
,
2 2

, and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function sin
1
. The branch with range
,
2 2

is called the principal value branch,
whereas other intervals as range give different branches of sin
1
. When we refer
to the function sin
1
, we take it as the function whose domain is [1, 1] and range is
,
2 2

. We write sin
1
: [1, 1] ,
2 2

From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin
1
x) = x
if 1 x 1 and sin
1
(sin x) = x if
2 2
x

. In other words, if y = sin
1
x, then
sin y = x.
Remarks
(i) We know from Chapter 1, that if y = f (x) is an invertible function, then x = f
1
(y).
Thus, the graph of sin
1
function can be obtained from the graph of original
function by interchanging x and y axes, i.e., if (a, b) is a point on the graph of
sine function, then (b, a) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 35
of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function y = sin
1
x can be obtained from
the graph of y = sin x by interchanging x and y axes. The graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin
1
x are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of
y = sin
1
x represent the principal value branch.
(ii) It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the
corresponding graph of original function as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along
the line y = x. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin
1
x as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).
Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all
real numbers and range is the set [1, 1]. If we restrict the domain of cosine function
to [0, ], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [1, 1]. Actually, cosine function
Fig 2.1 (ii) Fig 2.1 (iii)
Fig 2.1 (i)
36 MATHEMATICS
restricted to any of the intervals [ , 0], [0,], [, 2] etc., is bijective with range as
[1, 1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of cosine function in each of these
intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos
1
(arc cosine function).
Thus, cos
1
is a function whose domain is [1, 1] and range
could be any of the intervals [, 0], [0, ], [, 2] etc.
Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function cos
1
. The branch with range [0, ] is called the principal
value branch of the function cos
1
. We write
cos
1
: [1, 1] [0, ].
The graph of the function given by y = cos
1
x can be drawn
in the same way as discussed about the graph of y = sin
1
x. The
graphs of y = cos x and y = cos
1
x are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).
Fig 2.2 (ii)
Let us now discuss cosec
1
x and sec
1
x as follows:
Since, cosec x =
1
sin x
, the domain of the cosec function is the set {x : x R and
x n, n Z} and the range is the set {y : y R, y 1 or y 1} i.e., the set
R (1, 1). It means that y = cosec x assumes all real values except 1 < y < 1 and is
not defined for integral multiple of . If we restrict the domain of cosec function to
,
2 2

{0}, then it is one to one and onto with its range as the set R ( 1, 1). Actually,
cosec function restricted to any of the intervals
3
, { }
2 2

,
,
2 2

{0},
3
, { }
2 2

etc., is bijective and its range is the set of all real numbers R (1, 1).
Fig 2.2 (i)
Thus cosec
1
can be defined as a function whose domain is R (1, 1) and range could
be any of the intervals
, {0}
2 2

,
3
, { }
2 2

,
3
, { }
2 2

etc. The
function corresponding to the range , {0}
2 2

is called the principal value branch
of cosec
1
. We thus have principal branch as
cosec
1
: R (1, 1)
, {0}
2 2

The graphs of y = cosec x and y = cosec
1
x are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).
Also, since sec x =
1
cos x
, the domain of y = sec x is the set R {x : x = (2n + 1)
2
,
n Z} and range is the set R (1, 1). It means that sec (secant function) assumes
all real values except 1 < y < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of
2
. If we
restrict the domain of secant function to [0, ] {
2
}, then it is one-one and onto with

Fig 2.3 (i) Fig 2.3 (ii)
38 MATHEMATICS
its range as the set R (1, 1). Actually, secant function restricted to any of the
intervals [, 0] {
2
}, [0, ]
2

, [, 2] {
3
2
} etc., is bijective and its range

is R {1, 1}. Thus sec
1
can be defined as a function whose domain is R (1, 1) and
range could be any of the intervals [ , 0] {
2
}, [0, ] {
2
}, [, 2] {
3
2
} etc.
Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec
1
.
The branch with range [0, ] {
2
} is called the principal value branch of the

function sec
1
. We thus have
sec
1
: R (1,1) [0, ] {
2
}
The graphs of the functions y = sec x and y = sec
-1
Finally, we now discuss tan
1
and cot
1
We know that the domain of the tan function (tangent function) is the set
{x : x R and x (2n +1)
2
, n Z} and the range is R. It means that tan function

is not defined for odd multiples of
2
. If we restrict the domain of tangent function to

Fig 2.4 (i) Fig 2.4 (ii)
,
2 2

, then it is one-one and onto with its range as R. Actually, tangent function
restricted to any of the intervals
3
,
2 2

, ,
2 2

,
3
,
2 2

etc., is bijective
and its range is R. Thus tan
1
can be defined as a function whose domain is R and
range could be any of the intervals
3
,
2 2

,
,
2 2

,
3
,
2 2

and so on. These
intervals give different branches of the function tan
1
. The branch with range
,
2 2

is called the principal value branch of the function tan
1
.
We thus have
tan
1
: R
,
2 2

The graphs of the function y = tan x and y = tan
1
Fig 2.5 (i) Fig 2.5 (ii)
We know that domain of the cot function (cotangent function) is the set
{x : x R and x n, n Z} and range is R. It means that cotangent function is not
defined for integral multiples of . If we restrict the domain of cotangent function to
(0, ), then it is bijective with and its range as R. In fact, cotangent function restricted
to any of the intervals (, 0), (0, ), (, 2) etc., is bijective and its range is R. Thus
cot
1
can be defined as a function whose domain is the R and range as any of the
40 MATHEMATICS
intervals (, 0), (0, ), (, 2) etc. These intervals give different branches of the
function cot
1
. The function with range (0, ) is called the principal value branch of
the function cot
1
. We thus have
cot
1
: R (0, )
The graphs of y = cot x and y = cot
1
Fig 2.6 (i)
Fig 2.6 (ii)
The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value
branches) along with their domains and ranges.
sin
1
: [1, 1]
,
2 2

cos
1
: [1, 1] [0, ]
cosec
1
: R (1,1)
,
2 2

{0}
sec
1
: R (1, 1) [0, ]
{ }
2
tan
1
: R
,
2 2

cot
1
: R (0, )
$
Note
1. sin
1
x should not be confused with (sin

x)
1
. In fact (sin x)
1
=
1
sin x
and
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned, we
mean the principal value branch of that function.
3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range of
principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
We now consider some examples:
Example 1 Find the principal value of sin
1

1
2

.
Solution Let sin
1

1
2

= y. Then, sin y =
1
2
.
We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin
1
is
,
2 2

and
sin
4

=
1
2
. Therefore, principal value of sin
1

1
2

is
4
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot

1
1
3

Solution Let cot
1
1
3

= y. Then,
1
cot cot
3 3
y

= =

=
cot
3

=
2
cot
3

We know that the range of principal value branch of cot
1
is (0, ) and
cot
2
3

=
1
3
. Hence, principal value of cot

1

1
3

is
2
3
EXERCISE 2.1
Find the principal values of the following:
1. sin
1

1
2

2. cos
1

3
2

3. cosec
1
(2)
4. tan
1
( 3) 5. cos
1

1
2

6. tan
1
(1)
42 MATHEMATICS
7. sec
1

2
3

8. cot
1
( 3) 9. cos
1

1
2

10. cosec
1
(
2
)
Find the values of the following:
11. tan
1
(1) + cos
1

1
2

+ sin
1

1
2

12. cos
1
1
2

+ 2 sin
1

1
2

13. If sin
1
x = y, then
(A) 0 y (B)
2 2
y

(C) 0 < y < (D)
2 2
y

< <
14. tan
1
( )
1
3 sec 2
is equal to
(A) (B)
3
(C)
3
(D)
2
3
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric
functions. It may be mentioned here that these results are valid within the principal
value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever
they are defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse
trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid only for some values of x for which
inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these
values of x in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this text book.
Let us recall that if y = sin
1
x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin
1
x. This is
equivalent to
sin (sin
1
x) = x, x [ 1, 1] and sin
1
(sin x) = x, x
,
2 2

Same is true for other five inverse trigonometric functions as well. We now prove
some properties of inverse trigonometric functions.
1. (i) sin
1

1
x
= cosec
1
x, x 1 or x 1
(ii) cos
1

1
x
= sec
1
x, x 1 or x 1
(iii) tan
1

1
x
= cot
1
x, x > 0
To prove the first result, we put cosec
1
x = y, i.e., x = cosec y
Therefore
1
x
= sin y
Hence sin
1

1
x
= y
or sin
1

1
x
= cosec
1
x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
2. (i) sin
1
(x) = sin
1
x, x [ 1, 1]
(ii) tan
1
(x) = tan
1
x, x R
(iii) cosec
1
(x) = cosec
1
x, | x | 1
Let sin
1
(x) = y, i.e., x = sin y so that x = sin y, i.e., x = sin (y).
Hence sin
1
x = y = sin
1
(x)
Therefore sin
1
(x) = sin
1
x
3. (i) cos
1
(x) = cos
1
x, x [ 1, 1]
(ii) sec
1
(x) = sec
1
x, | x | 1
(iii) cot
1
(x) = cot
1
x, x R
Let cos
1
(x) = y i.e., x = cos y so that x = cos y = cos ( y)
Therefore cos
1
x = y = cos
1
(x)
Hence cos
1
(x) = cos
1
x
4. (i) sin
1
x + cos
1
x =
2
, x [ 1, 1]
(ii) tan
1
x + cot
1
x =
2
, x R
(iii) cosec
1
x + sec
1
x =
2
, | x | 1
Let sin
1
x = y. Then x = sin y = cos
2
y

Therefore cos
1
x =
2
y
=
1
sin
2
x
44 MATHEMATICS
Hence sin
1
x + cos
1
x =
2

5. (i) tan
1
x + tan
1
y = tan
1

+
1
x y
xy
, xy < 1
(ii) tan
1
x tan
1
y = tan
1

+
1
x y
xy
, xy > 1
(iii) 2tan
1
x = tan
1

2
2
1
x
x
, | x| < 1
Let tan
1
x = and tan
1
y = . Then x = tan , y = tan
Now
tan tan
tan( )
1 tan tan 1
x y
xy
+ +
+ = =

This gives + = tan
1
1
x y
xy
+
Hence tan
1
x + tan
1
y = tan
1

1
x y
xy
+
In the above result, if we replace y by y, we get the second result and by replacing
y by x, we get the third result.
6. (i) 2tan
1
x = sin
1

2
2
1 +
x
x
, | x | 1
(ii) 2tan
1
x = cos
1

2
2
1
1 +
x
x
, x 0
(iii) 2 tan
1
x = tan
1
2
2
1
x
x
, 1 < x < 1
Let tan
1
x = y, then x = tan y. Now
sin
1

2
2
1
x
x +
= sin
1
2
2tan
1 tan
y
y +
= sin
1
(sin 2y) = 2y = 2tan
1
x
Also cos
1

2
2
1
1
x
x
+
= cos
1

2
2
1 tan
1 tan
y
y
+
= cos
1
(cos 2y) = 2y = 2tan
1
x
(iii) Can be worked out similarly.
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that
(i) sin
1
( )
2
2 1 x x
= 2 sin
1
x,
1 1
2 2
x
(ii) sin
1
( )
2
2 1 x x
= 2 cos
1
x,
1
1
2
x
Solution
(i) Let x = sin . Then sin
1
x = . We have
sin
1
( )
2
2 1 x x
= sin
1
( )
2
2sin 1 sin
= sin
1
(2sin cos) = sin
1
(sin2) = 2
= 2 sin
1
x
(ii) Take x = cos , then proceeding as above, we get, sin
1
( )
2
2 1 x x
= 2 cos
1
x
Example 4 Show that tan
1

1 1
1 2 3
tan tan
2 11 4
+ =
Solution By property 5 (i), we have
L.H.S. =
1 1
1 2
tan tan
2 11
+
1 1
1 2
15
2 11
tan tan
1 2
20
1
2 11
+
= =

=
1
3
tan
4
= R.H.S.
Example 5 Express
1
cos
tan
1 sin
x
x
,
2 2
x

< < in the simplest form.
Solution We write
2 2
1 1
2 2
cos sin
cos
2 2
tan tan
1 sin
cos sin 2sin cos
2 2 2 2
x x
x
x x x x
x

+

46 MATHEMATICS
=
1
2
cos sin cos sin
2 2 2 2
tan
cos sin
2 2
x x x x
x x

+

=
1
cos sin
2 2
tan
cos sin
2 2
x x
x x

+

1
1 tan
2
tan
1 tan
2
x
x

+

=

=
1
tan tan
4 2 4 2
x x
+ = +

Alternatively,
1 1 1
2
sin sin
cos 2 2
tan tan tan
2 1 sin
1 cos 1 cos
2 2
x
x
x
x x
x

= =

=
1
2
2 2
2sin cos
4 4
tan
2
2sin
4
x x
x

=
1
2
tan cot
4
x

1
2
tan tan
2 4
x
=

=
1
tan tan
4 2
x
+

4 2
x
= +
Example 6 Write
1
2
1
cot
1 x

, | x | > 1 in the simplest form.
Solution Let x = sec , then
2
1 x
=
2
sec 1 tan =
Therefore,
1
2
1
cot
1 x
= cot
1
(cot ) = = sec
1
x, which is the simplest form.
Example 7 Prove that tan
1
x +
1
2
2
tan
1
x
x
= tan
1

3
2
3
1 3
x x
x

,
1
| |
3
x <
Solution Let x = tan . Then = tan
1
x. We have
R.H.S. =
3 3
1 1
2 2
3 3tan tan
tan tan
1 3 1 3tan
x x
x

=

= tan
1
(tan3) = 3 = 3tan
1
x = tan
1
x + 2 tan
1
x
= tan
1
x + tan
1

2
2
1
x
x
= L.H.S. (Why?)
Example 8 Find the value of cos (sec
1
x + cosec
1
x), | x | 1
Solution We have cos (sec
1
x + cosec
1
x) = cos
2

= 0
EXERCISE 2.2
Prove the following:
1. 3sin
1
x = sin
1
(3x 4x
3
),
1 1
,
2 2
x

2. 3cos
1
x = cos
1
(4x
3
3x),
1
, 1
2
x

3. tan
1
1 1
2 7 1
tan tan
11 24 2

+ =
4.
1 1 1
1 1 31
2tan tan tan
2 7 17

+ =
Write the following functions in the simplest form:
5.
2
1
1 1
tan
x
x
+
, x 0 6.
1
2
1
tan
1 x
, | x| > 1
7.
1
1 cos
tan
1 cos
x
x

+

, x < 8.
1
cos sin
tan
cos sin
x x
x x

+

, x <
48 MATHEMATICS
9.
1
2 2
tan
x
a x
, | x| < a
10.
2 3
1
3 2
3
tan
3
a x x
a ax

, a > 0;
3 3
a a
x

Find the values of each of the following:
11.
1 1
1
tan 2cos 2sin
2

12. cot (tan
1
a + cot
1
a)
13.
2
1 1
2 2
1 2 1
tan sin cos
2 1 1
x y
x y

+

+ +

, | x | < 1, y > 0 and xy < 1
14. If sin
1 1
1
sin cos 1
5
x

+ =

, then find the value of x
15. If
1 1
1 1
tan tan
2 2 4
x x
x x
+
+ =
+
, then find the value of x
Find the values of each of the expressions in Exercises 16 to 18.
16.
1
2
sin sin
3

17.
1
3
tan tan
4

18.
1 1
3 3
tan sin cot
5 2

+

19.
1
7
cos cos is equal to
6

(A)
7
6
(B)
5
6
(C)
3
(D)
6
20.
1
1
sin sin ( )
3 2

is equal to
(A)
1
2
(B)
1
3
(C)
1
4
(D) 1
21.
1 1
tan 3 cot ( 3)

is equal to
(A) (B)
2
(C) 0 (D)
2 3
Example 9 Find the value of
1
3
sin (sin )
5

Solution We know that
1
sin (sin ) x x
= . Therefore,
1
3 3
sin (sin )
5 5

=
But
3
,
5 2 2

, which is the principal branch of sin
1
x
However
3 3 2
sin ( ) sin( ) sin
5 5 5

= = and
2
,
5 2 2

Therefore
1 1
3 2 2
sin (sin ) sin (sin )
5 5 5

= =
Example 10 Show that
1 1 1
3 8 84
sin sin cos
5 17 85

=
Solution Let
1
3
sin
5
x
= and
1
8
sin
17
y
=
Therefore
3
sin
5
x = and
8
sin
17
y =
Now
2
9 4
cos 1 sin 1
25 5
x x = = = (Why?)
and
2
64 15
cos 1 sin 1
289 17
y y = = =
We have cos (xy) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
=
4 15 3 8 84
5 17 5 17 85
+ =
Therefore
1
84
cos
85
x y

=

Hence
1 1 1
3 8 84
sin sin cos
5 17 85

=
50 MATHEMATICS
1 1 1
12 4 63
sin cos tan
13 5 16

+ + =
Solution Let
1 1 1
12 4 63
sin , cos , tan
13 5 16
x y z

= = =
Then
12 4 63
sin , cos , tan
13 5 16
x y z = = =
Therefore
5 3 12 3
cos , sin , tan and tan
13 5 5 4
x y x y = = = =
We have
tan tan
tan( )
1 tan tan
x y
x y
x y
+
+ =

12 3
63
5 4
12 3
16
1
5 4
+
= =

Hence tan( ) tan x y z + =
i.e., tan (x + y) = tan (z) or tan (x + y) = tan ( z)
Therefore x + y = z or x + y = z
Since x, y and z are positive, x + y z (Why?)
Hence x + y + z = or
1 1 1
12 4 63
sin cos tan
13 5 16
+ + =
Example 12 Simplify
1
cos sin
tan
cos sin
a x b x
b x a x

+

, if
a
b
tan x > 1
Solution We have,
1
cos sin
tan
cos sin
a x b x
b x a x

+

=
1
cos sin
cos
tan
cos sin
cos
a x b x
b x
b x a x
b x

+

=
1
tan
tan
1 tan
a
x
b
a
x
b

+

=
1 1
tan tan (tan )
a
x
b
=
1
tan
a
x
b

Example 13 Solve tan
1
2x + tan
1
3x =
4
Solution We have tan

1
2x + tan
1
3x =
4
or
1
2 3
tan
1 2 3
x x
x x
+

=
4
i.e.
1
2
5
tan
1 6
x
x

=
4
Therefore
2
5
1 6
x
x
=
tan 1
4
=
or 6x
2
+ 5x 1 = 0 i.e., (6x 1) (x + 1) = 0
which gives x =
1
6
or x = 1.
Since x = 1 does not satisfy the equation, as the L.H.S. of the equation becomes
negative,
1
6
x=
is the only solution of the given equation.
Find the value of the following:
1.
1
13
cos cos
6

2.
1
7
tan tan
6

Prove that
3.
1 1
3 24
2sin tan
5 7
=
4.
1 1 1
8 3 77
sin sin tan
17 5 36
+ =
5.
1 1 1
4 12 33
cos cos cos
5 13 65
+ =
6.
1 1 1
12 3 56
cos sin sin
13 5 65
+ =
7.
1 1 1
63 5 3
tan sin cos
16 13 5
= +
8.
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
tan tan tan tan
5 7 3 8 4

+ + + =
52 MATHEMATICS
Prove that
9.
1 1
1 1
tan cos
2 1
x
x
x

=

+
, x [0, 1]
10.
1
1 sin 1 sin
cot
2 1 sin 1 sin
x x x
x x

+ +
=

+

,
0,
4
x

11.
1 1
1 1 1
tan cos
4 2 1 1
x x
x
x x

+
=

+ +

,
1
1
2
x [Hint: Put x = cos 2]
12.
1 1
9 9 1 9 2 2
sin sin
8 4 3 4 3

=
Solve the following equations:
13. 2tan
1
(cos x) = tan
1
(2 cosec x) 14.
1 1
1 1
tan tan ,( 0)
1 2
x
x x
x
= >
+
15. sin (tan
1
x), | x | < 1 is equal to
(A)
2
1
x
x
(B)
2
1
1 x
(C)
2
1
1 x +
(D)
2
1
x
x +
16. sin
1
(1 x) 2 sin
1
x =
2
, then x is equal to
(A) 0,
1
2
(B) 1,
1
2
(C) 0 (D)
1
2
17.
1 1
tan tan
x x y
y x y

+

is equal to
(A)
2
(B)
3
(C)
4
(D)
3
4

Summary
The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric

functions are given in the following table:
Functions Domain Range
(Principal Value Branches)
y = sin
1
x [1, 1]
,
2 2

y = cos
1
x [1, 1] [0, ]
y = cosec
1
x R (1,1) ,
2 2

{0}
y = sec
1
x R (1, 1) [0, ]
{ }
2
y = tan
1
x R
,
2 2

y = cot
1
x R (0, )
sin
1
x should not be confused with (sin

x)
1
. In fact (sin x)
1
=
1
sin x
and
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal

value branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
For suitable values of domain, we have
y = sin
1
x x = sin y

x = sin y y = sin
1
x
sin (sin
1
x) = x

sin
1
(sin x) = x
sin
1

1
x
= cosec
1
x

cos
1
(x) = cos
1
x
cos
1

1
x
= sec
1
x

cot
1
(x) = cot
1
x
tan
1

1
x
= cot
1
x

sec
1
(x) = sec
1
x
54 MATHEMATICS
sin
1
(x) = sin
1
x

tan
1
(x) = tan
1
x
tan
1
x + cot
1
x =
2
cosec
1
(x) = cosec
1
x
sin
1
x + cos
1
x =
2
cosec
1
x + sec
1
x =
2
tan
1
x + tan
1
y = tan
1

1
x y
xy
+

2tan
1
x = tan
1

2
2
1
x
x
tan
1
x tan
1
y = tan
1

1
x y
xy
2tan
1
x = sin
1

2
2
1
x
x +
= cos
1

2
2
1
1
x
x
+
Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476A.D.), Brahmagupta (598 A.D.), Bhaskara I
(600 A.D.) and Bhaskara II (1114 A.D.) got important results of trigonometry. All
this knowledge went from India to Arabia and then from there to Europe. The
Greeks had also started the study of trigonometry but their approach was so
clumsy that when the Indian approach became known, it was immediately adopted
throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents one of
the main contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600 A.D.) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for sines or
cosines of 18, 36, 54, 72, etc., were given by Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin
1
x, cos
1
x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were suggested
by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The name of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H
S
h
s
=
= tan (suns altitude)
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.
56 MATHEMATICS
The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. CANTOR
3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices
are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.
3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession
Chapter 3
MATRICES
MATRICES 57
of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens,
Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens,
Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens.
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks Pens
Radha 15 6
Fauzia 10 2
Simran 13 5
and this can be expressed as
or
Radha Fauzia Simran
Notebooks 15 10 13
Pens 6 2 5
which can be expressed as:
In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,
58 MATHEMATICS
respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:
5
2
A 0 5
3 6

=

,
1
2 3
2
B 3.5 1 2
5
3 5
7
i

+

=

,
3
1 3
C
cos tan sin 2
x x
x x x
+
=

+

In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m n or simply m n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 2 matrix, B as 3 3 matrix and C as 2 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m n matrix has the following rectangular array:
or A = [a
ij
]
m n
, 1 i m, 1 j n i, j N
Thus the i
th
row consists of the elements a
i1
, a
i2
, a
i3
,..., a
in
, while the j
th
column
consists of the elements a
1j
, a
2j
, a
3j
,..., a
mj
,
In general a
ij
, is an element lying in the i
th
row and j
th
column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)
th
element of A. The number of elements in an m n matrix will be
equal to mn.
MATRICES 59
$
Note In this chapter
1. We shall follow the notation, namely A = [a
ij
]
m n
to indicate that A is a matrix
of order m n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions taking real values.
We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as
x
y

(or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as
0
P
1

=

or [0 1].
Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (1, 2).
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as
2 4
A B C D
1 3 1 1
X
0 2 3 2

=

or
4 2
A 1 0
B 3 2
Y
C 1 3
D 1 2

Thus, matrices can be used as representation of vertices of geometrical figures in
a plane.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women
workers in three factories I, II and III
Men workers Women workers
I 30 25
II 25 31
III 27 26
Represent the above information in the form of a 3 2 matrix. What does the entry
in the third row and second column represent?
60 MATHEMATICS
Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 2 matrix as follows:
30 25
A 25 31
27 26

=

The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women
workers in factory III.
Example 2 If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that if a matrix is of order m n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find
all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural
numbers, whose product is 8.
Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8), (8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4)
Hence, possible orders are 1 8, 8 1, 4 2, 2 4
Example 3 Construct a 3 2 matrix whose elements are given by
1
| 3 |
2
ij
a i j = .
Solution In general a 3 2 matrix is given by
11 12
21 22
31 32
A
a a
a a
a a

=

.
Now
1
| 3 |
2
ij
a i j =
, i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
Therefore
11
1
|1 3 1| 1
2
a = =
12
1 5
|1 3 2|
2 2
a = =
21
1 1
| 2 3 1|
2 2
a = =
22
1
| 2 3 2| 2
2
a = =
31
1
| 3 3 1| 0
2
a = =
32
1 3
| 3 3 2 |
2 2
a = =
Hence the required matrix is given by
5
1
2
1
A 2
2
3
0
2

=

.
MATRICES 61
3.3 Types of Matrices
In this section, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
For example,
0
3
A 1
1/ 2

=

is a column matrix of order 4 1.
In general, A = [a
ij
]
m 1
is a column matrix of order m 1.
(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
For example,
1 4
1
B 5 2 3
2

=

is a row matrix.
In general, B = [b
ij
]
1 n
is a row matrix of order 1 n.
(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order n.
For example
3 1 0
3
A 3 2 1
2
4 3 1

=

is a square matrix of order 3.
In general, A = [a
ij
]
m m
is a square matrix of order m.
$
Note If A = [a
ij
] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a
11
, a
22
, ..., a
nn
are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if
1 3 1
A 2 4 1
3 5 6

=

.
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
62 MATHEMATICS
(iv) Diagonal matrix
A square matrix B = [b
ij
]
m m
is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [b
ij
]
m m
is said to be a diagonal
matrix if b
ij
= 0, when i j.
For example, A = [4],
1 0
B
0 2

=

,
1.1 0 0
C 0 2 0
0 0 3

=

, are diagonal matrices
of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [b
ij
]
n n
is said to be a scalar matrix if
b
ij
= 0, when i j
b
ij
= k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example
A = [3],
1 0
B
0 1

=

,
3 0 0
C 0 3 0
0 0 3

=

are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [a
ij
]
n n
is an
identity matrix, if
1 if
0 if
ij
i j
a
i j
=
=

.
We denote the identity matrix of order n by I
n
. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.
For example [1],
1 0
0 1

,
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
respectively.
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.
MATRICES 63
(vii) Zero matrix
A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
For example, [0],
0 0
0 0

,
0 0 0
0 0 0

, [0, 0] are all zero matrices. We denote
zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.
3.3.1 Equality of matrices
Definition 2 Two matrices A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is a
ij
= b
ij
for
all i and j.
For example,
2 3 2 3
and
0 1 0 1

are equal matrices but
3 2 2 3
and
0 1 0 1

are
not equal matrices. Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.
If
1.5 0
2 6
3 2
x y
z a
b c

=

, then x = 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a =
6
, b = 3, c = 2
Example 4 If
3 4 2 7 0 6 3 2
6 1 0 6 3 2 2
3 21 0 2 4 21 0
x z y y
a c
b b
+ +

= +

+

Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.
Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0, z + 4 = 6, 2y 7 = 3y 2
a 1 = 3, 0 = 2c + 2 b 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = 2, b = 7, c = 1, x = 3, y = 5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
2 2 4 3
5 4 3 11 24
a b a b
c d c d
+
=

+

64 MATHEMATICS
Solution By equality of two matrices, equating the corresponding elements, we get
2a + b = 4 5c d = 11
a 2b = 3 4c + 3d = 24
Solving these equations, we get
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4
EXERCISE 3.1
1. In the matrix
2 5 19
7
5
A 35 2 12
2
17 3 1 5

=

, write:
(i) The order of the matrix, (ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a
13
, a
21
, a
33
, a
24
, a
23
.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 2 matrix, A = [a
ij
], whose elements are given by:
(i)
2
( )
2
ij
i j
a
+
= (ii)
ij
i
a
j
= (iii)
2
( 2 )
2
ij
i j
a
+
=
5. Construct a 3 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:
(i)
1
| 3 |
2
ij
a i j = +
(ii) 2
ij
a i j =
6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:
(i)
4 3
5 1 5
y z
x

=

(ii)
2 6 2
5 5 8
x y
z xy
+
=

+

(iii)
9
5
7
x y z
x z
y z
+ +

+ =

+

7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:
2 1 5
2 3 0 13
a b a c
a b c d
+
=

+

MATRICES 65
8. A = [a
ij
]
m n\
is a square matrix, if
(A) m < n (B) m > n (C) m = n (D) None of these
9. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal
3 7 5
1 2 3
x
y x
+

+

,
0 2
8 4
y

(A)
1
, 7
3
x y
= =
(B) Not possible to find
(C) y = 7,
2
3
x

=
(D)
1 2
,
3 3
x y

= =
10. The number of all possible matrices of order 3 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:
(A) 27 (B) 18 (C) 81 (D) 512
3.4 Operations on Matrices
In this section, we shall introduce certain operations on matrices, namely, addition of
matrices, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, difference and multiplication of matrices.
3.4.1 Addition of matrices
Suppose Fatima has two factories at places A and B. Each factory produces sport
shoes for boys and girls in three different price categories labelled 1, 2 and 3. The
quantities produced by each factory are represented as matrices given below:
Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
This can be represented in the matrix form as
80 90 60 50
75 70 65 55
90 75 85 75
+ +

+ +

+ +

.
66 MATHEMATICS
This new matrix is the sum of the above two matrices. We observe that the sum of
two matrices is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. Furthermore, the two matrices have to be of the same order.
Thus, if
11 12 13
21 22 23
A
a a a
a a a

=

is a 2 3 matrix and
11 12 13
21 22 23
B
b b b
b b b

=

is another
23 matrix. Then, we define
11 11 12 12 13 13
21 21 22 22 23 23
A + B
a b a b a b
a b a b a b
+ + +
=

+ + +

.
In general, if A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are two matrices of the same order, say m n.
Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix C = [c
ij
]
m n
, where
c
ij
= a
ij
+ b
ij
, for all possible values of i and j.
Example 6 Given
3 1 1
A
2 3 0

=

and
2 5 1
B
1
2 3
2

=

, find A + B
Since A, B are of the same order 2 3. Therefore, addition of A and B is defined
and is given by
2 3 1 5 1 1 2 3 1 5 0
A+B
1 1
2 2 3 3 0 0 6
2 2

+ + + +

= =

+ +

$
Note
1. We emphasise that if A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not
defined. For example if
2 3
A
1 0

=

,
1 2 3
B ,
1 0 1

=

then A + B is not defined.
2. We may observe that addition of matrices is an example of binary operation
on the set of matrices of the same order.
3.4.2 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
Now suppose that Fatima has doubled the production at a factory A in all categories
(refer to 3.4.1).
MATRICES 67
Previously quantities (in standard units) produced by factory A were
Revised quantities produced by factory A are as given below:
Boys Girls
2 80 2 60 1
2 2 75 2 65
3 2 90 2 85

This can be represented in the matrix form as
160 120
150 130
180 170

. We observe that
the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix by 2.
In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if
A = [a
ij
]
m n
is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which is obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, kA = k [a
ij
]
m n
= [k (a
ij
)]
m n
, that is, (i, j)
th
element of kA is ka
ij
for all possible values of i and j.
For example, if A =
3 1 1.5
5 7 3
2 0 5

, then
3A =
3 1 1.5 9 3 4.5
3 5 7 3 3 5 21 9
2 0 5 6 0 15

=

Negative of a matrix The negative of a matrix is denoted by A. We define
A = ( 1) A.
68 MATHEMATICS
For example, let A =
3 1
5 x

, then A is given by
A = ( 1)
3 1 3 1
A ( 1)
5 5 x x

= =

Difference of matrices If A = [a
ij
], B = [b
ij
] are two matrices of the same order,
say m n, then difference A B is defined as a matrix D = [d
ij
], where d
ij
= a
ij
b
ij
,
for all value of i and j. In other words, D = A B = A + (1) B, that is sum of the matrix
A and the matrix B.
Example 7 If
1 2 3 3 1 3
A and B
2 3 1 1 0 2

= =

, then find 2A B.
Solution We have
2A B =
1 2 3 3 1 3
2
2 3 1 1 0 2

=
2 4 6 3 1 3
4 6 2 1 0 2

+

=
2 3 4 1 6 3 1 5 3
4 1 6 0 2 2 5 6 0
+
=

+ +

3.4.3 Properties of matrix addition
The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties:
(i) Commutative Law If A = [a
ij
], B = [b
ij
] are matrices of the same order, say
m n, then A + B = B + A.
Now A + B = [a
ij
] + [b
ij
] = [a
ij
+ b
ij
]
= [b
ij
+ a
ij
] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([b
ij
] + [a
ij
]) = B + A
(ii) Associative Law For any three matrices A = [a
ij
], B = [b
ij
], C = [c
ij
] of the
same order, say m n, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Now (A + B) + C = ([a
ij
] + [b
ij
]) + [c
ij
]
= [a
ij
+ b
ij
] + [c
ij
] = [(a
ij
+ b
ij
) + c
ij
]
= [a
ij
+ (b
ij
+ c
ij
)] (Why?)
= [a
ij
] + [(b
ij
+ c
ij
)] = [a
ij
] + ([b
ij
] + [c
ij
]) = A + (B + C)
MATRICES 69
(iii) Existence of additive identity Let A = [a
ij
] be an m n matrix and
O be an m n zero matrix, then A + O = O

+ A = A. In other words, O is the
additive identity for matrix addition.
(iv) The existence of additive inverse Let A = [a
ij
]
m n
be any matrix, then we
have another matrix as A = [ a
ij
]
m n
such that A + ( A) = ( A) + A= O. So
A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.
3.4.4 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix
If A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] be two matrices of the same order, say m n, and k and l are
scalars, then
(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A
(ii) k (A + B) = k ([a
ij
] + [b
ij
])
= k [a
ij
+ b
ij
] = [k (a
ij
+ b
ij
)] = [(k a
ij
) + (k b
ij
)]
= [k a
ij
] + [k b
ij
] = k [a
ij
] + k [b
ij
] = kA + kB
(iii) ( k + l ) A = (k + l) [a
ij
]
= [(k + l) a
ij
] + [k a
ij
] + [l a
ij
] = k [a
ij
] + l [a
ij
] = k A + l A
Example 8 If
8 0 2 2
A 4 2 and B 4 2
3 6 5 1

= =

, then find the matrix X, such that
2A + 3X = 5B.
Solution We have 2A + 3X = 5B
or 2A + 3X 2A = 5B 2A
or 2A 2A + 3X = 5B 2A (Matrix addition is commutative)
or O + 3X = 5B 2A ( 2A is the additive inverse of 2A)
or 3X = 5B 2A (O is the additive identity)
or X =
1
3
(5B 2A)
or
2 2 8 0
1
X 5 4 2 2 4 2
3
5 1 3 6

=

=
10 10 16 0
1
20 10 8 4
3
25 5 6 12

+

70 MATHEMATICS
=
10 16 10 0
1
20 8 10 4
3
25 6 5 12
+

+

=
6 10
1
12 14
3
31 7

=
10
2
3
14
4
3
31 7
3 3

Example 9 Find X and Y, if
5 2
X Y
0 9

+ =

and
3 6
X Y
0 1

=

.
Solution We have ( ) ( )
5 2 3 6
X Y X Y
0 9 0 1

+ + = +

.
or (X + X) + (Y Y) =
8 8
0 8

8 8
2X
0 8

=

or X =
8 8 4 4 1
0 8 0 4 2

=

Also (X + Y) (X Y) =
5 2 3 6
0 9 0 1

or (X X) + (Y + Y) =
5 3 2 6
0 9 1

+

2 4
2Y
0 10

=

or Y =
2 4 1 2
1
0 10 0 5 2

=

Example 10 Find the values of x and y from the following equation:
5 3 4
2
7 3 1 2
x
y

+

=
7 6
15 14

Solution We have

5 3 4
2
7 3 1 2
x
y

+

=
7 6
15 14

2 10 3 4 7 6
14 2 6 1 2 15 14
x
y

+ =

MATRICES 71
or
2 3 10 4
14 1 2 6 2
x
y
+

+ +

=
7 6
15 14

2 3 6 7 6
15 2 4 15 14
x
y
+
=

or 2x + 3 = 7 and 2y 4 = 14 (Why?)
or 2x = 7 3 and 2y = 18
or x =
4
2
and y =
18
2
i.e. x = 2 and y = 9.
Example 11 Two farmers Ramkishan and Gurcharan Singh cultivates only three
varieties of rice namely Basmati, Permal and Naura. The sale (in Rupees) of these
varieties of rice by both the farmers in the month of September and October are given
by the following matrices A and B.
(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each
variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.
(iii) If both farmers receive 2% profit on gross sales, compute the profit for each
farmer and for each variety sold in October.
Solution
(i) Combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each variety is
given by
72 MATHEMATICS
(ii) Change in sales from September to October is given by
(iii) 2% of B =
2
B
100
= 0.02 B
= 0.02
=
Thus, in October Ramkishan receives Rs 100, Rs 200 and Rs 120 as profit in the
sale of each variety of rice, respectively, and Grucharan Singh receives profit of Rs
400, Rs 200 and Rs 200 in the sale of each variety of rice, respectively.
3.4.5 Multiplication of matrices
Suppose Meera and Nadeem are two friends. Meera wants to buy 2 pens and 5 story
books, while Nadeem needs 8 pens and 10 story books. They both go to a shop to
enquire about the rates which are quoted as follows:
Pen Rs 5 each, story book Rs 50 each.
How much money does each need to spend? Clearly, Meera needs Rs (5 2 + 50 5)
that is Rs 260, while Nadeem needs (8 5 + 50 10) Rs, that is Rs 540. In terms of
matrix representation, we can write the above information as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
2 5
8 10

5
50

5 2 5 50 260
8 5 10 50 540
+
=

+

Suppose that they enquire about the rates from another shop, quoted as follows:
pen Rs 4 each, story book Rs 40 each.
Now, the money required by Meera and Nadeem to make purchases will be
respectively Rs (4 2 + 40 5) = Rs 208 and Rs (8 4 + 10 40) = Rs 432
MATRICES 73
Again, the above information can be represented as follows:
2 5
8 10

4
40

4 2 40 5 208
8 4 10 4 0 432
+
=

+

Now, the information in both the cases can be combined and expressed in terms of
matrices as follows:
2 5
8 10

5 4
50 40

5 2 5 50 4 2 40 5
8 5 10 5 0 8 4 10 4 0
+ +

+ +

=
260 208
540 432

The above is an example of multiplication of matrices. We observe that, for
multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A should be equal to
the number of rows in B. Furthermore for getting the elements of the product matrix,
we take rows of A and columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.
Formally, we define multiplication of matrices as follows:
The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. Let A = [a
ij
] be an m n matrix and B = [b
jk
] be an
n p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m p.
To get the (i, k)
th
element c
ik
of the matrix C, we take the i
th
row of A and k
th
column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. In other words,
if A = [a
ij
]
m n
, B = [b
jk
]
n p
, then the i
th
row of A is [a
i1
a
i2
... a
in
] and the k
th
column of
B is
1
2
.
.
.
k
k
nk
b
b
b

, then c
ik
= a
i1
b
1k
+ a
i2
b
2k
+ a
i3
b
3k
+ ... + a
in
b
nk
=
1
n
ij jk
j
a b
=
.
The matrix C = [c
ik
]
m p
is the product of A and B.
For example, if
1 1 2
C
0 3 4

=

and
2 7
1 D 1
5 4

=

, then the product CD is defined
74 MATHEMATICS
and is given by
2 7
1 1 2
CD 1 1
0 3 4
5 4

=

. This is a 2 2 matrix in which each
entry is the sum of the products across some row of C with the corresponding entries
down some column of D. These four computations are
Thus
13 2
CD
17 13

=

Example 12 Find AB, if
6 9 2 6 0
A and B
2 3 7 9 8

= =

.
Solution The matrix A has 2 columns which is equal to the number of rows of B.
Hence AB is defined. Now
6(2) 9(7) 6(6) 9(9) 6(0) 9(8)
AB
2(2) 3(7) 2(6) 3(9) 2(0) 3(8)
+ + +
=

+ + +

=
12 63 36 81 0 72
4 21 12 27 0 24
+ + +

+ + +

=
75 117 72
25 39 24

MATRICES 75
Remark If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined. In the above example, AB is
defined but BA is not defined because B has 3 column while A has only 2 (and not 3)
rows. If A, B are, respectively m n, k l matrices, then both AB and BA are defined
if and only if n = k and l = m. In particular, if both A and B are square matrices of the
same order, then both AB and BA are defined.
Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices
Now, we shall see by an example that even if AB and BA are both defined, it is not
necessary that AB = BA.
Example 13 If
2 3
1 2 3
A and B 4 5
4 2 5
2 1

= =

, then find AB, BA. Show that
AB BA.
Solution Since A is a 2 3 matrix and B is 3 2 matrix. Hence AB and BA are both
defined and are matrices of order 2 2 and 3 3, respectively. Note that
2 3
1 2 3
AB 4 5
4 2 5
2 1

=

=
2 8 6 3 10 3 0 4
8 8 10 12 10 5 10 3
+ +
=

+ + + +

and
2 3 2 12 4 6 6 15
1 2 3
BA 4 5 4 20 8 10 12 25
4 2 5
2 1 2 4 4 2 6 5
+ +

= = + +

+ +

10 2 21
16 2 37
2 2 11

=

Clearly AB BA
In the above example both AB and BA are of different order and so AB BA. But
one may think that perhaps AB and BA could be the same if they were of the same
order. But it is not so, here we give an example to show that even if AB and BA are of
same order they may not be same.
Example 14 If
1 0
A
0 1

=

and
0 1
B
1 0

=

, then
0 1
AB
1 0

=

.
and
0 1
BA
1 0

=

. Clearly AB BA.
Thus matrix multiplication is not commutative.
76 MATHEMATICS
$
Note This does not mean that AB BA for every pair of matrices A, B for
which AB and BA, are defined. For instance,
If
1 0 3 0
A , B
0 2 0 4

= =

, then AB = BA =
3 0
0 8

Observe that multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.
Zero matrix as the product of two non zero matrices
We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need
not be true for matrices, we will observe this through an example.
Example 15 Find AB, if
0 1
A
0 2

=

and
3 5
B
0 0

=

.
Solution We have
0 1 3 5 0 0
AB
0 2 0 0 0 0

= =

.
Thus, if the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
3.4.6 Properties of multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without
proof.
1. The associative law For any three matrices A, B and C. We have
(AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributive law For three matrices A, B and C.
(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.
Now, we shall verify these properties by examples.
Example 16 If
1 1 1 1 3
1 2 3 4
A 2 0 3 , B 0 2 and C
2 0 2 1
3 1 2 1 4

= = =

, find
A(BC), (AB)C and show that (AB)C = A(BC).
MATRICES 77
Solution We have
1 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 3 2 4 2 1
AB 2 0 3 0 2 2 0 3 6 0 12 1 18
3 1 2 1 4 3 0 2 9 2 8 1 15
+ + +

= = + + + =

+ +

(AB) (C)
2 2 4 0 6 2 8 1 2 1
1 2 3 4
1 18 1 36 2 0 3 36 4 18
2 0 2 1
1 15 1 30 2 0 3 30 4 15
+ + +

= = + + +

+ + +

=
4 4 4 7
35 2 39 22
31 2 27 11

Now BC =
1 6 2 0 3 6 4 3 1 3
1 2 3 4
0 2 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 2
2 0 2 1
1 4 1 8 2 0 3 8 4 4
+ + +

= + + +

+ + +

=
7 2 3 1
4 0 4 2
7 2 11 8

Therefore A(BC) =
7 2 3 1 1 1 1
2 0 3 4 0 4 2
3 1 2 7 2 11 8

=
7 4 7 2 0 2 3 4 11 1 2 8
14 0 21 4 0 6 6 0 33 2 0 24
21 4 14 6 0 4 9 4 22 3 2 16
+ + + + +

+ + + + + +

+ + + +

=
4 4 4 7
35 2 39 22
31 2 27 11

. Clearly, (AB) C = A (BC)
78 MATHEMATICS
Example 17 If
0 6 7 0 1 1 2
A 6 0 8 , B 1 0 2 , C 2
7 8 0 1 2 0 3

= = =

Calculate AC, BC and (A + B)C. Also, verify that (A + B)C = AC + BC
Solution Now,
0 7 8
A+B 5 0 10
8 6 0

=

So (A + B) C =
0 7 8 2 0 14 24 10
5 0 10 2 10 0 30 20
8 6 0 3 16 12 0 28
+

= + + =

+ +

Further AC =
0 6 7 2 0 12 21 9
6 0 8 2 12 0 24 12
7 8 0 3 14 16 0 30
+

= + + =

+ +

and BC =
0 1 1 2 0 2 3 1
1 0 2 2 2 0 6 8
1 2 0 3 2 4 0 2
+

= + + =

+

So AC + BC =
9 1 10
12 8 20
30 2 28

+ =

Clearly, (A + B) C = AC + BC
Example 18 If
1 2 3
A 3 2 1
4 2 1

=

, then show that A
3
23A 40 I = O
Solution We have
2
1 2 3 1 2 3 19 4 8
A A.A 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 12 8
4 2 1 4 2 1 14 6 15

= = =

MATRICES 79
So A
3
= A A
2
=
1 2 3 19 4 8 63 46 69
3 2 1 1 12 8 69 6 23
4 2 1 14 6 15 92 46 63

=

Now
A
3
23A 40I =
63 46 69 1 2 3 1 0 0
69 6 23 23 3 2 1 40 0 1 0
92 46 63 4 2 1 0 0 1

=
63 46 69 23 46 69 40 0 0
69 6 23 69 46 23 0 40 0
92 46 63 92 46 23 0 0 40

+ +

=
63 23 40 46 46 0 69 69 0
69 69 0 6 46 40 23 23 0
92 92 0 46 46 0 63 23 40
+ +

+ + +

+ +

=
0 0 0
0 0 0 O
0 0 0

=

Example 19 In a legislative assembly election, a political group hired a public relations
firm to promote its candidate in three ways: telephone, house calls, and letters. The
cost per contact (in paise) is given in matrix A as
A =
40 Telephone
100 Housecall
50 Letter
Cost per contact

The number of contacts of each type made in two cities X and Y is given by
Telephone Housecall Letter
1000 500 5000 X
B
Y 3000 1000 10, 000

=

. Find the total amount spent by the group in the two
cities X and Y.
80 MATHEMATICS
Solution We have
BA =
40, 000 50, 000 250, 000 X
Y 120,000 +100,000 +500,000
+ +

=
340, 000 X
Y 720,000

So the total amount spent by the group in the two cities is 340,000 paise and
720,000 paise, i.e., Rs 3400 and Rs 7200, respectively.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Let
2 4 1 3 2 5
A , B , C
3 2 2 5 3 4

= = =

Find each of the following:
(i) A + B (ii) A B (iii) 3A C
(iv) AB (v) BA
2. Compute the following:
(i)
a b a b
b a b a

+

(ii)
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
a b b c ab bc
ac ab
a c a b

+ +
+

+ +

(iii)
1 4 6 12 7 6
8 5 16 8 0 5
2 8 5 3 2 4

+

(iv)
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin sin cos
sin cos cos sin
x x x x
x x x x

+

3. Compute the indicated products.
(i)
a b a b
b a b a

(ii)
1
2
3

[2 3 4] (iii)
1 2 1 2 3
2 3 2 3 1

(iv)
2 3 4 1 3 5
3 4 5 0 2 4
4 5 6 3 0 5

(v)
2 1
1 0 1
3 2
1 2 1
1 1

(vi)
2 3
3 1 3
1 0
1 0 2
3 1

MATRICES 81
4. If
1 2 3 3 1 2 4 1 2
A 5 0 2 , B 4 2 5 and C 0 3 2
1 1 1 2 0 3 1 2 3

= = =

, then compute
(A+B) and (B C). Also, verify that A + (B C) = (A + B) C.
5. If
2 5 2 3
1 1
3 3 5 5
1 2 4 1 2 4
A and B
3 3 3 5 5 5
7 2 7 6 2
2
3 3 5 5 5

= =

, then compute 3A 5B.
6. Simplify
cos sin sin cos
cos + sin
sin cos cos sin

7. Find X and Y, if
(i)
7 0 3 0
X + Y and X Y
2 5 0 3

= =

(ii)
2 3 2 2
2X + 3Y and 3X 2Y
4 0 1 5

= + =

8. Find X, if Y =
3 2
1 4

and 2X + Y =
1 0
3 2

9. Find x and y, if
1 3 0 5 6
2
0 1 2 1 8
y
x

+ =

10. Solve the equation for x, y, z and t, if
1 1 3 5
2 3 3
0 2 4 6
x z
y t

+ =

11. If
2 1 10
3 1 5
x y

+ =

, find the values of x and y.
12. Given
6 4
3
1 2 3
x y x x y
z w w z w
+
= +

+

, find the values of x, y, z and w.
82 MATHEMATICS
13. If
cos sin 0
F ( ) sin cos 0
0 0 1
x x
x x x

=

, show that F(x) F(y) = F(x + y).
14. Show that
(i)
5 1 2 1 2 1 5 1
6 7 3 4 3 4 6 7

(ii)
1 2 3 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 3
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1 0

15. Find A
2
5A + 6I, if
2 0 1
A 2 1 3
1 1 0

=

16. If
1 0 2
A 0 2 1
2 0 3

=

, prove that A
3
6A
2
+ 7A + 2I = 0
17. If
3 2 1 0
A and I=
4 2 0 1

=

, find k so that A
2
= kA 2I
18. If
0 tan
2
A
tan 0
2

and I is the identity matrix of order 2, show that
I + A = (I A)
cos sin
sin cos

19. A trust fund has Rs 30,000 that must be invested in two different types of bonds.
The first bond pays 5% interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest
per year. Using matrix multiplication, determine how to divide Rs 30,000 among
the two types of bonds. If the trust fund must obtain an annual total interest of:
(a) Rs 1800 (b) Rs 2000
MATRICES 83
20. The bookshop of a particular school has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen
physics books, 10 dozen economics books. Their selling prices are Rs 80, Rs 60
and Rs 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the bookshop will receive
from selling all the books using matrix algebra.
Assume X, Y, Z, W and P are matrices of order 2 n, 3 k, 2 p, n 3 and p k,
respectively. Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21. The restriction on n, k and p so that PY + WY will be defined are:
(A) k = 3, p = n (B) k is arbitrary, p = 2
(C) p is arbitrary, k = 3 (D) k = 2, p = 3
22. If n = p, then the order of the matrix 7X 5Z is:
(A) p 2 (B) 2 n (C) n 3 (D) p n
3.5. Transpose of a Matrix
In this section, we shall learn about transpose of a matrix and special types of matrices
such as symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Definition 3 If A = [a
ij
] be an m n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is
denoted by A or (A
T
). In other words, if A = [a
ij
]
m n
, then A = [a
ji
]
n m
. For example,
if
2 3
3 2
3
5
3 3 0
A 3 1 , then A
1
5 1
0 1
5
5

= =

3.5.1 Properties of transpose of the matrices
We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These
may be verified by taking suitable examples.
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (A) = A, (ii) (kA) = kA (where k is any constant)
(iii) (A + B) = A + B (iv) (A B) = B A
Example 20 If
2 1 2 3 3 2
A and B
1 2 4
4 2 0

= =

, verify that
(i) (A) = A, (ii) (A + B) = A + B,
(iii) (kB) = kB, where k is any constant.
84 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) We have
A =
( )
3
4
3 3 2 3 3 2
A 3 2 A A
4 2 0 4 2 0
2 0

= = =

Thus (A) = A
(ii) We have
A =
3 3 2
,
4 2 0

B =
2 1 2 5 3 1 4
A B
1 2 4
5 4 4

+ =

Therefore (A + B) =
5
5
3 1 4
4 4

Now A =
3
4 2 1
3 2 , B 1 2 ,
2 0 2 4

=

So A + B =
5
5
3 1 4
4 4

Thus (A + B) = A + B
(iii) We have
kB = k
2 1 2 2 2
1 2 4 2 4
k k k
k k k

=

Then (kB) =
2 2 1
2 1 2 B
2 4 2 4
k k
k k k k
k k

= =

Thus (kB) = kB
MATRICES 85
Example 21 If [ ]
2
A 4 , B 1 3 6
5

= =

, verify that (AB) = BA.
Solution We have
A =
[ ]
2
4 , B 1 3 6
5

=

then AB = [ ]
2
4 1 3 6
5

=
2 6 12
4 12 24
5 15 30

Now A = [2 4 5] ,
1
B 3
6

=

BA = [ ]
1 2 4 5
3 2 4 5 6 12 15 (AB)
6 12 24 30

= =

Clearly (AB) = BA
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices
Definition 4 A square matrix A = [a
ij
]

is said to be symmetric if A = A, that is,
[a
ij
] = [a
ji
] for all possible values of i and j.
For example
3 2 3
A 2 1.5 1
3 1 1

=

is a symmetric matrix as A = A
Definition 5 A square matrix A = [a
ij
]

is said to be skew symmetric matrix if
A = A, that is a
ji
= a
ij
for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we
have a
ii
= a
ii
. Therefore 2a
ii
= 0 or a
ii
= 0 for all is.
This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
86 MATHEMATICS
For example, the matrix
0
B 0
0
e f
e g
f g

=

is a skew symmetric matrix as B= B
Now, we are going to prove some results of symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrices.
Theorem 1 For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A is a symmetric
matrix and A A is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let B = A + A, then
B = (A + A)
= A + (A) (as (A + B) = A + B)
= A + A (as (A) = A)
= A + A (as A + B = B + A)
= B
Therefore B = A + A is a symmetric matrix
Now let C = A A
C = (A A) = A (A) (Why?)
= A A (Why?)
= (A A) = C
Therefore C = A A is a skew symmetric matrix.
Theorem 2 Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let A be a square matrix, then we can write
1 1
A (A A ) (A A )
2 2
= + +
From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A) is a symmetric matrix and (A A) is
a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA) = kA, it follows that
1
(A A )
2
+
is symmetric matrix and
1
(A A )
2

is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square
matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
MATRICES 87
Example 22 Express the matrix
2 2 4
B 1 3 4
1 2 3

=

as the sum of a symmetric and a
Solution Here
B =
2 1 1
2 3 2
4 4 3

Let P =
4 3 3
1 1
(B + B ) 3 6 2
2 2
3 2 6

=

=
3 3
2
2 2
3
3 1
2
3
1 3
2

,
Now P =
3 3
2
2 2
3
3 1
2
3
1 3
2

= P
Thus P =
1
(B+ B )
2

is a symmetric matrix.
Also, let Q =
1 5
0
2 2
0 1 5
1 1 1
(B B ) 1 0 6 0 3
2 2 2
5 6 0
5
3 0
2

= =

Then Q =
1 5
0
2 3
1
0 3 Q
2
5
3 0
2

88 MATHEMATICS
Thus Q =
1
(B B )
2

is a skew symmetric matrix.
Now
3 3 1 5
2 0
2 2 2 2
2 2 4
3 1
P + Q 3 1 0 3 1 3 4 B
2 2
1 2 3
3 5
1 3 3 0
2 2

= + = =

Thus, B is represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
(i)
5
1
2
1

(ii)
1 1
2 3

(iii)
1 5 6
3 5 6
2 3 1

2. If
1 2 3 4 1 5
A 5 7 9 and B 1 2 0
2 1 1 1 3 1

= =

, then verify that
(i) (A + B) = A + B, (ii) (A B) = A B
3. If
3 4
1 2 1
A 1 2 and B
1 2 3
0 1

= =

, then verify that
(i) (A + B) = A + B (ii) (A B) = A B
4. If
2 3 1 0
A and B
1 2 1 2

= =

, then find (A + 2B)
5. For the matrices A and B, verify that (AB) = BA, where
(i) [ ]
1
A 4 , B 1 2 1
3

= =

(ii) [ ]
0
A 1 , B 1 5 7
2

= =

MATRICES 89
6. If (i)
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

, then verify that A A = I
(ii) If
sin cos
A
cos sin

=

, then verify that A A = I
7. (i) Show that the matrix
1 1 5
A 1 2 1
5 1 3

=

is a symmetric matrix.
(ii) Show that the matrix
0 1 1
A 1 0 1
1 1 0

=

is a skew symmetric matrix.
8. For the matrix
1 5
A
6 7

=

, verify that
(i) (A + A) is a symmetric matrix
(ii) (A A) is a skew symmetric matrix
9. Find
( )
1
A A
2
+ and
( )
1
A A
2
, when
0
A 0
0
a b
a c
b c

=

10. Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix:
(i)
3 5
1 1

(ii)
6 2 2
2 3 1
2 1 3

(iii)
3 3 1
2 2 1
4 5 2

(iv)
1 5
1 2

90 MATHEMATICS
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 11 and 12.
11. If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB BA is a
(A) Skew symmetric matrix (B) Symmetric matrix
(C) Zero matrix (D) Identity matrix
12. If
cos sin
A ,
sin cos

=

then A + A = I, if the value of is
(A)
6
(B)
3
(C) (D)
3
2
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix

There are six operations (transformations) on a matrix, three of which are due to rows
and three due to columns, which are known as elementary operations or
transformations.
(i) The interchange of any two rows or two columns. Symbolically the interchange
of i
th
and j
th
rows is denoted by R
i
R
j
and interchange of i
th
and j
th
column is
denoted by C
i
C
j
.
For example, applying R
1
R
2
to
1 2 1
A 1 3 1
5 6 7

=

, we get
1 3 1
1 2 1
5 6 7

.
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero
number. Symbolically, the multiplication of each element of the i
th
row by k,
where k 0 is denoted by R
i
k R
i
.
The corresponding column operation is denoted by C
i
kC
i
For example, applying
3 3
1
C C
7
, to
1 2 1
B
1 3 1

=

, we get
1
1 2
7
1
1 3
7

(iii) The addition to the elements of any row or column, the corresponding
elements of any other row or column multiplied by any non zero number.
Symbolically, the addition to the elements of i
th
row, the corresponding elements
of j
th
row multiplied by k is denoted by R
i
R
i
+ kR
j
.
MATRICES 91
The corresponding column operation is denoted by C
i
C
i
+ kC
j
.
For example, applying R
2
R
2
2R
1
, to
1 2
C
2 1

=

, we get
1 2
0 5

.
3.8 Invertible Matrices
Definition 6 If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square
matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse
matrix of A and it is denoted by A
1
. In that case A is said to be invertible.
For example, let A =
2 3
1 2

and B =
2 3
1 2

be two matrices.
Now AB =
2 3 2 3
1 2 1 2

=
4 3 6 6 1 0
I
2 2 3 4 0 1
+
= =

+

Also BA =
1 0
I
0 1

=

. Thus B is the inverse of A, in other
words B = A
1
and A is inverse of B, i.e., A = B
1
$
Note
1. A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix, since for products BA
and AB to be defined and to be equal, it is necessary that matrices A and B
should be square matrices of the same order.
2. If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.
Theorem 3 (Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
Proof Let A = [a
ij
] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two
inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.
Since B is the inverse of A
AB = BA = I ... (1)
Since C is also the inverse of A
AC = CA = I ... (2)
Thus B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4 If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
92 MATHEMATICS
Proof From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have
(AB) (AB)
1
= 1
or A
1
(AB) (AB)
1
= A
1
I (Pre multiplying both sides by A
1
)
or (A
1
A) B (AB)
1
= A
1
(Since A
1
I = A
1
)
or IB (AB)
1
= A
1
or B (AB)
1
= A
1
or B
1
B (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
or I (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
Hence (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
3.8.1 Inverse of a matrix by elementary operations
Let X, A and B be matrices of, the same order such that X = AB. In order to apply a
sequence of elementary row operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we will apply
these row operations simultaneously on X and on the first matrix A of the product AB
on RHS.
Similarly, in order to apply a sequence of elementary column operations on the
matrix equation X = AB, we will apply, these operations simultaneously on X and on the
second matrix B of the product AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matrix such that A
1
exists, then to find A
1
using elementary row operations, write A = IA and apply a
sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix B will be the
inverse of A. Similarly, if we wish to find A
1
using column operations, then, write
A = AI and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI till we get, I = AB.
Remark In case, after applying one or more elementary row (column) operations on
A = IA (A = AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S.,
then A
1
does not exist.
Example 23 By using elementary operations, find the inverse of the matrix
1 2
A =
2 1

.
Solution In order to use elementary row operations we may write A = IA.
or
1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0
A, then A
2 1 0 1 0 5 2 1

= =

(applying R
2
R
2
2R
1
)
MATRICES 93
or
1 2
0 1

=
1 0
A
2 1
5 5

(applying R
2

1
5
R
2
)
or
1 0
0 1

=
1 2
5 5
A
2 1
5 5

(applying R
1
R
1
2R
2
)
Thus A
1
=
1 2
5 5
2 1
5 5

Alternatively, in order to use elementary column operations, we write A = AI, i.e.,
1 2
2 1

=
1 0
A
0 1

Applying C
2
C
2
2C
1
, we get
1 0
2 5

=
1 2
A
0 1

Now applying C
2

2
1
C
5
, we have
1 0
2 1

=
2
1
5
A
1
0
5

Finally, applying C
1
C
1
2C
2
, we obtain
1 0
0 1

=
1 2
5 5
A
2 1
5 5

Hence A
1
=
1 2
5 5
2 1
5 5

94 MATHEMATICS
Example 24 Obtain the inverse of the following matrix using elementary operations
0 1 2
A 1 2 3
3 1 1

=

.
Solution Write A = I A, i.e.,
0 1 2
1 2 3
3 1 1

=
1 0 0
0 1 0 A
0 0 1

or
1 2 3
0 1 2
3 1 1

=
0 1 0
1 0 0 A
0 0 1

(applying R
1
R
2
)
or
1 2 3
0 1 2
0 5 8

=
0 1 0
1 0 0 A
0 3 1

(applying R
3
R
3
3R
1
)
or
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 5 8

=
2 1 0
1 0 0 A
0 3 1

(applying R
1
R
1
2R
2
)
or
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 2

=
2 1 0
1 0 0 A
5 3 1

(applying R
3
R
3
+ 5R
2
)
or
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 1

=
2 1 0
1 0 0 A
5 3 1
2 2 2

(applying R
3

1
2
R
3
)
or
1 0 0
0 1 2
0 0 1

=
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 0 0 A
5 3 1
2 2 2

(applying R
1
R
1
+ R
3
)
MATRICES 95
or
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

=
1 1 1
2 2 2
4 3 1 A
5 3 1
2 2 2

(applying R
2
R
2
2R
3
)
Hence A
1
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
4 3 1
5 3 1
2 2 2

Alternatively, write A = AI, i.e.,
0 1 2
1 2 3
3 1 1

=
1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 1

or
1 0 2
2 1 3
1 3 1

=
0 1 0
A 1 0 0
0 0 1

(C
1
C
2
)
or
1 0 0
2 1 1
1 3 1

=
0 1 0
A 1 0 2
0 0 1

(C
3
C
3
2C
1
)
or
1 0 0
2 1 0
1 3 2

=
0 1 1
A 1 0 2
0 0 1

(C
3
C
3
+ C
2
)
or
1 0 0
2 1 0
1 3 1

=
1
0 1
2
A 1 0 1
1
0 0
2

(C
3

1
2
C
3
)
96 MATHEMATICS
or
1 0 0
0 1 0
5 3 1

=
1
2 1
2
A 1 0 1
1
0 0
2

(C
1
C
1
2C
2
)
or
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 3 1

=
1 1
1
2 2
A 4 0 1
5 1
0
2 2

(C
1
C
1
+ 5C
3
)
or
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

=
1 1 1
2 2 2
A 4 3 1
5 3 1
2 2 2

(C
2
C
2
3C
3
)
Hence A
1
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
4 3 1
5 3 1
2 2 2

Example 25 Find P
1
, if it exists, given
10 2
P
5 1

=

.
Solution We have P = I

P, i.e.,
10 2 1 0
P
5 1 0 1

=

.
or
1
1
5
5 1

=
1
0
P 10
0 1

(applying R
1

1
10
R
1
)
MATRICES 97
or
1
1
5
0 0

=
1
0
10
P
1
1
2

(applying R
2
R
2
+ 5R
1
)
We have all zeros in the second row of the left hand side matrix of the above
equation. Therefore, P
1
does not exist.
EXERCISE 3.4
Using elementary transformations, find the inverse of each of the matrices, if it exists
in Exercises 1 to 17.
1.
1 1
2 3

2.
2 1
1 1

3.
1 3
2 7

4.
2 3
5 7

5.
2 1
7 4

6.
2 5
1 3

7.
3 1
5 2

8.
4 5
3 4

9.
3 10
2 7

10.
3 1
4 2

11.
2 6
1 2

12.
6 3
2 1

13.
2 3
1 2

14.
2 1
4 2

. 15.
2 3 3
2 2 3
3 2 2

16.
1 3 2
3 0 5
2 5 0

17.
2 0 1
5 1 0
0 1 3

18. Matrices A and B will be inverse of each other only if
(A) AB = BA (B) AB = BA = 0
(C) AB = 0, BA = I (D) AB = BA = I
98 MATHEMATICS
Example 26 If
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

, then prove that
cos sin
A
sin cos
n
n n
n n

=

, n N.
Solution We shall prove the result by using principle of mathematical induction.
We have P(n) : If
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

, then
cos sin
A
sin cos
n
n n
n n

=

, n N
P(1) :
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

, so
1
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

Therefore, the result is true for n = 1.
Let the result be true for n = k. So
P(k) :
cos sin
A
sin cos

=

, then
cos sin
A
sin cos
k
k k
k k

=

Now, we prove that the result holds for n = k +1
Now A
k + 1
=
cos sin cos sin
A A
sin cos sin cos
k
k k
k k

=

=
cos cos sin sin cos sin sin cos
sin cos cos sin sin sin cos cos
k k k k
k k k k
+

+ +

=
cos ( ) sin( ) cos( 1) sin ( 1)
sin( ) cos ( ) sin ( 1) cos ( 1)
k k k k
k k k k
+ + + +
=

+ + + +

Therefore, the result is true for n = k + 1. Thus by principle of mathematical induction,
we have
cos sin
A
sin cos
n
n n
n n

=

, holds for all natural numbers.
Example 27 If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB
is symmetric if and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Solution Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore A = A and B = B.
Let AB be symmetric, then (AB) = AB
MATRICES 99
But (AB) = BA= BA (Why?)
Therefore BA = AB
Conversely, if AB = BA, then we shall show that AB is symmetric.
Now (AB) = BA
= B A (as A and B are symmetric)
= AB
Hence AB is symmetric.
Example 28 Let
2 1 5 2 2 5
A , B , C
3 4 7 4 3 8

= = =

. Find a matrix D such that
CD AB = O.
Solution Since A, B, C are all square matrices of order 2, and CD AB is well
defined, D must be a square matrix of order 2.
Let D =
a b
c d

. Then CD AB = 0 gives
or
2 5 2 1 5 2
3 8 3 4 7 4
a b
c d

= O
or
2 5 2 5 3 0
3 8 3 8 43 22
a c b d
a c b d
+ +

+ +

=
0 0
0 0

or
2 5 3 2 5
3 8 43 3 8 22
a c b d
a c b d
+ +

+ +

=
0 0
0 0

By equality of matrices, we get
2a + 5c 3 = 0 ... (1)
3a + 8c 43 = 0 ... (2)
2b + 5d = 0 ... (3)
and 3b + 8d 22 = 0 ... (4)
Solving (1) and (2), we get a = 191, c = 77. Solving (3) and (4), we get b = 110,
d = 44.
Therefore D =
191 110
77 44
a b
c d

=

100 MATHEMATICS
1. Let
0 1
A
0 0

=

, show that (aI + bA)
n
= a
n
I + na
n 1
bA, where I is the identity
matrix of order 2 and n N.
2. If
1 1 1
A 1 1 1
1 1 1

=

, prove that
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
3 3 3
A 3 3 3 , .
3 3 3
n n n
n n n n
n n n
n

=

N
3. If
3 4 1 2 4
A , then prove that A
1 1 1 2
n
n n
n n
+
= =

, where n is any positive
integer.
4. If A and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB BA is a skew symmetric
matrix.
5. Show that the matrix BAB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is
symmetric or skew symmetric.
6. Find the values of x, y, z if the matrix
0 2
A
y z
x y z
x y z

=

satisfy the equation
AA = I.
7. For what values of x : [ ]
1 2 0 0
1 2 1 2 0 1 2
1 0 2 x

= O?
8. If
3 1
A
1 2

=

, show that A
2
5A + 7I = 0.
9. Find x, if [ ]
1 0 2
5 1 0 2 1 4 O
2 0 3 1
x
x

=

MATRICES 101
10. A manufacturer produces three products x, y, z which he sells in two markets.
Annual sales are indicated below:
Market Products
I 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8,000
(a) If unit sale prices of x, y and z are Rs 2.50, Rs 1.50 and Rs 1.00, respectively,
find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix algebra.
(b) If the unit costs of the above three commodities are Rs 2.00, Rs 1.00 and 50
paise respectively. Find the gross profit.
11. Find the matrix X so that
1 2 3 7 8 9
X
4 5 6 2 4 6

=

12. If A and B are square matrices of the same order such that AB = BA, then prove
by induction that AB
n
= B
n
A. Further, prove that (AB)
n
= A
n
B
n
for all n N.
Choose the correct answer in the following questions:
13. If A =

is such that A = I, then
(A) 1 + + = 0 (B) 1 + = 0
(C) 1 = 0 (D) 1 + = 0
14. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then
(A) A is a diagonal matrix (B) A is a zero matrix
(C) A is a square matrix (D) None of these
15. If A is square matrix such that A
2
= A, then (I + A) 7 A is equal to
(A) A (B) I A (C) I (D) 3A
Summary
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m n.
[a
ij
]
m 1
is a column matrix.
[a
ij
]
1 n
is a row matrix.
An m n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.
A = [a
ij
]
m m
is a diagonal matrix if a
ij
= 0, when i j.
102 MATHEMATICS
A = [a
ij
]
n n
is a scalar matrix if a
ij
= 0, when i j, a
ij
= k, (k is some
constant), when i = j.
A = [a
ij
]
n n
is an identity matrix, if a
ij
= 1, when i = j, a
ij
= 0, when i j.
A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.
A = [a
ij
]

= [b
ij
] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) a
ij
= b
ij
for all
possible values of i and j.
kA = k[a
ij
]
m n
= [k(a
ij
)]
m n
A = (1)A
A B = A + (1) B
A + B = B + A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.
k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.
(k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant.
If A = [a
ij
]
m n
and B = [b
jk
]
n p
, then AB = C = [c
ik
]
m p
, where
1
n
ik ij jk
j
c a b
=
=

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C, (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC, (iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC
If A = [a
ij
]
m n
, then A or A
T
= [a
ji
]
n m
(i) (A) = A, (ii) (kA) = kA, (iii) (A + B) = A + B, (iv) (AB) = BA
A is a symmetric matrix if A = A.
A is a skew symmetric matrix if A = A.
Any square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a

Elementary operations of a matrix are as follows:

(i) R
i
R
j
or C
i
C
j
(ii) R
i
kR
i
or C
i
kC
i
(iii) R
i
R
i
+

kR
j
or C
i
C
i
+

kC
j
If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = BA = I, then B is the

inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A
1
and A is the inverse of B.
Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
All Mathematical truths are relative and conditional. C.P. STEINMETZ

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied about matrices
and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a system
of algebraic equations can be expressed in the form of
matrices. This means, a system of linear equations like
a
1
x + b
1
y = c
1
a
2
x + b
2
y = c
2
can be represented as
1 1 1
2 2 2
a b c x
a b c y

=

. Now, this
system of equations has a unique solution or not, is
determined by the number a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
. (Recall that if
1 1
2 2
a b
a b
or, a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
0, then the system of linear
equations has a unique solution). The number a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
which determines uniqueness of solution is associated with the matrix
1 1
2 2
A
a b
a b

=

and is called the determinant of A or det A. Determinants have wide applications in
Engineering, Science, Economics, Social Science, etc.
In this chapter, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real entries.
Also, we will study various properties of determinants, minors, cofactors and applications
of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint and inverse of a square matrix,
consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and solution of linear
equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.
4.2 Determinant
To every square matrix A = [a
ij
] of order n, we can associate a number (real or
complex) called determinant of the square matrix A, where a
ij
= (i, j)
th
element of A.
Chapter 4
DETERMINANTS
P.S. Laplace
(1749-1827)
104 MATHEMATICS
This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
numbers (real or complex) and f : M K is defined by f (A) = k, where A M and
k K, then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by | A| or det A or .
If A =
a b
c d

, then determinant of A is written as | A| =
a b
c d
= det (A)
Remarks
(i) For matrix A, | A| is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A = [a ] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two
Let A =
11 12
21 22
a a
a a

be a matrix of order 2 2,
then the determinant of A is defined as:
det (A) = |A| = = = a
11
a
22
a
21
a
12
Example 1 Evaluate
2 4
1 2
.
Solution We have
2 4
1 2
= 2(2) 4(1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
Example 2 Evaluate
1
1
x x
x x
+
Solution We have
1
1
x x
x x
+
= x (x) (x + 1) (x 1) = x
2
(x
2
1) = x
2
x
2
+ 1 = 1
4.2.3 Determinant of a matrix of order 3 3
Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in terms of
second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a determinant along
a row (or a column). There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order
DETERMINANTS 105
3 corresponding to each of three rows (R
1
, R
2
and R
3
) and three columns (C
1
, C
2
and
C
3
) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [a
ij
]
3 3
i.e., | A | =
21 22 23
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
11 12 13
a a a
Expansion along first Row (R
1
)
Step 1 Multiply first element a
11
of R
1
by (1)
(1 + 1)
[(1)
sum of suffixes in a
11] and with the
second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (R
1
) and first
column (C
1
) of | A | as a
11
lies in R
1
and C
1
,
i.e., (1)
1 + 1
a
11

22 23
32 33
a a
a a
Step 2 Multiply 2nd element a
12
of R
1
by (1)
1 + 2
[(1)
12] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R
1
) and 2nd column (C
2
)
of | A | as a
12
lies in R
1
and C
2
,
i.e., (1)
1 + 2
a
12

21 23
31 33
a a
a a
Step 3 Multiply third element a
13
of R
1
by (1)
1 + 3
[(1)
13
] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R
1
) and third column (C
3
)
of | A | as a
13
lies in R
1
and C
3
,
i.e., (1)
1 + 3
a
13

21 22
31 32
a a
a a
Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by
det A = |A| = (1)
1 + 1
a
11

22 23 21 23 1 2
12
32 33 31 33
(1)
a a a a
a
a a a a
+
+
+
21 22 1 3
13
31 32
(1)
a a
a
a a
+
or |A| = a
11
(a
22
a
33
a
32
a
23
) a
12
(a
21
a
33
a
31
a
23
)
+ a
13
(a
21
a
32
a
31
a
22
)
106 MATHEMATICS
= a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
32
a
23
a
12
a
21
a
33
+ a
12
a
31
a
23
+ a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
31
a
22
... (1)
$
Note We shall apply all four steps together.
Expansion along second row (R
2
)
| A | =
11 12 13
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
21 22 23
a a a
Expanding along R
2
,

we get
| A | =
12 13 11 13 2 1 2 2
21 22
32 33 31 33
(1) (1)
a a a a
a a
a a a a
+ +
+
11 12 2 3
23
31 32
(1)
a a
a
a a
+
+
= a
21
(a
12
a
33
a
32
a
13
) + a
22
(a
11
a
33
a
31
a
13
)
a
23
(a
11
a
32
a
31
a
12
)
| A | = a
21
a
12
a
33
+ a
21
a
32
a
13
+ a
22
a
11
a
33
a
22
a
31
a
13
a
23
a
11
a
32
+ a
23
a
31
a
12
= a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
12
a
21
a
33
+ a
12
a
23
a
31
+ a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
31
a
22
... (2)
Expansion along first Column (C
1
)
| A | =
12 13
22 23
32 33
11
21
31
a
a
a
a a
a a
a a
By expanding along C
1
, we get
| A | =
22 23 12 13 1 1 2 1
11 21
32 33 32 33
(1) ( 1)
a a a a
a a
a a a a
+ +
+
+
12 13 3 1
31
22 23
(1)
a a
a
a a
+
= a
11
(a
22
a
33
a
23
a
32
) a
21
(a
12
a
33
a
13
a
32
) + a
31
(a
12
a
23
a
13
a
22
)
DETERMINANTS 107
| A | = a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
21
a
12
a
33
+ a
21
a
13
a
32
+ a
31
a
12
a
23
a
31
a
13
a
22
= a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
12
a
21
a
33
+ a
12
a
23
a
31
+ a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
31
a
22
... (3)
Clearly, values of | A| in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of |A| by expanding along R
3
, C
2
and C
3
are equal to the
value of | A| obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column
which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (1)
i + j
, we can multiply by +1 or 1
according as (i + j) is even or odd.
(iii) Let A =
2 2
4 0

and B =
1 1
2 0

. Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also
| A| = 0 8 = 8 and | B| = 0 2 = 2.
Observe that, | A| = 4( 2) = 2
2
| B| or | A| = 2
n
| B|, where n = 2 is the order of
square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then | A| = k
n
| B |, where n = 1, 2, 3
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant =
1 2 4
1 3 0
4 1 0
.
Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C
3
), we get
=
1 3 1 2 1 2
4 0 0
4 1 4 1 1 3
+
= 4 (1 12) 0 + 0 = 52
Example 4 Evaluate =
0 sin cos
sin 0 sin
cos sin 0

.
108 MATHEMATICS
Solution Expanding along R
1
, we get
=
0 sin sin sin sin 0
0 sin cos
sin 0 cos 0 cos sin

= 0 sin (0 sin cos ) cos (sin sin 0)
= sin sin cos cos sin sin = 0
Example 5 Find values of x for which
3 3 2
1 4 1
x
x
= .
Solution We have
3 3 2
1 4 1
x
x
=
i.e. 3 x
2
= 3 8
i.e. x
2
= 8
Hence x = 2 2
EXERCISE 4.1
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
1.
2 4
5 1
2. (i)
cos sin
sin cos

(ii)
2
1 1
1 1
x x x
x x
+
+ +
3. If A =
1 2
4 2

, then show that | 2A | = 4 | A |
4. If A =
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 4

, then show that | 3 A | = 27 | A |
5. Evaluate the determinants
(i)
3 1 2
0 0 1
3 5 0
(ii)
3 4 5
1 1 2
2 3 1
DETERMINANTS 109
(iii)
0 1 2
1 0 3
2 3 0
(iv)
2 1 2
0 2 1
3 5 0
6. If A =
1 1 2
2 1 3
5 4 9

, find | A |
7. Find values of x, if
(i)
2 4 2 4
5 1 6
x
x
= (ii)
2 3 3
4 5 2 5
x
x
=
8. If
2 6 2
18 18 6
x
x
= , then x is equal to
(A) 6 (B) 6 (C) 6 (D) 0
4.3 Properties of Determinants
In the previous section, we have learnt how to expand the determinants. In this section,
we will study some properties of determinants which simplifies its evaluation by obtaining
maximum number of zeros in a row or a column. These properties are true for
determinants of any order. However, we shall restrict ourselves upto determinants of
order 3 only.
Property 1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns
are interchanged.
Verification Let =
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
c c c
Expanding along first row, we get
=
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
b b b b b b
a a a
c c c c c c
+
= a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
By interchanging the rows and columns of , we get the determinant
1
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
a b c
a b c
a b c
110 MATHEMATICS
Expanding
1
along first column, we get
1
= a
1
(b
2
c
3
c
2
b
3
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
Hence =
1
Remark It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then
det (A) = det (A), where A = transpose of A.
$
Note If R
i
= ith row and C
i
= ith column, then for interchange of row and
columns, we will symbolically write C
i
R
i
Let us verify the above property by example.
Example 6 Verify Property 1 for =
2 3 5
6 0 4
1 5 7
Solution Expanding the determinant along first row, we have
=
0 4 6 4 6 0
2 (3) 5
5 7 1 7 1 5
+
= 2 (0 20) + 3 ( 42 4) + 5 (30 0)
= 40 138 + 150 = 28
By interchanging rows and columns, we get
1
=
2 6 1
3 0 5
5 4 7
(Expanding along first column)
=
0 5 6 1 6 1
2 (3) 5
4 7 4 7 0 5
+
= 2 (0 20) + 3 ( 42 4) + 5 (30 0)
= 40 138 + 150 = 28
Clearly =
1
Hence, Property 1 is verified.
Property 2 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign
of determinant changes.
Verification Let =
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
c c c
DETERMINANTS 111
= a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
Interchanging first and third rows, the new determinant obtained is given by
1
=
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
c c c
b b b
a a a
Expanding along third row, we get
1
= a
1
(c
2
b
3
b
2
c
3
) a
2
(c
1
b
3
c
3
b
1
) + a
3
(b
2
c
1
b
1
c
2
)
= [a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)]
Clearly
1
=
Similarly, we can verify the result by interchanging any two columns.
$
Note We can denote the interchange of rows by R
i
R
j
and interchange of
columns by C
i
C
j
.
Example 7 Verify Property 2 for =
2 3 5
6 0 4
1 5 7
.
Solution =
2 3 5
6 0 4
1 5 7
= 28 (See Example 6)
Interchanging rows R
2
and R
3
i.e., R
2
R
3
, we have
1
=
2 3 5
1 5 7
6 0 4
Expanding the determinant
1
along first row, we have
1
=
5 7 1 7 1 5
2 (3) 5
0 4 6 4 6 0
+
= 2 (20 0) + 3 (4 + 42) + 5 (0 30)
= 40 + 138 150 = 28
112 MATHEMATICS
Clearly
1
=
Hence, Property 2 is verified.
Property 3 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding
elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.
Proof If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant , then
does not change. However, by Property 2, it follows that has changed its sign
Therefore =
or = 0
Let us verify the above property by an example.
Example 8 Evaluate =
3 2 3
2 2 3
3 2 3
Solution Expanding along first row, we get
= 3 (6 6) 2 (6 9) + 3 (4 6)
= 0 2 (3) + 3 (2) = 6 6 = 0
Here R
1
and R
3
are identical.
Property 4 If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a
constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.
Verification Let =
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
a b c
a b c
a b c
and
1
be the determinant obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by k.
Then
1
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
k a k b k c
a b c
a b c
1
= k a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) k b
1
(a
2
c
3
c
2
a
3
) + k c
1
(a
2
b
3
b
2
a
3
)
= k [a
1
(b
2
c
3
b
3
c
2
) b
1
(a
2
c
3
c
2
a
3
) + c
1
(a
2
b
3
b
2
a
3
)]
= k
DETERMINANTS 113
Hence
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
k a k b k c
a b c
a b c
= k
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
a b c
a b c
a b c
Remarks
(i) By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or any
one column of a given determinant.
(ii) If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
proportional (in the same ratio), then its value is zero. For example
=
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
k a k a k a
= 0 (rows R
1
and R
2
are proportional)
Example 9 Evaluate
102 18 36
1 3 4
17 3 6
Solution Note that
6(17) 6(3) 6(6) 17 3 6 102 18 36
1 3 4 1 3 4 6 1 3 4 0
17 3 6 17 3 6 17 3 6
= = =
(Using Properties 3 and 4)
Property 5 If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed
as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two
(or more) determinants.
For example,
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
c c c
+ + +
=
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
a a a
b b b b b b
c c c c c c

+
Verification L.H.S. =
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
c c c
+ + +
114 MATHEMATICS
Expanding the determinants along the first row, we get
= (a
1
+
1
) (b
2
c
3
c
2
b
3
) (a
2
+
2
) (b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
)
+ (a
3
+
3
) (b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
= a
1
(b
2
c
3
c
2
b
3
) a
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) + a
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
+
1
(b
2
c
3
c
2
b
3
)
2
(b
1
c
3
b
3
c
1
) +
3
(b
1
c
2
b
2
c
1
)
(by rearranging terms)
=
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
a a a
b b b b b b
c c c c c c

+
= R.H.S.
Similarly, we may verify Property 5 for other rows or columns.
2 2 2 0
a b c
a x b y c z
x y z
+ + + =
Solution We have
2 2 2
a b c
a x b y c z
x y z
+ + +
=
2 2 2
a b c a b c
a b c x y z
x y z x y z
+
(by Property 5)
= 0 + 0 = 0 (Using Property 3 and Property 4)
Property 6 If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples
of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then value of determinant
remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation
R
i
R
i
+ kR
j
or C
i
C
i
+ k C
j
.
Verification
Let =
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a a a
b b b
c c c
and
1
=
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
a k c a k c a k c
b b b
c c c
+ + +
,
where
1
is obtained by the operation R
1
R
1
+ kR
3
.
Here, we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R
3
) by a constant k and
added them to the corresponding elements of the first row (R
1
).
Symbolically, we write this operation as R
1
R
1
+ k R
3
.
DETERMINANTS 115
Now, again
1
=
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
a a a k c k c k c
b b b b b b
c c c c c c
+
(Using Property 5)
= + 0 (since R
1
and R
3
are proportional)
Hence =
1
Remarks
(i) If
1
is the determinant obtained by applying R
i
kR
i
or C
i
kC
i
to the
determinant , then
1
= k.
(ii) If more than one operation like R
i
R
i
+ kR
j
is done in one step, care should be
taken to see that a row that is affected in one operation should not be used in
another operation. A similar remark applies to column operations.
Example 11 Prove that
3
2 3 2 4 3 2
3 6 3 10 6 3
a a b a b c
a a b a b c a
a a b a b c
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + +
.
Solution Applying operations R
2
R
2
2R
1
and R
3
R
3
3R
1
to the given
determinant , we have
=
0 2
0 3 7 3
a a b a b c
a a b
a a b
+ + +
+
+
Now applying R
3
R
3
3R
2
, we get
=
0 2
0 0
a a b a b c
a a b
a
+ + +
+
Expanding along C
1
, we obtain
=
2
0
a a b
a
a
+
+ 0 + 0
= a (a
2
0) = a (a
2
) = a
3
116 MATHEMATICS
Example 12 Without expanding, prove that
=
0
1 1 1
x y y z z x
z x y
+ + +
=
Solution Applying R
1
R
1
+ R
2
to , we get
=
1 1 1
x y z x y z x y z
z x y
+ + + + + +
Since the elements of R
1
and R
3
are proportional, = 0.
Example 13 Evaluate
=
1
1
1
a bc
b ca
c ab
Solution Applying R
2
R
2
R
1
and R
3
R
3
R
1
, we get
=
1
0 ( )
0 ( )
a bc
b a c a b
c a b a c

Taking factors (b a) and (c a) common from R
2
and R
3
, respectively, we get
=
1
( ) ( ) 0 1
0 1
a bc
b a c a c
b

= (b a) (c a) [( b + c)] (Expanding along first column)
= (a b) (b c) (c a)
Example 14 Prove that 4
b c a a
b c a b abc
c c a b
+
+ =
+
Solution Let =
b c a a
b c a b
c c a b
+
+
+
DETERMINANTS 117
Applying R
1
R
1
R
2
R
3
to , we get
=
0 2 2 c b
b c a b
c c a b
+
+
Expanding along R
1
, we obtain
=
0 (2 )
c a b b b
c
c a b c a b
+
+ +

(2 )
b c a
b
c c
+
+
= 2 c (a b + b
2
bc) 2 b (b c c
2
ac)
= 2 a b c + 2 cb
2
2 bc
2
2 b
2
c + 2 bc
2
+ 2 abc
= 4 abc
Example 15 If x, y, z are different and
2 3
2 3
2 3
1
1 0
1
x x x
y y y
z z z
+
= + =
+
, then
show that 1 + xyz = 0
Solution We have
=
2 3
2 3
2 3
1
1
1
x x x
y y y
z z z
+
+
+
=
2 2 3
2 2 3
2 2 3
1
1
1
x x x x x
y y y y y
z z z z z
+
(Using Property 5)
=
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
1 1
( 1) 1 1
1 1
x x x x
y y xyz y y
z z z z
+ (Using C
3
C
2
and then C
1
C
2
)
=
2
2
2
1
1 (1 )
1
x x
y y xyz
z z
+
118 MATHEMATICS
= ( )
2
2 2
2 2
1
1 0
0
x x
xyz y x y x
z x z x
+

(Using R
2
R
2
R
1
and R
3
R
3
R
1
)
Taking out common factor (y x) from R
2
and (z x) from R
3
, we get
=
2
1
(1+ ) ( ) ( ) 0 1
0 1
x x
xyz y x z x y x
z x
+
+
= (1 + xyz) (y x) (z x) (z y) (on expanding along C
1
)
Since = 0 and x, y, z are all different, i.e., x y 0, y z 0, z x 0, we get
1 + xyz = 0
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
a
b abc abc bc ca ab
a b c
c
+

+ = + + + = + + +

+
Solution Taking out factors a,b,c common from R
1
, R
2
and R
3
, we get
L.H.S. =
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1
a a a
abc
b b b
c c c
+
+
+
Applying R
1
R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
, we have
=
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1
a b c a b c a b c
abc
b b b
c c c
+ + + + + + + + +
+
+
DETERMINANTS 119
=
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ 1
1 1 1
1
abc
a b c b b b
c c c

+ + +

+
Now applying C
2
C
2
C
1
, C
3
C
3
C
1
, we get
=
1 0 0
1 1 1 1
1+ 1 0
1
0 1
abc
a b c b
c

+ +

=
( )
1 1 1
1 1 1 0 abc
a b c

+ + +

=
1 1 1
1+ abc
a b c

+ +

= abc + bc + ca + ab = R.H.S.
$
Note Alternately try by applying C
1
C
1
C
2
and C
3
C
3
C
2
, then apply
C
1
C
1
a C
3
.
EXERCISE 4.2
Using the property of determinants and without expanding in Exercises 1 to 7, prove
that:
1. 0
x a x a
y b y b
z c z c
+
+ =
+
2.
0
a b b c c a
b c c a a b
c a a b b c

=

3.
2 7 65
3 8 75 0
5 9 86
= 4.
( )
( )
( )
1
1 0
1
bc a b c
ca b c a
ab c a b
+
+ =
+
5.
2
b c q r y z a p x
c a r p z x b q y
a b p q x y c r z
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + +
120 MATHEMATICS
6.
0
0 0
0
a b
a c
b c
=
7.
2
2 2 2 2
2
4
a ab ac
ba b bc a b c
ca cb c
By using properties of determinants, in Exercises 8 to 14, show that:

8. (i) ( )( )( )
2
2
2
1
1
1
a a
b b a b b c c a
c c
=
(ii) ( )( )( )( )
3 3 3
1 1 1
a b c a b b c c a a b c
a b c
= + +
9.
2
2
2
x x yz
y y zx
z z xy
= (x y) (y z) (z x) (xy + yz + zx)
10. (i) ( )( )
2
4 2 2
2 4 5 4 4
2 2 4
x+ x x
x x+ 2x x x
x x x+
= +
(ii) ( )
2
3
y+k y y
y y +k y k y k
y y y +k
= +
11. (i) ( )
3
2 2
2 2
2 2
a b c a a
b b c a b a b c
c c c a b

= + +

(ii) ( )
3
2
2 2
2
x y z x y
z y z x y x y z
z x z x y
+ +
+ + = + +
+ +
DETERMINANTS 121
12. ( )
2
2
2 3
2
1
1 1
1
x x
x x x
x x
=
13.
( )
2 2
3
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 2 2
2 1 2 1
2 2 1
a b ab b
ab a b a a b
b a a b
+
+ = + +

14.
2
2 2 2 2
2
1
1 1
1
a ab ac
ab b bc a b c
ca cb c
+
+ = + + +
+
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 15 and 16.
15. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 3, then | kA| is equal to
(A) k| A| (B) k
2
| A| (C) k
3
| A| (D) 3k | A|
16. Which of the following is correct
(A) Determinant is a square matrix.
(B) Determinant is a number associated to a matrix.
(C) Determinant is a number associated to a square matrix.
(D) None of these
4.4 Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are
(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
) and (x
3
, y
3
), is given by the expression
1
2
[x
1
(y
2
y
3
) + x
2
(y
3
y
1
) +
x
3
(y
1
y
2
)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
=
1 1
2 2
3 3
1
1
1
2
1
x y
x y
x y
... (1)
Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).
122 MATHEMATICS
(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 17 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), ( 4, 2) and (5, 1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
=
3 8 1
1
4 2 1
2
5 1 1
= ( ) ( ) ( )
1
3 2 1 8 4 5 1 4 10
2
+

= ( )
1 61
3 72 14
2 2
+ =
Example 18 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using determinants
and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq units.
Solution Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?). So
0 0 1
1
1 3 1
2
1 x y
= 0
This gives ( )
1
3
2
y x
= 0 or y = 3x,
which is the equation of required line AB.
Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have
1 3 1
1
0 0 1
2
0 1 k
= 3
This gives,
3
3
2
k
= , i.e., k = 2.
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the following :
(i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3) (ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (2, 3), (3, 2), (1, 8)
DETERMINANTS 123
2. Show that points
A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2) (ii) (2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then k is
(A) 12 (B) 2 (C) 12, 2 (D) 12, 2
4.5 Minors and Cofactors
In this section, we will learn to write the expansion of a determinant in compact form
using minors and cofactors.
Definition 1 Minor of an element a
ij
of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which element a
ij
lies. Minor of an element a
ij
is
denoted by M
ij
.
Remark Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n 2) is a determinant of
order n 1.
Example 19 Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
=
Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M
23
is given by
M
23
=
1 2
7 8
= 8 14 = 6 (obtained by deleting R
2
and C
3
in ).
Definition 2 Cofactor of an element a
ij
, denoted by A
ij
is defined by
A
ij
= (1)
i + j
M
ij
, where M
ij
is minor of a
ij
.
Example 20 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
1 2
4 3
Solution Minor of the element a
ij
is M
ij
Here a
11
= 1. So M
11
= Minor of a
11
= 3
M
12

= Minor of the element a
12
= 4
M
21
21
= 2
124 MATHEMATICS
M
22
22
= 1
Now, cofactor of a
ij
is A
ij
. So
A
11
= (1)
1 + 1
M
11
= (1)
2
(3) = 3
A
12
= (1)
1 + 2
M
12
= (1)
3
(4) = 4
A
21
= (1)
2 + 1
M
21
= (1)
3
(2) = 2
A
22
= (1)
2 + 2
M
22
= (1)
4
(1) = 1
Example 21 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a
11
, a
21
in the determinant
=
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
a a a
Solution By definition of minors and cofactors, we have
Minor of a
11
= M
11
=
22 23
32 33
a a
a a
= a
22
a
33
a
23
a
32
Cofactor of a
11
= A
11
= (1)
1+1
M
11
= a
22
a
33
a
23
a
32
Minor of a
21
= M
21
=
12 13
32 33
a a
a a
= a
12
a
33
a
13
a
32
Cofactor of a
21
= A
21
= (1)
2+1
M
21
= (1) (a
12
a
33
a
13
a
32
) = a
12
a
33
+ a
13
a
32
Remark Expanding the determinant , in Example 21, along R
1
, we have
= (1)
1+1
a
11

22 23
32 33
a a
a a
+ (1)
1+2
a
12

21 23
31 33
a a
a a
+ (1)
1+3
a
13

21 22
31 32
a a
a a
= a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13
, where A
ij
is cofactor of a
ij
= sum of product of elements of R
1
with their corresponding cofactors
Similarly, can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R
2
, R
3
,
C
1
, C
2
and C
3
.
Hence = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.
$
Note If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example,
DETERMINANTS 125
= a
11
A
21
+ a
12
A
22
+ a
13
A
23
= a
11
(1)
1+1

12 13
32 33
a a
a a
+ a
12
(1)
1+2
11 13
31 33
a a
a a
+ a
13
(1)
1+3
11 12
31 32
a a
a a
=
11 12 13
11 12 13
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
a a a
= 0 (since R
1
and R
2
are identical)
Similarly, we can try for other rows and columns.
Example 22 Find minors and cofactors of the elements of the determinant
2 3 5
6 0 4
1 5 7
and verify that a

11
A
31
+ a
12
A
32
+ a
13
A
33
= 0
Solution We have M
11
=
0 4
5 7
= 0 20 = 20; A
11
= (1)
1+1
(20) = 20
M
12
=
6 4
1 7
= 42 4 = 46; A
12
= (1)
1+2
( 46) = 46
M
13
=
6 0
1 5
= 30 0 = 30; A
13
= (1)
1+3
(30) = 30
M
21
=
3 5
5 7
= 21 25 = 4; A
21
= (1)
2+1
( 4) = 4
M
22
=
2 5
1 7
= 14 5 = 19; A
22
= (1)
2+2
(19) = 19
M
23
=
2 3
1 5
= 10 + 3 = 13; A
23
= (1)
2+3
(13) = 13
M
31
=
3 5
0 4
= 12 0 = 12; A
31
= (1)
3+1
(12) = 12
126 MATHEMATICS
M
32
=
2 5
6 4
= 8 30 = 22; A
32
= (1)
3+2
(22) = 22
and M
33
=
2 3
6 0
= 0 + 18 = 18; A
33
= (1)
3+3
(18) = 18
Now a
11
= 2, a
12
= 3, a
13
= 5; A
31
= 12, A
32
= 22, A
33
= 18
So a
11
A
31
+ a
12
A
32
+ a
13
A
33
= 2 (12) + (3) (22) + 5 (18) = 24 66 + 90 = 0
EXERCISE 4.4
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
1. (i)
2 4
0 3
(ii)
a c
b d
2. (i)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(ii)
1 0 4
3 5 1
0 1 2
3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate =

5 3 8
2 0 1
1 2 3
.
4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate =
1
1
1
x yz
y zx
z xy
.
5. If =
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
a a a
and A
ij
is Cofactors of a
ij
, then value of is given by
(A) a
11
A
31
+ a
12
A
32
+ a
13
A
33
(B) a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
21
+ a
13
A
31
(C) a
21
A
11
+ a
22
A
12
+ a
23
A
13
(D) a
11
A
11
+ a
21
A
21
+ a
31
A
31
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
In the previous chapter, we have studied inverse of a matrix. In this section, we shall
discuss the condition for existence of inverse of a matrix.
To find inverse of a matrix A, i.e., A
1
we shall first define adjoint of a matrix.
DETERMINANTS 127
4.6.1 Adjoint of a matrix
Definition 3 The adjoint of a square matrix A = [a
ij
]
n n
is defined as the transpose of
the matrix [A
ij
]
n n
, where A
ij
is the cofactor of the element a
ij
. Adjoint of the matrix A
is denoted by adj A.
Let
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
A =
a a a
a a a
a a a

Then
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
A A A
A =Transposeof A A A
A A A
adj

11 21 31
12 22 32
13 23 33
A A A
= A A A
A A A

Example 23
2 3
Find A for A =
1 4
adj

Solution We have A
11
= 4, A
12
= 1, A
21
= 3, A
22
= 2
Hence adj A =
11 21
12 22
A A 4 3
=
A A 1 2

Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by
A =
11 12
21 22
a a
a a

The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a
11
and a
22
and by changing signs
of a
12
and a
21
, i.e.,
We state the following theorem without proof.
Theorem 1 If A be any given square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I ,
where I is the identity matrix of order n
128 MATHEMATICS
Verification
Let A =
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
a a a
a a a
a a a

, then adj A =
11 21 31
12 22 32
13 23 33
A A A
A A A
A A A

Since sum of product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding
cofactors is equal to | A| and otherwise zero, we have
A (adj A) =
A 0 0
0 A 0
0 0 A

= A
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

= A I
Similarly, we can show (adj A) A = A I
Hence A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I
Definition 4 A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0.
For example, the determinant of matrix A =
1 2
4 8

is zero
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A 0
Let A =
1 2
3 4

. Then
A
=
1 2
3 4
= 4 6 = 2 0.
Hence A is a nonsingular matrix
We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, AB = A B , where A and B are square matrices of
the same order
Remark We know that (adj A) A = A I =
A 0 0
0 A 0
0 0 A

DETERMINANTS 129
Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have
( A) A adj =
A 0 0
0 A 0
0 0 A
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| =
3
1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 1
(Why?)
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = | A|
3
(1)
i.e. |(adj A)| = | A|
2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then | adj (A) | = | A|
n 1
.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
Now AB = I. So AB = I or A B = 1 (since I 1, AB A B) = =
This gives A 0. Hence A is nonsingular.
Conversely, let A be nonsingular. Then A 0
Now A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I (Theorem 1)
or A
1 1
A A A I
| A| | A|
adj adj

= =

or AB = BA = I, where B =
1
A
| A|
adj
Thus A is invertible and A
1
=
1
A
| A|
adj
Example 24 If A =
1 3 3
1 4 3
1 3 4

, then verify that A adj A = | A| I. Also find A
1
.
Solution We have A = 1

(16 9) 3 (4 3) + 3 (3 4) = 1 0
130 MATHEMATICS
Now A
11
= 7, A
12
= 1, A
13
= 1, A
21
= 3, A
22
= 1,A
23
= 0, A
31
= 3, A
32
= 0,
A
33
= 1
Therefore adj A =
7 3 3
1 1 0
1 0 1

Now A (adj A) =
1 3 3 7 3 3
1 4 3 1 1 0
1 3 4 1 0 1

=
7 3 3 3 3 0 3 0 3
7 4 3 3 4 0 3 0 3
7 3 4 3 3 0 3 0 4
+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

= (1)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

= A . I
Also
1 1
A A
A
adj
= =
7 3 3
1
1 1 0
1
1 0 1

=
7 3 3
1 1 0
1 0 1

Example 25 If A =
2 3 1 2
and B
1 4 1 3

=

, then verify that (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
Solution We have AB =
2 3 1 2 1 5
1 4 1 3 5 14

=

Since,
AB
= 11 0, (AB)
1
exists and is given by
(AB)
1
=
14 5 1 1
(AB)
5 1 AB 11
adj

=

14 5 1
5 1 11

=

Further, A = 11 0 and B = 1 0. Therefore, A
1
and B
1
both exist and are given by
A
1
=
1
4 3 3 2 1
, B
1 2 1 1 11

DETERMINANTS 131
Therefore
1 1
3 2 4 3 1
B A
1 1 1 2 11

=

14 5 1
5 1 11

=

14 5
1
5 1 11

=

Hence (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
Example 26 Show that the matrix A =
2 3
1 2

satisfies the equation A
2
4A + I

= O,
where I is 2 2 identity matrix and O is 2 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A
1
.
Solution We have
2
2 3 2 3 7 12
A A.A
1 2 1 2 4 7

= = =

Hence
2
7 12 8 12 1 0
A 4A I
4 7 4 8 0 1

+ = +

0 0
O
0 0

= =

Now A
2
4A + I = O
Therefore A A 4A = I
or A A (A
1
) 4 A A
1
= I A
1
(Post multiplying by A
1
because |A| 0)
or A (A A
1
) 4I = A
1
or AI 4I = A
1
or A
1
= 4I A =
4 0 2 3 2 3
0 4 1 2 1 2

=

Hence
1
2 3
A
1 2

EXERCISE 4.5
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.
1.
1 2
3 4

2.
1 1 2
2 3 5
2 0 1

Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A| I in Exercises 3 and 4
3.
2 3
4 6

4.
1 1 2
3 0 2
1 0 3

132 MATHEMATICS
Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.
5.
2 2
4 3

6.
1 5
3 2

7.
1 2 3
0 2 4
0 0 5

8.
1 0 0
3 3 0
5 2 1

9.
2 1 3
4 1 0
7 2 1

10.
1 1 2
0 2 3
3 2 4

11.
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos

12. Let A =
3 7
2 5

and B =
6 8
7 9

. Verify that (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
13. If A =
3 1
1 2

, show that A
2
5A + 7I = O. Hence find A
1
.
14. For the matrix A =
3 2
1 1

, find the numbers a and b such that A
2
+ aA + bI = O.
15. For the matrix A =
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 1 3

Show that A
3
6A
2
+ 5A + 11 I = O. Hence, find A
1
.
16. If A =
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2

Verify that A
3
6A
2
+ 9A 4I = O and hence find A
1
17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 3. Then | adj A| is equal to
(A) | A| (B) | A|
2
(C) | A|
3
(D) 3| A|
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A
1
) is equal to
(A) det (A) (B)
1
det (A)
(C) 1 (D) 0
DETERMINANTS 133
4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices
In this section, we shall discuss application of determinants and matrices for solving the
system of linear equations in two or three variables and for checking the consistency of
the system of linear equations.
Consistent system A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one
or more) exists.
Inconsistent system A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution
does not exist.
$
Note In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to the system of linear equations
having unique solutions only.
4.7.1 Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix
Let us express the system of linear equations as matrix equations and solve them using
inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Consider the system of equations
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = d
1
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = d
2
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z = d
3
Let A =
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
, X and B
a b c x d
a b c y d
a b c z d

= =

Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
a b c x
a b c y
a b c z

=
1
2
3
d
d
d

Case I If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now
AX = B
or A
1
(AX) = A
1
B (premultiplying by A
1
)
or (A
1
A) X = A
1
B (by associative property)
or I X = A
1
B
or X = A
1
B
This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations as
inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is known as
Matrix Method.
134 MATHEMATICS
Case II If A is a singular matrix, then | A| = 0.
In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.
If (adj A) B O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the
system of equations is called inconsistent.
If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according
as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.
Example 27 Solve the system of equations
2x + 5y = 1
3x + 2y = 7
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
A =
2 5 1
, X and B
3 2 7
x
y

= =

Now, A = 11 0, Hence, A is nonsingular matrix and so has a unique solution.
Note that A
1
=
2 5 1
3 2 11

Therefore X = A
1
B =
2 5 1 1
3 2 7 11

i.e.
x
y

=
33 3 1
11 1 11

=

Hence x = 3, y = 1
Example 28 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.
3x 2y + 3z = 8
2x + y z = 1
4x 3y + 2z = 4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
3 2 3 8
A 2 1 1 , X and B 1
4 3 2 4
x
y
z

= = =

We see that
A = 3 (2 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 ( 6 4) = 17 0
DETERMINANTS 135
Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists. Now
A
11
= 1, A
12
= 8, A
13
= 10
A
21
= 5, A
22
= 6, A
23
= 1
A
31
= 1, A
32
= 9, A
33
= 7
Therefore A
1
=
1 5 1
1
8 6 9
17
10 1 7

So X =
1
1 5 1 8
1
A B = 8 6 9 1
17
10 1 7 4

i.e.
x
y
z

=
17 1
1
34 2
17
51 3

=

Hence x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
Example 29 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add
second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we get double of the
second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z, respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x + y + z = 6
y + 3z = 11
x + z = 2y or x 2y + z = 0
This system can be written as A X = B, where
A =
1 1 1
0 1 3
1 2 1

, X =

x
y
z
and B =
6
11
0

Here ( ) ( ) A 1 1 6 (0 3) 0 1 9 0 = + + = . Now we find adj A
A
11
= 1 (1 + 6) = 7, A
12
= (0 3) = 3, A
13
= 1
A
21
= (1 + 2) = 3, A
22
= 0, A
23
= ( 2 1) = 3
A
31
= (3 1) = 2, A
32
= (3 0) = 3, A
33
= (1 0) = 1
136 MATHEMATICS
Hence adj A =
7 3 2
3 0 3
1 3 1

Thus A
1
=
1
A
adj (A) =
7 3 2
1
3 0 3
9
1 3 1

Since X = A
1
B
X =
7 3 2 6
1
3 0 3 11
9
1 3 1 0

or

x
y
z
=
1
9

42 33 0
18 0 0
6 33 0
+

+ +

+ +

=
1
9

9
18
27

=
1
2
3

Thus x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
EXERCISE 4.6
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2 2. 2x y = 5 3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3 x + y = 4 2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1 5. 3xy 2z = 2 6. 5x y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 2z = 2 2y z = 1 2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4 3x 5y = 3 5x 2y + 6z = 1
Solve system of linear equations, using matrix method, in Exercises 7 to 14.
7. 5x + 2y = 4 8. 2x y = 2 9. 4x 3y = 3
7x + 3y = 5 3x + 4y = 3 3x 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3 11. 2x + y + z = 1 12. x y + z = 4
3x + 2y = 5 x 2y z =
3
2
2x + y 3z = 0
3y 5z = 9 x + y + z = 2
13. 2x + 3y +3 z = 5 14. x y + 2z = 7
x 2y + z = 4 3x + 4y 5z = 5
3x y 2z = 3 2x y + 3z = 12
DETERMINANTS 137
15. If A =
2 3 5
3 2 4
1 1 2

, find A
1
. Using A
1
solve the system of equations
2x 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y 4z = 5
x + y 2z = 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is Rs 60. The cost of 2 kg onion,
4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is Rs 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg
rice is Rs 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.
Example 30 If a, b, c are positive and unequal, show that value of the determinant
=
a b c
b c a
c a b
is negative.
Solution Applying C
1
C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
to the given determinant, we get
=
a b c b c
a b c c a
a b c a b
+ +
+ +
+ +
= (a + b + c)
1
1
1
b c
c a
a b
= (a + b + c)
1
0
0
b c
c b a c
a b b c
(ApplyingR
2
R
2
R
1
,andR
3
R
3
R
1
)
= (a + b + c) [(c b) (b c) (a c) (a b)] (Expanding along C
1
)
= (a + b + c)( a
2
b
2
c
2
+ ab + bc + ca)
=
1
2
(a + b + c) (2a
2
+ 2b
2
+ 2c
2
2ab 2bc 2ca)
=
1
2
(a + b + c) [(a b)
2
+ (b c)
2

+ (c a)
2
]
which is negative (since a + b + c > 0 and (a b)
2
+ (b c)
2

+ (c a)
2

> 0)
138 MATHEMATICS
Example 31 If a, b, c, are in A.P, find value of
2 4 5 7 8
3 5 6 8 9
4 6 7 9 10
y y y a
y y y b
y y y c
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
Solution Applying R
1
R
1
+ R
3
2R
2
to the given determinant, we obtain
0 0 0
3 5 6 8 9
4 6 7 9 10
y y y b
y y y c
+ + +
+ + +
= 0 (Since 2b = a + c)
=
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
y z xy zx
xy x z yz
xz yz x y
+
+
+
= 2xyz (x + y + z)
3
Solution Applying R
1
xR
1
, R
2
yR
2
,

R
3
zR
3
to and dividing by xyz, we get
=
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
1
+
+
+
x y z x y x z
xy y x z y z
xyz
xz yz z x y
Taking common factors x, y, z from C
1
C
2
and C
3
, respectively, we get
=
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
y z x x
xyz
y x z y
xyz
z z x y
+
+
+
Applying C
2
C
2
C
1
, C
3
C
3
C
1
,

we have
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
0
0
y z x y z x y z
y x z y
z x y z
+ + +
+
+
DETERMINANTS 139
Taking common factor (x + y + z) from C
2
and C
3
, we have
= (x + y + z)
2

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
y
0
0
z x y z x y z
y x z y
z x y z
+ + +
+
+
Applying R
1
R
1
(R
2
+ R
3
), we have
= (x + y + z)
2

2
2
2 2 2
+ 0
0 z
yz z y
y x y z
z x y
+
Applying C
2
(C
2
+
1
y
C
1
) and
3 3 1
1
C C C

+

z
, we get
= (x + y + z)
2

2
2
2
2
2 0 0
+
+
yz
y
y x z
z
z
z x y
y
Finally expanding along R
1
, we have
= (x + y + z)
2
(2yz) [(x + z) (x + y) yz] = (x + y + z)
2
(2yz) (x
2
+ xy + xz)
= (x + y + z)
3
(2xyz)
Example 33 Use product
1 1 2 2 0 1
0 2 3 9 2 3
3 2 4 6 1 2

to solve the system of equations
x y + 2z = 1
2y 3z = 1
3x 2y + 4z = 2
Solution Consider the product
1 1 2 2 0 1
0 2 3 9 2 3
3 2 4 6 1 2

140 MATHEMATICS
=
2 9 12 0 2 2 1 3 4
0 18 18 0 4 3 0 6 6
6 18 24 0 4 4 3 6 8
+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Hence
1
1 1 2 2 0 1
0 2 3 9 2 3
3 2 4 6 1 2

=

Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows
1 1 2
0 2 3
3 2 4
x
y
z

=
1
1
2

or

x
y
z
=
1
1 1 2 1
0 2 3 1
3 2 4 2

=
2 0 1
9 2 3
6 1 2

1
1
2

=
2 0 2 0
9 2 6 5
6 1 4 3
+ +

+ =

+

Hence x = 0, y = 5 and z = 3
Example 34 Prove that
=
2
(1 )
a bx c dx p qx a c p
ax b cx d px q x b d q
u v w u v w
+ + +
+ + + =
Solution Applying R
1
R
1
x R
2
to , we get
=
2 2 2
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) a x c x p x
ax b cx d px q
u v w

+ + +
=
2
(1 )
a c p
x ax b cx d px q
u v w
+ + +
DETERMINANTS 141
Applying R
2
R
2
x R
1
, we get
=
2
(1 )
a c p
x b d q
u v w
Miscellaneous Exercises on Chapter 4

1. Prove that the determinant
sin cos
sin 1
cos 1
x
x
x

is independent of .
2. Without expanding the determinant, prove that
2 2 3
2 2 3
2 2 3
1
1
1
=
a a bc a a
b b ca b b
c c ab c c
.
3. Evaluate
cos cos cos sin sin
sin cos 0
sin cos sin sin cos

.
4. If a, b and c are real numbers, and
=
b c c a a b
c a a b b c
a b b c c a
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

= 0,
Show that either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.
5. Solve the equation 0
x a x x
x x a x
x x x a
+
+ =
+
, a 0
6. Prove that
2 2
2 2
2 2
+
+
+
a bc ac c
a ab b ac
ab b bc c
= 4a
2
b
2
c
2
7. If A
1
=
( )
1
3 1 1 1 2 2
15 6 5 and B 1 3 0 , find AB
5 2 2 0 2 1

=

142 MATHEMATICS
8. Let A =
1 2 1
2 3 1
1 1 5

. Verify that
(i) [adj A]
1
= adj (A
1
) (ii) (A
1
)
1
= A
9. Evaluate
x y x y
y x y x
x y x y
+
+
+
10. Evaluate
1
1
1
x y
x y y
x x+ y
+
Using properties of determinants in Exercises 11 to 15, prove that:
11.
2
2
2
+
+
+
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( + + )
12.
2 3
2 3
2 3
1
1
1
+
+
+
x x px
y y py
z z pz
= (1 + pxyz) (x y) (y z) (z x), where p is any scalar.
13.
3
3
a 3c
a a+b a+c
b a b b c
c c+b
+ +
+
= 3(a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca)
14.
1 1 1
2 3 2 4 3 2
3 6 3 10 6 3
p p q
p p q
p p q
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
= 1 15.
( )
( )
( )
sin cos cos
sin cos cos 0
sin cos cos
+
+ =
+
16. Solve the system of equations
2 3 10
4 + + =
x y z
DETERMINANTS 143
4 6 5
1 + =
x y z
6 9 20
2 + =
x y z
Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.
17. If a, b, c, are in A.P, then the determinant
2 3 2
3 4 2
4 5 2
x x x a
x x x b
x x x c
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) x (D) 2x
18. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix
0 0
A 0 0
0 0
x
y
z

=

is
(A)
1
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
x
y
z

(B)
1
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
x
xyz y
z

(C)
0 0
1
0 0
0 0
x
y
xyz
z

(D)
1 0 0
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
xyz

19. Let A =
1 sin 1
sin 1 sin
1 sin 1

, where 0 2. Then
(A) Det (A) = 0 (B) Det (A) (2, )
(C) Det (A) (2, 4) (D) Det (A) [2, 4]
144 MATHEMATICS
Summary
Determinant of a matrix A = [a
11
]
11
is given by | a
11
| = a
11
Determinant of a matrix
11 12
21 22
A
a a
a a

=

is given by
11 12
21 22
A
a a
a a
=
= a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
Determinant of a matrix
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
A
a b c
a b c
a b c

=

is given by (expanding along R
1
)
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3
A
a b c
b c a c a b
a b c a b c
b c a c a b
a b c
= = +
For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.
| A| = | A|, where A = transpose of A.
If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of determinant

changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then value
of determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by constant

k, then value of determinant is multiplied by k.
Multiplying a determinant by k means multiply elements of only one row

(or one column) by k.
If
3
3 3
A [ ] , then .A A
ij
a k k
= =
If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as sum

of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be expressed as
sum of two or more determinants.
If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the equimultiples of

corresponding elements of other rows or columns are added, then value of
determinant remains same.
DETERMINANTS 145
Area of a triangle with vertices (x

1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
) and (x
3
, y
3
) is given by
1 1
2 2
3 3
1
1
1
2
1
x y
x y
x y
=
Minor of an element a
ij
of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant
obtained by deleting i
th
row and j
th
column and denoted by M
ij
.
Cofactor of a
ij
of given by A
ij
= ( 1)
i +j
M
ij
Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements

of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For example,
A = a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ a
13
A
13
.
If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements
of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example, a
11
A
21
+ a
12
A
22
+ a
13
A
23
= 0
If
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
A ,
a a a
a a a
a a a

=

then
11 21 31
12 22 32
13 23 33
A A A
A A A A
A A A
adj

=

,

where A
ij
is
cofactor of a
ij
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A| I, where A is square matrix of order n.
A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according as

| A| = 0 or | A| 0.
If AB = BA = I, where B is square matrix, then B is called inverse of A.

Also A
1
= B or B
1
= A and hence (A
1
)
1
= A.
A square matrix A has inverse if and only if A is non-singular.
1
1
A ( A)
A
adj =
If a
1
x

+ b
1
y + c
1
z = d
1
a
2
x

+ b
2
y + c
2
z = d
2
a
3
x

+ b
3
y + c
3
z = d
3
,
then these equations can be written as A X = B, where
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
A , X= and B=
a b c x d
a b c y d
a b c z d

=

146 MATHEMATICS
Unique solution of equation AX = B is given by X = A

1
B, where A 0 .
A system of equation is consistent or inconsistent according as its solution

exists or not.
For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B

(i) | A| 0, there exists unique solution
(ii) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B 0, then there exists no solution
(iii) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may or may not be consistent.
Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns of
several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally led to the
discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods was precisely
that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore, early developed the
idea of subtracting columns and rows as in simplification of a determinant
Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work Kai Fukudai no Ho in 1683 showed that he had the idea of
determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in eliminating a
quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equations. T. Hayashi, The Fakudoi and Determinants in Japanese
Mathematics, in the proc. of the Tokyo Math. Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent functions.
He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave general method of
expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors. In 1773 Lagrange
treated determinants of the second and third orders and used them for purpose
other than the solution of equations. In 1801, Gauss used determinants in his
theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812) who
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-columns and n-
rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same subject. He
used the word determinant in its present sense. He gave the proof of multiplication
theorem more satisfactory than Binets.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, after
this the word determinant received its final acceptance.
The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement

of everyday thinking. ALBERT EINSTEIN
5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.
5.2 Continuity
We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function
1, if 0
( )
2, if 0
x
f x
x

=

>
This function is of course defined at every

point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01,
Chapter 5
CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
Sir Issac Newton
(1642-1727)
Fig 5.1
MATHEMATICS 148
0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In
particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the value
of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we try to draw
the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the plane of the
paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when
we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being not continuous at x = 0.
Now, consider the function defined as
1, if 0
( )
2, if 0
x
f x
x

=

=
This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x = 0
are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that point without
lifting the pen from the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, it may be phrased precisely as follows:
Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if
lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c
=
More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c. Recall that
if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that the common
value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase the definition of
continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at
x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at
x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.
Fig 5.2
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 149
Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.
Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value is 5.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly
1 1
lim ( ) lim(2 3) 2(1) 3 5
x x
f x x

= + = + =
Thus
1
lim ( ) 5 (1)
x
f x f
= =
Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x
2
is continuous at x = 0.
Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly
2 2
0 0
lim ( ) lim 0 0
x x
f x x

= = =
Thus
0
lim ( ) 0 (0)
x
f x f
= =
Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition
f (x) =
, if 0
, if 0
x x
x x
<
Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is

0 0
lim ( ) lim( ) 0
x x
f x x

= =
Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is
0 0
lim ( ) lim 0
x x
f x x
+ +

= =
Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at
x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by
f (x) =
3
3, if 0
1, if 0
x x
x
is not continuous at x = 0.
MATHEMATICS 150
Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x 0, the
function is given by a polynomial. Hence,
0
lim ( )
x
f x
=
3 3
0
lim ( 3) 0 3 3
x
x
+ = + =
Since the limit of f at x = 0 does not coincide with f (0), the function is not continuous
at x = 0. It may be noted that x = 0 is the only point of discontinuity for this function.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant function f (x) = k is continuous.
Solution The function is defined at all real numbers and by definition, its value at any
real number equals k. Let c be any real number. Then
lim ( )
x c
f x
= lim
x c
k k
=
Since f (c) = k =
lim
x c
f (x) for any real number c, the function f is continuous at
every real number.
Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real numbers given by f (x) = x is
continuous at every real number.
Solution The function is clearly defined at every point and f (c) = c for every real
number c. Also,
lim ( )
x c
f x
=
lim
x c
x c
=
Thus, lim
x c
f (x) = c = f (c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.
Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural
extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point
in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means
lim ( )
x a
f x
+
= f (a)
and continuity of f at b means
lim ( )
x b
f x
= f(b)
Observe that lim ( )
x a
f x
and lim ( )
x b
f x
+
do not make sense. As a consequence

of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.
Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a continuous function?
Solution We may rewrite f as
f (x) =
, if 0
, if 0
x x
x x
<
By Example 3, we know that f is continuous at x = 0.

Let c be a real number such that c < 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim ( )
x c
f x
=
lim( )
x c
x c
=
(Why?)
Since lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c
= , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.

Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim ( )
x c
f x
=
lim
x c
x c
=
(Why?)
Since lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c
= , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f

is continuous at all points.
Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = x
3
+ x
2
1.
Solution Clearly f is defined at every real number c and its value at c is c
3
+ c
2
1. We
also know that
lim ( )
x c
f x
=
3 2 3 2
lim( 1) 1
x c
x x c c
+ = +
Thus lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c
= , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means

f is a continuous function.
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) =
1
x
, x 0.
Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have
1 1
lim ( ) lim
x c x c
f x
x c

= =
Also, since for c 0,
1
( ) f c
c
=
, we have lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c
= and hence, f is continuous

at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function.
MATHEMATICS 152
We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by analysing
the function f (x) =
1
x
near x = 0. To carry out this analysis we follow the usual trick of
finding the value of the function at real numbers close to 0. Essentially we are trying to
find the right hand limit of f at 0. We tabulate this in the following (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1
x 1 0.3 0.2 0.1 = 10
1
0.01 = 10
2
0.001 = 10
3
10
n
f (x) 1 3.333... 5 10 100 = 10
2
1000 = 10
3
10
n
We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) shoots up
higher. This may be rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger than any given
number by choosing a positive real number very close to 0. In symbols, we write
0
lim ( )
x
f x
+
= +
(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to emphasise
that + is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as
a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.
Table 5.2
x 1 0.3 0.2 10
1
10
2
10
3
10
n
f (x) 1 3.333... 5 10 10
2
10
3
10
n
From the Table 5.2, we deduce that the
value of f (x) may be made smaller than any
given number by choosing a negative real
number very close to 0. In symbols,
we write
0
lim ( )
x
f x
=
(to be read as: the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is
minus infinity). Again, we wish to emphasise
that is NOT a real number and hence the
left hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as a real
number). The graph of the reciprocal function
given in Fig 5.3 is a geometric representation
of the above mentioned facts.
Fig 5.3
Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by
f (x) =
2, if 1
2, if 1
x x
x x
+
>
Solution The function f is defined at all points of the real line.

Case 1 If c < 1, then f (c) = c + 2. Therefore, lim ( ) lim ( 2) 2
x c x c
f x f x c

= + = +
Thus, f is continuous at all real numbers less than 1.
Case 2 If c > 1, then f (c) = c 2. Therefore,
lim ( ) lim
x c x c
f x

= (x 2) = c 2 = f (c)
Thus, f is continuous at all points x > 1.
Case 3 If c = 1, then the left hand limit of f at
x = 1 is

1 1
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 3
x x
f x x

= + = + =
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
1 1
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 1
x x
f x x
+ +

= = =
Since the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The graph of the function is given in Fig 5.4.
Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the function f defined by
f (x) =
2, if 1
0, if 1
2, if 1
x x
x
x x
+ <
>
Solution As in the previous example we find that f

is continuous at all real numbers x 1. The left
hand limit of f at x = 1 is
1 1
lim ( ) lim( 2) 1 2 3
x x
f x x

= + = + =
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
1 1
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 1
x x
f x x
+ +

= = =
Since, the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The
graph of the function is given in the Fig 5.5.
Fig 5.4
Fig 5.5
MATHEMATICS 154
Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function defined by
f (x) =
2, if 0
2, if 0
x x
x x
+ <
+ >
Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0. Domain
of definition of this function is
D
1
D
2
where D
1
= {x R : x < 0} and
D
2
= {x R : x > 0}
Case 1 If c D
1
, then lim ( ) lim
x c x c
f x

= (x + 2)
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D
1
.
Case 2 If c D
2
, then lim ( ) lim
x c x c
f x

= ( x + 2)
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D
2
.
Since f is continuous at all points in the domain of f,
we deduce that f is continuous. Graph of this
function is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to graph
this function we need to lift the pen from the plane
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by
f (x) =
2
, if 0
, if 0
x x
x x

<
Solution Clearly the function is defined at

every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
Let D
1
= {x R : x < 0}, D
2
= {0} and
D
3
= {x R : x > 0}
Case 1 At any point in D
1
, we have f (x) = x
2
and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D
3
, we have f (x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).
Fig 5.6
Fig 5.7
Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f (0) = 0.
The left hand limit of f at 0 is
2 2
0 0
lim ( ) lim 0 0
x x
f x x

= = =
The right hand limit of f at 0 is
0 0
lim ( ) lim 0
x x
f x x
+ +

= =
Thus
0
lim ( ) 0
x
f x
= = f (0) and hence f is continuous at 0. This means that f is

continuous at every point in its domain and hence, f is a continuous function.
Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is continuous.
Solution Recall that a function p is a polynomial function if it is defined by
p(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + ... + a
n
x
n
for some natural number n, a
n
0 and a
i
R. Clearly this
function is defined for every real number. For a fixed real number c, we have
lim ( ) ( )
x c
p x p c
=
By definition, p is continuous at c. Since c is any real number, p is continuous at
every real number and hence p is a continuous function.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the greatest integer function defined
by f (x) = [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Solution First observe that f is defined for all real numbers. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.8. From the graph it looks like that f is discontinuous at every integral
point. Below we explore, if this is true.
Fig 5.8
MATHEMATICS 156
Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from the
graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c]; i.e.,
lim ( ) lim[ ] [ ]
x c x c
f x x c

= = . Also f (c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real
numbers not equal to integers.
Case 2 Let c be an integer. Then we can find a sufficiently small real number
r > 0 such that [c r] = c 1 whereas [c + r] = c.
This, in terms of limits mean that
lim
x c
f (x) = c 1, lim
x c
+
f (x) = c
Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt some
algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of continuous functions.
Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function at
that point, it is reasonable to expect results analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.
(4)
f
g

is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) 0).
Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at
x = c. We have
lim( ) ( )
x c
f g x
+
=
lim[ ( ) ( )]
x c
f x g x
+
(by definition of f + g)
=
lim ( ) lim ( )
x c x c
f x g x

+
(by the theorem on limits)
= f (c) + g(c) (as f and g are continuous)
= (f + g) (c) (by definition of f + g)
Hence, f + g is continuous at x = c.
Proofs for the remaining parts are similar and left as an exercise to the reader.
Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f (x) = for some
real number , then the function ( . g) defined by ( . g) (x) = . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if = 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f (x) = , then the
function
g
defined by ( )
( )
x
g g x

= is also continuous wherever g(x) 0. In
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of
1
g
.
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions. They
also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following examples
illustrate this:
Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.
Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by
( )
( ) , ( ) 0
( )
p x
f x q x
q x
=
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14), f is
continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Solution To see this we use the following facts
0
limsin 0
x
x
=
We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f (x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
number. Put x = c + h. If x c we know that h 0. Therefore
lim ( )
x c
f x
=
limsin
x c
x
=
0
limsin( )
h
c h
+
=
0
lim[sin cos cos sin ]
h
c h c h
+
=
0 0
lim[sin cos ] lim[cos sin ]
h h
c h c h

+
= sin c + 0 = sin c = f (c)
Thus lim
x c
f (x) = f (c) and hence f is a continuous function.
MATHEMATICS 158
Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.
Solution The function f (x) = tan x =
sin
cos
x
x
. This is defined for all real numbers such
that cos x 0, i.e., x (2n +1)
2
. We have just proved that both sine and cosine

functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions.
Theorem 2 Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c.
The following examples illustrate this theorem.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin (x
2
) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function
f may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x
2
. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2,
it can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 x + | x| |,
where x is any real number, is a continuous function.
Solution Define g by g (x) = 1 x + | x| and h by h (x) = | x| for all real x. Then
(h o g) (x) = h (g (x))
= h (1 x + | x |)
= | 1 x + | x | | = f (x)
In Example 7, we have seen that h is a continuous function. Hence g being a sum
of a polynomial function and the modulus function is continuous. But then f being a
composite of two continuous functions is continuous.
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f (x) = 5x 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = 3 and at x = 5.
2. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) = 2x
2
1 at x = 3.
3. Examine the following functions for continuity.
(a) f (x) = x 5 (b) f (x) =
1
5 x
(c) f (x) =
2
25
5
x
x
+
(d) f (x) = | x 5|
4. Prove that the function f (x) = x
n
is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by
, if 1
( )
5, if >1
x x
f x
x

=

continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by
6.
2 3, if 2
( )
2 3, if > 2
x x
f x
x x
+
=

7.
| | 3, if 3
( ) 2 , if 3 < 3
6 2, if 3
x x
f x x x
x x
+
= <
8.
| |
, if 0
( )
0, if 0
x
x
f x x
x
9.
, if 0
| | ( )
1, if 0
x
x
x f x
x
<
10.
2
1, if 1
( )
1, if 1
x x
f x
x x
+
=

+ <
11.
3
2
3, if 2
( )
1, if 2
x x
f x
x x

=

+ >
12.
10
2
1, if 1
( )
, if 1
x x
f x
x x

=

>
13. Is the function defined by

5, if 1
( )
5, if 1
x x
f x
x x
+
=

>
a continuous function?
MATHEMATICS 160
Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is defined by
14.
3, if 0 1
( ) 4, if 1 3
5, if 3 10
x
f x x
x

= < <
15.
2 , if 0
( ) 0, if 0 1
4 , if >1
x x
f x x
x x
<
16.
2, if 1
( ) 2 , if 1 1
2, if 1
x
f x x x
x

= <
>
17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
1, if 3
( )
3, if 3
ax x
f x
bx x
+
=

+ >
is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of is the function defined by
2
( 2 ), if 0
( )
4 1, if 0
x x x
f x
x x

=

+ >
continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?

19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
20. Is the function defined by f (x) = x
2
sin x + 5 continuous at x = ?
21. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x (b) f (x) = sin x cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
sin
, if 0
( )
1, if 0
x
x
f x x
x x
<
24. Determine if f defined by

2
1
sin , if 0
( )
0, if 0
x x
f x x
x
is a continuous function?
25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by
sin cos , if 0
( )
1, if 0
x x x
f x
x

=

=
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous at the indicated point in Exercises
26 to 29.
26.
cos
, if
2 2
( )
3, if
2
k x
x
x
f x
x

at x =
2
27.
2
, if 2
( )
3, if 2
kx x
f x
x

=

>
at x = 2
28.
1, if
( )
cos , if
kx x
f x
x x
+
=

>
at x =
29.
1, if 5
( )
3 5, if 5
kx x
f x
x x
+
=

>
at x = 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by
5, if 2
( ) , if 2 10
21, if 10
x
f x ax b x
x

= + < <
is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x
2
) is a continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f (x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = | x | | x + 1|.
5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a real
function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
0
( ) ( )
lim
h
f c h f c
h
+
MATHEMATICS 162
f (x) x
n
sin x cos x tan x
f (x) nx
n 1
cos x sin x sec
2
x
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f (c) or
( ( )) |
c
d
f x
dx
. The
function defined by
0
( ) ( )
( ) lim
h
f x h f x
f x
h
+
=
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is
denoted by f (x) or
( ( ))
d
f x
dx
or if y = f (x) by
dy
dx
or y. The process of finding
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f (x) with respect to x to mean find f (x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u v) = u v
(2) (uv) = uv + uv (Leibnitz or product rule)
(3)
2
u u v uv
v v

=

, wherever v 0 (Quotient rule).
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard functions:
Table 5.3
Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesnt? The question is quite pertinent and so is
its answer. If
0
( ) ( )
lim
h
f c h f c
h
+
does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable at c.
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if both
0
( ) ( )
lim
h
f c h f c
h
+
and
0
( ) ( )
lim
h
f c h f c
h
+
+
are finite and equal. A function is said
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and left hand
limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative of the function
at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).
Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c, then it is also continuous at that
point.
Proof Since f is differentiable at c, we have
( ) ( )
lim ( )
x c
f x f c
f c
x c
But for x c, we have

f (x) f (c) =
( ) ( )
. ( )
f x f c
x c
x c
Therefore lim[ ( ) ( )]
x c
f x f c
=
( ) ( )
lim . ( )
x c
f x f c
x c
x c

or
lim[ ( )] lim[ ( )]
x c x c
f x f c

=
( ) ( )
lim . lim[( )]
x c x c
f x f c
x c
x c

= f (c) . 0 = 0
or lim ( )
x c
f x
= f (c)
Hence f is continuous at x = c.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
We remark that the converse of the above statement is not true. Indeed we have
seen that the function defined by f (x) = | x | is a continuous function. Consider the left
hand limit
0
(0 ) (0)
lim 1
h
f h f h
h h
+
= =
The right hand limit
0
(0 ) (0)
lim 1
h
f h f h
h h
+
+
= =
Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal,
0
(0 ) (0)
lim
h
f h f
h
+
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.
5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example. Say,
we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)
3
MATHEMATICS 164
One way is to expand (2x + 1)
3
using binomial theorem and find the derivative as
a polynomial function as illustrated below.
( )
d
f x
dx
=
3
(2 1)
d
x
dx

+

=
3 2
(8 12 6 1)
d
x x x
dx
+ + +
= 24x
2
+ 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)
2
Now, observe that f (x) = (h o g) (x)
where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x
3
. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t
3
. Thus
df
dx
= 6 (2x + 1)
2
= 3(2x + 1)
2
. 2 = 3t
2
. 2 =
dh dt
dt dx
The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in finding
the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)
100
. We may formalise this observation in the following
theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
functions u and v; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u(x) and if both
dt
dx
and
dv
dt
exist, we have
df dv dt
dx dt dx
=
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows. Suppose
f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and w; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then
( o ) df d w u dt dw ds dt
dx dt dx ds dt dx
= =
provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate chain
rule for composite of more functions.
Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = sin (x
2
).
Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x
2
and v(t) = sin t, then
f (x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x
2
) = sin x
2
Put t = u(x) = x
2
. Observe that cos
dv
t
dt
= and 2
dt
x
dx
= exist. Hence, by chain rule
df
dx
=
cos 2
dv dt
t x
dt dx
=
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus
df
dx
=
2
cos 2 2 cos t x x x =
Alternatively, We can also directly proceed as follows:
y = sin (x
2
)
dy d
dx dx
= (sin x
2
)
= cos x
2

d
dx
(x
2
) = 2x cos x
2
Example 22 Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).
Solution Let f (x) = tan (2x + 3), u(x) = 2x + 3 and v(t) = tan t. Then
(v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) = f (x)
Thus f is a composite of two functions. Put t = u(x) = 2x + 3. Then
2
sec
dv
t
dt
=
and
2
dt
dx
= exist. Hence, by chain rule
2
2sec (2 3)
df dv dt
x
dx dt dx
= = +
Example 23 Differentiate sin (cos (x
2
)) with respect to x.
Solution The function f (x) = sin (cos (x
2
)) is a composition f (x) = (w o v o u) (x) of the
three functions u, v and w, where u(x) = x
2
, v(t) = cos t and w(s) = sin s. Put
t = u(x) = x
2
and s = v(t) = cos t. Observe that cos , sin
dw ds
s t
ds dt
= = and 2
dt
x
dx
=
exist for all real x. Hence by a generalisation of chain rule, we have
df dw ds dt
dx ds dt dx
=
= (cos s) . ( sin t) . (2x) = 2x sin x
2
. cos (cos x
2
)
MATHEMATICS 166
Alternatively, we can proceed as follows:
y = sin (cos x
2
)
Therefore
dy d
dx dx
=
sin (cos x
2
) = cos (cos x
2
)
d
dx
(cos x
2
)
= cos (cos x
2
) ( sin x
2
)
d
dx
(x
2
)
= sin x
2
cos (cos x
2
) (2x)
= 2x sin x
2
cos (cos x
2
)
EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.
1. sin (x
2
+ 5) 2. cos (sin x) 3. sin (ax + b)
4. sec (tan (
x
)) 5.
sin ( )
cos ( )
ax b
cx d
+
+
6. cos x
3
. sin
2
(x
5
)
7. ( )
2
2 cot x
8. ( )
cos x
9. Prove that the function f given by
f (x) = | x 1|, x R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.
5.3.2 Derivatives of implicit functions
Until now we have been differentiating various functions given in the form y = f (x).
But it is not necessary that functions are always expressed in this form. For example,
consider one of the following relationships between x and y:
x y = 0
x + sin xy y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the relationship as y = x . In
the second case, it does not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y. Nevertheless,
there is no doubt about the dependence of y on x in either of the cases. When a
relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to solve for y and
write y = f (x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x. In the latter case it
is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate implicit
functions.
Example 24 Find
dy
dx
if x y = .
Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as
y = x
But then
dy
dx
= 1
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
( )
d
x y
dx

=
d
dx
Recall that
d
dx
means to differentiate the constant function taking value

everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus
( ) ( )
d d
x y
dx dx
= 0
which implies that
dy
dx
=
1
dx
dx
=
Example 25 Find
dy
dx
, if y + sin y = cos x.
Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x, i.e.,
(sin )
dy d
y
dx dx
+
=
(cos )
d
x
dx
which implies using chain rule
cos
dy dy
y
dx dx
+ = sin x
This gives
dy
dx
=
sin
1 cos
x
y
+
where y (2n + 1)
MATHEMATICS 168
5.3.3 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are continuous functions, but we will
not prove this. Now we use chain rule to find derivatives of these functions.
Example 26 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = sin
1
x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = sin
1
x. Then, x = sin y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 = cos y
dy
dx
which implies that
dy
dx
=
1
1 1
cos cos(sin ) y x
=
Observe that this is defined only for cos y 0, i.e., sin
1
x ,
2 2

, i.e., x 1, 1,
i.e., x ( 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following manipulation.
Recall that for x ( 1, 1), sin (sin
1
x) = x and hence
cos
2
y = 1 (sin y)
2
= 1 (sin (sin
1
x))
2
= 1 x
2
Also, since y ,
2 2

, cos y is positive and hence cos y =
2
1 x
Thus, for x ( 1, 1),
2
1 1
cos
1
dy
dx y
x
= =
Example 27 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = tan

1
x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = tan
1
x. Then, x = tan y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 = sec
2
y
dy
dx
which implies that
2 2 1 2 2
1 1 1 1
sec 1 tan 1 (tan(tan )) 1
dy
dx y y x x
= = = =
+ + +
Finding of the derivatives of other inverse trigonometric functions is left as exercise.
The following table gives the derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions
(Table 5.4):
Table 5.4
f (x) cos
1
x cot
1
x sec
1
x cosec
1
x
f (x)
2
1
1 x
2
1
1 x
+
2
1
1 x x
2
1
1 x x
Domain of f (1, 1) R (, 1) (1, ) (, 1) (1, )

EXERCISE 5.3
Find
dy
dx
in the following:
1. 2x + 3y = sin x 2. 2x + 3y = sin y 3. ax + by
2
= cos y
4. xy + y
2
= tan x + y 5. x
2
+ xy + y
2
= 100 6. x
3
+ x
2
y + xy
2
+ y
3
= 81
7. sin
2
y + cos xy = 8. sin
2
x + cos
2
y = 1 9. y = sin
1

2
2
1
x
x

+
10. y = tan
1
3
2
3
,
1 3
x x
x

1 1
3 3
x < <
11.
2
1
2
1
,
cos 0 1
1
x
y x
x
= < <

+
12.
2
1
2
1
,
sin 0 1
1
x
y x
x
= < <

+
13.
1
2
2
,
cos 1 1
1
x
y x
x

= < <

+
14.
( )
1 2
1 1
,
sin 2 1
2 2
y x x x
= < <
15.
1
2
1 1
,
sec 0
2 1 2
y x
x

= < <

MATHEMATICS 170
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Till now we have learnt some aspects of different classes of functions like polynomial
functions, rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this section, we shall
learn about a new class of (related)
functions called exponential functions and
logarithmic functions. It needs to be
emphasized that many statements made
in this section are motivational and precise
proofs of these are well beyond the scope
of this text.
The Fig 5.9 gives a sketch of
y = f
1
(x) = x, y = f
2
(x) = x
2
, y = f
3
(x) = x
3
and y = f
4
(x) = x
4
. Observe that the curves
get steeper as the power of x increases.
Steeper the curve, faster is the rate of
growth. What this means is that for a fixed
increment in the value of x (> 1), the
increment in the value of y = f
n
(x) increases as n increases for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. It is
conceivable that such a statement is true for all positive values of n, where f
n
(x) = x
n
.
Essentially, this means that the graph of y = f
n
(x) leans more towards the y-axis as n
increases. For example, consider f
10
(x) = x
10
and f
15
(x) = x
15
. If x increases from 1 to
2, f
10
increases from 1 to 2
10
whereas f
15
increases from 1 to 2
15
. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f
15
grow faster than f
10
.
Upshot of the above discussion is that the growth of polynomial functions is dependent
on the degree of the polynomial function higher the degree, greater is the growth.
The next natural question is: Is there a function which grows faster than any polynomial
function. The answer is in affirmative and an example of such a function is
y = f (x) = 10
x
.
Our claim is that this function f grows faster than f
n
(x) = x
n
for any positive integer n.
For example, we can prove that 10
x
grows faster than f
100
(x) = x
100
. For large values
of x like x = 10
3
, note that f
100
(x) = (10
3
)
100
= 10
300
whereas f (10
3
) =
3
10
10
= 10
1000
.
Clearly f (x) is much greater than f
100
(x). It is not difficult to prove that for all
x > 10
3
, f (x) > f
100
(x). But we will not attempt to give a proof of this here. Similarly, by
choosing large values of x, one can verify that f (x) grows faster than f
n
(x) for any
positive integer n.
Fig 5.9
Definition 3 The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the function
y = f (x) = b
x
The graph of y = 10
x
is given in the Fig 5.9.
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for particular values of b like 2, 3 and 4.
Following are some of the salient features of the exponential functions:
(1) Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of all real numbers.
(2) Range of the exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers.
(3) The point (0, 1) is always on the graph of the exponential function (this is a
restatement of the fact that b
0
= 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we move from left to right, the
graph rises above.
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0. In
other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series
1 1
1 ...
1! 2!
+ + +
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain an
extremely important exponential function y = e
x
.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists and
has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if
b
x
= a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by log
b
a. Thus log
b
a = x if b
x
= a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 2
3
= 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log
2
8 = 3. Similarly, 10
4
= 10000 is equivalent to
saying log
10
10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 5
4
= 25
2
is equivalent to saying log
5
625 = 4 or
log
25
625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
log
b
: R
+
R
x log
b
x = y if b
y
= x
MATHEMATICS 172
As before if the base b = 10, we say it
is common logarithms and if b = e, then
we say it is natural logarithms. Often
natural logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the logarithm
function to base e, i.e., ln x will be written
as simply log x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots
of logarithm function to base 2, e and 10.
Some of the important observations
about the logarithm function to any base
b > 1 are listed below:
(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of logarithm of non-positive numbers
and hence the domain of log function is R
+
.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing,
i.e., as we move from left to right
the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value
of log x can be made lesser than
any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the
graph approaches y-axis (but never
meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = e
x
and
y = ln x. It is of interest to observe
that the two curves are the mirror
images of each other reflected in the line y = x.
Two properties of log functions are proved below:
(1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain log
a
p in terms of log
b
p. Let
log
a
p = , log
b
p = and log
b
a = . This means a
= p, b
= p and b
= a.
Substituting the third equation in the first one, we have
(b
= b
= p
Using this in the second equation, we get
b
= p = b
Fig 5.10
Fig 5.11
which implies = or =

. But then
log
a
p =
log
log
b
b
p
a
(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its effect on products. Let
log
b
pq = . Then b
= pq. If log
b
p = and log
b
q = , then b
= p and b
= q.
But then b
= pq = b
= b
+
which implies = + , i.e.,
log
b
pq = log
b
p + log
b
q
A particularly interesting and important consequence of this is when p = q. In
this case the above may be rewritten as
log
b
p
2
= log
b
p + log
b
p = 2 log p
An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is
log
b
p
n
= n log p
for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any real number n, but we will
not attempt to prove this. On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify
log
b
x
y
= log
b
x log
b
y
Example 28 Is it true that x = e
log x
for all real x?
Solution First, observe that the domain of log function is set of all positive real numbers.
So the above equation is not true for non-positive real numbers. Now, let y = e
log x
. If
y > 0, we may take logarithm which gives us log y = log (e
log x
) = log x . log e = log x. Thus
y = x. Hence x = e
log x
is true only for positive values of x.
One of the striking properties of the natural exponential function in differential
calculus is that it doesnt change during the process of differentiation. This is captured
in the following theorem whose proof we skip.
Theorem 5
(1) The derivative of e
x
w.r.t., x is e
x
; i.e.,
d
dx
(e
x
) = e
x
.
(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is
1
x
; i.e.,
d
dx
(log x) =
1
x
.
MATHEMATICS 174
Example 29 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
(i) e
x
(ii) sin (log x), x > 0 (iii) cos
1
(e
x
) (iv) e
cos x
Solution
(i) Let y = e
x
. Using chain rule, we have
dy
dx
=
x
d
e
dx
( x) = e
x
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have
dy
dx
=
cos (log )
cos (log ) (log )
d x
x x
dx x
=
(iii) Let y = cos
1
(e
x
). Using chain rule, we have
dy
dx
=
2 2
1
( )
1 ( ) 1
x
x
x x
d e
e
dx
e e

=

(iv) Let y = e
cos

x
. Using chain rule, we have
dy
dx
=
cos cos
( sin ) (sin )
x x
e x x e =
EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
1.
sin
x
e
x
2.
1
sin x
e

3.
3
x
e
4. sin (tan
1
e
x
) 5. log (cos e
x
) 6.
2 5
...
x x x
e e e + + +
7.
, 0
x
e x >
8. log (log x), x > 1 9.
cos
, 0
log
x
x
x
>
10. cos (log x + e
x
), x > 0
5.5. Logarithmic Differentiation
In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain special class of functions given in
the form
y = f (x) = [u(x)]
v (x)
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
log y = v(x) log [u(x)]
Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get
1 1
( )
( )
dy
v x
y dx u x
=
.
u(x) + v(x)
.
log [u(x)]
which implies that
[ ]
( )
( ) ( ) log ( )
( )
dy v x
y u x v x u x
dx u x

= +

The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and u(x) must always be
positive as otherwise their logarithms are not defined. This process of differentiation is
known as logarithms differentiation and is illustrated by the following examples:
Example 30 Differentiate
2
2
( 3) ( 4)
3 4 5
x x
x x
+
+ +
w.r.t. x.
Solution Let
2
2
( 3) ( 4)
(3 4 5)
x x
y
x x
+
=
+ +
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y =
1
2
[log (x 3) + log (x
2
+ 4) log (3x
2
+ 4x + 5)]
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy
y dx
=
2 2
1 1 2 6 4
2 ( 3) 4 3 4 5
x x
x x x x
+
+

+ + +

or
dy
dx
=
2 2
1 2 6 4
2 ( 3) 4 3 4 5
y x x
x x x x
+
+

+ + +

=
2
2 2 2
1 ( 3) ( 4) 1 2 6 4
2 ( 3) 3 4 5 4 3 4 5
x x x x
x x x x x x
+ +
+

+ + + + +

Example 31 Differentiate a
x
w.r.t. x, where a is a positive constant.
Solution Let y = a
x
. Then
log y = x log a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dy
y dx
= log a
MATHEMATICS 176
or
dy
dx
= y log a
Thus
( )
x
d
a
dx
= a
x
log a
Alternatively
( )
x
d
a
dx
=
log log
( ) ( log )
x a x a
d d
e e x a
dx dx
=
= e
x log a
. log a = a
x
log a.
Example 32 Differentiate x
sin x
, x > 0 w.r.t. x.
Solution Let y = x
sin x
. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y = sin x log x
Therefore
1
.
dy
y dx
=
sin (log ) log (sin )
d d
x x x x
dx dx
+
or
1 dy
y dx
=
1
(sin ) log cos x x x
x
+
or
dy
dx
=
sin
cos log
x
y x x
x

+

=
sin
sin
cos log
x
x
x x x
x

+

=
sin 1 sin
sin cos log
x x
x x x x x
+
Example 33 Find
dy
dx
, if y
x
+ x
y
+ x
x
= a
b
.
Solution Given that y
x
+ x
y
+ x
x
= a
b
.
Putting u = y
x
, v = x
y
and w = x
x
, we get u + v + w = a
b
Therefore
0
du dv dw
dx dx dx
+ + =
... (1)
Now, u = y
x
. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log u = x log y
1 du
u dx
=
(log ) log ( )
d d
x y y x
dx dx
+
=
1
log 1
dy
x y
y dx
+
So
du
dx
=
log log
x
x dy x dy
u y y y
y dx y dx

+ = +

... (2)
Also v = x
y
log v = y log x
1 dv
v dx
=
(log ) log
d dy
y x x
dx dx
+
=
1
log
dy
y x
x dx
+
So
dv
dx
=
log
y dy
v x
x dx

+

=
log
y
y dy
x x
x dx

+

... (3)
Again w = x
x
log w = x log x.
1 dw
w dx
=
(log ) log ( )
d d
x x x x
dx dx
+
=
1
log 1 x x
x
+
i.e.
dw
dx
= w (1 + log x)
= x
x
(1 + log x) ... (4)
MATHEMATICS 178
From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have
log log
x y
x dy y dy
y y x x
y dx x dx

+ + +

+ x
x
(1 + log x) = 0
or (x . y
x 1
+ x
y
. log x)
dy
dx
= x
x
(1 + log x) y . x
y1
y
x
log y
Therefore
dy
dx
=
1
1
[ log . (1 log )]
. log
x y x
x y
y y y x x x
x y x x
+ + +
+
EXERCISE 5.5
Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x.
1. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x 2.
( 1) ( 2)
( 3) ( 4) ( 5)
x x
x x x

3. (log x)
cos x
4. x
x
2
sin x
5. (x + 3)
2
. (x + 4)
3
. (x + 5)
4
6.
1
1
1
x
x
x x
x

+

+ +

7. (log x)
x
+ x
log x
8. (sin x)
x
+ sin
1

x
9. x
sin x
+ (sin x)
cos x
10.
2
cos
2
1
1
x x
x
x
x
+
+
11. (x cos x)
x
+
1
( sin )
x
x x
Find
dy
dx
of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
12. x
y
+ y
x
= 1 13. y
x
= x
y
14. (cos x)
y
= (cos y)
x
15. xy = e
(x y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = (1 + x) (1 + x
2
) (1 + x
4
) (1 + x
8
)
and hence find f (1).
17. Differentiate (x
2
5x + 8) (x
3
+ 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?
18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that
d
dx
(u. v. w) =
du
dx
v. w + u .
dv
dx
. w + u . v
dw
dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by logarithmic
differentiation.
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but some
link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a relation
between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation between
them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the parameter. More
precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form
x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain rule.
dy
dt
=
dy dx
dx dt
or
dy
dx
= whenever 0
dy
dx
dt
dx
dt
dt

Thus
dy
dx
=
( )
as ( ) and ( )
( )
g t dy dx
g t f t
f t dt dt

= =

[provided f (t) 0]
Example 34 Find
dy
dx
, if x = a cos , y = a sin .
Solution Given that
x = a cos , y = a sin
Therefore
dx
d
= a sin ,
dy
d
= a cos
Hence
dy
dx
=
cos
cot
sin
dy
a
d
dx
a
d
= =

MATHEMATICS 180
Example 35 Find
dy
dx
, if x = at
2
, y = 2at.
Solution Given that x = at
2
, y = 2at
So
dx
dt
= 2at and
dy
dt
= 2a
Therefore
dy
dx
=
2 1
2
dy
a
dt
dx
at t
dt
= =
Example 36 Find
dy
dx
, if x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1 cos ).
Solution We have
dx
d
= a(1 + cos ),
dy
d
= a (sin )
Therefore
dy
dx
=
sin
tan
(1 cos ) 2
dy
a
d
dx
a
d

= =
+
$
Note It may be noted here that
dy
dx
is expressed in terms of parameter only
without directly involving the main variables x and y.
Example 37 Find
2 2 2
3 3 3
, if
dy
x y a
dx
+ =
.
Solution Let x = a cos
3
, y = a sin
3
. Then
2 2
3 3
x y + =
2 2
3 3
3 3
( cos ) ( sin ) a a +
=
2 2
2 2
3 3
(cos (sin ) a a + =
Hence, x = a cos
3
, y = a sin
3
is parametric equation of
2 2 2
3 3 3
x y a + =
Now
dx
d
= 3a cos
2
sin and
dy
d
= 3a sin
2
cos
Therefore
dy
dx
=
2
3
2
3 sin cos
tan
3 cos sin
dy
a y
d
dx
x a
d

= = =

$
Note Had we proceeded in implicit way, it would have been quite tedious.
EXERCISE 5.6
If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises 1 to 10,
without eliminating the parameter, Find
dy
dx
.
1. x = 2at
2
, y = at
4
2. x = a cos , y = b cos
3. x = sin t, y = cos 2t 4. x = 4t, y =
4
t
5. x = cos cos 2, y = sin sin 2
6. x = a ( sin ), y = a (1 + cos ) 7. x =
3
sin
cos 2
t
t
,
3
cos
cos2
t
y
t
=
8.
cos log tan
2
t
x a t

= +

y = a sin t 9. x = a sec , y = b tan
10. x = a (cos + sin ), y = a (sin cos )
11. If
1 1
sin cos
, , show that
t t
dy y
x a y a
dx x

= = =
5.7 Second Order Derivative
Let y = f (x). Then
dy
dx
= f (x) ... (1)
If f (x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand
side becomes
d dy
dx dx

which is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t. x and
is denoted by
2
2
d y
dx
. The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f (x). It is also
MATHEMATICS 182
denoted by D
2
y or y or y
2
if y = f (x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be
defined similarly.
Example 38 Find
2
2
d y
dx
, if y = x
3
+ tan x.
Solution Given that y = x
3
+ tan x. Then
dy
dx
= 3x
2
+ sec
2
x
Therefore
2
2
d y
dx
=
( )
2 2
3 sec
d
x x
dx
+
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x = 6x + 2 sec
2
x tan x
Example 39 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
+ = .
Solution We have
dy
dx
= A cos x B sin x
and
2
2
d y
dx
=
d
dx
(A cos x B sin x)
= A sin x B cos x = y
Hence
2
2
d y
dx
+ y = 0
Example 40 If y = 3e
2x
+ 2e
3x
, prove that
2
2
5 6 0
d y dy
y
dx dx
+ = .
Solution Given that y = 3e
2x
+ 2e
3x
. Then
dy
dx
= 6e
2x
+ 6e
3x
= 6 (e
2x
+ e
3x
)
Therefore
2
2
d y
dx
= 12e
2x
+ 18e
3x
= 6 (2e
2x
+ 3e
3x
)
Hence
2
2
5
d y dy
dx dx

+ 6y = 6 (2e
2x
+ 3e
3x
)
30 (e
2x
+ e
3x
) + 6 (3e
2x
+ 2e
3x
) = 0
Example 41 If y = sin
1
x, show that (1 x
2
)
2
2
0
d y dy
x
dx dx
= .
Solution We have y = sin
1
x. Then
dy
dx
=
2
1
(1 ) x
or
2
(1 ) 1
dy
x
dx
=
So
2
(1 ) . 0
d dy
x
dx dx

=

or
( )
2
2 2
2
(1 ) (1 ) 0
d y dy d
x x
dx dx dx
+ =
or
2
2
2
2
2
(1 ) 0
2 1
d y dy x
x
dx dx
x
=
Hence
2
2
2
(1 ) 0
d y dy
x x
dx dx
=
Alternatively, Given that y = sin
1
x, we have
1
2
1
1
y
x
=
, i.e., ( )
2 2
1
1 1 x y =
So
2 2
1 2 1
(1 ) . 2 (0 2 ) 0 x y y y x + =
Hence (1 x
2
) y
2
xy
1
= 0
EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to 10.
1. x
2
+ 3x + 2 2. x
20
3. x . cos x
4. log x 5. x
3
log x 6. e
x
sin 5x
7. e
6x
cos 3x 8. tan
1
x 9. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
11. If y = 5 cos x 3 sin x, prove that
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
+ =
MATHEMATICS 184
12. If y = cos
1
x, Find
2
2
d y
dx
in terms of y alone.
13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x
2
y
2
+ xy
1
+ y = 0
14. If y = Ae
mx
+ Be
nx
, show that
2
2
( ) 0
d y dy
m n mny
dx dx
+ + =
15. If y = 500e
7x
+ 600e
7x
, show that
2
2
49
d y
y
dx
=
16. If e
y

(x + 1) = 1, show that
2
2
2
d y dy
dx dx

=

17. If y = (tan
1
x)
2
, show that (x
2
+ 1)
2
y
2
+ 2x (x
2
+ 1) y
1
= 2
5.8 Mean Value Theorem
In this section, we will state two fundamental results in Calculus without proof. We
shall also learn the geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Theorem 6 (Rolles Theorem) Let f : [a, b] R be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers.
Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
In Fig 5.12 and 5.13, graphs of a few typical differentiable functions satisfying the
hypothesis of Rolles theorem are given.
Fig 5.12 Fig 5.13
Observe what happens to the slope of the tangent to the curve at various points
between a and b. In each of the graphs, the slope becomes zero at least at one point.
That is precisely the claim of the Rolles theorem as the slope of the tangent at any
point on the graph of y = f (x) is nothing but the derivative of f (x) at that point.
Theorem 7 (Mean Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b] R be a continuous function on
[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
( ) ( )
( )
f b f a
f c
b a
Observe that the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is an extension of Rolles theorem.
Let us now understand a geometric interpretation of the MVT. The graph of a function
y = f(x) is given in the Fig 5.14. We have already interpreted f (c) as the slope of the
tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (c, f (c)). From the Fig 5.14 it is clear that
( ) ( ) f b f a
b a
is the slope of the secant drawn between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). The MVT states that
there is a point c in (a, b) such that the slope of the tangent at (c, f(c)) is same as the
slope of the secant between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). In other words, there is a point c in
(a, b) such that the tangent at (c, f (c)) is parallel to the secant between (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).
Fig 5.14
Example 42 Verify Rolles theorem for the function y = x
2
+ 2, a = 2 and b = 2.
Solution The function y = x
2
+ 2 is continuous in [ 2, 2] and differentiable in ( 2, 2).
Also f ( 2) = f ( 2) = 6 and hence the value of f (x) at 2 and 2 coincide. Rolles
theorem states that there is a point c ( 2, 2), where f (c) = 0. Since f (x) = 2x, we
get c = 0. Thus at c = 0, we have f (c) = 0 and c = 0 ( 2, 2).
Example 43 Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function f (x) = x
2
in the interval [2, 4].
Solution The function f (x) = x
2
is continuous in [2, 4] and differentiable in (2, 4) as its
derivative f (x) = 2x

is defined in (2, 4).
MATHEMATICS 186
Now, f (2) = 4 and f (4) = 16. Hence
( ) ( ) 16 4
6
4 2
f b f a
b a

= =

MVT states that there is a point c (2, 4) such that f (c) = 6. But f (x) = 2x which
implies c = 3. Thus at c = 3 (2, 4), we have f (c) = 6.
EXERCISE 5.8
1. Verify Rolles theorem for the function f (x) = x
2
+ 2x 8, x [ 4, 2].
2. Examine if Rolles theorem is applicable to any of the following functions. Can
you say some thing about the converse of Rolles theorem from these example?
(i) f (x) = [x] for x [5, 9] (ii) f (x) = [x] for x [ 2, 2]
(iii) f (x) = x
2
1 for x [1, 2]
3. If f : [ 5, 5] R is a differentiable function and if f (x) does not vanish
anywhere, then prove that f ( 5) f (5).
4. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x
2
4x 3 in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 4.
5. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x
3
5x
2
3x in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 3. Find all c (1, 3) for which f (c) = 0.
6. Examine the applicability of Mean Value Theorem for all three functions given in
the above exercise 2.
Example 44 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:
(i)
2
1
3 2
2 4
x
x
+ +
+
(ii)
2
sec 1
3cos
x
e x + (iii) log
7
(log x)
Solution
(i) Let y =
2
1
3 2
2 4
x
x
+ +
+
=
1 1
2
2 2
(3 2) (2 4) x x

+ + +
Note that this function is defined at all real numbers
2
3
x > . Therefore
dy
dx
=
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1
(3 2) (3 2) (2 4) (2 4)
2 2
d d
x x x x
dx dx

+ + + + +

=
1 3
2
2 2
1 1
(3 2) (3) (2 4) 4
2 2
x x x

+ +

=
( )
3
2
2
3 2
2 3 2
2 4
x
x
x
+
+
This is defined for all real numbers
2
3
x >
.
(ii) Let
2
sec 1
3cos
x
y e x
= +
This is defined at every real number in
{ } [ 1, 1] 0
. Therefore
dy
dx
=
2
sec 2
2
1
(sec ) 3
1
x
d
e x
dx
x

+

=
2
sec
2
1
2sec (sec ) 3
1
x
d
e x x
dx
x

+

=
2
sec
2
1
2sec (sec tan ) 3
1
x
x x x e
x

+

=
2
2 sec
2
1
2sec tan 3
1
x
x x e
x

+

Observe that the derivative of the given function is valid only in
{ } [ 1, 1] 0
as
the derivative of cos
1
x exists only in ( 1, 1) and the function itself is not
defined at 0.
(iii) Let y = log
7
(log x) =
log (log )
log7
x
(by change of base formula).
The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore
dy
dx
=
1
(log (log ))
log7
d
x
dx
=
1 1
(log )
log7 log
d
x
x dx
=
1
log7 log x x
MATHEMATICS 188
Example 45 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
(i) cos
1
(sin x) (ii)
1
sin
tan
1 cos
x
x

+
(iii)
1
1
2
sin
1 4
x
x
+

+
Solution
(i) Let f (x) = cos
1
(sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real numbers.
We may rewrite this function as
f (x) = cos
1
(sin x)
=
1
cos cos
2
x

=
2
x

Thus f (x) = 1.
(ii) Let f (x) = tan
1
sin
1 cos
x
x

+
. Observe that this function is defined for all real
numbers, where cos x 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of . We may rewrite this
function as
f (x) =
1
sin
tan
1 cos
x
x

+
=
1
2
2 sin cos
2 2
tan
2cos
2
x x
x

=
1
tan tan
2 2
x x

=

Observe that we could cancel
cos
2
x

in both numerator and denominator as it
is not equal to zero. Thus f (x) =
1
.
2
(iii) Let f (x) = sin
1
1
2
1 4
x
x
+

+
. To find the domain of this function we need to find all
x such that
1
2
1 1
1 4
x
x
+

+
. Since the quantity in the middle is always positive,
we need to find all x such that
1
2
1
1 4
x
x
+
+
, i.e., all x such that 2
x + 1
1 + 4
x
. We
may rewrite this as 2
1
2
x
+ 2
x
which is true for all x. Hence the function
is defined at every real number. By putting 2
x
= tan , this function may be
rewritten as
f (x) =
1
1
2
sin
1 4
x
x
+

+
=
( )
1
2
2 2
sin
1 2
x
x

+
=
1
2
2tan
sin
1 tan

+
= sin
1
[sin 2]
= 2 = 2 tan
1
(2
x
)
Thus f (x) =
( )
2
1
2 (2 )
1 2
x
x
d
dx

+
=
2
(2 )log2
1 4
x
x

+
=
1
2 log2
1 4
x
x
+
+
Example 46 Find f (x) if f (x) = (sin x)
sin x
for all 0 < x < .
Solution The function y = (sin x)
sin x
is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)
sin x
= sin x log (sin x)
Then
1 dy
y dx
=
d
dx
(sin x log (sin x))
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x .
1
(sin )
sin
d
x
x dx
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x

= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x
MATHEMATICS 190
Thus
dy
dx
= y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x)
sin x
cos x
Example 47 For a positive constant a find
dy
dx
, where
1
1
, and
a
t
t
y a x t
t
+

= = +

Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t 0. Clearly
dy
dt
= ( )
1
t
t
d
a
dt
+
=
1
1
log
t
t
d
a t a
dt t
+

+

=
1
2
1
1 log
t
t
a a
t
+

Similarly
dx
dt
=
1
1 1
a
d
a t t
t dt t

+ +

=
1
2
1 1
1
a
a t
t t

+

dx
dt
0 only if t 1. Thus for t 1,
dy
dy
dt
dx
dx
dt
=
=
1
2
1
2
1
1 log
1 1
1
t
t
a
a a
t
a t
t t
+

+

=
1
1
log
1
t
t
a
a a
a t
t
+

+

Example 48 Differentiate sin
2
x w.r.t. e
cos x
.
Solution Let u (x) = sin
2
x and v (x) = e
cos x
. We want to find
/
/
du du dx
dv dv dx
=
. Clearly
du
dx
= 2 sin x cos x and
dv
dx
= e
cos x
( sin x) = (sin x) e
cos x
Thus
du
dv
=
cos cos
2sin cos 2cos
sin
x x
x x x
x e e
=

Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11.
1. (3x
2
9x + 5)
9
2. sin
3
x + cos
6
x
3. (5x)
3 cos 2x
4. sin
1
(x
x
), 0 x 1
5.
1
cos
2
2 7
x
x
+
, 2 < x < 2
6.
1
1 sin 1 sin
cot
1 sin 1 sin
x x
x x

+ +

+

, 0 < x <
2
7. (log x)
log x
, x > 1
8. cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b.
9. (sin x cos x)
(sin x cos x)
,
3
4 4
x

< <
10. x
x
+ x
a
+ a
x
+ a
a
, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0
11. ( )
2
2
3
3
x
x
x x
+ , for x > 3
12. Find
dy
dx
, if y = 12 (1 cos t), x = 10 (t sin t),
2 2
t

< <
13. Find
dy
dx
, if y = sin
1
x + sin
1

2
1 x
, 1 x 1
14. If 1 1 0 x y y x + + + = , for , 1 < x < 1, prove that
( )
2
1
1
dy
dx
x
=
+
15. If (x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= c
2
, for some c > 0, prove that
3
2
2
2
2
1
dy
dx
d y
dx

+

is a constant independent of a and b.
MATHEMATICS 192
16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a 1, prove that
2
cos ( )
sin
dy a y
dx a
+
= .
17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t t cos t), find
2
2
d y
dx
.
18. If f (x) = | x |
3
, show that f (x) exists for all real x and find it.
19. Using mathematical induction prove that
( )
1 n n
d
x nx
dx
= for all positive

integers n.
20. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation,
obtain the sum formula for cosines.
21. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable
at exactly two points? Justify your answer.
22. If
( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x h x
y l m n
a b c
=
, prove that
( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x h x
dy
l m n
dx
a b c

=
23. If y =
1
cos a x
e

, 1 x 1, show that ( )
2
2 2
2
1 0
d y dy
x x a y
dx dx
=
.
Summary
A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.
Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.

i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f g) (x) = f (x) g(x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g(x) is continuous.
( )
( )
( )
f f x
x
g g x

=

(wherever g(x) 0) is continuous.
Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.

Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x)

and if both
dt
dx
and
dv
dt
exist then
df dv dt
dx dt dx
=
Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):

( )
1
2
1
sin
1
d
x
dx
x
( )
1
2
1
cos
1
d
x
dx
x
( )
1
2
1
tan
1
d
x
dx x
=
+
( )
1
2
1
cot
1
d
x
dx x

=
+
( )
1
2
1
sec
1
d
x
dx
x x
( )
1
2
1
cosec
1
d
x
dx
x x
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
= ( )
1
log
d
x
dx x
=
Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions

of the form f (x) = [u (x)]
v (x)
. Here both f (x) and u(x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
Rolles Theorem: If f : [a, b] R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable

on (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b), then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
f (c) = 0.
Mean Value Theorem: If f : [a, b] R is continuous on [a, b] and

differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
( ) ( )
( )
f b f a
f c
b a
MATHEMATICS 194
With the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied
to the explanation of the course of Nature. WHITEHEAD
6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, we have learnt how to find derivative of composite functions, inverse
trigonometric functions, implicit functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
In this chapter, we will study applications of the derivative in various disciplines, e.g., in
engineering, science, social science, and many other fields. For instance, we will learn
how the derivative can be used (i) to determine rate of change of quantities, (ii) to find
the equations of tangent and normal to a curve at a point, (iii) to find turning points on
the graph of a function which in turn will help us to locate points at which largest or
smallest value (locally) of a function occurs. We will also use derivative to find intervals
on which a function is increasing or decreasing. Finally, we use the derivative to find
approximate value of certain quantities.
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities
Recall that by the derivative
ds
dt
, we mean the rate of change of distance s with
respect to the time t. In a similar fashion, whenever one quantity y varies with another
quantity x, satisfying some rule ( ) y f x = , then
dy
dx
(or f (x)) represents the rate of
change of y with respect to x and
0
x x
dy
dx
=
(or f (x
0
)) represents the rate of change
of y with respect to x at
0
x x = .
Further, if two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.,
if ( ) x f t = and ( ) y g t = , then by Chain Rule
dy
dx
=
dy dx
dt dt
, if
0
dx
dt

Chapter 6
APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 195
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of
change of y and that of x both with respect to t.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to
its radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = r
2
. Therefore, the rate
of change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by
2
A
( ) 2
d d
r r
dr dr
= =
.
When r = 5 cm,
A
10
d
dr
=
. Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of
10 cm
2
/s.
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per
second. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10
centimetres ?
Solution Let x be the length of a side, V be the volume and S be the surface area of
the cube. Then, V = x
3
and S = 6x
2
, where x is a function of time t.
Now
V d
dt
= 9cm
3
/s (Given)
Therefore 9 =
3 3
V
( ) ( )
d d d dx
x x
dt dt dx dt
= =
(By Chain Rule)
=
2
3
dx
x
dt
or
dx
dt
=
2
3
x
... (1)
Now
dS
dt
=
2 2
(6 ) (6 )
d d dx
x x
dt dx dt
=
(By Chain Rule)
=
2
3 36
12x
x x

=

(Using (1))
Hence, when x = 10 cm,
2
3.6 cm /s
dS
dt
=
MATHEMATICS 196
Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed
of 4cm per second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how
fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = r
2
. Therefore, the rate
of change of area A with respect to time t is
A d
dt
=
2 2
( ) ( )
d d dr
r r
dt dr dt
=
= 2 r
dr
dt
(By Chain Rule)
It is given that
dr
dt
= 4cm/s
Therefore, when r = 10 cm,
A d
dt
= 2(10) (4) = 80
Thus, the enclosed area is increasing at the rate of 80 cm
2
/s, when r = 10 cm.
$
Note
dy
dx
is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if y decreases
as x increases.
Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and
the width y is increasing at the rate of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Solution Since the length x is decreasing and the width y is increasing with respect to
time, we have
3cm/min
dx
dt
= and 2 cm/min
dy
dt
=
(a) The perimeter P of a rectangle is given by
P = 2 (x + y)
Therefore
P d
dt
= 2 2 ( 3 2) 2 cm/min
dx dy
dt dt

+ = + =

(b) The area A of the rectangle is given by
A = x . y
Therefore
A d
dt
=
dx dy
y x
dt dt
+
= 3(6) + 10(2) (as x = 10 cm and y = 6 cm)
= 2 cm
2
/min
Example 5 The total cost C(x) in Rupees, associated with the production of x units of
an item is given by
C(x) = 0.005 x
3
0.02 x
2
+ 30x + 5000
Find the marginal cost when 3 units are produced, where by marginal cost we
mean the instantaneous rate of change of total cost at any level of output.
Solution Since marginal cost is the rate of change of total cost with respect to the
output, we have
Marginal cost (MC) =
2
0.005(3 ) 0.02(2 ) 30
dC
x x
dx
= +
When x = 3, MC =
2
0.015(3 ) 0.04(3) 30 +
= 0.135 0.12 + 30 = 30.015
Hence, the required marginal cost is Rs 30.02 (nearly).
Example 6 The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product
is given by R(x) = 3x
2
+ 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by
marginal revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of items sold at an instant.
Solution Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to
the number of units sold, we have
Marginal Revenue (MR) =
R
6 36
d
x
dx
= +
When x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is Rs 66.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when
(a) r = 3 cm (b) r = 4 cm
2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm
3
/s. How fast is the
surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate
at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of
5 cm/s. At the instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is
the enclosed area increasing?
MATHEMATICS 198
6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of
increase of its circumference?
7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the
width y is increasing at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on inflation, is being inflated by pumping
in 900 cubic centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of
the balloon increases when the radius is 15 cm.
9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at
which its volume is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled
along the ground, away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height
on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x
3
+2. Find the points on the curve at
which the y-coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of
1
2
cm/s. At what rate is the
volume of the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?
13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter
3
(2 1)
2
x +
.
Find the rate of change of its volume with respect to x.
14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm
3
/s. The falling sand forms a cone
on the ground in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the
radius of the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing when the
height is 4 cm?
15. The total cost C(x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an
item is given by
C(x) = 0.007x
3
0.003x
2
+ 15x + 4000.
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced.
16. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 13x
2
+ 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7.
17. The rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r at r = 6 cm is
(A) 10 (B) 12 (C) 8 (D) 11
18. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 3x
2
+ 36x + 5. The marginal revenue, when x = 15 is
(A) 116 (B) 96 (C) 90 (D) 126
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In this section, we will use differentiation to find out whether a function is increasing or
decreasing or none.
Consider the function f given by f (x) = x
2
, x R. The graph of this function is a
parabola as given in Fig 6.1.
Fig 6.1
First consider the graph (Fig 6.1) to the right of the origin. Observe that as we
move from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously increases.
For this reason, the function is said to be increasing for the real numbers x > 0.
Now consider the graph to the left of the origin and observe here that as we move
from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously decreases.
Consequently, the function is said to be decreasing for the real numbers x < 0.
We shall now give the following analytical definitions for a function which is
increasing or decreasing on an interval.
Definition 1 Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real valued function
f. Then f is said to be
(i) increasing on I if x
1
< x
2
in I f (x
1
) f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I.
(ii) strictly increasing on I if x
1
< x
2
in I f (x
1
) < f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I.
x f (x) = x
2
2 4
3
2
9
4
1 1
1
2
1
4
0 0
Values left to origin
as we move from left to right, the
height of the graph decreases
x f (x) = x
2
0 0
1
2
1
4
1 1
3
2
9
4
2 4
Values right to origin
as we move from left to right, the
height of the graph increases
MATHEMATICS 200
(iii) decreasing on I if x
1
< x
2
in I f (x
1
) f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I.
(iv) strictly decreasing on I if x
1
< x
2
in I f (x
1
) > f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I.
For graphical representation of such functions see Fig 6.2.
Fig 6.2
We shall now define when a function is increasing or decreasing at a point.
Definition 2 Let x
0
be a point in the domain of definition of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing at
x
0
if there exists an open interval I containing x
0
such that f is increasing, strictly
increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing, respectively, in I.
Let us clarify this definition for the case of increasing function.
A function f is said to be increasing at x
0
if there exists an interval I = (x
0
h, x
0
+ h),
h > 0 such that for x
1
, x
2
I
x
1
< x
2
in I f (x
1
) f (x
2
)
Similarly, the other cases can be clarified.
Example 7 Show that the function given by f (x) = 7x 3 is strictly increasing on R.
Solution Let x
1
and x
2
be any two numbers in R. Then
x
1
< x
2
7x
1
< 7x
2
7x
1
3 < 7x
2
3 f (x
1
) < f (x
2
)
Thus, by Definition 1, it follows that f is strictly increasing on R.
We shall now give the first derivative test for increasing and decreasing functions.
The proof of this test requires the Mean Value Theorem studied in Chapter 5.
Theorem 1 Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a,b). Then
(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f (x) > 0 for each x (a, b)
(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f (x) < 0 for each x (a, b)
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f (x) = 0 for each x (a, b)
Proof (a) Let x
1
, x
2
[a, b] be such that x
1
< x
2
.
Then, by Mean Value Theorem (Theorem 8 in Chapter 5), there exists a point c
between x
1
and x
2
such that
f (x
2
) f (x
1
) = f (c) (x
2
x
1
)
i.e. f (x
2
) f (x
1
) > 0 (as f (c) > 0 (given))
i.e. f (x
2
) > f (x
1
)
Thus, we have
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ), for all , [ , ] x x f x f x x x a b < <
Hence, f is an increasing function in [a,b].
The proofs of part (b) and (c) are similar. It is left as an exercise to the reader.
Remarks
(i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b) if f (x) > 0 for each x (a, b)
(ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if f (x) < 0 for each x (a, b)
(iii) A function will be increasing (decreasing) in R if it is so in every interval of R.
f (x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 4x, x R
is strictly increasing on R.
Solution Note that
f (x) = 3x
2
6x + 4
= 3(x
2
2x + 1) + 1
= 3(x 1)
2
+ 1 > 0, in every interval of R
Therefore, the function f is strictly increasing on R.
MATHEMATICS 202
Example 9 Prove that the function given by f (x) = cos x is
(a) strictly decreasing in (0, )
(b) strictly increasing in (, 2), and
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2).
Solution Note that f (x) = sin x
(a) Since for each x (0, ), sin x > 0, we have f (x) < 0 and so f is strictly
decreasing in (0, ).
(b) Since for each x (, 2), sin x < 0, we have f (x) > 0 and so f is strictly
increasing in (, 2).
(c) Clearly by (a) and (b) above, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2).
$
Note One may note that the function in Example 9 is neither strictly increasing in
[, 2] nor strictly decreasing in [0, ]. However, since the function is continuous at
the end points 0 and , by Theorem 1, f is increasing in [, 2] and decreasing in [0, ].
Example 10 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x
2
4x + 6 is
(a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing
Solution We have
f (x) = x
2
4x + 6
or f (x) = 2x 4
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives x = 2. Now the point x = 2 divides the real line into two
disjoint intervals namely, ( , 2) and (2, ) (Fig 6.3). In the interval ( , 2),
f (x) = 2x 4 < 0.
Therefore, f is strictly decreasing in this
interval. Also, in the interval (2, ) , ( ) 0 f x >
and so the function f is strictly increasing in this
interval.
$
Note Note that the given function is continuous at 2 which is the point joining
the two intervals. So, by Theorem 1, we conclude that the given function is decreasing
in ( , 2] and increasing in [2, ).
Example 11 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x
3
6x
2
72x + 30
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = 4x
3
6x
2
72x + 30
Fig 6.3
or f (x) = 12x
2
12x 72
= 12(x
2
x 6)
= 12(x 3) (x + 2)
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives x = 2, 3. The
points x = 2 and x = 3 divides the real line into
three disjoint intervals, namely, ( , 2), ( 2, 3)
and (3, ).
In the intervals ( , 2) and (3, ), f (x) is positive while in the interval ( 2, 3),
f (x) is negative. Consequently, the function f is strictly increasing in the intervals
( , 2) and (3, ) while the function is strictly decreasing in the interval ( 2, 3).
However, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in R.
Interval Sign of f (x) Nature of function f
( , 2) () () > 0 f is strictly increasing
( 2, 3) () (+) < 0 f is strictly decreasing
(3, ) (+) (+) > 0 f is strictly increasing
Example 12 Find intervals in which the function given by f (x) = sin 3x, 0,
2
x

is
(a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = sin 3x
or f (x) = 3cos 3x
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives cos 3x = 0 which in turn gives
3
3 ,
2 2
x

=
(as 0,
2
x

implies
3
3 0,
2
x

). So
6
x

=
and
2
. The point
6
x

=
divides the interval
0,
2

into two disjoint intervals
0,
6

and ,
6 2

.
Now, ( ) 0 f x > for all
0,
6
x

as 0 0 3
6 2
x x

< < and ( ) 0 f x < for
all
,
6 2
x

as
3
3
6 2 2 2
x x

< < < < .
Fig 6.4
Fig 6.5
MATHEMATICS 204
Therefore, f is strictly increasing in
0,
6

and strictly decreasing in
,
6 2

.
Also, the given function is continuous at x = 0 and
6
x

=
. Therefore, by Theorem 1,
f is increasing on
0,
6

and decreasing on
,
6 2

.
Example 13 Find the intervals in which the function f given by
f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 x 2
is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
f(x) = sin x + cos x,
or f (x) = cos x sin x
Now ( ) 0 f x = gives sin x = cos x which gives that
4
x

=
,
5
4
as
0 2 x
The points
4
x

=
and
5
4
x

=
divide the interval [0, 2] into three disjoint intervals,
namely,
0,
4

,
5
,
4 4

and
5
, 2
4

.
Note that
5
( ) 0 if 0, , 2
4 4
f x x

>

or f is strictly increasing in the intervals
0,
4

and
5
, 2
4

Also
5
( ) 0 if ,
4 4
f x x

<

or f is strictly decreasing in
5
,
4 4

Fig 6.6
Interval Sign of ( ) f x Nature of function
0,
4

> 0 f is strictly increasing
5
,
4 4

< 0 f is strictly decreasing
5
, 2
4

> 0 f is strictly increasing
EXERCISE 6.2
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is strictly increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e
2x
is strictly increasing on R.
3. Show that the function given by f (x) = sin x is
(a) strictly increasing in
0,
2

(b) strictly decreasing in
,
2

(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, )
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x
2
3x is
5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x
3
3x
2
36x + 7 is
6. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or
decreasing:
(a) x
2
+ 2x 5 (b) 10 6x 2x
2
(c) 2x
3
9x
2
12x + 1 (d) 6 9x x
2
(e) (x + 1)
3
(x 3)
3
7. Show that
2
log(1 )
2
x
y x
x
= +
+
, x > 1, is an increasing function of x
throughout its domain.
8. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x 2)]
2
is an increasing function.
9. Prove that
4sin
(2 cos )
y

=
+
is an increasing function of
in 0,
2

.
MATHEMATICS 206
10. Prove that the logarithmic function is strictly increasing on (0, ).
11. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = x
2
x + 1 is neither strictly increasing
nor strictly decreasing on ( 1, 1).
12. Which of the following functions are strictly decreasing on 0,
2

?
(A) cos x (B) cos 2x (C) cos 3x (D) tan x
13. On which of the following intervals is the function f given by f (x) = x
100
+ sin x 1
strictly decreasing ?
(A) (0,1) (B) ,
2

(C) 0,
2

(D) None of these
14. Find the least value of a such that the function f given by f (x) = x
2
+ ax + 1 is
strictly increasing on (1, 2).
15. Let I be any interval disjoint from (1, 1). Prove that the function f given by
1
( ) f x x
x
= + is strictly increasing on I.
16. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log sin x is strictly increasing on 0,
2

and strictly decreasing on ,
2

.
17. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log cos x is strictly decreasing on
0,
2

and strictly increasing on ,
2

.
18. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 3x 100 is increasing in R.
19. The interval in which y = x
2
e
x
is increasing is
(A) ( , ) (B) ( 2, 0) (C) (2, ) (D) (0, 2)
6.4 Tangents and Normals
In this section, we shall use differentiation to find the equation of the tangent line and
the normal line to a curve at a given point.
Recall that the equation of a straight line passing through a given point (x
0
, y
0
)
having finite slope m is given by
y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
Note that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x)
at the point (x
0
, y
0
) is given by
0
( , )
0 0
( ( ))
x y
dy
f x
dx
. So
the equation of the tangent at (x
0
, y
0
) to the curve y = f (x)
is given by
y y
0
= f (x
0
)(x x
0
)
Also, since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent,
the slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x
0
, y
0
) is
0
1
( ) f x
, if
0
( ) 0 f x . Therefore, the equation of the
normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x
0
, y
0
) is given by
y y
0
=
0
0
1
( )
( )
x x
f x
i.e.
0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) y y f x x x + = 0
$
Note If a tangent line to the curve y = f (x) makes an angle with x-axis in the
positive direction, then slope of the tangent tan
dy
dx
= = .
Particular cases
(i) If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tan = 0 and so = 0 which means the
tangent line is parallel to the x-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
the point (x
0
, y
0
) is given by y = y
0
.
(ii) If
2
, then tan , which means the tangent line is perpendicular to the

x-axis, i.e., parallel to the y-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
(x
0
, y
0
) is given by x = x
0
(Why?).
Example 14 Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x
3
x at x = 2.
Solution The slope of the tangent at x = 2 is given by
2 x
dy
dx
=
=
2
2
3 1 11.
x
x
=
Fig 6.7
MATHEMATICS 208
Example 15 Find the point at which the tangent to the curve 4 3 1 y x = has its
slope
2
3
.
Solution Slope of tangent to the given curve at (x, y) is
dy
dx
=
1
2
1 2
(4 3) 4
2 4 3
x
x
The slope is given to be

2
3
.
So
2
4 3 x
=
2
3
or 4x 3 = 9
or x = 3
Now
4 3 1 y x =
. So when x = 3, 4(3) 3 1 2 y = = .
Therefore, the required point is (3, 2).
Example 16 Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 and being tangent to the curve
2
0
3
y
x
+ =
.
Solution Slope of the tangent to the given curve at any point (x,y) is given by
dy
dx
=
2
2
( 3) x
But the slope is given to be 2. Therefore
2
2
( 3) x
= 2
or (x 3)
2
= 1
or x 3 = 1
or x = 2, 4
Now x = 2 gives y = 2 and x = 4 gives y = 2. Thus, there are two tangents to the
given curve with slope 2 and passing through the points (2, 2) and (4, 2). The equation
of tangent through (2, 2) is given by
y 2 = 2(x 2)
or y 2x + 2 = 0
and the equation of the tangent through (4, 2) is given by
y ( 2) = 2(x 4)
or y 2x + 10 = 0
Example 17 Find points on the curve
2 2
1
4 25
x y
+ = at which the tangents are (i) parallel
to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
Solution Differentiating
2 2
1
4 25
x y
+ = with respect to x, we get
2
2 25
x y dy
dx
+
= 0
or
dy
dx
=
25
4
x
y
(i) Now, the tangent is parallel to the x-axis if the slope of the tangent is zero which
gives
25
0
4
x
y
= . This is possible if x = 0. Then

2 2
1
4 25
x y
+ = for x = 0 gives
y
2
= 25, i.e., y = 5.
Thus, the points at which the tangents are parallel to the x-axis are (0, 5) and
(0, 5).
(ii) The tangent line is parallel to y-axis if the slope of the normal is 0 which gives
4
0
25
y
x
=
, i.e., y = 0. Therefore,
2 2
1
4 25
x y
+ = for y = 0 gives x = 2. Hence, the
points at which the tangents are parallel to the y-axis are (2, 0) and (2, 0).
Example 18 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
7
( 2)( 3)
x
y
x x
=

at the
point where it cuts the x-axis.
Solution Note that on x-axis, y = 0. So the equation of the curve, when y = 0, gives
x = 7. Thus, the curve cuts the x-axis at (7, 0). Now differentiating the equation of the
curve with respect to x, we obtain
dy
dx
=
1 (2 5)
( 2)( 3)
y x
x x

(Why?)
or
(7,0)
dy
dx
=
1 0 1
(5) (4) 20
=
MATHEMATICS 210
Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (7, 0) is
1
20
. Hence, the equation of the
tangent at (7, 0) is
1
0 ( 7)
20
y x = or 20 7 0 y x + =
Example 19 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
2 2
3 3
2 x y + =
at (1, 1).
Solution Differentiating
2 2
3 3
2 x y + = with respect to x, we get
1 1
3 3
2 2
3 3
dy
x y
dx

+ = 0
or
dy
dx
=
1
3 y
x

Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is
(1, 1)
1
dy
dx
.
So the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is
y 1 = 1 (x 1) or y + x 2 = 0
Also, the slope of the normal at (1, 1) is given by
1
slope of the tangent at (1,1)
= 1
Therefore, the equation of the normal at (1, 1) is
y 1 = 1 (x 1) or y x = 0
Example 20 Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by
x = a sin
3
t , y = b cos
3
t ... (1)
at a point where
2
t

=
.
Solution Differentiating (1) with respect to t, we get
2
3 sin cos
dx
a t t
dt
=
and
2
3 cos sin
dy
b t t
dt
=
or
dy
dy
dt
dx
dx
dt
=
=
2
2
3 cos sin cos
sin 3 sin cos
b t t b t
a t a t t

=
Therefore, slope of the tangent at
2
t

=
is
2
t
dy
dx

=
=
cos
2
0
sin
2
b
a
Also, when
2
t

= , x = a and y = 0. Hence, the equation of tangent to the given
curve at
2
t

= , i.e., at (a, 0) is
y 0 = 0 (x a), i.e., y = 0.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x
4
4x at x = 4.
2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
1
, 2
2
x
y x
x
at x = 10.
3. Find the slope of the tangent to curve y = x
3
x + 1 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 2.
4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x
3
3x + 2 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 3.
5. Find the slope of the normal to the curve
3 3
cos , sin x a y a = = at
.
4
=
6. Find the slope of the normal to the curve
2
1 sin , cos x a y b = = at
.
2
=
7. Find points at which the tangent to the curve y = x
3
3x
2
9x + 7 is parallel to
the x-axis.
8. Find a point on the curve y = (x 2)
2
at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
joining the points (2, 0) and (4, 4).
MATHEMATICS 212
9. Find the point on the curve y = x
3
11x + 5 at which the tangent is y = x 11.
10. Find the equation of all lines having slope 1 that are tangents to the curve
1
1
y
x
=
, x 1.
11. Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 which are tangents to the curve
1
3
y
x
=
, x 3.
12. Find the equations of all lines having slope 0 which are tangent to the curve
2
1
.
2 3
y
x x
=
+
13. Find points on the curve
2 2
1
9 16
x y
+ = at which the tangents are
(i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
14. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the given curves at the indicated
points:
(i) y = x
4
6x
3
+ 13x
2
10x + 5 at (0, 5)
(ii) y = x
4
6x
3
+ 13x
2
10x + 5 at (1, 3)
(iii) y = x
3
at (1, 1)
(iv) y = x
2
at (0, 0)
(v) x = cos t, y = sint at
4
t

=
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x
2
2x +7 which is
(a) parallel to the line 2x y + 9 = 0
(b) perpendicular to the line 5y 15x = 13.
16. Show that the tangents to the curve y = 7x
3
+ 11 at the points where x = 2 and
x = 2 are parallel.
17. Find the points on the curve y = x
3
at which the slope of the tangent is equal to
the y-coordinate of the point.
18. For the curve y = 4x
3
2x
5
, find all the points at which the tangent passes
through the origin.
19. Find the points on the curve x
2
+ y
2
2x 3 = 0 at which the tangents are parallel
to the x-axis.
20. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am
2
,am
3
) for the curve ay
2
= x
3
.
21. Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x
3
+ 2x + 6 which are parallel
to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0.
22. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y
2
= 4ax at the point
(at
2
, 2at).
23. Prove that the curves x = y
2
and xy = k cut at right angles* if 8k
2
= 1.
24. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyperbola
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
= at the
point (x
0
, y
0
).
25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 3 2 y x = which is parallel to the
line 4 2 5 0 x y + = .
26. The slope of the normal to the curve y = 2x
2
+ 3 sin x at x = 0 is
(A) 3 (B)
1
3
(C) 3 (D)
1
3
27. The line y = x + 1 is a tangent to the curve y

2
= 4x at the point
(A) (1, 2) (B) (2, 1) (C) (1, 2) (D) ( 1, 2)
6.5 Approximations
In this section, we will use differentials to approximate values of certain quantities.
Let f : D R, D R, be a given function
and let y = f (x). Let x denote a small
increment in x. Recall that the increment in y
corresponding to the increment in x, denoted
by y, is given by y = f (x + x) f (x). We
define the following
(i) The differential of x, denoted by dx, is
defined by dx = x.
(ii) The differential of y, denoted by dy,
is defined by dy = f(x) dx or
.
dy
dy x
dx

=

Fig 6.8
* Two curves intersect at right angle if the tangents to the curves at the point of intersection
are perpendicular to each other.
MATHEMATICS 214
In case dx = x is relatively small when compared with x, dy is a good approximation
of y and we denote it by dy y.
For geometrical meaning of x, y, dx and dy, one may refer to Fig 6.8.
$
Note In view of the above discussion and Fig 6.8, we may note that the
differential of the dependent variable is not equal to the increment of the variable
where as the differential of independent variable is equal to the increment of the
variable.
Example 21 Use differential to approximate
36.6
.
Solution Take y x = . Let x = 36 and let x = 0.6. Then
y =
36.6 36 36.6 6 x x x + = =
or
36.6
= 6 + y
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by
dy =
1
(0.6)
2
dy
x
dx x

=

=
1
2 36
(0.6) = 0.05 (as ) y x =
Thus, the approximate value of
36.6
is 6 + 0.05 = 6.05.
Example 22 Use differential to approximate
1
3
(25)
.
Solution Let
1
3
y x = . Let x = 27 and let x = 2. Then
y =
1 1
3 3
( ) x x x + =
1 1 1
3 3 3
(25) (27) (25) 3 =
or
1
3
(25) = 3 + y
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by
dy =
dy
x
dx

=
2
3
1
( 2)
3x

1
3
(as ) y x =
=
1
2
3
1 2
( 2) 0.074
27
3((27) )
= =
Thus, the approximate value of
1
3
(25) is given by
3 + ( 0. 074) = 2.926
Example 23 Find the approximate value of f (3.02), where f (x) = 3x
2
+ 5x + 3.
Solution Let x = 3 and x = 0.02. Then
f (3. 02) = f (x + x) = 3(x + x)
2
+ 5(x + x) + 3
Note that y = f (x + x) f (x). Therefore
f (x + x) = f (x) + y
f (x) + f (x) x (as dx = x)
or f (3.02) (3x
2
+ 5x + 3) + (6x + 5) x
= (3(3)
2
+ 5(3) + 3) + (6(3) + 5) (0.02) (as x = 3, x = 0.02)
= (27 + 15 + 3) + (18 + 5) (0.02)
= 45 + 0.46 = 45.46
Hence, approximate value of f (3.02) is 45.46.
Example 24 Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x meters
caused by increasing the side by 2%.
Solution Note that
V = x
3
or dV =
V d
x
dx

= (3x
2
) x
= (3x
2
) (0.02x) = 0.06x
3
m
3
(as 2% of x is 0.02x)
Thus, the approximate change in volume is 0.06 x
3
m
3
.
Example 25 If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm with an error of 0.03 cm,
then find the approximate error in calculating its volume.
Solution Let r be the radius of the sphere and r be the error in measuring the radius.
Then r = 9 cm and r = 0.03 cm. Now, the volume V of the sphere is given by
V =
3
4
3
r
or
V d
dr
= 4r
2
Therefore dV =
2
V
(4 )
d
r r r
dr

=

= 4(9)
2
(0.03) = 9.72 cm
3
Thus, the approximate error in calculating the volume is 9.72 cm
3
.
MATHEMATICS 216
EXERCISE 6.4
1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following up to 3
places of decimal.
(i)
25.3
(ii)
49.5
(iii)
0.6
(iv)
1
3
(0.009) (v)
1
10
(0.999) (vi)
1
4
(15)
(vii)
1
3
(26) (viii)
1
4
(255) (ix)
1
4
(82)
(x)
1
2
(401) (xi)
1
2
(0.0037) (xii)
1
3
(26.57)
(xiii)
1
4
(81.5) (xiv)
3
2
(3.968) (xv)
1
5
(32.15)
2. Find the approximate value of f (2.01), where f (x) = 4x
2
+ 5x + 2.
3. Find the approximate value of f (5.001), where f (x) = x
3
7x
2
+ 15.
4. Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x metres caused
by increasing the side by 1%.
5. Find the approximate change in the surface area of a cube of side x metres
caused by decreasing the side by 1%.
6. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 7 m with an error of 0.02 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its volume.
7. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 m with an error of 0.03 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its surface area.
8. If f(x) = 3x
2
+ 15x + 5, then the approximate value of f (3.02) is
(A) 47.66 (B) 57.66 (C) 67.66 (D) 77.66
9. The approximate change in the volume of a cube of side x metres caused by
increasing the side by 3% is
(A) 0.06 x
3
m
3
(B) 0.6 x
3
m
3
(C) 0.09 x
3
m
3
(D) 0.9 x
3
m
3
6.6 Maxima and Minima
In this section, we will use the concept of derivatives to calculate the maximum or
minimum values of various functions. In fact, we will find the turning points of the
graph of a function and thus find points at which the graph reaches its highest (or
lowest) locally. The knowledge of such points is very useful in sketching the graph of
a given function. Further, we will also find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
of a function that are necessary for the solution of many applied problems.
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by P(x) = ax + bx
2
, where a,b
are constants and x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per
acre will maximise the profit?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path
given by
2
( ) 60
60
x
h x x = + , where x is the horizontal distance from the building
and h(x) is the height of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will
reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the path given by the curve
f (x) = x
2
+ 7. A soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter
when it is nearest to him. What is the nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to find out
the maximum or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems,
we first formally define maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
Definition 3 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
( ) ( ) f c f x , for all x I.
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a
point of maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) f (x), for all x I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point
c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c
is called an extreme point.
Remark In Fig 6.9(a), (b) and (c), we have exhibited that graphs of certain particular
functions help us to find maximum value and minimum value at a point. Infact, through
graphs, we can even find maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it
is not even differentiable (Example 27).
MATHEMATICS 218
Fig 6.9
Example 26 Find the maximum and the minimum values,
if any, of the function f given by
f (x) = x
2
, x R.
Solution From the graph of the given function (Fig 6.10),
we have f (x) = 0 if x = 0. Also
f (x) 0, for all x R.
Therefore, the minimum value of f is 0 and the point
of minimum value of f is x = 0. Further, it may be observed
from the graph of the function that f has no maximum
value and hence no point of maximum value of f in R.
$
Note If we restrict the domain of f to [ 2, 1] only,
then f will have maximum value( 2)
2
= 4 at x = 2.
Example 27 Find the maximum and minimum values
of f , if any, of the function given by f (x) = | x|, x R.
Solution From the graph of the given function
(Fig 6.11) , note that
f (x) 0, for all x R and f (x) = 0 if x = 0.
Therefore, the function f has a minimum value 0
and the point of minimum value of f is x = 0. Also, the
graph clearly shows that f has no maximum value in
R and hence no point of maximum value in R.
$
Note
(i) If we restrict the domain of f to [ 2, 1] only, then f will have maximum value
| 2| = 2.
Fig 6.10
Fig 6.11
(ii) One may note that the function f in Example 27 is not differentiable at
x = 0.
Example 28 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if any, of the function
given by
f (x) = x, x (0, 1).
Solution The given function is an increasing (strictly) function in the given interval
(0, 1). From the graph (Fig 6.12) of the function f , it
seems that, it should have the minimum value at a
point closest to 0 on its right and the maximum value
at a point closest to 1 on its left. Are such points
available? Of course, not. It is not possible to locate
such points. Infact, if a point x
0
is closest to 0, then
we find
0
0
2
x
x <
for all
0
(0,1) x . Also, if x
1
is
closest to 1, then
1
1
1
2
x
x
+
>
for all
1
(0,1) x .
Therefore, the given function has neither the maximum value nor the minimum
value in the interval (0,1).
Remark The reader may observe that in Example 28, if we include the points 0 and 1
in the domain of f , i.e., if we extend the domain of f to [0,1], then the function f has
minimum value 0 at x = 0 and maximum value 1 at x = 1. Infact, we have the following
results (The proof of these results are beyond the scope of the present text)
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the end
points of the domain of definition of the function.
A more general result is
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum
value.
$
Note By a monotonic function f in an interval I, we mean that f is either
increasing in I or decreasing in I.
Maximum and minimum values of a function defined on a closed interval will be
discussed later in this section.
Let us now examine the graph of a function as shown in Fig 6.13. Observe that at
points A, B, C and D on the graph, the function changes its nature from decreasing to
increasing or vice-versa. These points may be called turning points of the given
function. Further, observe that at turning points, the graph has either a little hill or a little
valley. Roughly speaking, the function has minimum value in some neighbourhood
(interval) of each of the points A and C which are at the bottom of their respective
Fig 6.12
MATHEMATICS 220
valleys. Similarly, the function has maximum value in some neighbourhood of points B
and D which are at the top of their respective hills. For this reason, the points A and C
may be regarded as points of local minimum value (or relative minimum value) and
points B and D may be regarded as points of local maximum value (or relative maximum
value) for the function. The local maximum value and local minimum value of the
function are referred to as local maxima and local minima, respectively, of the function.
We now formally give the following definition
Definition 4 Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain
of f. Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) f (x), for all x in (c h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) f (x), for all x in (c h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f,
then the graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig 6.14(a). Note that the function f is
increasing (i.e., f (x) > 0) in the interval (c h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f (x) < 0) in the
interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f (c) must be zero.
Fig 6.13
Fig 6.14
Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then the graph of f around c will be as
shown in Fig 6.14(b). Here f is decreasing (i.e., f (x) < 0) in the interval (c h, c) and
increasing (i.e., f (x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h). This again suggest that f (c) must
be zero.
The above discussion lead us to the following theorem (without proof).
Theorem 2 Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c I be any
point. If f has a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f (c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable at c.
Remark The converse of above theorem need
not be true, that is, a point at which the derivative
vanishes need not be a point of local maxima or
local minima. For example, if f (x) = x
3
, then f (x)
= 3x
2
and so f (0) = 0. But 0 is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima (Fig 6.15).
$
Note A point c in the domain of a function
f at which either f (c) = 0 or f is not differentiable
is called a critical point of f. Note that if f is
continuous at c and f (c) = 0, then there exists
an h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the interval
(c h, c + h).
We shall now give a working rule for finding points of local maxima or points of
local minima using only the first order derivatives.
Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.
Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) < 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
maxima.
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) > 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
minima.
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of
inflection (Fig 6.15).
Fig 6.15
MATHEMATICS 222
$
Note If c is a point of local maxima of f , then f (c) is a local maximum value of
f. Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then f(c) is a local minimum value of f.
Figures 6.15 and 6.16, geometrically explain Theorem 3.
Fig 6.16
Example 29 Find all points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = x
3
3x + 3.
Solution We have
f (x) = x
3
3x + 3
or f (x) = 3x
2
3 = 3(x 1) (x + 1)
or f (x) = 0 at x = 1 and x = 1
Thus, x = 1 are the only critical points which could possibly be the points of local
maxima and/or local minima of f . Let us first examine the point x = 1.
Note that for values close to 1 and to the right of 1, f (x) > 0 and for values close
to 1 and to the left of 1, f (x) < 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point
of local minima and local minimum value is f (1) = 1. In the case of x = 1, note that
f (x) > 0, for values close to and to the left of 1 and f (x) < 0, for values close to and
to the right of 1. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point of local maxima
and local maximum value is f (1) = 5.
Values of x Sign of f (x) = 3(x 1) (x + 1)
Close to 1
to the right (say 1.1 etc.) >0
to the left (say 0.9 etc.) <0
Close to 1
to the right (say 0.9 etc.) 0
to the left (say 1.1 etc.) 0
<
>
Example 30 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x
3
6x
2
+ 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x
3
6x
2
+ 6x + 5
or f (x) = 6x
2
12x + 6 = 6(x 1)
2
or f (x) = 0 at x = 1
Thus, x = 1 is the only critical point of f . We shall now examine this point for local
maxima and/or local minima of f. Observe that f (x) 0, for all x R and in particular
f (x) > 0, for values close to 1 and to the left and to the right of 1. Therefore, by first
derivative test, the point x = 1 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
minima. Hence x = 1 is a point of inflexion.
Remark One may note that since f (x), in Example 30, never changes its sign on R,
graph of f has no turning points and hence no point of local maxima or local minima.
We shall now give another test to examine local maxima and local minima of a
given function. This test is often easier to apply than the first derivative test.
Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I
and c I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if ( ) 0 f c = and f (c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is a point of
local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.
$
Note As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean
second order derivative of f exists at c.
Example 31 Find local minimum value of the function f
given by f (x) = 3 + | x|, x R.
Solution Note that the given function is not differentiable
at x = 0. So, second derivative test fails. Let us try first
derivative test. Note that 0 is a critical point of f . Now
to the left of 0, f (x) = 3 x and so f (x) = 1 < 0. Also
Fig 6.17
MATHEMATICS 224
to the right of 0, f (x) = 3 + x and so f (x) = 1 > 0. Therefore, by first derivative test,
x = 0 is a point of local minima of f and local minimum value of f is f (0) = 3.
Example 32 Find local maximum and local minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = 3x
4
+ 4x
3
12x
2
+ 12
Solution We have
f (x) = 3x
4
+ 4x
3
12x
2
+ 12
or f (x) = 12x
3
+ 12x
2
24x = 12x (x 1) (x + 2)
or f (x) = 0 at x = 0, x = 1 and x = 2.
Now f (x) = 36x
2
+ 24x 24 = 12 (3x
2
+ 2x 1)
or
(0) 12 0
(1) 48 0
( 2) 84 0
f
f
f
= <
= >
= >
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 0 is a point of local maxima and local

maximum value of f at x = 0 is f (0) = 12 while x = 1 and x = 2 are the points of local
minima and local minimum values of f at x = 1 and 2 are f (1) = 7 and f (2) = 20,
respectively.
Example 33 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x
3
6x
2
+ 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x
3
6x
2
+ 6x +5
or
2 2
( ) 6 12 6 6( 1)
( ) 12( 1)
f x x x x
f x x
= + =
Now f (x) = 0 gives x =1. Also f (1) = 0. Therefore, the second derivative test
fails in this case. So, we shall go back to the first derivative test.
We have already seen (Example 30) that, using first derivative test, x =1 is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and so it is a point of inflexion.
Example 34 Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose
squares is minimum.
Solution Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number is (15 x). Let S(x)
denote the sum of the squares of these numbers. Then
S(x) = x
2
+ (15 x)
2
= 2x
2
30x + 225
or
S ( ) 4 30
S ( ) 4
x x
x
=
Now S(x) = 0 gives

15
2
x = . Also
15
S 4 0
2

= >

. Therefore, by second derivative
test,
15
2
x = is the point of local minima of S. Hence the sum of squares of numbers is
minimum when the numbers are
15
2
and
15 15
15
2 2
= .
Remark Proceeding as in Example 34 one may prove that the two positive numbers,
whose sum is k and the sum of whose squares is minimum, are and
2 2
k k
.
Example 35 Find the shortest distance of the point (0, c) from the parabola y = x
2
,
where 0 c 5.
Solution Let (h, k) be any point on the parabola y = x
2
. Let D be the required distance
between (h, k) and (0, c). Then

2 2 2 2
D ( 0) ( ) ( ) h k c h k c = + = +
... (1)
Since (h, k) lies on the parabola y = x
2
, we have k = h
2
. So (1) gives
D D(k) =
2
( ) k k c +
or D(k) =
2
1 2( )
2 ( )
k c
k k c
+
+
Now D(k) = 0 gives
2 1
2
c
k

=
Observe that when
2 1
2
c
k

< , then 2( ) 1 0 k c + < , i.e., D( ) 0 k < . Also when
2 1
2
c
k

>
, then D ( ) 0 k > . So, by first derivative test, D(k) is minimum at
2 1
2
c
k

= .
Hence, the required shortest distance is given by
MATHEMATICS 226
2
2 1 2 1 2 1 4 1
D
2 2 2 2
c c c c
c

= + =

$
Note The reader may note that in Example 35, we have used first derivative
test instead of the second derivative test as the former is easy and short.
Example 36 Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at
points A and B, respectively. If AP = 16 m, BQ = 22 m
and AB = 20 m, then find the distance of a point R on
AB from the point A such that RP
2
+ RQ
2
is minimum.
Solution Let R be a point on AB such that AR = x m.
Then RB = (20 x) m (as AB = 20 m). From Fig 6.18,
we have
RP
2
= AR
2
+ AP
2
and RQ
2
= RB
2
+ BQ
2
Therefore RP
2
+ RQ
2
= AR
2
+ AP
2
+ RB
2
+ BQ
2
= x
2
+ (16)
2
+ (20 x)
2
+ (22)
2
= 2x
2
40x + 1140
Let S S(x) = RP
2
+ RQ
2
= 2x
2
40x + 1140.
Therefore S(x) = 4x 40.
Now S(x) = 0 gives x = 10. Also S(x) = 4 > 0, for all x and so S(10) > 0.
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 10 is the point of local minima of S. Thus, the
distance of R from A on AB is AR = x =10 m.
Example 37 If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm,
then find the area of the trapezium when it is maximum.
Solution The required trapezium is as given in Fig 6.19. Draw perpendiculars DP and
Fig 6.18
Fig 6.19
CQ on AB. Let AP = x cm. Note that APD ~ BQC. Therefore, QB = x cm. Also, by
Pythagoras theorem, DP = QC =
2
100 x
. Let A be the area of the trapezium. Then
A A(x) =
1
2
(sum of parallel sides) (height)
=
( )
2
1
(2 10 10) 100
2
x x + +
= ( )
2
( 10) 100 x x +
or A(x) =
( )
2
2
( 2 )
( 10) 100
2 100
x
x x
x
+ +
=
2
2
2 10 100
100
x x
x
+
Now A(x) = 0 gives 2x

2
+ 10x 100 = 0, i.e., x = 5 and x = 10.
Since x represents distance, it can not be negative.
So, x = 5. Now
A(x) =
2 2
2
2
( 2 )
100 ( 4 10) ( 2 10 100)
2 100
100
x
x x x x
x
x
=
3
3
2
2
2 300 1000
(100 )
x x
x

(on simplification)
or A(5) =
3
3
2
2
2(5) 300(5) 1000 2250 30
0
75 75 75
(100 (5) )

= = <
Thus, area of trapezium is maximum at x = 5 and the area is given by

A(5) =
2 2
(5 10) 100 (5) 15 75 75 3 cm + = =
Example 38 Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface area which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Solution Let OC = r be the radius of the cone and OA = h be its height. Let a cylinder
with radius OE = x inscribed in the given cone (Fig 6.20). The height QE of the cylinder
is given by
MATHEMATICS 228
QE
OA
=
EC
OC
(since QEC ~ AOC)
or
QE
h
=
r x
r
or QE =
( ) h r x
r
Let S be the curved surface area of the given

cylinder. Then
S S(x) =
2 ( ) xh r x
r

=
2
2
( )
h
rx x
r

or
2
S ( ) ( 2 )
4
S ( )
h
x r x
r
h
x
r

=
Now S(x) = 0 gives

2
r
x =
. Since S(x) < 0 for all x, S 0
2
r
<

. So
2
r
x =
is a
point of maxima of S. Hence, the radius of the cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
6.6.1 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
Let us consider a function f given by
f (x) = x + 2, x (0, 1)
Observe that the function is continuous on (0, 1) and neither has a maximum value
nor has a minimum value. Further, we may note that the function even has neither a
local maximum value nor a local minimum value.
However, if we extend the domain of f to the closed interval [0, 1], then f still may
not have a local maximum (minimum) values but it certainly does have maximum value
3 = f (1) and minimum value 2 = f (0). The maximum value 3 of f at x = 1 is called
absolute maximum value (global maximum or greatest value) of f on the interval
[0, 1]. Similarly, the minimum value 2 of f at x = 0 is called the absolute minimum
value (global minimum or least value) of f on [0, 1].
Consider the graph given in Fig 6.21 of a continuous function defined on a closed
interval [a, d]. Observe that the function f has a local minima at x = b and local
Fig 6.20
minimum value is f (b). The function also has a local maxima at x = c and local maximum
value is f (c).
Also from the graph, it is evident that f has absolute maximum value f (a) and
absolute minimum value f (d). Further note that the absolute maximum (minimum)
value of f is different from local maximum (minimum) value of f .
We will now state two results (without proof) regarding absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of a function on a closed interval I.
Theorem 5 Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute
minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Theorem 6 Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any
interior point of I. Then
(i) f (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.
(ii) f (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c.
In view of the above results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute
maximum and/or absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval
[a, b].
Working Rule
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either
( ) 0 f x = or f is not differentiable.
Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in
Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .
Fig 6.21
MATHEMATICS 230
Example 39 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f (x) = 2x
3
15x
2
+ 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x
3
15x
2
+ 36x + 1
or f (x) = 6x
2
30x + 36 = 6 (x 3) (x 2)
Note that f (x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the
interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5. So
f (1) = 2(1
3
) 15(1
2
) + 36 (1) + 1 = 24
f (2) = 2(2
3
) 15(2
2
) + 36 (2) + 1 = 29
f (3) = 2(3
3
) 15(3
2
) + 36 (3) + 1 = 28
f (5) = 2(5
3
) 15(5
2
) + 36 (5) + 1 = 56
Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at
x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.
Example 40 Find absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
4 1
3 3
( ) 12 6 , [ 1, 1] f x x x x =
Solution We have
f (x) =
4 1
3 3
12 6 x x
or f (x) =
1
3
2 2
3 3
2 2(8 1)
16
x
x
x x
=
Thus, f (x) = 0 gives
1
8
x = . Further note that f (x) is not defined at x = 0. So the
critical points are x = 0 and
1
8
x = . Now evaluating the value of f at critical points
x = 0,
1
8
and at end points of the interval x = 1 and x = 1, we have
f (1) =
4 1
3 3
12( 1) 6( 1) 18 =
f (0) = 12 (0) 6(0) = 0
1
8
f

=
4 1
3 3 1 1 9
12 6
8 8 4

=

f (1) =
4 1
3 3
12(1) 6(1) 6 =
Hence, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f is 18 that occurs at x = 1
and absolute minimum value of f is
9
4
that occurs at
1
8
x =
.
Example 41 An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by
y = x
2
+ 7. A soldier, placed at (3, 7), wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is
nearest to him. Find the nearest distance.
Solution For each value of x, the helicopters position is at point (x, x
2
+ 7).
Therefore, the distance between the helicopter and the soldier placed at (3,7) is
2 2 2
( 3) ( 7 7) x x + + , i.e.,
2 4
( 3) x x + .
Let f (x) = (x 3)
2
+ x
4
or f (x) = 2(x 3) + 4x
3
= 2(x 1) (2x
2
+ 2x + 3)
Thus, f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 or 2x
2
+ 2x + 3 = 0 for which there are no real roots.
Also, there are no end points of the interval to be added to the set for which f is zero,
i.e., there is only one point, namely, x = 1. The value of f at this point is given by
f (1) = (1 3)
2
+ (1)
4
= 5. Thus, the distance between the solider and the helicopter is
(1) 5 f = .
Note that
5
is either a maximum value or a minimum value. Since
(0) f =
2 4
(0 3) (0) 3 5 + = > ,
it follows that
5
is the minimum value of ( ) f x . Hence,
5
is the minimum
distance between the soldier and the helicopter.
EXERCISE 6.5
1. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = (2x 1)
2
+ 3 (ii) f (x) = 9x
2
+ 12x + 2
(iii) f (x) = (x 1)
2
+ 10 (iv) g(x) = x
3
+ 1
MATHEMATICS 232
2. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = | x + 2| 1 (ii) g(x) = | x + 1| + 3
(iii) h(x) = sin(2x) + 5 (iv) f (x) = | sin 4x + 3|
(v) h(x) = x + 1, x ( 1, 1)
3. Find the local maxima and local minima, if any, of the following functions. Find
also the local maximum and the local minimum values, as the case may be:
(i) f (x) = x
2
(ii) g(x) = x
3
3x
(iii) h(x) = sin x + cos x, 0
2
x

< <
(iv) f (x) = sin x cos x, 0 2 x < <
(v) f (x) = x
3
6x
2
+ 9x + 15 (vi)
2
( ) , 0
2
x
g x x
x
= + >
(vii)
2
1
( )
2
g x
x
=
+
(viii) ( ) 1 , 0 f x x x x = >
4. Prove that the following functions do not have maxima or minima:
(i) f (x) = e
x
(ii) g(x) = log x
(iii) h (x) = x
3
+ x
2
+ x +1
5. Find the absolute maximum value and the absolute minimum value of the following
functions in the given intervals:
(i) f (x) = x
3
, x [ 2, 2] (ii) f (x) = sin x + cos x , x [0, ]
(iii) f (x) =
2
1 9
4 , 2,
2 2
x x x

(iv)
2
( ) ( 1) 3, [ 3,1] f x x x = +
6. Find the maximum profit that a company can make, if the profit function is
given by
p(x) = 41 24x 18x
2
7. Find both the maximum value and the minimum value of
3x
4
8x
3
+ 12x
2
48x + 25 on the interval [0, 3].
8. At what points in the interval [0, 2], does the function sin 2x attain its maximum
value?
9. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x?
10. Find the maximum value of 2x
3
24x + 107 in the interval [1, 3]. Find the
maximum value of the same function in [3, 1].
11. It is given that at x = 1, the function x
4
62x
2
+ ax + 9 attains its maximum value,
on the interval [0, 2]. Find the value of a.
12. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2].
13. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
14. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy
3
is maximum.
15. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x
2
y
5
is a maximum.
16. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is
minimum.
17. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the flaps to form the box. What
should be the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is the
maximum possible.
18. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top,
by cutting off square from each corner and folding up the flaps. What should be
the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
19. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has
the maximum area.
20. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
21. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic
centimetres, find the dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface
area?
22. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be
made into a square and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the
two pieces so that the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
23. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of
radius R is
8
27
of the volume of the sphere.
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has
an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of the base.
25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of
given slant height is
1
tan 2
.
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and
maximum volume is
1
1
sin
3

.
MATHEMATICS 234
27. The point on the curve x
2
= 2y which is nearest to the point (0, 5) is
(A) (2 2, 4) (B) (2 2, 0) (C) (0, 0) (D) (2, 2)
28. For all real values of x, the minimum value of
2
2
1
1
x x
x x
+
+ +
is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D)
1
3
29. The maximum value of
1
3
[ ( 1) 1] x x +
,
0 1 x
is
(A)
1
3 1
3

(B)
1
2
(C) 1 (D) 0
Example 42 A car starts from a point P at time t = 0 seconds and stops at point Q. The
distance x, in metres, covered by it, in t seconds is given by
2
2
3
t
x t

=

Find the time taken by it to reach Q and also find distance between P and Q.
Solution Let v be the velocity of the car at t seconds.
Now x =
2
2
3
t
t

Therefore v =
dx
dt
= 4t t
2
= t (4 t)
Thus, v = 0 gives t = 0 and/or t = 4.
Now v = 0 at P as well as at Q and at P, t = 0. So, at Q, t = 4. Thus, the car will
reach the point Q after 4 seconds. Also the distance travelled in 4 seconds is given by
x]
t = 4
=
2
4 2 32
4 2 16 m
3 3 3

= =

Example 43 A water tank has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with its axis
vertical and vertex lowermost. Its semi-vertical angle is tan
1
(0.5). Water is poured
into it at a constant rate of 5 cubic metre per hour. Find the rate at which the level of
the water is rising at the instant when the depth of water in the tank is 4 m.
Solution Let r, h and be as in Fig 6.22. Then
.
tan
r
h
=
So =
1
tan
r
h

.
But = tan
1
(0.5) (given)
or
r
h
= 0.5
or r =
2
h
Let V be the volume of the cone. Then
V =
2
3
2
1 1
3 3 2 12
h h
r h h

= =

Therefore
V d
dt
=
3
12
d h dh
dh dt

(by Chain Rule)
=
2
4
dh
h
dt
Now rate of change of volume, i.e.,

V
5
d
dt
= m
3
/h and h = 4 m.
Therefore 5 =
2
(4)
4
dh
dt

or
dh
dt
=
5 35 22
m/h
4 88 7

= =

Thus, the rate of change of water level is
35
m/h
88
.
Example 44 A man of height 2 metres walks at a uniform speed of 5 km/h away from
a lamp post which is 6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
increases.
Fig 6.22
MATHEMATICS 236
Solution In Fig 6.23, Let AB be the lamp-post, the
lamp being at the position B and let MN be the man
at a particular time t and let AM = l metres. Then,
MS is the shadow of the man. Let MS = s metres.
Note that MSN ~ ASB
or
MS
AS
=
MN
AB
or AS = 3s (as MN = 2 and AB = 6 (given))
Thus AM = 3s s = 2s. But AM = l
So l = 2s
Therefore
dl
dt
=
2
ds
dt
Since 5
dl
dt
= km/h. Hence, the length of the shadow increases at the rate
5
2
km/h.
Example 45 Find the equation of the normal to the curve x
2
= 4y which passes through
the point (1, 2).
Solution Differentiating x
2
= 4y with respect to x, we get
dy
dx
=
2
x
Let (h, k) be the coordinates of the point of contact of the normal to the curve
x
2
= 4y. Now, slope of the tangent at (h, k) is given by
( , ) h k
dy
dx
=
2
h
Hence, slope of the normal at (h, k) =
2
h
Therefore, the equation of normal at (h, k) is

y k =
2
( ) x h
h

... (1)
Since it passes through the point (1, 2), we have
2
2 (1 ) k h
h
=
or
2
2 (1 ) k h
h
= +
... (2)
Fig 6.23
Since (h, k) lies on the curve x
2
= 4y, we have
h
2
= 4k ... (3)
From (2) and (3), we have h = 2 and k = 1. Substituting the values of h and k in (1),
we get the required equation of normal as
2
1 ( 2)
2
y x
= or x + y = 3
Example 46 Find the equation of tangents to the curve
y = cos (x + y), 2 x 2
that are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0.
Solution Differentiating y = cos(x + y) with respect to x, we have
dy
dx
=
sin ( )
1 sin( )
x y
x y
+
+ +
or slope of tangent at (x, y) =
sin ( )
1 sin( )
x y
x y
+
+ +
Since the tangents to the given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0, whose slope
is
1
2
, we have
sin( )
1 sin( )
x y
x y
+
+ +
=
1
2
or sin(x + y) = 1
or x + y = n + ( 1)
n ,
2
n Z
Then y = cos(x + y) =
,
cos ( 1)
2
n
n

+

n Z
= 0, for all n Z
Also, since 2 2 x , we get
3
2
x

= and
2
x

= . Thus, tangents to the
given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0 only at points
3
, 0
2

and , 0
2

.
Therefore, the required equation of tangents are
MATHEMATICS 238
y 0 =
1 3
2 2
x

+

or 2 4 3 0 x y + + =
and y 0 =
1
2 2
x

or 2 4 0 x y + =
Example 47 Find intervals in which the function given by
f (x) =
4 3 2
3 4 36
3 11
10 5 5
x x x x + +
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) =
4 3 2
3 4 36
3 11
10 5 5
x x x x + +
Therefore f (x) =
3 2
3 4 36
(4 ) (3 ) 3(2 )
10 5 5
x x x +
=
6
( 1)( 2)( 3)
5
x x x +
(on simplification)
Now f (x) = 0 gives x = 1, x = 2, or x = 3. The
points x = 1, 2, and 3 divide the real line into four
disjoint intervals namely, ( , 2), ( 2, 1), (1, 3)
and (3, ) (Fig 6.24).
Consider the interval ( , 2), i.e., when < x < 2.
In this case, we have x 1 < 0, x + 2 < 0 and x 3 < 0.
(In particular, observe that for x = 3, f (x) = (x 1) (x + 2) (x 3) = ( 4) ( 1)
( 6) < 0)
Therefore, f (x) < 0 when < x < 2.
Thus, the function f is strictly decreasing in ( , 2).
Consider the interval ( 2, 1), i.e., when 2 < x < 1.
In this case, we have x 1 < 0, x + 2 > 0 and x 3 < 0
(In particular, observe that for x = 0, f (x) = (x 1) (x + 2) (x 3) = (1) (2) (3)
= 6 > 0)
So f (x) > 0 when 2 < x < 1.
Thus, f is strictly increasing in ( 2, 1).
Fig 6.24
Now consider the interval (1, 3), i.e., when 1 < x < 3. In this case, we have
x 1 > 0, x + 2 > 0 and x 3 < 0.
So, f (x) < 0 when 1 < x < 3.
Thus, f is strictly decreasing in (1, 3).
Finally, consider the interval (3, ), i.e., when x > 3. In this case, we have x 1 > 0,
x + 2 > 0 and x 3 > 0. So f (x) > 0 when x > 3.
Thus, f is strictly increasing in the interval (3, ).
f (x) = tan
1
(sin x + cos x), x > 0
is always an strictly increasing function in
0,
4

.
Solution We have
f (x) = tan
1
(sin x + cos x), x > 0
Therefore f (x) =
2
1
(cos sin )
1 (sin cos )
x x
x x

+ +
=
cos sin
2 sin2
x x
x
+
(on simplification)
Note that 2 + sin 2x > 0 for all x in
0,
4

.
Therefore f (x) > 0 if cos x sin x > 0
or f (x) > 0 if cos x > sin x or cot x > 1
Now cot x > 1 if tan x < 1, i.e., if 0
4
x

< <
Thus f (x) > 0 in 0,
4

Hence f is strictly increasing function in 0,
4

.
Example 49 A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its
radius increases at the rate of 0.05 cm/s. Find the rate at which its area is increasing
when radius is 3.2 cm.
MATHEMATICS 240
Solution Let r be the radius of the given disc and A be its area. Then
A = r
2
or
A d
dt
=
2
dr
r
dt
(by Chain Rule)

Now approximate rate of increase of radius = dr = 0.05
dr
t
dt
= cm/s.
Therefore, the approximate rate of increase in area is given by
dA =
A
( )
d
t
dt

=
2
dr
r t
dt

= 2 (3.2) (0.05) = 0.320 cm
2
/s (r = 3.2 cm)
Example 50 An open topped box is to be constructed by removing equal squares from
each corner of a 3 metre by 8 metre rectangular sheet of aluminium and folding up the
sides. Find the volume of the largest such box.
Solution Let x metre be the length of a side of the removed squares. Then, the height
of the box is x, length is 8 2x and breadth is 3 2x (Fig 6.25). If V(x) is the volume
of the box, then
Fig 6.25
V(x) = x(3 2x) (8 2x)
= 4x
3
22x
2
+ 24x
Therefore
2
V ( ) 12 44 24 4( 3)(3 2)
V ( ) 24 44
x x x x x
x x
= + =
Now V(x) = 0 gives

2
3,
3
x = . But x 3 (Why?)
Thus, we have
2
3
x =
. Now
2 2
V 24 44 28 0
3 3

= = <

.
Therefore,
2
3
x = is the point of maxima, i.e., if we remove a square of side
2
3
metre from each corner of the sheet and make a box from the remaining sheet, then
the volume of the box such obtained will be the largest and it is given by
2
V
3

=
3 2
2 2 2
4 22 24
3 3 3

+

=
3
200
m
27
Example 51 Manufacturer can sell x items at a price of rupees 5
100
x

each. The
cost price of x items is Rs 500
5
x
+

. Find the number of items he should sell to earn
maximum profit.
Solution Let S(x) be the selling price of x items and let C(x) be the cost price of x
items. Then, we have
S(x) =
2
5 5
100 100
x x
x x

=

and C(x) =
500
5
x
+
Thus, the profit function P(x) is given by
P(x) =
2
S( ) C( ) 5 500
100 5
x x
x x x =
i.e. P(x) =
2
24
500
5 100
x
x
or P(x) =
24
5 50
x
Now P(x) = 0 gives x = 240. Also

1
P ( )
50
x

= . So
1
P (240) 0
50
= <
Thus, x = 240 is a point of maxima. Hence, the manufacturer can earn maximum
profit, if he sells 240 items.
MATHEMATICS 242
1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following:
(a)
1
4 17
81

(b)
( )
1
5 33

2. Show that the function given by
log
( )
x
f x
x
= has maximum at x = e.
3. The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle with fixed base b are decreasing at
the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the area decreasing when the two equal
sides are equal to the base ?
4. Find the equation of the normal to curve x
2
= 4y which passes through the point
(1, 2).
5. Show that the normal at any point
to the curve
x = a cos + a sin, y = a sin a cos
is at a constant distance from the origin.
6. Find the intervals in which the function f given by
4sin 2 cos
( )
2 cos
x x x x
f x
x

=
+
is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
7. Find the intervals in which the function f given by
3
3
1
( ) , 0 f x x x
x
= + is
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
8. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle inscribed in the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
with its vertex at one end of the major axis.
9. A tank with rectangular base and rectangular sides, open at the top is to be
constructed so that its depth is 2 m and volume is 8 m
3
. If building of tank costs
Rs 70 per sq metres for the base and Rs 45 per square metre for sides. What is
the cost of least expensive tank?
10. The sum of the perimeter of a circle and square is k, where k is some constant.
Prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square is double the
radius of the circle.
11. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening.
The total perimeter of the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to
admit maximum light through the whole opening.
12. A point on the hypotenuse of a triangle is at distance a and b from the sides of
the triangle.
Show that the maximum length of the hypotenuse is
2 2 3
3 3 2
( ) a b +
.
13. Find the points at which the function f given by f (x) = (x 2)
4
(x + 1)
3
has
(i) local maxima (ii) local minima
(iii) point of inflexion
14. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = cos
2
x + sin x, x [0, ]
15. Show that the altitude of the right circular cone of maximum volume that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius r is
4
3
r
.
16. Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such that f (x) > 0, for all x (a, b). Then
prove that f is an increasing function on (a, b).
17. Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
a sphere of radius R is
2R
3
. Also find the maximum volume.
18. Show that height of the cylinder of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of height h and semi vertical angle is one-third that of the
cone and the greatest volume of cylinder is
3 2
4
tan
27
h
.
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises from 19 to 24.
19. A cylindrical tank of radius 10 m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314
cubic metre per hour. Then the depth of the wheat is increasing at the rate of
(A) 1 m
3
/h (B) 0.1 m
3
/h
(C) 1.1 m
3
/h (D) 0.5 m
3
/h
20. The slope of the tangent to the curve x = t
2
+ 3t 8, y = 2t
2
2t 5 at the point
(2, 1) is
(A)
22
7
(B)
6
7
(C)
7
6
(D)
6
7
MATHEMATICS 244
21. The line y = mx + 1 is a tangent to the curve y
2
= 4x if the value of m is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D)
1
2
22. The normal at the point (1,1) on the curve 2y + x
2
= 3 is
(A) x + y = 0 (B) x y = 0
(C) x + y +1 = 0 (D) x y = 0
23. The normal to the curve x
2
= 4y passing (1,2) is
(A) x + y = 3 (B) x y = 3
(C) x + y = 1 (D) x y = 1
24. The points on the curve 9y
2
= x
3
, where the normal to the curve makes equal
intercepts with the axes are
(A)
8
4,
3

(B)
8
4,
3

(C)
3
4,
8

(D)
3
4,
8

Summary
If a quantity y varies with another quantity x, satisfying some rule ( ) y f x = ,

then
dy
dx
(or ( ) f x ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x and
0
x x
dy
dx
=
(or
0
( ) f x ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at
0
x x = .
If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if
( ) x f t = and ( ) y g t = , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx
dt dt dx
=
, if
0
dx
dt

.
A function f is said to be
(a) increasing on an interval (a, b) if
x
1
< x
2
in (a, b) f (x
1
) f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
(a, b).
Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) decreasing on (a,b) if
x
1
< x
2
in (a, b) f (x
1
) f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
(a, b).
Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)
The equation of the tangent at (x

0
, y
0
) to the curve y = f (x) is given by
0 0
0 0
( , )
( )
x y
dy
y y x x
dx
If
dy
dx
does not exist at the point
0 0
( , ) x y , then the tangent at this point is
parallel to the y-axis and its equation is x = x
0
.
If tangent to a curve y = f (x) at x = x

0
is parallel to x-axis, then
0
0
x x
dy
dx
=
Equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at a point

0 0
( , ) x y is given by
0 0
0 0
( , )
1
( )
x y
y y x x
dy
dx
If
dy
dx
at the point
0 0
( , ) x y is zero, then equation of the normal is x = x
0
.
If
dy
dx
at the point
0 0
( , ) x y does not exist, then the normal is parallel to x-axis
and its equation is y = y
0
.
Let y = f (x), x be a small increment in x and y be the increment in y

corresponding to the increment in x, i.e., y = f (x + x) f (x). Then dy
given by
( ) dy f x dx = or
dy
dy x
dx

=

.
is a good approximation of y when
dx x =
is relatively small and we denote
it by dy y.
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f (c) = 0 or f is not

differentiable is called a critical point of f.
MATHEMATICS 246
First Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let

f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c,
i.e., if f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local maxima.
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c,
i.e., if f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point
is called point of inflexion.
Second Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an interval I and

c I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0
The values f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is
a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.
Working rule for finding absolute maxima and/or absolute minima

Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where
either f (x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2:Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values
calculated in Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum
value of f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of f .
Proofs are to Mathematics what calligraphy is to poetry.

Mathematical works do consist of proofs just as
poems do consist of characters.
VLADIMIR ARNOLD
A.1.1 Introduction
In Classes IX, X and XI, we have learnt about the concepts of a statement, compound
statement, negation, converse and contrapositive of a statement; axioms, conjectures,
theorems and deductive reasoning.
Here, we will discuss various methods of proving mathematical propositions.
A.1.2 What is a Proof?
Proof of a mathematical statement consists of sequence of statements, each statement
being justified with a definition or an axiom or a proposition that is previously established
by the method of deduction using only the allowed logical rules.
Thus, each proof is a chain of deductive arguments each of which has its premises
and conclusions. Many a times, we prove a proposition directly from what is given in
the proposition. But some times it is easier to prove an equivalent proposition rather
than proving the proposition itself. This leads to, two ways of proving a proposition
directly or indirectly and the proofs obtained are called direct proof and indirect proof
and further each has three different ways of proving which is discussed below.
Direct Proof It is the proof of a proposition in which we directly start the proof with
what is given in the proposition.
(i) Straight forward approach It is a chain of arguments which leads directly from
what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions or already proved
theorems, to what is to be proved using rules of logic.
Consider the following example:
Example 1 Show that if x
2
5x + 6 = 0, then x = 3 or x = 2.
Solution x
2
5x + 6 = 0 (given)
Appendix 1
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS 248
(x 3) (x 2) = 0 (replacing an expression by an equal/equivalent expression)
x 3 = 0 or x 2 = 0 (from the established theorem ab = 0 either a = 0 or
b = 0, for a, b in R)
x 3 + 3 = 0 + 3 or x 2 + 2 = 0 + 2 (adding equal quantities on either side of the
equation does not alter the nature of the
equation)
x + 0 = 3 or x + 0 = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
x = 3 or x = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
Hence, x
2
5x + 6 = 0 implies x = 3 or x = 2.
Explanation Let p be the given statement x
2
5x + 6 = 0 and q be the conclusion
statement x = 3 or x = 2.
From the statement p, we deduced the statement r : (x 3) (x 2) = 0 by
replacing the expression x
2
5x + 6 in the statement p by another expression (x 3)
(x 2) which is equal to x
2
5x + 6.
There arise two questions:
(i) How does the expression (x 3) (x 2) is equal to the expression x
2
5x + 6?
(ii) How can we replace an expression with another expression which is equal to
the former?
The first one is proved in earlier classes by factorization, i.e.,
x
2
5x + 6 = x
2
3x 2x + 6 = x (x 3) 2 (x 3) = (x 3) (x 2).
The second one is by valid form of argumentation (rules of logic)
Next this statement r becomes premises or given and deduce the statement s
x 3 = 0 or x 2 = 0 and the reasons are given in the brackets.
This process continues till we reach the conclusion.
The symbolic equivalent of the argument is to prove by deduction that p q
is true.
Starting with p, we deduce p r s q. This implies that p q is true.
Example 2 Prove that the function f : R R
defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.
Solution Note that a function f is one-one if
f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) x
1
= x
2
(definition of one-one function)
Now, given that f (x
1
) = f (x
2
), i.e., 2x
1
+ 5 = 2x
2
+ 5
2x
1
+ 5 5 = 2x
2
+ 5 5 (adding the same quantity on both sides)
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 249
2x
1
+ 0 = 2x
2
+ 0
2x
1
= 2x
2
(using additive identity of real number)
1
2
2
x
=
2
2
2
x
(dividing by the same non zero quantity)
x
1
= x
2
Hence, the given function is one-one.
(ii) Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a strategy, of proving a proposition which is deductive in
nature. The whole basis of proof of this method depends on the following axiom:
For a given subset S of N, if
(i) the natural number 1 S and
(ii) the natural number k + 1 S whenever k S, then S = N.
According to the principle of mathematical induction, if a statement S(n) is true
for n = 1 (or for some starting point j), and if S(n) is true for n = k implies that S(n)
is true for n = k + 1 (whatever integer k j may be), then the statement is true for any
positive integer n, for all n j.
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that if
A =
cos sin
sin cos

, then A
n
=
cos sin
sin cos
n n
n n

Solution We have
P(n) : A
n
=
cos sin
sin cos
n n
n n

We note that P(1) : A
1
=
cos sin
sin cos

Therefore, P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true, i.e.,
P(k) : A
k
=
cos sin
sin cos
k k
k k

MATHEMATICS 250
We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true, i.e.,
P(k + 1) : A
k+1
=
cos ( 1) sin ( 1)
sin( 1) cos ( 1 )
k k
k k
+ +

+ +

Now A
k+1
= A
k
. A
Since P(k) is true, we have
A
k+1
=
cos sin
sin cos
k k
k k

cos sin
sin cos

=
cos cos sin sin cos sin sin cos
sin cos cos sin sin sin cos cos
k k k k
k k k k
+

+

(by matrix multiplication)
=
cos ( 1) sin ( 1)
sin( 1) cos ( 1 )
k k
k k
+ +

+ +

Thus, P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Hence, P(n) is true for all n 1 (by the principle of mathematical induction).
(iii) Proof by cases or by exhaustion
This method of proving a statement p q is possible only when p can be split into
several cases, r, s, t (say) so that p = r s t (where is the symbol for OR).
If the conditionals r q;
s q;
and t q
are proved, then (r s t) q, is proved and so p q is proved.
The method consists of examining every possible case of the hypothesis. It is
practically convenient only when the number of possible cases are few.
Example 4 Show that in any triangle ABC,
a = b cos C + c cos B
Solution Let p be the statement ABC is any triangle and q be the statement
Let ABC be a triangle. From A draw AD a perpendicular to BC (BC produced if
necessary).
As we know that any triangle has to be either acute or obtuse or right angled, we
can split p into three statements r, s and t, where
r : ABC is an acute angled triangle with C is acute.
s : ABC is an obtuse angled triangle with C is obtuse.
t : ABC is a right angled triangle with C is right angle.
Hence, we prove the theorem by three cases.
Case (i) When C is acute (Fig. A1.1).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
AB
= cos B
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,
CD
AC
= cos C
i.e. CD = AC cos C
= b cos C
Now a = BD + CD
= c cos B + b cos C ... (1)
Case (ii) When C is obtuse (Fig A1.2).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
AB
= cos B
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,
CD
AC
= cos ACD
= cos (180 C)
= cos C
i.e. CD = AC cos C
= b cos C
Fig A1.1
Fig A1.2
MATHEMATICS 252
Now a = BC = BD CD
i.e. a = c cos B ( b cos C)
a = c cos B + b cos C ... (2)
Case (iii) When C is a right angle (Fig A1.3).
From the right angled triangle ACB,
BC
AB
= cos B
i.e. BC = AB cos B
a = c cos B,
and b cos C = b cos 90
0
= 0.
Thus, we may write a = 0 + c cos B
= b cos C + c cos B ... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3). We assert that for any triangle ABC,
By case (i), r q is proved.
By case (ii), s q is proved.
By case (iii), t q is proved.
Hence, from the proof by cases, (r
t) q is proved, i.e., p q is proved.

Indirect Proof Instead of proving the given proposition directly, we establish the proof
of the proposition through proving a proposition which is equivalent to the given
proposition.
(i) Proof by contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) : Here, we start with the
assumption that the given statement is false. By rules of logic, we arrive at a
conclusion contradicting the assumption and hence it is inferred that the assumption
is wrong and hence the given statement is true.
Let us illustrate this method by an example.
Example 5 Show that the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
Solution Let P be the set of all prime numbers. We take the negation of the statement
the set of all prime numbers is infinite, i.e., we assume the set of all prime numbers
to be finite. Hence, we can list all the prime numbers as P
1
, P
2
, P
3
,..., P
k
(say). Note
that we have assumed that there is no prime number other than P
1
, P
2
, P
3
,..., P
k
.
Now consider N = (P
1
P
2
P
3
P
k
) + 1 ... (1)
N is not in the list as N is larger than any of the numbers in the list.
N is either prime or composite.
Fig A1.3
If N is a prime, then by (1), there exists a prime number which is not listed.
On the other hand, if N is composite, it should have a prime divisor. But none of the
numbers in the list can divide N, because they all leave the remainder 1. Hence, the
prime divisor should be other than the one in the list.
Thus, in both the cases whether N is a prime or a composite, we ended up with
contradiction to the fact that we have listed all the prime numbers.
Hence, our assumption that set of all prime numbers is finite is false.
Thus, the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
$
Note Observe that the above proof also uses the method of proof by cases.
(ii) Proof by using contrapositive statement of the given statement
Instead of proving the conditional p q, we prove its equivalent, i.e.,
~ q ~ p. (students can verify).
The contrapositive of a conditional can be formed by interchanging the conclusion
and the hypothesis and negating both.
Example 6 Prove that the function f : R R defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.
Solution A function is one-one if f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) x
1
= x
2
.
Using this we have to show that 2x
1
+ 5 = 2x
2
+ 5 x
1
= x
2
. This is of the form
p q, where, p is 2x
1
+ 5 = 2x
2
+ 5 and q : x
1
= x
2
. We have proved this in Example 2
of direct method.
We can also prove the same by using contrapositive of the statement. Now
contrapositive of this statement is ~ q ~ p, i.e., contrapositive of if f (x
1
) = f (x
2
),
then x
1
= x
2
is if x
1
x
2
, then f (x
1
) f (x
2
).
Now x
1
x
2
2x
1
2x
2
2x
1
+ 5 2x
2
+ 5
f (x
1
) f (x
2
).
Since ~ q ~ p, is equivalent to p q the proof is complete.
Example 7 Show that if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.
Solution Writing the above statement in symbolic form, we have
p q, where, p is matrix A is invertible and q is A is non singular
Instead of proving the given statement, we prove its contrapositive statement, i.e.,
if A is not a non singular matrix, then the matrix A is not invertible.
MATHEMATICS 254
If A is not a non singular matrix, then it means the matrix A is singular, i.e.,
|A| = 0
Then A
1
=
A
| A|
adj
does not exist as | A| = 0
Hence, A is not invertible.
Thus, we have proved that if A is not a non singular matrix, then A is not invertible.
i.e., ~ q ~ p.
Hence, if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.
(iii) Proof by a counter example
In the history of Mathematics, there are occasions when all attempts to find a
valid proof of a statement fail and the uncertainty of the truth value of the statement
remains unresolved.
In such a situation, it is beneficial, if we find an example to falsify the statement.
The example to disprove the statement is called a counter example. Since the disproof
of a proposition p q is merely a proof of the proposition ~ (p q). Hence, this is
also a method of proof.
Example 8 For each n,
2
2 1
n
+ is a prime (n N).
This was once thought to be true on the basis that
1
2
2 1 + = 2
2
+ 1 = 5 is a prime.
2
2
2 1 + = 2
4
+ 1 = 17 is a prime.
3
2
2 1 + = 2
8
+ 1 = 257 is a prime.
However, at first sight the generalisation looks to be correct. But, eventually it was
shown that
5
2
2 1 + = 2
32
+ 1 = 4294967297
which is not a prime since 4294967297 = 641 6700417 (a product of two numbers).
So the generalisation For each n,
2
2 1
n
+ is a prime (n N) is false.
Just this one example
5
2
2 1 + is sufficient to disprove the generalisation. This is the
counter example.
Thus, we have proved that the generalisation For each n,
2
2 1
n
+ is a prime
(n N) is not true in general.
Example 9 Every continuous function is differentiable.
Proof We consider some functions given by
(i) f (x) = x
2
(ii) g(x) = e
x
(iii) h(x) = sin x
These functions are continuous for all values of x. If we check for their
differentiability, we find that they are all differentiable for all the values of x. This
makes us to believe that the generalisation Every continuous function is differentiable
may be true. But if we check the differentiability of the function given by (x) = | x|
which is continuous, we find that it is not differentiable at x = 0. This means that the
statement Every continuous function is differentiable is false, in general. Just this
one function (x) = | x| is sufficient to disprove the statement. Hence, (x) = | x|
is called a counter example to disprove Every continuous function is differentiable.
256 MATHEMATICS
A.2.1 Introduction
In class XI, we have learnt about mathematical modelling as an attempt to study some
part (or form) of some real-life problems in mathematical terms, i.e., the conversion of
a physical situation into mathematics using some suitable conditions. Roughly speaking
mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make models to describe the behaviour
of various phenomenal activities of our interest in many ways using words, drawings or
sketches, computer programs, mathematical formulae etc.
In earlier classes, we have observed that solutions to many problems, involving
applications of various mathematical concepts, involve mathematical modelling in one
way or the other. Therefore, it is important to study mathematical modelling as a separate
topic.
In this chapter, we shall further study mathematical modelling of some real-life
problems using techniques/results from matrix, calculus and linear programming.
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling?
Students are aware of the solution of word problems in arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry
and linear programming etc. Sometimes we solve the problems without going into the
physical insight of the situational problems. Situational problems need physical insight
that is introduction of physical laws and some symbols to compare the mathematical
results obtained with practical values. To solve many problems faced by us, we need a
technique and this is what is known as mathematical modelling. Let us consider the
following problems:
(i) To find the width of a river (particularly, when it is difficult to cross the river).
(ii) To find the optimal angle in case of shot-put (by considering the variables
such as : the height of the thrower, resistance of the media, acceleration due to
gravity etc.).
(iii) To find the height of a tower (particularly, when it is not possible to reach the top
of the tower).
(iv) To find the temperature at the surface of the Sun.
Appendix 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 257
(v) Why heart patients are not allowed to use lift? (without knowing the physiology
of a human being).
(vi) To find the mass of the Earth.
(vii) Estimate the yield of pulses in India from the standing crops (a person is not
allowed to cut all of it).
(viii) Find the volume of blood inside the body of a person (a person is not allowed to
bleed completely).
(ix) Estimate the population of India in the year 2020 (a person is not allowed to wait
till then).
All of these problems can be solved and infact have been solved with the help of
Mathematics using mathematical modelling. In fact, you might have studied the methods
for solving some of them in the present textbook itself. However, it will be instructive if
you first try to solve them yourself and that too without the help of Mathematics, if
possible, you will then appreciate the power of Mathematics and the need for
mathematical modelling.
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling
Mathematical modelling is a principled activity and so it has some principles behind it.
These principles are almost philosophical in nature. Some of the basic principles of
mathematical modelling are listed below in terms of instructions:
(i) Identify the need for the model. (for what we are looking for)
(ii) List the parameters/variables which are required for the model.
(iii) Identify the available relevent data. (what is given?)
(iv) Identify the circumstances that can be applied (assumptions)
(v) Identify the governing physical principles.
(vi) Identify
(a) the equations that will be used.
(b) the calculations that will be made.
(c) the solution which will follow.
(vii) Identify tests that can check the
(a) consistency of the model.
(b) utility of the model.
(viii) Identify the parameter values that can improve the model.
258 MATHEMATICS
The above principles of mathematical modelling lead to the following: steps for
mathematical modelling.
Step 1: Identify the physical situation.
Step 2: Convert the physical situation into a mathematical model by introducing
parameters / variables and using various known physical laws and symbols.
Step 3: Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
Step 4: Interpret the result in terms of the original problem and compare the result
with observations or experiments.
Step 5: If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify
the hypotheses / assumptions according to the physical situation and go to
Step 2.
The above steps can also be viewed through the following diagram:
Fig A.2.1
Example 1 Find the height of a given tower using mathematical modelling.
Solution Step 1 Given physical situation is to find the height of a given tower.
Step 2 Let AB be the given tower (Fig A.2.2). Let PQ be an observer measuring the
height of the tower with his eye at P. Let PQ = h and let height of tower be H. Let
be the angle of elevation from the eye of the observer to the top of the tower.
Fig A.2.2
Let l = PC = QB
Now tan =
AC H
PC
h
l
=
or H = h + l tan ... (1)
Step 3 Note that the values of the parameters h, l and (using sextant) are known to
the observer and so (1) gives the solution of the problem.
Step 4 In case, if the foot of the tower is not accessible, i.e., when l is not known to the
observer, let be the angle of depression from P to the foot B of the tower. So from
PQB, we have
PQ
tan
QB
h
l
= = or l = h cot
Step 5 is not required in this situation as exact values of the parameters h, l, and
are known.
Example 2 Let a business firm produces three types of products P
1
, P
2
and P
3
that
uses three types of raw materials R
1
, R
2
and R
3
. Let the firm has purchase orders from
two clients F
1
and F
2
. Considering the situation that the firm has a limited quantity of
R
1
, R
2
and R
3
, respectively, prepare a model to determine the quantities of the raw
material R
1
, R
2
and R
3
required to meet the purchase orders.
Solution Step 1 The physical situation is well identified in the problem.
Step 2 Let A be a matrix that represents purchase orders from the two clients F
1
and
F
2
. Then, A is of the form
1 2 3
1
2
P P P
F
A
F

=

Let B be the matrix that represents the amount of raw materials R
1
, R
2
and R
3
,
required to manufacture each unit of the products P
1
, P
2
and P
3
. Then, B is of the form
1 2 3
1
2
3
R R R
P
B P
P

=

260 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 Note that the product (which in this case is well defined) of matrices A and B
is given by the following matrix
1 2 3
1
2
R R R
F
AB
F

=

which in fact gives the desired quantities of the raw materials R
1
, R
2
and R
3
to fulfill
the purchase orders of the two clients F
1
and F
2
.
Example 3 Interpret the model in Example 2, in case
3 4 0
10 15 6
A = , B 7 9 3
10 20 0
5 12 7

=

and the available raw materials are 330 units of R
1
, 455 units of R
2
and 140 units of R
3
.
Solution Note that
AB =
3 4 0
10 15 6
7 9 3
10 20 0
5 12 7

=
1 2 3
1
2
R R R
F 165 247 87
F 170 220 60

This clearly shows that to meet the purchase order of F
1
and F
2
, the raw material
required is 335 units of R
1
, 467 units of R
2
and 147 units of R
3
which is much more than
the available raw material. Since the amount of raw material required to manufacture
each unit of the three products is fixed, we can either ask for an increase in the
available raw material or we may ask the clients to reduce their orders.
Remark If we replace A in Example 3 by A
1
given by
A
1
=
9 12 6
10 20 0

i.e., if the clients agree to reduce their purchase orders, then
A
1
B =
3 4 0
9 12 6
7 9 3
10 20 0
5 12 7

141 216 78
170 220 60

=

This requires 311 units of R
1
, 436 units of R
2
and 138 units of R
3
which are well
below the available raw materials, i.e., 330 units of R
1
, 455 units of R
2
and 140 units of
R
3
. Thus, if the revised purchase orders of the clients are given by A
1
, then the firm
can easily supply the purchase orders of the two clients.
$
Note One may further modify A so as to make full use of the available
raw material.
Query Can we make a mathematical model with a given B and with fixed quantities of
the available raw material that can help the firm owner to ask the clients to modify their
orders in such a way that the firm makes the full use of its available raw material?
The answer to this query is given in the following example:
Example 4 Suppose P
1
, P
2
, P
3
and R
1
, R
2
, R
3
are as in Example 2. Let the firm has
330 units of R
1
, 455 units of R
2
and 140 units of R
3
available with it and let the amount
of raw materials R
1
, R
2
and R
3
required to manufacture each unit of the three products
is given by
1 2 3
1
2
3
R R R
3 4 0 P
B P 7 9 3
P 5 12 7

=

How many units of each product is to be made so as to utilise the full available raw
material?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Suppose the firm produces x units of P
1
, y units of P
2
and z units of P
3
. Since
product P
1
requires 3 units of R
1
, P
2
1
and P
3
1
(observe matrix B) and the total number of units, of R
1
, available is 330, we have
3x + 7y + 5z = 330 (for raw material R
1
)
Similarly, we have
4x + 9y + 12z = 455 (for raw material R
2
)
and 3y + 7z = 140 (for raw material R
3
)
This system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as
3 7 5 330
4 9 12 455
140 0 3 7
x
y
z

=

262 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 Using elementary row operations, we obtain
1 0 0 20
0 1 0 35
5 0 0 1
x
y
z

=

This gives x = 20, y = 35 and z = 5. Thus, the firm can produce 20 units of P
1
, 35
units of P
2
and 5 units of P
3
to make full use of its available raw material.
Remark One may observe that if the manufacturer decides to manufacture according
to the available raw material and not according to the purchase orders of the two
clients F
1
and F
2
(as in Example 3), he/she is unable to meet these purchase orders as
F
1
demanded 6 units of P
3
where as the manufacturer can make only 5 units of P
3
.
Example 5 A manufacturer of medicines is preparing a production plan of medicines
M
1
and M
2
. There are sufficient raw materials available to make 20000 bottles of M
1
and 40000 bottles of M
2
, but there are only 45000 bottles into which either of the
medicines can be put. Further, it takes 3 hours to prepare enough material to fill 1000
bottles of M
1
, it takes 1 hour to prepare enough material to fill 1000 bottles of M
2
and
there are 66 hours available for this operation. The profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M
1
and
Rs 7 per bottle for M
2
. How should the manufacturer schedule his/her production in
order to maximise profit?
Solution Step 1 To find the number of bottles of M
1
and M
2
in order to maximise the
profit under the given hypotheses.
Step 2 Let x be the number of bottles of type M
1
medicine and y be the number of
bottles of type M
2
medicine. Since profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M
1
and Rs 7 per bottle
for M
2
, therefore the objective function (which is to be maximised) is given by
Z Z (x, y) = 8x + 7y
The objective function is to be maximised subject to the constraints (Refer Chapter
12 on Linear Programming)
20000
40000
45000
3 66000
0, 0
x
y
x y
x y
x y

... (1)
Step 3 The shaded region OPQRST is the feasible region for the constraints (1)
(Fig A.2.3). The co-ordinates of vertices O, P, Q, R, S and T are (0, 0), (20000, 0),
(20000, 6000), (10500, 34500), (5000, 40000) and (0, 40000), respectively.
Fig A.2.3
Note that
Z at P (0, 0) = 0
Z at P (20000, 0) = 8 20000 = 160000
Z at Q (20000, 6000) = 8 20000 + 7 6000 = 202000
Z at R (10500, 34500) = 8 10500 + 7 34500 = 325500
Z at S = (5000, 40000) = 8 5000 + 7 40000 = 320000
Z at T = (0, 40000) = 7 40000 = 280000
Now observe that the profit is maximum at x = 10500 and y = 34500 and the
maximum profit is Rs 325500. Hence, the manufacturer should produce 10500 bottles
of M
1
medicine and 34500 bottles of M
2
medicine in order to get maximum profit of
Rs 325500.
Example 6 Suppose a company plans to produce a new product that incur some costs
(fixed and variable) and let the company plans to sell the product at a fixed price.
Prepare a mathematical model to examine the profitability.
Solution Step 1 Situation is clearly identifiable.
264 MATHEMATICS
Step 2 Formulation: We are given that the costs are of two types: fixed and variable.
The fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced (e.g., rent and rates),
while the variable costs increase with the number of units produced (e.g., material).
Initially, we assume that the variable costs are directly proportional to the number of
units produced this should simplify our model. The company earn a certain amount
of money by selling its products and wants to ensure that it is maximum. For convenience,
we assume that all units produced are sold immediately.
The mathematical model
Let x = number of units produced and sold
C = total cost of production (in rupees)
I = income from sales (in rupees)
P = profit (in rupees)
Our assumptions above state that C consists of two parts:
(i) fixed cost = a (in rupees),
(ii) variable cost = b (rupees/unit produced).
Then C = a + bx ... (1)
Also, income I depends on selling price s (rupees/unit)
Thus I = sx ... (2)
The profit P is then the difference between income and costs. So
P = I C
= sx (a + bx)
= (s b) x a ... (3)
We now have a mathematical model of the relationships (1) to (3) between
the variables x, C, I, P, a, b, s. These variables may be classified as:
independent x
dependent C, I, P
parameters a, b, s
The manufacturer, knowing x, a, b, s can determine P.
Step 3 From (3), we can observe that for the break even point (i.e., make neither profit
nor loss), he must have P = 0, i.e., units.
a
x
s b
=
Steps 4 and 5 In view of the break even point, one may conclude that if the company
produces few units, i.e., less than units
a
x
s b
=
, then the company will suffer loss

and if it produces large number of units, i.e., much more than units
a
s b
, then it can
make huge profit. Further, if the break even point proves to be unrealistic, then another
model could be tried or the assumptions regarding cash flow may be modified.
Remark From (3), we also have
P d
s b
d x
=
This means that rate of change of P with respect to x depends on the quantity
s b, which is the difference of selling price and the variable cost of each product.
Thus, in order to gain profit, this should be positive and to get large gains, we need to
produce large quantity of the product and at the same time try to reduce the variable
cost.
Example 7 Let a tank contains 1000 litres of brine which contains 250 g of salt per
litre. Brine containing 200 g of salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 25 litres per
minute and the mixture flows out at the same rate. Assume that the mixture is kept
uniform all the time by stirring. What would be the amount of salt in the tank at
any time t?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Let y = y (t) denote the amount of salt (in kg) in the tank at time t (in minutes)
after the inflow, outflow starts. Further assume that y is a differentiable function.
When t = 0, i.e., before the inflowoutflow of the brine starts,
y = 250 g 1000 = 250 kg
Note that the change in y occurs due to the inflow, outflow of the mixture.
Now the inflow of brine brings salt into the tank at the rate of 5 kg per minute
(as 25 200 g = 5 kg) and the outflow of brine takes salt out of the tank at the rate of
25
1000 40
y y
=

kg per minute (as at time t, the salt in the tank is
1000
y
kg).
Thus, the rate of change of salt with respect to t is given by
dy
dt
=
5
40
y
(Why?)
or
1
40
dy
y
dt
+
= 5 ... (1)
266 MATHEMATICS
This gives a mathematical model for the given problem.
Step 3 Equation (1) is a linear equation and can be easily solved. The solution of (1) is
given by
40 40
200 C
t t
ye e = + or y (t) = 200 + C
40
t
e

... (2)
where, c is the constant of integration.
Note that when t = 0, y = 250. Therefore, 250 = 200 + C
or C = 50
Then (2) reduces to
y = 200 + 50
40
t
e
... (3)
or
200
50
y
=
40
t
e
or
40
t
e
=
50
200 y
Therefore t =
50
40log
200
e
y

... (4)
Here, the equation (4) gives the time t at which the salt in tank is y kg.
Step 4 Since
40
t
e
is always positive, from (3), we conclude that y > 200 at all times
Thus, the minimum amount of salt content in the tank is 200 kg.
Also, from (4), we conclude that t > 0 if and only if 0 < y 200 < 50 i.e., if and only
if 200 < y < 250 i.e., the amount of salt content in the tank after the start of inflow and
outflow of the brine is between 200 kg and 250 kg.
Limitations of Mathematical Modelling
Till today many mathematical models have been developed and applied successfully
to understand and get an insight into thousands of situations. Some of the subjects like
mathematical physics, mathematical economics, operations research, bio-mathematics
etc. are almost synonymous with mathematical modelling.
But there are still a large number of situations which are yet to be modelled. The
reason behind this is that either the situation are found to be very complex or the
mathematical models formed are mathematically intractable.
The development of the powerful computers and super computers has enabled us
to mathematically model a large number of situations (even complex situations). Due
to these fast and advanced computers, it has been possible to prepare more realistic
models which can obtain better agreements with observations.
However, we do not have good guidelines for choosing various parameters / variables
and also for estimating the values of these parameters / variables used in a mathematical
model. Infact, we can prepare reasonably accurate models to fit any data by choosing
five or six parameters / variables. We require a minimal number of parameters / variables
to be able to estimate them accurately.
Mathematical modelling of large or complex situations has its own special problems.
These type of situations usually occur in the study of world models of environment,
oceanography, pollution control etc. Mathematical modellers from all disciplines
mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, social sciences, etc., are involved
in meeting these challenges with courage.
268 MATHEMATICS
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
before law and equal protection of laws;
irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
of opportunity in public employment;
by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
of protection of life and personal liberty;
of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and
fourteen years;
of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion;
freedom to manage religious affairs;
freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in
educational institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and
culture;
for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
MATHEMATICS 268
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(ii) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(iii) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(iv) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(v) (a) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(b) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(c) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(e) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
5. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
9. (i) {1, 5, 9}, (ii) {1} 12. T
1
is related to T
3
.
13. The set of all triangles 14. The set of all lines y = 2x + c, c R
15. B 16. C
EXERCISE 1.2
1. No
2. (i) Injective but not surjective (ii) Neither injective nor surjective
(iii) Neither injective nor surjective (iv) Injective but not surjective
(v) Injective but not surjective
7. (i) One-one and onto (ii) Neither one-one nor onto.
9. No 10. Yes 11. D 12. A
EXERCISE 1.3
1. gof = {(1, 3), (3,1), (4,3)}
3. (i) (gof ) (x) = | 5 | x| 2|, (fog) (x) = | 5x 2|
(ii) (gof ) (x) = 2x, (f og) (x) = 8x
4. Inverse of f is f itself
ANSWERS
ANSWERS 269
5. (i) No, since f is many-one (ii) No, since g is many-one.
(iii) Yes, since h is one-one-onto.
6. f
1
is given by f
1
(y) =
2
1
y
y
, y 1 7. f
1
is given by f
1
(y) =
3
4
y
11. f
1
is given by f
1
(a) = 1, f
1
(b) = 2 and f
1
(c) = 3.
13. (C) 14. (B)
EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) Yes (v) Yes
2. (i) is neither commutative nor associative
(ii) is commutative but not associative
(iii) is both commutative and associative
(iv) is commutative but not associative
(v) is neither commutative nor associative
(vi) is neither commutative nor associative
3. 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 3 3 3
4 1 2 3 4 4
5 1 2 3 4 5
4. (i) (2 * 3) * 4 = 1 and 2 * (3 * 4) = 1 (ii) Yes (iii) 1
5. Yes
6. (i) 5 * 7 = 35, 20 * 16 = 80 (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) 1 (v) 1
7. No 8. is both commutative and associative; does not have any identity in N
9. (ii) , (iv), (v) are commutative; (v) is associative.
11. Identity element does not exist.
12. (ii) False (ii) True 13. B
MATHEMATICS 270
1.
7
( )
10
y
g y

=
2. The inverse of f is f itself
3. x
4
6x
3
+ 10x
2
3x 8. No 10. n!
11. (i) F
1
= {(3, a), (2, b), (1, c)}, (ii) F
1
does not exist 12. No
15. Yes 16. A 17. B 18. No
19. B
EXERCISE 2.1
1.
6
2.
6
3.
6
4.
3
5.
2
3
6.
4
7.
6
8.
6
9.
3
4
10.
4
11.
3
4
12.
2
3
13. B 14. B
EXERCISE 2.2
5.
1
1
tan
2
x
6.
2
sec
1
x 7.
2
x
8.
4
x

9.
1
sin
x
a
10.
1
3tan
x
a
11.
4
12. 0
13.
1
x y
xy
+
14.
1
5
15.
1
2
16.
3
17.
4
18.
17
6
19. B 20. D
21. B
1.
6
2.
6
13.
4
x

= 14.
1
3
x =
15. D 16. C 17. C
ANSWERS 271
EXERCISE 3.1
1. (i) 3 4 (ii) 12 (iii) 19, 35, 5, 12,
5
2
2. 1 24, 2 12, 3 8, 4 6, 6 4, 8 3, 12 2, 24 1; 1 13, 13 1
3. 1 18, 2 9, 3 6, 6 3, 9 2, 18 1; 1 5, 5 1
4. (i)
9
2
2
9
8
2

(ii)
1
1
2
2 1

(iii)
9 25
2 2
8 18

5. (i)
1 1
1 0
2 2
5 3
2 1
2 2
7 5
4 3
2 2

(ii)
1 0 1 2
3 2 1 0
5 4 3 2

6. (i) x = 1, y = 4, z = 3
(ii) x = 4, y = 2, z = 0 or x = 2, y = 4, z = 0
(iii) x = 2, y = 4, z = 3
7. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4
8. C 9. B 10. D
EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i)
3 7
A+ B =
1 7

(ii)
1 1
A B =
5 3

(iii)
8 7
3A C =
6 2

(iv)
6 26
AB =
1 19

(v)
11 10
BA =
11 2

2. (i)
2 2
0 2
a b
a

(ii)
2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a b b c
a c a b

+ +

(iii)
11 11 0
16 5 21
5 10 9

(iv)
1 1
1 1

MATHEMATICS 272
3. (i)
2 2
2 2
0
0
a b
a b

+

+

(ii)
2 3 4
4 6 8
6 9 12

(iii)
3 4 1
8 13 9

(iv)
14 0 42
18 1 56
22 2 70

(v)
1 2 3
1 4 5
2 2 0

(vi)
14 6
4 5

4.
4 1 1 1 2 0
A+B= 9 2 7 , B C = 4 1 3
3 1 4 1 2 0

5.
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

6.
1 0
0 1

7. (i)
5 0 2 0
,
X Y
1 4 1 1

= =

(ii)
2 12 2 13
5 5 5 5
,
X Y
11 14
3 2
5 5

= =

8.
1 1
X
2 1

=

9. x = 3, y = 3 10. x = 3, y = 6, z = 9, t = 6
11. x = 3, y = 4 12. x = 2, y = 4, w = 3, z = 1
15.
1 1 3
1 1 10
5 4 4

17. k = 1
19. (a) Rs 15000, Rs 15000 (b) Rs 5000, Rs 25000
20. Rs 20160 21. A 22. B
EXERCISE 3.3
1. (i)
1
5 1
2

(ii)
1 2
1 3

(iii)
1 3 2
5 5 3
6 6 1

ANSWERS 273
4.
4 5
1 6

9.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 , 0
0 0 0 0
a b
a c
b c

10. (i)
3 3 0 2
A
3 1 2 0

= +

(ii)
6 2 2 0 0 0
A 2 3 1 0 0 0
2 1 3 0 0 0

= +

(iii)
1 5 5 3
3 0
2 2 2 2
1 5
A 2 2 0 3
2 2
5 3
2 2 3 0
2 2

= +

(iv)
1 2 0 3
A
2 2 3 0

= +

11. A 12. B
EXERCISE 3.4
1.
3 1
5 5
2 1
5 5

2.
1 1
1 2

3.
7 3
2 1

4.
7 3
5 2

5.
4 1
7 2

6.
3 5
1 2

7.
2 1
5 3

8.
4 5
3 4

9.
7 10
2 3

10.
1
1
2
3
2
2

11.
1 3
1
1
2

12. Inverse does not exist.
MATHEMATICS 274
13.
2 3
1 2

14. Inverse does not exist.
15.
2 3
0
5 5
1 1
0
5 5
2 1 2
5 5 5

16.
2 3
1
5 5
2 4 11
5 25 25
3 1 9
5 25 25

17.
3 1 1
15 6 5
5 2 2

18. D
6.
1 1 1
, ,
2 6 3
x y z = = =
7. x = 1 9.
4 3 x=
10. (a) Total revenue in the market - I = Rs 46000
Total revenue in the market - II = Rs 53000
(b) Rs 15000, Rs 17000
11.
1 2
X
2 0

=

13. C 14. B 15. C
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) 18 2. (i) 1, (ii) x
3
x
2
+ 2
5. (i) 12, (ii) 46, (iii) 0, (iv) 5 6. 0
7. (i) 3 x= , (ii) x = 2 8. (B)
EXERCISE 4.2
15. C 16. C
ANSWERS 275
EXERCISE 4.3
1. (i)
15
2
, (ii)
47
2
, (iii) 15
3. (i) 0, 8, (ii) 0, 8 4. (i) y = 2x, (ii) x 3y = 0 5. (D)
EXERCISE 4.4
1. (i) M
11
= 3, M
12
= 0, M
21
= 4, M
22
= 2, A
11
= 3, A
12
= 0, A
21
= 4, A
22
= 2
(ii) M
11
= d, M
12
= b, M
21
= c, M
22
= a
A
11
= d, A
12
= b, A
21
= c, A
22
= a
2. (i) M
11
= 1, M
12
= 0, M
13
= 0, M
21
= 0, M
22
= 1, M
23
= 0, M
31
= 0, M
32
= 0, M
33
= 1,
A
11
= 1, A
12
= 0, A
13
= 0, A
21
= 0, A
22
= 1, A
23
= 0, A
31
= 0, A
32
= 0, A
33
= 1
(ii) M
11
= 11, M
12
= 6, M
13
= 3, M
21
= 4, M
22
= 2, M
23
= 1, M
31
= 20, M
32
= 13, M
33
= 5
A
11
=11, A
12
= 6, A
13
= 3, A
21
= 4, A
22
= 2, A
23
= 1, A
31
= 20, A
32
= 13, A
33
= 5
3. 7 4. (x y) (y z) (z x) 5. (D)
EXERCISE 4.5
1.
4 2
3 1

2.
3 1 11
12 5 1
6 2 5

5.
3 2
1
4 2 14

6.
2 5 1
3 1 13

7.
10 10 2
1
0 5 4
10
0 0 2

8.
3 0 0
1
3 1 0
3
9 2 3

9.
1 5 3
1
4 23 12
3
1 11 6

10.
2 0 1
9 2 3
6 1 2

11.
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos

13.
2 1 1
1 3 7

14. a = 4, b = 1 15.
1
3 4 5
1
A 9 1 4
11
5 3 1

=

MATHEMATICS 276
16.
3 1 1
1
1 3 1
4
1 1 3

17. B 18. B
EXERCISE 4.6
1. Consistent 2. Consistent 3. Inconsistent
4. Consistent 5. Inconsistent 6. Consistent
7. x = 2, y = 3 8.
5
11
x

=
,
12
11
y =
9.
6 19
,
11 11
x y

= =
10. x = 1, y = 4 11. x = 1,
1
2
y =
,
3
2
z

=
12. x = 2, y = 1, z = 1 13. x = 1, y = 2, z = 1
14. x = 2, y = 1, z = 3
15.
0 1 2
2 9 23
1 5 13

, x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
16. cost of onions per kg Rs 5
cost of wheat per kg Rs 8
cost of rice per kg Rs 8
=
=
=
3. 1 5.
3
a
x

=
7.
9 3 5
2 1 0
1 0 2

9. 2(x
3
+ y
3
) 10. xy 16. x = 2, y = 3, z = 5
17. A 18. A 19. D
ANSWERS 277
EXERCISE 5.1
2. f is continuous at x = 3
3. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are all continuous functions
5. f is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2; Not continuous at x = 1
6. Discontinuous at x = 2 7. Discontinuous at x = 3
8. Discontinuous at x = 0 9. No point of discontinuity
10. No point of discontinuity 11. No point of discontinuity
12. f is continuous at x = 1 13. f is not continuous at x = 1
14. f is not continuous at x = 1 and x = 3
15. x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity
16. Continuous 17.
2
3
a b = +
18. For no value of , f is continuous at x = 0 but f is continuous at x = 1 for any
value of .
20. f is continuous at x = 21. (a), (b) and (c) are all continuous
22. Cosine function is continuous for all x R; cosecant is continuous except for
x = n, n Z; secant is continuous except for x = (2 1)
2
n

+ , n Z and
cotangent function is continuous except for x = n, n Z
23. There is no point of discontinuity.
24. Yes, f is continuous for all x R 25. f is continuous for all x R
26. k = 6 27.
3
4
k =
28.
2
k

=
29.
9
5
k =
30. a = 2, b = 1
34. There is no point of discontinuity.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. 2x cos (x
2
+ 5) 2. cos x sin(sin x) 3. a cos (ax + b)
4.
2
sec(tan ). tan(tan ).sec
2
x x x
x
5. a cos (ax + b) sec (cx + d) + c sin(ax + b) tan(cx + d) sec(cx + d)
6. 10x
4
sinx
5
cosx
5
cosx
3
3x
2
sinx
3
sin
2
x
5
MATHEMATICS 278
7.
2 2
2 2
sin sin2
x
x x
8.
sin
2
x
x
EXERCISE 5.3
1.
cos 2
3
x
2.
2
cos 3 y
3.
2 sin
a
by y
+
4.
2
sec
2 1
x y
x y
+
5.
(2 )
( 2 )
x y
x y
+
+
6.
2 2
2 2
(3 2 )
( 2 3 )
x xy y
x xy y
+ +
+ +
7.
sin
sin2 sin
y xy
y x xy
8.
sin 2
sin 2
x
y
9.
2
2
1 x +
10.
2
3
1 x +
11.
2
2
1 x +
12.
2
2
1 x
+
13.
2
2
1 x
+
14.
2
2
1 x
15.
2
2
1 x
EXERCISE 5.4
1.
2
(sin cos )
sin
x
e x x
x
, x n, n Z 2.
sin 1
2
, ( 1,1)
1
e x
x
x
3.
3
2
3
x
x e 4.
1
2
cos (tan )
1
x x
x
e e
e

+
5. e
x
tan e
x
, (2 1) ,
2
x
e n n
+ N 6.
2
3 4 5
2 3 4
2 3 4 5
x
x e x x x
e x x e x e x e + + + +
7.
4
x
x
e
xe
, x > 0 8.
1
log x x
, x > 1
9.
2
( sin log cos )
,
0
(log )
x x x x
x
x x
+
> 10.
1
sin (log ),
x x
e x e
x

+ +

x > 0
ANSWERS 279
EXERCISE 5.5
1. cos x cos 2x cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]
2.
1 ( 1) ( 2) 1 1 1 1 1
2 ( 3)( 4)( 5) 1 2 3 4 5
x x
x x x x x x x x

+

3.
cos
cos
(log ) sin log(log )
log
x
x
x x x
x x

4. x
x
(1 + log x) 2
sin x
cos x log 2
5. (x + 3) (x + 4)
2
(x + 5)
3
(9x
2
+ 70x + 133)
6.
1
2
1
2 2
1 1 1 1 log
log( )
1
x
x
x x x
x x x
x x x x
+ +
+ + + +

+

7. (log x)
x-1
[1 + log x . log (log x)] + 2x
logx1
. logx
8. (sin x)
x
(x cot x + log sin x) +
2
1 1
2
x x
9. x
sinx

sin
cos log
x
x x
x

+

+ (sin x)
cos x
[cos x cot x sin x log sin x]
10. x
x cosx
[cos x . (1 + log x) x sin x log x]
2 2
4
( 1)
x
x
11. (x cos x)
x
[1 x tan x + log (x cos x)] + (x sin x)
1
2
cot 1 log( sin )
x
x x x x
x
+

12.
1
1
log
log
y x
y x
yx y y
x x xy
+
13.
log
log
y y x y
x x y x

14.
tan logcos
tan logcos
y x y
x y x
+
+
15.
( 1)
( 1)
y x
x y
+
16. (1 + x) (1 + x
2
) (1 +x
4
) (1 + x
8
)
3 7
2 4 8
1 2 4 8
1 1 1 1
x x x
x x x x

+ + +

+ + + +
; f (1) = 120
17. 5x
4
20x
3
+ 45x
2
52x + 11
EXERCISE 5.6
1. 2t
2
2.
b
a
3. 4 sin t 4.
2
1
t
MATHEMATICS 280
5.
cos 2cos2
2sin 2 sin

6.
cot
2
7. cot 3t 8. tan t
9. cosec
b
a
10. tan
EXERCISE 5.7
1. 2 2. 380 x
18
3. x cos x 2 sin x
4.
2
1
x
5. x(5 + 6 log x) 6. 2e
x
(5 cos 5x 12 sin 5x)
7. 9 e
6x
(3 cos 3x 4 sin 3x) 8. 2 2
2
(1 )
x
x
+
9.
2
(1 log )
( log )
x
x x
+
10.
2
sin (log ) cos (log ) x x
x
+
12. cot y cosec

2
y
1. 27 (3x
2
9x + 5)
8
(2x 3) 2. 3sinx cosx (sinx 2 cos
4
x)
3.
3cos2
3cos 2
(5 ) 6sin 2 log 5
x
x
x x x
x

4.
3
3
2 1
x
x
5.
3
2
1
2
cos
1
2
4 2 7
(2 7)
x
x x
x

+

+

+

6.
1
2
7.
log
1 log (log )
(log ) , 1
x
x
x x
x x

+ >

8. (a sin x b cos x) sin (a cos x + b sin x)
9. (sinx cosx)
sin x cos x
(cosx + sinx) (1 + log (sinx cos x)), sinx > cosx
10. x
x
(1 + log x) + ax
a1
+ a
x
log a
11.
2 2
2 2
3
3
2 log ( 3) 2 log( 3)
3
x x
x x
x x x x x x
x x
+ + +

ANSWERS 281
12.
6
cot
5 2
t
13. 0 17.
3
sec
, 0
2
t
t
at
< <
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (a) 6 cm
2
/s (b) 8 cm
2
/s
2.
8
3
cm
2
/s 3. 60 cm
2
/s 4. 900 cm
3
/s
5. 80 cm
2
/s 6. 1.4 cm/s
7. (a) 2 cm/min (b) 2 cm
2
/min
8.
1
cm/s 9. 400 cm
3
/s 10.
8
3
cm/s
11. (4, 11) and
31
4,
3

12. 2 cm
3
/s
13.
2
27
(2 1)
8
x +
14.
1
48
cm/s 15. Rs 20.967
16. Rs 208 17. B 18. D
EXERCISE 6.2
4. (a)
3
,
4

(b)
3
,
4

5. (a) ( , 2) and (3, ) (b) ( 2, 3)
6. (a) Strictly decreasing for x < 1 and strictly increasing for x > 1
(b) Strictly decreasing for
3
2
x >
and strictly increasing for
3
2
x <
(c) Strictly increasing for 2 < x < 1 and strictly decreasing for x < 2 and
x > 1
(d) Strictly increasing for
9
2
x <
and strictly decreasing for
9
2
x >
MATHEMATICS 282
(e) Strictly increasing in (1, 3) and (3, ), strictly decreasing in ( , 1)
and ( 1, 1).
8. 0 < x < 1 and x > 2 12. A, B
13. D 14. a = 2 19. D
EXERCISE 6.3
1. 764 2.
1
64
3. 11 4. 24
5. 1 6.
2
a
b
7. (3, 20) and (1, 12)

8. (3, 1) 9. (2, 9)
10. (i) y + x +1 = 0 and y + x 3 = 0
11. No tangent to the curve which has slope 2.
12.
1
2
y =
13. (i) (0, 4) (ii) ( 3, 0)
14. (i) Tangent: 10x + y = 5; Normal: x 10y + 50 = 0
(ii) Tangent: y = 2x + 1; Normal: x + 2y 7 = 0
(iii) Tangent: y = 3x 2; Normal: x + 3y 4 = 0
(iv) Tangent: y = 0; Normal: x = 0
(v) Tangent: x + y 2 = 0; Normal x = y
15. (a) y 2x 3 = 0 (b) 36 y + 12x 227 = 0
17. (0, 0), (3, 27) 18. (0, 0), (1, 2), (1, 2)
19. (1, 2) 20. 2x + 3my am
2
(2 + 3m
2
) = 0
21. x + 14y 254 = 0, x + 14y + 86 = 0
22. ty = x + at
2
, y = tx + 2at + at
3
24.
0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2
0 0
1, 0
x x y y y y x x
a b a y b x

= + =
25. 48x 24y = 23 26. D 27. A
EXERCISE 6.4
1. (i) 5.03 (ii) 7.035 (iii) 0.8
(iv) 0.208 (v) 0.9999 (vi) 1.96875
ANSWERS 283
(vii) 2.9629 (viii) 3.9961 (ix) 3.009
(x) 20.025 (xi) 0.06083 (xii) 2.948
(xiii) 3.0046 (xiv) 7.904 (xv) 2.00187
2. 28.21 3. 34.995 4. 0.03 x
3
m
3
5. 0.12 x
2
m
2
6. 3.92 m
3
7. 2.16 m
3
8. D 9. C
EXERCISE 6.5
1. (i) Minimum Value = 3 (ii) Minimum Value = 2
(iii) Maximum Value = 10 (iv) Neither minimum nor maximum value
2. (i) Minimum Value = 1; No maximum value
(ii) Maximum Value = 3; No minimum value
(iii) Minimum Value = 4; Maximum Value = 6
(iv) Minimum Value = 2; Maximum Value = 4
(v) Neither minimum nor Maximum Value
3. (i) local minimum at x = 0, local minimum value = 0
(ii) local minimum at x = 1, local minimum value = 2
local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 2
(iii) local maximum at
4
x

=
, local maximum value =
2
(iv) local maximum at
4
x
3
=
, local maximum value =
2
local minimum at
7
4
x

=
, local minimum value =
2
(v) local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 19
local minimum at x = 3, local minimum value = 15
(vi) local minimum at x = 2, local minimum value = 2
MATHEMATICS 284
(vii) local maximum at x = 0, local maximum value =
1
2
(viii) local maximum at
2
3
x = , local maximum value =
2 3
9
5. (i) Absolute minimum value = 8, absolute maximum value = 8
(ii) Absolute minimum value = 1, absolute maximum value =
2
(iii) Absolute minimum value = 10, absolute maximum value = 8
(iv) Absolute minimum value = 19, absolute maximum value = 3
6. Maximum profit = 49 unit.
7. Minima at x = 2, minimum value = 39, Maxima at x = 0, maximum value = 25.
8. At
5
and
4 4
x

=
9. Maximum value =
2
10. Maximum at x = 3, maximum value 89; maximum at x = 2, maximum value = 139
11. a = 120
12. Maximum at x = 2, maximum value = 2; Minimum at x = 0, minimum value = 0
13. 12, 12 14. 45, 15 15. 25, 10 16. 8, 8
17. 3 cm 18. x = 5 cm
21. radius =
1
3 50

cm and height =
1
3 50
2

cm
22.
112 28
cm, cm
4 4
+ +
27. A 28. D 29. C
1. (a) 0.677 (b) 0.497
3.
3 b
cm
2
/s 4. x + y 3 = 0
ANSWERS 285
6. (i) 0 < x <
2
and
3
2
< x < 2 (ii)

3
2 2
x

< <
7. (i) x < 1 and x > 1 (ii) 1 < x < 1
8.
3 3
4
ab 9. Rs 1000
11. length =
20
4 +
m, breadth =
10
4 +
m
13. (i) local maxima at x = 2 (ii) local minima at
2
7
x =
(iii) point of inflection at x = 1
14. Absolute maximum =
5
4
, Absolute minimum = 1
17.
3
4 R
3 3
19. A 20. B 21. A

22. B 23. A 24. A
Contents
PART II
Foreword v
Preface vii
7. Integrals 287
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation 288
7.3 Methods of Integration 300
7.4 Integrals of some Particular Functions 307
7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 316
7.6 Integration by Parts 323
7.7 Definite Integral 331
7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 334
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution 338
7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals 341
8. Application of Integrals 359
8.2 Area under Simple Curves 359
8.3 Area between Two Curves 366
9. Differential Equations 379
9.2 Basic Concepts 379
9.3 General and Particular Solutions of a 383
Differential Equation
9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose 385
General Solution is given
9.5 Methods of Solving First order, First Degree 391
Differential Equations
10. Vector Algebra 424
10.2 Some Basic Concepts 424
10.3 Types of Vectors 427
10.4 Addition of Vectors 429
10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 432
10.6 Product of Two Vectors 441
11. Three Dimensional Geometry 463
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line 463
11.3 Equation of a Line in Space 468
11.4 Angle between Two Lines 471
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines 473
11.6 Plane 479
11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines 487
11.8 Angle between Two Planes 488
11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane 490
11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane 492
12. Linear Programming 504
12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation 505
12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems 514
13. Probability 531
13.2 Conditional Probability 531
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability 540
13.4 Independent Events 542
13.5 Bayes' Theorem 548
13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions 557
13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution 572
Answers 588
xiv
INTEGRALS 287
Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain because it is there, so
a good mathematics student studies new material because
it is there. JAMES B. BRISTOL
7.1 Introduction
Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the
derivative. The original motivation for the derivative was
the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of
functions and calculating the slope of such lines. Integral
Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and
calculating the area of the region bounded by the graph of
the functions.
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its
derivative f exists at each point of I, then a natural question
arises that given f at each point of I, can we determine
the function? The functions that could possibly have given
function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or
primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives
all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the function and such
process of finding anti derivatives is called integration. Such type of problems arise in
many practical situations. For instance, if we know the instantaneous velocity of an
object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, i.e., can we determine the
position of the object at any instant? There are several such practical and theoretical
situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral
calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the following types:
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given,
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph of a function under certain
conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and
definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus.
Chapter 7
INTEGRALS
G .W. Leibnitz
(1646 -1716)
288 MATHEMATICS
There is a connection, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, between
indefinite integral and definite integral which makes the definite integral as a practical
tool for science and engineering. The definite integral is also used to solve many interesting
problems from various disciplines like economics, finance and probability.
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of indefinite and definite
integrals and their elementary properties including some techniques of integration.
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function,
we are given the derivative of a function and asked to find its primitive, i.e., the original
function. Such a process is called integration or anti differentiation.
Let us consider the following examples:
We know that (sin )
d
x
dx
= cos x ... (1)
3
( )
3
d x
dx
= x
2
... (2)
and ( )
x
d
e
dx
= e
x
... (3)
We observe that in (1), the function cos x is the derived function of sin x. We say
that sin x is an anti derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly, in (2) and (3),
3
3
x
and
e
x
are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of x
2
and e
x
, respectively. Again, we note that
for any real number C, treated as constant function, its derivative is zero and hence, we
can write (1), (2) and (3) as follows :
(sin + C) cos =
d
x x
dx
,
3
2
( + C)
3
=
d x
x
dx
and ( + C) =
x x
d
e e
dx
Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above cited functions are not unique.
Actually, there exist infinitely many anti derivatives of each of these functions which
can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of real numbers. For this reason
C is customarily referred to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by
varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or integrals) of the given function.
More generally, if there is a function F such that
F ( ) = ( )
d
x f x
dx
,
x I (interval),
then for any arbitrary real number C, (also called constant of integration)
[ ] F ( ) + C
d
x
dx
= f (x), x I
INTEGRALS 289
Thus, {F + C, C R} denotes a family of anti derivatives of f.
Remark Functions with same derivatives differ by a constant. To show this, let g and h
be two functions having the same derivatives on an interval I.
Consider the function f = g h defined by f (x) = g(x) h(x),
x I
Then
df
dx
= f = g h giving f (x) = g (x) h (x)
x I
or f (x) = 0,
x I by hypothesis,
i.e., the rate of change of f with respect to x is zero on I and hence f is constant.
In view of the above remark, it is justified to infer that the family {F + C, C R}
provides all possible anti derivatives of f.
We introduce a new symbol, namely,
( ) f x dx
which will represent the entire

class of anti derivatives read as the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.
Symbolically, we write ( ) = F ( ) + C f x dx x
.
Notation Given that
( )
dy
f x
dx
=
, we write y = ( ) f x dx
.
For the sake of convenience, we mention below the following symbols/terms/phrases
with their meanings as given in the Table (7.1).
Table 7.1
Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning
( ) f x dx
Integral of f with respect to x

f (x) in ( ) f x dx
Integrand
x in
( ) f x dx
Variable of integration
Integrate Find the integral
An integral of f A function F such that
F(x) = f (x)
Integration The process of finding the integral
Constant of Integration Any real number C, considered as
constant function
290 MATHEMATICS
We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions.
From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae
(referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below
which will be used to find integrals of other functions.
Derivatives Integrals (Anti derivatives)
(i)
1
1
n
n
d x
x
dx n
+

=

+

;
1
C
1
n
n
x
x dx
n
+
= +
+
, n 1
Particularly, we note that
( ) 1
d
x
dx
=
;
C dx x = +
(ii) ( ) sin cos

d
x x
dx
=
;
cos sin C x dx x = +
(iii) ( ) cos sin

d
x x
dx
=
;
sin cos C x dx x = +
(iv) ( )
2
tan sec
d
x x
dx
=
;
2
sec tan C x dx x = +
(v) ( )
2
cot cosec
d
x x
dx
=
;
2
cosec cot C x dx x = +
(vi) ( ) sec sec tan

d
x x x
dx
=
; sec tan sec C x x dx x = +
(vii) ( ) cosec cosec cot

d
x x x
dx
=
;
cosec cot cosec C x x dx x = +
(viii)
( )
1
2
1
sin
1
d
x
dx
x
=
;
1
2
sin C
1
dx
x
x
= +
(ix)
( )
1
2
1
cos
1
d
x
dx
x
=
;
1
2
cos C
1
dx
x
x
= +
(x)
( )
1
2
1
tan
1
d
x
dx x
=
+
;
1
2
tan C
1
dx
x
x
= +
+
(xi)
( )
1
2
1
cot
1
d
x
dx x
=
+
;
1
2
cot C
1
dx
x
x
= +
+
INTEGRALS 291
(xii)
( )
1
2
1
sec
1
d
x
dx
x x
=
;
1
2
sec C
1
dx
x
x x
= +
(xiii)
( )
1
2
1
cosec
1
d
x
dx
x x
=
;
1
2
cosec C
1
dx
x
x x
= +
(xiv)
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
=
;
C
x x
e dx e = +
(xv) ( )
1
log | |
d
x
dx x
=
;
1
log | | C dx x
x
= +
(xvi)
x
x
d a
a
dx log a

=

;
C
x
x
a
a dx
log a
= +
$
Note In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various
functions are defined. However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind.
7.2.1 Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral
Let f (x) = 2x. Then
2
( ) C f x dx x = +
. For different values of C, we get different

integrals. But these integrals are very similar geometrically.
Thus, y = x
2
+ C, where C is arbitrary constant, represents a family of integrals. By
assigning different values to C, we get different members of the family. These together
constitute the indefinite integral. In this case, each integral represents a parabola with
its axis along y-axis.
Clearly, for C = 0, we obtain y = x
2
, a parabola with its vertex on the origin. The
curve y = x
2
+ 1 for C = 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola y = x
2
one unit along
y-axis in positive direction. For C = 1, y = x
2
1 is obtained by shifting the parabola
y = x
2
one unit along y-axis in the negative direction. Thus, for each positive value of C,
each parabola of the family has its vertex on the positive side of the y-axis and for
negative values of C, each has its vertex along the negative side of the y-axis. Some of
these have been shown in the Fig 7.1.
Let us consider the intersection of all these parabolas by a line x = a. In the Fig 7.1,
we have taken a > 0. The same is true when a < 0. If the line x = a intersects the
parabolas y = x
2
, y = x
2
+ 1, y = x
2
+ 2, y = x
2
1, y = x
2
2 at P
0
, P
1
, P
2
, P
1
, P
2
etc.,
respectively, then
dy
dx
at these points equals 2a. This indicates that the tangents to the
curves at these points are parallel. Thus,
2
C
2 C F ( ) x dx x x = + =
(say), implies that

292 MATHEMATICS
the tangents to all the curves y = F
C
(x), C R, at the points of intersection of the
curves by the line x = a, (a R), are parallel.
Further, the following equation (statement) ( ) F ( ) C (say) f x dx x y = + =
,
represents a family of curves. The different values of C will correspond to different
members of this family and these members can be obtained by shifting any one of the
curves parallel to itself. This is the geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral.
7.2.2 Some properties of indefinite integral
In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of indefinite integrals.
(I) The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other in the
sense of the following results :
( )
d
f x dx
dx
= f (x)
and
( ) f x dx
= f (x) + C, where C is any arbitrary constant.

Fig 7.1
INTEGRALS 293
Proof Let F be any anti derivative of f, i.e.,
F( )
d
x
dx
= f (x)
Then
( ) f x dx
= F(x) + C
Therefore ( )
d
f x dx
dx

= ( ) F ( ) + C
d
x
dx
=
F ( ) = ( )
d
x f x
dx
Similarly, we note that
f (x) =
( )
d
f x
dx
and hence
( ) f x dx
= f (x) + C
where C is arbitrary constant called constant of integration.
(II) Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of
curves and so they are equivalent.
Proof Let f and g be two functions such that
( )
d
f x dx
dx
=
( )
d
g x dx
dx

or ( ) ( )
d
f x dx g x dx
dx

= 0
Hence
( ) ( ) f x dx g x dx

= C, where C is any real number (Why?)
or
( ) f x dx
=
( ) C g x dx +
So the families of curves

{ } 1 1
( ) C , C R f x dx +
and { } 2 2
( ) C , C R g x dx +
are identical.
Hence, in this sense, ( ) and ( ) f x dx g x dx

are equivalent.
294 MATHEMATICS
$
Note The equivalence of the families { } 1 1
( ) + C ,C f x dx
R
and
{ } 2 2
( ) + C ,C g x dx
R
is customarily expressed by writing
( ) = ( ) f x dx g x dx

,
without mentioning the parameter.
(III) [ ] ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx =

Proof By Property (I), we have
[ ( ) + ( )]
d
f x g x dx
dx

= f (x) + g (x) ... (1)

On the otherhand, we find that
( ) + ( )
d
f x dx g x dx
dx

=
( ) + ( )
d d
f x dx g x dx
dx dx

= f (x) + g (x) ... (2)
Thus, in view of Property (II), it follows by (1) and (2) that
( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx +
= ( ) ( ) f x dx g x dx +

.
(IV) For any real number k, ( ) ( ) k f x dx k f x dx =

Proof By the Property (I), ( ) ( )
d
k f x dx k f x
dx
=
.
Also ( )
d
k f x dx
dx

=
( ) = ( )
d
k f x dx k f x
dx

Therefore, using the Property (II), we have
( ) ( ) k f x dx k f x dx =

.
(V) Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite number of functions f
1
, f
2
,
..., f
n
and the real numbers, k
1
, k
2
, ..., k
n
giving
[ ]
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
k f x k f x ... k f x dx + + +
=
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
k f x dx k f x dx ... k f x dx + + +

.
To find an anti derivative of a given function, we search intuitively for a function
whose derivative is the given function. The search for the requisite function for finding
an anti derivative is known as integration by the method of inspection. We illustrate it
through some examples.
INTEGRALS 295
Example 1 Write an anti derivative for each of the following functions using the
method of inspection:
(i) cos 2x (ii) 3x
2
+ 4x
3
(iii)
1
x
, x 0
Solution
(i) We look for a function whose derivative is cos 2x. Recall that
d
dx
sin 2x = 2 cos 2x
or cos 2x =
1
2
d
dx
(sin 2x) =
1
sin 2
2
d
x
dx

Therefore, an anti derivative of cos 2x is
1
sin 2
2
x
.
(ii) We look for a function whose derivative is 3x
2
+ 4x
3
. Note that
( )
3 4
d
x x
dx
+
= 3x
2
+ 4x
3
.
Therefore, an anti derivative of 3x
2
+ 4x
3
is

x
3
+ x
4
.
(iii) We know that
1 1 1
(log ) 0 and [log ( )] ( 1) 0
d d
x , x x , x
dx x dx x x
= > = = <
Combining above, we get ( )
1
log 0
d
x , x
dx x
=
Therefore,
1
log dx x
x
=
is one of the anti derivatives of

1
x
.
Example 2 Find the following integrals:
(i)
3
2
1 x
dx
x
(ii)
2
3
( 1) x dx +
(iii)
3
2
1
( 2 ) +
x
x e dx
x
Solution
(i) We have
3
2
2
1

x
dx x dx x dx
x
=

(by Property V)
296 MATHEMATICS
=
1 1 2 1
1 2
C C
1 1 2 1
x x
+ +

+ +

+ +

; C
1
, C
2
are constants of integration
=
2 1
1 2
C C
2 1
x x

+
=
2
1 2
1
+ C C
2
x
x
+
=
2
1
+ C
2
x
x
+ , where C = C
1
C
2
is another constant of integration.
$
Note From now onwards, we shall write only one constant of integration in the
final answer.
(ii) We have
2 2
3 3
( 1) x dx x dx dx + = +

=
2
1
3
C
2
1
3
x
x
+
+ +
+
=
5
3
3
C
5
x x + +
(iii) We have
3 3
2 2
1 1
( 2 ) 2
x x
x e dx x dx e dx dx
x x
+ = +

=
3
1
2
2 log + C
3
1
2
x
x
e x
+
+
+
=
5
2
2
2 log + C
5
x
x e x +
(i)
(sin cos ) x x dx +
(ii)
cosec (cosec cot ) x x x dx +
(iii) 2
1 sin
cos
x
dx
x
Solution
(i) We have
(sin cos ) sin cos x x dx x dx x dx + = +

= cos sin C x x + +
INTEGRALS 297
(ii) We have
2
(cosec (cosec + cot ) cosec cosec cot x x x dx x dx x x dx = +

= cot cosec C x x +
(iii) We have
2 2 2
1 sin 1 sin
cos cos cos
x x
dx dx dx
x x x
=

=
2
sec tan sec x dx x x dx

= tan sec C x x +
Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by f (x) = 4x
3
6, where F (0) = 3
Solution One anti derivative of f (x) is x
4
6x since
4
( 6 )
d
x x
dx
= 4x
3
6
Therefore, the anti derivative F is given by
F(x) = x
4
6x + C, where C is constant.
Given that F(0) = 3, which gives,
3 = 0 6 0 + C or C = 3
Hence, the required anti derivative is the unique function F defined by
F(x) = x
4
6x + 3.
Remarks
(i) We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is F + C, where C is any
constant. Thus, if we know one anti derivative F of a function f, we can write
down an infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any constant to F
expressed by F(x) + C, C R. In applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an
additional condition which then determines a specific value of C giving unique
anti derivative of the given function.
(ii) Sometimes, F is not expressible in terms of elementary functions viz., polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are
therefore blocked for finding
( ) f x dx
. For example, it is not possible to find

2
x
e dx
by inspection since we can not find a function whose derivative is

2
x
e
298 MATHEMATICS
(iii) When the variable of integration is denoted by a variable other than x, the integral
formulae are modified accordingly. For instance
4 1
4 5
1
C C
4 1 5
y
y dy y
+
= + = +
+
7.2.3 Comparison between differentiation and integration

1. Both are operations on functions.
2. Both satisfy the property of linearity, i.e.,
(i) [ ]
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d d d
k f x k f x k f x k f x
dx dx dx
+ = +
(ii) [ ]
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k f x k f x dx k f x dx k f x dx + = +

Here k
1
and k
2
are constants.
3. We have already seen that all functions are not differentiable. Similarly, all functions
are not integrable. We will learn more about nondifferentiable functions and
nonintegrable functions in higher classes.
4. The derivative of a function, when it exists, is a unique function. The integral of
a function is not so. However, they are unique upto an additive constant, i.e., any
two integrals of a function differ by a constant.
5. When a polynomial function P is differentiated, the result is a polynomial whose
degree is 1 less than the degree of P. When a polynomial function P is integrated,
the result is a polynomial whose degree is 1 more than that of P.
6. We can speak of the derivative at a point. We never speak of the integral at a
point, we speak of the integral of a function over an interval on which the integral
is defined as will be seen in Section 7.7.
7. The derivative of a function has a geometrical meaning, namely, the slope of the
tangent to the corresponding curve at a point. Similarly, the indefinite integral of
a function represents geometrically, a family of curves placed parallel to each
other having parallel tangents at the points of intersection of the curves of the
family with the lines orthogonal (perpendicular) to the axis representing the variable
of integration.
8. The derivative is used for finding some physical quantities like the velocity of a
moving particle, when the distance traversed at any time t is known. Similarly,
the integral is used in calculating the distance traversed when the velocity at time
t is known.
9. Differentiation is a process involving limits. So is integration, as will be seen in
Section 7.7.
INTEGRALS 299
10. The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other as
discussed in Section 7.2.2 (i).
EXERCISE 7.1
Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of inspection.
1. sin 2x 2. cos 3x 3. e
2x
4. (ax + b)
2
5. sin 2x 4 e
3x
Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20:
6.
3
(4 + 1)
x
e dx
7.
2
2
1
(1 ) x dx
x
8.
2
( ) ax bx c dx + +
9.
2
(2 )
x
x e dx +
10.
2
1
x dx
x

11.
3 2
2
5 4 x x
dx
x
+
12.
3
3 4 x x
dx
x
+ +
13.
3 2
1
1
x x x
dx
x
+
14.
(1 ) x x dx
15.
2
( 3 2 3) x x x dx + +
16.
(2 3cos )
x
x x e dx +
17.
2
(2 3sin 5 ) x x x dx +
18.
sec (sec tan ) x x x dx +
19.
2
2
sec
cosec
x
dx
x
20.
2
2 3sin
cos
x
x
dx.
21. The anti derivative of
1
x
x

+

equals
(A)
1 1
3 2
1
2 C
3
x x + + (B)
2
2
3
2 1
C
3 2
x x + +
(C)
3 1
2 2
2
2 C
3
x x + + (D)
3 1
2 2
3 1
C
2 2
x x + +
22. If
3
4
3
( ) 4
d
f x x
dx x
= such that f (2) = 0. Then f (x) is
(A)
4
3
1 129
8
x
x
+
(B)
3
4
1 129
8
x
x
+ +
(C)
4
3
1 129
8
x
x
+ +
(D)
3
4
1 129
8
x
x
+
300 MATHEMATICS
7.3 Methods of Integration
In previous section, we discussed integrals of those functions which were readily
obtainable from derivatives of some functions. It was based on inspection, i.e., on the
search of a function F whose derivative is f which led us to the integral of f. However,
this method, which depends on inspection, is not very suitable for many functions.
Hence, we need to develop additional techniques or methods for finding the integrals
by reducing them into standard forms. Prominent among them are methods based on:
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
3. Integration by Parts
7.3.1 Integration by substitution
In this section, we consider the method of integration by substitution.
The given integral
( ) f x dx
can be transformed into another form by changing

the independent variable x to t by substituting x = g (t).
Consider I = ( ) f x dx
Put x = g(t) so that

dx
dt
= g(t).
We write dx = g(t) dt
Thus I =
( ) ( ( )) ( ) f x dx f g t g t dt =

This change of variable formula is one of the important tools available to us in the
name of integration by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful
substitution. Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs
in the integrand as illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
(i) sin mx (ii) 2x sin (x
2
+ 1)
(iii)
4 2
tan sec x x
x
(iv)
1
2
sin (tan )
1
x
x +
Solution
(i) We know that derivative of mx is m. Thus, we make the substitution
mx = t so that mdx = dt.
Therefore,
1
sin sin mx dx t dt
m
=

=
1
m
cos t + C =
1
m
cos mx + C
INTEGRALS 301
(ii) Derivative of x
2
+ 1 is 2x. Thus, we use the substitution x
2
+ 1 = t so that
2x dx = dt.
Therefore,
2
2 sin ( 1) sin x x dx t dt + =

= cos t + C = cos (x
2
+ 1) + C
(iii) Derivative of
x
is
1
2
1 1
2 2
x
x
= . Thus, we use the substitution
1
so that giving
2
x t dx dt
x
= = dx = 2t dt.
Thus,
4 2 4 2
tan sec 2 tan sec x x t t t dt
dx
t x
=

=
4 2
2 tan sec t t dt
Again, we make another substitution tan t = u so that sec

2
t dt = du
Therefore,
4 2 4
2 tan sec 2 t t dt u du =

=
5
2 C
5
u
+
=
5
2
tan C
5
t + (since u = tan t)
=
5
2
tan C(since )
5
x t x + =
Hence,
4 2
tan sec x x
dx
x
=
5
2
tan C
5
x +
Alternatively, make the substitution tan x t =
(iv) Derivative of
1
2
1
tan
1
x
x
=
+
. Thus, we use the substitution
tan
1
x = t so that
2
1
dx
x +
= dt.
Therefore ,
1
2
sin (tan )
sin
1
x
dx t dt
x
=
+

= cos t + C = cos(tan
1
x) + C
Now, we discuss some important integrals involving trigonometric functions and
their standard integrals using substitution technique. These will be used later without
reference.
(i)

tan = log sec + C x dx x
We have
sin
tan
cos
x
x dx dx
x
=

302 MATHEMATICS
Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt
Then
tan log C log cos C
dt
x dx t x
t
= = + = +

or
tan log sec C x dx x = +
(ii)

cot = log sin + C x dx x
We have
cos
cot
sin
x
x dx dx
x
=

Put sin x = t so that cos x dx = dt
Then
cot
dt
x dx
t
=

= log C t + = log sin C x +
(iii)

sec = log sec + tan + C x dx x x
We have
sec (sec tan )
sec
sec + tan
x x x
x dx dx
x x
+
=

Put sec x + tan x = t so that sec x (tan x + sec x) dx = dt
Therefore,
sec log + C = log sec tan C
dt
x dx t x x
t
= = + +

(iv)

cosec = log cosec cot + C x dx x x
We have
cosec (cosec cot )
cosec
(cosec cot )
x x x
x dx dx
x x
+
=
+

Put cosec x + cot x = t so that cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx = dt
So
cosec log | | log | cosec cot | C
dt
x dx t x x
t
= = = + +

=
2 2
cosec cot
log C
cosec cot
x x
x x
=
log cosec cot C x x +
(i)
3 2
sin cos x x dx
(ii)
sin
sin ( )
x
dx
x a +
(iii)
1
1 tan
dx
x +
INTEGRALS 303
Solution
(i) We have
3 2 2 2
sin cos sin cos (sin ) x x dx x x x dx =

=
2 2
(1 cos ) cos (sin ) x x x dx
Put t = cos x so that dt = sin x dx

Therefore,
2 2
sin cos (sin ) x x x dx
=
2 2
(1 ) t t dt
=
3 5
2 4
( ) C
3 5
t t
t t dt

= +

=
3 5
1 1
cos cos C
3 5
x x + +
(ii) Put x + a = t. Then dx = dt. Therefore
sin sin ( )
sin ( ) sin
x t a
dx dt
x a t
=
+

=
sin cos cos sin
sin
t a t a
dt
t
= cos sin cot a dt a t dt

=
1
(cos ) (sin ) log sin C a t a t +

=
1
(cos ) ( ) (sin ) log sin ( ) C a x a a x a + + +

=
1
cos cos (sin ) log sin ( ) C sin x a a a a x a a + +
Hence,
sin
sin ( )
x
dx
x a +
= x cos a sin a log |sin (x + a)| + C,
where, C = C
1
sin a + a cos a, is another arbitrary constant.
(iii)
cos
1 tan cos sin
dx x dx
x x x
=
+ +

=
1 (cos + sin + cos sin )
2 cos sin
x x x x dx
x x +
304 MATHEMATICS
=
1 1 cos sin
2 2 cos sin
x x
dx dx
x x
+
+

=
1
C 1 cos sin
2 2 2 cos sin
x x x
dx
x x
+ +
+
... (1)
Now, consider
cos sin
I
cos sin
x x
dx
x x
=
+
Put cos x + sin x = t so that (cos x sin x) dx = dt

Therefore
2
I log C
dt
t
t
= = +
=
2
log cos sin C x x + +
Putting it in (1), we get
1 2
C C 1
+ + log cos sin
1 tan 2 2 2 2
dx x
x x
x
= + +
+
=
1 2
C C 1
+ log cos sin
2 2 2 2
x
x x + + +
=
1 2
C C 1
+ log cos sin C C
2 2 2 2
x
x x ,

+ + = +

EXERCISE 7.2
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 37:
1.
2
2
1
x
x +
2.
( )
2
log x
x
3.
1
log x x x +
4. sin sin (cos ) x x 5. sin ( ) cos ( ) ax b ax b + +
6. ax b + 7. 2 x x + 8.
2
1 2 x x +
9.
2
(4 2) 1 x x x + + + 10.
1
x x
11.
4
x
x +
, x > 0
12.
1
3 5
3
( 1) x x 13.
2
3 3
(2 3 )
x
x +
14.
1
(log )
m
x x
, x > 0
15.
2
9 4
x
x
16.
2 3 x
e
+
17. 2
x
x
e
INTEGRALS 305
18.
1
2
1
tan x
e
x +
19.
2
2
1
1
x
x
e
e +
20.
2 2
2 2
x x
x x
e e
e e +
21. tan
2
(2x 3) 22. sec
2
(7 4x) 23.
1
2
sin
1
x
x
24.
2cos 3sin
6cos 4sin
x x
x x +
25. 2 2
1
cos (1 tan ) x x
26.
cos x
x
27. sin 2 cos 2 x x 28.
cos
1 sin
x
x +
29. cot x log sin x
30.
sin
1 cos
x
x +
31.
( )
2
sin
1 cos
x
x +
32.
1
1 cot x +
33.
1
1 tan x
34.
tan
sin cos
x
x x
35.
( )
2
1 log x
x
+
36.
( )
2
( 1) log x x x
x
+ +
37.
( )
3 1 4
sin tan
1
x x
x
8
+
38.
10
9
10
10 10 log
10
x
e
x
x dx
x
+
+
equals
(A) 10
x
x
10
+ C (B) 10
x
+ x
10
+ C
(C) (10
x
x
10
)
1
+ C (D) log (10
x
+ x
10
) + C
39.
2 2
equals
sin cos
dx
x x
(A) tan x + cot x + C (B) tan x cot x + C

(C) tan x cot x + C (D) tan x cot 2x + C
7.3.2 Integration using trigonometric identities
When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we use some known identities
to find the integral as illustrated through the following example.
Example 7 Find (i)
2
cos x dx
(ii)
sin 2 cos 3 x x dx
(iii)
3
sin x dx
306 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos
2
x 1, which gives
cos
2
x =
1 cos 2
2
x +
Therefore,
2
cos
x dx
=
1
(1+ cos 2 )
2
x dx
=
1 1
cos 2
2 2
dx x dx +

=
1
sin 2 C
2 4
x
x + +
(ii) Recall the identity sin x cos y =
1
2
[sin (x + y) + sin (x y)] (Why?)
Then sin 2 cos3
x x dx =
1
sin 5 sin
2

x dx x dx
=
1 1
cos 5 cos C
2 5
x x

+ +

=
1 1
cos 5 cos C
10 2
x x + +
(iii) From the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x 4 sin
3
x, we find that
sin
3
x =
3sin sin 3
4
x x
Therefore,
3
sin x dx
=
3 1
sin sin 3
4 4
x dx x dx

=
3 1
cos cos 3 C
4 12
x x + +
Alternatively,
3 2
sin sin sin x dx x x dx =

=
2
(1 cos ) sin x x dx
Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt

Therefore,
3
sin x dx
= ( )
2
1 t dt
=
3
2
C
3
t
dt t dt t + = + +

=
3
1
cos cos C
3
x x + +
Remark It can be shown using trigonometric identities that both answers are equivalent.
INTEGRALS 307
EXERCISE 7.3
Find the integrals of the functions in Exercises 1 to 22:
1. sin
2
(2x + 5) 2. sin 3x cos 4x 3. cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x
4. sin
3
(2x + 1) 5. sin
3
x cos
3
x 6. sin x sin 2x sin 3x
7. sin 4x sin 8x 8.
1 cos
1 cos
x
x +
9.
cos
1 cos
x
x +
10. sin
4
x 11. cos
4
2x 12.
2
sin
1 cos
x
x +
13.
cos 2 cos 2
cos cos
x
x
14.
cos sin
1 sin 2
x x
x +
15. tan
3
2x sec 2x
16. tan
4
x 17.
3 3
2 2
sin cos
sin cos
x x
x x
+
18.
2
2
cos 2 2sin
cos
x x
x
+
19.
3
1
sin cos x x
20.
( )
2
cos 2
cos sin
x
x x +
21. sin
1
(cos x)
22.
1
cos ( ) cos ( ) x a x b
23.
2 2
2 2
sin cos
is equal to
sin cos
x x
dx
x x
(A) tan x + cot x + C (B) tan x + cosec x + C

(C) tan x + cot x + C (D) tan x + sec x + C
24.
2
(1 )
equals
cos ( )
x
x
e x
dx
e x
+
(A) cot (ex

x
) + C (B) tan (xe
x
) + C
(C) tan (e
x
) + C (D) cot (e
x
) + C
7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions
In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them
for integrating many other related standard integrals:
(1)
2 2
1
= log + C
2 +
dx x a
a x a x a
308 MATHEMATICS
(2)
2 2
1 +
= log + C
2
dx a x
a a x a x
(3)

1
2 2
1
tan C
dx x
= +
a a x + a
(4)

2 2
2 2
= log + + C
dx
x x a
x a
(5)

1
2 2
= sin + C
dx x
a
a x
(6)

2 2
2 2
= log + + + C
+
dx
x x a
x a
We now prove the above results:
(1) We have
2 2
1 1
( ) ( ) x a x a x a
=
+
=
1 ( ) ( ) 1 1 1
2 ( ) ( ) 2
x a x a
a x a x a a x a x a
+
=

+ +

Therefore,
2 2
1
2
dx dx dx
a x a x a x a

=

+

= [ ]
1
log ( )| log ( )| C
2
| x a | x a
a
+ +
=
1
log C
2
x a
a x a
+
+
(2) In view of (1) above, we have
2 2
1 1 ( ) ( )
2 ( ) ( )
a x a x
a a x a x a x
+ +
=

+

=
1 1 1
2a a x a x

+

+

INTEGRALS 309
Therefore,
2 2
dx
a x
=
1
2
dx dx
a a x a x

+

+

=
1
[ log | | log | | ] C
2
a x a x
a
+ + +
=
1
log C
2
a x
a a x
+
+
$
Note The technique used in (1) will be explained in Section 7.5.
(3) Put x = a tan . Then dx = a sec
2
d.
Therefore,
2 2
dx
x a +
=
2
2 2 2

sec
tan
a d
a a +
=
1
1 1 1
C tan C
x
d
a a a a
= + = +
(4) Let x = a sec. Then dx = a sec tan d.

Therefore,
2 2
dx
x a
=
2 2 2
sec tan
sec
a d
a a
=
1
sec log sec + tan + C d =
=
2
1
2
log 1 C
x x
a a
+ +
=
2 2
1
log log C x x a a + +
=
2 2
log + C x x a + , where C = C
1
log |a|
(5) Let x = a sin. Then dx = a cos d.
Therefore,
2 2
dx
a x
=
2 2 2

cos
sin
a d
a a
=
1
= + C = sin C
x
d
a
+
(6) Let x = a tan. Then dx = a sec

2
d.
Therefore,
2 2
dx
x a +
=
2
2 2 2

sec
tan
a d
a a +
=
1
sec = log (sec tan ) C d + +
310 MATHEMATICS
=
2
1
2
log 1 C
x x
a a
+ + +
=
2
1
log log C x x a | a|
2
+ + +
=
2
log C x x a
2
+ + +
, where C = C
1
log |a|
Applying these standard formulae, we now obtain some more formulae which
are useful from applications point of view and can be applied directly to evaluate
other integrals.
(7) To find the integral
2
dx
ax bx c + +
, we write
ax
2
+ bx + c =
2
2
2
2
2 4
b c b c b
a x x a x
a a a a a

+ + = + +

Now, put
2
b
x t
a
+ = so that dx = dt and writing
2
2
2
4
c b
k
a a
=
. We find the
integral reduced to the form
2 2
1 dt
a t k
depending upon the sign of

2
2
4
c b
a a

and hence can be evaluated.
(8) To find the integral of the type
2
dx
ax bx c + +
, proceeding as in (7), we
obtain the integral using the standard formulae.
(9) To find the integral of the type
2
px q
dx
ax bx c
+
+ +
, where p, q, a, b, c are
constants, we are to find real numbers A, B such that
2
+ = A ( ) + B= A (2 ) + B
d
px q ax bx c ax b
dx
+ + +
To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and the
constant terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is reduced to
one of the known forms.
INTEGRALS 311
(10) For the evaluation of the integral of the type
2
( ) px q dx
ax bx c
+
+ +
, we proceed
as in (9) and transform the integral into known standard forms.
Let us illustrate the above methods by some examples.
(i)
2
16
dx
x
(ii)
2
2
dx
x x
Solution
(i) We have
2 2 2
16 4
dx dx
x x
=

=
4
log C
8 4
x
x
1
+
+
[by 7.4 (1)]
(ii)
( )
2 2
2
1 1
=

dx dx
x x
x
Put x 1 = t. Then dx = dt.
Therefore,
2
2
dx
x x
=
2
1
dt
t
=
1
sin ( ) C
t +
[by 7.4 (5)]
=
1
sin ( 1) C
x +
Example 9 Find the following integrals :
(i)
2
6 13
dx
x x +
(ii)
2
3 13 10
dx
x x +
(iii)
2
5 2
dx
x x
Solution
(i) We have x
2
6x + 13 = x
2
6x + 3
2
3
2
+ 13 = (x 3)
2
+ 4
So,
6 13
dx
x x
2
+
=
( )
2
2
1
3 2
dx
x +
Let x 3 = t. Then dx = dt
Therefore,
6 13
dx
x x
2
+
=
1
2 2
1
tan C
2 2 2

dt t
t
= +
+
[by 7.4 (3)]

=
1
1 3
tan C
2 2
x
+
312 MATHEMATICS
(ii) The given integral is of the form 7.4 (7). We write the denominator of the integrand,
2
3 13 10 x x + =
2
13 10
3
3 3
x
x

+

=
2 2
13 17
3
6 6
x

+

(completing the square)
Thus
3 13 10
dx
x x
2
+
=
2 2
1
3
13 17
6 6
dx
x

+

Put
13
6
x t + =
. Then dx = dt.
Therefore,
3 13 10
dx
x x
2
+
=
2
2
1
3
17
6
dt
t

=
1
17
1
6
log C
17 17
3 2
6 6
t
t
+
+
[by 7.4 (i)]
= 1
13 17
1
6 6
log C
13 17
17
6 6
x
x
+
+
+ +
= 1
1 6 4
log C
17 6 30
x
x
+
+
= 1
1 3 2 1 1
log C log
17 5 17 3
x
x
+ +
+
=
1 3 2
log C
17 5
x
x
+
+
, where C =
1
1 1
C log
17 3
+
INTEGRALS 313
(iii) We have
2
2
5 2
5
5
dx dx
x
x x
x
2
=

=
2 2
1
5
1 1
5 5
dx
x

(completing the square)

Put
1
5
x t =
. Then dx = dt.
Therefore,
5 2
dx
x x
2
=
2
2
1
5
1
5
dt
t

=
2
2
1 1
log C
5 5
t t

+ +

[by 7.4 (4)]
=
2
1 1 2
log C
5 5 5
x
x x + +
(i)
2
2 6 5
x
dx
x x
2
+
+ +
(ii)
2
3
5 4
x
dx
x x
+
+
Solution
(i) Using the formula 7.4 (9), we express
x + 2 = ( )
2
A 2 6 5 B
d
x x
dx
+ + +
=
A (4 6) B x + +
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
4A = 1 and 6A + B = 2 or A =
1
4
and B =
1
2
.
Therefore,
2
2 6 5
x
x x
2
+
+ +
=
1 4 6 1
4 2 2 6 5 2 6 5
x dx
dx
x x x x
2 2
+
+
+ + + +

=
1 2
1 1
I I
4 2
+
(say) ... (1)
314 MATHEMATICS
In I
1
, put 2x
2
+ 6x + 5 = t, so that (4x + 6) dx = dt
Therefore, I
1
=
1
log C
dt
t
t
= +
=
2
1
log | 2 6 5| C x x + + +
... (2)
and I
2
=
2
2
1
5
2 2 6 5
3
2
dx dx
x x
x x
=
+ +
+ +

=
2 2
1
2
3 1
2 2
dx
x

+ +

Put
3
2
x t + = , so that dx = dt, we get
I
2
=
2
2
1
2
1
2
dt
t

+

=
1
2
1
tan 2 C
1
2
2
t +
[by 7.4 (3)]

=
1
2
3
tan 2 + C
2
x

+

= ( )
1
2
tan 2 3 + C
x +
... (3)
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
( )
2 1
2 1 1
log 2 6 5 tan 2 3 C
4 2 2 6 5

x
dx x x x
x x
2
+
= + + + + +
+ +
where, C =
1 2
C C
4 2
+
(ii) This integral is of the form given in 7.4 (10). Let us express
x + 3 =
2
A (5 4 ) + B
d
x x
dx
= A ( 4 2x) + B
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
2A = 1 and 4 A + B = 3, i.e., A =
1
2
and B = 1
INTEGRALS 315
Therefore,
2
3
5 4
x
dx
x x
+

=
( )
2 2
4 2 1
2
5 4 5 4
x dx dx
x x x x
+

=
1
2
I
1
+ I
2
... (1)
In I
1
, put 5 4x x
2
= t, so that ( 4 2x) dx = dt.
Therefore, I
1
=
( )
2
4 2
5 4
x dx dt
t
x x
=

=
1
2 C t +
=
2
1
2 5 4 C x x + ... (2)
Now consider I
2
=
2 2
5 4 9 ( 2)
dx dx
x x x
=
+

Put x + 2 = t, so that dx = dt.
Therefore, I
2
=
1
2
2 2
sin + C
3
3

dt t
t
=
[by 7.4 (5)]

=
1
2
2
sin C
3
x +
+
... (3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain
2 1
2
3 2
5 4 + sin C
3
5 4

x x
x x
x x
+ +
= +
, where
1
2
C
C C
2
=
EXERCISE 7.4
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23.
1.
2
6
3
1
x
x +
2.
2
1
1 4x +
3.
( )
2
1
2 1 x +
4.
2
1
9 25 x
5.
4
3
1 2
x
x +
6.
2
6
1
x
x
7.
2
1
1
x
x
8.
2
6 6
x
x a +
9.
2
2
sec
tan 4
x
x +
316 MATHEMATICS
10.
2
1
2 2 x x + +
11.
2
1
9 6 5 x x + +
12.
2
1
7 6 x x
13.
( )( )
1
1 2 x x
14.
2
1
8 3x x +
15.
( )( )
1
x a x b
16.
2
4 1
2 3
x
x x
+
+
17.
2
2
1
x
x
+
18.
2
5 2
1 2 3
x
x x
+ +
19.
( )( )
6 7
5 4
x
x x
+
20.
2
2
4
x
x x
+
21.
2
2
2 3
x
x x
+
+ +
22.
2
3
2 5
x
x x
+
23.
2
5 3
4 10
x
x x
+
+ +
.
24.
2
equals
2 2
dx
x x + +
(A) x tan
1
(x + 1) + C (B) tan
1
(x + 1) + C
(C) (x + 1) tan
1
x + C (D) tan
1
x + C
25.
2
equals
9 4
dx
x x
(A)
1
1 9 8
sin C
9 8
x
+

(B)
1
1 8 9
sin C
2 9
x
+

(C)
1
1 9 8
sin C
3 8
x
+

(D)
1
1 9 8
sin C
2 9
x
+

7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions
Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials in the form
P( )
Q( )
x
x
, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) 0. If the degree of P(x)
is less than the degree of Q(x), then the rational function is called proper, otherwise, it
is called improper. The improper rational functions can be reduced to the proper rational
INTEGRALS 317
functions by long division process. Thus, if
P( )
Q( )
x
x
is improper, then
1
P ( ) P( )
T( )
Q( ) Q( )
x x
x
x x
= + ,
where T(x) is a polynomial in x and
1
P ( )
Q( )
x
x
is a proper rational function. As we know
how to integrate polynomials, the integration of any rational function is reduced to the
integration of a proper rational function. The rational functions which we shall consider
here for integration purposes will be those whose denominators can be factorised into
linear and quadratic factors. Assume that we want to evaluate
P( )
Q( )
x
dx
x
, where
P( )
Q( )
x
x
is proper rational function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of
simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction decomposition. After this,
the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following
Table 7.2 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with
various kind of rational functions.
Table 7.2
S.No. Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction
1.
( ) ( )
px q
x a x b
+
, a b
A B
x a x b
+
2.
2
( )
px q
x a
+
( )
2
A B
x a
x a
+
3.
2
( ) ( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x b x c
+ + A B C
x a x b x c
+ +
4.
2
2
( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x b
+ +
2
A B C
( ) x a x b x a
+ +
5.
2
2
( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x bx c
+ +
+ +
2
A B + C x
x a x bx c
+
+ +
,
where x
2
+ bx + c cannot be factorised further
In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.
318 MATHEMATICS
Example 11 Find
( 1) ( 2)
dx
x x + +
Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Therefore, by using the form of
partial fraction [Table 7.2 (i)], we write
1
( 1) ( 2) x x + +
=
A B
1 2 x x
+
+ +
... (1)
where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably. This gives
1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1).
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get
A + B = 0
and 2A + B = 1
Solving these equations, we get A =1 and B = 1.
Thus, the integrand is given by
1
( 1) ( 2) x x + +
=
1 1
1 2 x x
+
+ +
Therefore,
( 1) ( 2)
dx
x x + +
=
1 2
dx dx
x x + +

= log 1 log 2 C x x + + +
=
1
log C
2
x
x
+
+
+
Remark The equation (1) above is an identity, i.e. a statement true for all (permissible)
values of x. Some authors use the symbol to indicate that the statement is an
identity and use the symbol = to indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e., to
indicate that the statement is true only for certain values of x.
Example 12 Find
2
2
1
5 6
x
dx
x x
+
+
Solution Here the integrand

2
2
1
5 6
x
x x
+
+
is not proper rational function, so we divide
x
2
+ 1 by x
2
5x + 6 and find that
INTEGRALS 319
2
2
1
5 6
x
x x
+
+
= 2
5 5 5 5
1 1
( 2) ( 3) 5 6
x x
x x x x
+ = +
+
Let
5 5
( 2) ( 3)
x
x x
=
A B
2 3 x x
+
So that 5x 5 = A (x 3) + B (x 2)
Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 5
and 3A + 2B = 5. Solving these equations, we get A = 5 and B = 10
Thus,
2
2
1
5 6
x
x x
+
+
=
5 10
1
2 3 x x
+
Therefore,
2
2
1
5 6
x
dx
x x
+
+
=
1
5 10
2 3
dx
dx dx
x x
+

= x 5 log | x 2| + 10 log | x 3| + C.
Example 13 Find
2
3 2
( 1) ( 3)
x
dx
x x
+ +
Solution The integrand is of the type as given in Table 7.2 (4). We write
2
3 2
( 1) ( 3)
x
x x + +
=
2
A B C
1 3 ( 1) x x x
+ +
+ + +
So that 3x 2 = A (x + 1) (x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x + 1)
2
= A (x
2
+ 4x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x
2
+ 2x + 1 )
Comparing coefficient of x
2
, x and constant term on both sides, we get
A + C = 0, 4A + B + 2C = 3 and 3A + 3B + C = 2. Solving these equations, we get
11 5 11
A B and C
4 2 4

, = = =
. Thus the integrand is given by
2
3 2
( 1) ( 3)
x
x x
+ +
= 2
11 5 11
4 ( 1) 4 ( 3) 2 ( 1)

x x x + + +
Therefore,
2
3 2
( 1) ( 3)
x
x x
+ +
=
2
11 5 11
4 1 2 4 3 ( 1)
dx dx dx
x x x

+ + +

=
11 5 11
log +1 log 3 C
4 2 ( +1) 4
x x
x
+ + +
=
11 +1 5
log + C
4 + 3 2 ( +1)
x
x x
+
320 MATHEMATICS
Example 14 Find
2
2 2
( 1) ( 4)
x
dx
x x + +
Solution Consider
2
2 2
( 1) ( 4)
x
x x + +
and put x
2
= y.
Then
2
2 2
( 1) ( 4)
x
x x + +
=
( 1) ( 4)
y
y y + +
Write
( 1) ( 4)
y
y y + +
=
A B
1 4 y y
+
+ +
So that y = A (y + 4) + B (y + 1)
Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 1
and 4A + B = 0, which give
A =
1 4
and B
3 3
=
Thus,
2
2 2
( 1) ( 4)
x
x x + +
=
2 2
1 4
3 ( 1) 3 ( 4)
x x
+
+ +
Therefore,
2
2 2
( 1) ( 4)
x dx
x x + +
=
2 2
1 4
3 3 1 4
dx dx
x x
+
+ +

=
1 1
1 4 1
tan tan C
3 3 2 2

x
x + +
=
1 1
1 2
tan tan C
3 3 2

x
x + +
In the above example, the substitution was made only for the partial fraction part
and not for the integration part. Now, we consider an example, where the integration
involves a combination of the substitution method and the partial fraction method.
Example 15 Find
( )
2
3 sin 2 cos
5 cos 4 sin
Solution Let y = sin

Then dy = cos d
INTEGRALS 321
Therefore,
( )
2
3 sin 2 cos
5 cos 4 sin
=
2
(3 2)
5 (1 ) 4
y dy
y y
= 2
3 2
4 4
y
dy
y y +
=
( )
2
3 2
I (say)
2
y
y
=
Now, we write
( )
2
3 2
2
y
y
=
2
A B
2 ( 2) y y
+

[by Table 7.2 (2)]
Therefore, 3y 2 = A (y 2) + B
Comparing the coefficients of y and constant term, we get A = 3 and B 2A = 2,
which gives A = 3 and B = 4.
Therefore, the required integral is given by
I =
2
3 4
[ + ]
2 ( 2)
dy
y y
=
2
3 + 4
2 ( 2)
dy dy
y y

=
1
3 log 2 4 C
2
y
y

+ +

=
4
3log sin 2 C
2 sin
+ +
=
4
3log (2 sin ) + C
2 sin
+

(since, 2 sin is always positive)
Example 16 Find
2
2
1
( 2) ( 1)
x x dx
x x
+ +
+ +
Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Decompose the rational function
into partial fraction [Table 2.2(5)]. Write
2
2
1
( 1) ( 2)
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
=
2
A B + C
2 ( 1)
x
x x
+
+ +
Therefore, x
2
+ x + 1 = A (x
2
+ 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2)
322 MATHEMATICS
Equating the coefficients of x
2
, x and of constant term of both sides, we get
A + B =1, 2B + C = 1 and A + 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get
3 2 1
A , B and C
5 5 5
= = =
Thus, the integrand is given by
2
2
1
( 1) ( 2)
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
=
2
2 1
3
5 5
5 ( 2) 1
x
x x
+
+
+ +
=
2
3 1 2 1
5 ( 2) 5 1
x
x x
+
+

+ +
Therefore,
2
2
1
( +1) ( 2)
x x
dx
x x
+ +
+
=
2 2
3 1 2 1 1
5 2 5 5 1 1
dx x
dx dx
x x x
+ +
+ + +

=
2 1
3 1 1
log 2 log 1 tan C
5 5 5

x x x + + + + +
EXERCISE 7.5
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21.
1.
( 1) ( 2)
x
x x + +
2.
2
1
9 x
3.
3 1
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
x
x x x
4.
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
x
x x x
5.
2
2
3 2
x
x x + +
6.
2
1
(1 2 )
x
x x
7.
2
( 1) ( 1)
x
x x +
8.
2
( 1) ( 2)
x
x x +
9. 3 2
3 5
1
x
x x x
+
+
10.
2
2 3
( 1) (2 3)
x
x x
+
11.
2
5
( 1) ( 4)
x
x x +
12.
3
2
1
1
x x
x
+ +
13. 2
2
(1 ) (1 ) x x +
14. 2
3 1
( 2)
x
x +
15.
4
1
1 x
16.
1
( 1)
n
x x +
[Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by x
n 1
and put x
n
= t ]
17.
cos
(1 sin ) (2 sin )
x
x x
[Hint : Put sin x = t]
INTEGRALS 323
18.
2 2
2 2
( 1) ( 2)
( 3) ( 4)
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
19.
2 2
2
( 1) ( 3)
x
x x + +
20.
4
1
( 1) x x
21.
1
( 1)
x
e
[Hint : Put e
x
= t]
Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises 22 and 23.
22.
( 1) ( 2)
x dx
x x
equals
(A)
2
( 1)
log C
2
x
x
(B)
2
( 2)
log C
1
x
x
(C)
2
1
log C
2
x
x

+

(D) log ( 1) ( 2) C x x +
23.
2
( 1)
dx
x x +
equals
(A)
2
1
log log ( +1) + C
2
x x
(B)
2
1
log log ( +1) + C
2
x x +
(C)
2
1
log log ( +1) + C
2
x x + (D)
2
1
log log ( +1) + C
2
x x +
7.6 Integration by Parts
In this section, we describe one more method of integration, that is found quite useful in
integrating products of functions.
If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a single variable x (say). Then, by
the product rule of differentiation, we have
( )
d
uv
dx
=
dv du
u v
dx dx
+
Integrating both sides, we get
uv =
dv du
u dx v dx
dx dx
+

or
dv
u dx
dx
=
du
uv v dx
dx
... (1)
Let u = f (x) and
dv
dx
= g(x). Then
du
dx
= f (x) and v =
( ) g x dx
324 MATHEMATICS
Therefore, expression (1) can be rewritten as
( ) ( ) f x g x dx
= ( ) ( ) [ ( ) ] ( ) f x g x dx g x dx f x dx

i.e., ( ) ( ) f x g x dx
= ( ) ( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] f x g x dx f x g x dx dx

If we take f as the first function and g as the second function, then this formula
may be stated as follows:
The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) (integral
of the second function) Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first function)
(integral of the second function)]
Example 17 Find cos x x dx
Solution Put f (x) = x (first function) and g (x) = cos x (second function).
Then, integration by parts gives
cos x x dx
=
cos [ ( ) cos ]
d
x x dx x x dx dx
dx

= sin sin x x x dx
= x sin x + cos x + C
Suppose, we take f (x) = cos x and g(x) = x. Then
cos x x dx
=
cos [ (cos ) ]
d
x x dx x x dx dx
dx

=
( )
2 2
cos sin
2 2
x x
x x dx +
Thus, it shows that the integral cos x x dx
is reduced to the comparatively more

complicated integral having more power of x. Therefore, the proper choice of the first
function and the second function is significant.
Remarks
(i) It is worth mentioning that integration by parts is not applicable to product of
functions in all cases. For instance, the method does not work for sin x x dx
.
The reason is that there does not exist any function whose derivative is
x sin x.
(ii) Observe that while finding the integral of the second function, we did not add
any constant of integration. If we write the integral of the second function cos x
INTEGRALS 325
as sin x + k, where k is any constant, then
cos x x dx
= (sin ) (sin ) x x k x k dx + +
=
(sin ) (sin x x k x dx k dx +

= (sin ) cos C x x k x kx + + =
sin cos C x x x + +
This shows that adding a constant to the integral of the second function is
superfluous so far as the final result is concerned while applying the method of
integration by parts.
(iii) Usually, if any function is a power of x or a polynomial in x, then we take it as the
first function. However, in cases where other function is inverse trigonometric
function or logarithmic function, then we take them as first function.
Example 18 Find log x dx
Solution To start with, we are unable to guess a function whose derivative is log x. We
take log x as the first function and the constant function 1 as the second function. Then,
the integral of the second function is x.
Hence, (log .1) x dx
=
log 1 [ (log ) 1 ]
d
x dx x dx dx
dx

=
1
(log ) log C x x x dx x x x
x
= +
.
Example 19 Find
x
x e dx
Solution Take first function as x and second function as e

x
. The integral of the second
function is e
x
.
Therefore,
x
x e dx
=
1
x x
x e e dx
= xe
x
e
x
+ C.
Example 20 Find
1
2
sin
1
x x
dx
x
Solution Let first function be sin

1
x and second function be
2
1
x
x
.
First we find the integral of the second function, i.e.,
2
1
x dx
x
.
Put t =1 x
2
. Then dt = 2x dx
326 MATHEMATICS
Therefore,
2
1
x dx
x
=
1
2
dt
=
2
1 t x =
Hence,
1
2
sin
1
x x
dx
x
=
( )
1 2 2
2
1
(sin ) 1 ( 1 )
1
x x x dx
x

=
2 1
1 sin C x x x
+ + =
2 1
1 sin C x x x
+
Alternatively, this integral can also be worked out by making substitution sin
1
x = and
then integrating by parts.
Example 21 Find
sin
x
e x dx
Solution Take e
x
as the first function and sin x as second function. Then, integrating
by parts, we have
I sin ( cos ) cos
x x x
e x dx e x e x dx = = +

= e
x
cos x + I
1
(say) ... (1)
Taking e
x

and cos x as the first and second functions, respectively, in I
1
, we get
I
1
= sin sin
x x
e x e x dx
Substituting the value of I

1
in (1), we get
I = e
x
cos x + e
x
sin x I or 2I = e
x
(sin x cos x)
Hence, I = sin (sin cos ) + C
2
x
x
e
e x dx x x =
Alternatively, above integral can also be determined by taking sin x as the first function
and e
x
the second function.
7.6.1 Integral of the type [ ( ) + ( )]
x
e f x f x dx
We have I = [ ( ) + ( )]
x
e f x f x dx
=
( ) + ( )
x x
e f x dx e f x dx

=
1 1
I ( ) , where I = ( )
x x
e f x dx e f x dx +

... (1)
Taking f (x) and e
x
as the first function and second function, respectively, in I
1
and
integrating it by parts, we have I
1
= f (x) e
x

( ) C
x
f x e dx +
Substituting I
1
in (1), we get
I =
( ) ( ) ( ) C
x x x
e f x f x e dx e f x dx + +

= e
x
f (x) + C
INTEGRALS 327
Thus,
[ ( ) ( )]
x
e f x + f x dx = ( ) C
x
e f x +
Example 22 Find (i)
1
2
1
(tan )
1
x
e x
x
+
+
dx (ii)
2
2
( +1)
( +1)
x
x e
x
dx
Solution
(i) We have I =
1
2
1
(tan )
1
x
e x dx
x
+
+
Consider f (x) = tan

1
x, then f (x) =
2
1
1 x +
Thus, the given integrand is of the form e
x
[ f (x) + f (x)].
Therefore,
1
2
1
I (tan )
1
x
e x dx
x
= +
+
= e
x
tan
1
x + C
(ii) We have
2
2
( +1)
I
( +1)
x
x e
x
=
dx
2
2
1+1+1)
[ ]
( +1)
x
x
e dx
x
=
2
2 2
1 2
[ ]
( +1) ( +1)
x
x
e dx
x x
= +

2
1 2
[ + ]
+1 ( +1)
x
x
e dx
x x
=
Consider
1
( )
1
x
f x
x
=
+
, then 2
2
( )
( 1)
f x
x
=
+
Thus, the given integrand is of the form e
x
[f (x) + f (x)].
Therefore,
2
2
1 1
C
1 ( 1)
x x
x x
e dx e
x x
+
= +
+ +
EXERCISE 7.6
1. x sin x 2. x sin 3x 3. x
2
e
x
4. x log x
5. x log 2x 6. x
2
log x 7. x sin
1
x 8. x tan
1
x
9. x cos
1
x 10. (sin
1
x)
2
11.
1
2
cos
1
x x
x
12. x sec
2
x
13. tan
1
x 14. x (log x)
2
15. (x
2
+ 1) log x
328 MATHEMATICS
16. e
x
(sinx + cosx) 17.
2
(1 )
x
x e
x +
18.
1 sin
1 cos
x
x
e
x
+

+

19.
2
1 1
x
e
x x

20.
3
( 3)
( 1)
x
x e
x
21. e
2x
sin x
22.
1
2
2
sin
1
x
x

+
23.
3
2 x
x e dx
equals
(A)
3
1
C
3
x
e + (B)
2
1
C
3
x
e +
(C)
3
1
C
2
x
e +
(D)
2
1
C
2
x
e +
24. sec (1 tan )
x
e x x dx +
equals
(A) e
x
cos x + C (B) e
x
sec x + C
(C) e
x
sin x + C (D) e
x
tan x + C
7.6.2 Integrals of some more types
Here, we discuss some special types of standard integrals based on the technique of
integration by parts :
(i)
2 2
x a dx
(ii)
2 2
x a dx +
(iii)
2 2
a x dx
(i) Let
2 2
I x a dx =
Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we

have
I =
2 2
2 2
1 2
2
x
x x a x dx
x a

=
2
2 2
2 2
x
x x a dx
x a

=
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
x a a
x x a dx
x a
+

INTEGRALS 329
=
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
dx
x x a x a dx a
x a

=
2 2 2
2 2
I
dx
x x a a
x a

or 2I =
2 2 2
2 2
dx
x x a a
x a

or I =

2 2
x a dx =
2
2 2 2 2
log + + C
2 2
x a
x a x x a
Similarly, integrating other two integrals by parts, taking constant function 1 as the
second function, we get
(ii)

2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
+ = + + log + + +C
2 2
a
x a dx x x a x x a
(iii)

2
2 2 2 2 1
1
= + sin + C
2 2
a x
a x dx x a x
a
Alternatively, integrals (i), (ii) and (iii) can also be found by making trigonometric
substitution x = a sec in (i), x = a tan in (ii) and x = a sin in (iii) respectively.
Example 23 Find
2
2 5 x x dx + +
Solution Note that

2
2 5 x x dx + +
=
2
( 1) 4 x dx + +
Put x + 1 = y, so that dx = dy. Then

2
2 5 x x dx + +
=
2 2
2 y dy +
=
2 2
1 4
4 log 4 C
2 2
y y y y + + + + +
[using 7.6.2 (ii)]
=
2 2
1
( 1) 2 5 2 log 1 2 5 C
2
x x x x x x + + + + + + + + +
Example 24 Find
2
3 2x x dx
Solution Note that

2 2
3 2 4 ( 1) x x dx x dx = +

330 MATHEMATICS
Put x + 1 = y so that dx = dy.
Thus
2
3 2x x dx
=
2
4 y dy
=
2 1
1 4
4 sin C
2 2 2
y
y y + +
[using 7.6.2 (iii)]
=
2 1
1 1
( 1) 3 2 2 sin C
2 2
x
x x x
+
+ + +

EXERCISE 7.7
1.
2
4 x
2.
2
1 4x
3.
2
4 6 x x + +
4.
2
4 1 x x + +
5.
2
1 4x x
6.
2
4 5 x x +
7.
2
1 3x x +
8.
2
3 x x +
9.
2
1
9
x
+
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 10 to 11.
10.
2
1 x dx +
is equal to
(A)
( )
2 2
1
1 log 1 C
2 2
x
x x x + + + + +
(B)
3
2
2
2
(1 ) C
3
x + + (C)
3
2
2
2
(1 ) C
3
x x + +
(D)
2
2 2 2
1
1 log 1 C
2 2
x
x x x x + + + + +
11.
2
8 7 x x dx +
is equal to
(A)
2 2
1
( 4) 8 7 9log 4 8 7 C
2
x x x x x x + + + + +
(B)
2 2
1
( 4) 8 7 9log 4 8 7 C
2
x x x x x x + + + + + + +
(C)
2 2
1
( 4) 8 7 3 2 log 4 8 7 C
2
x x x x x x + + + +
(D)
2 2
1 9
( 4) 8 7 log 4 8 7 C
2 2
x x x x x x + + + +
INTEGRALS 331
7.7 Definite Integral
In the previous sections, we have studied about the indefinite integrals and discussed
few methods of finding them including integrals of some special functions. In this
section, we shall study what is called definite integral of a function. The definite integral
has a unique value. A definite integral is denoted by ( )
b
a
f x dx
, where a is called the

lower limit of the integral and b is called the upper limit of the integral. The definite
integral is introduced either as the limit of a sum or if it has an anti derivative F in the
interval [a, b], then its value is the difference between the values of F at the end
points, i.e., F(b) F(a). Here, we shall consider these two cases separately as discussed
below:
7.7.1 Definite integral as the limit of a sum
Let f be a continuous function defined on close interval [a, b]. Assume that all the
values taken by the function are non negative, so the graph of the function is a curve
above the x-axis.
The definite integral ( )
b
a
f x dx
is the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the

ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-axis. To evaluate this area, consider the region PRSQP
between this curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b (Fig 7.2).
Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals denoted by [x
0
, x
1
], [x
1
, x
2
] ,...,
[x
r 1
, x
r
], ..., [x
n 1
, x
n
], where x
0
= a, x
1
= a + h, x
2
= a + 2h, ... , x
r
= a + rh and
x
n
= b = a + nh or
.
b a
n
h
=
We note that as n , h 0.
Fig 7.2
O
Y
X X'
Y'
Q
P
C
M
D
L
S
A B R
a = x
0
x
1
x
2 x
r-1
x
r
x =b
n
y
f

x
=

(
)
332 MATHEMATICS
The region PRSQP under consideration is the sum of n subregions, where each
subregion is defined on subintervals [x
r 1
, x
r
], r = 1, 2, 3, , n.
From Fig 7.2, we have
area of the rectangle (ABLC) < area of the region (ABDCA) < area of the rectangle
(ABDM) ... (1)
Evidently as x
r
x
r1
0, i.e., h 0 all the three areas shown in (1) become
nearly equal to each other. Now we form the following sums.
s
n
= h [f(x
0
) + + f (x
n - 1
)] =
1
0
( )
n
r
r
h f x
=
... (2)
and S
n
=
1 2
1
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] ( )
n
n r
r
h f x f x f x h f x
=
+ ++ =

... (3)
Here, s
n
and S
n
denote the sum of areas of all lower rectangles and upper rectangles
raised over subintervals [x
r1
, x
r
] for r = 1, 2, 3, , n, respectively.
In view of the inequality (1) for an arbitrary subinterval [x
r1
, x
r
], we have
s
n
< area of the region PRSQP < S
n
... (4)
As n strips become narrower and narrower, it is assumed that the limiting
values of (2) and (3) are the same in both cases and the common limiting value is the
required area under the curve.
Symbolically, we write
limS
n
n
=
lim
n
n
s
= area of the region PRSQP =

( )
b
a
f x dx
... (5)
It follows that this area is also the limiting value of any area which is between that
of the rectangles below the curve and that of the rectangles above the curve. For
the sake of convenience, we shall take rectangles with height equal to that of the
curve at the left hand edge of each subinterval. Thus, we rewrite (5) as
( )
b
a
f x dx
=
0
lim [ ( ) ( ) ... ( ( 1) ]
h
h f a f a h f a n h
+ + + + +
or
( )
b
a
f x dx
=
1
( ) lim [ ( ) ( ) ... ( ( 1) ]
n
b a f a f a h f a n h
n
+ + + + +
... (6)
where h =
0
b a
as n
n

The above expression (6) is known as the definition of definite integral as the limit
of sum.
Remark The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval
depends on the function and the interval, but not on the variable of integration that we
INTEGRALS 333
choose to represent the independent variable. If the independent variable is denoted by
t or u instead of x, we simply write the integral as ( )
b
a
f t dt
or ( )
b
a
f u du
instead of
( )
b
a
f x dx
. Hence, the variable of integration is called a dummy variable.

Example 25 Find
2
2
0
( 1) x dx +
as the limit of a sum.

( )
b
a
f x dx
=
1
( ) lim [ ( ) ( ) ... ( ( 1) ],
n
b a f a f a h f a n h
n
+ + + + +
where, h =
b a
n
In this example, a = 0, b = 2, f (x) = x
2
+ 1,
2 0 2
h
n n
= =
Therefore,
2
2
0
( 1) x dx +
=
1 2 4 2 ( 1)
2 lim [ (0) ( ) ( ) ... ( )]
n
n
f f f f
n n n n
+ + + +
=
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 4 (2 2)
2 lim [1 ( 1) ( 1) ... 1 ]
n
n
n n n n

+ + + + + + +

=
2 2 2
-
1 1
2 lim [(1 1 ... 1) (2 4 ... (2 2) ]
2
+ + + + + + +
n
n terms
n
n n
=
2
2 2 2
1 2
2 lim [ (1 2 ... ( 1) ]
n
n n
n n
2
+ + + +
=
1 4 ( 1) (2 1)
2 lim [ ]
6
n
n n n
n
n n
2

+
=
1 2 ( 1) (2 1)
2 lim [ ]
3
n
n n
n
n n

+
=
2 1 1
2 lim [1 (1 ) (2 )]
3
n
n n
+
=
4
2 [1 ]
3
+ =
14
3
334 MATHEMATICS
Example 26 Evaluate
2
0
x
e dx
as the limit of a sum.

2
0
x
e dx
=
2 4 2 2
0
1
(2 0) lim ...
n
n n n
n
e e e e
n

+ + + +

Using the sum to n terms of a G.P., where a = 1,
2
n
r e = , we have
2
0
x
e dx
=
2
2
1 1
2 lim [ ]
1
n
n
n
n
e
n
e
=
2
2
1 1
2 lim
1
n
n
e
n
e

=
2
2
2 ( 1)
1
lim 2
2
n
n
e
e
n

= e
2
1 [using
0
( 1)
lim 1
h
h
e
h

= ]
EXERCISE 7.8
Evaluate the following definite integrals as limit of sums.
1.
b
a
x dx
2.
5
0
( 1) x dx +
3.
3
2
2
x dx
4.
4
2
1
( ) x x dx
5.
1
1
x
e dx
6.
4
2
0
( )
x
x e dx +
7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

7.8.1 Area function
We have defined ( )
b
a
f x dx
as the area of
the region bounded by the curve y = f (x),
the ordinates x = a and x = b and x-axis. Let x
be a given point in [a, b]. Then
( )
x
a
f x dx
represents the area of the shaded region

Fig 7.3
INTEGRALS 335
in Fig 7.3 [Here it is assumed that f (x) > 0 for x [a, b], the assertion made below is
equally true for other functions as well]. The area of this shaded region depends upon
the value of x.
In other words, the area of this shaded region is a function of x. We denote this
function of x by A(x). We call the function A(x) as Area function and is given by
A(x) =

( )
x
a
f x dx ... (1)
Based on this definition, the two basic fundamental theorems have been given.
However, we only state them as their proofs are beyond the scope of this text book.
7.8.2 First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be
the area function. Then A (x) = f (x), for all x [a, b].
7.8.3 Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
We state below an important theorem which enables us to evaluate definite integrals
by making use of anti derivative.
Theorem 2 Let f be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be
an anti derivative of f. Then
( )
b
a
f x dx = [F( )] =
b
a
x F (b) F(a).
Remarks
(i) In words, the Theorem 2 tells us that ( )
b
a
f x dx
= (value of the anti derivative F

of f at the upper limit b value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a).
(ii) This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a method of calculating the
definite integral more easily, without calculating the limit of a sum.
(iii) The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral is that of finding a function
whose derivative is equal to the integrand. This strengthens the relationship
between differentiation and integration.
(iv) In ( )
b
a
f x dx
, the function f needs to be well defined and continuous in [a, b].

For instance, the consideration of definite integral
1
3
2
2
2
( 1) x x dx
is erroneous
since the function f expressed by f (x) =
1
2
2
( 1) x x is not defined in a portion
1 < x < 1 of the closed interval [ 2, 3].
336 MATHEMATICS
Steps for calculating ( )
b
a
f x dx
.
(i) Find the indefinite integral
( ) f x dx
. Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep

integration constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get
( ) [F ( ) C] [F( ) C] [F( ) C] F( ) F( )
b
b
a
a
f x dx x b a b a = + = + + =
.
Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the definite
integral.
(ii) Evaluate F(b) F(a) = [F ( )]
b
a
x , which is the value of ( )
b
a
f x dx
.
We now consider some examples
Example 27 Evaluate the following integrals:
(i)
3
2
2
x dx
(ii)
9
3
4
2
2
(30 )
x
dx
x
(iii)
2
1
( 1) ( 2)
x dx
x x + +
(iv)
3
4
0
sin 2 cos 2 t t dt
Solution
(i) Let
3
2
2
I x dx =
. Since
3
2
F ( )
3
x
x dx x = =
,
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem, we get
I =
27 8 19
F (3) F (2)
3 3 3
= =
(ii) Let
9
3
4
2
2
I
(30 )
x
dx
x
=
. We first find the anti derivative of the integrand.

Put
3
2
3
30 . Then
2
x t x dx dt = = or
2
3
x dx dt =
Thus,
3 2
2
2
2
3
(30 )
x dt
dx
t
x
=

=
2 1
3 t

=
3
2
2 1
F ( )
3
(30 )
x
x

=

INTEGRALS 337
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
I =
9
3
2
4
2 1
F(9) F(4)
3
(30 ) x

=

=
2 1 1
3 (30 27) 30 8

=
2 1 1 19
3 3 22 99

=

(iii) Let
2
1
I
( 1) ( 2)
x dx
x x
=
+ +
Using partial fraction, we get

1 2
( 1) ( 2) 1 2
x
x x x x
= +
+ + + +
So
( 1) ( 2)
x dx
x x + +
= log 1 2log 2 F( ) x x x + + + =
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
I = F(2) F(1) = [ log 3 + 2 log 4] [ log 2 + 2 log 3]
= 3 log 3 + log 2 + 2 log 4 =
32
log
27

(iv) Let
3
4
0
I sin 2 cos 2 t t dt
. Consider
3
sin 2 cos 2 t t dt
Put sin 2t = u so that 2 cos 2t dt = du or cos 2t dt =

1
2
du
So
3
sin 2 cos 2 t t dt
=
3
1
2
u du
=
4 4
1 1
[ ] sin 2 F ( ) say
8 8
u t t = =
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
I =
4 4
1 1
F ( ) F (0) [sin sin 0]
4 8 2 8

= =
338 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 7.9
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20.
1.
1
1
( 1) x dx
2.
3
2
1
dx
x
3.
2
3 2
1
(4 5 6 9) x x x dx + +
4.
4
0
sin 2x dx
5.
2
0
cos 2x dx
6.
5
4
x
e dx
7.
4
0
tan x dx
8.
4
6
cosec x dx

9.
1
0 2
1
dx
x
10.
1
2
0
1
dx
x +
11.
3
2
2
1
dx
x
12.
2 2
0
cos x dx
13.
3
2
2
1
x dx
x +
14.
1
2
0
2 3
5 1
x
dx
x
+
+
15.
2 1
0
x
x e dx
16.
2
2
2
1
5
4 3
x
x x + +
17.
2 3 4
0
(2sec 2) x x dx
+ +
18.
2 2
0
(sin cos )
2 2
x x
dx
19.
2
2
0
6 3
4
x
dx
x
+
+
20.
1
0
( sin )
4
x
x
x e dx

21.
3
2
1
1
dx
x +
equals
(A)
3
(B)
2
3
(C)
6
(D)
12
22.
2
3
2
0
4 9
dx
x +
equals
(A)
6
(B)
12
(C)
24
(D)
4
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution

In the previous sections, we have discussed several methods for finding the indefinite
integral. One of the important methods for finding the indefinite integral is the method
of substitution.
INTEGRALS 339
To evaluate ( )
b
a
f x dx
, by substitution, the steps could be as follows:

1. Consider the integral without limits and substitute, y = f (x) or x = g(y) to reduce
the given integral to a known form.
2. Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new variable without mentioning
the constant of integration.
3. Resubstitute for the new variable and write the answer in terms of the original
variable.
4. Find the values of answers obtained in (3) at the given limits of integral and find
the difference of the values at the upper and lower limits.
$
Note In order to quicken this method, we can proceed as follows: After
performing steps 1, and 2, there is no need of step 3. Here, the integral will be kept
in the new variable itself, and the limits of the integral will accordingly be changed,
so that we can perform the last step.
Let us illustrate this by examples.
Example 28 Evaluate
1
4 5
1
5 1 x x dx
.
Solution Put t = x
5
+ 1, then dt = 5x
4
dx.
Therefore,
4 5
5 1 x x dx +
=
t dt
=
3
2
2
3
t =
3
5
2
2
( 1)
3
x +
Hence,
1
4 5
1
5 1 x x dx
=
1
3
5
2
1
2
( 1)
3
x

+

= ( )
3 3
5 5
2 2
2
(1 1) (1) 1
3

+ +

=
3 3
2 2
2
2 0
3

=
2 4 2
(2 2)
3 3
=
Alternatively, first we transform the integral and then evaluate the transformed integral
with new limits.
340 MATHEMATICS
Let t = x
5
+ 1. Then dt = 5 x
4
dx.
Note that, when x = 1, t = 0 and when x = 1, t = 2
Thus, as x varies from 1 to 1, t varies from 0 to 2
Therefore
1
4 5
1
5 1 x x dx
=
2
0
t dt
=
2
3 3 3
2 2 2
0
2 2
2 0
3 3
t

=

=
2 4 2
(2 2)
3 3
=
Example 29 Evaluate
1
1
2
0
tan
1
x
dx
x +
Solution Let t = tan

1
x, then
2
1
1
dt dx
x
=
+
. The new limits are, when x = 0, t = 0 and
when x = 1,
4
t

= . Thus, as x varies from 0 to 1, t varies from 0 to
4
.
Therefore
1
1
2
0
tan
1
x
dx
x +
=
2
4
4
0
0
2
t
t dt
=
2 2
1
0
2 16 32

=

EXERCISE 7.10
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 8 using substitution.
1.
1
2
0
1
x
dx
x +
2.
5 2
0
sin cos d
3.
1
1
2
0
2
sin
1
x
dx
x

+
4.
2
0
2 x x +
(Put x + 2 = t
2
) 5.
2
2
0
sin
1 cos
x
dx
x
6.
2
2
0
4
dx
x x +
7.
1
2
1
2 5
dx
x x
+ +
8.
2
2
2
1
1 1
2
x
e dx
x x


9. The value of the integral
1
3
3
1
1 4
3
( ) x x
dx
x
is
(A) 6 (B) 0 (C) 3 (D) 4
10. If f (x) =
0
sin
x
t t dt
, then f (x) is
(A) cosx + x sin x (B) x sinx
(C) x cosx (D) sinx + x cosx
INTEGRALS 341
7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals
We list below some important properties of definite integrals. These will be useful in
evaluating the definite integrals more easily.
P
0
: ( ) ( )
b b
a a
f x dx f t dt =

P
1
: ( ) ( )
b a
a b
f x dx f x dx =

. In particular,
( ) 0
a
a
f x dx =
P
2
: ( ) ( ) ( )
b c b
a a c
f x dx f x dx f x dx = +

P
3
: ( ) ( )
b b
a a
f x dx f a b x dx = +

P
4
:
0 0
( ) ( )
a a
f x dx f a x dx =

(Note that P
4
is a particular case of P
3
)
P
5
:
2
0 0 0
( ) ( ) (2 )
a a a
f x dx f x dx f a x dx = +

P
6
:
2
0 0
( ) 2 ( ) , if (2 ) ( )
a a
f x dx f x dx f a x f x = =

and
0 if f (2a x) = f (x)
P
7
: (i)
0
( ) 2 ( )
a a
a
f x dx f x dx
=

, if f is an even function, i.e., if f ( x) = f (x).
(ii) ( ) 0
a
a
f x dx
, if f is an odd function, i.e., if f ( x) = f (x).

We give the proofs of these properties one by one.
Proof of P
0
It follows directly by making the substitution x = t.
Proof of P
1
Let F be anti derivative of f. Then, by the second fundamental theorem of
calculus, we have ( ) F ( ) F ( ) [F ( ) F ( )] ( )
b a
a b
f x dx b a a b f x dx = = =

Here, we observe that, if a = b, then
( ) 0
a
a
f x dx =
.
Proof of P
2
Let F be anti derivative of f. Then
( )
b
a
f x dx
= F(b) F(a) ... (1)

( )
c
a
f x dx
= F(c) F(a) ... (2)

and
( )
b
c
f x dx
= F(b) F(c) ... (3)

342 MATHEMATICS
Adding (2) and (3), we get ( ) ( ) F( ) F( ) ( )
c b b
a c a
f x dx f x dx b a f x dx + = =

This proves the property P
2
.
Proof of P
3
Let t = a + b x. Then dt = dx. When x = a, t = b and when x = b, t = a.
Therefore
( )
b
a
f x dx
=
( )
a
b
f a b t dt +
=
( )
b
a
f a b t dt +
(by P
1
)
= ( )
b
a
f a b x +
dx by P
0
Proof of P
4
Put t = a x. Then dt = dx. When x = 0, t = a and when x = a, t = 0. Now
proceed as in P
3
.
Proof of P
5
Using P
2
, we have
2 2
0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
a a a
a
f x dx f x dx f x dx = +

.
Let t = 2a x in the second integral on the right hand side. Then
dt = dx. When x = a, t = a and when x = 2a, t = 0. Also x = 2a t.
Therefore, the second integral becomes
2
( )
a
a
f x dx
=
0
(2 )
a
f a t dt
=
0
(2 )
a
f a t dt
=
0
(2 )
a
f a x dx
Hence
2
0
( )
a
f x dx
=
0 0
( ) (2 )
a a
f x dx f a x dx +

Proof of P
6
Using P
5
, we have
2
0 0 0
( ) ( ) (2 )
a a a
f x dx f x dx f a x dx = +

... (1)
Now, if f (2a x) = f (x), then (1) becomes
2
0
( )
a
f x dx
=
0 0 0
( ) ( ) 2 ( ) ,
a a a
f x dx f x dx f x dx + =

and if f (2a x) = f (x), then (1) becomes
2
0
( )
a
f x dx
=
0 0
( ) ( ) 0
a a
f x dx f x dx =

Proof of P
7
Using P
2
, we have
( )
a
a
f x dx
=
0
0
( ) ( )
a
a
f x dx f x dx
+

. Then
Let t = x in the first integral on the right hand side.
dt = dx. When x = a, t = a and when
x = 0, t = 0. Also x = t.
INTEGRALS 343
Therefore ( )
a
a
f x dx
=
0
0
( ) ( )
a
a
f t dt f x dx +

=
0 0
( ) ( )
a a
f x dx f x dx +

(by P
0
) ... (1)
(i) Now, if f is an even function, then f (x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes
0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( )
a a a a
a
f x dx f x dx f x dx f x dx
= + =

(ii) If f is an odd function, then f (x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
a a a
a
f x dx f x dx f x dx
= + =

Example 30 Evaluate
2
3
1
x x dx
Solution We note that x

3
x 0 on [ 1, 0] and x
3
x 0 on [0, 1] and that
x
3
x 0 on [1, 2]. So by P
2
we write
2
3
1
x x dx
=
0 1 2
3 3 3
1 0 1
( ) ( ) ( ) x x dx x x dx x x dx
+ +

=
0 1 2
3 3 3
1 0 1
( ) ( ) ( ) x x dx x x dx x x dx
+ +

=
0 1 2
4 2 2 4 4 2
1 0 1

4 2 2 4 4 2
x x x x x x

+ +

= ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 2
4 2 2 4 4 2

+ +

=
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
4 2 2 4 4 2
+ + + +
=
3 3 11
2
2 4 4
+ =
Example 31 Evaluate
2 4
4
sin x dx

Solution We observe that sin
2
x is an even function. Therefore, by P
7
(i), we get
2 4
4
sin x dx

=
2
4
0
2 sin x dx
344 MATHEMATICS
=
4
0
(1 cos 2 )
2
2
x
dx
=
4
0
(1 cos 2 ) x dx
=
4
0
1
sin 2
2
x x

=
1 1
sin 0
4 2 2 4 2

=

Example 32 Evaluate
2
0
sin
1 cos
x x
dx
x
Solution Let I =
2
0
sin
1 cos
x x
dx
x
. Then, by P
4
, we have
I =
2
0
( ) sin ( )
1 cos ( )
x x dx
x
=
2
0
( ) sin
1 cos
x x dx
x
=
2
0
sin
I
1 cos
x dx
x
or 2 I =
2
0
sin
1 cos
x dx
x
or I =
2
0
sin
2 1 cos
x dx
x
Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = dt. When x = 0, t = 1 and when x = , t = 1.

Therefore, (by P
1
) we get
I =
1
2
1
2 1
dt
t
=
1
2
1
2 1
dt
t
=
1
2
0
1
dt
t
(by P
7
,

2
1
since
1 t +
is even function)
=
2
1
1 1 1
0
tan tan 1 tan 0 0
4 4
t

= = =

Example 33 Evaluate
1
5 4
1
sin cos x x dx
Solution Let I =
1
5 4
1
sin cos x x dx
. Let f(x) = sin

5
x cos
4
x. Then
f ( x) = sin
5
( x) cos
4
( x) = sin
5
x cos
4
x = f (x), i.e., f is an odd function.
Therefore, by P
7
(ii), I = 0
INTEGRALS 345
Example 34 Evaluate
4
2
4 4
0
sin
sin cos
x
dx
x x
Solution Let I =
4
2
4 4
0
sin
sin cos
x
dx
x x
... (1)
Then, by P
4
I =
4
2
0
4 4
sin ( )
2
sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
x
dx
x x
=
4
2
4 4
0
cos
cos sin
x
dx
x x
... (2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get
2I =
4 4
2 2 2
4 4
0 0 0
sin cos
[ ]
2 sin cos
x x
dx dx x
x x

+
= = =
+

Hence I =
4
Example 35 Evaluate
3
6
1 tan
dx
x
Solution Let I =
3 3
6 6
cos
1 tan cos sin
x dx dx
x x x

=
+ +

... (1)
Then, by P
3
I =
3
6
cos
3 6
cos sin
3 6 3 6
x dx
x x

+

+ + +

=
3
6
sin
sin cos
x
dx
x x
... (2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get
2I = [ ]
3 3
6 6
3 6 6
dx x

= = =
. Hence I
12
=
346 MATHEMATICS
Example 36 Evaluate
2
0
log sin x dx
Solution Let I =
2
0
log sin x dx
Then, by P
4
I =
2 2
0 0
log sin log cos
2
x dx x dx

=

Adding the two values of I, we get
2I =
( )
2
0
log sin logcos x x dx
=
( )
2
0
log sin cos log2 log2 x x dx
(by adding and subtracting log2)

=
2 2
0 0
log sin2 log2 x dx dx

(Why?)
Put 2x = t in the first integral. Then 2 dx = dt, when x = 0, t = 0 and when
2
x

= ,
t = .
Therefore 2I =
0
1
log sin log2
2 2
t dt
=
2
0
2
log sin log2
2 2
t dt
[by P
6
as sin ( t) = sin t)
=
2
0
log sin log2
2
x dx
(by changing variable t to x)

=
I log2
2
Hence
2
0
log sin x dx
log2
2
.
INTEGRALS 347
EXERCISE 7.11
By using the properties of definite integrals, evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 19.
1.
2 2
0
cos x dx
2.
2
0
sin
sin cos
x
dx
x x
3.
3
2
2
3 3
0
2 2
sin
sin cos
x dx
x x
4.
5
2
5 5
0
cos
sin cos
x dx
x x
5.
5
5
| 2| x dx
6.
8
2
5 x dx
7.
1
0
(1 )
n
x x dx
8.
4
0
log (1 tan ) x dx
9.
2
0
2 x x dx
10.
2
0
(2log sin log sin2 ) x x dx
11.
2 2
2
sin x dx

12.
0
1 sin
x dx
x
13.
7 2
2
sin x dx

14.
2
5
0
cos x dx
15.
2
0
sin cos
1 sin cos
x x
dx
x x
16.
0
log (1 cos ) x dx
17.
0
a
x
dx
x a x +
18.
4
0
1 x dx
19. Show that

0 0
( ) ( ) 2 ( )
a a
f x g x dx f x dx =

, if f and g are defined as f (x) = f (a x)
and g(x) + g(a x) = 4
20. The value of
3 5 2
2
( cos tan 1) x x x x dx
+ + +
is
(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) (D) 1
21. The value of
2
0
4 3sin
log
4 3 cos
x
dx
x
+

+

is
(A) 2 (B)
3
4
(C) 0 (D) 2
348 MATHEMATICS
Example 37 Find cos 6 1 sin 6 x x dx +
Solution Put t = 1 + sin 6x, so that dt = 6 cos 6x dx

Therefore
1
2
1
cos 6 1 sin 6
6
x x dx t dt + =

=
3 3
2 2
1 2 1
( ) C = (1 sin 6 ) C
6 3 9
t x + + +
Example 38 Find
1
4
4
5
( ) x x
dx
x
Solution We have
1
1
4
4
4 3
5 4
1
(1 )
( ) x x
x
dx dx
x x
=

Put
3
3 4
1 3
1 1 , so that x t dx dt
x x
= = =
Therefore
1
1
4
4
4
5
( ) 1
3
x x
dx t dt
x
=

=
5
5
4
4
3
1 4 4 1
C = 1 C
3 5 15
t
x

+ +

Example 39 Find
4
2
( 1) ( 1)
x dx
x x +
Solution We have
4
2
( 1) ( 1)
x
x x +
=
3 2
1
( 1)
1
x
x x x
+ +
+
=
2
1
( 1)
( 1) ( 1)
x
x x
+ +
+
... (1)
Now express
2
1
( 1)( 1) x x +
=
2
A B C
( 1) ( 1)
x
x x
+
+
+
... (2)
INTEGRALS 349
So 1 = A (x
2
+ 1) + (Bx + C) (x 1)
= (A + B) x
2
+ (C B) x + A C
Equating coefficients on both sides, we get A + B = 0, C B = 0 and A C = 1,
which give
1 1
A , B C
2 2
= = =
. Substituting values of A, B and C in (2), we get
2
1
( 1) ( 1) x x +
=
2 2
1 1 1
2( 1) 2 ( 1) 2( 1)
x
x x x

+ +
... (3)
Again, substituting (3) in (1), we have
4
2
( 1) ( 1)
x
x x x + +
=
2 2
1 1 1
( 1)
2( 1) 2 ( 1) 2( 1)
x
x
x x x
+ +
+ +
Therefore
4 2
2 1
2
1 1 1
log 1 log ( 1) tan C
2 2 4 2 ( 1) ( 1)
x x
dx x x x x
x x x
= + + + +
+ +
Example 40 Find
2
1
log (log )
(log )
x dx
x

+

Solution Let
2
1
I log (log )
(log )
x dx
x

= +

=
2
1
log (log )
(log )
x dx dx
x
+

In the first integral, let us take 1 as the second function. Then integrating it by
parts, we get
I =
2
1
log (log )
log (log )
dx
x x x dx
x x x
+

=
2
log (log )
log (log )
dx dx
x x
x x
+

... (1)
Again, consider
log
dx
x
, take 1 as the second function and integrate it by parts,

we have 2
1 1

log log (log )
dx x
x dx
x x x x

=

... (2)
350 MATHEMATICS
Putting (2) in (1), we get
2 2
I log (log )
log (log ) (log )
x dx dx
x x
x x x
= +

= log (log ) C
log
x
x x
x
+
Example 41 Find
cot tan x x dx

+

Solution We have
I =
cot tan x x dx

+

tan (1 cot ) x x dx = +
Put tan x = t
2
, so that sec
2
x dx = 2t dt
or dx =
4
2
1
t dt
t +
Then I =
2 4
1 2
1
(1 )
t
t dt
t t

+

+
=
2
2 2
4 2
2
2
1 1
1 1
( 1)
2 = 2 = 2
1
1
1
2
dt dt
t
t t
dt
t
t
t
t
t

+ +

+

+

+
+

Put
1
t
t
= y, so that
2
1
1
t

+

dt = dy. Then
I =
( )
1 1
2
2
1
2 2 tan C = 2 tan C
2 2
2
t
dy y t
y

= + +
+
=
2
1 1
1 tan 1
2 tan C = 2 tan C
2 2tan
t x
t x

+ +

Example 42 Find
4
sin 2 cos 2
9 cos (2 )
x x dx
x
Solution Let
4
sin 2 cos 2
I
9 cos 2
x x
dx
x
=
INTEGRALS 351
Put cos
2
(2x) = t so that 4 sin 2x cos 2x dx = dt
Therefore
1 1 2
2
1 1 1 1
I sin C sin cos 2 C
4 4 3 4 3
9
dt t
x
t

= = + = +

Example 43 Evaluate
3
2
1
sin( ) x x dx
Solution Here f (x) = | x sin x | =

sin for 1 1
3
sin for 1
2
x x x
x x x

Therefore
3
2
1
| sin | x x dx
=
3
1
2
1 1
sin sin x x dx x x dx
+

=
3
1
2
1 1
sin sin x x dx x x dx

Integrating both integrals on righthand side, we get
3
2
1
| sin | x x dx
=
3
1
2
2 2
1 1
cos sin cos sin x x x x x x

+ +

=
2 2
2 1 1 3 1
= +

Example 44 Evaluate
2 2 2 2
0
cos sin
x dx
a x b x
Solution Let I =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
( )
cos sin cos ( ) sin ( )
x dx x dx
a x b x a x b x

=
+ +

(using P
4
)
=
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
cos sin cos sin
dx x dx
a x b x a x b x

+ +

=
2 2 2 2
0
I
cos sin
dx
a x b x
Thus 2I =
2 2 2 2
0
cos sin
dx
a x b x
352 MATHEMATICS
or I =
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
2
2 2 cos sin cos sin
dx dx
a x b x a x b x

=
+ +

(using P
6
)
=
2
2
2 2 2
0
sec
tan
x dx
a b x
(dividing numerator and denominator by cos

2
x).
Put b tan x = t, so that b sec
2
x dx = dt. Also, when x = 0, t = 0, and when
2
x

=
,
t .
Therefore,
2
1
2 2
0
0
1
I tan 0
2 2
dt t
b b a a ab ab a t

= = = =

+
.
1.
3
1
x x
2.
1
x a x b + + +
3.
2
1
x ax x
[Hint: Put x =
a
t
]
4.
3
2 4
4
1
( 1) x x +
5.
1 1
3 2
1
x x +
[Hint:
1 1 1 1
3 2 3 6
1 1
1 x x x x
=

+ +

, put x = t
6
]
6.
2
5
( 1) ( 9)
x
x x + +
7.
sin
sin ( )
x
x a
8.
5 log 4 log
3 log 2 log
x x
x x
e e
e e
9.
2
cos
4 sin
x
x
10.
8 8
2 2
sin cos
1 2sin cos
x
x x
11.
1
cos ( ) cos ( ) x a x b + +
12.
3
8
1
x
x
13.
(1 ) (2 )
x
x x
e
e e + +
14.
2 2
1
( 1) ( 4) x x + +
15. cos
3
x e
log sinx
16. e
3 logx
(x
4
+ 1)
1
17. f (ax + b) [f (ax + b)]
n
18.
3
1
sin sin ( ) x x +
19.
1 1
1 1
sin cos
sin cos
x x
x x

+
, x [0, 1]
20.
1
1
x
x
+
21.
2 sin 2
1 cos 2
x
x
e
x
+
+
22.
2
2
1
( 1) ( 2)
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
INTEGRALS 353
23.
1
1
tan
1
x
x
+
24.
2 2
4
1 log ( 1) 2 log x x x
x

+ +

Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 25 to 33.
25.
2
1 sin
1 cos
x
x
e dx
x
26.
4
4 4
0
sin cos
cos sin
x x
dx
x x
27.
2
2
2 2
0
cos
cos 4 sin
x dx
x x
28.
3
6
sin cos
sin 2
x x
dx
x
29.
1
0
1
dx
x x +
30.
4
0
sin cos
9 16 sin 2
x x
dx
x
+
+
31.
1 2
0
sin 2 tan (sin ) x x dx
32.
0
tan
sec tan
x x
dx
x x
33.
4
1
[ 1| | 2| | 3|] x x x dx + +
Prove the following (Exercises 34 to 39)

34.
3
2
1
2 2
log
3 3 ( 1)
dx
x x
= +
+
35.
1
0
1
x
x e dx =
36.
1
17 4
1
cos 0 x x dx
37.
3
2
0
2
sin
3
x dx
38.
3 4
0
2 tan 1 log2 x dx
39.
1
1
0
sin 1
2
x dx
40. Evaluate
1
2 3
0
x
e dx
as a limit of a sum.
Choose the correct answers in Exercises 41 to 44.
41.
x x
dx
e e
is equal to
(A) tan
1
(e
x
) + C (B) tan
1
(e
x
) + C
(C) log (e
x
e
x
) + C (D) log (e
x
+ e
x
) + C
42.
2
cos 2
(sin cos )
x
dx
x x +
is equal to
(A)
1
C
sin cos x x
+
+
(B) log |sin cos | C x x + +
(C) log |sin cos | C x x + (D)
2
1
(sin cos ) x x +
354 MATHEMATICS
43. If f (a + b x) = f (x), then ( )
b
a
x f x dx
is equal to
(A) ( )
2
b
a
a b
f b x dx
+

(B) ( )
2
b
a
a b
f b x dx
+
+
(C) ( )
2
b
a
b a
f x dx
(D) ( )
2
b
a
a b
f x dx
+
44. The value of

1
1
2
0
2 1
tan
1
x
dx
x x
is
(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) 1 (D)
4
Summary
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. In the differential calculus,

we are given a function and we have to find the derivative or differential of
this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to find a function whose
differential is given. Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of
differentiation.
Let
F( ) ( )
d
x f x
dx
=
. Then we write ( ) F ( ) C f x dx x = +
. These integrals
are called indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of
integration. All these integrals differ by a constant.
From the geometric point of view, an indefinite integral is collection of family

of curves, each of which is obtained by translating one of the curves parallel
to itself upwards or downwards along the y-axis.
Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:

1.
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx + = +

2. For any real number k,
( ) ( ) k f x dx k f x dx =

More generally, if f
1
, f
2
, f
3
, ... , f
n
are functions and k
1
, k
2
, ... ,k
n
are real
numbers. Then
1 1 2 2
[ ( ) ( ) ... ( )]
n n
k f x k f x k f x dx + + +
=
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ... ( )
n n
k f x dx k f x dx k f x dx + + +

INTEGRALS 355
Some standard integrals

(i)
1
C
1
n
n
x
x dx
n
+
= +
+
, n 1. Particularly,
C dx x = +
(ii)
cos sin C x dx x = +
(iii)
sin cos C x dx x = +
(iv)
2
sec tan C x dx x = +
(v)
2
cosec cot C x dx x = +
(vi)
sec tan sec C x x dx x = +
(vii)
cosec cot cosec C x x dx x = +
(viii)
1
2
sin C
1
dx
x
x
= +
(ix)
1
2
cos C
1
dx
x
x
= +
(x)
1
2
tan C
1
dx
x
x
= +
+
(xi)
1
2
cot C
1
dx
x
x
= +
+
(xii) C
x x
e dx e = +
(xiii)
C
log
x
x
a
a dx
a
= +
(xiv)
1
2
sec C
1
dx
x
x x
= +
(xv)
1
2
cosec C
1
dx
x
x x
= +
(xvi)
1
log | | C dx x
x
= +
Integration by partial fractions

Recall that a rational function is ratio of two polynomials of the form
P( )
Q( )
x
x
,
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) 0. If degree of the
polynomial P (x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial Q(x), then we
may divide P (x) by Q(x) so that
1
P ( ) P( )
T ( )
Q( ) Q( )
x x
x
x x
= + , where T(x) is a
polynomial in x and degree of P
1
(x) is less than the degree of Q(x). T(x)
being polynomial can be easily integrated.
1
P ( )
Q( )
x
x
can be integrated by
356 MATHEMATICS
expressing
1
P ( )
Q( )
x
x
as the sum of partial fractions of the following type:
1.
( ) ( )
px q
x a x b
+

=
A B
x a x b
+

, a b
2. 2
( )
px q
x a
+
= 2
A B
( ) x a x a
+

3.
2
( ) ( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x b x c
+ +

=
A B C
x a x b x c
+ +

4.
2
2
( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x b
+ +

= 2
A B C
( ) x a x b x a
+ +

5.
2
2
( ) ( )
px qx r
x a x bx c
+ +
+ +
=
2
A B + C x
x a x bx c
+
+ +
where x
2
+ bx + c can not be factorised further.
Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the
fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves
some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the
integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard
integrals.
(i) tan log sec C x dx x = +
(ii) cot log sin C x dx x = +
(iii)
sec log sec tan C x dx x x = + +
(iv)
cosec log cosec cot C x dx x x = +
Integrals of some special functions

(i)
2 2
1
log C
2
dx x a
a x a x a
= +
+
(ii)
2 2
1
log C
2
dx a x
a a x a x
+
= +

(iii)
1
2 2
1
tan C
dx x
a a x a
= +
+
INTEGRALS 357
(iv)
2 2
2 2
log C
dx
x x a
x a
= + +
(v)
1
2 2
sin C
dx x
a
a x
= +
(vi)
2 2
2 2
log | | C
dx
x x a
x a
= + + +
+
Integration by parts
For given functions f
1
and f
2
, we have
1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
f x f x dx f x f x dx f x f x dx dx
dx

=

, i.e., the
integral of the product of two functions = first function integral of the
second function integral of {differential coefficient of the first function
integral of the second function}. Care must be taken in choosing the first
function and the second function. Obviously, we must take that function as
the second function whose integral is well known to us.
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) C
x x
e f x f x dx e f x dx + = +

Some special types of integrals

(i)
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
log C
2 2
x a
x a dx x a x x a = + +
(ii)
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
log C
2 2
x a
x a dx x a x x a + = + + + + +
(iii)
2
2 2 2 2 1
sin C
2 2
x a x
a x dx a x
a
= + +
(iv) Integrals of the types

2
2
or
dx dx
ax bx c
ax bx c
+ +
+ +

can be
transformed into standard form by expressing
ax
2
+ bx + c =
2
2
2
2
2 4
b c b c b
a x x a x
a a a a a

+ + = + +

(v) Integrals of the types 2
2
or
px q dx px q dx
ax bx c
ax bx c
+ +
+ +
+ +
can be
358 MATHEMATICS
transformed into standard form by expressing
2
A ( ) B A(2 ) B
d
px q ax bx c ax b
dx
+ = + + + = + + , where A and B are
determined by comparing coefficients on both sides.
We have defined ( )
b
a
f x dx
as the area of the region bounded by the curve

y = f (x), a x b, the x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a
given point in [a, b]. Then ( )
x
a
f x dx
represents the Area function A(x).

This concept of area function leads to the Fundamental Theorems of Integral
Calculus.
First fundamental theorem of integral calculus

Let the area function be defined by A(x) = ( )
x
a
f x dx
for all x a, where

the function f is assumed to be continuous on [a, b]. Then A (x) = f (x) for all
x [a, b].
Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus

Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and
let F be another function such that
F( ) ( )
d
x f x
dx
=
for all x in the domain of
f, then [ ] ( ) F( ) C F ( ) F ( )
b
b
a
a
f x dx x b a = + =
.
This is called the definite integral of f over the range [a, b], where a and b
are called the limits of integration, a being the lower limit and b the
upper limit.
APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 359

Fig 8.1
One should study Mathematics because it is only through Mathematics that
nature can be conceived in harmonious form. BIRKHOFF
8.1 Introduction
In geometry, we have learnt formulae to calculate areas
of various geometrical figures including triangles,
rectangles, trapezias and circles. Such formulae are
fundamental in the applications of mathematics to many
real life problems. The formulae of elementary geometry
allow us to calculate areas of many simple figures.
However, they are inadequate for calculating the areas
enclosed by curves. For that we shall need some concepts
of Integral Calculus.
In the previous chapter, we have studied to find the
area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the ordinates x = a,
x = b and x-axis, while calculating definite integral as the
limit of a sum. Here, in this chapter, we shall study a specific
application of integrals to find the area under simple curves,
area between lines and arcs of circles, parabolas and
ellipses (standard forms only). We shall also deal with finding
the area bounded by the above said curves.
8.2 Area under Simple Curves
In the previous chapter, we have studied
definite integral as the limit of a sum and
how to evaluate definite integral using
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Now,
we consider the easy and intuitive way of
finding the area bounded by the curve
y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and
x = b. From Fig 8.1, we can think of area
under the curve as composed of large
number of very thin vertical strips. Consider
an arbitrary strip of height y and width dx,
then dA (area of the elementary strip) = ydx,
where, y = f (x).
Chapter 8
APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
A.L. Cauchy
(1789-1857)
360 MATHEMATICS
Fig 8.2
This area is called the elementary area which is located at an arbitrary position
within the region which is specified by some value of x between a and b. We can think
of the total area A of the region between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b and the curve
y = f (x) as the result of adding up the elementary areas of thin strips across the region
PQRSP. Symbolically, we express
A =
A ( )
b b b
a a a
d ydx f x dx = =

The area A of the region bounded by
the curve x = g (y), y-axis and the lines y = c,
y = d is given by
A =
( )
d d
c c
xdy g y dy =

Here, we consider horizontal strips as shown in
the Fig 8.2
Remark If the position of the curve under consideration is below the x-axis, then since
f (x) < 0 from x = a to x = b, as shown in Fig 8.3, the area bounded by the curve, x-axis
and the ordinates x = a, x = b come out to be negative. But, it is only the numerical
value of the area which is taken into consideration. Thus, if the area is negative, we
take its absolute value, i.e., ( )
b
a
f x dx
.
Fig 8.3
Generally, it may happen that some portion of the curve is above x-axis and some is
below the x-axis as shown in the Fig 8.4. Here, A
1
< 0 and A
2
> 0. Therefore, the area
A bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given
by A = | A
1
| + A
2
.
Example 1 Find the area enclosed by the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
.
Solution From Fig 8.5, the whole area enclosed
by the given circle
= 4 (area of the region AOBA bounded by
the curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = 0 and
x = a) [as the circle is symmetrical about both
x-axis and y-axis]
=
0
4
a
ydx
(taking vertical strips)

=
2 2
0
4
a
a x dx
Since x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
gives y =
2 2
a x
As the region AOBA lies in the first quadrant, y is taken as positive. Integrating, we get
the whole area enclosed by the given circle
=
2
2 2 1
0
4 sin
2 2
a
x a x
a x
a

+

=
2
1
4 0 sin 1 0
2 2
a a

+

=
2
2
4
2 2
a
a

=

Fig 8.5
Fig 8.4
362 MATHEMATICS
Alternatively, considering horizontal strips as shown in Fig 8.6, the whole area of the
region enclosed by circle
=
0
4
a
xdy
=
2 2
0
4
a
a y dy
(Why?)
=
2
2 2 1
0
4 sin
2 2
a
a y y
a y
a

+

=
2
1
4 0 sin 1 0
2 2
a a

+

=
2
2
4
2 2
a
a
=
Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
Solution From Fig 8.7, the area of the region ABABA bounded by the ellipse
=
in
4
, 0,
area of theregion AOBA the first quadrant bounded
bythecurve x axis and theordinates x x a

= =

(as the ellipse is symmetrical about both x-axis and y-axis)
=
0
4 (taking verticalstrips)
a
ydx
Now
2 2
2 2
x y
a b
+
= 1 gives
2 2
b
y a x
a
=
, but as the region AOBA lies in the first
quadrant, y is taken as positive. So, the required area is
=
2 2
0
4
a b
a x dx
a

=
2
2 2 1
0
4
sin
2 2
a
b x a x
a x
a a

+

(Why?)
=
2
1
4
0 sin 1 0
2 2
b a a
a

+

=
2
4
2 2
b a
ab
a
=
Fig 8.6
Fig 8.7
Alternatively, considering horizontal strips as
shown in the Fig 8.8, the area of the ellipse is
=
0
4
b
xdy =
2 2
0
4
b
a
b y dy
b
(Why?)
=
2
2 2 1
0
4
sin
2 2
b
a y b y
b y
b b

+

=
2
1
4
0 sin 1 0
2 2
a b b
b

+

=
2
4
2 2
a b
ab
b
=
8.2.1 The area of the region bounded by a curve and a line
In this subsection, we will find the area of the region bounded by a line and a circle,
a line and a parabola, a line and an ellipse. Equations of above mentioned curves will be
in their standard forms only as the cases in other forms go beyond the scope of this
textbook.
Example 3 Find the area of the region bounded
by the curve y = x
2
and the line y = 4.
Solution Since the given curve represented by
the equation y = x
2
is a parabola symmetrical
about y-axis only, therefore, from Fig 8.9, the
required area of the region AOBA is given by
4
0
2 xdy
=
area of theregion BONBboundedbycurve, axis
2
and thelines 0and =4
y
y y

=

=
4
0
2 ydy
=
4
3
2
0
2
2
3
y

4 32
8
3 3
= =
(Why?)
Here, we have taken horizontal strips as indicated in the Fig 8.9.
Fig 8.8
Fig 8.9
364 MATHEMATICS
Alternatively, we may consider the vertical
strips like PQ as shown in the Fig 8.10 to
obtain the area of the region AOBA. To this
end, we solve the equations x
2
= y and y = 4
which gives x = 2 and x = 2.
Thus, the region AOBA may be stated as
the region bounded by the curve y = x
2
, y = 4
and the ordinates x = 2 and x = 2.
Therefore, the area of the region AOBA
=
2
2
ydx
[ y = ( y-coordinate of Q) (y-coordinate of P) = 4 x
2
]
= ( )
2
2
0
2 4 x dx
(Why?)
=
2
3
0
2 4
3
x
x

8
2 4 2
3

=

32
3
=
Remark From the above examples, it is inferred that we can consider either vertical
strips or horizontal strips for calculating the area of the region. Henceforth, we shall
consider either of these two, most preferably vertical strips.
Example 4 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the x-axis,
the line y = x, and the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 32.
Solution The given equations are
y = x ... (1)
and x
2
+ y
2
= 32 ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we find that the line
and the circle meet at B(4, 4) in the first
quadrant (Fig 8.11). Draw perpendicular
BM to the x-axis.
Therefore, the required area = area of
the region OBMO + area of the region
BMAB.
Now, the area of the region OBMO
=
4 4
0 0
ydx xdx =

... (3)
=
4
2
0
1
2
x

= 8
Fig 8.10
Fig 8.11
Y
O
A
y x =
Y'
B
M
(4 4) ,
X X'
(4 2 0) ,
O
F ( o) ae,
B
Y
Y
B'
S
R
X X
x ae =
Again, the area of the region BMAB
=
4 2
4
ydx
=
4 2
2
4
32 x dx
=
4 2
2 1
4
1 1
32 32 sin
2 2 4 2
x
x x

+

=
1 1
1 1 4 1 1
4 2 0 32 sin 1 32 16 32 sin
2 2 2 2 2

+ +

= 8 (8 + 4) = 4 8 ... (4)
Adding (3) and (4), we get, the required area = 4.
Example 5 Find the area bounded by the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
and the ordinates x = 0
and x = ae, where, b
2
= a
2
(1 e
2
) and e < 1.
Solution The required area (Fig 8.12) of the region BOBRFSB is enclosed by the
ellipse and the lines x = 0 and x = ae.
Note that the area of the region BOBRFSB
=
0
2
ae
ydx
=
2 2
0
2
ae b
a x dx
a

=
2
2 2 1
0
2
sin
2 2
ae
b x a x
a x
a a

+

=
2 2 2 2 1
2
sin
2
b
ae a a e a e
a

+

=
2 1
1 sin ab e e e

+

EXERCISE 8.1
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y
2
= x and the lines x = 1,
x = 4 and the x-axis.
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y
2
= 9x, x = 2, x = 4 and the x-axis in the
first quadrant.
Fig 8.12
366 MATHEMATICS
3. Find the area of the region bounded by x
2
= 4y, y = 2, y = 4 and the y-axis in the
first quadrant.
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse
2 2
1
16 9
x y
+ = .
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse
2 2
1
4 9
x y
+ = .
6. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by x-axis, line x =
3
y
and the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 4.
7. Find the area of the smaller part of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
cut off by the line
2
a
x= .
8. The area between x = y
2
and x = 4 is divided into two equal parts by the line
x = a, find the value of a.
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x
2
and y = x .
10. Find the area bounded by the curve x
2
= 4y and the line x = 4y 2.
11. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y
2
= 4x and the line x = 3.
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises 12 and 13.
12. Area lying in the first quadrant and bounded by the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 4 and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2 is
(A) (B)
2
(C)
3
(D)
4
13. Area of the region bounded by the curve y

2
= 4x, y-axis and the line y = 3 is
(A) 2 (B)
9
4
(C)
9
3
(D)
9
2
8.3 Area between Two Curves
Intuitively, true in the sense of Leibnitz, integration is the act of calculating the area by
cutting the region into a large number of small strips of elementary area and then
adding up these elementary areas. Suppose we are given two curves represented by
y = f (x), y = g (x), where f (x) g(x) in [a, b] as shown in Fig 8.13. Here the points of
intersection of these two curves are given by x = a and x = b obtained by taking
common values of y from the given equation of two curves.
For setting up a formula for the integral, it is convenient to take elementary area in
the form of vertical strips. As indicated in the Fig 8.13, elementary strip has height
y f x = ( )
X
Y
y g x = ( )
x a =
x c =
y g x = ( )
y f x = ( )
x b =
A
B R
C
D
Q
O
P
X
Y
f (x) g(x) and width dx so that the elementary area
Fig 8.13
Fig 8.14
dA = [f (x) g(x)] dx, and the total area A can be taken as
A = [ ( ) ( )]
b
a
f x g x dx
Alternatively,
A = [area bounded by y = f (x), x-axis and the lines x = a, x = b]
[area bounded by y = g (x), x-axis and the lines x = a, x = b]
=
( ) ( )
b b
a a
f x dx g x dx

= [ ] ( ) ( ) ,
b
a
f x g x dx
where f (x) g (x) in [a, b]

If f (x) g (x) in [a, c] and f (x) g (x) in [c, b], where a < c < b as shown in the
Fig 8.14, then the area of the regions bounded by curves can be written as
Total Area = Area of the region ACBDA + Area of the region BPRQB
= [ ] [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c b
a c
f x g x dx g x f x dx +

368 MATHEMATICS
Y
O
P (4, 4)
C (4, 0)
Y
X X
Q (8, 0)
Fig 8.16
Example 6 Find the area of the region bounded by the two parabolas y = x
2
and y
2
= x.
Solution The point of intersection of these two
parabolas are O (0, 0) and A (1, 1) as shown in
the Fig 8.15.
Here, we can set y
2
= x or y =
x
= f(x) and y = x
2
= g(x), where, f (x) g (x) in [0, 1].
Therefore, the required area of the shaded region
= [ ]
1
0
( ) ( ) f x g x dx
=
1
2
0
x x dx

1
3 3
2
0
2
3 3
x
x

=

=
2 1 1
3 3 3
=
Example 7 Find the area lying above x-axis and included between the circle
x
2
+ y
2
= 8x and the parabola y
2
= 4x.
Solution The given equation of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 8x can be expressed as
(x 4)
2
+ y
2
= 16. Thus, the centre of the
circle is (4, 0) and radius is 4. Its intersection
with the parabola y
2
= 4x gives
x
2
+ 4x = 8x
or x
2
4x = 0
or x (x 4) = 0
or x = 0, x = 4
Thus, the points of intersection of these
two curves are O(0, 0) and P(4,4) above the
x-axis.
From the Fig 8.16, the required area of
the region OPQCO included between these
two curves above x-axis is
= (area of the region OCPO) + (area of the region PCQP)
=
4 8
0 4
ydx ydx +

=
4 8
2 2
0 4
2 4 ( 4) x dx x dx +

(Why?)
Fig 8.15
=
4
3 4
2 2
2
0
0
2
2 4 , where, 4
3
x t dt x t

+ =

(Why?)
=
4
2 2 2 1
0
32 1
4 4 sin
3 2 2 4
t t
t

+ +

=
2 1
32 4 1
0 4 sin 1
3 2 2

+ +

32 32
0 8 4
3 2 3

= + + = +

=
4
(8 3 )
3
+
Example 8 In Fig 8.17, AOBA is the part of the ellipse 9x
2
+ y
2
= 36 in the first
quadrant such that OA = 2 and OB = 6. Find the area between the arc AB and the
chord AB.
Solution Given equation of the ellipse 9x
2
+ y
2
= 36 can be expressed as
2 2
1
4 36
x y
+ = or
2 2
2 2
1
2 6
x y
+ = and hence, its shape is as given in Fig 8.17.
Accordingly, the equation of the chord AB is
y 0 =
6 0
( 2)
0 2
x
or y = 3(x 2)
or y = 3x + 6
Area of the shaded region as shown in the Fig 8.17.
=
2 2
2
0 0
3 4 (6 3 ) x dx x dx

(Why?)
=
2
2
2
2 1
0
0
4 3
3 4 sin 6
2 2 2 2
x x x
x x

+

=
1
2 12
3 0 2sin (1) 12
2 2

+

3 2 6
2
= = 3 6
Fig 8.17
370 MATHEMATICS
Example 9 Using integration find the area of region bounded by the triangle whose
vertices are (1, 0), (2, 2) and (3, 1).
Solution Let A(1, 0), B(2, 2) and C(3, 1) be
the vertices of a triangle ABC (Fig 8.18).
Area of ABC
= Area of ABD + Area of trapezium
BDEC Area of AEC
Now equation of the sides AB, BC and
CA are given by
y = 2 (x 1), y = 4 x, y =
1
2
(x 1), respectively.
Hence, area of ABC =
2 3 3
1 2 1
1
2 ( 1) (4 )
2
x
x dx x dx dx
+

=
2 3 3
2 2 2
1 2 1
1
2 4
2 2 2 2
x x x
x x x

+

=
2 2 2
2 1 3 2
2 2 1 4 3 4 2
2 2 2 2

+

2
1 3 1
3 1
2 2 2

=
3
2
Example 10 Find the area of the region enclosed between the two circles: x
2
+ y
2
= 4
and (x 2)
2
+ y
2
= 4.
Solution Equations of the given circles are
x
2
+ y
2
= 4 ... (1)
and (x 2)
2
+ y
2
= 4 ... (2)
Equation (1) is a circle with centre O at the
origin and radius 2. Equation (2) is a circle with
centre C (2, 0) and radius 2. Solving equations
(1) and (2), we have
(x 2)
2
+ y
2
= x
2
+ y
2
or x
2
4x + 4 + y
2
= x
2
+ y
2
or x = 1 which gives y = 3
Thus, the points of intersection of the given
circles are A(1,
3
) and A(1, 3 ) as shown in
the Fig 8.19.
Fig 8.18
Fig 8.19
Required area of the enclosed region OACAO between circles
= 2 [area of the region ODCAO] (Why?)
= 2 [area of the region ODAO + area of the region DCAD]
=
1 2
0 1
2 y dx y dx

+

=
1 2
2 2
0 1
2 4 ( 2) 4 x dx x dx

+

(Why?)
=
1
2 1
0
1 1 2
2 ( 2) 4 ( 2) 4sin
2 2 2
x
x x

+

+
2
2 1
1
1 1
2 4 4sin
2 2 2
x
x x

+

=
1 2
2 1 2 1
1 0
2
( 2) 4 ( 2) 4sin 4 4sin
2 2
x x
x x x x

+ + +

=
1 1 1 1
1 1
3 4sin 4sin ( 1) 4sin 1 3 4sin
2 2

+ +

= 3 4 4 4 3 4
6 2 2 6

+ +

=
2 2
3 2 2 3
3 3

+ +

=
8
2 3
3

EXERCISE 8.2
1. Find the area of the circle 4x
2
+ 4y
2
= 9 which is interior to the parabola x
2
= 4y.
2. Find the area bounded by curves (x

1)
2
+ y
2
= 1 and x
2
+ y
2
= 1.
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = x
2
+ 2, y = x, x = 0 and
x = 3.
4. Using integration find the area of region bounded by the triangle whose vertices
are ( 1, 0), (1, 3) and (3, 2).
5. Using integration find the area of the triangular region whose sides have the
equations y = 2x + 1, y = 3x + 1 and x = 4.
372 MATHEMATICS
Choose the correct answer in the following exercises 6 and 7.
6. Smaller area enclosed by the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 4 and the line x + y = 2 is
(A) 2 ( 2) (B) 2 (C) 2 1 (D) 2 ( + 2)
7. Area lying between the curves y
2
= 4x and y = 2x is
(A)
2
3
(B)
1
3
(C)
1
4
(D)
3
4
Example 11 Find the area of the parabola y
2
= 4ax bounded by its latus rectum.
Solution From Fig 8.20, the vertex of the parabola
y
2
= 4ax is at origin (0, 0). The equation of the
latus rectum LSL is x = a. Also, parabola is
symmetrical about the x-axis.
The required area of the region OLLO
= 2 (area of the region OLSO)
=
0
2
a
ydx
=
0
2 4
a
ax dx
=
0
2 2
a
a xdx

=
3
2
0
2
4
3
a
a x

=
3
2
8
3
a a

=
2
8
3
a
Example 12 Find the area of the region bounded
by the line y = 3x + 2, the x-axis and the ordinates
x = 1 and x = 1.
Solution As shown in the Fig 8.21, the line
y = 3x + 2 meets x-axis at x =
2
3
and its graph

lies below x-axis for
2
1,
3
x

and above
x-axis for
2
, 1
3
x

.
Fig 8.21
X
O
Y
X
Y
S
L
L'
( , 0) a
Fig 8.20
Fig 8.23
The required area = Area of the region ACBA + Area of the region ADEA
=
2
1
3
2
1
3
(3 2) (3 2) x dx x dx
+ + +

=
2
1
2 2
3
2
1
3
3 3
2 2
2 2
x x
x x

+ + +

=
1 25 13
6 6 3
+ =
Example 13 Find the area bounded by
the curve y = cos x between x = 0 and
x = 2.
Solution From the Fig 8.22, the required
area = area of the region OABO + area
of the region BCDB + area of the region
DEFD.
Thus, we have the required area
=
3
2
2 2
3
0
2 2
cos cos cos xdx xdx xdx + +

= [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
3
2
2 2
3
0
2 2
sin sin sin x x x

+ +
= 1 + 2 + 1 = 4
Example 13 Prove that the curves y
2
= 4x and x
2
= 4y
divide the area of the square bounded by x = 0, x = 4,
y = 4 and y = 0 into three equal parts.
Solution Note that the point of intersection of the
parabolas y
2
= 4x and x
2
= 4y are (0, 0) and (4, 4) as
Fig 8.22
374 MATHEMATICS
Y'
R
O
X X'
x = 2
T S
P (0,1) x = 1
Y
Q(1, 2)
shown in the Fig 8.23.
Now, the area of the region OAQBO bounded by curves y
2
= 4x and x
2
= 4y.
=
2
4
0
2
4
x
x dx

=
4
3 3
2
0
2
2
3 12
x
x

=
32 16 16
3 3 3
=
... (1)
Again, the area of the region OPQAO bounded by the curves x
2
= 4y, x = 0, x = 4
and x-axis
=
2
4 4
3
0 0
1 16
4 12 3
x
dx x

= =

... (2)
Similarly, the area of the region OBQRO bounded by the curve y
2
= 4x, y-axis,
y = 0 and y = 4
=
2
4 4 4
3
0 0 0
1 16
4 12 3
y
xdy dy y

= = =

... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3), it is concluded that the area of the region OAQBO = area of
the region OPQAO = area of the region OBQRO, i.e., area bounded by parabolas
y
2
= 4x and x
2
= 4y divides the area of the square in three equal parts.
Example 14 Find the area of the region
{(x, y) : 0 y x
2
+ 1, 0 y x + 1, 0 x 2}
Solution Let us first sketch the region whose area is to
be found out. This region is the intersection of the
following regions.
A
1
= {(x, y) : 0 y x
2
+ 1},
A
2
= {(x, y) : 0 y x + 1}
and A
3
= {(x, y) : 0 x 2}
The points of intersection of y = x
2
+ 1 and y = x + 1 are points P(0, 1) and Q(1, 2).
From the Fig 8.24, the required region is the shaded region OPQRSTO whose area
= area of the region OTQPO + area of the region TSRQT
=
1 2
2
0 1
( 1) ( 1) x dx x dx + + +

(Why?)
Fig 8.24
=
1 2
3 2
1 0
3 2
x x
x x

+ + +

=
( )
1 1
1 0 2 2 1
3 2

+ + + +

=
23
6
1. Find the area under the given curves and given lines:
(i) y = x
2
, x = 1, x = 2 and x-axis
(ii) y = x
4
, x = 1, x = 5 and x-axis
2. Find the area between the curves y = x and y = x
2
.
3. Find the area of the region lying in the first quadrant and bounded by y = 4x
2
,
x = 0, y = 1 and y = 4.
4. Sketch the graph of y = 3 x + and evaluate
0
6
3
x dx .
5. Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = 2.
6. Find the area enclosed between the parabola y
2
= 4ax and the line y = mx.
7. Find the area enclosed by the parabola 4y = 3x
2
and the line 2y = 3x + 12.
8. Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the ellipse
2 2
1
9 4
x y
+ = and the
line
1
3 2
x y
+ = .
9. Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
and the
line
1
x y
a b
+ = .
10. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola x
2
= y, the line y = x + 2 and
the x-axis.
11. Using the method of integration find the area bounded by the curve 1 x y + = .
[Hint: The required region is bounded by lines x + y = 1, x y = 1, x + y = 1 and
x y = 1].
376 MATHEMATICS
12. Find the area bounded by curves {(x, y) : y x
2
and y = | x|}.
13. Using the method of integration find the area of the triangle ABC, coordinates of
whose vertices are A(2, 0), B (4, 5) and C (6, 3).
14. Using the method of integration find the area of the region bounded by lines:
2x + y = 4, 3x 2y = 6 and x 3y + 5 = 0
15. Find the area of the region {(x, y) : y
2
4x, 4x
2
+ 4y
2
9}
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises from 16 to 20.
16. Area bounded by the curve y = x
3
, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 2 and x = 1 is
(A) 9 (B)
15
4
(C)
15
4
(D)
17
4
17. The area bounded by the curve y = x | x | , x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and
x = 1 is given by
(A) 0 (B)
1
3
(C)
2
3
(D)
4
3
[Hint : y = x
2
if x > 0 and y = x
2
if x < 0].
18. The area of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 16 exterior to the parabola y
2
= 6x is
(A)
4
(4 3)
3

(B)
4
(4 3)
3
+
(C)
4
(8 3)
3

(D)
4
(8 3)
3
+
19. The area bounded by the y-axis, y = cos x and y = sin x when
0
2
x

is
(A) 2 ( 2 1) (B)
2 1
(C)
2 1 +
(D)
2
Summary
The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the lines
x = a and x = b (b > a) is given by the formula: Area ( )
b b
a a
ydx f x dx = =

.
The area of the region bounded by the curve x = (y), y-axis and the lines
y = c, y = d is given by the formula: Area ( )
d d
c c
xdy y dy = =

.
The area of the region enclosed between two curves y = f (x), y = g (x) and
the lines x = a, x = b is given by the formula,
[ ] Area ( ) ( )
b
a
f x g x dx =
, where, f (x) g (x) in [a, b]
If f (x) g (x) in [a, c] and f (x) g (x) in [c, b], a < c < b, then
[ ] [ ] Area ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c b
a c
f x g x dx g x f x dx = +

.
Historical Note
The origin of the Integral Calculus goes back to the early period of development
of Mathematics and it is related to the method of exhaustion developed by the
mathematicians of ancient Greece. This method arose in the solution of problems
on calculating areas of plane figures, surface areas and volumes of solid bodies
etc. In this sense, the method of exhaustion can be regarded as an early method
of integration. The greatest development of method of exhaustion in the early
period was obtained in the works of Eudoxus (440 B.C.) and Archimedes
(300 B.C.)
Systematic approach to the theory of Calculus began in the 17th century.
In 1665, Newton began his work on the Calculus described by him as the theory
of fluxions and used his theory in finding the tangent and radius of curvature at
any point on a curve. Newton introduced the basic notion of inverse function
called the anti derivative (indefinite integral) or the inverse method of tangents.
During 1684-86, Leibnitz published an article in the Acta Eruditorum
which he called Calculas summatorius, since it was connected with the summation
of a number of infinitely small areas, whose sum, he indicated by the symbol .
In 1696, he followed a suggestion made by J. Bernoulli and changed this article to
Calculus integrali. This corresponded to Newtons inverse method of tangents.
Both Newton and Leibnitz adopted quite independent lines of approach which
was radically different. However, respective theories accomplished results that
were practically identical. Leibnitz used the notion of definite integral and what is
quite certain is that he first clearly appreciated tie up between the antiderivative
and the definite integral.
Conclusively, the fundamental concepts and theory of Integral Calculus
and primarily its relationships with Differential Calculus were developed in the
work of P.de Fermat, I. Newton and G. Leibnitz at the end of 17th century.
378 MATHEMATICS
However, this justification by the concept of limit was only developed in the
works of A.L. Cauchy in the early 19th century. Lastly, it is worth mentioning the
following quotation by Lie Sophies:
It may be said that the conceptions of differential quotient and integral which
in their origin certainly go back to Archimedes were introduced in Science by the
investigations of Kepler, Descartes, Cavalieri, Fermat and Wallis .... The discovery
that differentiation and integration are inverse operations belongs to Newton
and Leibnitz.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 379
He who seeks for methods without having a definite problem in mind
seeks for the most part in vain. D. HILBERT
9.1 Introduction
In Class XI and in Chapter 5 of the present book, we
discussed how to differentiate a given function f with respect
to an independent variable, i.e., how to find f (x) for a given
function f at each x in its domain of definition. Further, in
the chapter on Integral Calculus, we discussed how to find
a function f whose derivative is the function g, which may
also be formulated as follows:
For a given function g, find a function f such that
dy
dx
= g(x), where y = f (x) ... (1)
An equation of the form (1) is known as a differential
equation. A formal definition will be given later.
These equations arise in a variety of applications, may it be in Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Anthropology, Geology, Economics etc. Hence, an indepth study of differential
equations has assumed prime importance in all modern scientific investigations.
In this chapter, we will study some basic concepts related to differential equation,
general and particular solutions of a differential equation, formation of differential
equations, some methods to solve a first order - first degree differential equation and
some applications of differential equations in different areas.
9.2 Basic Concepts
We are already familiar with the equations of the type:
x
2
3x + 3 = 0 ... (1)
sin x + cos x = 0 ... (2)
x + y = 7 ... (3)
Chapter 9
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Henri Poincare
(1854-1912 )
MATHEMATICS 380
Let us consider the equation:
dy
x y
dx
+
= 0 ... (4)
We see that equations (1), (2) and (3) involve independent and/or dependent variable
(variables) only but equation (4) involves variables as well as derivative of the dependent
variable y with respect to the independent variable x. Such an equation is called a
differential equation.
In general, an equation involving derivative (derivatives) of the dependent variable
with respect to independent variable (variables) is called a differential equation.
A differential equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect
to only one independent variable is called an ordinary differential equation, e.g.,
3
2
2
2
d y dy
dx dx

+

= 0 is an ordinary differential equation .... (5)
Of course, there are differential equations involving derivatives with respect to
more than one independent variables, called partial differential equations but at this
stage we shall confine ourselves to the study of ordinary differential equations only.
Now onward, we will use the term differential equation for ordinary differential
equation.
$
Note
1. We shall prefer to use the following notations for derivatives:
2 3
2 3
, ,
dy d y d y
y y y
dx dx dx
= = =
2. For derivatives of higher order, it will be inconvenient to use so many dashes
as supersuffix therefore, we use the notation y
n
for nth order derivative
n
n
d y
dx
.
9.2.1. Order of a differential equation
Order of a differential equation is defined as the order of the highest order derivative of
the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable involved in the given
differential equation.
Consider the following differential equations:
dy
dx
= e
x
... (6)
2
2
d y
y
dx
+ = 0 ... (7)
3
3 2
2
3 2
d y d y
x
dx dx

+

= 0 ... (8)
The equations (6), (7) and (8) involve the highest derivative of first, second and
third order respectively. Therefore, the order of these equations are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
9.2.2 Degree of a differential equation
To study the degree of a differential equation, the key point is that the differential
equation must be a polynomial equation in derivatives, i.e., y, y, y etc. Consider the
following differential equations:
2
3 2
3 2
2
d y d y dy
y
dx dx dx

+ +

= 0 ... (9)
2
2
sin
dy dy
y
dx dx

+

= 0 ... (10)
sin
dy dy
dx dx

+

= 0 ... (11)
We observe that equation (9) is a polynomial equation in y, y and y, equation (10)
is a polynomial equation in y (not a polynomial in y though). Degree of such differential
equations can be defined. But equation (11) is not a polynomial equation in y and
degree of such a differential equation can not be defined.
By the degree of a differential equation, when it is a polynomial equation in
derivatives, we mean the highest power (positive integral index) of the highest order
derivative involved in the given differential equation.
In view of the above definition, one may observe that differential equations (6), (7),
(8) and (9) each are of degree one, equation (10) is of degree two while the degree of
differential equation (11) is not defined.
$
Note Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always
positive integers.
MATHEMATICS 382
Example 1 Find the order and degree, if defined, of each of the following differential
equations:
(i)
cos 0
dy
x
dx
=
(ii)
2
2
2
0
d y dy dy
xy x y
dx dx dx

+ =

(iii)
2
0
y
y y e

+ + =
Solution
(i) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is
dy
dx
, so its
order is one. It is a polynomial equation in y and the highest power raised to
dy
dx
is one, so its degree is one.
(ii) The highest order derivative present in the given differential equation is
2
2
d y
dx
, so
its order is two. It is a polynomial equation in
2
2
d y
dx
and
dy
dx
and the highest
power raised to
2
2
d y
dx
is one, so its degree is one.
(iii) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is y , so its
order is three. The given differential equation is not a polynomial equation in its
derivatives and so its degree is not defined.
EXERCISE 9.1
Determine order and degree (if defined) of differential equations given in Exercises
1 to 10.
1.
4
4
sin( ) 0
d y
y
dx
+ =
2. y + 5y = 0 3.
4
2
2
3 0
ds d s
s
dt dt

+ =

4.
2
2
2
cos 0
d y dy
dx dx

+ =

5.
2
2
cos3 sin3
d y
x x
dx
= +
6.
2
( ) y
+ (y)
3
+ (y)
4
+ y
5
= 0 7. y + 2y + y = 0
8. y + y = e
x
9. y + (y)
2
+ 2y = 0 10. y + 2y + sin y = 0
11. The degree of the differential equation
3
2
2
2
sin 1 0
d y dy dy
dx dx dx

+ + + =

is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) not defined
12. The order of the differential equation
2
2
2
2 3 0
d y dy
x y
dx dx
+ = is
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) not defined
9.3. General and Particular Solutions of a Differential Equation
In earlier Classes, we have solved the equations of the type:
x
2
+ 1 = 0 ... (1)
sin
2
x cos x = 0 ... (2)
Solution of equations (1) and (2) are numbers, real or complex, that will satisfy the
given equation i.e., when that number is substituted for the unknown x in the given
equation, L.H.S. becomes equal to the R.H.S..
Now consider the differential equation
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
+ = ... (3)
In contrast to the first two equations, the solution of this differential equation is a
function that will satisfy it i.e., when the function is substituted for the unknown y
(dependent variable) in the given differential equation, L.H.S. becomes equal to R.H.S..
The curve y = (x) is called the solution curve (integral curve) of the given
differential equation. Consider the function given by
y = (x) = a sin (x + b), ... (4)
where a, b R. When this function and its derivative are substituted in equation (3),
L.H.S. = R.H.S.. So it is a solution of the differential equation (3).
Let a and b be given some particular values say a = 2 and
4
b

= , then we get a
function y =
1
(x) = 2sin
4
x

+

... (5)
When this function and its derivative are substituted in equation (3) again
L.H.S. = R.H.S.. Therefore
1
is also a solution of equation (3).
MATHEMATICS 384
Function consists of two arbitrary constants (parameters) a, b and it is called
general solution of the given differential equation. Whereas function
1
contains no
arbitrary constants but only the particular values of the parameters a and b and hence
is called a particular solution of the given differential equation.
The solution which contains arbitrary constants is called the general solution
(primitive) of the differential equation.
The solution free from arbitrary constants i.e., the solution obtained from the general
solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants is called a particular
solution of the differential equation.
Example 2 Verify that the function y = e
3x
is a solution of the differential equation
2
2
6 0
d y dy
y
dx dx
+ =
Solution Given function is y = e
3x
. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect
to x , we get
3
3
x
dy
e
dx
= ... (1)
Now, differentiating (1) with respect to x, we have
2
2
d y
dx
= 9 e
3x
Substituting the values of
2
2
,
d y dy
dx dx
and y in the given differential equation, we get
L.H.S. = 9 e
3x
+ (3e
3x
) 6.e
3x
= 9 e
3x
9 e
3x
= 0 = R.H.S..
Therefore, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
Example 3 Verify that the function y = a cos x + b sin x, where, a, b R is a solution
of the differential equation
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
+ =
Solution The given function is
y = a cos x + b sin x ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, successively, we get
dy
dx
= a sinx + b cosx
2
2
d y
dx
= a cos x b sinx
2
2
d y
dx
L.H.S. = ( a cos x b sin x) + (a cos x + b sin x) = 0 = R.H.S..
Therefore, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
EXERCISE 9.2
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10 verify that the given functions (explicit or implicit) is a
solution of the corresponding differential equation:
1. y = e
x
+ 1 : y y = 0
2. y = x
2
+ 2x + C : y 2x 2 = 0
3. y = cos x + C : y + sin x = 0
4. y =
2
1 x +
: y =
2
1
xy
x +
5. y = Ax : xy = y (x 0)
6. y = x sin x : xy = y + x
2 2
x y (x 0 and x > y or x < y)
7. xy = log y + C : y =
2
1
y
xy
(xy 1)
8. y cos y = x : (y sin y + cos y + x) y = y
9. x + y = tan
1
y : y
2
y + y
2
+ 1 = 0
10. y =
2 2
a x
x (a, a) : x + y
dy
dx
= 0 (y 0)
11. The number of arbitrary constants in the general solution of a differential equation
of fourth order are:
(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
12. The number of arbitrary constants in the particular solution of a differential equation
of third order are:
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 0
9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose General Solution is given
We know that the equation
x
2
+ y
2
+ 2x 4y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
represents a circle having centre at (1, 2) and radius 1 unit.
MATHEMATICS 386
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x, we get
dy
dx
=
1
2
x
y
+
(y 2) ... (2)
which is a differential equation. You will find later on [See (example 9 section 9.5.1.)]
that this equation represents the family of circles and one member of the family is the
circle given in equation (1).
Let us consider the equation
x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
... (3)
By giving different values to r, we get different members of the family e.g.
x
2
+ y
2
= 1, x
2
+ y
2
= 4, x
2
+ y
2
= 9 etc. (see Fig 9.1).
Thus, equation (3) represents a family of concentric
circles centered at the origin and having different radii.
We are interested in finding a differential equation
that is satisfied by each member of the family. The
differential equation must be free from r because r is
different for different members of the family. This
equation is obtained by differentiating equation (3) with
respect to x, i.e.,
2x + 2y
dy
dx
= 0 or x + y
dy
dx
= 0 ... (4)
which represents the family of concentric circles given by equation (3).
Again, let us consider the equation
y = mx + c ... (5)
By giving different values to the parameters m and c, we get different members of
the family, e.g.,
y = x (m = 1, c = 0)
y = 3 x (m =
3
, c = 0)
y = x + 1 (m = 1, c = 1)
y = x (m = 1, c = 0)
y = x 1 (m = 1, c = 1) etc. ( see Fig 9.2).
Thus, equation (5) represents the family of straight lines, where m, c are parameters.
We are now interested in finding a differential equation that is satisfied by each
member of the family. Further, the equation must be free from m and c because m and
Fig 9.1
X
X
Y
Y
y
=
x
+
1
y
=
x
y
=
x
y
=
1
y
=
x
3
O
c are different for different members of the family.
This is obtained by differentiating equation (5) with
respect to x, successively we get
dy
m
dx
=
, and
2
2
0
d y
dx
=
... (6)
The equation (6) represents the family of straight
lines given by equation (5).
Note that equations (3) and (5) are the general
solutions of equations (4) and (6) respectively.
9.4.1 Procedure to form a differential equation that will represent a given
family of curves
(a) If the given family F
1
of curves depends on only one parameter then it is
represented by an equation of the form
F
1
(x, y, a) = 0 ... (1)
For example, the family of parabolas y
2
= ax can be represented by an equation
of the form f (x, y, a) : y
2
= ax.
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x, we get an equation involving
y, y, x, and a, i.e.,
g (x, y, y, a) = 0 ... (2)
The required differential equation is then obtained by eliminating a from equations
(1) and (2) as
F(x, y, y) = 0 ... (3)
(b) If the given family F
2
of curves depends on the parameters a, b (say) then it is
represented by an equation of the from
F
2
(x, y, a, b) = 0 ... (4)
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to x, we get an equation involving
y, x, y, a, b, i.e.,
g (x, y, y, a, b) = 0 ... (5)
But it is not possible to eliminate two parameters a and b from the two equations
and so, we need a third equation. This equation is obtained by differentiating
equation (5), with respect to x, to obtain a relation of the form
h (x, y, y, y, a, b) = 0 ... (6)
Fig 9.2
MATHEMATICS 388
The required differential equation is then obtained by eliminating a and b from
equations (4), (5) and (6) as
F (x, y, y, y) = 0 ... (7)
$
Note The order of a differential equation representing a family of curves is
same as the number of arbitrary constants present in the equation corresponding to
the family of curves.
Example 4 Form the differential equation representing the family of curves y = mx,
where, m is arbitrary constant.
Solution We have
y = mx ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, we get
dy
dx
= m
Substituting the value of m in equation (1) we get
dy
y x
dx
=
or
dy
x
dx
y = 0
which is free from the parameter m and hence this is the required differential equation.
Example 5 Form the differential equation representing the family of curves
y = a sin (x + b), where a, b are arbitrary constants.
Solution We have
y = a sin(x + b) ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, successively we get
dy
dx
= a cos (x + b) ... (2)
2
2
d y
dx
= a sin(x + b) ... (3)
Eliminating a and b from equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
2
2
d y
y
dx
+
= 0 ... (4)
which is free from the arbitrary constants a and b and hence this the required differential
equation.
Example 6 Form the differential equation
representing the family of ellipses having foci on
x-axis and centre at the origin.
Solution We know that the equation of said family
of ellipses (see Fig 9.3) is
2 2
2 2
x y
a b
+
= 1 ... (1)
2 2
2 2
0
x y dy
dx a b
+ =
or
y dy
x dx

=
2
2
b
a
... (2)
2
2 2
dy
x y
y d y dy
dx
x dx dx x

+

= 0
or
2
2
2
d y dy dy
xy x y
dx dx dx

+

= 0 ... (3)
which is the required differential equation.
Example 7 Form the differential equation of the family
of circles touching the x-axis at origin.
Solution Let C denote the family of circles touching
x-axis at origin. Let (0, a) be the coordinates of the
centre of any member of the family (see Fig 9.4).
Therefore, equation of family C is
x
2
+ (y a)
2
= a
2
or

x
2
+ y
2
= 2ay ... (1)
where, a is an arbitrary constant. Differentiating both
sides of equation (1) with respect to x,we get
2 2
dy
x y
dx
+
=
2
dy
a
dx
Fig 9.3
Fig 9.4
X
X
Y
Y
O
MATHEMATICS 390
or
dy
x y
dx
+
=
dy
a
dx
or a =
dy
x y
dx
dy
dx
+
... (2)
Substituting the value of a from equation (2) in equation (1), we get
x
2
+ y
2
=
2
dy
x y
dx
y
dy
dx

+

or
2 2
( )
dy
x y
dx
+
=
2
2 2
dy
xy y
dx
+
or
dy
dx
=
2 2
2
xy
x y
This is the required differential equation of the given family of circles.
Example 8 Form the differential equation representing the family of parabolas having
vertex at origin and axis along positive direction of x-axis.
Solution Let P denote the family of above said parabolas (see Fig 9.5) and let (a, 0) be the
focus of a member of the given family, where a is an arbitrary constant. Therefore, equation
of family P is
y
2
= 4ax ... (1)
2
dy
y
dx
= 4a ... (2)
Substituting the value of 4a from equation (2)
in equation (1), we get
y
2
= 2 ( )
dy
y x
dx

or
2
2
dy
y xy
dx
= 0
which is the differential equation of the given family
of parabolas.
Fig 9.5
EXERCISE 9.3
In each of the Exercises 1 to 5, form a differential equation representing the given
family of curves by eliminating arbitrary constants a and b.
1.
1
x y
a b
+ =
2. y
2
= a (b
2
x
2
) 3. y = a e
3x
+ b e
2x
4. y = e
2x
(a + bx) 5. y = e
x
(a cos x + b sin x)
6. Form the differential equation of the family of circles touching the y-axis at
origin.
7. Form the differential equation of the family of parabolas having vertex at origin
and axis along positive y-axis.
8. Form the differential equation of the family of ellipses having foci on y-axis and
centre at origin.
9. Form the differential equation of the family of hyperbolas having foci on x-axis
and centre at origin.
10. Form the differential equation of the family of circles having centre on y-axis
and radius 3 units.
11. Which of the following differential equations has y = c
1
e
x
+ c
2
e
x
as the general
solution?
(A)
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
+ =
(B)
2
2
0
d y
y
dx
=
(C)
2
2
1 0
d y
dx
+ =
(D)
2
2
1 0
d y
dx
=
12. Which of the following differential equations has y = x as one of its particular
solution?
(A)
2
2
2
d y dy
x xy x
dx dx
+ =
(B)
2
2
d y dy
x xy x
dx dx
+ + =
(C)
2
2
2
0
d y dy
x xy
dx dx
+ =
(D)
2
2
0
d y dy
x xy
dx dx
+ + =
9.5. Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Differential Equations
In this section we shall discuss three methods of solving first order first degree differential
equations.
9.5.1 Differential equations with variables separable
A first order-first degree differential equation is of the form
dy
dx
= F(x, y) ... (1)
MATHEMATICS 392
If F(x, y) can be expressed as a product g (x) h(y), where, g(x) is a function of x
and h(y) is a function of y, then the differential equation (1) is said to be of variable
separable type. The differential equation (1) then has the form
dy
dx
= h (y) . g(x) ... (2)
If h(y) 0, separating the variables, (2) can be rewritten as
1
( ) h y
dy = g(x) dx ... (3)
Integrating both sides of (3), we get
1
( )
dy
h y
= ( ) g x dx
... (4)
Thus, (4) provides the solutions of given differential equation in the form
H(y) = G(x) + C
Here, H (y) and G (x) are the anti derivatives of
1
( ) h y
and g(x) respectively and
C is the arbitrary constant.
Example 9 Find the general solution of the differential equation
1
2
dy x
dx y
+
=
, (y 2)
Solution We have
dy
dx
=
1
2
x
y
+
... (1)
Separating the variables in equation (1), we get
(2 y) dy = (x + 1) dx ... (2)
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get
(2 ) y dy
= ( 1) x dx +
or
2
2
2
y
y =
2
1
C
2
x
x + +
or x
2
+ y
2
+ 2x 4y + 2 C
1
= 0
or x
2
+ y
2
+ 2x 4y + C = 0, where C = 2C
1
which is the general solution of equation (1).
2
2
1
1
dy y
dx x
+
=
+
.
Solution Since 1 + y
2
0, therefore separating the variables, the given differential
equation can be written as
2
1
dy
y +
=
2
1
dx
x +
... (1)
2
1
dy
y +
=
2
1
dx
x +
or tan
1
y = tan
1
x + C
which is the general solution of equation (1).
Example 11 Find the particular solution of the differential equation
2
4
dy
xy
dx
= given
that y = 1, when x = 0.
Solution If y 0, the given differential equation can be written as
2
dy
y
= 4x dx ... (1)
2
dy
y
= 4 x dx

or
1
y
= 2x
2
+ C
or y =
2
1
2 C x
... (2)
Substituting y = 1 and x = 0 in equation (2), we get, C = 1.
Now substituting the value of C in equation (2), we get the particular solution of the
given differential equation as
2
1
2 1
y
x
=
+
.
Example 12 Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1, 1) whose
differential equation is x dy = (2x
2
+ 1) dx (x 0).
MATHEMATICS 394
Solution The given differential equation can be expressed as
dy* =
2
2 1
*
x
dx
x

+

or dy =
1
2x dx
x

+

... (1)
dy
=
1
2x dx
x

+

or y = x
2
+ log | x| + C ... (2)
Equation (2) represents the family of solution curves of the given differential equation
but we are interested in finding the equation of a particular member of the family which
passes through the point (1, 1). Therefore substituting x = 1, y = 1 in equation (2), we
get C = 0.
Now substituting the value of C in equation (2) we get the equation of the required
curve as y = x
2
+ log | x|.
Example 13 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (2, 3), given that
the slope of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is
2
2x
y
.
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to a curve is given by
dy
dx
.
so,
dy
dx
=
2
2x
y
... (1)
Separating the variables, equation (1) can be written as
y
2
dy = 2x dx ... (2)
2
y dy
= 2x dx
or
3
3
y
= x
2
+ C ... (3)
* The notation
dy
dx
due to Leibnitz is extremely flexible and useful in many calculation and formal
transformations, where, we can deal with symbols dy and dx exactly as if they were ordinary numbers. By
treating dx and dy like separate entities, we can give neater expressions to many calculations.
Refer: Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, volume-I page 172, By Richard Courant,
Fritz John Spinger Verlog New York.
Substituting x = 2, y = 3 in equation (3), we get C = 5.
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get the equation of the required curve as
3
2
5
3
y
x = + or
1
2
3
(3 15) y x = +
Example 14 In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. In
how many years Rs 1000 double itself?
Solution Let P be the principal at any time t. According to the given problem,
dp
dt
=
5
P
100

or
dp
dt
=
P
20
... (1)
separating the variables in equation (1), we get
P
dp
=
20
dt
... (2)
log P =
1
C
20
t
+
or P =
1
C
20
t
e e
or P =
20
C
t
e (where
1
C
C e = ) ... (3)
Now P = 1000, when t = 0
Substituting the values of P and t in (3), we get C = 1000. Therefore, equation (3),
gives
P = 1000
20
t
e
Let t years be the time required to double the principal. Then
2000 = 1000
20
t
e t = 20 log
e
2
EXERCISE 9.4
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 1 to 10, find the general solution:
1.
1 cos
1 cos
dy x
dx x
=
+
2.
2
4 ( 2 2)
dy
y y
dx
= < <
MATHEMATICS 396
3.
1( 1)
dy
y y
dx
+ =
4. sec
2
x tan y dx + sec
2
y tan x dy = 0
5. (e
x
+ e
x
) dy (e
x
e
x
) dx = 0 6.
2 2
(1 ) (1 )
dy
x y
dx
= + +
7. y log y dx x dy = 0 8.
5 5
dy
x y
dx
=
9.
1
sin
dy
x
dx
=
10. e
x
tan y dx + (1 e
x
) sec
2
y dy = 0
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 11 to 14, find a particular solution
satisfying the given condition:
11.
3 2
( 1)
dy
x x x
dx
+ + +
= 2x
2
+ x; y = 1 when x = 0
12.
2
( 1) 1
dy
x x
dx
=
; y = 0 when x = 2
13. cos
dy
a
dx

=

(a R); y = 1 when x = 0
14. tan
dy
y x
dx
= ; y = 1 when x = 0
15. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 0) and whose differential
equation is y = e
x
sin x.
16. For the differential equation ( 2) ( 2)
dy
xy x y
dx
= + + , find the solution curve
passing through the point (1, 1).
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 2) given that at any
point (x, y) on the curve, the product of the slope of its tangent and y coordinate
of the point is equal to the x coordinate of the point.
18. At any point (x, y) of a curve, the slope of the tangent is twice the slope of the
line segment joining the point of contact to the point ( 4, 3). Find the equation
of the curve given that it passes through (2, 1).
19. The volume of spherical balloon being inflated changes at a constant rate. If
initially its radius is 3 units and after 3 seconds it is 6 units. Find the radius of
balloon after t seconds.
20. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of r% per year. Find the
value of r if Rs 100 double itself in 10 years (log
e
2 = 0.6931).
21. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. An amount
of Rs 1000 is deposited with this bank, how much will it worth after 10 years
(e
0.5
= 1.648).
22. In a culture, the bacteria count is 1,00,000. The number is increased by 10% in 2
hours. In how many hours will the count reach 2,00,000, if the rate of growth of
bacteria is proportional to the number present?
23. The general solution of the differential equation
x y
dy
e
dx
+
= is
(A) e
x
+ e
y
= C (B) e
x
+ e
y
= C
(C) e
x
+ e
y
= C (D) e
x
+ e
y
= C
9.5.2 Homogeneous differential equations
Consider the following functions in x and y
F
1
(x, y) = y
2
+ 2xy, F
2
(x, y) = 2x 3y,
F
3
(x, y) =
cos
y
x

, F
4
(x, y) = sin x + cos y
If we replace x and y by x and y respectively in the above functions, for any nonzero
constant , we get
F
1
(x, y) =
2
(y
2
+ 2xy) =
2
F
1
(x, y)
F
2
(x, y) = (2x 3y) = F
2
(x, y)
F
3
(x, y) = cos cos
y y
x x

=

=
0
F
3
(x, y)
F
4
(x, y) = sin x + cos y
n
F
4
(x, y), for any n N
Here, we observe that the functions F
1
, F
2
, F
3
can be written in the form
F(x, y) =
n
F

(x, y) but F
4
can not be written in this form. This leads to the following
definition:
A function F(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if
F(x, y) =
n
F(x, y) for any nonzero constant .
We note that in the above examples, F
1
, F
2
, F
3
are homogeneous functions of
degree 2, 1, 0 respectively but F
4
is not a homogeneous function.
MATHEMATICS 398
We also observe that
F
1
(x, y) =
2
2 2
1
2
2 y y y
x x h
x x x

+ =

or F
1
(x, y) =
2 2
2
2
1
x x
y y h
y y

+ =

F
2
(x, y) =
1 1
3
3
2
y y
x x h
x x

=

or F
2
(x, y) =
1 1
4
2 3
x x
y y h
y y

=

F
3
(x, y) =
0 0
5
cos
y y
x x h
x x

=

F
4
(x, y)
6
n
y
x h
x

, for any n N
or F
4
(x, y) 7
n
x
y h
y

, for any n N
Therefore, a function F (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if
F(x, y) =
or
n n
y x
x g y h
x y

A differential equation of the form
dy
dx
= F (x, y) is said to be homogenous if
F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero.
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type
( ) F ,
dy
x y
dx
=
=
y
g
x

... (1)
We make the substitution y = v. x ... (2)
dy
dx
=
dv
v x
dx
+
... (3)
Substituting the value of
dy
dx
from equation (3) in equation (1), we get
dv
v x
dx
+
= g (v)
or
dv
x
dx
= g (v) v ... (4)
Separating the variables in equation (4), we get
( )
dv
g v v
=
dx
x
... (5)
( )
dv
g v v
=
1
C dx
x
+
... (6)
Equation (6) gives general solution (primitive) of the differential equation (1) when
we replace v by
y
x
.
$
Note If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form F( , )
dx
x y
dy
=
where, F(x, y) is homogenous function of degree zero, then we make substitution
x
v
y
= i.e., x = vy and we proceed further to find the general solution as discussed
above by writing F( , ) .
dx x
x y h
dy y

= =

Example 15 Show that the differential equation (x y)
dy
dx
= x + 2y is homogeneous
and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be expressed as
dy
dx
=
2 x y
x y
+
... (1)
Let F(x, y) =
2 x y
x y
+
Now F(x, y) =
0
( 2 )
( , )
( )
x y
f x y
x y
+
=

MATHEMATICS 400
Therefore, F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero. So, the given differential
equation is a homogenous differential equation.
Alternatively,
2
1
1
y
dy
x
y
dx
x

+

=

=
y
g
x

... (2)
R.H.S. of differential equation (2) is of the form
y
g
x

and so it is a homogeneous
function of degree zero. Therefore, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (3)
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to, x we get
dy
dx
=
dv
v x
dx
+
... (4)
Substituting the value of y and
dy
dx
in equation (1) we get
dv
v x
dx
+ =
1 2
1
v
v
+
or
dv
x
dx
=
1 2
1
v
v
v
+

or
dv
x
dx
=
2
1
1
v v
v
+ +
or
2
1
1
v
dv
v v
+ +
=
dx
x

2
1
1
v
dv
v v
+ +
=
dx
x
or
2
1 2 1 3
2 1
v
dv
v v
+
+ +
= log | x| + C
1
or 1
2 2
1 2 1 3 1
log C
2 2 1 1
+
= +
+ + + +

v
dv dv x
v v v v
or
2
1
2
2
1 3 1
log 1 log C
2 2
1 3
2 2
+ + = +

+ +

v v dv x
v
or
2 1
1
1 3 2 2 1
log 1 . tan log C
2 2 3 3
+
+ + = +

v
v v x
or
2 2 1
1
1 1 2 1
log 1 log 3 tan C
2 2 3
+
+ + + = +

v
v v x (Why?)
Replacing v by
y
x
, we get
or
2
2 1
1
2
1 1 2
log 1 log 3 tan C
2 2 3
+
+ + + = +

y y y x
x
x x x
or
2
2 1
1
2
1 2
log 1 3 tan C
2 3
y y y x
x
x x x

+
+ + = +

or
2 2 1
1
2
log ( ) 2 3 tan 2C
3
y x
y xy x
x
+
+ + = +

or
2 2 1
2
log ( ) 2 3 tan C
3
+
+ + = +

x y
x xy y
x
which is the general solution of the differential equation (1)
Example 16 Show that the differential equation cos cos
y dy y
x y x
x dx x

= +

is
homogeneous and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
dy
dx
=
cos
cos
y
y x
x
y
x
x

+

... (1)
MATHEMATICS 402
It is a differential equation of the form F( , )
dy
x y
dx
= .
Here F(x, y) =
cos
cos
y
y x
x
y
x
x

+

Replacing x by x and y by y, we get
F(x, y) =
0
[ cos ]
[F( , )]
cos
y
y x
x
x y
y
x
x

+

=

Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero.
Therefore, the given differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
dy
dx
=
dv
v x
dx
+
... (3)
Substituting the value of y and
dy
dx
dv
v x
dx
+
=
cos 1
cos
v v
v
+
or
dv
x
dx
=
cos 1
cos
v v
v
v
+

or
dv
x
dx
=
1
cosv
or cosv dv =
dx
x
Therefore cosv dv
=
1
dx
x

or sin v = log | x| + log | C|
or sin v = log | Cx|
Replacing v by
y
x
, we get
sin
y
x

= log | Cx|
which is the general solution of the differential equation (1).
Example 17 Show that the differential equation 2 2 0
x x
y y
y e dx y x e dy

+ =

is
homogeneous and find its particular solution, given that, x = 0 when y = 1.
dx
dy
=
2
2
x
y
x
y
x e y
y e
... (1)
Let F(x, y) =
2
2
x
y
x
y
xe y
ye
Then F(x, y) =
0
2
[F( , )]
2
x
y
x
y
xe y
x y
ye

=

Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero. Therefore, the given
differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it, we make the substitution
x = vy ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to y, we get
dx
dy
=
+
dv
v y
dy
MATHEMATICS 404
Substituting the value of and
dx
x
dy
dv
v y
dy
+
=
2 1
2
v
v
v e
e
or
dv
y
dy
=
2 1
2
v
v
v e
v
e

or
dv
y
dy
=
1
2
v
e
or 2e
v
dv =
dy
y
or 2
v
e dv
=
dy
y
or 2 e
v
= log |y| + C
and replacing v by
x
y
, we get
2
x
y
e + log | y| = C ... (3)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 1 in equation (3), we get
2 e
0
+ log | 1| = C C = 2
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get
2
x
y
e + log | y | = 2
which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 18 Show that the family of curves for which the slope of the tangent at any
point (x, y) on it is
2 2
2
x y
xy
+
, is given by x
2
y
2
= cx.
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent at any point on a curve is
dy
dx
.
Therefore,
dy
dx
=
2 2
2
x y
xy
+
or
dy
dx
=
2
2
1
2
y
x
y
x
+
... (1)
Clearly, (1) is a homogenous differential equation. To solve it we make substitution
y = vx
Differentiating y = vx with respect to x, we get
dy
dx
=
dv
v x
dx
+
or
dv
v x
dx
+ =
2
1
2
v
v
+
or
dv
x
dx
=
2
1
2
v
v
2
2
1
v
dv
v
=
dx
x
or
2
2
1
v
dv
v
=
dx
x
Therefore
2
2
1
v
dv
v
=
1
dx
x
or log | v
2
1 | = log | x | + log | C
1
|
or log | (v
2
1) (x) | = log |C
1
|
or (v
2
1) x = C
1
Replacing v by
y
x
, we get
2
2
1
y
x
x

= C
1
or (y
2
x
2
) = C
1
x or x
2
y
2
= Cx
MATHEMATICS 406
EXERCISE 9.5
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10, show that the given differential equation is homogeneous
and solve each of them.
1. (x
2
+ xy) dy = (x
2
+ y
2
) dx 2.
x y
y
x
+
=
3. (x y) dy (x + y) dx = 0 4. (x
2
y
2
) dx + 2xy dy = 0
5.
2 2 2
2
dy
x x y xy
dx
= +
6. x dy y dx =
2 2
x y dx +
7.
cos sin sin cos
y y y y
x y y dx y x x dy
x x x x

+ =

8.
sin 0
dy y
x y x
dx x

+ =

9.
log 2 0
y
y dx x dy x dy
x

+ =

10.
1 1 0
x x
y y
x
e dx e dy
y

+ + =

For each of the differential equations in Exercises from 11 to 15, find the particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
11. (x + y) dy + (x y) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
12. x
2
dy + (xy + y
2
) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
13.
2
sin 0;
4

+ = =

y
x y dx x dy y
x
when x = 1
14.
cosec 0
dy y y
dx x x

+ =

; y = 0 when x = 1
15.
2 2
2 2 0
dy
xy y x
dx
+ = ; y = 2 when x = 1
16. A homogeneous differential equation of the from
dx x
h
dy y

=

can be solved by
making the substitution.
(A) y = vx (B) v = yx (C) x = vy (D) x = v
17. Which of the following is a homogeneous differential equation?
(A) (4x + 6y + 5) dy (3y + 2x + 4) dx = 0
(B) (xy) dx (x
3
+ y
3
) dy = 0
(C) (x
3
+ 2y
2
) dx + 2xy dy = 0
(D) y
2
dx + (x
2
xy y
2
) dy = 0
9.5.3 Linear differential equations
A differential equation of the from
P
dy
y
dx
+ = Q
where, P and Q are constants or functions of x only, is known as a first order linear
differential equation. Some examples of the first order linear differential equation are
dy
y
dx
+
= sin x
1 dy
y
dx x

+

= e
x
log
dy y
dx x x

+

=
1
x
Another form of first order linear differential equation is
1
P
dx
x
dy
+ = Q
1
where, P
1
and Q
1
are constants or functions of y only. Some examples of this type of
differential equation are
dx
x
dy
+ = cos y
2 dx x
dy y
+ = y
2
e
y
To solve the first order linear differential equation of the type
P
dy
y
dx
+ = Q ... (1)
Multiply both sides of the equation by a function of x say g (x) to get
g(x)
dy
dx
+ P. (g(x)) y = Q. g (x) ... (2)
MATHEMATICS 408
Choose g (x) in such a way that R.H.S. becomes a derivative of y . g (x).
i.e. g(x)
dy
dx
+ P. g(x) y =
d
dx
[y . g (x)]
or g(x)
dy
dx
+ P. g(x) y = g(x)
dy
dx
+ y g (x)
P. g(x) = g (x)
or P =
( )
( )
g x
g x
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get

Pdx
=
( )
( )
g x
dx
g x
or P dx
= log (g (x))
or g(x) =
P dx
e
On multiplying the equation (1) by g(x) =

P dx
e
, the L.H.S. becomes the derivative

of some function of x and y. This function g(x) =
P dx
e
is called Integrating Factor

(I.F.) of the given differential equation.
Substituting the value of g (x) in equation (2), we get
P P
P
dx dx dy
e e y
dx

+ =
P
Q
dx
e

or
( )
Pdx d
y e
dx
=
P
Q
dx
e

Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
Pdx
y e

= ( )
P
Q
dx
e dx
or y = ( )
P P
Q C
dx dx
e e dx
which is the general solution of the differential equation.

Steps involved to solve first order linear differential equation:
(i) Write the given differential equation in the form
P Q
dy
y
dx
+ =
where P, Q are
constants or functions of x only.
(ii) Find the Integrating Factor (I.F) =
Pdx
e

.
(iii) Write the solution of the given differential equation as
y (I.F) = ( ) Q I.F C +
dx
In case, the first order linear differential equation is in the form 1 1
P Q
dx
x
dy
+ =
,
where, P
1
and Q
1
are constants or functions of y only. Then I.F =
1
P dy
e

and the
solution of the differential equation is given by
x . (I.F) = ( )
1
Q I.F C dy +

cos
dy
y x
dx
=
.
Solution Given differential equation is of the form
P Q
dy
y
dx
+ =
, where P = 1 and Q = cos x
Therefore I . F =
1 dx
x
e e

=
Multiplying both sides of equation by I.F, we get
x x
dy
e e y
dx

= e
x
cos x
or ( )
x
dy
ye
dx
= e
x
cos x
On integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
ye
x
= cos C
x
e x dx
... (1)
Let I =
cos
x
e x dx
= cos ( sin ) ( )
1
x
x
e
x x e dx

MATHEMATICS 410
= cos sin
x x
x e x e dx

=
cos sin ( ) cos ( )
x x x
x e x e x e dx

= cos sin cos

x x x
x e x e x e dx

+
or I = e
x
cos x + sin x e
x
I
or 2I = (sin x cos x) e
x
or I =
(sin cos )
2
x
x x e
Substituting the value of I in equation (1), we get

ye
x
=
sin cos
C
2
x
x x
e

+

or y =
sin cos
C
2
x
x x
e

+

which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
2
2 ( 0)
dy
x y x x
dx
+ =
.
Solution The given differential equation is
2
dy
x y
dx
+
= x
2
... (1)
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by x, we get
2 dy
y
dx x
+ = x
which is a linear differential equation of the type
P Q
dy
y
dx
+ =
, where
2
P
x
=
and Q = x.
So I.F =
2
dx
x
e
= e
2 log x
=
2
log 2 x
e x =
log ( )
[ ( )]
f x
as e f x =
Therefore, solution of the given equation is given by
y . x
2
=
2
( ) ( ) C x x dx +
=
3
C x dx +
or y =
2
2
C
4
x
x
+
Example 21 Find the general solution of the differential equation y dx (x + 2y
2
) dy = 0.
dx x
dy y
= 2y
This is a linear differential equation of the type
1 1
P Q
dx
x
dy
+ = , where
1
1
P
y
= and
Q
1
= 2y. Therefore
1
1
log log( )
1
I.F
dy
y y y
e e e
y
= = = =
Hence, the solution of the given differential equation is
1
x
y
=
1
(2 ) C y dy
y

+

or
x
y
= (2 ) C dy +
or
x
y
= 2y + C
or x = 2y
2
+ Cy
which is a general solution of the given differential equation.
Example 22 Find the particular solution of the differential equation
cot
dx
y x
dy
+ = 2x + x
2
cot x (x 0)
given that y = 0 when
2
x

= .
Solution The given equation is a linear differential equation of the type
P Q
dy
y
dx
+ =
,
where P = cot x and Q = 2x + x
2
cot x. Therefore
I.F =
cot
log sin
sin
x dx
x
e e x
= =
Hence, the solution of the differential equation is given by
y . sin x = (2x + x
2
cot x) sin x dx + C
MATHEMATICS 412
or y sin x = 2x sin x dx + x
2
cos x dx + C
or y sin x =
2 2
2
2 2
sin cos cos C
2 2
x x
x x dx x x dx

+ +

or y sin x =
2 2 2
sin cos cos C x x x x dx x x dx + +

or y sin x = x
2
sin x + C ... (1)
Substituting y = 0 and
2
x

=
0 =
2
sin C
2 2

+

or C =
2
4

y sin x =
2
2
sin
4
x x

or y =
2
2
(sin 0)
4 sin
x x
x

which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 23 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 1). If the slope
of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the x coordinate
(abscissa) and the product of the x coordinate and y coordinate (ordinate) of that point.
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to the curve is
dy
dx
.
Therefore,
dy
dx
= x + xy
or
dy
xy
dx

= x ... (1)
This is a linear differential equation of the type
P Q
dy
y
dx
+ =
, where P = x and Q = x.
Therefore, I . F =
2
2
x
x dx
e e
=
Hence, the solution of equation is given by
2
2
x
y e
=
( )
2
2 ( ) C
x
x dx
e
... (2)
Let I =
2
2
( )
x
x dx
e
Let
2
2
x
t
= , then x dx = dt or x dx = dt.
Therefore, I =
2
2
x
t t
e dt e
e
= =

2
2
x
y
e
=
2
2
+C
x
e
or y =
2
2
1 C
x
e + ... (3)
Now (3) represents the equation of family of curves. But we are interested in
finding a particular member of the family passing through (0, 1). Substituting x = 0 and
y = 1 in equation (3) we get
1 = 1 + C . e
0
or C = 2
y =
2
2
1 2
x
e +
which is the equation of the required curve.
EXERCISE 9.6
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 1 to 12, find the general solution:
1.
2 sin
dy
y x
dx
+ =
2.
2
3
x
dy
y e
dx
+ =
3.
2
dy y
x
dx x
+ =
4.
sec tan 0
2

+ = <

dy
xy x x
dx
5.
2
cos tan
dy
x y x
dx
+ =

0
2
x

<

6.
2
2 log
dy
x y x x
dx
+ =
7.
2
log log
dy
x x y x
dx x
+ =
8. (1 + x
2
) dy + 2xy dx = cot x dx (x 0)
MATHEMATICS 414
9.
cot 0 ( 0)
dy
x y x xy x x
dx
+ + =
10.
( ) 1
dy
x y
dx
+ =
11. y dx + (x y
2
) dy = 0 12.
2
( 3 ) ( 0)
dy
x y y y
dx
+ = >
.
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 13 to 15, find a particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
13.
2 tan sin ; 0 when
3
dy
y x x y x
dx
+ = = =
14.
2
2
1
(1 ) 2 ; 0 when 1
1
dy
x xy y x
dx x
+ + = = =
+
15.
3 cot sin 2 ; 2 when
2
dy
y x x y x
dx
= = =
16. Find the equation of a curve passing through the origin given that the slope of the
tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the coordinates of
the point.
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 2) given that the sum of
the coordinates of any point on the curve exceeds the magnitude of the slope of
the tangent to the curve at that point by 5.
18. The Integrating Factor of the differential equation
2
2
dy
x y x
dx
=
is
(A) e
x
(B) e
y
(C)
1
x
(D) x
19. The Integrating Factor of the differential equation
2
(1 )
dx
y yx
dy
+ =
( 1 1) < < ay y
is
(A) 2
1
1 y
(B)
2
1
1 y
(C) 2
1
1 y
(D)
2
1
1 y
Example 24 Verify that the function y = c
1
e
ax
cos bx + c
2
e
ax
sin bx, where c
1
, c
2
are
arbitrary constants is a solution of the differential equation
( )
2
2 2
2
2 0
d y dy
a a b y
dx dx
+ + =
Solution The given function is
y = e
ax
[c
1
cosbx + c
2
sinbx] ... (1)
dy
dx
=
[ ] [ ]
1 2 1 2
sin cos cos sin
ax ax
e bc bx bc bx c bx c bx e a + + +
or
dy
dx
=
2 1 2 1
[( ) cos ( ) sin ]
ax
e bc ac bx ac bc bx + + ... (2)
2
2
d y
dx
=
2 1 2 1
[( ) ( sin ) ( ) ( cos )]
ax
e bc ac b bx ac bc b bx + +
+
2 1 2 1
[( ) cos ( ) sin ] .
ax
bc ac bx ac bc bx e a + +
=
2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
[( 2 ) sin ( 2 ) cos ]
ax
e a c abc b c bx a c abc b c bx + +
2
2
,
d y dy
dx dx
L.H.S. =
2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
[ 2 )sin ( 2 ) cos ]
ax
e a c abc b c bx a c abc b c bx + +
2 1 2 1
2 [( )cos ( )sin ]
ax
ae bc ac bx ac bc bx + +
2 2
1 2
( ) [ cos sin ]
ax
a b e c bx c bx + + +
=
( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 2 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 1
2 2 2 sin
( 2 2 2 )cos
ax
a c abc b c a c abc a c b c bx
e
a c abc b c abc a c a c b c bx

+ + +

+ + + +

= [0 sin 0cos ]
ax
e bx bx + = e
ax
0 = 0 = R.H.S.
Hence, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
Example 25 Form the differential equation of the family of circles in the second
quadrant and touching the coordinate axes.
Solution Let C denote the family of circles in the second quadrant and touching the
coordinate axes. Let (a, a) be the coordinate of the centre of any member of
this family (see Fig 9.6).
MATHEMATICS 416
X
X
Y
Y
( , ) a a
O
Equation representing the family C is
(x + a)
2
+ (y a)
2
= a
2
... (1)
or x
2
+ y
2
+ 2ax 2ay + a
2
= 0 ... (2)
2 2 2 2
dy dy
x y a a
dx dx
+ +
= 0
or
dy
x y
dx
+
=
1
dy
a
dx

or a =
1
x y y
y
+

Substituting the value of a in equation (1), we get
2 2
1 1
x y y x y y
x y
y y
+ +
+ +

=
2
1
x y y
y
+

or [xy x + x + y y]
2
+ [y y y x y y]
2
= [x + y y]
2
or (x + y)
2
y
2
+ [x + y]
2
= [x + y y]
2
or (x + y)
2
[(y)
2
+ 1] = [x + y y]
2
which is the differential equation representing the given family of circles.
Example 26 Find the particular solution of the differential equation log 3 4
dy
x y
dx

= +

given that y = 0 when x = 0.
dy
dx
= e
(3x + 4y)
or
dy
dx
= e
3x
. e
4y
... (1)
Separating the variables, we get
4 y
dy
e
= e
3x
dx
Therefore
4y
e dy
=
3x
e dx
Fig 9.6
or
4
4
y
e
=
3
C
3
x
e
+
or 4 e
3x
+ 3 e
4y
+ 12 C = 0 ... (2)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in (2), we get
4 + 3 + 12 C = 0 or C =
7
12

4e
3x
+ 3e
4y
7 = 0,
which is a particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 27 Solve the differential equation
(x dy y dx) y sin
y
x

= (y dx + x dy) x cos
y
x

.
2 2
sin cos cos sin
y y y y
x y x dy xy y dx
x x x x

= +

or
dy
dx
=
2
2
cos sin
sin cos
y y
xy y
x x
y y
xy x
x x

+

Dividing numerator and denominator on RHS by x
2
, we get
dy
dx
=
2
2
cos sin
sin cos
y y y y
x x x x
y y y
x x x

+

... (1)
Clearly, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation of the form
dy y
g
dx x

=

.
To solve it, we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
or
dy
dx
=
dv
v x
dx
+
MATHEMATICS 418
or
dv
v x
dx
+ =
2
cos sin
sin cos
v v v v
v v v
+
(using (1) and (2))

or
dv
x
dx
=
2 cos
sin cos
v v
v v v
or
sin cos
cos
v v v
dv
v v

=
2 dx
x
Therefore
sin cos
cos
v v v
dv
v v

=
1
2 dx
x
or
1
tanv dv dv
v

=
1
2 dx
x
or log sec log | | v v =

1
2log | | log | C | x +
or
2
sec
log
v
v x
= log | C
1
|
or
2
secv
v x
= C
1
... (3)
Replacing v by
y
x
2
sec
( )
y
x
y
x
x

= C where, C = C
1
or sec
y
x

= C xy
Example 28 Solve the differential equation
(tan
1
y

x) dy = (1 + y
2
) dx.
2
1
dx x
dy y
+
+
=
1
2
tan
1
y
y
+
... (1)
Now (1) is a linear differential equation of the form
1
P
dx
dy
+ x = Q
1
,
where, P
1
=
2
1
1 y +
and
1
1
2
tan
Q
1
y
y
=
+
.
Therefore, I . F =
1 2
1
tan 1
dy
y y
e e

+
=
Thus, the solution of the given differential equation is
1
tan y
xe

=
1
1
tan
2
tan
C
1
y
y
e dy
y

+

+

... (2)
Let I =
1
1
tan
2
tan
1
y
y
e dy
y
Substituting tan
1
y = t so that
2
1
1
dy dt
y

=

+

, we get
I =
t
t e dt
= t e
t
1 . e
t
dt = t e
t
e
t
= e
t
(t 1)
or I =
1
tan y
e

(tan
1
y 1)
1 1
tan tan 1
. (tan 1) C
y y
x e e y

= +
or x =
1
1 tan
(tan 1) C
y
y e

+
1. For each of the differential equations given below, indicate its order and degree
(if defined).
(i)
2
2
2
5 6 log
d y dy
x y x
dx dx

+ =

(ii)
3 2
4 7 sin
dy dy
y x
dx dx

+ =

(iii)
4 3
4 3
sin 0
d y d y
dx dx

=

MATHEMATICS 420
2. For each of the exercises given below, verify that the given function (implicit or
explicit) is a solution of the corresponding differential equation.
(i) y = a e
x
+ b e
x
+ x
2
:
2
2
2
2 2 0
d y dy
x xy x
dx dx
+ + =
(ii) y = e
x
(a cos x + b sin x) :
2
2
2 2 0
d y dy
y
dx dx
+ =
(iii) y = x sin 3x :
2
2
9 6cos3 0
d y
y x
dx
+ =
(iv) x
2
= 2y
2
log y :
2 2
( ) 0
dy
x y xy
dx
+ =
3. Form the differential equation representing the family of curves given by
(x a)
2
+ 2y
2
= a
2
, where a is an arbitrary constant.
4. Prove that x
2
y
2
= c (x
2
+ y
2
)
2
is the general solution of differential equation
(x
3
3x y
2
) dx = (y
3
3x
2
y) dy, where c is a parameter.
5. Form the differential equation of the family of circles in the first quadrant which
touch the coordinate axes.
6. Find the general solution of the differential equation
2
2
1
0
1
dy y
dx x
+ =
.
7. Show that the general solution of the differential equation
2
2
1
0
1
dy y y
dx x x
+ +
+ =
+ +
is
given by (x + y + 1) = A (1 x y 2xy), where A is parameter.
8. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point
0,
4

whose differential
equation is sin x cos y dx + cos x sin y dy = 0.
9. Find the particular solution of the differential equation
(1 + e
2x
) dy + (1 + y
2
) e
x
dx = 0, given that y = 1 when x = 0.
10. Solve the differential equation
2
( 0)
x x
y y
y e dx x e y dy y

= +

.
11. Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x y) (dx + dy) = dx dy,
given that y = 1, when x = 0. (Hint: put x y = t)
12. Solve the differential equation
2
1( 0)
x
e y dx
x
dy x x

=

.
13. Find a particular solution of the differential equation
cot
dy
y x
dx
+
= 4x cosec x
(x 0), given that y = 0 when
2
x

=
.
14. Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x + 1)
dy
dx
= 2 e
y
1, given
that y = 0 when x = 0.
15. The population of a village increases continuously at the rate proportional to the
number of its inhabitants present at any time. If the population of the village was
20, 000 in 1999 and 25000 in the year 2004, what will be the population of the
village in 2009?
16. The general solution of the differential equation 0
y dx x dy
y
= is
(A) xy = C (B) x = Cy
2
(C) y = Cx (D) y = Cx
2
17. The general solution of a differential equation of the type
1 1
P Q
dx
x
dy
+ =
is
(A) ( )
1 1
P P
1
Q C
dy dy
y e e dy

= +
(B) ( )
1 1
P P
1
. Q C
dx dx
y e e dx

= +
(C) ( )
1 1
P P
1
Q C
dy dy
x e e dy

= +
(D) ( )
1 1
P P
1
Q C
dx dx
x e e dx

= +
18. The general solution of the differential equation e

x
dy + (y e
x
+ 2x) dx = 0 is
(A) x e
y
+ x
2
= C (B) x e
y
+ y
2
= C
(C) y e
x
+ x
2
= C (D) y e
y
+ x
2
= C
MATHEMATICS 422
Summary
An equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect to

independent variable (variables) is known as a differential equation.
Order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative

occurring in the differential equation.
Degree of a differential equation is defined if it is a polynomial equation in its

derivatives.
Degree (when defined) of a differential equation is the highest power (positive

integer only) of the highest order derivative in it.
A function which satisfies the given differential equation is called its solution.
The solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called a general solution and the solution free from
arbitrary constants is called particular solution.
To form a differential equation from a given function we differentiate the

function successively as many times as the number of arbitrary constants in
the given function and then eliminate the arbitrary constants.
Variable separable method is used to solve such an equation in which variables

can be separated completely i.e. terms containing y should remain with dy
and terms containing x should remain with dx.
A differential equation which can be expressed in the form

( , ) or ( , )
dy dx
f x y g x y
dx dy
= = where, f (x, y) and g(x, y) are homogenous
functions of degree zero is called a homogeneous differential equation.
A differential equation of the form +P Q

dy
y
dx
= , where P and Q are constants
or functions of x only is called a first order linear differential equation.
Historical Note
One of the principal languages of Science is that of differential equations.
Interestingly, the date of birth of differential equations is taken to be November,
11,1675, when Gottfried Wilthelm Freiherr Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) first put in black
and white the identity
2
1
2
y dy y =
, thereby introducing both the symbols and dy.

Leibnitz was actually interested in the problem of finding a curve whose tangents
were prescribed. This led him to discover the method of separation of variables
1691. A year later he formulated the method of solving the homogeneous
differential equations of the first order. He went further in a very short time
to the discovery of the method of solving a linear differential equation of the
first-order. How surprising is it that all these methods came from a single man
and that too within 25 years of the birth of differential equations!
In the old days, what we now call the solution of a differential equation,
was used to be referred to as integral of the differential equation, the word
being coined by James Bernoulli (1654 - 1705) in 1690. The word solution was
first used by Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1813) in 1774, which was almost
hundred years since the birth of differential equations. It was Jules Henri Poincare
(1854 - 1912) who strongly advocated the use of the word solution and thus the
word solution has found its deserved place in modern terminology. The name of
the method of separation of variables is due to John Bernoulli (1667 - 1748),
a younger brother of James Bernoulli.
Application to geometric problems were also considered. It was again John
Bernoulli who first brought into light the intricate nature of differential equations.
In a letter to Leibnitz, dated May 20, 1715, he revealed the solutions of the
differential equation
x
2
y = 2y,
which led to three types of curves, viz., parabolas, hyperbolas and a class of
cubic curves. This shows how varied the solutions of such innocent looking
differential equation can be. From the second half of the twentieth century attention
has been drawn to the investigation of this complicated nature of the solutions of
differential equations, under the heading qualitative analysis of differential
equations. Now-a-days, this has acquired prime importance being absolutely
necessary in almost all investigations.
MATHEMATICS 424
In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what
one has established another undoes. In Mathematics alone each generation
builds a new story to the old structure. HERMAN HANKEL
10.1 Introduction
In our day to day life, we come across many queries such
as What is your height? How should a football player hit
the ball to give a pass to another player of his team? Observe
that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters,
a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which
is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called
force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and
direction (in which another player is positioned). Such
quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and
engineering, we frequently come across with both types of
quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass,
time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work,
money, voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various
operations on vectors, and their algebraic and geometric properties. These two type of
properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.
10.2 Some Basic Concepts
Let l be any straight line in plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given
two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed
is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).
Chapter 10
VECTOR ALGEBRA
W.R. Hamilton
(1805-1865)
VECTOR ALGEBRA 425
Now observe that if we restrict the line l to the line segment AB, then a magnitude
is prescribed on the line l with one of the two directions, so that we obtain a directed
line segment (Fig 10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
Definition 1 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector.
Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as AB
JJJG
or
simply as a
G
, and read as vector AB
JJJG
or vector a
G
.
The point A from where the vector AB
JJJG
starts is called its initial point, and the
point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and
terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as
| AB
JJJG
|, or | a
G
|, or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
$
Note Since the length is never negative, the notation | a
G
| < 0 has no meaning.
Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate
system (Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with
respect to the origin O(0, 0, 0). Then, the vector OP
JJJG
having O and P as its initial and
terminal points, respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with respect
to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the magnitude of
OP
JJJG
(or r
G
) is given by
| OP|
JJJG
=
2 2 2
x y z + +
In practice, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O
are denoted by a
G
, , b c
G
G
, etc., respectively (Fig 10.2 (ii)).
Fig 10.1
MATHEMATICS 426
A
O
P
90
X
Y
Z
X
A
O
B
P( ) x,y,z
C
P( ) x,y,z
r
x
y
z
Direction Cosines
Consider the position vector ( ) or OP
JJJG
G
r of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.3. The angles ,
, made by the vector r
G
with the positive directions of x, y and z-axes respectively,
are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos , cos and
cos are called direction cosines of the vector r
G
, and usually denoted by l, m and n,
respectively.
Fig 10.3
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we
have
( ) cos stands for | |
x
r r
r
=
G
. Similarly, from the right angled triangles OBP and
OCP, we may write cos and cos
y z
r r
= = . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may
also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr). The numbers lr, mr and nr, proportional to the direction
cosines are called as direction ratios of vector r
G
, and denoted as a, b and c, respectively.
Fig 10.2
VECTOR ALGEBRA 427
$
Note One may note that l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1 but a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
1, in general.
10.3 Types of Vectors
Zero Vector A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero
vector (or null vector), and denoted as 0
G
. Zero vector can not be assigned a definite
direction as it has zero magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as
having any direction. The vectors AA, BB
JJJG JJJG
represent the zero vector,
Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The
unit vector in the direction of a given vector a
G
is denoted by a .
Coinitial Vectors Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial
vectors.
Collinear Vectors Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to
the same line, irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.
Equal Vectors Two vectors and a b
G
G
are said to be equal, if they have the same
magnitude and direction regardless of the positions of their initial points, and written
as = a b
G
G
.
Negative of a Vector A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector
(say,
AB
JJJG
), but direction is opposite to that of it, is called negative of the given vector.
For example, vector
BA
JJJG
is negative of the vector
AB
JJJG
, and written as BA AB =
JJJG JJJG
.
Remark The vectors defined above are such that any of them may be subject to its
parallel displacement without changing its magnitude and direction. Such vectors are
called free vectors. Throughout this chapter, we will be dealing with free vectors only.
Example 1 Represent graphically a displacement
of 40 km, 30 west of south.
Solution The vector
OP
JJJG
represents the required
displacement (Fig 10.4).
Example 2 Classify the following measures as
scalars and vectors.
(i) 5 seconds
(ii) 1000 cm
3
Fig 10.4
MATHEMATICS 428
Fig 10.5
(iii) 10 Newton (iv) 30 km/hr (v) 10 g/cm
3
(vi) 20 m/s towards north
Solution
(i) Time-scalar (ii) Volume-scalar (iii) Force-vector
(iv) Speed-scalar (v) Density-scalar (vi) Velocity-vector
Example 3 In Fig 10.5, which of the vectors are:
(i) Collinear (ii) Equal (iii) Coinitial
Solution
(i) Collinear vectors : , and a c d
G
G G
.
(ii) Equal vectors : and . a c
G G
(iii) Coinitial vectors : , and . b c d
G G
G
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30 east of north.
2. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors.
(i) 10 kg (ii) 2 meters north-west (iii) 40
(iv) 40 watt (v) 10
19
coulomb (vi) 20 m/s
2
3. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities.
(i) time period (ii) distance (iii) force
(iv) velocity (v) work done
4. In Fig 10.6 (a square), identify the following vectors.
(i) Coinitial (ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
5. Answer the following as true or false.
(i) a
G
and a
G
are collinear.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are always equal in
magnitude.
(iii) Two vectors having same magnitude are collinear.
(iv) Two collinear vectors having the same magnitude are equal.
Fig 10.6
VECTOR ALGEBRA 429
10.4 Addition of Vectors
A vector AB
JJJG
simply means the displacement from a
point A to the point B. Now consider a situation that a
girl moves from A to B and then from B to C
(Fig 10.7). The net displacement made by the girl from
point A to the point C, is given by the vector AC
JJJG
and
expressed as
AC
JJJG
=
AB BC +
JJJG JJJG
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
In general, if we have two vectors a
G
and b
G
(Fig 10.8 (i)), then to add them, they
are positioned so that the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the
other (Fig 10.8(ii)).
Fig 10.8
For example, in Fig 10.8 (ii), we have shifted vector b
G
without changing its magnitude
and direction, so that its initial point coincides with the terminal point of a
G
. Then, the
vector a b +
G
G
, represented by the third side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the sum
(or resultant) of the vectors a
G
and b
G
i.e., in triangle ABC (Fig 10.8 (ii)), we have
AB BC +
JJJG JJJG
=
AC
JJJG
Now again, since AC CA =
JJJG JJJG
, from the above equation, we have
AB BC CA + +
JJJG JJJG JJJG
= AA 0 =
JJJG G
This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero
resultant as the initial and terminal points get coincided (Fig 10.8(iii)).
Fig 10.7
a
b
a
b
(i) (iii)
A
C
a
b
(ii)
a
b
+
A
C
B B
a
b
b
C
MATHEMATICS 430
Now, construct a vector BC
JJJJG
so that its magnitude is same as the vector BC
JJJG
, but
the direction opposite to that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
BC
JJJJG
= BC
JJJG
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have
AC AB BC = +
JJJJG JJJG JJJJG
= AB ( BC) +
JJJG JJJG
a b =
G
G
The vector AC
JJJJG
is said to represent the difference of and a b
G
G
.
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a
direction perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity
vectorsone is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the
velocity of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two
velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction
(i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have
the following law of vector addition.
If we have two vectors and a b
G
G
represented
by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in
magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9), then their
sum + a b
G
G
is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through their common point. This is known as
the parallelogram law of vector addition.
$
Note From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
OA AC +
JJJG JJJG
= OC
JJJG
or
OA OB +
JJJG JJJG
=
OC
JJJG
(since AC OB =
JJJG JJJG
)
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector
addition are equivalent to each other.
Properties of vector addition
Property 1 For any two vectors and a b
G
G
,
a b +
G
G
= b a +
G
G
(Commutative property)
Fig 10.9
VECTOR ALGEBRA 431
Proof Consider the parallelogram ABCD
(Fig 10.10). Let AB and BC , a b = =
JJJG JJJG G
G
then using
the triangle law, from triangle ABC, we have
AC
JJJG
= + a b
G
G
Now, since the opposite sides of a
parallelogram are equal and parallel, from
Fig 10.10, we have, AD = BC = b
JJJG JJJG G
and
DC = AB= a
JJJG JJJG
G
. Again using triangle law, from
triangle ADC, we have
AC
JJJJG
= AD+ DC = + b a
JJJG JJJG G
G
Hence a b +
G
G
= b a +
G
G
Property 2 For any three vectors , and a b c
G
G G
( ) a b c + +
G
G G
= ( ) a b c + +
G
G G
(Associative property)
Proof Let the vectors , and a b c
G
G G
be represented by PQ, QR and RS
JJJG JJJG JJJG
, respectively,
as shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).
Fig 10.11
Then
a b +
G
G
= PQ + QR = PR
JJJG JJJG JJJG
and
b c +
G
G
= QR + RS = QS
JJJG JJJG JJJG
So ( ) a b c + +
G
G G
= PR + RS = PS
JJJG JJJG JJG
Fig 10.10
MATHEMATICS 432
a
a
1
2
1
2
a
2
a
a
2
and ( ) a b c + +
G
G G
= PQ+ QS = PS
JJJG JJJG JJG
Hence ( ) a b c + +
G
G G
= ( ) a b c + +
G
G G
Remark The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of
three vectors , , as a b c a b c + +
G G
G G G G
without using brackets.
Note that for any vector
a
G
, we have
0 a +
G
G
= 0 a a + =
G
G G
Here, the zero vector 0
G
is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
Let a
G
be a given vector and a scalar. Then the product of the vector a
G
by the scalar
, denoted as a
G
, is called the multiplication of vector a
G
by the scalar . Note that,
a
G
is also a vector, collinear to the vector a
G
. The vector a
G
has the direction same
(or opposite) to that of vector a
G
according as the value of is positive (or negative).
Also, the magnitude of vector a
G
is | | times the magnitude of the vector a
G
, i.e.,
| | a
G
= | | | | a
G
A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given
in Fig 10.12.
Fig 10.12
When = 1, then a a =
G G
, which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
magnitude of a
G
and direction opposite to that of the direction of a
G
. The vector a
G
is
called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector a
G
and we always have
( ) a a +
G G
= ( ) 0 a a + =
G
G G
Also, if
1
=
| | a
G
, provided 0, i.e.
G G
a a is not a null vector, then
| | | | | | a a =
G G
=
1
| | 1
| |
a
a
=
G
G
VECTOR ALGEBRA 433
So, a
G
represents the unit vector in the direction of a
G
. We write it as
a =
1
| |
a
a
G
G
$
Note For any scalar k, 0 = 0. k
G G
10.5.1 Components of a vector
Let us take the points A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, 1) on the x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis, respectively. Then, clearly
| OA| 1, | OB| =
JJJG JJJG
= 1 and | OC| 1 =
JJJG
The vectors OA, OB and OC
JJJG JJJG JJJG
, each having magnitude 1,
are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ,
respectively, and denoted by

, and i j k , respectively
(Fig 10.13).
Now, consider the position vector OP
JJJG
of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.14. Let P
1
be the foot of the perpendicular from P on the plane XOY. We, thus, see that P
1
P is
parallel to z-axis. As

, and i j k are the unit vectors along the x, y and z-axes,
respectively, and by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have
1
PP OR zk = =
JJJG JJJG
.
Similarly,
1
QP OS yj = =
JJJG JJJG
and
OQ xi =
JJJG
.
Fig 10.13
Fig 10.14
MATHEMATICS 434
Therefore, it follows that
1
OP
JJJG
=
1

OQ+ QP xi yj = +
JJJG JJJG
and
OP
JJJG
=
1 1

OP + P P xi yj zk = + +
JJJG JJJJG
Hence, the position vector of P with reference to O is given by
OP (or ) r
JJJG
G
=

xi yj zk + +
This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, x, y and z are called
as the scalar components of r
G
, and

, and xi yj zk are called the vector components
of r
G
along the respective axes. Sometimes x, y and z are also termed as rectangular
components.
The length of any vector

r xi yj zk = + +
G
, is readily determined by applying the
Pythagoras theorem twice. We note that in the right angle triangle OQP
1
(Fig 10.14)
1
| OP |
JJJJG
=
2 2 2 2
1
| OQ| +| QP | x y = +
JJJJG JJJG
,
and in the right angle triangle OP
1
P, we have
1
| OP |
JJJJG
=
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
| OP | | P P | ( ) x y z + = + +
JJJG JJJG
Hence, the length of any vector

+ r xi yj zk = +
G
is given by
| | r
G
=
2 2 2

| | = xi yj zk x y z + + + +
If and a b
G
G
are any two vectors given in the component form
1 2 3

+ a i a j a k + and
1 2 3

b i b j b k + + , respectively, then
(i) the sum (or resultant) of the vectors and a b
G
G
is given by
a b +
G
G
=
1 1 2 2 3 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a b i a b j a b k + + + + +
(ii) the difference of the vector and a b
G
G
is given by
a b
G
G
= 1 1 2 2 3 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a b i a b j a b k + +
(iii) the vectors and a b
G
G
are equal if and only if
a
1
= b
1
, a
2
= b
2
and a
3
= b
3
(iv) the multiplication of vector a
G
by any scalar is given by
a
G
=
1 2 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a i a j a k + +
VECTOR ALGEBRA 435
The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give
the following distributive laws:
Let and a b
G
G
be any two vectors, and k and m be any scalars. Then
(i)
( ) ka ma k m a + = +
G G G
(ii) ( ) ( ) k ma km a =
G G
(iii) ( ) k a b ka kb + = +
G G
G G
Remarks
(i) One may observe that whatever be the value of , the vector a
G
is always
collinear to the vector a
G
. In fact, two vectors and a b
G
G
are collinear if and only
if there exists a nonzero scalar such that b a =
G
G
. If the vectors and a b
G
G
are
given in the component form, i.e.
1 2 3

a a i a j a k = + +
G
and
1 2 3

b b i b j b k = + +
G
,
then the two vectors are collinear if and only if
1 2 3

b i b j b k + + =
1 2 3

( ) a i a j a k + +
1 2 3

b i b j b k + + =
1 2 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a i a j a k + +
1 1
b a = ,
2 2 3 3
, b a b a = =
1
1
b
a
=
3 2
2 3
b b
a a
= =
(ii) If
1 2 3

a a i a j a k = + +
G
, then a
1
, a
2
, a
3
are also called direction ratios of a
G
.
(iii) In case if it is given that l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector, then

li mj nk + +
=

(cos ) (cos ) (cos ) i j k + +
is the unit vector in the direction of that vector,
where , and are the angles which the vector makes with x, y and z axes
respectively.
Example 4 Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors

2 a xi j zk = + +
G
and

2 b i yj k = + +
G
are equal.
Solution Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components
are equal. Thus, the given vectors and a b
G
G
will be equal if and only if
x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
MATHEMATICS 436
Example 5 Let

2 a i j = +
G
and

2 b i j = +
G
. Is | | | | a b =
G
G
? Are the vectors and a b
G
G
equal?
Solution We have
2 2
| | 1 2 5 a = + =
G
and
2 2
| | 2 1 5 b = + =
G
So, | | | | a b =
G
G
. But, the two vectors are not equal since their corresponding components
are distinct.
Example 6 Find unit vector in the direction of vector

2 3 a i j k = + +
G
Solution The unit vector in the direction of a vector a
G
is given by
1
| |
a a
a
=
G
G
.
Now | | a
G
=
2 2 2
2 3 1 14 + + =
Therefore
1

(2 3 )
14
a i j k = + + =
2 3 1

14 14 14
i j k + +
Example 7 Find a vector in the direction of vector

2 a i j =
G
that has magnitude
7 units.
Solution The unit vector in the direction of the given vector a
G
is
1
| |
a a
a
=
G
G =
1 1 2

( 2 )
5 5 5
i j i j =
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of a
G
is
7a
=
1 2
7
5 5
i j

=
7 14

5 5
i j
Example 8 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,

2 2 5 a i j k = +
G
and

2 3 b i j k = + +
G
.
Solution The sum of the given vectors is

( , say) = 4 3 2 + = +
G
G G
a b c i j k
and | | c
G
=
2 2 2
4 3 ( 2) 29 + + =
VECTOR ALGEBRA 437
Thus, the required unit vector is
1 1 4 3 2

(4 3 2 )
| | 29 29 29 29
c c i j k i j k
c
= = + = +
G
G
Example 9 Write the direction ratios of the vector

2 a i j k = +
G
and hence calculate
its direction cosines.
Solution Note that the direction ratios a, b, c of a vector

r xi yj zk = + +
G
are just
the respective components x, y and z of the vector. So, for the given vector, we have
a = 1, b = 1 and c = 2. Further, if l, m and n are the direction cosines of the given
vector, then
1 1 2
, , as | | 6
| | | | | | 6 6 6
a b c
l m n r
r r r
= = = = = = =
G
G G G
Thus, the direction cosines are
1 1 2
, ,
6 6 6

.
10.5.2 Vector joining two points
If P
1
(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and P
2
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) are any two points, then the vector joining P
1
and P
2
is the vector
1 2
PP
JJJJG
(Fig 10.15).
Joining the points P
1
and P
2
with the origin
O, and applying triangle law, from the triangle
OP
1
P
2
, we have
1 1 2
OP PP +
JJJG JJJJG
=
2
OP .
JJJJG
Using the properties of vector addition, the
above equation becomes
1 2
PP
JJJJG
=
2 1
OP OP
JJJJG JJJG
i.e.
1 2
PP
JJJJG
=
2 2 2 1 1 1

( ) ( ) x i y j z k x i y j z k + + + +
=
2 1 2 1 2 1

( ) ( ) ( ) x x i y y j z z k + +
The magnitude of vector
1 2
PP
JJJJG
is given by
1 2
PP
JJJJG
=
2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) x x y y z z + +
Fig 10.15
MATHEMATICS 438
Example 10 Find the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 0) and Q( 1, 2, 4) directed
from P to Q.
Solution Since the vector is to be directed from P to Q, clearly P is the initial point
and Q is the terminal point. So, the required vector joining P and Q is the vector PQ
JJJG
,
given by
PQ
JJJG
=

( 1 2) ( 2 3) ( 4 0) i j k + +
i.e. PQ
JJJG
=

3 5 4 . i j k
10.5.3 Section formula
Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors OP and OQ
JJJG JJJG
, respectively,
with respect to the origin O. Then the line segment
joining the points P and Q may be divided by a third
point, say R, in two ways internally (Fig 10.16)
and externally (Fig 10.17). Here, we intend to find
the position vector OR
JJJG
for the point R with respect
to the origin O. We take the two cases one by one.
Case I When R divides PQ internally (Fig 10.16).
If R divides PQ
JJJG
such that RQ m
JJJG
= PR n
JJJG
,
where m and n are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides PQ
JJJG
internally in the
ratio of m : n. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
RQ
JJJG
= OQ OR b r =
JJJG JJJG G G
and
PR
JJJG
=
OR OP r a =
JJJG JJJG G G
,
Therefore, we have ( ) m b r
G
G
= ( ) n r a
G G
(Why?)
or
r
G
=
mb na
m n
+
+
G
G
(on simplification)
Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the
ratio of m : n is given by
OR
JJJG
=
mb na
m n
+
+
G
G
Fig 10.16
VECTOR ALGEBRA 439
Case II When R divides PQ externally (Fig 10.17).
We leave it to the reader as an exercise to verify
that the position vector of the point R which divides
the line segment PQ externally in the ratio
m : n
PR
i.e.
QR

=

m
n
is given by
OR
JJJG
=
mb na
m n
G
G
Remark If R is the midpoint of PQ , then m = n. And therefore, from Case I, the
midpoint R of PQ
JJJG
, will have its position vector as
OR
JJJG
=
2
a b +
G
G
Example 11 Consider two points P and Q with position vectors OP 3 2 a b =
JJJG G
G
and
OQ a b = +
JJJG G
G
. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q
in the ratio 2:1, (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution
(i) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q internally in the
ratio 2:1 is
OR
JJJG
=
2( ) (3 2 ) 5
2 1 3
a b a b a + +
=
+
G G
G G G
(ii) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q externally in the
ratio 2:1 is
OR
JJJG
=
2( ) (3 2 )
4
2 1
a b a b
b a
+
=
G G
G G
G
G
Example 12 Show that the points

A(2 ), B( 3 5 ), C(3 4 4 ) i j k i j k i j k + are
the vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution We have

AB
JJJG
=

(1 2) ( 3 1) ( 5 1) i j k + + +

2 6 i j k =

BC
JJJG
=

(3 1) ( 4 3) ( 4 5) i j k + + + +

2i j k = +
and CA
JJJG
=

(2 3) ( 1 4) (1 4) i j k + + + +

3 5 i j k = + +
Fig 10.17
MATHEMATICS 440
Further, note that
2
| AB|
JJJG
=
2 2
41 6 35 | BC| | CA| = + = +
JJJG JJJG
Hence, the triangle is a right angled triangle.
EXERCISE 10.2
1. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
1 1 1

; 2 7 3 ;
3 3 3
a i j k b i j k c i j k = + + = = +
G
G G
2. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
3. Write two different vectors having same direction.
4. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors

2 3 and i j xi yj + + are equal.
5. Find the scalar and vector components of the vector with initial point (2, 1) and
terminal point ( 5, 7).
6. Find the sum of the vectors

2 , 2 4 5 a i j k b i j k = + = + +
G
G
and

6 7 c i j k =
G
.
7. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector

2 a i j k = + +
G
.
8. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector PQ,
JJJG
where P and Q are the points
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6), respectively.
9. For given vectors,

2 2 and a i j k b i j k = + = +
G
G
, find the unit vector in the
direction of the vector a b +
G
G
.
10. Find a vector in the direction of vector

5 2 i j k + which has magnitude 8 units.
11. Show that the vectors

2 3 4 and 4 6 8 i j k i j k + + are collinear.
12. Find the direction cosines of the vector

2 3 i j k + + .
13. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A(1, 2, 3) and
B(1, 2, 1), directed from A to B.
14. Show that the vector

i j k + + is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
15. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points P
and Q whose position vectors are

2 and i j k i j k + + + respectively, in the
ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally (ii) externally
VECTOR ALGEBRA 441
16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, 2).
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors,

3 4 4 , a i j k =
G

2 b i j k = +
G
and

3 5 c i j k =
G
, respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
(A) AB+ BC + CA = 0
JJJG JJJJG JJJG G
(B)
AB BC AC 0 + =
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
(C)
AB BC CA 0 + =
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
(D)
AB CB CA 0 + =
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
19. If and a b
G
G
are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
(A) , for some scalar b a =
G
G
(B) a b =
G
G
(C) the respective components of and a b
G
G
are proportional
(D) both the vectors and a b
G
G
have same direction, but different magnitudes.
10.6 Product of Two Vectors
So far we have studied about addition and subtraction of vectors. An other algebraic
operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is their product. We may
recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices is again a
matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions pointwise and composition of two functions. Similarly,
multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar (or dot)
product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have
found various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering. In this section,
we will discuss these two types of products.
10.6.1 Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors
Definition 2 The scalar product of two nonzero vectors and a b
G
G
, denoted by a b
G
G
, is
Fig 10.18
MATHEMATICS 442
defined as a b
G
G
= | | | | cos , a b
G
G
where, is the angle between and , 0 a b
G
G
(Fig 10.19).
If either 0 or 0, a b = =
G G G
G
then is not defined, and in this case,
we define 0 a b =
G
G
Observations
1. a b
G
G
is a real number.
2. Let and a b
G
G
be two nonzero vectors, then 0 a b =
G
G
if and only if and a b
G
G
are
perpendicular to each other. i.e.
0 a b a b =
G G
G G
3. If = 0, then | | | | a b a b =
G G
G G
In particular,
2
| | , a a a =
G G G
as in this case is 0.
4. If = , then | | | | a b a b =
G G
G G
In particular,
2
( ) | | a a a =
G G G
, as in this case is .
5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors

, and , i j k
we have

i i j j = =

1, k k =

i j j k = =

0 k i =
6. The angle between two nonzero vectors
G
a and
G
b is given by
cos ,
| || |
a b
a b
=
G
G
G
G
or
1
.
cos
| || |
a b
a b

=

G
G
G
G
7. The scalar product is commutative. i.e.
a b
G
G
= b a
G
G
(Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product
Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let , and a b c
G
G G
be
any three vectors, then
( ) a b c +
G
G G
=
a b a c +
G
G G G
Fig 10.19
VECTOR ALGEBRA 443
(i)
B
C
A
l
B
l
A
C
(ii)
A
B
C l
(iv)
l C
B
A
(iii)
p
p
p p
a
a
a
a
(90 < < 180 )
0 0
(0 < < 90 )
0 0
(270 < < 360 )

0 0
(180 < < 270 )
0 0
Property 2 Let and a b

G
G
be any two vectors, and be any scalar. Then
( ) a b
G
G
= ( ) ( ) ( ) a b a b a b = =
G G G
G G G
If two vectors and a b
G
G
are given in component form as
1 2 3

a i a j a k + + and
1 2 3

b i b j b k + + , then their scalar product is given as
a b
G
G
=
1 2 3 1 2 3

( ) ( ) a i a j a k b i b j b k + + + +
=
1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3

( ) ( ) a i b i b j b k a j b i b j b k + + + + + +
3 1 2 3

( ) a k b i b j b k + +
=
1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a b i i a b i j a b i k a b j i a b j j a b j k + + + + +
+
3 1 3 2 3 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a b k i a b k j a b k k + +
(Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
(Using Observation 5)
Thus a b
G
G
=
1 1 2 2 3 3
a b a b a b + +
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
Suppose a vector AB
JJJG
makes an angle with a given directed line l (say), in the
anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of AB
JJJG
on l is a vector
p
G
(say) with magnitude | AB| cos
JJJG
, and the direction of
p
G
being the same (or opposite)
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos is positive or negative. The vector p
G
Fig 10.20
MATHEMATICS 444
is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | p
G
| is simply called as the projection
of the vector AB
JJJG
on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20(i) to (iv)), projection vector
of AB
JJJG
along the line l is vector AC
JJJG
.
Observations
1. If
p
is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector a
G
on the line
l is given by a p
G
.
2. Projection of a vector a
G
on other vector b
G
, is given by
, a b
G
or
1
, or ( )
| | | |
b
a a b
b b

G
G
G G
G G
3. If = 0, then the projection vector of AB
JJJG
will be AB
JJJG
itself and if = , then the
projection vector of AB
JJJG
will be BA
JJJG
.
4. If
=
2
or
3
=
2
, then the projection vector of AB

JJJG
will be zero vector.
Remark If , and are the direction angles of vector
1 2 3

a a i a j a k = + +
G
, then its
direction cosines may be given as
3 1 2
cos , cos , and cos
| | | | | | | || |
a a a a i
a a a a i
= = = =
G
G G G G
Also, note that | | cos , | | cos and | | cos a a a
G G G
are respectively the projections of
a
G
along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar components a
1
, a
2
and a
3
of the vector a
G
,
are precisely the projections of a
G
along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Further,
if a
G
is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as

cos cos cos a i j k = + +
G
Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors and a b
G
G
with magnitudes 1 and 2
respectively and when 1 a b =
G
G
.
Solution Given 1, | | 1and | | 2 a b a b = = =
G G
G G
. We have
1 1
1
cos cos
2 3 | || |
a b
a b

= = =

G
G
G
G
VECTOR ALGEBRA 445
Example 14 Find angle between the vectors

and a i j k b i j k = + = +
G
G
.
Solution The angle between two vectors and a b
G
G
is given by
cos =
| || |
a b
a b
G
G
G
G
Now a b
G
G
=

( ) ( ) 1 1 1 1 i j k i j k + + = = .
Therefore, we have cos =
1
3
hence the required angle is =

1
1
cos
3

Example 15 If

5 3 and 3 5 a i j k b i j k = = +
G
G
, then show that the vectors
and a b a b +
G G
G G
are perpendicular.
Solution We know that two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product
is zero.
Here a b +
G
G
=

(5 3 ) ( 3 5 ) 6 2 8 i j k i j k i j k + + = +
and a b
G
G
=

(5 3 ) ( 3 5 ) 4 4 2 i j k i j k i j k + = +
So

( ) ( ) (6 2 8 ) (4 4 2 ) 24 8 16 0. a b a b i j k i j k + = + + = =
G G
G G
Hence and a b a b +
G G
G G
are perpendicular vectors.
Example 16 Find the projection of the vector

2 3 2 a i j k = + +
G
on the vector

2 b i j k = + +
G
.
Solution The projection of vector a
G
on the vector b
G
is given by
1
( )
| |
a b
b

G
G
G =
2 2 2
(2 1 3 2 2 1) 10 5
6
3 6
(1) (2) (1)
+ +
= =
+ +
Example 17 Find | | a b
G
G
, if two vectors and a b
G
G
are such that | | 2, | | 3 a b = =
G
G
and 4 a b =
G
G
.
Solution We have
2
| | a b
G
G
=
( ) ( ) a b a b
G G
G G
=
. a a a b b a b b +
G G G G
G G G G
MATHEMATICS 446
B
C
A
a
b
+
a
b
=
2 2
| | 2( ) | | a a b b +
G G
G G
=
2 2
(2) 2(4) (3) +
Therefore | | a b
G
G
=
5
Example 18 If a
G
is a unit vector and ( ) ( ) 8 x a x a + =
G G G G
, then find | | x
G
.
Solution Since a
G
is a unit vector, | | 1 a =
G
. Also,
( ) ( ) x a x a +
G G G G
= 8
or
x x x a a x a a +
G G G G G G G G
= 8
or
2
| | 1
G
x = 8 i.e. |
G
x |
2
= 9
Therefore
| | x
G
= 3 (as magnitude of a vector is non negative).
Example 19 For any two vectors and a b
G
G
, we always have | | | | | | a b a b
G G
G G
(Cauchy-
Schwartz inequality).
Solution The inequality holds trivially when either 0 or 0 a b = =
G G G
G
. Actually, in such a
situation we have | | 0 | | | | a b a b = =
G G
G G
. So, let us assume that | | 0 | | a b
G
G
.
Then, we have
| |
| || |
a b
a b
G
G
G
G = | cos | 1
Therefore | | a b
G
G
| | | | a b
G
G
Example 20 For any two vectors and a b
G
G
, we always
have | | | | | | a b a b + +
G G
G G
(triangle inequality).
Solution The inequality holds trivially in case either
0 or 0 a b = =
G G G
G
(How?). So, let | | 0 | | a b
G G
G
. Then,
2
| | a b +
G
G
=
2
( ) ( ) ( ) a b a b a b + = + +
G G G
G G G
=
a a a b b a b b + + +
G G G G
G G G G
=
2 2
| | 2 | | a a b b + +
G G
G G
(scalar product is commutative)
2 2
| | 2 | | | | a a b b + +
G G
G G
(since | | x x x R )
2 2
| | 2 | || | | | a a b b + +
G G
G G
(from Example 19)
=
2
(| | | |) a b +
G
G
Fig 10.21
VECTOR ALGEBRA 447
Hence | | a b +
G
G
| | | | a b +
G
G
Remark If the equality holds in triangle inequality (in the above Example 20), i.e.
| | a b +
G
G
= | | | | a b +
G
G
,
then | AC|
JJJG
= | AB| | BC| +
JJJG JJJG
showing that the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 21 Show that the points

A( 2 3 5 ), B( 2 3 ) i j k i j k + + + + and

C(7 ) i k
are collinear.
Solution We have
AB
JJJG
=

(1 2) (2 3) (3 5) 3 2 i j k i j k + + + = ,
BC
JJJG
=

(7 1) (0 2) ( 1 3) 6 2 4 i j k i j k + + = ,
AC
JJJG
=

(7 2) (0 3) ( 1 5) 9 3 6 i j k i j k + + + =
| AB|
JJJG
= 14, | BC| 2 14 and | AC| 3 14 = =
JJJG JJJG
Therefore AC
JJJG
=
| AB| | BC| +
JJJG JJJG
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
$
Note In Example 21, one may note that although AB BC CA 0 + + =
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
but the
points A, B and C do not form the vertices of a triangle.
EXERCISE 10.3
1. Find the angle between two vectors and a b
G
G
with magnitudes 3 and 2 ,
respectively having
6 a b =
G
G
.
2. Find the angle between the vectors

2 3 i j k + and

3 2 i j k +
3. Find the projection of the vector

i j on the vector

i j + .
4. Find the projection of the vector

3 7 i j k + +
on the vector

7 8 i j k +
.
5. Show that each of the given three vectors is a unit vector:
1 1 1

(2 3 6 ), (3 6 2 ), (6 2 3 )
7 7 7
i j k i j k i j k + + + +
Also, show that they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
MATHEMATICS 448
6. Find
| | and | | a b
G
G
, if
( ) ( ) 8 and | | 8| | a b a b a b + = =
G G G
G G G
.
7. Evaluate the product (3 5 ) (2 7 ) a b a b +
G G
G G
.
8. Find the magnitude of two vectors and a b
G
G
, having the same magnitude and
such that the angle between them is 60
o
and their scalar product is
1
2
.
9. Find | | x
G
, if for a unit vector a
G
, ( ) ( ) 12 x a x a + =
G G G G
.
10. If

2 2 3 , 2 and 3 a i j k b i j k c i j = + + = + + = +
G
G G
are such that
a b +
G
G
is
perpendicular to c
G
, then find the value of .
11. Show that | | | | a b b a +
G G
G G
is perpendicular to | | | | a b b a
G G
G G
, for any two nonzero
vectors and a b
G
G
.
12. If 0 and 0 a a a b = =
G
G G G
, then what can be concluded about the vector
b
G
?
13. If , , a b c
G
G G
are unit vectors such that 0 a b c + + =
G G
G G
, find the value of
a b b c c a + +
G G
G G G G
.
14. If either vector 0 or 0, then 0 a b a b = = =
G G G G
G G
. But the converse need not be
true. Justify your answer with an example.
15. If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC are (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2),
respectively, then find ABC. [ABC is the angle between the vectors BA
JJJG
and BC
JJJG
].
16. Show that the points A(1, 2, 7), B(2, 6, 3) and C(3, 10, 1) are collinear.
17. Show that the vectors

2 , 3 5 and 3 4 4 i j k i j k i j k + form the vertices
of a right angled triangle.
18. If a
G
is a nonzero vector of magnitude a and a nonzero scalar, then a
G
is unit
vector if
(A) = 1 (B) = 1 (C) a = | | (D) a = 1/| |
10.6.3 Vector (or cross) product of two vectors
In Section 10.2, we have discussed on the three dimensional right handed rectangular
coordinate system. In this system, when the positive x-axis is rotated counterclockwise
VECTOR ALGEBRA 449
into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).
Fig 10.22 (i), (ii)
Definition 3 The vector product of two nonzero vectors and a b
G
G
, is denoted by a b
G
G
and defined as
a b
G
G
= | || | sin a b n
G
G
,
where, is the angle between and a b
G
G
, 0 and
n is
a unit vector perpendicular to both and a b
G
G
, such that
, and a b n
G
G
form a right handed system (Fig 10.23). i.e., the
right handed system rotated from to a b
G
G
moves in the
direction of n.
If either 0 or 0 a b = =
G G G
G
, then is not defined and in this case, we define 0 a b =
G G
G
.
Observations
1. a b
G
G
is a vector.
2. Let and a b
G
G
be two nonzero vectors. Then 0 a b =
G G
G
if and only if and a b
G
G
are parallel (or collinear) to each other, i.e.,
a b
G
G
= 0 a b
G G
G
&
Fig 10.23
MATHEMATICS 450
In particular, 0 a a =
G
G G
and ( ) 0 a a =
G
G G
, since in the first situation, = 0
and in the second one, = , making the value of sin to be 0.
3. If
2
= then | || | a b a b =
G G
G G
.
4. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular
unit vectors

, and i j k (Fig 10.24), we have

i i =

0 j j k k = =
G

i j
=

, , k j k i k i j = =
5. In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors and a b
G
G
may be
given as
sin =
| |
| || |
a b
a b
G
G
G
G
6. It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as a b
G
G
= b a
G
G
.
Indeed, | || | sin a b a b n =
G G
G G
, where , and a b n
G
G
form a right handed system,
i.e., is traversed from to a b
G
G
, Fig 10.25 (i). While,
1
| || | sin b a a b n =
G G
G G
, where
1
, and b a n
G
G
form a right handed system i.e. is traversed from to b a
G
G
,
Fig 10.25(ii).
Fig 10.25 (i), (ii)
Thus, if we assume and a b
G
G
to lie in the plane of the paper, then
1
and n n both
will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But, n being directed above the
paper while
1
n directed below the paper. i.e.
1
n n = .
Fig 10.24
VECTOR ALGEBRA 451
Hence a b
G
G
= | || | sin a b n
G
G
=
1
| || | sin a b n
G
G
b a =
G
G
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have

, and . j i k k j i i k j = = =
8. If and a b
G
G
represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as
1
| |
2
a b
G
G
.
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
Area of triangle ABC =
1
AB CD.
2

But AB | | b =
G
(as given), and CD = | | a
G
sin.
Thus, Area of triangle ABC =
1
| || | sin
2
b a
G
G

1
| | .
2
a b =
G
G
9. If and a b
G
G
represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is
given by | | a b
G
G
.
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
But AB | | b =
G
(as given), and
DE | | sin a =
G
.
Thus,
Area of parallelogram ABCD = | || | sin b a
G
G
| | . a b =
G
G
We now state two important properties of vector product.
Property 3 (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If , and a b c
G
G G
are any three vectors and be a scalar, then
(i)
( ) a b c +
G
G G
=
a b a c +
G
G G G
(ii) ( ) a b
G
G
= ( ) ( ) a b a b =
G G
G G
Fig 10.26
Fig 10.27
MATHEMATICS 452
Let and a b
G
G
be two vectors given in component form as
1 2 3

a i a j a k + + and
1 2 3

b i b j b k + + , respectively. Then their cross product may be given by
a b
G
G
=
1 2 3
1 2 3

i j k
a a a
b b b
Explanation We have
a b
G
G
=
1 2 3 1 2 3

( ) ( ) a i a j a k b i b j b k + + + +
=
1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a b i i a b i j a b i k a b j i + + +
+
2 2 2 3

( ) ( ) a b j j a b j k +
+
3 1 3 2 3 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a b k i a b k j a b k k + + (by Property 1)
=
1 2 1 3 2 1

( ) ( ) ( ) a b i j a b k i a b i j
+
2 3 3 1 3 2

( ) ( ) ( ) a b j k a b k i a b j k +

(as 0 and , and ) i i j j k k i k k i j i i j k j j k = = = = = =
=
1 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 2

a b k a b j a b k a b i a b j a b i + +

(as , and ) i j k j k i k i j = = =
=
2 3 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 1

( ) ( ) ( ) a b a b i a b a b j a b a b k +
=
1 2 3
1 2 3

i j k
a a a
b b b
Example 22 Find

| |, if 2 3 and 3 5 2 a b a i j k b i j k = + + = +
G G
G G
Solution We have
a b
G
G
=

2 1 3
3 5 2
i j k
=

( 2 15) ( 4 9) (10 3) i j k +

17 13 7 i j k = + +
Hence | |
G
G
a b =
2 2 2
( 17) (13) (7) 507 + + =
VECTOR ALGEBRA 453
Example 23 Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors ( ) a b +
G
G
and
( ), a b
G
G
where

, 2 3 a i j k b i j k = + + = + +
G
G
.
Solution We have

2 3 4 and 2 a b i j k a b j k + = + + =
G G
G G
A vector which is perpendicular to both and a b a b +
G G
G G
is given by
( ) ( ) a b a b +
G G
G G
=

2 3 4 2 4 2 ( , say)
0 1 2
i j k
i j k c = + =

G
Now
| | c
G
= 4 16 4 24 2 6 + + = =
Therefore, the required unit vector is
| |
c
c
G
G =
1 2 1

6 6 6
i j k
+
$
Note There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
vector perpendicular to and a b a b +
G G
G G
will be
1 2 1

.
6 6 6
i j k + But that will
be a consequence of ( ) ( ) a b a b +
G G
G G
.
Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.
Solution We have

AB 2 and AC 2 j k i j = + = +
JJJG JJJG
. The area of the given triangle
is
1
| AB AC|
2

JJJG JJJG
.
Now, AB AC
JJJG JJJG
=

0 1 2 4 2
1 2 0
i j k
i j k = +
Therefore | AB AC|
JJJG JJJG
=
16 4 1 21 + + =
Thus, the required area is
1
21
2
MATHEMATICS 454
Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
by the vectors

3 4 and a i j k b i j k = + + = +
G
G
Solution The area of a parallelogram with and a b
G
G
as its adjacent sides is given
by | | a b
G
G
.
Now a b
G
G
=

3 1 4 5 4
1 1 1
i j k
i j k = +
Therefore | | a b
G
G
= 25 1 16 42 + + =
and hence, the required area is 42 .
EXERCISE 10.4
1. Find

| |, if 7 7 and 3 2 2 a b a i j k b i j k = + = +
G G
G G
.
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector and a b a b +
G G
G G
, where

3 2 2 and 2 2 a i j k b i j k = + + = +
G
G
.
3. If a unit vector a
G
makes angles

with , with
3 4
i j

and an acute angle with
k , then find and hence, the components of a

G
.
4. Show that
( ) ( ) a b a b +
G G
G G
= 2( ) a b
G
G
5. Find and if

(2 6 27 ) ( ) 0 i j k i j k + + + + =
G
.
6. Given that 0 a b =
G
G
and 0 a b =
G G
G
. What can you conclude about the vectors
and a b
G
G
?
7. Let the vectors , , a b c
G
G G
be given as
1 2 3 1 2 3

, , a i a j a k b i b j b k + + + +
1 2 3

c i c j c k + + . Then show that ( ) a b c a b a c + = +
G G
G G G G G
.
8. If either 0 or 0, a b = =
G G G
G
then 0 a b =
G G
G
. Is the converse true? Justify your
answer with an example.
9. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5).
VECTOR ALGEBRA 455
10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
vectors

3 a i j k = +
G
and

2 7 b i j k = +
G
.
11. Let the vectors and a b
G
G
be such that
2
| | 3 and | |
3
a b = =
G
G
, then a b
G
G
is a
unit vector, if the angle between and a b
G
G
is
(A) /6 (B) /4 (C) /3 (D) /2
12. Area of a rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with position vectors
1 1

4 , 4
2 2
i j k i j k + + + + ,
1

4
2
i j k + and
1

4
2
i j k + , respectively is
(A)
1
2
(B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 4
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
Solution Let r x i y j

= +
G
be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos and y = sin (since |
r
G
| = 1). So, we may write the vector
r
G
as
( )
OP r =
JJJG
G
=

cos sin i j +
... (1)
Clearly,
| | r
G
=
2 2
cos sin 1 + =
Fig 10.28
Also, as varies from 0 to 2, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.
MATHEMATICS 456
Example 27 If

, 2 5 , 3 2 3 and 6 + + + + i j k i j i j k i j k are the position
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between AB
JJJG
and
CD
JJJG
. Deduce that AB
JJJG
and CD
JJJG
are collinear.
Solution Note that if is the angle between AB and CD, then is also the angle
between AB and CD
JJJG JJJG
.
Now AB
JJJG
= Position vector of B Position vector of A
=

(2 5 ) ( ) 4 i j i j k i j k + + + = +
Therefore | AB|
JJJG
=
2 2 2
(1) (4) ( 1) 3 2 + + =
Similarly
CD
JJJG
=

2 8 2 and | CD| 6 2 i j k + =
JJJG
Thus cos =
AB CD
|AB||CD|
JJJG JJJG
JJJG JJJG
=
1( 2) 4( 8) ( 1)(2) 36
1
36 (3 2)(6 2)
+ +
= =
Since 0 , it follows that = . This shows that AB
JJJG
and CD
JJJG
are collinear.
Alternatively,
1
AB CD
2
=
JJJG JJJG
which implies that ABand CD
JJJG JJJG
are collinear vectors.
Example 28 Let , and a b c
G
G G
be three vectors such that | | 3, | | 4, | | 5 a b c = = =
G
G G
and
each one of them being perpendicular to the sum of the other two, find
| | a b c + +
G
G G
.
Solution Given ( ) a b c +
G
G G
= 0, ( ) 0, ( ) 0. b c a c a b + = + =
G G
G G G G
Now
2
| | a b c + +
G
G G
=
2
( ) ( ) ( ) a b c a b c a b c + + = + + + +
G G G
G G G G G G
= ( ) ( ) a a a b c b b b a c + + + + +
G G G G
G G G G G G
+ .( ) . c a b c c + +
G
G G G G
=
2 2 2
| | | | | | a b c + +
G
G G
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
Therefore | | a b c + +
G
G G
=
50 5 2 =
VECTOR ALGEBRA 457
Example 29 Three vectors
, and a b c
G
G G
satisfy the condition 0 a b c + + =
G G
G G
. Evaluate
the quantity , if | | 1, | | 4 and | | 2 a b b c c a a b c = + + = = =
G G G
G G G G G G
.
Solution Since 0 a b c + + =
G G
G G
, we have
( ) a a b c + +
G
G G G
= 0
or
a a a b a c + +
G
G G G G G
= 0
Therefore
a b a c +
G
G G G
=
2
1 a =
G
... (1)
Again, ( )
b a b c + +
G G
G G
= 0
or
a b b c +
G G
G G
=
2
16 b =
G
... (2)
Similarly a c b c +
G
G G G
= 4. ... (3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have
2 ( ) a b b a c c + +
G G G
G G G
= 21
or 2 = 21, i.e., =
21
2
Example 30 If with reference to the right handed system of mutually perpendicular

unit vectors

, and , 3 , 2 3 i j k i j i j k = = +
G
G
, then express
G
in the form
1 2 1
, where = +
G G G G
is parallel to
2
and
G
G
is perpendicular to
G
.
Solution Let
1
, =
G
G
is a scalar, i.e.,
1

3 i j =
G
.
Now
2 1
=
G G G
=

(2 3 ) (1 ) 3 i j k + + .
Now, since
2
G
is to be perpendicular to
G
, we should have
2
0 =
G
G
. i.e.,
3(2 3 ) (1 ) + = 0
or =
1
2
Therefore
1
G
=
3 1

2 2
i j and
2
1 3

3
2 2
i j k = +
G
MATHEMATICS 458
1. Write down a unit vector in XY-plane, making an angle of 30 with the positive
direction of x-axis.
2. Find the scalar components and magnitude of the vector joining the points
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
).
3. A girl walks 4 km towards west, then she walks 3 km in a direction 30 east of
north and stops. Determine the girls displacement from her initial point of
departure.
4. If a b c = +
G
G G
, then is it true that | | | | | | a b c = +
G
G G
? Justify your answer.
5. Find the value of x for which

( ) x i j k + + is a unit vector.
6. Find a vector of magnitude 5 units, and parallel to the resultant of the vectors

2 3 and 2 a i j k b i j k = + = +
G
G
.
7. If

, 2 3 and 2 a i j k b i j k c i j k = + + = + = +
G
G G
, find a unit vector parallel
to the vector 2 3 a b c +
G
G G
.
8. Show that the points A(1, 2, 8), B(5, 0, 2) and C(11, 3, 7) are collinear, and
find the ratio in which B divides AC.
9. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points
P and Q whose position vectors are (2 ) and ( 3 ) a b a b +
G G
G G
externally in the ratio
1 : 2. Also, show that P is the mid point of the line segment RQ.
10. The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are

2 4 5 and 2 3 i j k i j k + .
Find the unit vector parallel to its diagonal. Also, find its area.
11. Show that the direction cosines of a vector equally inclined to the axes OX, OY
and OZ are
1 1 1
, , .
3 3 3
12. Let

4 2 , 3 2 7 and 2 4 a i j k b i j k c i j k = + + = + = +
G
G G
. Find a vector d
G
which is perpendicular to both and a b
G
G
, and 15 c d =
G
G
.
13. The scalar product of the vector

i j k + + with a unit vector along the sum of
vectors

2 4 5 i j k + and

2 3 i j k + + is equal to one. Find the value of .
14. If , , c a b
G
G G
are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes, show that
the vector a b c + +
G
G G
is equally inclined to , and a b c
G
G G
.
VECTOR ALGEBRA 459
15. Prove that
2 2
( ) ( ) | | | | a b a b a b + + = +
G G G
G G G
, if and only if , a b
G
G
are perpendicular,
given 0, 0 a b
G G G
G
.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 16 to 19.
16. If is the angle between two vectors and a b
G
G
, then 0 a b
G
G
only when
(A) 0
2
< < (B) 0

2

(C) 0 < < (D) 0
17. Let and a b
G
G
be two unit vectors and is the angle between them. Then a b +
G
G
is a unit vector if
(A)
4
= (B)
3
= (C)
2
= (D)
2
3
=
18. The value of

.( ) ( ) ( ) i j k j i k k i j + + is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 1 (D) 3
19. If is the angle between any two vectors and a b
G
G
, then | | | | a b a b =
G G
G G
when
is equal to
(A) 0 (B)
4
(C)
2
(D)
Summary
Position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is given as

OP( ) r xi yj zk = = + +
JJJG
G
, and its
magnitude by
2 2 2
x y z + + .
The scalar components of a vector are its direction ratios, and represent its
projections along the respective axes.
The magnitude (r), direction ratios (a, b, c) and direction cosines (l, m, n) of
any vector are related as:
, ,
a b c
l m n
r r r
= = =
The vector sum of the three sides of a triangle taken in order is 0

G
.
MATHEMATICS 460
The vector sum of two coinitial vectors is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the given vectors.
The multiplication of a given vector by a scalar , changes the magnitude of

the vector by the multiple | |, and keeps the direction same (or makes it
opposite) according as the value of is positive (or negative).
For a given vector

a
G
, the vector
| |
a
a
a
=
G
G
gives the unit vector in the direction
of a
G
.
The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points
P and Q whose position vectors are and a b
G
G
respectively, in the ratio m : n
(i) internally, is given by
na mb
m n
+
+
G
G
.
(ii) externally, is given by
mb na
m n
G
G
.
The scalar product of two given vectors and a b

G
G
having angle between
them is defined as
| || | cos a b a b =
G G
G G
.
Also, when
a b
G
G
is given, the angle between the vectors and a b
G
G
may be
determined by
cos =
| || |
a b
a b
G
G
G
G
If is the angle between two vectors and a b

G
G
, then their cross product is
given as
a b
G
G
= | || | sin a b n
G
G
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing and a b
G
G
. Such
that , ,
G
G
a b n form right handed system of coordinate axes.
If we have two vectors and a b

G
G
, given in component form as
1 2 3

a a i a j a k = + +
G
and
1 2 3

b b i b j b k = + +
G
and any scalar,
VECTOR ALGEBRA 461
then a b +
G
G
=
1 1 2 2 3 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a b i a b j a b k + + + + + ;
a
G
=
1 2 3

( ) ( ) ( ) a i a j a k + + ;
. a b
G
G
=
1 1 2 2 3 3
a b a b a b + + ;
and a b
G
G
=
1 1 1
2 2 2

.
i j k
a b c
a b c
Historical Note
The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus, which means
to carry. The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822) described
that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric interpretation with
the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane. William Rowen Hamilton
(1805-1865) an Irish mathematician was the first to use the term vector for a
directed line segment in his book Lectures on Quaternions (1853). Hamiltons
method of quaternions (an ordered set of four real numbers given as:

, , , a bi cj dk i j k + + + following certain algebraic rules) was a solution to the
problem of multiplying vectors in three dimensional space. Though, we must
mention here that in practice, the idea of vector concept and their addition was
known much earlier ever since the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek
philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-348 B.C.). That time it was supposed to be
known that the combined action of two or more forces could be seen by adding
them according to parallelogram law. The correct law for the composition of
forces, that forces add vectorially, had been discovered in the case of perpendicular
forces by Stevin-Simon (1548-1620). In 1586 A.D., he analysed the principle of
geometric addition of forces in his treatise DeBeghinselen der Weeghconst
(Principles of the Art of Weighing), which caused a major breakthrough in the
development of mechanics. But it took another 200 years for the general concept
of vectors to form.
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American physicist
and mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
MATHEMATICS 462
part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part. In 1881 and 1884, Gibbs
printed a treatise entitled Element of Vector Analysis. This book gave a systematic
and concise account of vectors. However, much of the credit for demonstrating
the applications of vectors is due to the D. Heaviside and P.G. Tait (1831-1901)
who contributed significantly to this subject.
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 463

LThe moving power of mathematical invention is not
reasoning but imagination. A. DEMORGAN L
11.1 Introduction
In Class XI, while studying Analytical Geometry in two
dimensions, and the introduction to three dimensional
geometry, we confined to the Cartesian methods only. In
the previous chapter of this book, we have studied some
basic concepts of vectors. We will now use vector algebra
to three dimensional geometry. The purpose of this
approach to 3-dimensional geometry is that it makes the
study simple and elegant*.
In this chapter, we shall study the direction cosines
and direction ratios of a line joining two points and also
discuss about the equations of lines and planes in space
under different conditions, angle between two lines, two
planes, a line and a plane, shortest distance between two
skew lines and distance of a point from a plane. Most of
the above results are obtained in vector form. Nevertheless, we shall also translate
these results in the Cartesian form which, at times, presents a more clear geometric
and analytic picture of the situation.
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
From Chapter 10, recall that if a directed line L passing through the origin makes
angles , and with x, y and z-axes, respectively, called direction angles, then cosine
of these angles, namely, cos , cos and cos are called direction cosines of the
directed line L.
If we reverse the direction of L, then the direction angles are replaced by their supplements,
i.e., , and . Thus, the signs of the direction cosines are reversed.
Chapter 11
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
* For various activities in three dimensional geometry, one may refer to the Book
A Hand Book for designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools, NCERT, 2005
Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783)
MATHEMATICS 464
Note that a given line in space can be extended in two opposite directions and so it
has two sets of direction cosines. In order to have a unique set of direction cosines for
a given line in space, we must take the given line as a directed line. These unique
direction cosines are denoted by l, m and n.
Remark If the given line in space does not pass through the origin, then, in order to find
its direction cosines, we draw a line through the origin and parallel to the given line.
Now take one of the directed lines from the origin and find its direction cosines as two
parallel line have same set of direction cosines.
Any three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line are
called the direction ratios of the line. If l, m, n are direction cosines and a, b, c are
direction ratios of a line, then a = l, b=m and c = n, for any nonzero R.
A
Note Some authors also call direction ratios as direction numbers.
Let a, b, c be direction ratios of a line and let l, m and n be the direction cosines
(d.cs) of the line. Then
l
a
=
m
b
=
n
k
c

(say), k being a constant.
Therefore l = ak, m = bk, n = ck ... (1)
But l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1
Therefore k
2
(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) = 1
or k =
2 2 2
1
a b c
- -
Fig 11.1
Hence, from (1), the d.c.s of the line are
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
, ,
a b c
l m n
a b c a b c a b c

- - - - - -
where, depending on the desired sign of k, either a positive or a negative sign is to be
taken for l, m and n.
For any line, if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then ka, kb, kc; k 0 is also a
set of direction ratios. So, any two sets of direction ratios of a line are also proportional.
Also, for any line there are infinitely many sets of direction ratios.
11.2.1 Relation between the direction cosines of a line
Consider a line RS with direction cosines l, m, n. Through
the origin draw a line parallel to the given line and take a
point P(x, y, z) on this line. From P draw a perpendicular
PA on the x-axis (Fig. 11.2).
Let OP = r. Then
OA
cos
OP

x
r
. This gives x = lr.
Similarly, y = mr and z = nr
Thus x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= r
2
(l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
)
But x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= r
2
Hence l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1
11.2.2 Direction cosines of a line passing through two points
Since one and only one line passes through two given points, we can determine the
direction cosines of a line passing through the given points P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
as follows (Fig 11.3 (a)).
Fig 11.3
r
Z
X
Y
R
S
P ( , , )
x y z
A
O
a
A O
P
x
a
a
Fig 11.2
MATHEMATICS 466
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the line PQ and let it makes angles , and
with the x, y and z-axis, respectively.
Draw perpendiculars from P and Q to XY-plane to meet at R and S. Draw a
perpendicular from P to QS to meet at N. Now, in right angle triangle PNQ, PQN=
(Fig 11.3 (b).
Therefore, cos =
2 1
NQ
PQ PQ
z z
Similarly cos =
2 1 2 1
and cos
PQ PQ
x x y y
Hence, the direction cosines of the line segment joining the points P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and
Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) are
2 1
PQ
x x
,
2 1
PQ
y y
,
2 1
PQ
z z
where PQ =
( )
2
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) x x y y z z - -
A
Note The direction ratios of the line segment joining P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
may be taken as
x
2
x
1
, y
2
y
1
, z
2
z
1
or x
1
x
2
, y
1
y
2
, z
1
z
2
Example 1 If a line makes angle 90, 60 and 30 with the positive direction of x, y and
z-axis respectively, find its direction cosines.
Solution Let the d. c. 's of the lines be l , m, n. Then l = cos 90
0
= 0, m = cos 60
0
=
1
2
,
n = cos 30
0
=
2
3
.
Example 2 If a line has direction ratios 2, 1, 2, determine its direction cosines.
Solution Direction cosines are
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( 2
2
- -
,
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( 2
1
- -

,
( )
2 2 2
) 2 ( 1 2
2
- -

or
2 1 2
, ,
3 3 3

Example 3 Find the direction cosines of the line passing through the two points
( 2, 4, 5) and (1, 2, 3).
Solution We know the direction cosines of the line passing through two points
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) are given by
2 1 2 1 2 1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
x x y y z z
where PQ =
( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( z z y y x x - -
Here P is ( 2, 4, 5) and Q is (1, 2, 3).
So PQ =
2 2 2
(1 ( 2)) (2 4) (3 ( 5)) - -
=
77
Thus, the direction cosines of the line joining two points is
3 2 8
, ,
77 77 77
Example 4 Find the direction cosines of x, y and z-axis.

Solution The x-axis makes angles 0, 90 and 90 respectively with x, y and z-axis.
Therefore, the direction cosines of x-axis are cos 0, cos 90, cos 90 i.e., 1,0,0.
Similarly, direction cosines of y-axis and z-axis are 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1 respectively.
Example 5 Show that the points A (2, 3, 4), B (1, 2, 3) and C (3, 8, 11) are
collinear.
Solution Direction ratios of line joining A and B are
1 2, 2 3, 3 + 4 i.e., 1, 5, 7.
The direction ratios of line joining B and C are
3 1, 8 + 2, 11 3, i.e., 2, 10, 14.
It is clear that direction ratios of AB and BC are proportional, hence, AB is parallel
to BC. But point B is common to both AB and BC. Therefore, A, B, C are
collinear points.
EXERCISE 11.1
1. If a line makes angles 90, 135, 45 with the x, y and z-axes respectively, find its
direction cosines.
2. Find the direction cosines of a line which makes equal angles with the coordinate
axes.
3. If a line has the direction ratios 18, 12, 4, then what are its direction cosines ?
4. Show that the points (2, 3, 4), ( 1, 2, 1), (5, 8, 7) are collinear.
5. Find the direction cosines of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
(3, 5, 4), ( 1, 1, 2) and ( 5, 5, 2).
MATHEMATICS 468
11.3 Equation of a Line in Space
We have studied equation of lines in two dimensions in Class XI, we shall now study
the vector and cartesian equations of a line in space.
A line is uniquely determined if
(i) it passes through a given point and has given direction, or
(ii) it passes through two given points.
11.3.1Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to a given vector
H
b
Let a
H
be the position vector of the given point
A with respect to the origin O of the
rectangular coordinate system. Let l be the
line which passes through the point A and is
parallel to a given vector b
H
. Let r
H
be the
position vector of an arbitrary point P on the
line (Fig 11.4).
Then
AP
KKKH
is parallel to the vector b
H
, i.e.,
AP
KKKH
= b
H
, where is some real number.
But
AP
KKKH

= OP OA
KKKH KKKH
i.e. b
H
= r a
H H
Conversely, for each value of the parameter , this equation gives the position
vector of a point P on the line. Hence, the vector equation of the line is given by
H
r
=
H
H
a + b ... (1)
Remark If

b ai bj ck - -
H
, then a, b, c are direction ratios of the line and conversely,
if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then

- -
H
b ai bj ck
will be the parallel to
the line. Here, b should not be confused with |
H
b|.
Derivation of cartesian form from vector form
Let the coordinates of the given point A be (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and the direction ratios of
the line be a, b, c. Consider the coordinates of any point P be (x, y, z). Then
k z j y i x r

- -
H
;
k z j y i x a

1 1 1
- -
H
and

b a i b j c k - -
H
Substituting these values in (1) and equating the coefficients of

, i j
and k
, we get
x = x
1
+ a; y = y
1
+ b; z = z
1
+ c ... (2)
Fig 11.4
These are parametric equations of the line. Eliminating the parameter from (2),
we get
1
x x
a
=
1 1
y y z z
=
b c
... (3)
This is the Cartesian equation of the line.
A
Note If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line, the equation of the line is
1
x x
l
=
1 1
y y z z
=
m n
Example 6 Find the vector and the Cartesian equations of the line through the point
(5, 2, 4) and which is parallel to the vector

3 2 8 i j k -
.
Solution We have
a
H
=

5 2 4 and 3 2 8 i j k b i j k - -
H
Therefore, the vector equation of the line is
r
H
=

5 2 4 ( 3 2 8 ) i j k i j k - - -
Now, r
H
is the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) on the line.
Therefore,

xi y j z k - -
=

5 2 4 ( 3 2 8 ) i j k i j k - - -
=

(5 3 ) (2 2 ) ( 4 8 ) i j k - - - -
Eliminating , we get
5
3
x
=
2 4
2 8
y z -
which is the equation of the line in Cartesian form.

11.3.2 Equation of a line passing through two given points
Let a
H
and
b
H
be the position vectors of two
points A(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and B(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
),
respectively that are lying on a line (Fig 11.5).
Let r
H
be the position vector of an
arbitrary point P(x, y, z), then P is a point on
the line if and only if AP r a
KKKH
H H
and
AB b a
KKKH H
H
are collinear vectors. Therefore,
P is on the line if and only if
( ) r a b a
H
H H H
Fig 11.5
MATHEMATICS 470
or ( ) r a b a -
H
H H H
, R. ... (1)
This is the vector equation of the line.
Derivation of cartesian form from vector form
We have
1 1 1

, r xi y j z k a x i y j z k - - - -
H H
and
2 2 2

, b x i y j z k - -
H
Substituting these values in (1), we get

1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
[( ) ( ) ( ) ] xi y j z k x i y j z k x x i y y j z z k - - - - - - -

Equating the like coefficients of k j i
, we get
x = x
1
+ (x
2
x
1
); y = y
1
+ (y
2
y
1
); z = z
1
+ (z
2
z
1
)
On eliminating , we obtain
1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
x x y y z z
x x y y z z

which is the equation of the line in Cartesian form.
Example 7 Find the vector equation for the line passing through the points (1, 0, 2)
and (3, 4, 6).
Solution Let a
H
and
b
H
be the position vectors of the point A( 1, 0, 2) and B(3, 4, 6).
Then
2 a i k -
H
and

3 4 6 b i j k - -
H
Therefore

4 4 4 b a i j k - -
H
H
Let r
H
be the position vector of any point on the line. Then the vector equation of
the line is

2 (4 4 4 ) r i k i j k - - - -
H
Example 8 The Cartesian equation of a line is
3 5 6
2 4 2
x y z - -

Find the vector equation for the line.
Solution Comparing the given equation with the standard form
1 1 1
x x y y z z
a b c

We observe that x
1
= 3, y
1
= 5, z
1
= 6; a = 2, b = 4, c = 2.
Thus, the required line passes through the point ( 3, 5, 6) and is parallel to the
vector

2 4 2 i j k - - . Let r
H
be the position vector of any point on the line, then the
vector equation of the line is given by

( 3 5 6 ) r i j k -
H
+

(2 4 2 ) i j k - -
11.4 Angle between Two Lines
Let L
1
and L
2
be two lines passing through the origin
and with direction ratios a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
,
respectively. Let P be a point on L
1
and Q be a point
on L
2
. Consider the directed lines OP and OQ as
given in Fig 11.6. Let be the acute angle between
OP and OQ. Now recall that the directed line
segments OP and OQ are vectors with components
a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
, respectively. Therefore, the
angle between them is given by
cos =
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
a a b b c c
a b c a b c
- -
- - - -
... (1)
The angle between the lines in terms of sin is given by
sin =
2
1 cos
=
( )( )
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
( )
1
a a b b c c
a b c a b c
- -
- - - -
=
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
a b c a b c a a b b c c
a b c a b c
- - - - - -
- - - -
=
2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) - -
- - - -
a b a b b c b c c a c a
a b c a b c
... (2)
A
Note In case the lines L
1
and L
2
do not pass through the origin, we may take
lines
1 2
L andL which are parallel to L
1
and L
2
respectively and pass through
the origin.
Fig 11.6
MATHEMATICS 472
If instead of direction ratios for the lines L
1
and L
2
, direction cosines, namely,
l
1
, m
1
, n
1
for L
1
and l
2
, m
2
, n
2
for L
2
are given, then (1) and (2) takes the following form:
cos = | l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
| (as
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 l m n - -
2 2 2
2 2 2
l m n - -
) ... (3)
and sin =
( )
2
2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
( ) ( ) l m l m m n m n n l n l -
... (4)
Two lines with direction ratios a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
are
(i) perpendicular i.e. if = 90 by (1)
a
1
a
2
+ b
1
b
2
+ c
1
c
2
= 0
(ii) parallel i.e. if = 0 by (2)
1
2
a
a
=
1 1
2 2
b c
b c
Now, we find the angle between two lines when their equations are given. If is
acute the angle between the lines
r
H
=
1 1
a b -
KH
and r
H
=
2 2
a b -
H
H
then cos =
1 2
1 2
b b
b b
H H
H H
In Cartesian form, if is the angle between the lines
1
1
x x
a
=
1 1
1 1
y y z z
b c

... (1)
and
2
2
x x
a
=
2 2
2 2
y y z z
b c

... (2)
where, a
1
, b
1,
c
1
and a
2,
b
2
, c
2
are the direction ratios of the lines (1) and (2), respectively,
then
cos =
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
a a b b c c
a b c a b c
- -
- - - -
Example 9 Find the angle between the pair of lines given by
r
H
=

3 2 4 ( 2 2 ) i j k i j k - - - -
and
r
H
=

5 2 (3 2 6 ) i j i j k - - -
Solution Here
1
b
H
=

2 2 i j k - -
and
2
b
H
=

3 2 6 i j k - -
The angle between the two lines is given by
cos =
1 2
1 2

( 2 2 ) (3 2 6 )
1 4 4 9 4 36
b b i j k i j k
b b
- - - -
- - - -
H H
H H
=
3 4 12 19
3 7 21
- -

Hence = cos
1

19
21

(
,
Example 10 Find the angle between the pair of lines
3
3
x -
=
1 3
5 4
y z -
and
1
1
x -
=
4 5
1 2
y z
Solution The direction ratios of the first line are 3, 5, 4 and the direction ratios of the
second line are 1, 1, 2. If is the angle between them, then
cos =
2 2 2 2 2 2
3.1 5.1 4.2 16 16 8 3
15
50 6 5 2 6
3 5 4 1 1 2
- -

- - - -
Hence, the required angle is cos
1
8 3
15

(
(
,
.
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then the shortest distance between them is
zero. Also, if two lines in space are parallel,
then the shortest distance between them
will be the perpendicular distance, i.e. the
length of the perpendicular drawn from a
point on one line onto the other line.
Further, in a space, there are lines which
are neither intersecting nor parallel. In fact,
such pair of lines are non coplanar and
are called skew lines. For example, let us
consider a room of size 1, 3, 2 units along
x, y and z-axes respectively Fig 11.7.
Fig 11.7
MATHEMATICS 474
l
2
S
T
Q
P
l
1
The line GE that goes diagonally across the ceiling and the line DB passes through
one corner of the ceiling directly above A and goes diagonally down the wall. These
lines are skew because they are not parallel and also never meet.
By the shortest distance between two lines we mean the join of a point in one line
with one point on the other line so that the length of the segment so obtained is the
smallest.
For skew lines, the line of the shortest distance will be perpendicular to both
the lines.
11.5.1 Distance between two skew lines
We now determine the shortest distance between two skew lines in the following way:
Let l
1
and l
2
be two skew lines with equations (Fig. 11.8)
r
H
=
1 1
a b -
H
H
... (1)
and
r
H
=
2 2
a b -
H
H
... (2)
Take any point S on l
1
with position vector
1
a
H

and T on l
2
, with position vector
2
a
H
.
Then the magnitude of the shortest distance vector
will be equal to that of the projection of ST along the
direction of the line of shortest distance (See 10.6.2).
If
PQ
KKKH
is the shortest distance vector between
l
1
and l
2
, then it being perpendicular to both
1
b
H
and
2
b
H
, the unit vector
n
along
PQ
KKKH
would therefore be
n
=
1 2
1 2
| |
b b
b b
H H
H H
... (3)
Then
PQ
KKKH
= d
n
where, d is the magnitude of the shortest distance vector. Let be the angle between
ST
KKH
and PQ
KKKH
. Then
PQ = ST | cos |
But cos =
PQ ST
| PQ | | ST |
KKKH KKH
KKKKH KKH
=
2 1
( )
ST
d n a a
d

H H
(since
2 1
ST ) a a
KKH
H H
=
1 2 2 1
1 2
( ) ( )
ST
b b a a
b b

H H
H H
H H
[From (3)]
Fig 11.8
Hence, the required shortest distance is
d = PQ = ST | cos |
or d =
1 2 2 1
1 2
( ) . ( )
| |
b b a a
b b

H H
H H
H H
Cartesian form
The shortest distance between the lines
l
1
:
1
1
x x
a
=
1 1
1 1
y y z z
b c

and l
2
:
2
2
x x
a
=
2 2
2 2
y y z z
b c

is
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
x x y y z z
a b c
a b c
b c b c c a c a a b a b

- -
11.5.2 Distance between parallel lines
If two lines l
1
and l
2
are parallel, then they are coplanar. Let the lines be given by
r
H
=
1
a b -
H
H
... (1)
and
r
H
=
2
a b -
H
H
(2)
where,
1
a
H
is the position vector of a point S on l
1
and
2
a
H

is the position vector of a point T on l
2
Fig 11.9.
As l
1
, l
2
are coplanar, if the foot of the perpendicular
from T on the line l
1
is P, then the distance between the
lines l
1
and l
2
= | TP|.
Let be the angle between the vectors
ST
KKH
and b
H
.
Then
ST b
KKH H
= ( | | | ST| sin ) b n
KKH H
... (3)
where n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the lines l
1
and l
2.
But
ST
KKH
=
2 1
a a
H H
Fig 11.9
MATHEMATICS 476
Therefore, from (3), we get
2 1
( ) b a a
H
H H
= | | PT b n
H
(since PT = ST sin )
i.e.,
2 1
| ( )| b a a
H
H H
=
| | PT 1 b
H
(as | | n = 1)
Hence, the distance between the given parallel lines is
d =
2 1
( )
| PT|
| |
b a a
b

H
H H
KKKH
H
Example 11 Find the shortest distance between the lines l
1
and l
2
whose vector
equations are
r
H
=

(2 ) i j i j k - - -
... (1)
and
r
H
=

2 (3 5 2 ) i j k i j k - - -
... (2)
Solution Comparing (1) and (2) with
r
H
=
1 1
a b -
H
H
and
2 2
b a r
H
H H
-
respectively,
we get
1
a
H
=
1

, 2 i j b i j k - -
H
2
a
H
= 2
i +
k and
2
b
H
= 3
i 5
j
+ 2
k
Therefore
2 1
a a
H H
=
i k
and
1 2
b b
H H
=

( 2 ) ( 3 5 2 ) i j k i j k - -
=

2 1 1 3 7
3 5 2
i j k
i j k
So
1 2
| | b b
H H
= 9 1 49 59 - -
Hence, the shortest distance between the given lines is given by
d =
| |
) ( . ) (
2 1
1 2 2 1
b b
a a b b
H H
H H
H H

59
10
59
| 7 0 3 |
Example 12 Find the distance between the lines l

1
and l
2
given by
r
H
=

2 4 ( 2 3 6 ) i j k i j k - - - -
and r
H
=

3 3 5 ( 2 3 6 ) i j k i j k - - - -
Solution The two lines are parallel (Why? ) We have
1
a
H
=

2 4 i j k - ,
2
a
H
=

3 3 5 i j k - and b
H
=

2 3 6 i j k - -
Therefore, the distance between the lines is given by
d =
2 1
( )
| |
b a a
b

H
H H
H
=

2 3 6
2 1 1
4 9 36
i j k
- -
or =

| 9 14 4 | 293 293
7
49 49
i j k -

EXERCISE 11.2
1. Show that the three lines with direction cosines
12 3 4 4 12 3 3 4 12
, , ; , , ; , ,
13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

are mutually perpendicular.
2. Show that the line through the points (1, 1, 2), (3, 4, 2) is perpendicular to the
line through the points (0, 3, 2) and (3, 5, 6).
3. Show that the line through the points (4, 7, 8), (2, 3, 4) is parallel to the line
through the points ( 1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 5).
4. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, 2, 3) and is
parallel to the vector

3 2 2 i j k - .
5. Find the equation of the line in vector and in cartesian form that passes through
the point with position vector
2 4 i j k - and is in the direction

2 i j k - .
6. Find the cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point ( 2, 4, 5)
and parallel to the line given by
3 4 8
3 5 6
x y z - -
.
7. The cartesian equation of a line is
5 4 6
3 7 2
x y z -
. Write its vector form.
8. Find the vector and the cartesian equations of the lines that passes through the
origin and (5, 2, 3).
MATHEMATICS 478
9. Find the vector and the cartesian equations of the line that passes through the
points (3, 2, 5), (3, 2, 6).
10. Find the angle between the following pairs of lines:
(i)

2 5 (3 2 6 ) r i j k i j k - - - -
H
and

7 6 ( 2 2 ) r i k i j k - - -
H
(ii)

3 2 ( 2 ) r i j k i j k - -
H
and

2 56 (3 5 4 ) r i j k i j k -
H
11. Find the angle between the following pair of lines:
(i)
2 1 3 2 4 5
and
2 5 3 1 8 4
x y z x y z - -

(ii)
5 2 3
and
2 2 1 4 1 8
x y z x y z

12. Find the values of p so that the lines
1 7 14 3
3 2 2
x y z
p

and
7 7 5 6
3 1 5
x y z
p

are at right angles.
13. Show that the lines
5 2
7 5 1
x y z -

and
1 2 3
x y z
are perpendicular to
each other.
14. Find the shortest distance between the lines

( 2 ) r i j k - -
H
+

( ) i j k - and

2 (2 2 ) r i j k i j k - - -
H
15. Find the shortest distance between the lines
1 1 1
7 6 1
x y z - - -

and
3 5 7
1 2 1
x y z

16. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are

( 2 3 ) r i j k - -
H
+

( 3 2 ) i j k -
and

4 5 6 (2 3 ) r i j k i j k - - - - -
H
17. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are

(1 ) ( 2) (3 2 ) r t i t j t k - -
H
and

( 1) (2 1) (2 1) r s i s j s k - - -
H
11.6 Plane
A plane is determined uniquely if any one of the following is known:
(i) the normal to the plane and its distance from the origin is given, i.e., equation of
a plane in normal form.
(ii) it passes through a point and is perpendicular to a given direction.
(iii) it passes through three given non collinear points.
Now we shall find vector and Cartesian equations of the planes.
11.6.1Equation of a plane in normal form
Consider a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is d (d 0). Fig 11.10.
If
ON
KKKH
is the normal from the origin to the plane, and
n
is the unit normal vector
along
ON
KKKH
. Then ON
KKKH
= d n
. Let P be any
point on the plane. Therefore, NP
KKKH
is
perpendicular to
ON
KKKH
.
Therefore,
NP ON
KKKH KKKH
= 0 ... (1)
Let r
H
be the position vector of the point P,
then NP
KKKH
= n d r
H
(as
ON NP OP -
KKKH KKKH KKKH
)
Therefore, (1) becomes
( ) r d n d n

H
= 0
or ( ) r d n n

H
= 0 (d 0)
or
r n d n n

H
= 0
i.e., r n
H
= d (as 1) n n

(2)
This is the vector form of the equation of the plane.
Cartesian form
Equation (2) gives the vector equation of a plane, where n is the unit vector normal to
the plane. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane. Then
OP
KKKH
=

r x i y j z k - -
H
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of n . Then
n
=

l i m j n k - -
X
Y
Z
N
P( ) x, y, z
r
d
O
Fig 11.10
MATHEMATICS 480
Therefore, (2) gives

( ) ( ) x i y j z k l i m j n k d - - - -
i.e., lx + my + nz = d ... (3)
This is the cartesian equation of the plane in the normal form.
A
Note Equation (3) shows that if

( ) r a i b j c k - -
H
= d is the vector equation
of a plane, then ax + by + cz = d is the Cartesian equation of the plane, where a, b
and c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
Example 13 Find the vector equation of the plane which is at a distance of
29
6
from the origin and its normal vector from the origin is

2 3 4 i j k -
. Also find its
cartesian form.
Solution Let k j i n
2 -
H
. Then
| |
n
n
n
H
H
=

2 3 4 2 3 4
4 9 16 29
i j k i j k - -
- -
Hence, the required equation of the plane is
2 3 4 6

29 29 29 29
r i j k

- -
(
,
H
Example 14 Find the direction cosines of the unit vector perpendicular to the plane

(6 3 2 ) 1 r i j k -
H
= 0 passing through the origin.
Solution The given equation can be written as

( 6 3 2 - -
H
r i j k ) = 1 ... (1)
Now

| 6 3 2 | i j k - - = 36 9 4 7 - -
Therefore, dividing both sides of (1) by 7, we get
6 3 2

7 7 7
r i j k

- -
(
,
H
=
1
7
which is the equation of the plane in the form r n d
H
.
This shows that k j i n
7
2
7
3
7
6
- - is a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane through the origin. Hence, the direction cosines of n are
7
2
,
7
3
,
7
6
.
Z
Y
X
O
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
Example 15 Find the distance of the plane 2x 3y + 4z 6 = 0 from the origin.
Solution Since the direction ratios of the normal to the plane are 2, 3, 4; the direction
cosines of it are
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 4
, ,
2 ( 3) 4 2 ( 3) 4 2 ( 3) 4
- - - - - -
, i.e.,
2 3 4
, ,
29 29 29
Hence, dividing the equation 2x 3y + 4z 6 = 0 i.e., 2x 3y + 4z = 6 throughout by

29
, we get
2 3 4 6
29 29 29 29
x y z
- -
This is of the form lx + my + nz = d, where d is the distance of the plane from the
origin. So, the distance of the plane from the origin is
29
6
.
Example 16 Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the
origin to the plane 2x 3y + 4z 6 = 0.
Solution Let the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular P from the origin to the
plane is (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) (Fig 11.11).
Then, the direction ratios of the line OP are
x
1
, y
1
, z
1
.
Writing the equation of the plane in the normal
form, we have
2 3 4 6
29 29 29 29
x y z -
where,
2 3 4
, ,
29 29 29
are the direction

cosines of the OP.
Since d.c.s and direction ratios of a line are proportional, we have
1
2
29
x
=
1 1
3 4
29 29
y z
= k
i.e., x
1
=
29
2k
, y
1
=
1
3 4
,
29 29
k k
z

Fig 11.11
MATHEMATICS 482
Substituting these in the equation of the plane, we get k =
29
6
.
Hence, the foot of the perpendicular is
12 18 24
, ,
29 29 29

(
,
.
A
Note If d is the distance from the origin and l, m, n are the direction cosines of
the normal to the plane through the origin, then the foot of the perpendicular is
(ld, md, nd).
11.6.2Equation of a plane perpendicular to a
given vector and passing through a given point
In the space, there can be many planes that are
perpendicular to the given vector, but through a given
point P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), only one such plane exists (see
Fig 11.12).
Let a plane pass through a point A with position
vector a
H
and perpendicular to the vector N
KH
.
Let r
H
be the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) in the plane. (Fig 11.13).
Then the point P lies in the plane if and only if
AP
KKKH
is perpendicular to N
KH
. i.e., AP
KKKH
. N
KH
= 0. But
AP r a
KKKH
H H
. Therefore, ( ) N 0 r a
H
H H
(1)
This is the vector equation of the plane.
Cartesian form
Let the given point A be (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), P be (x, y, z)
and direction ratios of N
KH
are A, B and C. Then,
1 1 1

, a x i y j z k r xi y j z k - - - -
H H
and

N A B C i j k - -
H
Now
( ) N=0 r a
H
H H
So ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1

(A B C ) 0 x x i y y j z z k i j k
(
- - - -

i.e. A(x x
1
) + B(y y
1
) + C(z z
1
) = 0
Example 17 Find the vector and cartesian equations of the plane which passes through
the point (5, 2, 4) and perpendicular to the line with direction ratios 2, 3, 1.
Fig 11.12
Fig 11.13
Y
Z
O
a
r
R
P
S
b
c
(RS RT) X
X
T
Solution We have the position vector of point (5, 2, 4) as

5 2 4 a i j k -
H
and the
normal vector N
H
perpendicular to the plane as

N=2 +3 i j k
H
Therefore, the vector equation of the plane is given by
( ). N 0 r a
H
H H
or

[ (5 2 4 )] (2 3 ) 0 r i j k i j k - -
H
... (1)
Transforming (1) into Cartesian form, we have

[( 5) ( 2) ( 4) ] (2 3 ) 0 x i y j z k i j k - - - -
or 2( 5) 3( 2) 1( 4) 0 x y z - -
i.e. 2x + 3y z = 20
which is the cartesian equation of the plane.
11.6.3 Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points
Let R, S and T be three non collinear points on the plane with position vectors a
H
, b
H
and
c
H
respectively (Fig 11.14).
Fig 11.14
The vectors RS
KKKH
and RT
KKKH
are in the given plane. Therefore, the vector
RS RT
KKKH KKKH
is perpendicular to the plane containing points R, S and T. Let r
H
be the position vector
of any point P in the plane. Therefore, the equation of the plane passing through R and
perpendicular to the vector
RS RT
KKKH KKKH
is
( ) (RS RT) r a
KKKH KKKH
H H
= 0
or
( ) [( )( )]
H
H H H H H
r a b a c a
= 0 (1)
MATHEMATICS 484
Fig 11.15
This is the equation of the plane in vector form passing through three noncollinear
points.
A
Note Why was it necessary to say that the three points
had to be non collinear? If the three points were on the same
line, then there will be many planes that will contain them
(Fig 11.15).
These planes will resemble the pages of a book where the
line containing the points R, S and T are members in the binding
of the book.
Cartesian form
Let (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) and (x
3
,

y
3
, z
3
) be the coordinates of the points R, S and T
respectively. Let (x, y, z) be the coordinates of any point P on the plane with position
vector r
H
. Then
RP
KKKH
= (x x
1
)
i
+ (y y
1
)
j
+ (z z
1
)
k
RS
KKKH
= (x
2
x
1
)
i
+ (y
2
y
1
)
j
+ (z
2
z
1
)
k
RT
KKKH
= (x
3
x
1
)
i
+ (y
3
y
1
)
j
+ (z
3
z
1
)
k
Substituting these values in equation (1) of the vector form and expressing it in the
form of a determinant, we have
1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
3 1 3 1 3 1
0
x x y y z z
x x y y z z
x x y y z z

which is the equation of the plane in Cartesian form passing through three non collinear
points (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
), (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) and (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
).
Example 18 Find the vector equations of the plane passing through the points
R(2, 5, 3), S( 2, 3, 5) and T(5, 3, 3).
Solution Let

2 5 3 a i j k -
H
,

2 3 5 b i j k -
H
,

5 3 3 c i j k -
H
Then the vector equation of the plane passing through
a
H
,
b
H
and c
H
and is
given by
( ) (RS RT) r a
KKKH KKKH
H H
= 0 (Why?)
or ( ) [( ) ( ) ] r a b a c a
H
H H H H H
= 0
i.e.

[ (2 5 3 )] [( 4 8 8 ) (3 2 )] 0 r i j k i j k i j - -
H
R
S
T
11.6.4 Intercept form of the equation of a plane
In this section, we shall deduce the equation of a plane in terms of the intercepts made
by the plane on the coordinate axes. Let the equation of the plane be
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (D 0) ... (1)
Let the plane make intercepts a, b, c on x, y and z axes, respectively (Fig 11.16).
Hence, the plane meets x, y and z-axes at (a, 0, 0),
(0, b, 0), (0, 0, c), respectively.
Therefore Aa + D = 0 or A =
D
a
Bb + D = 0 or B =
D
b
Cc + D = 0 or C =
D
c
Substituting these values in the equation (1) of the

plane and simplifying, we get
x y z
a b c
- - = 1 ... (1)
which is the required equation of the plane in the intercept form.
Example 19 Find the equation of the plane with intercepts 2, 3 and 4 on the x, y and
z-axis respectively.
Solution Let the equation of the plane be
x y z
a b c
- -
= 1 ... (1)
Here a = 2, b = 3, c = 4.
Substituting the values of a, b and c in (1), we get the required equation of the
plane as 1
2 3 4
x y z
- - or 6x + 4y + 3z = 12.
11.6.5 Plane passing through the intersection
of two given planes
Let
1
and
2
be two planes with equations
1
r n
H
= d
1
and
2
r n
H
= d
2
respectively. The position
vector of any point on the line of intersection must
satisfy both the equations (Fig 11.17).
Fig 11.16
Fig 11.17
MATHEMATICS 486
If t
H
is the position vector of a point on the line, then
1
t n
H
= d
1
and
2
t n
H
= d
2
Therefore, for all real values of , we have
1 2
( ) t n n -
H
=
1 2
d d -
Since t
H
is arbitrary, it satisfies for any point on the line.
Hence, the equation
1 2 1 2
( ) r n n d d - -
H H H
represents a plane
3
which is such
that if any vector r
H
satisfies both the equations
1
and
2
, it also satisfies the equation
3
i.e., any plane passing through the intersection of the planes
1
r n
H H
=
1 2 2
and d r n d
H H
has the equation
1 2
( ) r n n -
H H H
= d
1
+ d
2
... (1)
Cartesian form
In Cartesian system, let
1
n
H
=
1 2 1

A B C i j k - -
2
n
H
=
2 2 2

A B C i j k - -
and r
H
=

xi y j z k - -
Then (1) becomes
x (A
1
+ A
2
) + y (B
1
+ B
2
) + z (C
1
+ C
2
) = d
1
+ d
2
or (A
1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z d
1
) + (A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z d
2
) = 0 ... (2)
which is the required Cartesian form of the equation of the plane passing through the
intersection of the given planes for each value of .
Example 20 Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of
the planes

( ) 6 and (2 3 4 ) 5, r i j k r i j k - - - -
H H
and the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution Here,
1

n i j k - -
H
and
2
n
H
=

2 3 4 ; i j k - -
and d
1
= 6 and d
2
= 5
Hence, using the relation
1 2 1 2
( ) r n n d d - -
H H H
, we get

[ (2 3 4 )] r i j k i j k - - - - -
H
= 6 5
or

[(1 2 ) (1 3 ) (1 4 ) ] r i j k - - - - -
H
= 6 5 (1)
where, is some real number.
Taking

r xi y j z k - -
H
, we get

( ) [(1 2 ) (1 3 ) (1 4 ) ] 6 5 xi y j z k i j k - - - - - - -
or (1 + 2 ) x + (1 + 3) y + (1 + 4) z = 6 5
or (x + y + z 6 ) + (2x + 3y + 4 z + 5) = 0 ... (2)
Given that the plane passes through the point (1,1,1), it must satisfy (2), i.e.
(1 + 1 + 1 6) + (2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 0
or =
3
14
Putting the values of in (1), we get
3 9 6

1 1 1
7 14 7
r i j k
(

- - - - -
( ( ( (
, , ,

H
=
15
6
14
or
10 23 13

7 14 7
r i j k

- -
(
,
H
=
69
14
or

(20 23 26 ) r i j k - -
H
= 69
which is the required vector equation of the plane.
11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines
Let the given lines be
r
H
=
1 1
a b -
H
H
... (1)
and
r
H
=
2 2
a b -
H
H
... (2)
The line (1) passes through the point, say A, with position vector
1
a
H
and is parallel
to
1
b
H
. The line (2) passes through the point, say B with position vector
2
a
H
and is parallel
to
2
b
H
.
Thus, AB
KKKH
=
2 1
a a
H H
The given lines are coplanar if and only if
AB
KKKH
is perpendicular to
1 2
b b
H H
.
i.e.
1 2
AB.( ) b b
KKKH H H
= 0 or
2 1 1 2
( ) ( ) a a b b
H H
H H
= 0
Cartesian form
Let (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) be the coordinates of the points A and B respectively.
MATHEMATICS 488
Let a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
be the direction ratios of
1
b
H
and
2
b
H
, respectively. Then
2 1 2 1 2 1

AB ( ) ( ) ( ) x x i y y j z z k - -
KKKH
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

and b a i b j c k b a i b j c k - - - -
H H
The given lines are coplanar if and only if
( )
1 2
AB 0 b b
KKKH H H
. In the cartesian form,
it can be expressed as
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1
2 2 2
0
x x y y z z
a b c
a b c

... (4)
Example 21 Show that the lines
+3 1 5
3 1 5
x y z
and
+1 2 5
1 2 5
x y z
are coplanar.
Solution Here, x
1
= 3, y
1
= 1, z
1
= 5, a
1
= 3, b
1
= 1, c
1
= 5
x
2
= 1, y
2
= 2, z
2
= 5, a
2
= 1, b
2
= 2, c
2
= 5
Now, consider the determinant
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 1 0
3 1 5 0
1 2 5
x x y y z z
a b c
a b c

Therefore, lines are coplanar.

11.8 Angle between Two Planes
Definition 2 The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their
normals (Fig 11.18 (a)). Observe that if is an angle between the two planes, then so
is 180 (Fig 11.18 (b)). We shall take the acute angle as the angles between
two planes.
Fig 11.18
If
1
n
H
and
2
n
H
are normals to the planes and be the angle between the planes
1
r n
H H
= d
1
and
2 2
. d n r
H H
.
Then is the angle between the normals to the planes drawn from some common
point.
We have, cos =
1 2
1 2
| | | |
n n
n n
H H
H H
A
Note The planes are perpendicular to each other if
1
n
H
.
2
n
H
= 0 and parallel if
1
n
H
is parallel to
2
n
H
.
Cartesian form Let be the angle between the planes,
A
1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z + D
1
= 0 and A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z + D
2
= 0
The direction ratios of the normal to the planes are A
1
, B
1
, C
1
and A
2
, B
2
, C
2
respectively.
Therefore, cos =
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A B B C C
A B C A B C
- -
- - - -
A
Note
1. If the planes are at right angles, then = 90
o
and so cos = 0.
Hence, cos = A
1
A
2
+ B
1
B
2
+ C
1
C
2
= 0.
2. If the planes are parallel, then
1 1 1
2 2 2
A B C
A B C
.
Example 22 Find the angle between the two planes 2x + y 2z = 5 and 3x 6y 2z = 7
using vector method.
Solution The angle between two planes is the angle between their normals. From the
equation of the planes, the normal vectors are
1 N
KH
=

2 2 i j k - and
2

N 3 6 2 i j k
KH
Therefore cos =
1 2
1 2

N N (2 2 ) (3 6 2 )
| N | | N | 4 1 4 9 36 4
i j k i j k -
- - - -
KH KH
KH KH
=
4
21

(
,
Hence = cos
1
(
,
21
4
MATHEMATICS 490
Example 23 Find the angle between the two planes 3x 6y + 2z = 7 and 2x + 2y 2z =5.
Solution Comparing the given equations of the planes with the equations
A
1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z + D
1
= 0 and A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z + D
2
= 0
We get A
1
= 3, B
1
= 6, C
1
= 2
A
2
= 2, B
2
= 2, C
2
= 2
cos =
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 2 ( 6) (2) (2) ( 2)
3 ( 6) ( 2) 2 2 ( 2)
- -
- - - -
=
10 5 5 3
21
7 2 3 7 3
Therefore, = cos
-1
5 3
21

(
(
,
11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane
Vector form
Consider a point P with position vector
a
H
and a plane
1
whose equation is
r n
H
= d (Fig 11.19).
Consider a plane
2
through P parallel to the plane
1
. The unit vector normal to
2
is n . Hence, its equation is ( ) 0 r a n
H H
i.e.,
r n
H
=
a n
H
Thus, the distance ON of this plane from the origin is | | a n
H
. Therefore, the distance
PQ from the plane
1
is (Fig. 11.21 (a))
i.e., ON ON = | d | a n
H
Fig 11.19
(a)
a
Z
X
Y
d
N
P
O
p
1
p
2
N
Q
p
1
(b)
P
X
Z
Y
O
d
N
N
p
2
a
which is the length of the perpendicular from a point to the given plane.
We may establish the similar results for (Fig 11.19 (b)).
A
Note
1. If the equation of the plane
2
is in the form N r d
KH
H
, where N
KH
is normal
to the plane, then the perpendicular distance is
| N |
| N |
a d
KH
H
KH
.
2. The length of the perpendicular from origin O to the plane
N
KH
H
r d
is
| |
| N |
d
KH
(since a
H
= 0).
Cartesian form
Let P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) be the given point with position vector a
H
and
Ax + By + Cz = D
be the Cartesian equation of the given plane. Then
a
H
=
1 1 1

x i y j z k - -
N
KH
=

A B C i j k - -
Hence, from Note 1, the perpendicular from P to the plane is
1 1 1
2 2 2

( ) ( A B C ) D
A B C
x i y j z k i j k - - - -
- -
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
A B C D
A B C
x y z - -
- -
Example 24 Find the distance of a point (2, 5, 3) from the plane

( 6 3 2 ) r i j k -
H
= 4
Solution Here,

2 5 3 , N 6 3 2 - -
KH
H
a i j k i j k
and d = 4.
Therefore, the distance of the point (2, 5, 3) from the given plane is

| (2 5 3 ) (6 3 2 ) 4|

| 6 3 2 |
i j k i j k
i j k
- -
-
=
| 12 15 6 4 | 13
7
36 9 4

- -
MATHEMATICS 492
11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane
Definition 3 The angle between a line and a plane is
the complement of the angle between the line and
normal to the plane (Fig 11.20).
Vector form If the equation of the line is
b a r
H
H H
-
and the equation of the plane is
r n d
H H
. Then the angle between the line and the
normal to the plane is
cos =
| | | |
b n
b n
H
H
H
H
and so the angle between the line and the plane is given by 90 , i.e.,
sin (90 ) = cos
i.e. sin =
| | | |
b n
b n
H
H
H
H
or =
1
sin
b n
b n
Example 25 Find the angle between the line

1
2
x -
=
3
3 6
y z
and the plane 10 x + 2y 11 z = 3.

Solution Let be the angle between the line and the normal to the plane. Converting the
given equations into vector form, we have
r
H
=

( 3 ) ( 2 3 6 ) i k i j k - - - -
and

( 10 2 11 ) r i j k -
H
= 3
Here
b
H
=

2 3 6 i j k - - and k j i n
11
10 -
H
sin =
2 2 2 2 2 2

(2 3 6 ) (10 2 11 )
2 3 6 10 2 11
i j k i j k - - -
- - - -
=
40
7 15
=
8
21
=
8
21
or =
1
8
sin
21

(
,
Fig 11.20
EXERCISE 11.3
1. In each of the following cases, determine the direction cosines of the normal to
the plane and the distance from the origin.
(a) z = 2 (b) x + y + z = 1
(c) 2x + 3y z = 5 (d) 5y + 8 = 0
2. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a distance of 7 units from the
origin and normal to the vector
k j i
3 -
.
3. Find the Cartesian equation of the following planes:
(a)

( ) 2 r i j k -
H
(b)

(2 3 4 ) 1 r i j k -
H
(c)

[( 2 ) (3 ) (2 ) ] 15 r s t i t j s t k - - -
H
4. In the following cases, find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from the origin.
(a) 2x + 3y + 4z 12 = 0 (b) 3y + 4z 6 = 0
(c) x + y + z = 1 (d) 5y + 8 = 0
5. Find the vector and cartesian equations of the planes
(a) that passes through the point (1, 0, 2) and the normal to the plane is

. i j k -
(b) that passes through the point (1,4, 6) and the normal vector to the plane is

2 . i j k -
6. Find the equations of the planes that passes through three points.
(a) (1, 1, 1), (6, 4, 5), ( 4, 2, 3)
(b) (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 1), ( 2, 2, 1)
7. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 2x + y z = 5.
8. Find the equation of the plane with intercept 3 on the y-axis and parallel to ZOX
plane.
9. Find the equation of the plane through the intersection of the planes
3x y + 2z 4 = 0 and x + y + z 2 = 0 and the point (2, 2, 1).
10. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the
planes

.( 2 2 3 ) 7 r i j k -
H
,

.( 2 5 3 ) 9 r i j k - -
H
and through the point
(2, 1, 3).
11. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the
planes x + y + z = 1 and 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 which is perpendicular to the plane
x y + z = 0.
MATHEMATICS 494
12. Find the angle between the planes whose vector equations are

(2 2 3 ) 5 r i j k -
H
and

(3 3 5 ) 3 r i j k -
H
.
13. In the following cases, determine whether the given planes are parallel or
perpendicular, and in case they are neither, find the angles between them.
(a) 7x + 5y + 6z + 30 = 0 and 3x y 10z + 4 = 0
(b) 2x + y + 3z 2 = 0 and x 2y + 5 = 0
(c) 2x 2y + 4z + 5 = 0 and 3x 3y + 6z 1 = 0
(d) 2x y + 3z 1 = 0 and 2x y + 3z + 3 = 0
(e) 4x + 8y + z 8 = 0 and y + z 4 = 0
14. In the following cases, find the distance of each of the given points from the
corresponding given plane.
Point Plane
(a) (0, 0, 0) 3x 4y + 12 z = 3
(b) (3, 2, 1) 2x y + 2z + 3 = 0
(c) (2, 3, 5) x + 2y 2z = 9
(d) ( 6, 0, 0) 2x 3y + 6z 2 = 0
Example 26 A line makes angles , , and with the diagonals of a cube, prove that
cos
2
+ cos
2
+ cos
2
+ cos
2
=
4
3
Solution A cube is a rectangular parallelopiped having equal length, breadth and height.
Let OADBFEGC be the cube with each side of length a units. (Fig 11.21)
The four diagonals are OE, AF, BG and CD.
The direction cosines of the diagonal OE which
is the line joining two points O and E are
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
, ,
a a a
a a a a a a a a a

- - - - - -
i.e.,
3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1 A( , 0, 0) a
B(0, , 0) a
C(0, 0, ) a
G
( , 0, ) a a
F(0, , ) a a
E
( , , ) a a a
X
D( , , 0) a a
Y
Z
O
Fig 11.21
Similarly, the direction cosines of AF, BG and CD are
1
3
,
3
1
,
3
1
;
3
1
,
1
3
,
3
1
and
3
1
,
3
1
,
1
3
, respectively.
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the given line which makes angles , , ,
with OE, AF, BG, CD, respectively. Then
cos =
1
3
(l + m+ n); cos =
1
3
( l + m + n);
cos =
1
3
(l m + n); cos =
1
3
(l + m n) (Why?)
Squaring and adding, we get
cos
2
+ cos
2
+ cos
2
+ cos
2

=
1
3
[ (l + m + n )
2
+ (l + m + n)
2
] + (l m + n)
2
+ (l + m n)
2
]
=
1
3
[ 4 (l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
) ] =
3
4
(as l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1)
Example 27 Find the equation of the plane that contains the point (1, 1, 2) and is
perpendicular to each of the planes 2x + 3y 2z = 5 and x + 2y 3z = 8.
Solution The equation of the plane containing the given point is
A (x 1) + B(y + 1) + C (z 2) = 0 ... (1)
Applying the condition of perpendicularly to the plane given in (1) with the planes
2x + 3y 2z = 5 and x + 2y 3z = 8, we have
2A + 3B 2C = 0 and A + 2B 3C = 0
Solving these equations, we find A = 5C and B = 4C. Hence, the required
equation is
5C (x 1) + 4 C (y + 1) + C(z 2) = 0
i.e. 5x 4y z = 7
Example 28 Find the distance between the point P(6, 5, 9) and the plane determined
by the points A (3, 1, 2), B (5, 2, 4) and C( 1, 1, 6).
Solution Let A, B, C be the three points in the plane. D is the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from a point P to the plane. PD is the required distance to be determined, which
is the projection of AP
KKKH
on AB AC
KKKH KKKH
.
MATHEMATICS 496
Hence, PD = the dot product of AP
KKKH
with the unit vector along
AB AC
KKKH KKKH
.
So AP
KKKH
= 3
k j i
- -
and
AB AC
KKKH KKKH
=

2 3 2 12 16 12
4 0 4
i j k
i j k -
Unit vector along

AB AC
KKKH KKKH
=

3 4 3
34
i j k -
Hence PD = ( )
3 k j i - - .

3 4 3
34
i j k -
=
17
34 3
Alternatively, find the equation of the plane passing through A, B and C and then
compute the distance of the point P from the plane.
Example 29 Show that the lines
x a d -

=
y a z a d
-
and
x b c -

=
y b z b c
-
are coplanar.
Solution
Here x
1
= a d x
2
= b c
y
1
= a y
2
= b
z
1
= a + d z
2
= b + c
a
1
= a
2
=
b
1
= b
2
=
c
1
= + c
2
= +
Now consider the determinant
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
x x y y z z
a b c
a b c

=
b c a d b a b c a d - -
-
-
Adding third column to the first column, we get
2
b a b a b c a d -
-
-
= 0
Since the first and second columns are identical. Hence, the given two lines are
coplanar.
Example 30 Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points
A (3, 4, 1) and B(5, 1, 6) crosses the XY-plane.
Solution The vector equation of the line through the points A and B is

r
H
=

3 4 [ (5 3) (1 4) ( 6 1) ] i j k i j k - - - - -
i.e.
r
H
=

3 4 ( 2 3 5 ) i j k i j k - - - -
... (1)
Let P be the point where the line AB crosses the XY-plane. Then the position
vector of the point P is of the form j y i x

- .
This point must satisfy the equation (1). (Why ?)
i.e.

x i y j -
=

(3 2 ) ( 4 3 ) ( 1 5 ) i j k - - - -
Equating the like coefficients of

, and i j k
, we have
x = 3 + 2
y = 4 3
0 = 1 + 5
Solving the above equations, we get
x =
13 23
and
5 5
y
Hence, the coordinates of the required point are
(
,
0 ,
5
23
,
5
13
.
1. Show that the line joining the origin to the point (2, 1, 1) is perpendicular to the
line determined by the points (3, 5, 1), (4, 3, 1).
2. If l
1
, m
1
, n
1
and l
2
, m
2
, n
2
are the direction cosines of two mutually perpendicular
lines, show that the direction cosines of the line perpendicular to both of these
are
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
, , m n m n n l n l l m l m
MATHEMATICS 498
3. Find the angle between the lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c and
b c, c a, a b.
4. Find the equation of a line parallel to x-axis and passing through the origin.
5. If the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D be (1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 7), ( 4, 3, 6) and
(2, 9, 2) respectively, then find the angle between the lines AB and CD.
6. If the lines
1 2 3 1 1 6
and
3 2 2 3 1 5
x y z x y z
k k

are perpendicular,
find the value of k.
7. Find the vector equation of the line passing through (1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to
the plane 0 9 )
( . - - k j i r
H
.
8. Find the equation of the plane passing through (a, b, c) and parallel to the plane

( ) 2. r i j k - -
H
9. Find the shortest distance between lines

6 2 2 ( 2 2 ) r i j k i j k - - - -
H
and

4 (3 2 2 ) r i k i j k -
H
.
10. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4,1)
crosses the YZ-plane.
11. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4, 1)
crosses the ZX-plane.
12. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, 4, 5) and
(2, 3, 1) crosses the plane 2x + y + z = 7.
13. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point ( 1, 3, 2) and perpendicular
to each of the planes x + 2y + 3z = 5 and 3x + 3y + z = 0.
14. If the points (1, 1, p) and ( 3, 0, 1) be equidistant from the plane

(3 4 12 ) 13 0, - -
H
r i j k
then find the value of p.
15. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes

( ) 1 r i j k - -
H
and

(2 3 ) 4 0 r i j k - -
H
and parallel to x-axis.
16. If O be the origin and the coordinates of P be (1, 2, 3), then find the equation of
the plane passing through P and perpendicular to OP.
17. Find the equation of the plane which contains the line of intersection of the planes

( 2 3 ) 4 0 r i j k - -
H
,

(2 ) 5 0 r i j k - -
H
and which is perpendicular to the
plane

(5 3 6 ) 8 0 r i j k - -
H
.
18. Find the distance of the point ( 1, 5, 10) from the point of intersection of the
line

2 2 (3 4 2 ) r i j k i j k - - - -
H
and the plane

( ) 5 r i j k -
H
.
19. Find the vector equation of the line passing through (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the
planes

( 2 ) 5 r i j k -
H
and

(3 ) 6 r i j k - -
H
.
20. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (1, 2, 4) and
perpendicular to the two lines:
7
10
16
19
3
8
z y x
and
15
3
x
=
29 5
8 5
y z
.
21. Prove that if a plane has the intercepts a, b, c and is at a distance of p units from
the origin, then
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
p c b a
- - .
22. Distance between the two planes: 2x + 3y + 4z = 4 and 4x + 6y + 8z = 12 is
(A) 2 units (B) 4 units (C) 8 units (D)
2
29
units
23. The planes: 2x y + 4z = 5 and 5x 2.5y + 10z = 6 are
(A) Perpendicular (B) Parallel
(C) intersect y-axis (D) passes through
5
0, 0,
4

(
,
Summary
Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line
with the positive directions of the coordinate axes.
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line, then l

2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1.
Direction cosines of a line joining two points P(x

1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) are
2 1 2 1 2 1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ
x x y y z z
where PQ =
( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( z z y y x x - -
Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the
direction cosines of a line.
If l, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line
MATHEMATICS 500
then
l =
2 2 2
c b a
a
- -
; m =
2 2 2
c b a
b
- -
; n =
2 2 2
c b a
c
- -
Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting.
They lie in different planes.
Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines
drawn from any point (preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the
skew lines.
If l
1
, m
1
, n
1
and l
2
, m
2
, n
2
are the direction cosines of two lines; and is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
cos = | l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
|
If a
1
, b
1
, c
1
and a
2
, b
2
, c
2
are the direction ratios of two lines and is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
cos =
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
a a b b c c
a b c a b c
- -
- - - -
Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position
vector is a
H
and parallel to a given vector
b
H
is
r a b -
H
H H
.
Equation of a line through a point (x

1
, y
1
, z
1
) and having direction cosines l, m, n is
1 1 1
x x y y z z
l m n

The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position
vectors are a
H
and b
H
is ( ) r a b a -
H
H H H
.
Cartesian equation of a line that passes through two points (x

1
, y
1
, z
1
) and
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) is
1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
x x y y z z
x x y y z z

.
If is the acute angle between

1 1
r a b -
H
H H
and
2 2
r a b -
H
H H
, then
1 2
1 2
cos
| | | |
b b
b b

H H
H H
If
1
1
1
1
1
1
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
and
2
2
2
2
2
2
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
are the equations of two lines, then the acute angle between the two lines is
given by cos = | l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
|.
Shortest distance between two skew lines is the line segment perpendicular
to both the lines.
Shortest distance between

1 1
r a b -
H
H H
and
2 2
r a b -
H
H H
is
1 2 2 1
1 2
( ) ( )
| |
b b a a
b b

H H
H H
H H
Shortest distance between the lines:

1 1 1
1 1 1
x x y y z z
a b c

and
2 2
2 2
x x y y
a b

=
2
2
z z
c
is
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
x x y y z z
a b c
a b c
b c b c c a c a a b a b

- -
Distance between parallel lines

1
r a b -
H
H H
and
2
r a b -
H
H H
is
2 1
( )
| |
b a a
b

H
H H
H
In the vector form, equation of a plane which is at a distance d from the

origin, and
n
is the unit vector normal to the plane through the origin is
r n d
H
.
Equation of a plane which is at a distance of d from the origin and the direction
cosines of the normal to the plane as l, m, n is lx + my + nz = d.
The equation of a plane through a point whose position vector is a

H
and
perpendicular to the vector N
KH
is
( ) . N 0 r a
KH
H H
.
Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given line with direction ratios A, B, C

and passing through a given point (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) is
A (x x
1
) + B (y y
1
) + C (z z
1
) = 0
Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points (x

1
, y
1
, z
1
),
MATHEMATICS 502
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) and (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) is
1 3 1 3 1 3
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1
z z y y x x
z z y y x x
z z y y x x

= 0
Vector equation of a plane that contains three non collinear points having
position vectors b a
H
H
, and c
H
is ( ) . [ ( ) ( ) ] 0 r a b a c a
H
H H H H H
Equation of a plane that cuts the coordinates axes at (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and
(0, 0, c) is
1 - -
c
z
b
y
a
x
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of

planes
1 1 2 2
and r n d r n d
H H H H
is
1 2 1 2
( ) r n n d d - -
H H H
, where is any
nonzero constant.
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of two given
planes A
1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z + D
1
= 0 and A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z + D
2
= 0
is (A
1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z + D
1
) + (A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z + D
2
) = 0.
Two planes
1 1
r a b -
H
H H
and
2 2
r a b -
H
H H
are coplanar if
2 1 1 2
( ) ( ) a a b b
H H
H H
= 0
Two planes a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z + d
1
= 0 and a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z + d
2
= 0 are
coplanar if
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
c b a
c b a
z z y y x x
= 0.
In the vector form, if is the angle between the two planes,

1 1
r n d
H H
and
2 2
r n d
H H
, then = cos
1
1 2
1 2
| |
| | | |
n n
n n
H H
H H
.
The angle between the line r a b -

H
H H
and the plane r n d
H
is
sin
| | | |
b n
b n

H
H
The angle between the planes A

1
x + B
1
y + C
1
z + D
1
= 0 and
A
2
x + B
2
y + C
2
z + D
2
= 0 is given by
cos

=
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A B B C C
A B C A B C
- -
- - - -
The distance of a point whose position vector is a

H
from the plane r n d
H
is
| | d a n
H
The distance from a point (x

1
, y
1
, z
1
) to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is
1 1 1
2 2 2
A B C D
A B C
x y z - - -
- -
.
504 MATHEMATICS
The mathematical experience of the student is incomplete if he never had
the opportunity to solve a problem invented by himself. G. POLYA
12.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have discussed systems of linear
equations and their applications in day to day problems. In
Class XI, we have studied linear inequalities and systems
of linear inequalities in two variables and their solutions by
graphical method. Many applications in mathematics
involve systems of inequalities/equations. In this chapter,
we shall apply the systems of linear inequalities/equations
to solve some real life problems of the type as given below:
A furniture dealer deals in only two itemstables and
chairs. He has Rs 50,000 to invest and has storage space
of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs 2500 and a chair
Rs 500. He estimates that from the sale of one table, he
can make a profit of Rs 250 and that from the sale of one
chair a profit of Rs 75. He wants to know how many tables and chairs he should buy
from the available money so as to maximise his total profit, assuming that he can sell all
the items which he buys.
Such type of problems which seek to maximise (or, minimise) profit (or, cost) form
a general class of problems called optimisation problems. Thus, an optimisation
problem may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of
resources etc.
A special but a very important class of optimisation problems is linear programming
problem. The above stated optimisation problem is an example of linear programming
problem. Linear programming problems are of much interest because of their wide
applicability in industry, commerce, management science etc.
In this chapter, we shall study some linear programming problems and their solutions
by graphical method only, though there are many other methods also to solve such
problems.
Chapter 12
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
L. Kantorovich
LINEAR PROGRAMMING 505
12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation
We begin our discussion with the above example of furniture dealer which will further
lead to a mathematical formulation of the problem in two variables. In this example, we
observe
(i) The dealer can invest his money in buying tables or chairs or combination thereof.
Further he would earn different profits by following different investment
strategies.
(ii) There are certain overriding conditions or constraints viz., his investment is
limited to a maximum of Rs 50,000 and so is his storage space which is for a
maximum of 60 pieces.
Suppose he decides to buy tables only and no chairs, so he can buy 50000 2500,
i.e., 20 tables. His profit in this case will be Rs (250 20), i.e., Rs 5000.
Suppose he chooses to buy chairs only and no tables. With his capital of Rs 50,000,
he can buy 50000 500, i.e. 100 chairs. But he can store only 60 pieces. Therefore, he
is forced to buy only 60 chairs which will give him a total profit of Rs (60 75), i.e.,
Rs 4500.
There are many other possibilities, for instance, he may choose to buy 10 tables
and 50 chairs, as he can store only 60 pieces. Total profit in this case would be
Rs (10 250 + 50 75), i.e., Rs 6250 and so on.
We, thus, find that the dealer can invest his money in different ways and he would
earn different profits by following different investment strategies.
Now the problem is : How should he invest his money in order to get maximum
profit? To answer this question, let us try to formulate the problem mathematically.
12.2.1 Mathematical formulation of the problem
Let x be the number of tables and y be the number of chairs that the dealer buys.
Obviously, x and y must be non-negative, i.e.,
0 ... (1)
(Non-negative constraints)
... (2) 0
x
y

The dealer is constrained by the maximum amount he can invest (Here it is
Rs 50,000) and by the maximum number of items he can store (Here it is 60).
Stated mathematically,
2500x + 500y 50000 (investment constraint)
or 5x + y 100 ... (3)
and x + y 60 (storage constraint) ... (4)
506 MATHEMATICS
The dealer wants to invest in such a way so as to maximise his profit, say, Z which
stated as a function of x and y is given by
Z = 250x + 75y (called objective function) ... (5)
Mathematically, the given problems now reduces to:
Maximise Z = 250x + 75y
subject to the constraints:
5x + y 100
x + y 60
x 0, y 0
So, we have to maximise the linear function Z subject to certain conditions determined
by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. There are also some other
problems where we have to minimise a linear function subject to certain conditions
determined by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. Such problems
are called Linear Programming Problems.
Thus, a Linear Programming Problem is one that is concerned with finding the
optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear function (called objective
function) of several variables (say x and y), subject to the conditions that the variables
are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
The term linear implies that all the mathematical relations used in the problem are
linear relations while the term programming refers to the method of determining a
particular programme or plan of action.
Before we proceed further, we now formally define some terms (which have been
used above) which we shall be using in the linear programming problems:
Objective function Linear function Z = ax + by, where a, b are constants, which has
to be maximised or minimized is called a linear objective function.
In the above example, Z = 250x + 75y is a linear objective function. Variables x and
y are called decision variables.
Constraints The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the variables of a
linear programming problem are called constraints. The conditions x 0, y 0 are
called non-negative restrictions. In the above example, the set of inequalities (1) to (4)
are constraints.
Optimisation problem A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear
function (say of two variables x and y) subject to certain constraints as determined by
a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear programming
problems are special type of optimisation problems. The above problem of investing a
given sum by the dealer in purchasing chairs and tables is an example of an optimisation
problem as well as of a linear programming problem.
We will now discuss how to find solutions to a linear programming problem. In this
chapter, we will be concerned only with the graphical method.
12.2.2 Graphical method of solving linear programming problems
In Class XI, we have learnt how to graph a system of linear inequalities involving two
variables x and y and to find its solutions graphically. Let us refer to the problem of
investment in tables and chairs discussed in Section 12.2. We will now solve this problem
graphically. Let us graph the constraints stated as linear inequalities:
5x + y 100 ... (1)
x + y 60 ... (2)
x 0 ... (3)
y 0 ... (4)
The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all half
planes determined by the inequalities (1) to (4) (Fig 12.1). Each point in this region
represents a feasible choice open to the dealer for investing in tables and chairs. The
region, therefore, is called the feasible region for the problem. Every point of this
region is called a feasible solution to the problem. Thus, we have,
Feasible region The common region determined by all the constraints including
non-negative constraints x, y 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible
region (or solution region) for the problem. In Fig 12.1, the region OABC (shaded) is
the feasible region for the problem. The region other than feasible region is called an
infeasible region.
Feasible solutions Points within and on the
boundary of the feasible region represent
feasible solutions of the constraints. In
Fig 12.1, every point within and on the
boundary of the feasible region OABC
represents feasible solution to the problem.
For example, the point (10, 50) is a feasible
solution of the problem and so are the points
(0, 60), (20, 0) etc.
Any point outside the feasible region is
called an infeasible solution. For example,
the point (25, 40) is an infeasible solution of
the problem.
Fig 12.1
508 MATHEMATICS
Optimal (feasible) solution: Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
Now, we see that every point in the feasible region OABC satisfies all the constraints
as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely many points, it is not evident how
we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value of the objective function
Z = 250x + 75y. To handle this situation, we use the following theorems which are
fundamental in solving linear programming problems. The proofs of these theorems
are beyond the scope of the book.
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming
problem and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value
(maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described
by linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point* (vertex) of the
feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let
Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded**, then the objective function
Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a
corner point (vertex) of R.
Remark If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective
function may not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
(By Theorem 1).
In the above example, the corner points (vertices) of the bounded (feasible) region
are: O, A, B and C and it is easy to find their coordinates as (0, 0), (20, 0), (10, 50) and
(0, 60) respectively. Let us now compute the values of Z at these points.
We have
* A corner point of a feasible region is a point in the region which is the intersection of two boundary lines.
** A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed within a
circle. Otherwise, it is called unbounded. Unbounded means that the feasible region does extend
indefinitely in any direction.
Vertex of the Corresponding value
Feasible Region of Z (in Rs)
O (0,0) 0
A (0,60) 4500
B (10,50) 6250
C (20,0) 5000
Maximum

We observe that the maximum profit to the dealer results from the investment
strategy (10, 50), i.e. buying 10 tables and 50 chairs.
This method of solving linear programming problem is referred as Corner Point
Method. The method comprises of the following steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its
corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of
the lines intersecting at that point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m,
respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.
3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and
minimum values of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
4. (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no minimum value.
We will now illustrate these steps of Corner Point Method by considering some
examples:
Example 1 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Maximise Z = 4x + y ... (1)
x + y 50 ... (2)
3x + y 90 ... (3)
x 0, y 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.2 is the feasible region determined by the system
of constraints (2) to (4). We observe that the feasible region OABC is bounded. So,
we now use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum value of Z.
The coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (30, 0), (20, 30) and
(0, 50) respectively. Now we evaluate Z at each corner point.
510 MATHEMATICS
Fig 12.2
Hence, maximum value of Z is 120 at the point (30, 0).
Example 2 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Minimise Z = 200 x + 500 y ... (1)
x + 2y 10 ... (2)
3x + 4y 24 ... (3)
x 0, y 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.3 is the feasible region ABC determined by the
system of constraints (2) to (4), which is bounded. The coordinates of corner points
Corner Point Corresponding value
of Z
(0, 0) 0
(30, 0) 120 Maximum
(20, 30) 110
(0, 50) 50
Corner Point Corresponding value
of Z
(0, 5) 2500
(4, 3) 2300
(0, 6) 3000
Minimum
Fig 12.3
A, B and C are (0,5), (4,3) and (0,6) respectively. Now we evaluate Z = 200x + 500y
at these points.
Hence, minimum value of Z is 2300 attained at the point (4, 3)
Example 3 Solve the following problem graphically:
Minimise and Maximise Z = 3x + 9y ... (1)
subject to the constraints: x + 3y 60 ... (2)
x + y 10 ... (3)
x y ... (4)
x 0, y 0 ... (5)
Solution First of all, let us graph the feasible region of the system of linear inequalities
(2) to (5). The feasible region ABCD is shown in the Fig 12.4. Note that the region is
bounded. The coordinates of the corner points A, B, C and D are (0, 10), (5, 5), (15,15)
and (0, 20) respectively.
Fig 12.4
Corner Corresponding value of
Point Z = 3x + 9y
A (0, 10) 90
B (5, 5) 60
C (15, 15) 180
D (0, 20) 180
Minimum
Maximum
(Multiple
optimal
solutions)
We now find the minimum and maximum value of Z. From the table, we find that
the minimum value of Z is 60 at the point B (5, 5) of the feasible region.
The maximum value of Z on the feasible region occurs at the two corner points
C (15, 15) and D (0, 20) and it is 180 in each case.
Remark Observe that in the above example, the problem has multiple optimal solutions
at the corner points C and D, i.e. the both points produce same maximum value 180. In
such cases, you can see that every point on the line segment CD joining the two corner
points C and D also give the same maximum value. Same is also true in the case if the
two points produce same minimum value.
512 MATHEMATICS
Example 4 Determine graphically the minimum value of the objective function
Z = 50x + 20y ... (1)
2x y 5 ... (2)
3x + y 3 ... (3)
2x 3y 12 ... (4)
x 0, y 0 ... (5)
Solution First of all, let us graph the feasible region of the system of inequalities (2) to
(5). The feasible region (shaded) is shown in the Fig 12.5. Observe that the feasible
region is unbounded.
We now evaluate Z at the corner points.
From this table, we find that 300 is the smallest value of Z at the corner point
(6, 0). Can we say that minimum value of Z is 300? Note that if the region would
have been bounded, this smallest value of Z is the minimum value of Z (Theorem 2).
But here we see that the feasible region is unbounded. Therefore, 300 may or may
not be the minimum value of Z. To decide this issue, we graph the inequality
50x + 20y < 300 (see Step 3(ii) of corner Point Method.)
i.e., 5x + 2y < 30
and check whether the resulting open half plane has points in common with feasible
region or not. If it has common points, then 300 will not be the minimum value of Z.
Otherwise, 300 will be the minimum value of Z.
Fig 12.5
Corner Point Z = 50x + 20y
(0, 5) 100
(0, 3) 60
(1, 0) 50
(6, 0) 300 smallest

As shown in the Fig 12.5, it has common points. Therefore, Z = 50 x + 20 y
has no minimum value subject to the given constraints.
In the above example, can you say whether z = 50 x + 20 y has the maximum
value 100 at (0,5)? For this, check whether the graph of 50 x + 20 y > 100 has points
in common with the feasible region. (Why?)
Example 5 Minimise Z = 3x + 2y
x + y 8 ... (1)
3x + 5y 15 ... (2)
x 0, y 0 ... (3)
Solution Let us graph the inequalities (1) to (3) (Fig 12.6). Is there any feasible region?
Why is so?
From Fig 12.6, you can see that
there is no point satisfying all the
constraints simultaneously. Thus, the
problem is having no feasible region and
hence no feasible solution.
Remarks From the examples which we
have discussed so far, we notice some
general features of linear programming
problems:
(i) The feasible region is always a
convex region.
(ii) The maximum (or minimum)
solution of the objective function occurs at the vertex (corner) of the feasible
region. If two corner points produce the same maximum (or minimum) value
of the objective function, then every point on the line segment joining these
points will also give the same maximum (or minimum) value.
EXERCISE 12.1
Solve the following Linear Programming Problems graphically:
1. Maximise Z = 3x + 4y
subject to the constraints : x + y 4, x 0, y 0.
Fig 12.6
514 MATHEMATICS
2. Minimise Z = 3x + 4 y
subject to x + 2y 8, 3x + 2y 12, x 0, y 0.
subject to 3x + 5y 15, 5x + 2y 10, x 0, y 0.
4. Minimise Z = 3x + 5y
such that x + 3y

3, x + y

2, x, y 0.
subject to x + 2y 10, 3x + y 15, x, y 0.
6. Minimise Z = x + 2y
subject to 2x + y 3, x + 2y 6, x, y 0.
Show that the minimum of Z occurs at more than two points.
7. Minimise and Maximise Z = 5x + 10 y
subject to x + 2y 120, x + y 60, x 2y 0, x, y 0.
8. Minimise and Maximise Z = x + 2y
subject to x + 2y 100, 2x y 0, 2x + y 200; x, y 0.
9. Maximise Z = x + 2y, subject to the constraints:
x 3, x + y 5, x + 2y 6, y 0.
10. Maximise Z = x + y, subject to x y 1, x + y 0, x, y 0.
12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems
A few important linear programming problems are listed below:
1. Manufacturing problems In these problems, we determine the number of units
of different products which should be produced and sold by a firm
when each product requires a fixed manpower, machine hours, labour hour per
unit of product, warehouse space per unit of the output etc., in order to make
maximum profit.
2. Diet problems In these problems, we determine the amount of different kinds
of constituents/nutrients which should be included in a diet so as to minimise the
cost of the desired diet such that it contains a certain minimum amount of each
constituent/nutrients.
3. Transportation problems In these problems, we determine a transportation
schedule in order to find the cheapest way of transporting a product from
plants/factories situated at different locations to different markets.
Let us now solve some of these types of linear programming problems:
Example 6 (Diet problem): A dietician wishes to mix two types of foods in such a
way that vitamin contents of the mixture contain atleast 8 units of vitamin A and 10
units of vitamin C. Food I contains 2 units/kg of vitamin A and 1 unit/kg of vitamin C.
Food II contains 1 unit/kg of vitamin A and 2 units/kg of vitamin C. It costs
Rs 50 per kg to purchase Food I and Rs 70 per kg to purchase Food II. Formulate
this problem as a linear programming problem to minimise the cost of such a mixture.
Solution Let the mixture contain x kg of Food I and y kg of Food II. Clearly, x 0,
y 0. We make the following table from the given data:
Resources Food Requirement
I II
(x) (y)
Vitamin A 2 1 8
(units/kg)
Vitamin C 1 2 10
(units/kg)
Cost (Rs/kg) 50 70
Since the mixture must contain at least 8 units of vitamin A and 10 units of
vitamin C, we have the constraints:
2x + y 8
x + 2y 10
Total cost Z of purchasing x kg of food I and y kg of Food II is
Z = 50x + 70y
Hence, the mathematical formulation of the problem is:
Minimise Z = 50x + 70y ... (1)
2x + y 8 ... (2)
x + 2y 10 ... (3)
x, y 0 ... (4)
Let us graph the inequalities (2) to (4). The feasible region determined by the
system is shown in the Fig 12.7. Here again, observe that the feasible region is
unbounded.
516 MATHEMATICS
Let us evaluate Z at the corner points A(0,8), B(2,4) and C(10,0).
Fig 12.7
In the table, we find that smallest value of Z is 380 at the point (2,4). Can we say
that the minimum value of Z is 380? Remember that the feasible region is unbounded.
Therefore, we have to draw the graph of the inequality
50x + 70y < 380 i.e., 5x + 7y < 38
to check whether the resulting open half plane has any point common with the feasible
region. From the Fig 12.7, we see that it has no points in common.
Thus, the minimum value of Z is 380 attained at the point (2, 4). Hence, the optimal
mixing strategy for the dietician would be to mix 2 kg of Food I and 4 kg of Food II,
and with this strategy, the minimum cost of the mixture will be Rs 380.
Example 7 (Allocation problem) A cooperative society of farmers has 50 hectare
of land to grow two crops X and Y. The profit from crops X and Y per hectare are
estimated as Rs 10,500 and Rs 9,000 respectively. To control weeds, a liquid herbicide
has to be used for crops X and Y at rates of 20 litres and 10 litres per hectare. Further,
no more than 800 litres of herbicide should be used in order to protect fish and wild life
using a pond which collects drainage from this land. How much land should be allocated
to each crop so as to maximise the total profit of the society?
Solution Let x hectare of land be allocated to crop X and y hectare to crop Y. Obviously,
x 0, y 0.
Profit per hectare on crop X = Rs 10500
Profit per hectare on crop Y = Rs 9000
Therefore, total profit = Rs (10500x + 9000y)
(0,8) 560
(2,4) 380
(10,0) 500
Minimum

The mathematical formulation of the problem is as follows:
Maximise Z = 10500 x + 9000 y
x + y 50 (constraint related to land) ... (1)
20x + 10y 800 (constraint related to use of herbicide)
i.e. 2x + y 80 ... (2)
x 0, y 0 (non negative constraint) ... (3)
Let us draw the graph of the system of inequalities (1) to (3). The feasible region
OABC is shown (shaded) in the Fig 12.8. Observe that the feasible region is bounded.
The coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (40, 0), (30, 20) and
(0, 50) respectively. Let us evaluate the objective function Z = 10500 x + 9000y at
these vertices to find which one gives the maximum profit.
Fig 12.8
Hence, the society will get the maximum profit of Rs 4,95,000 by allocating 30
hectares for crop X and 20 hectares for crop Y.
Example 8 (Manufacturing problem) A manufacturing company makes two models
A and B of a product. Each piece of Model A requires 9 labour hours for fabricating
and 1 labour hour for finishing. Each piece of Model B requires 12 labour hours for
fabricating and 3 labour hours for finishing. For fabricating and finishing, the maximum
labour hours available are 180 and 30 respectively. The company makes a profit of
Rs 8000 on each piece of model A and Rs 12000 on each piece of Model B. How many
pieces of Model A and Model B should be manufactured per week to realise a maximum
profit? What is the maximum profit per week?
O(0, 0) 0
A( 40, 0) 420000
B(30, 20) 495000
C(0,50) 450000
Maximum
518 MATHEMATICS
Solution Suppose x is the number of pieces of Model A and y is the number of pieces
of Model B. Then
Total profit (in Rs) = 8000 x + 12000 y
Let Z = 8000 x + 12000 y
We now have the following mathematical model for the given problem.
Maximise Z = 8000 x + 12000 y ... (1)
9x + 12y 180 (Fabricating constraint)
i.e. 3x + 4y 60 ... (2)
x + 3y 30 (Finishing constraint) ... (3)
x 0, y 0 (non-negative constraint) ... (4)
The feasible region (shaded) OABC determined by the linear inequalities (2) to (4)
is shown in the Fig 12.9. Note that the feasible region is bounded.
Fig 12.9
Let us evaluate the objective function Z at each corner point as shown below:
Corner Point Z = 8000 x + 12000 y
0 (0, 0) 0
A (20, 0) 160000
B (12, 6) 168000 Maximum
C (0, 10) 120000
We find that maximum value of Z is 1,68,000 at B (12, 6). Hence, the company
should produce 12 pieces of Model A and 6 pieces of Model B to realise maximum
profit and maximum profit then will be Rs 1,68,000.
EXERCISE 12.2
1. Reshma wishes to mix two types of food P and Q in such a way that the vitamin
contents of the mixture contain at least 8 units of vitamin A and 11 units of
vitamin B. Food P costs Rs 60/kg and Food Q costs Rs 80/kg. Food P contains
3 units/kg of Vitamin A and 5 units / kg of Vitamin B while food Q contains
4 units/kg of Vitamin A and 2 units/kg of vitamin B. Determine the minimum cost
of the mixture.
2. One kind of cake requires 200g of flour and 25g of fat, and another kind of cake
requires 100g of flour and 50g of fat. Find the maximum number of cakes which
can be made from 5kg of flour and 1 kg of fat assuming that there is no shortage
of the other ingredients used in making the cakes.
3. A factory makes tennis rackets and cricket bats. A tennis racket takes 1.5 hours
of machine time and 3 hours of craftmans time in its making while a cricket bat
takes 3 hour of machine time and 1 hour of craftmans time. In a day, the factory
has the availability of not more than 42 hours of machine time and 24 hours of
craftsmans time.
(i) What number of rackets and bats must be made if the factory is to work
at full capacity?
(ii) If the profit on a racket and on a bat is Rs 20 and Rs 10 respectively, find
the maximum profit of the factory when it works at full capacity.
4. A manufacturer produces nuts and bolts. It takes 1 hour of work on machine A
and 3 hours on machine B to produce a package of nuts. It takes 3 hours on
machine A and 1 hour on machine B to produce a package of bolts. He earns a
profit of Rs17.50 per package on nuts and Rs 7.00 per package on bolts. How
many packages of each should be produced each day so as to maximise his
profit, if he operates his machines for at the most 12 hours a day?
5. A factory manufactures two types of screws, A and B. Each type of screw
requires the use of two machines, an automatic and a hand operated. It takes
4 minutes on the automatic and 6 minutes on hand operated machines to
manufacture a package of screws A, while it takes 6 minutes on automatic and
3 minutes on the hand operated machines to manufacture a package of screws
B. Each machine is available for at the most 4 hours on any day. The manufacturer
can sell a package of screws A at a profit of Rs 7 and screws B at a profit of
Rs 10. Assuming that he can sell all the screws he manufactures, how many
packages of each type should the factory owner produce in a day in order to
maximise his profit? Determine the maximum profit.
520 MATHEMATICS
6. A cottage industry manufactures pedestal lamps and wooden shades, each
requiring the use of a grinding/cutting machine and a sprayer. It takes 2 hours on
grinding/cutting machine and 3 hours on the sprayer to manufacture a pedestal
lamp. It takes 1 hour on the grinding/cutting machine and 2 hours on the sprayer
to manufacture a shade. On any day, the sprayer is available for at the most 20
hours and the grinding/cutting machine for at the most 12 hours. The profit from
the sale of a lamp is Rs 5 and that from a shade is Rs 3. Assuming that the
manufacturer can sell all the lamps and shades that he produces, how should he
schedule his daily production in order to maximise his profit?
7. A company manufactures two types of novelty souvenirs made of plywood.
Souvenirs of type A require 5 minutes each for cutting and 10 minutes each for
assembling. Souvenirs of type B require 8 minutes each for cutting and 8 minutes
each for assembling. There are 3 hours 20 minutes available for cutting and 4
hours for assembling. The profit is Rs 5 each for type A and Rs 6 each for type
B souvenirs. How many souvenirs of each type should the company manufacture
in order to maximise the profit?
8. A merchant plans to sell two types of personal computers a desktop model and
a portable model that will cost Rs 25000 and Rs 40000 respectively. He estimates
that the total monthly demand of computers will not exceed 250 units. Determine
the number of units of each type of computers which the merchant should stock
to get maximum profit if he does not want to invest more than Rs 70 lakhs and if
his profit on the desktop model is Rs 4500 and on portable model is Rs 5000.
9. A diet is to contain at least 80 units of vitamin A and 100 units of minerals. Two
foods F
1
and F
2
are available. Food F
1
costs Rs 4 per unit food and F
2
costs
Rs 6 per unit. One unit of food F
1
contains 3 units of vitamin A and 4 units of
minerals. One unit of food F
2
contains 6 units of vitamin A and 3 units of minerals.
Formulate this as a linear programming problem. Find the minimum cost for diet
that consists of mixture of these two foods and also meets the minimal nutritional
requirements.
10. There are two types of fertilisers F
1
and F
2
. F
1
consists of 10% nitrogen and 6%
phosphoric acid and F
2
consists of 5% nitrogen and 10% phosphoric acid. After
testing the soil conditions, a farmer finds that she needs atleast 14 kg of nitrogen
and 14 kg of phosphoric acid for her crop. If F
1
costs Rs 6/kg and F
2
costs
Rs 5/kg, determine how much of each type of fertiliser should be used so that
nutrient requirements are met at a minimum cost. What is the minimum cost?
11. The corner points of the feasible region determined by the following system of
linear inequalities:
2x + y 10, x + 3y 15, x, y

0 are (0, 0), (5, 0), (3, 4) and (0, 5). Let
Z = px + qy, where p, q > 0. Condition on p and q so that the maximum of Z
occurs at both (3, 4) and (0, 5) is
(A) p = q (B) p = 2q (C) p = 3q (D) q = 3p
Example 9 (Diet problem) A dietician has to develop a special diet using two foods
P and Q. Each packet (containing 30 g) of food P contains 12 units of calcium, 4 units
of iron, 6 units of cholesterol and 6 units of vitamin A. Each packet of the same quantity
of food Q contains 3 units of calcium, 20 units of iron, 4 units of cholesterol and 3 units
of vitamin A. The diet requires atleast 240 units of calcium, atleast 460 units of iron and
at most 300 units of cholesterol. How many packets of each food should be used to
minimise the amount of vitamin A in the diet? What is the minimum amount of vitamin A?
Solution Let x and y be the number of packets of food P and Q respectively. Obviously
x 0, y 0. Mathematical formulation of the given problem is as follows:
Minimise Z = 6x + 3y (vitamin A)
subject to the constraints
12x + 3y 240 (constraint on calcium), i.e. 4x + y 80 ... (1)
4x + 20y 460 (constraint on iron), i.e. x + 5y 115 ... (2)
6x + 4y 300 (constraint on cholesterol), i.e. 3x + 2y 150 ... (3)
x 0, y 0 ... (4)
Let us graph the inequalities (1) to (4).
The feasible region (shaded) determined by the constraints (1) to (4) is shown in
Fig 12.10 and note that it is bounded.
Fig 12.10
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The coordinates of the corner points L, M and N are (2, 72), (15, 20) and (40, 15)
respectively. Let us evaluate Z at these points:
Corner Point Z = 6 x + 3 y
(2, 72) 228
(15, 20) 150 Minimum
(40, 15) 285
From the table, we find that Z is minimum at the point (15, 20). Hence, the amount
of vitamin A under the constraints given in the problem will be minimum, if 15 packets
of food P and 20 packets of food Q are used in the special diet. The minimum amount
of vitamin A will be 150 units.
Example 10 (Manufacturing problem) A manufacturer has three machines I, II
and III installed in his factory. Machines I and II are capable of being operated for
at most 12 hours whereas machine III must be operated for atleast 5 hours a day. She
produces only two items M and N each requiring the use of all the three machines.
The number of hours required for producing 1 unit of each of M and N on the three
machines are given in the following table:
Items Number of hours required on machines
I II III
M 1 2 1
N 2 1 1.25
She makes a profit of Rs 600 and Rs 400 on items M and N respectively. How many
of each item should she produce so as to maximise her profit assuming that she can sell
all the items that she produced? What will be the maximum profit?
Solution Let x and y be the number of items M and N respectively.
Total profit on the production = Rs (600 x + 400 y)
Mathematical formulation of the given problem is as follows:
Maximise Z = 600 x + 400 y
x + 2y 12 (constraint on Machine I) ... (1)
2x + y 12 (constraint on Machine II) ... (2)
x +
5
4
y 5 (constraint on Machine III) ... (3)
x 0, y 0 ... (4)
Let us draw the graph of constraints (1) to (4). ABCDE is the feasible region
(shaded) as shown in Fig 12.11 determined by the constraints (1) to (4). Observe that
the feasible region is bounded, coordinates of the corner points A, B, C, D and E are
(5, 0) (6, 0), (4, 4), (0, 6) and (0, 4) respectively.
Fig 12.11
Let us evaluate Z = 600 x + 400 y at these corner points.
Corner point Z = 600 x + 400 y
(5, 0) 3000
(6, 0) 3600
(4, 4) 4000 Maximum
(0, 6) 2400
(0, 4) 1600
We see that the point (4, 4) is giving the maximum value of Z. Hence, the
manufacturer has to produce 4 units of each item to get the maximum profit of Rs 4000.
Example 11 (Transportation problem) There are two factories located one at
place P and the other at place Q. From these locations, a certain commodity is to be
delivered to each of the three depots situated at A, B and C. The weekly requirements
of the depots are respectively 5, 5 and 4 units of the commodity while the production
capacity of the factories at P and Q are respectively 8 and 6 units. The cost of
524 MATHEMATICS
P
8 units
A
5 units
C
4 units
Q
6 units
Factory
Factory
Depot Depot
B
5 units
5 y
Rs 100
Rs 120
R
s
1
0
0
R
s
1
5
0
R
s
1
6
0
6
[
(
5
)
+
(
5
)
]
x
y
Depot
y
Rs 100
8
x
y
5 x
x
transportation per unit is given below:
From/To Cost (in Rs)
A B C
P 160 100 150
Q 100 120 100
How many units should be transported from each factory to each depot in order that
the transportation cost is minimum. What will be the minimum transportation cost?
Solution The problem can be explained diagrammatically as follows (Fig 12.12):
Let x units and y units of the commodity be transported from the factory at P to
the depots at A and B respectively. Then (8 x y) units will be transported to depot
at C (Why?)
Hence, we have x 0, y 0 and 8 x y 0
i.e. x 0, y 0 and x + y 8
Now, the weekly requirement of the depot at A is 5 units of the commodity. Since
x units are transported from the factory at P, the remaining (5 x) units need to be
transported from the factory at Q. Obviously, 5 x 0, i.e. x 5.
Similarly, (5 y) and 6 (5 x + 5 y) = x + y 4 units are to be transported from
the factory at Q to the depots at B and C respectively.
Thus, 5 y 0 , x + y 4 0
i.e. y 5 , x + y 4
Fig 12.12
Total transportation cost Z is given by
Z = 160 x + 100 y + 100 ( 5 x) + 120 (5 y) + 100 (x + y 4) + 150 (8 x y)
= 10 (x 7 y + 190)
Therefore, the problem reduces to
Minimise Z = 10 (x 7y + 190)
x 0, y 0 ... (1)
x + y 8 ... (2)
x 5 ... (3)
y 5 ... (4)
and x + y 4 ... (5)
The shaded region ABCDEF
represented by the constraints (1) to
(5) is the feasible region (Fig 12.13).
Observe that the feasible region is bounded. The coordinates of the corner points
of the feasible region are (0, 4), (0, 5), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 0) and (4, 0).
Let us evaluate Z at these points.
Corner Point Z = 10 (x 7 y + 190)
(0, 4) 1620
(0, 5) 1550 Minimum
(3, 5) 1580
(5, 3) 1740
(5, 0) 1950
(4, 0) 1940
From the table, we see that the minimum value of Z is 1550 at the point (0, 5).
Hence, the optimal transportation strategy will be to deliver 0, 5 and 3 units from
the factory at P and 5, 0 and 1 units from the factory at Q to the depots at A, B and C
respectively. Corresponding to this strategy, the transportation cost would be minimum,
i.e., Rs 1550.
1. Refer to Example 9. How many packets of each food should be used to maximise
the amount of vitamin A in the diet? What is the maximum amount of vitamin A
in the diet?
Fig 12.13
526 MATHEMATICS
2. A farmer mixes two brands P and Q of cattle feed. Brand P, costing Rs 250 per
bag, contains 3 units of nutritional element A, 2.5 units of element B and 2 units
of element C. Brand Q costing Rs 200 per bag contains 1.5 units of nutritional
element A, 11.25 units of element B, and 3 units of element C. The minimum
requirements of nutrients A, B and C are 18 units, 45 units and 24 units respectively.
Determine the number of bags of each brand which should be mixed in order to
produce a mixture having a minimum cost per bag? What is the minimum cost of
the mixture per bag?
3. A dietician wishes to mix together two kinds of food X and Y in such a way that
the mixture contains at least 10 units of vitamin A, 12 units of vitamin B and
8 units of vitamin C. The vitamin contents of one kg food is given below:
Food Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C
X 1 2 3
Y 2 2 1
One kg of food X costs Rs 16 and one kg of food Y costs Rs 20. Find the least
cost of the mixture which will produce the required diet?
4. A manufacturer makes two types of toys A and B. Three machines are needed
for this purpose and the time (in minutes) required for each toy on the machines
is given below:
Types of Toys Machines
I II III
A 12 18 6
B 6 0 9
Each machine is available for a maximum of 6 hours per day. If the profit on
each toy of type A is Rs 7.50 and that on each toy of type B is Rs 5, show that 15
toys of type A and 30 of type B should be manufactured in a day to get maximum
profit.
5. An aeroplane can carry a maximum of 200 passengers. A profit of Rs 1000 is
made on each executive class ticket and a profit of Rs 600 is made on each
economy class ticket. The airline reserves at least 20 seats for executive class.
However, at least 4 times as many passengers prefer to travel by economy class
than by the executive class. Determine how many tickets of each type must be
sold in order to maximise the profit for the airline. What is the maximum profit?
6. Two godowns A and B have grain capacity of 100 quintals and 50 quintals
respectively. They supply to 3 ration shops, D, E and F whose requirements are
60, 50 and 40 quintals respectively. The cost of transportation per quintal from
the godowns to the shops are given in the following table:
Transportation cost per quintal (in Rs)
From/To A B
D 6 4
E 3 2
F 2.50 3
How should the supplies be transported in order that the transportation cost is
minimum? What is the minimum cost?
7. An oil company has two depots A and B with capacities of 7000 L and 4000 L
respectively. The company is to supply oil to three petrol pumps, D, E and F
whose requirements are 4500L, 3000L and 3500L respectively. The distances
(in km) between the depots and the petrol pumps is given in the following table:
Distance in (km.)
From / To A B
D 7 3
E 6 4
F 3 2
Assuming that the transportation cost of 10 litres of oil is Re 1 per km, how
should the delivery be scheduled in order that the transportation cost is minimum?
What is the minimum cost?
8. A fruit grower can use two types of fertilizer in his garden, brand P and brand Q.
The amounts (in kg) of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and chlorine in a bag of
each brand are given in the table. Tests indicate that the garden needs at least
240 kg of phosphoric acid, at least 270 kg of potash and at most 310 kg of
chlorine.
If the grower wants to minimise the amount of nitrogen added to the garden,
how many bags of each brand should be used? What is the minimum amount of
nitrogen added in the garden?
528 MATHEMATICS
kg per bag
Brand P Brand Q
Nitrogen 3 3.5
Phosphoric acid 1 2
Potash 3 1.5
Chlorine 1.5 2
9. Refer to Question 8. If the grower wants to maximise the amount of nitrogen
added to the garden, how many bags of each brand should be added? What is
the maximum amount of nitrogen added?
10. A toy company manufactures two types of dolls, A and B. Market tests and available
resources have indicated that the combined production level should not exceed 1200
dolls per week and the demand for dolls of type B is at most half of that for dolls of
type A. Further, the production level of dolls of type A can exceed three times the
production of dolls of other type by at most 600 units. If the company makes profit of
Rs 12 and Rs 16 per doll respectively on dolls A and B, how many of each should be
produced weekly in order to maximise the profit?
Summary
A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of a linear function of several variables (called
objective function) subject to the conditions that the variables are
non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
Variables are sometimes called decision variables and are non-negative.
A few important linear programming problems are:

(i) Diet problems
(ii) Manufacturing problems
(iii) Transportation problems
The common region determined by all the constraints including the non-negative
constraints x 0, y 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible
region (or solution region) for the problem.
Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible
solutions of the constraints.
Any point outside the feasible region is an infeasible solution.
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or
minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
The following Theorems are fundamental in solving linear programming

problems:
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear
programming problem and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z
has an optimal value (maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y
are subject to constraints described by linear inequalities, this optimal value
must occur at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem,
and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded, then the
objective function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and
each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex) of R.
If the feasible region is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum may not

exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
Corner point method for solving a linear programming problem. The method
comprises of the following steps:
(i) Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine
its corner points (vertices).
(ii) Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M
and m respectively be the largest and smallest values at these points.
(iii) If the feasible region is bounded, M and m respectively are the maximum
and minimum values of the objective function.
If the feasible region is unbounded, then
(i) M is the maximum value of the objective function, if the open half plane
determined by ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible
region. Otherwise, the objective function has no maximum value.
(ii) m is the minimum value of the objective function, if the open half plane
determined by ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible
region. Otherwise, the objective function has no minimum value.
If two corner points of the feasible region are both optimal solutions of the
same type, i.e., both produce the same maximum or minimum, then any point
on the line segment joining these two points is also an optimal solution of the
same type.
530 MATHEMATICS
Historical Note
In the World War II, when the war operations had to be planned to economise
expenditure, maximise damage to the enemy, linear programming problems
came to the forefront.
The first problem in linear programming was formulated in 1941 by the Russian
mathematician, L. Kantorovich and the American economist, F. L. Hitchcock,
both of whom worked at it independently of each other. This was the well
known transportation problem. In 1945, an English economist, G.Stigler,
described yet another linear programming problem that of determining an
optimal diet.
In 1947, the American economist, G. B. Dantzig suggested an efficient method
known as the simplex method which is an iterative procedure to solve any
linear programming problem in a finite number of steps.
L. Katorovich and American mathematical economist, T. C. Koopmans were
awarded the nobel prize in the year 1975 in economics for their pioneering
work in linear programming. With the advent of computers and the necessary
softwares, it has become possible to apply linear programming model to
increasingly complex problems in many areas.
PROBABILITY 531
The theory of probabilities is simply the Science of logic

quantitatively treated. C.S. PEIRCE
13.1 Introduction
In earlier Classes, we have studied the probability as a
measure of uncertainty of events in a random experiment.
We discussed the axiomatic approach formulated by
Russian Mathematician, A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987)
and treated probability as a function of outcomes of the
experiment. We have also established equivalence between
the axiomatic theory and the classical theory of probability
in case of equally likely outcomes. On the basis of this
relationship, we obtained probabilities of events associated
with discrete sample spaces. We have also studied the
addition rule of probability. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the important concept of conditional probability of an event
given that another event has occurred, which will be helpful
in understanding the Bayes' theorem, multiplication rule of
probability and independence of events. We shall also learn
an important concept of random variable and its probability
distribution and also the mean and variance of a probability distribution. In the last
section of the chapter, we shall study an important discrete probability distribution
called Binomial distribution. Throughout this chapter, we shall take up the experiments
having equally likely outcomes, unless stated otherwise.
13.2 Conditional Probability
Uptill now in probability, we have discussed the methods of finding the probability of
events. If we have two events from the same sample space, does the information
about the occurrence of one of the events affect the probability of the other event? Let
us try to answer this question by taking up a random experiment in which the outcomes
are equally likely to occur.
Consider the experiment of tossing three fair coins. The sample space of the
experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Chapter 13
PROBABILITY
Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665)
532 MATHEMATICS
Since the coins are fair, we can assign the probability
1
8
to each sample point. Let
E be the event at least two heads appear and F be the event first coin shows tail.
Then
E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
and F = {THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Therefore P(E) = P ({HHH}) + P ({HHT}) + P ({HTH}) + P ({THH})
=
1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 2
+ + + =
(Why ?)
and P(F) = P ({THH}) + P ({THT}) + P ({TTH}) + P ({TTT})
=
1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 2
+ + + =
Also E F = {THH}
with P(E F) = P({THH}) =
1
8
Now, suppose we are given that the first coin shows tail, i.e. F occurs, then what is
the probability of occurrence of E? With the information of occurrence of F, we are
sure that the cases in which first coin does not result into a tail should not be considered
while finding the probability of E. This information reduces our sample space from the
set S to its subset F for the event E. In other words, the additional information really
amounts to telling us that the situation may be considered as being that of a new
random experiment for which the sample space consists of all those outcomes only
which are favourable to the occurrence of the event F.
Now, the sample point of F which is favourable to event E is THH.
Thus, Probability of E considering F as the sample space =
1
4
,
or Probability of E given that the event F has occurred =
1
4
This probability of the event E is called the conditional probability of E given
that F has already occurred, and is denoted by P (E|F).
Thus P(E|F) =
1
4
Note that the elements of F which favour the event E are the common elements of
E and F, i.e. the sample points of E F.
PROBABILITY 533
Thus, we can also write the conditional probability of E given that F has occurred as
P(E|F) =
Number of elementaryeventsfavourableto E F
Number of elementaryevents whicharefavourableto F
=
(E F)
(F)
n
n
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by total number of elementary events
of the sample space, we see that P(E|F) can also be written as
P(E|F) =
(E F)
P(E F) (S)
(F)
P(F)
(S)
n
n
n
n
=
... (1)
Note that (1) is valid only when P(F) 0 i.e., F (Why?)
Thus, we can define the conditional probability as follows :
Definition 1 If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a
random experiment, the conditional probability of the event E given that F has occurred,
i.e. P (E|F) is given by
P(E|F) =
P(E F)
P(F)
provided P(F) 0
13.2.1 Properties of conditional probability
Let E and F be events of a sample space S of an experiment, then we have
Property 1 P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1
We know that
P(S|F) =
P(S F) P(F)
1
P(F) P(F)
= =
Also P(F|F) =
P(F F) P(F)
1
P(F) P(F)
= =
Thus P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1
Property 2 If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event
of S such that P(F) 0, then
P((A B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F) P((A B)|F)
534 MATHEMATICS
In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then
P((AB)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F)
We have
P((AB)|F) =
P[(A B) F]
P(F)

=
P[(A F) (B F)]
P(F)

(by distributive law of union of sets over intersection)
=
P(A F) +P(B F) P(A B F)
P(F)

=
P(A F) P(B F) P[(A B) F]
P(F) P(F) P(F)

+
= P(A|F) + P(B|F) P((AB)|F)
When A and B are disjoint events, then
P((A B)|F) = 0
P((A B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F)
Property 3 P(E|F) = 1 P(E|F)
From Property 1, we know that P(S|F) = 1
P(E E|F) = 1 since S = E E
P(E|F) + P (E|F) = 1 since E and E are disjoint events
Thus, P(E|F) = 1 P(E|F)
Let us now take up some examples.
Example 1 If P(A) =
7
13
, P(B) =
9
13
and P(A B) =
4
13
, evaluate P(A|B).
Solution We have
4
P(A B) 4
13
P(A|B) =
9
P( B) 9
13
= =
Example 2 A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are
boys given that at least one of them is a boy ?
PROBABILITY 535
Solution Let b stand for boy and g for girl. The sample space of the experiment is
S = {(b, b), (g, b), (b, g), (g, g)}
Let E and F denote the following events :
E : both the children are boys
F : at least one of the child is a boy
Then E = {(b,b)} and F = {(b,b), (g,b), (b,g)}
Now E F = {(b,b)}
Thus P(F) =
3
4
and P (E F )=
1
4
Therefore P(E|F) =
1
P(E F) 1
4
3
P( F) 3
4
= =
Example 3 Ten cards numbered 1 to 10 are placed in a box, mixed up thoroughly and
then one card is drawn randomly. If it is known that the number on the drawn card is
more than 3, what is the probability that it is an even number?
Solution Let A be the event the number on the card drawn is even and B be the
event the number on the card drawn is greater than 3. We have to find P(A|B).
Now, the sample space of the experiment is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Then A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
and A B = {4, 6, 8, 10}
Also P(A) =
5 7 4
, P( B) = and P(A B)
10 10 10
=
Then P(A|B) =
4
P(A B) 4
10
7
P( B) 7
10
= =
Example 4 In a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. It is known
that out of 430, 10% of the girls study in class XII. What is the probability that a student
chosen randomly studies in Class XII given that the chosen student is a girl?
Solution Let E denote the event that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII
and F be the event that the randomly chosen student is a girl. We have to find P (E|F).
536 MATHEMATICS
Now P(F) =
430
0.43
1000
= and
43
P( E F) = 0.043
1000
= (Why?)
Then P(E|F) =
P(E F) 0.043
0.1
P( F) 0.43
= =
Example 5 A die is thrown three times. Events A and B are defined as below:
A : 4 on the third throw
B : 6 on the first and 5 on the second throw
Find the probability of A given that B has already occurred.
Solution The sample space has 216 outcomes.
Now A =
(1,1,4) (1,2,4) ... (1,6,4) (2,1,4) (2,2,4) ... (2,6,4)
(3,1,4) (3,2,4) ... (3,6,4) (4,1,4) (4,2,4) ...(4,6,4)
(5,1,4) (5,2,4) ... (5,6,4) (6,1,4) (6,2,4) ...(6,6,4)

B = {(6,5,1), (6,5,2), (6,5,3), (6,5,4), (6,5,5), (6,5,6)}
and A B = {(6,5,4)}.
Now P(B) =
6
216
and P (A B) =
1
216
Then P(A|B) =
1
P(A B) 1
216
6
P(B) 6
216
= =
Example 6 A die is thrown twice and the sum of the numbers appearing is observed
to be 6. What is the conditional probability that the number 4 has appeared at least
once?
Solution Let E be the event that number 4 appears at least once and F be the event
that the sum of the numbers appearing is 6.
Then, E = {(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (1,4), (2,4), (3,4), (5,4), (6,4)}
and F = {(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)}
We have P(E) =
11
36
and P(F) =
5
36
Also EF = {(2,4), (4,2)}
PROBABILITY 537
Therefore P(EF) =
2
36
Hence, the required probability
P(E|F) =
2
P(E F) 2
36
5
P(F) 5
36
= =
For the conditional probability discussed above, we have considered the elemen-
tary events of the experiment to be equally likely and the corresponding definition of
the probability of an event was used. However, the same definition can also be used in
the general case where the elementary events of the sample space are not equally
likely, the probabilities P(EF) and P(F) being calculated accordingly. Let us take up
the following example.
Example 7 Consider the experiment of tossing a coin. If the coin shows head, toss it
again but if it shows tail, then throw a die. Find the
conditional probability of the event that the die shows
a number greater than 4 given that there is at least
one tail.
Solution The outcomes of the experiment can be
represented in following diagrammatic manner called
the tree diagram.
The sample space of the experiment may be
described as
S = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
where (H, H) denotes that both the tosses result into
head and (T, i) denote the first toss result into a tail and
the number i appeared on the die for i = 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Thus, the probabilities assigned to the 8 elementary
events
(H, H), (H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3) (T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6)
are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , , , ,
4 4 12 12 12 12 12 12
respectively which is
clear from the Fig 13.2.
Fig 13.1
Fig 13.2
538 MATHEMATICS
Let F be the event that there is at least one tail and E be the event the die shows
a number greater than 4. Then
F = {(H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
E = {(T,5), (T,6)} and E F = {(T,5), (T,6)}
Now P(F) = P({(H,T)}) + P ({(T,1)}) + P ({(T,2)}) + P ({(T,3)})
+ P ({(T,4)}) + P({(T,5)}) + P({(T,6)})
=
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
4 12 12 12 12 12 12 4
+ + + + + + =
and P(E F) = P ({(T,5)}) + P ({(T,6)}) =
1 1 1
12 12 6
+ =
Hence P(E|F) =
1
P(E F) 2
6
3
P(F) 9
4
= =
EXERCISE 13.1
1. Given that E and F are events such that P(E) = 0.6, P(F) = 0.3 and
P(E F) = 0.2, find P(E|F) and P(F|E)
2. Compute P(A|B), if P(B) = 0.5 and P (A B) = 0.32
3. If P(A) = 0.8, P(B) = 0.5 and P(B|A) = 0.4, find
(i) P(A B) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(A B)
4. Evaluate P(A B), if 2P(A) = P(B) =
5
13
and P(A|B) =
2
5
5. If P(A) =
6
11
, P(B) =
5
11
and P(A B)
7
11
= , find
(i) P(AB) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(B|A)
Determine P(E|F) in Exercises 6 to 9.
6. A coin is tossed three times, where
(i) E : head on third toss , F : heads on first two tosses
(ii) E : at least two heads , F : at most two heads
(iii) E : at most two tails , F : at least one tail
PROBABILITY 539
7. Two coins are tossed once, where
(i) E : tail appears on one coin, F : one coin shows head
(ii) E : no tail appears, F : no head appears
8. A die is thrown three times,
E : 4 appears on the third toss, F : 6 and 5 appears respectively
on first two tosses
9. Mother, father and son line up at random for a family picture
E : son on one end, F : father in middle
10. A black and a red dice are rolled.
(a) Find the conditional probability of obtaining a sum greater than 9, given
that the black die resulted in a 5.
(b) Find the conditional probability of obtaining the sum 8, given that the red die
resulted in a number less than 4.
11. A fair die is rolled. Consider events E = {1,3,5}, F = {2,3} and G = {2,3,4,5}
Find
(i) P(E|F) and P(F|E) (ii) P(E|G) and P(G|E)
(iii) P((E F)|G) and P((E F)|G)
12. Assume that each born child is equally likely to be a boy or a girl. If a family has
two children, what is the conditional probability that both are girls given that
(i) the youngest is a girl, (ii) at least one is a girl?
13. An instructor has a question bank consisting of 300 easy True / False questions,
200 difficult True / False questions, 500 easy multiple choice questions and 400
difficult multiple choice questions. If a question is selected at random from the
question bank, what is the probability that it will be an easy question given that it
is a multiple choice question?
14. Given that the two numbers appearing on throwing two dice are different. Find
the probability of the event the sum of numbers on the dice is 4.
15. Consider the experiment of throwing a die, if a multiple of 3 comes up, throw the
die again and if any other number comes, toss a coin. Find the conditional probability
of the event the coin shows a tail, given that at least one die shows a 3.
In each of the Exercises 16 and 17 choose the correct answer:
16. If P(A) =
1
2
, P(B) = 0, then P(A|B) is
(A) 0 (B)
1
2
(C) not defined (D) 1
540 MATHEMATICS
17. If A and B are events such that P(A|B) = P(B|A), then
(A) A B but A B (B) A = B
(C) A B = (D) P(A) = P(B)
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability
Let E and F be two events associated with a sample space S. Clearly, the set E F
denotes the event that both E and F have occurred. In other words, E F denotes the
simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F. The event E F is also written as EF.
Very often we need to find the probability of the event EF. For example, in the
experiment of drawing two cards one after the other, we may be interested in finding
the probability of the event a king and a queen. The probability of event EF is obtained
by using the conditional probability as obtained below :
We know that the conditional probability of event E given that F has occurred is
denoted by P(E|F) and is given by
P(E|F) =
P(E F)
, P(F) 0
P(F)

From this result, we can write
P(E F) = P(F) . P(E|F) ... (1)
Also, we know that
P(F|E) =
P(F E)
, P(E) 0
P(E)

or P(F|E) =
P(E F)
P(E)
(since E F = F E)
Thus, P(E F) = P(E). P(F|E) .... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we find that
P(E F) = P(E) P(F|E)
= P(F) P(E|F) provided P(E) 0 and P(F) 0.
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of probability.
Let us now take up an example.
Example 8 An urn contains 10 black and 5 white balls. Two balls are drawn from the
urn one after the other without replacement. What is the probability that both drawn
balls are black?
Solution Let E and F denote respectively the events that first and second ball drawn
are black. We have to find P(E F) or P(EF).
PROBABILITY 541
Now P(E) = P (black ball in first draw) =
10
15
Also given that the first ball drawn is black, i.e., event E has occurred, now there
are 9 black balls and five white balls left in the urn. Therefore, the probability that the
second ball drawn is black, given that the ball in the first draw is black, is nothing but
the conditional probability of F given that E has occurred.
i.e. P(F|E) =
9
14
By multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(E F) = P(E) P(F|E)
=
10 9 3
15 14 7
=
Multiplication rule of probability for more than two events If E, F and G are
three events of sample space, we have
P(E F G) = P(E) P(F|E) P(G|(E F)) = P(E) P(F|E) P(G|EF)
Similarly, the multiplication rule of probability can be extended for four or
more events.
The following example illustrates the extension of multiplication rule of probability
for three events.
Example 9 Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of
52 well shuffled cards. What is the probability that first two cards are kings and the
third card drawn is an ace?
Solution Let K denote the event that the card drawn is king and A be the event that
the card drawn is an ace. Clearly, we have to find P (KKA)
Now P(K) =
4
52
Also, P(K|K) is the probability of second king with the condition that one king has
already been drawn. Now there are three kings in (52 1) = 51 cards.
Therefore P(K|K) =
3
51
Lastly, P(A|KK) is the probability of third drawn card to be an ace, with the condition
that two kings have already been drawn. Now there are four aces in left 50 cards.
542 MATHEMATICS
Therefore P(A|KK) =
4
50
By multiplication law of probability, we have
P(KKA) = P(K) P(K|K) P(A|KK)
=
4 3 4 2
52 51 50 5525
=
13.4 Independent Events
Consider the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of 52 playing cards, in which
the elementary events are assumed to be equally likely. If E and F denote the events
'the card drawn is a spade' and 'the card drawn is an ace' respectively, then
P(E) =
13 1 4 1
and P(F)
52 4 52 13
= = =
Also E and F is the event ' the card drawn is the ace of spades' so that
P(E F) =
1
52
Hence P(E|F) =
1
P(E F) 1
52
1
P(F) 4
13
= =
Since P(E) =
1
4
= P (E|F), we can say that the occurrence of event F has not
affected the probability of occurrence of the event E.
We also have
P(F|E) =
1
P(E F) 1
52
P(F)
1
P(E) 13
4
= = =
Again, P(F) =
1
13
= P(F|E) shows that occurrence of event E has not affected
the probability of occurrence of the event F.
Thus, E and F are two events such that the probability of occurrence of one of
them is not affected by occurrence of the other.
Such events are called independent events.
PROBABILITY 543
Definition 2 Two events E and F are said to be independent, if
P(F|E) = P (F) provided P (E) 0
and P(E|F) = P (E) provided P (F) 0
Thus, in this definition we need to have P (E) 0 and P(F) 0
Now, by the multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(E F) = P(E) . P (F|E) ... (1)
If E and F are independent, then (1) becomes
P(E F) = P(E) . P(F) ... (2)
Thus, using (2), the independence of two events is also defined as follows:
Definition 3 Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment,
then E and F are said to be independent if
P(E F) = P(E) . P (F)
Remarks
(i) Two events E and F are said to be dependent if they are not independent, i.e. if
P(E F ) P(E) . P (F)
(ii) Sometimes there is a confusion between independent events and mutually
exclusive events. Term independent is defined in terms of probability of events
whereas mutually exclusive is defined in term of events (subset of sample space).
Moreover, mutually exclusive events never have an outcome common, but
independent events, may have common outcome. Clearly, independent and
mutually exclusive do not have the same meaning.
In other words, two independent events having nonzero probabilities of occurrence
can not be mutually exclusive, and conversely, i.e. two mutually exclusive events
having nonzero probabilities of occurrence can not be independent.
(iii) Two experiments are said to be independent if for every pair of events E and F,
where E is associated with the first experiment and F with the second experiment,
the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F when the
two experiments are performed is the product of P(E) and P(F) calculated
separately on the basis of two experiments, i.e., P (E F) = P (E) . P(F)
(iv) Three events A, B and C are said to be mutually independent, if
P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
P(A C) = P(A) P(C)
P(B C) = P(B) P(C)
and P(A B C) = P(A) P(B) P(C)
544 MATHEMATICS
If at least one of the above is not true for three given events, we say that the
events are not independent.
Example 10 A die is thrown. If E is the event the number appearing is a multiple of
3 and F be the event the number appearing is even then find whether E and F are
independent ?
Solution We know that the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Now E = { 3, 6}, F = { 2, 4, 6} and E F = {6}
Then P(E) =
2 1 3 1 1
, P(F) and P(E F)
6 3 6 2 6
= = = =
Clearly P(E F) = P(E). P (F)
Hence E and F are independent events.
Example 11 An unbiased die is thrown twice. Let the event A be odd number on the
first throw and B the event odd number on the second throw. Check the independence
of the events A and B.
Solution If all the 36 elementary events of the experiment are considered to be equally
likely, we have
P(A) =
18 1
36 2
=
and
18 1
P(B)
36 2
= =
Also P(A B) = P (odd number on both throws)
=
9 1
36 4
=
Now P(A) P(B) =
1 1 1
2 2 4
=
Clearly P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
Thus, A and B are independent events
Example 12 Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Consider the event E three heads
or three tails, F at least two heads and G at most two heads. Of the pairs (E,F),
(E,G) and (F,G), which are independent? which are dependent?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is given by
Clearly E = {HHH, TTT}, F= {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
PROBABILITY 545
and G = {HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Also E F = {HHH}, E G = {TTT}, F G = { HHT, HTH, THH}
Therefore P(E) =
2 1 4 1 7
, P(F) , P(G)
8 4 8 2 8
= = = =
and P(EF) =
1 1 3
, P(E G) , P(F G)
8 8 8
= =
Also P(E) . P(F) =
1 1 1 1 7 7
, P(E) P(G)
4 2 8 4 8 32
= = =
and P(F) . P(G) =
1 7 7
2 8 16
=
Thus P(E F) = P(E) . P(F)
P(E G) P(E) . P(G)
and P(F G) P (F) . P(G)
Hence, the events (E and F) are independent, and the events (E and G) and
(F and G) are dependent.
Example 13 Prove that if E and F are independent events, then so are the events
E and F.
Solution Since E and F are independent, we have
P(E F) = P(E) . P(F) ....(1)
From the venn diagram in Fig 13.3, it is clear
that E F and E F are mutually exclusive events
and also E =(E F) (E F).
Therefore P(E) = P(E F) + P(E F)
or P(E F) = P(E) P(E F)
= P(E) P(E) . P(F)
(by (1))
= P(E) (1P(F))
= P(E). P(F)
Hence, E and F are independent
(E F )
(E F)
E
F
S
(E F)
(E F )
Fig 13.3
546 MATHEMATICS
$
Note In a similar manner, it can be shown that if the events E and F are
independent, then
(a) E and F are independent,
(b) E and F are independent
Example 14 If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence
of at least one of A and B is given by 1 P(A) P(B)
Solution We have
P(at least one of A and B) = P(A B)
= P(A) + P(B) P(A B)
= P(A) + P(B) P(A) P(B)
= P(A) + P(B) [1P(A)]
= P(A) + P(B). P(A)
= 1 P(A) + P(B) P(A)
= 1 P(A) [1 P(B)]
= 1 P(A) P (B)
EXERCISE 13.2
1. If P(A)
3
5
=
and P (B)
1
5
=
, find P (A B) if A and B are independent events.
2. Two cards are drawn at random and without replacement from a pack of 52
playing cards. Find the probability that both the cards are black.
3. A box of oranges is inspected by examining three randomly selected oranges
drawn without replacement. If all the three oranges are good, the box is approved
for sale, otherwise, it is rejected. Find the probability that a box containing 15
oranges out of which 12 are good and 3 are bad ones will be approved for sale.
4. A fair coin and an unbiased die are tossed. Let A be the event head appears on
the coin and B be the event 3 on the die. Check whether A and B are
independent events or not.
5. A die marked 1, 2, 3 in red and 4, 5, 6 in green is tossed. Let A be the event,
the number is even, and B be the event, the number is red. Are A and B
independent?
6. Let E and F be events with P(E)
3
5
=
, P(F)
3
10
=
and P (E F) =
1
5
. Are
E and F independent?
PROBABILITY 547
7. Given that the events A and B are such that P(A) =
1
2
, P(A B) =
3
5
and
P(B) = p. Find p if they are (i) mutually exclusive (ii) independent.
8. Let A and B be independent events with P(A) = 0.3 and P(B) = 0.4. Find
(i) P(A B) (ii) P(A B)
(iii) P(A|B) (iv) P(B|A)
9. If A and B are two events such that P(A) =
1
4
, P(B) =
1
2
and P(A B) =
1
8
,
find P (not A and not B).
10. Events A and B are such that P (A) =
1
2
, P(B) =
7
12
and P(not A or not B) =
1
4
.
State whether A and B are independent ?
11. Given two independent events A and B such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.6.
Find
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A and not B)
(iii) P(A or B) (iv) P(neither A nor B)
12. A die is tossed thrice. Find the probability of getting an odd number at least once.
13. Two balls are drawn at random with replacement from a box containing 10 black
and 8 red balls. Find the probability that
(i) both balls are red.
(ii) first ball is black and second is red.
(iii) one of them is black and other is red.
14. Probability of solving specific problem independently by A and B are
1
2
and
1
3
respectively. If both try to solve the problem independently, find the probability
that
(i) the problem is solved (ii) exactly one of them solves the problem.
15. One card is drawn at random from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. In which of
the following cases are the events E and F independent ?
(i) E : the card drawn is a spade
F : the card drawn is an ace
(ii) E : the card drawn is black
F : the card drawn is a king
(iii) E : the card drawn is a king or queen
F : the card drawn is a queen or jack.
548 MATHEMATICS
16. In a hostel, 60% of the students read Hindi news paper, 40% read English news
paper and 20% read both Hindi and English news papers. A student is selected
at random.
(a) Find the probability that she reads neither Hindi nor English news papers.
(b) If she reads Hindi news paper, find the probability that she reads English
news paper.
(c) If she reads English news paper, find the probability that she reads Hindi
news paper.
17. The probability of obtaining an even prime number on each die, when a pair of
dice is rolled is
(A) 0 (B)
1
3
(C)
1
12
(D)
1
36
18. Two events A and B will be independent, if
(A) A and B are mutually exclusive
(B) P(AB) = [1 P(A)] [1 P(B)]
(C) P(A) = P(B)
(D) P(A) + P(B) = 1
13.5 Bayes' Theorem
Consider that there are two bags I and II. Bag I contains 2 white and 3 red balls and
Bag II contains 4 white and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the
bags. We can find the probability of selecting any of the bags (i.e.
1
2
) or probability of
drawing a ball of a particular colour (say white) from a particular bag (say Bag I). In
other words, we can find the probability that the ball drawn is of a particular colour, if
we are given the bag from which the ball is drawn. But, can we find the probability that
the ball drawn is from a particular bag (say Bag II), if the colour of the ball drawn is
given? Here, we have to find the reverse probability of Bag II to be selected when an
event occurred after it is known. Famous mathematician, John Bayes' solved the problem
of finding reverse probability by using conditional probability. The formula developed
by him is known as Bayes theorem which was published posthumously in 1763.
Before stating and proving the Bayes' theorem, let us first take up a definition and
some preliminary results.
13.5.1 Partition of a sample space
A set of events E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
is said to represent a partition of the sample space S if
(a) E
i
E
j
= , i j, i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
PROBABILITY 549
Fig 13.4
(b) E
1

2
... E
n
= S and
(c) P(E
i
)

>

0 for all i = 1, 2, ..., n.
In other words, the events E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
represent a partition of the sample space
S if they are pairwise disjoint, exhaustive and have nonzero probabilities.
As an example, we see that any nonempty event E and its complement E form a
partition of the sample space S since they satisfy E E = and E E = S.
From the Venn diagram in Fig 13.3, one can easily observe that if E and F are any
two events associated with a sample space S, then the set {E F, E F, E F, E F}
is a partition of the sample space S. It may be mentioned that the partition of a sample
space is not unique. There can be several partitions of the same sample space.
We shall now prove a theorem known as Theorem of total probability.
13.5.2 Theorem of total probability
Let {E
1
, E
2
,...,E
n
} be a partition of the sample space S, and suppose that each of the
events E
1
, E
2
,..., E
n
has nonzero probability of occurrence. Let A be any event associated
with S, then
P(A) = P(E
1
) P(A|E
1
) + P(E
2
) P(A|E
2
) + ... + P(E
n
) P(A|E
n
)
=
1
P(E ) P(A|E )
n
j j
j =
Proof Given that E

1
, E
2
,..., E
n
is a partition of the sample space S (Fig 13.4). Therefore,
S = E
1
E
2
... E
n
... (1)
and E
i
E
j
= , i j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
Now, we know that for any event A,
A = A S
= A (E
1
E
2
... E
n
)
= (A E
1
) (A E
2
) ... (A E
n
)
Also A E
i
and A E
j
are respectively the subsets of E
i
and E
j
. We know that
E
i
and E
j
are disjoint, for i j , therefore, A E
i
and A E
j
are also disjoint for all
i j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Thus, P(A) = P [(A E
1
) (A E
2
) ..... (A E
n
)]
= P (A E
1
) + P (A E
2
) + ... + P (A E
n
)
Now, by multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(A E
i
) = P(E
i
) P(A|E
i
) as P (E
i
) 0i = 1,2,..., n
550 MATHEMATICS
Therefore, P (A) = P (E
1
) P (A|E
1
) + P (E
2
) P (A|E
2
) + ... + P (E
n
)P(A|E
n
)
or P(A) =
1
P(E ) P(A|E )
n
j j
j =
Example 15 A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65
that there will be strike, 0.80 that the construction job will be completed on time if there
is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time if there is a
strike. Determine the probability that the construction job will be completed on time.
Solution Let A be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B
be the event that there will be a strike. We have to find P(A).
We have
P(B) = 0.65, P(no strike) = P(B) = 1 P(B) = 1 0.65 = 0.35
P(A|B) = 0.32, P(A|B) = 0.80
Since events B and B form a partition of the sample space S, therefore, by theorem
on total probability, we have
P(A) = P(B) P(A|B) + P(B) P(A|B)
= 0.65 0.32 + 0.35 0.8
= 0.208 + 0.28 = 0.488
Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is 0.488.
We shall now state and prove the Bayes' theorem.
Bayes Theorem If E
1
, E
2
,..., E
n
are n non empty events which constitute a partition
of sample space S, i.e. E
1
, E
2
,..., E
n
are pairwise disjoint and E
1
E
2
... E
n
= S and
A is any event of nonzero probability, then
P(E
i
|A) =
1
P(E ) P(A| E )
P(E ) P(A|E )
i i
n
j j
j =
for any i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n

Proof By formula of conditional probability, we know that
P(E
i
|A) =
P(A E )
P(A)
i
=
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(A)
i i
(by multiplication rule of probability)
=
1
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(E ) P(A|E )
i i
n
j j
j =
(by the result of theorem of total probability)

PROBABILITY 551
Remark The following terminology is generally used when Bayes' theorem is applied.
The events E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
are called hypotheses.
The probability P(E
i
) is called the priori probability of the hypothesis E
i
The conditional probability P(E
i
|A) is called a posteriori probability of the
hypothesis E
i
.
Bayes' theorem is also called the formula for the probability of "causes". Since the
E
i
's are a partition of the sample space S, one and only one of the events E
i
occurs (i.e.
one of the events E
i
must occur and only one can occur). Hence, the above formula
gives us the probability of a particular E
i
(i.e. a "Cause"), given that the event A has
occurred.
The Bayes' theorem has its applications in variety of situations, few of which are
illustrated in following examples.
Example 16 Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red
and 6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to
be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.
Solution Let E
1
be the event of choosing the bag I, E
2
the event of choosing the bag II
and A be the event of drawing a red ball.
Then P(E
1
) = P(E
2
) =
1
2
Also P(A|E
1
) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag I) =
3
7
and P(A|E
2
) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag II) =
5
11
Now, the probability of drawing a ball from Bag II, being given that it is red,
is P(E
2
|A)
By using Bayes' theorem, we have
P(E
2
|A) =
2 2
1 1 2 2
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(E ) P(A|E ) +P(E ) P(A|E )
=
1 5
35
2 11
1 3 1 5
68
2 7 2 11
=
+
Example 17 Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In
box I, both coins are gold coins, in box II, both are silver coins and in the box III, there
is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a box at random and takes out a coin.
If the coin is of gold, what is the probability that the other coin in the box is also of gold?
552 MATHEMATICS
Solution Let E
1
, E
2
and E
3
be the events that boxes I, II and III are chosen, respectively.
Then P(E
1
) = P(E
2
) = P(E
3
) =
1
3
Also, let A be the event that the coin drawn is of gold
Then P(A|E
1
) = P(a gold coin from bag I) =
2
2
= 1
P(A|E
2
) = P(a gold coin from bag II) = 0
P(A|E
3
) = P(a gold coin from bag III) =
1
2
Now, the probability that the other coin in the box is of gold
= the probability that gold coin is drawn from the box I.
= P(E
1
|A)
By Bayes' theorem, we know that
P(E
1
|A) =
1 1
1 1 2 2 3 3
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(E ) P(A|E ) +P(E ) P(A|E ) +P(E ) P(A|E )
=
1
1
2
3
1 1 1 1
3
1 0
3 3 3 2
=
+ +
Example 18 Suppose that the reliability of a HIV test is specified as follows:
Of people having HIV, 90% of the test detect the disease but 10% go undetected. Of
people free of HIV, 99% of the test are judged HIVive but 1% are diagnosed as
showing HIV+ive. From a large population of which only 0.1% have HIV, one person
is selected at random, given the HIV test, and the pathologist reports him/her as
HIV+ive. What is the probability that the person actually has HIV?
Solution Let E denote the event that the person selected is actually having HIV and A
the event that the person's HIV test is diagnosed as +ive. We need to find P(E|A).
Also E denotes the event that the person selected is actually not having HIV.
Clearly, {E, E} is a partition of the sample space of all people in the population.
We are given that
P(E) = 0.1%
0.1
0.001
100
= =
PROBABILITY 553
P(E) = 1 P(E) = 0.999
P(A|E) = P(Person tested as HIV+ive given that he/she
is actually having HIV)
= 90%
90
0.9
100
= =
and P(A|E) = P(Person tested as HIV +ive given that he/she
is actually not having HIV)
= 1% =
1
100
= 0.01
Now, by Bayes' theorem
P(E|A) =
P(E) P(A| E)
P(E) P(A| E) +P(E ) P(A|E )
=
0.001 0.9 90
0.001 0.9 0.999 0.01 1089
=
+
= 0.083 approx.
Thus, the probability that a person selected at random is actually having HIV
given that he/she is tested HIV+ive is 0.083.
Example 19 In a factory which manufactures bolts, machines A, B and C manufacture
respectively 25%, 35% and 40% of the bolts. Of their outputs, 5, 4 and 2 percent are
respectively defective bolts. A bolt is drawn at random from the product and is found
to be defective. What is the probability that it is manufactured by the machine B?
Solution Let events B
1
, B
2
, B
3
be the following :
B
1
: the bolt is manufactured by machine A
B
2
: the bolt is manufactured by machine B
B
3
: the bolt is manufactured by machine C
Clearly, B
1
, B
2
, B
3
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and hence, they
represent a partition of the sample space.
Let the event E be the bolt is defective.
The event E occurs with B
1
or with B
2
or with B
3
. Given that,
P(B
1
) = 25% = 0.25, P (B
2
) = 0.35 and P(B
3
) = 0.40
Again P(E|B
1
) = Probability that the bolt drawn is defective given that it is manu-
factured by machine A = 5% = 0.05
Similarly, P(E|B
2
) = 0.04, P(E|B
3
) = 0.02.
554 MATHEMATICS
Hence, by Bayes' Theorem, we have
P(B
2
|E) =
2 2
1 1 2 2 3 3
P(B ) P(E|B )
P(B ) P(E|B ) +P(B ) P(E|B ) +P(B ) P(E|B )
=
0.35 0.04
0.25 0.05 0.35 0.04 0.40 0.02
+ +
=
0.0140 28
0.0345 69
=
Example 20 A doctor is to visit a patient. From the past experience, it is known that
the probabilities that he will come by train, bus, scooter or by other means of transport
are respectively
3 1 1 2
, , and
10 5 10 5
. The probabilities that he will be late are
1 1 1
, , and
4 3 12
,
if he comes by train, bus and scooter respectively, but if he comes by other means of
transport, then he will not be late. When he arrives, he is late. What is the probability
that he comes by train?
Solution Let E be the event that the doctor visits the patient late and let T
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
be the events that the doctor comes by train, bus, scooter, and other means of transport
respectively.
Then P(T
1
) =
2 3 4
3 1 1 2
, P(T ) , P(T ) and P(T )
10 5 10 5
= = =
(given)
P(E|T
1
) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train =
1
4
Similarly, P(E|T
2
) =
1
3
, P(E|T
3
) =
1
12
and P(E|T
4
) = 0, since he is not late if he
comes by other means of transport.
Therefore, by Bayes' Theorem, we have
P(T
1
|E) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train
=
1 1
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
P(T ) P(E|T )
P(T ) P(E|T ) +P(T ) P(E|T ) +P(T ) P(E|T )+P(T )P(E|T )
=
3 1
10 4
3 1 1 1 1 1 2
0
10 4 5 3 10 12 5
+ + +
=
3 120 1
40 18 2
=
Hence, the required probability is
1
2
.
PROBABILITY 555
Example 21 A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and
reports that it is a six. Find the probability that it is actually a six.
Solution Let E be the event that the man reports that six occurs in the throwing of the
die and let S
1
be the event that six occurs and S
2
be the event that six does not occur.
Then P(S
1
) = Probability that six occurs =
1
6
P(S
2
) = Probability that six does not occur =
5
6
P(E|S
1
) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
actually occurred on the die
= Probability that the man speaks the truth =
3
4
P(E|S
2
) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
not actually occurred on the die
= Probability that the man does not speak the truth
3 1
1
4 4
= =
Thus, by Bayes' theorem, we get
P(S
1
|E) = Probability that the report of the man that six has occurred is
actually a six
=
1 1
1 1 2 2
P(S ) P(E|S )
P(S ) P(E|S ) +P(S ) P(E|S )
=
1 3
1 24 3
6 4
1 3 5 1
8 8 8
6 4 6 4
= =
+
Hence, the required probability is
3
.
8
EXERCISE 13.3
1. An urn contains 5 red and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random, its colour is
noted and is returned to the urn. Moreover, 2 additional balls of the colour drawn
are put in the urn and then a ball is drawn at random. What is the probability that
the second ball is red?
556 MATHEMATICS
2. A bag contains 4 red and 4 black balls, another bag contains 2 red and 6 black
balls. One of the two bags is selected at random and a ball is drawn from the bag
which is found to be red. Find the probability that the ball is drawn from the
first bag.
3. Of the students in a college, it is known that 60% reside in hostel and 40% are
day scholars (not residing in hostel). Previous year results report that 30% of all
students who reside in hostel attain A grade and 20% of day scholars attain A
grade in their annual examination. At the end of the year, one student is chosen
at random from the college and he has an A grade, what is the probability that the
student is a hostlier?
4. In answering a question on a multiple choice test, a student either knows the
answer or guesses. Let
3
4
be the probability that he knows the answer and
1
4
be the probability that he guesses. Assuming that a student who guesses at the
answer will be correct with probability
1
4
. What is the probability that the stu-
dent knows the answer given that he answered it correctly?
5. A laboratory blood test is 99% effective in detecting a certain disease when it is
in fact, present. However, the test also yields a false positive result for 0.5% of
the healthy person tested (i.e. if a healthy person is tested, then, with probability
0.005, the test will imply he has the disease). If 0.1 percent of the population
actually has the disease, what is the probability that a person has the disease
given that his test result is positive ?
6. There are three coins. One is a two headed coin (having head on both faces),
another is a biased coin that comes up heads 75% of the time and third is an
unbiased coin. One of the three coins is chosen at random and tossed, it shows
heads, what is the probability that it was the two headed coin ?
7. An insurance company insured 2000 scooter drivers, 4000 car drivers and 6000
truck drivers. The probability of an accidents are 0.01, 0.03 and 0.15 respectively.
One of the insured persons meets with an accident. What is the probability that
he is a scooter driver?
8. A factory has two machines A and B. Past record shows that machine A produced
60% of the items of output and machine B produced 40% of the items. Further,
2% of the items produced by machine A and 1% produced by machine B were
defective. All the items are put into one stockpile and then one item is chosen at
random from this and is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was
produced by machine B?
9. Two groups are competing for the position on the Board of directors of a
corporation. The probabilities that the first and the second groups will win are
PROBABILITY 557
0.6 and 0.4 respectively. Further, if the first group wins, the probability of
introducing a new product is 0.7 and the corresponding probability is 0.3 if the
second group wins. Find the probability that the new product introduced was by
the second group.
10. Suppose a girl throws a die. If she gets a 5 or 6, she tosses a coin three times and
notes the number of heads. If she gets 1, 2, 3 or 4, she tosses a coin once and
notes whether a head or tail is obtained. If she obtained exactly one head, what
is the probability that she threw 1, 2, 3 or 4 with the die?
11. A manufacturer has three machine operators A, B and C. The first operator A
produces 1% defective items, where as the other two operators B and C pro-
duce 5% and 7% defective items respectively. A is on the job for 50% of the
time, B is on the job for 30% of the time and C is on the job for 20% of the time.
A defective item is produced, what is the probability that it was produced by A?
12. A card from a pack of 52 cards is lost. From the remaining cards of the pack,
two cards are drawn and are found to be both diamonds. Find the probability of
the lost card being a diamond.
13. Probability that A speaks truth is
4
5
. A coin is tossed. A reports that a head
appears. The probability that actually there was head is
(A)
4
5
(B)
1
2
(C)
1
5
(D)
2
5
14. If A and B are two events such that A B and P(B) 0, then which of the
following is correct?
(A)
P(B)
P(A| B)
P(A)
= (B) P(A|B) < P(A)
(C) P(A|B) P(A) (D) None of these
13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions
We have already learnt about random experiments and formation of sample spaces. In
most of these experiments, we were not only interested in the particular outcome that
occurs but rather in some number associated with that outcomes as shown in following
examples/experiments.
(i) In tossing two dice, we may be interested in the sum of the numbers on the
two dice.
(ii) In tossing a coin 50 times, we may want the number of heads obtained.
558 MATHEMATICS
(iii) In the experiment of taking out four articles (one after the other) at random
from a lot of 20 articles in which 6 are defective, we want to know the
number of defectives in the sample of four and not in the particular sequence
of defective and nondefective articles.
In all of the above experiments, we have a rule which assigns to each outcome of
the experiment a single real number. This single real number may vary with different
outcomes of the experiment. Hence, it is a variable. Also its value depends upon the
outcome of a random experiment and, hence, is called random variable. A random
variable is usually denoted by X.
If you recall the definition of a function, you will realise that the random variable X
is really speaking a function whose domain is the set of outcomes (or sample space) of
a random experiment. A random variable can take any real value, therefore, its
co-domain is the set of real numbers. Hence, a random variable can be defined as
follows :
Definition 4 A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample
space of a random experiment.
For example, let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times in succession.
The sample space of the experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
If X denotes the number of heads obtained, then X is a random variable and for
each outcome, its value is as given below :
X(HH) = 2, X (HT) = 1, X (TH) = 1, X (TT) = 0.
More than one random variables can be defined on the same sample space. For
example, let Y denote the number of heads minus the number of tails for each outcome
of the above sample space S.
Then Y(HH) = 2, Y (HT) = 0, Y (TH) = 0, Y (TT) = 2.
Thus, X and Y are two different random variables defined on the same sample
space S.
Example 22 A person plays a game of tossing a coin thrice. For each head, he is
given Rs 2 by the organiser of the game and for each tail, he has to give Rs 1.50 to the
organiser. Let X denote the amount gained or lost by the person. Show that X is a
random variable and exhibit it as a function on the sample space of the experiment.
Solution X is a number whose values are defined on the outcomes of a random
experiment. Therefore, X is a random variable.
Now, sample space of the experiment is
PROBABILITY 559
Then X(HHH) = Rs (2 3) = Rs 6
X(HHT) = X(HTH) = X(THH) = Rs (2 2 1 1.50) = Rs 2.50
X(HTT) = X(THT) = (TTH) = Rs (1 2) (2 1.50) = Re 1
and X(TTT) = Rs (3 1.50) = Rs 4.50
where, minus sign shows the loss to the player. Thus, for each element of the sample
space, X takes a unique value, hence, X is a function on the sample space whose range
is
{1, 2.50, 4.50, 6}
Example 23 A bag contains 2 white and 1 red balls. One ball is drawn at random and
then put back in the box after noting its colour. The process is repeated again. If X
denotes the number of red balls recorded in the two draws, describe X.
Solution Let the balls in the bag be denoted by w
1
, w
2
, r. Then the sample space is
S = {w
1
w
1
, w
1
w
2
, w
2
w
2
, w
2
w
1
, w
1
r, w
2
r, r w
1
, r w
2
, r r}
Now, for S
X() = number of red balls
Therefore
X({w
1
w
1
}) = X({w
1
w
2
}) = X({w
2
w
2
}) = X({w
2
w
1
}) = 0
X({w
1
r}) = X({w
2
r}) = X({r w
1
}) = X({r w
2
}) = 1 and X({r r}) = 2
Thus, X is a random variable which can take values 0, 1 or 2.
13.6.1 Probability distribution of a random variable
Let us look at the experiment of selecting one family out of ten families f
1
, f
2
,..., f
10
in
such a manner that each family is equally likely to be selected. Let the families f
1
, f
2
,
... , f
10
have 3, 4, 3, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6, 4, 5 members, respectively.
Let us select a family and note down the number of members in the family denoting
X. Clearly, X is a random variable defined as below :
X(f
1
) = 3, X(f
2
) = 4, X(f
3
) = 3, X(f
4
) = 2, X(f
5
) = 5,
X(f
6
) = 4, X(f
7
) = 3, X(f
8
) = 6, X(f
9
) = 4, X(f
10
) = 5
Thus, X can take any value 2,3,4,5 or 6 depending upon which family is selected.
Now, X will take the value 2 when the family f
4
is selected. X can take the value
3 when any one of the families f
1
, f
3
, f
7
is selected.
Similarly, X = 4, when family f
2
, f
6
or f
9
is selected,
X = 5, when family f
5
or f
10
is selected
and X = 6, when family f
8
is selected.
560 MATHEMATICS
Since we had assumed that each family is equally likely to be selected, the probability
that family f
4
is selected is
1
10
.
Thus, the probability that X can take the value 2 is
1
10
. We write P(X = 2) =
1
10
Also, the probability that any one of the families f
1
, f
3
or f
7
is selected is
P({f
1
, f
3
, f
7
}) =
3
10
Thus, the probability that X can take the value 3 =
3
10
We write P(X = 3) =
3
10
Similarly, we obtain
P(X = 4) = P({f
2
, f
6
, f
9
}) =
3
10
P(X = 5) = P({f
5
, f
10
}) =
2
10
and P(X = 6) = P({f
8
}) =
1
10
Such a description giving the values of the random variable along with the
corresponding probabilities is called the probability distribution of the random
variable X.
In general, the probability distribution of a random variable X is defined as follows:
Definition 5 The probability distribution of a random variable X is the system of numbers
X : x
1
x
2
... x
n
P(X) : p
1
p
2
... p
n
where,
1
0,
n
i i
i
p p
=
>

= 1, i = 1, 2,..., n
The real numbers x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
are the possible values of the random variable X and
p
i
(i = 1,2,..., n) is the probability of the random variable X taking the value x
i
i.e.,
P(X = x
i
) = p
i
PROBABILITY 561
$
Note If x
i
is one of the possible values of a random variable X, the statement
X = x
i
is true only at some point (s) of the sample space. Hence, the probability that
X takes value x
i
is always nonzero, i.e. P(X = x
i
) 0.
Also for all possible values of the random variable X, all elements of the sample
space are covered. Hence, the sum of all the probabilities in a probability distribution
must be one.
Example 24 Two cards are drawn successively with replacement from a well-shuffled
deck of 52 cards. Find the probability distribution of the number of aces.
Solution The number of aces is a random variable. Let it be denoted by X. Clearly, X
can take the values 0, 1, or 2.
Now, since the draws are done with replacement, therefore, the two draws form
independent experiments.
Therefore, P(X = 0) = P(non-ace and non-ace)
= P(non-ace) P(non-ace)
=
48 48 144
52 52 169
=
P(X = 1) = P(ace and non-ace or non-ace and ace)
= P(ace and non-ace) + P(non-ace and ace)
= P(ace). P(non-ace) + P (non-ace) . P(ace)
=
4 48 48 4 24
52 52 52 52 169
+ =
and P(X = 2) = P (ace and ace)
=
4 4 1
52 52 169
=
Thus, the required probability distribution is
X 0 1 2
P(X)
144
169
24
169
1
169
Example 25 Find the probability distribution of number of doublets in three throws of
a pair of dice.
562 MATHEMATICS
Solution Let X denote the number of doublets. Possible doublets are
(1,1) , (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)
Clearly, X can take the value 0, 1, 2, or 3.
Probability of getting a doublet
6 1
36 6
= =
Probability of not getting a doublet
1 5
1
6 6
= =
Now P(X = 0) = P (no doublet) =
5 5 5 125
6 6 6 216
=
P(X = 1) = P (one doublet and two non-doublets)
=
1 5 5 5 1 5 5 5 1
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
+ +
=
2
2
1 5 75
3
6 216 6

=

P(X = 2) = P (two doublets and one non-doublet)
=
2
1 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 5 15
3
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 216 6

+ + = =

and P(X = 3) = P (three doublets)
=
1 1 1 1
6 6 6 216
=
Thus, the required probability distribution is
X 0 1 2 3
P(X)
125
216
75
216
15
216
1
216
Verification Sum of the probabilities
1
n
i
i
p
=
=
125 75 15 1
216 216 216 216
+ + +
=
125 75 15 1 216
1
216 216
+ + +
= =
PROBABILITY 563
Example 26 Let X denote the number of hours you study during a randomly selected
school day. The probability that X can take the values x, has the following form, where
k is some unknown constant.
P(X = x) =
0.1, if 0
, if 1or 2
(5 ), if 3or 4
0, otherwise
=
x
kx x
k x x
(a) Find the value of k.
(b) What is the probability that you study at least two hours ? Exactly two hours? At
most two hours?
Solution The probability distribution of X is
X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.1 k 2k 2k k
(a) We know that
1
n
i
i
p
=
= 1
Therefore 0.1 + k + 2k + 2k + k = 1
i.e. k = 0.15
(b) P(you study at least two hours) = P(X 2)
= P(X = 2) + P (X = 3) + P (X = 4)
= 2k + 2k + k = 5k = 5 0.15 = 0.75
P(you study exactly two hours) = P(X = 2)
= 2k = 2 0.15 = 0.3
P(you study at most two hours) = P(X 2)
= P (X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
= 0.1 + k + 2k = 0.1 + 3k = 0.1 + 3 0.15
= 0.55
13.6.2 Mean of a random variable
In many problems, it is desirable to describe some feature of the random variable by
means of a single number that can be computed from its probability distribution. Few
such numbers are mean, median and mode. In this section, we shall discuss mean only.
Mean is a measure of location or central tendency in the sense that it roughly locates a
middle or average value of the random variable.
564 MATHEMATICS
Definition 6 Let X be a random variable whose possible values x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ..., x
n
occur
with probabilities p
1
, p
2
, p
3
,..., p
n
, respectively. The mean of X, denoted by , is the
number
1
n
i i
i
x p
=
i.e. the mean of X is the weighted average of the possible values of X,

each value being weighted by its probability with which it occurs.
The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted by
E(X).
Thus, E(X) = =
1
n
i i
i
x p
=
= x
1
p
1
+ x
2
p
2
+ ... + x
n
p
n
.
In other words, the mean or expectation of a random variable X is the sum of the
products of all possible values of X by their respective probabilities.
Example 27 Let a pair of dice be thrown and the random variable X be the sum of the
numbers that appear on the two dice. Find the mean or expectation of X.
Solution The sample space of the experiment consists of 36 elementary events in the
form of ordered pairs (x
i
, y
i
), where x
i
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and y
i
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The random variable X i.e. the sum of the numbers on the two dice takes the
values 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12.
Now P(X = 2) = P({(1,1)})
1
36
=
P(X = 3) = P({(1,2), (2,1)})
2
36
=
P(X = 4) = P({(1,3), (2,2), (3,1)})
3
36
=
P(X = 5) = P({(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)})
4
36
=
P(X = 6) = P({(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)})
5
36
=
P(X = 7) = P({(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)})
6
36
=
P(X = 8) = P({(2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2)})
5
36
=
PROBABILITY 565
P(X = 9) = P({(3,6), (4,5), (5,4), (6,3)})
4
36
=
P(X = 10) = P({(4,6), (5,5), (6,4)})
3
36
=
P(X = 11) = P({(5,6), (6,5)})
2
36
=
P(X = 12) = P({(6,6)})
1
36
=
The probability distribution of X is
X or x
i
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P(X) or p
i
1
36
2
36
3
36
4
36
5
36
6
36
5
36
4
36
3
36
2
36
1
36
Therefore,
= E(X) =
1
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
36 36 36 36
n
i i
i
x p
=
= + + +
5 6 5
6 7 8
36 36 36
+ + +
4 3 2 1
9 10 11 12
36 36 36 36
+ + + +
=
2 6 12 20 30 42 40 36 30 22 12
36
+ + + + + + + + + +
= 7
Thus, the mean of the sum of the numbers that appear on throwing two fair dice is 7.
13.6.3 Variance of a random variable
The mean of a random variable does not give us information about the variability in the
values of the random variable. In fact, if the variance is small, then the values of the
random variable are close to the mean. Also random variables with different probability
distributions can have equal means, as shown in the following distributions of X and Y.
X 1 2 3 4
P(X)
1
8
2
8
3
8
2
8
566 MATHEMATICS
Y 1 0 4 5 6
P(Y)
1
8
2
8
3
8
1
8
1
8
Clearly E(X) =
1 2 3 2 22
1 2 3 4 2.75
8 8 8 8 8
+ + + = =
and E(Y) =
1 2 3 1 1 22
1 0 4 5 6 2.75
8 8 8 8 8 8
+ + + = = =
The variables X and Y are different, however their means are same. It is also
easily observable from the diagramatic representation of these distributions (Fig 13.5).
Fig 13.5
To distinguish X from Y, we require a measure of the extent to which the values of
the random variables spread out. In Statistics, we have studied that the variance is a
measure of the spread or scatter in data. Likewise, the variability or spread in the
values of a random variable may be measured by variance.
Definition 7 Let X be a random variable whose possible values x
1
, x
2
,...,x
n
occur with
probabilities p(x
1
), p(x
2
),..., p(x
n
) respectively.
Let = E (X) be the mean of X. The variance of X, denoted by Var (X) or
2
x
is
defined as
2
x
=
2
1
Var (X) = ( ) ( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=

or equivalently
2
x
= E(X )
2
O
1
8
2
8
3
8
P(Y)
O
1
8
2
8
3
8
P(X)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 5 6
(i) (ii)
PROBABILITY 567
The non-negative number
x
=
2
1
Var(X) = ( ) ( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=

is called the standard deviation of the random variable X.

Another formula to find the variance of a random variable. We know that,
Var (X) =
2
1
( ) ( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=

=
2 2
1
( 2 ) ( )
n
i i i
i
x x p x
=
+
=
2 2
1 1 1
( ) ( ) 2 ( )
n n n
i i i i i
i i i
x p x p x x p x
= = =
+

=
2 2
1 1 1
( ) ( ) 2 ( )
n n n
i i i i i
i i i
x p x p x x p x
= = =
+

=
2 2 2
1 =1 1
( ) 2 since ( ) =1and= ( )
n n n
i i i i i
i i i
x p x p x x p x
= =

+

=
2 2
1
( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=

or Var (X) =
2
2
1 1
( ) ( )
n n
i i i i
i i
x p x x p x
= =

or Var (X) = E(X
2
) [E(X)]
2
, where E(X
2
) =
2
1
( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=
Example 28 Find the variance of the number obtained on a throw of an unbiased die.
Solution The sample space of the experiment is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Let X denote the number obtained on the throw. Then X is a random variable
which can take values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
568 MATHEMATICS
Also P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = P(4) = P(5) = P(6) =
1
6
Therefore, the Probability distribution of X is
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X)
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
Now E(X) =
1
( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=
=
1 1 1 1 1 1 21
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
+ + + + + =
Also E(X
2
) =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 91
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
+ + + + + =
Thus, Var (X) = E (X
2
) (E(X))
2
=
2
91 21 91 441
6 6 6 36

=

35
12
=
Example 29 Two cards are drawn simultaneously (or successively without replacement)
from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation
of the number of kings.
Solution Let X denote the number of kings in a draw of two cards. X is a random
variable which can assume the values 0, 1 or 2.
Now P(X = 0) = P (no king)
48
2
52
2
48!
C 48 47 188 2!(48 2)!
52!
52 51 221 C
2!(52 2)!

= = = =
P(X = 1) = P (one king and one non-king)

4 48
1 1
52
2
C C
C
=
=
4 48 2 32
52 51 221

=
PROBABILITY 569
and P(X = 2) = P (two kings) =
4
2
52
2
C 4 3 1
52 51 221 C

= =
Thus, the probability distribution of X is

X 0 1 2
P(X)
188
221
32
221
1
221
Now Mean of X = E(X) =
1
( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=
=
188 32 1 34
0 1 2
221 221 221 221
+ + =
Also E(X
2
) =
2
1
( )
n
i i
i
x p x
=
=
2 2 2
188 32 1 36
0 1 2
221 221 221 221
+ + =
Now Var(X) = E(X
2
) [E(X)]
2
=
2
2
36 34 6800
221 221 (221)

=

Therefore
x
=
6800
Var(X) 0.37
221
= =
EXERCISE 13.4
1. State which of the following are not the probability distributions of a random
variable. Give reasons for your answer.
(i) X 0 1 2
P(X) 0.4 0.4 0.2
(ii) X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.3
570 MATHEMATICS
(iii) Y 1 0 1
P(Y) 0.6 0.1 0.2
(iv) Z 3 2 1 0 1
P(Z) 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.05
2. An urn contains 5 red and 2 black balls. Two balls are randomly drawn. Let X
represent the number of black balls. What are the possible values of X? Is X a
random variable ?
3. Let X represent the difference between the number of heads and the number of
tails obtained when a coin is tossed 6 times. What are possible values of X?
4. Find the probability distribution of
(i) number of heads in two tosses of a coin.
(ii) number of tails in the simultaneous tosses of three coins.
(iii) number of heads in four tosses of a coin.
5. Find the probability distribution of the number of successes in two tosses of a die,
where a success is defined as
(i) number greater than 4
(ii) six appears on at least one die
6. From a lot of 30 bulbs which include 6 defectives, a sample of 4 bulbs is drawn
at random with replacement. Find the probability distribution of the number of
defective bulbs.
7. A coin is biased so that the head is 3 times as likely to occur as tail. If the coin is
tossed twice, find the probability distribution of number of tails.
8. A random variable X has the following probability distribution:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X) 0 k 2k 2k 3k k
2
2k
2
7k
2
+k
Determine
(i) k (ii) P(X < 3)
(iii) P(X > 6) (iv) P(0 < X < 3)
PROBABILITY 571
9. The random variable X has a probability distribution P(X) of the following form,
where k is some number :
P(X) =
, 0
2 , 1
3 , 2
0, otherwise
k if x
k if x
k if x
=
(a) Determine the value of k.

(b) Find P (X < 2), P (X 2), P(X 2).
10. Find the mean number of heads in three tosses of a fair coin.
11. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. If X denotes the number of sixes, find the
expectation of X.
12. Two numbers are selected at random (without replacement) from the first six
positive integers. Let X denote the larger of the two numbers obtained. Find
E(X).
13. Let X denote the sum of the numbers obtained when two fair dice are rolled.
Find the variance and standard deviation of X.
14. A class has 15 students whose ages are 14, 17, 15, 14, 21, 17, 19, 20, 16, 18, 20,
17, 16, 19 and 20 years. One student is selected in such a manner that each has
the same chance of being chosen and the age X of the selected student is
recorded. What is the probability distribution of the random variable X? Find
mean, variance and standard deviation of X.
15. In a meeting, 70% of the members favour and 30% oppose a certain proposal.
A member is selected at random and we take X = 0 if he opposed, and X = 1 if
he is in favour. Find E(X) and Var (X).
Choose the correct answer in each of the following:
16. The mean of the numbers obtained on throwing a die having written 1 on three
faces, 2 on two faces and 5 on one face is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 5 (D)
8
3
17. Suppose that two cards are drawn at random from a deck of cards. Let X be the
number of aces obtained. Then the value of E(X) is
(A)
37
221
(B)
5
13
(C)
1
13
(D)
2
13
572 MATHEMATICS
13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution
13.7.1 Bernoulli trials
Many experiments are dichotomous in nature. For example, a tossed coin shows a
head or tail, a manufactured item can be defective or non-defective, the response
to a question might be yes or no, an egg has hatched or not hatched, the decision
is yes or no etc. In such cases, it is customary to call one of the outcomes a success
and the other not success or failure. For example, in tossing a coin, if the occurrence
of the head is considered a success, then occurrence of tail is a failure.
Each time we toss a coin or roll a die or perform any other experiment, we call it a
trial. If a coin is tossed, say, 4 times, the number of trials is 4, each having exactly two
outcomes, namely, success or failure. The outcome of any trial is independent of the
outcome of any other trial. In each of such trials, the probability of success or failure
remains constant. Such independent trials which have only two outcomes usually
referred as success or failure are called Bernoulli trials.
Definition 8 Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if they satisfy
the following conditions :
(i) There should be a finite number of trials.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes : success or failure.
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
For example, throwing a die 50 times is a case of 50 Bernoulli trials, in which each
trial results in success (say an even number) or failure (an odd number) and the
probability of success (p) is same for all 50 throws. Obviously, the successive throws
of the die are independent experiments. If the die is fair and have six numbers 1 to 6
written on six faces, then p =
1
2
and q = 1 p =
1
2
= probability of failure.
Example 30 Six balls are drawn successively from an urn containing 7 red and 9 black
balls. Tell whether or not the trials of drawing balls are Bernoulli trials when after each
draw the ball drawn is
(i) replaced (ii) not replaced in the urn.
Solution
(i) The number of trials is finite. When the drawing is done with replacement, the
probability of success (say, red ball) is p =
7
16
which is same for all six trials
(draws). Hence, the drawing of balls with replacements are Bernoulli trials.
PROBABILITY 573
(ii) When the drawing is done without replacement, the probability of success
(i.e., red ball) in first trial is
7
16
, in 2nd trial is
6
15
if the first ball drawn is red or
7
15
if the first ball drawn is black and so on. Clearly, the probability of success is
not same for all trials, hence the trials are not Bernoulli trials.
13.7.2 Binomial distribution
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin in which each trial results in success (say,
heads) or failure (tails). Let S and F denote respectively success and failure in each
trial. Suppose we are interested in finding the ways in which we have one success in
six trials.
Clearly, six different cases are there as listed below:
SFFFFF, FSFFFF, FFSFFF, FFFSFF, FFFFSF, FFFFFS.
Similarly, two successes and four failures can have
6!
4! 2!
combinations. It will be
lengthy job to list all of these ways. Therefore, calculation of probabilities of 0, 1, 2,...,
n number of successes may be lengthy and time consuming. To avoid the lengthy
calculations and listing of all the possible cases, for the probabilities of number of
successes in n-Bernoulli trials, a formula is derived. For this purpose, let us take the
experiment made up of three Bernoulli trials with probabilities p and q = 1 p for
success and failure respectively in each trial. The sample space of the experiment is
the set
S = {SSS, SSF, SFS, FSS, SFF, FSF, FFS, FFF}
The number of successes is a random variable X and can take values 0, 1, 2, or 3.
The probability distribution of the number of successes is as below :
P(X = 0) = P(no success)
= P({FFF}) = P(F) P(F) P(F)
= q . q . q = q
3
since the trials are independent
P(X = 1) = P(one successes)
= P({SFF, FSF, FFS})
= P({SFF}) + P({FSF}) + P({FFS})
= P(S) P(F) P(F) + P(F) P(S) P(F) + P(F) P(F) P(S)
= p.q.q + q.p.q + q.q.p = 3pq
2
P(X = 2) = P (two successes)
= P({SSF, SFS, FSS})
= P({SSF}) + P ({SFS}) + P({FSS})
574 MATHEMATICS
= P(S) P(S) P(F) + P(S) P(F) P(S) + P(F) P(S) P(S)
= p.p.q. + p.q.p + q.p.p = 3p
2
q
and P(X = 3) = P(three success) = P ({SSS})
= P(S) . P(S) . P(S) = p
3
Thus, the probability distribution of X is
X 0 1 2 3
P(X) q
3
3q
2
p 3qp
2
p
3
Also, the binominal expansion of (q + p)
3
is
q q p qp p
3
3
2
3
2 3
+ + +
Note that the probabilities of 0, 1, 2 or 3 successes are respectively the 1st, 2nd,
3rd and 4th term in the expansion of (q + p)
3
.
Also, since q + p = 1, it follows that the sum of these probabilities, as expected, is 1.
Thus, we may conclude that in an experiment of n-Bernoulli trials, the probabilities
of 0, 1, 2,..., n successes can be obtained as 1st, 2nd,...,(n + 1)
th
terms in the expansion
of (q + p)
n
. To prove this assertion (result), let us find the probability of x-successes in
an experiment of n-Bernoulli trials.
Clearly, in case of x successes (S), there will be (n x) failures (F).
Now, x successes (S) and (n x) failures (F) can be obtained in
!
!( )!
n
x n x
ways.
In each of these ways, the probability of x successes and (n x) failures is
= P(x successes) . P(nx) failures is
=
times ( ) times
P(S).P(S)...P(S) P(F).P(F)...P(F)
x n x

= p
x
q
nx
Thus, the probability of x successes in n-Bernoulli trials is
!
!( )!
n
x n x
p
x
q
nx
or
n
C
x

p
x

q
nx
Thus P(x successes) = C
n x n x
x
p q

, x = 0, 1, 2,...,n. (q = 1 p)
Clearly, P(x successes), i.e. C
n x n x
x
p q

is the (x + 1)
th
term in the binomial
expansion of (q + p)
n
.
Thus, the probability distribution of number of successes in an experiment consisting
of n Bernoulli trials may be obtained by the binomial expansion of (q + p)
n
. Hence, this
PROBABILITY 575
distribution of number of successes X can be written as
X 0 1 2 ... x ... n
P(X)
n
C
0
q
n n
C
1
q
n1
p
1 n
C
2
q
n2
p
2 n
C
x
q
nx
p
x n
C
n
p
n
The above probability distribution is known as binomial distribution with parameters
n and p, because for given values of n and p, we can find the complete probability
distribution.
The probability of x successes P(X = x) is also denoted by P(x) and is given by
P(x) =
n
C
x
q
nx
p
x
, x = 0, 1,..., n. (q = 1 p)
This P(x) is called the probability function of the binomial distribution.
A binomial distribution with n-Bernoulli trials and probability of success in each
trial as p, is denoted by B(n, p).
Let us now take up some examples.
Example 31 If a fair coin is tossed 10 times, find the probability of
(i) exactly six heads
(ii) at least six heads
(iii) at most six heads
Solution The repeated tosses of a coin are Bernoulli trials. Let X denote the number
of heads in an experiment of 10 trials.
Clearly, X has the binomial distribution with n = 10 and p =
1
2
Therefore P(X = x) =
n
C
x
q
nx
p
x
, x = 0, 1, 2,...,n
Here n = 10,
1
2
p= , q = 1 p =
1
2
Therefore P(X = x) =
10 10
10 10
1 1 1
C C
2 2 2
x x
x x

=

Now (i) P(X = 6) =
10
10
6
10
1 10! 1 105
C
2 6! 4! 512 2

= =

(ii) P(at least six heads) = P(X 6)
= P (X = 6) + P (X = 7) + P (X = 8) + P(X = 9) + P (X = 10)
576 MATHEMATICS
=
10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10
6 7 8 9 10
1 1 1 1 1
C C C C C
2 2 2 2 2

+ + + +

=
10
10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 1
6! 4! 7! 3! 8! 2! 9! 1! 10! 2

+ + + +

193
512
=
(iii) P(at most six heads) = P(X 6)
= P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2) + P (X = 3)
+ P (X = 4) + P (X = 5) + P (X = 6)
=
10 10 10 10
10 10 10
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
C C C
2 2 2 2

+ + +

+
10 10 10
10 10 10
4 5 6
1 1 1
C C C
2 2 2

+ +

=
848 53
1024 64
=
Example 32 Ten eggs are drawn successively with replacement from a lot containing
10% defective eggs. Find the probability that there is at least one defective egg.
Solution Let X denote the number of defective eggs in the 10 eggs drawn. Since the
drawing is done with replacement, the trials are Bernoulli trials. Clearly, X has the
binomial distribution with n = 10 and
10 1
100 10
p= =
.
Therefore q =
9
1
10
p =
Now P(at least one defective egg) = P(X 1) = 1 P (X = 0)
=
10
10
0
9
1 C
10

=
10
10
9
1
10
EXERCISE 13.5
1. A die is thrown 6 times. If getting an odd number is a success, what is the
probability of
(i) 5 successes? (ii) at least 5 successes?
(iii) at most 5 successes?
PROBABILITY 577
2. A pair of dice is thrown 4 times. If getting a doublet is considered a success, find
the probability of two successes.
3. There are 5% defective items in a large bulk of items. What is the probability
that a sample of 10 items will include not more than one defective item?
4. Five cards are drawn successively with replacement from a well-shuffled deck
of 52 cards. What is the probability that
(i) all the five cards are spades?
(ii) only 3 cards are spades?
(iii) none is a spade?
5. The probability that a bulb produced by a factory will fuse after 150 days of use
is 0.05. Find the probability that out of 5 such bulbs
(i) none
(ii) not more than one
(iii) more than one
(iv) at least one
will fuse after 150 days of use.
6. A bag consists of 10 balls each marked with one of the digits 0 to 9. If four balls
are drawn successively with replacement from the bag, what is the probability
that none is marked with the digit 0?
7. In an examination, 20 questions of true-false type are asked. Suppose a student
tosses a fair coin to determine his answer to each question. If the coin falls
heads, he answers 'true'; if it falls tails, he answers 'false'. Find the probability
that he answers at least 12 questions correctly.
8. Suppose X has a binomial distribution
1
B 6,
2

. Show that X = 3 is the most
likely outcome.
(Hint : P(X = 3) is the maximum among all P(x
i
), x
i
= 0,1,2,3,4,5,6)
9. On a multiple choice examination with three possible answers for each of the
five questions, what is the probability that a candidate would get four or more
correct answers just by guessing ?
10. A person buys a lottery ticket in 50 lotteries, in each of which his chance of
winning a prize is
1
100
. What is the probability that he will win a prize
(a) at least once (b) exactly once (c) at least twice?
578 MATHEMATICS
11. Find the probability of getting 5 exactly twice in 7 throws of a die.
12. Find the probability of throwing at most 2 sixes in 6 throws of a single die.
13. It is known that 10% of certain articles manufactured are defective. What is the
probability that in a random sample of 12 such articles, 9 are defective?
In each of the following, choose the correct answer:
14. In a box containing 100 bulbs, 10 are defective. The probability that out of a
sample of 5 bulbs, none is defective is
(A) 10
1
(B)
5
1
2

(C)
5
9
10

(D)
9
10
15. The probability that a student is not a swimmer is
1
.
5
Then the probability that
out of five students, four are swimmers is
(A)
4
5
4
4 1
C
5 5

(B)
4
4 1
5 5

(C)
4
5
1
1 4
C
5 5

(D) None of these
Example 33 Coloured balls are distributed in four boxes as shown in the following
table:
Box Colour
Black White Red Blue
I 3 4 5 6
II 2 2 2 2
III 1 2 3 1
IV 4 3 1 5
A box is selected at random and then a ball is randomly drawn from the selected
box. The colour of the ball is black, what is the probability that ball drawn is from the
box III?
PROBABILITY 579
Solution Let A, E
1
, E
2
, E
3
and E
4
be the events as defined below :
A : a black ball is selected E
1
: box I is selected
E
2
: box II is selected E
3
: box III is selected
E
4
: box IV is selected
Since the boxes are chosen at random,
Therefore P(E
1
) = P(E
2
) = P(E
3
) = P(E
4
) =
1
4
Also P(A|E
1
) =
3
18
, P(A|E
2
) =
2
8
, P(A|E
3
) =
1
7
and P(A|E
4
) =
4
13
P(box III is selected, given that the drawn ball is black) = P(E
3
|A). By Bayes'
theorem,
P(E
3
|A) =
3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(E )P(A|E ) P(E ) P(A|E ) +P(E ) P(A|E ) P(E ) P(A|E )
+ +
=
1 1
4 7
0.165
1 3 1 1 1 1 1 4
4 18 4 4 4 7 4 13
=
+ + +
Example 34 Find the mean of the Binomial distribution
1
B 4,
3

.
Solution Let X be the random variable whose probability distribution is
1
B 4,
3

.
Here n = 4, p =
1
3
and q =
1 2
1
3 3
=
We know that P(X = x) =
4
4
2 1
C
3 3
x x
x

, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
i.e. the distribution of X is
x
i
P(x
i
) x
i
P(x
i
)
0
4
4
0
2
C
3

0
1
3
4
1
2 1
C
3 3

3
4
1
2 1
C
3 3

580 MATHEMATICS
2
2 2
4
2
2 1
C
3 3

2 2
4
2
2 1
2 C
3 3

3
3
4
3
2 1
C
3 3

3
4
3
2 1
3 C
3 3

4
4
4
4
1
C
3

4
4
4
1
4 C
3

Now Mean () =
4
1
( )
i i
i
x p x
=
=
3 2 2
4 4
1 2
2 1 2 1
0 C 2 C
3 3 3 3

+ +

+
3 4
4 4
3 4
2 1 1
3 C 4 C
3 3 3

+

=
3 2
4 4 4 4
2 2 2 1
4 2 6 3 4 4 1
3 3 3 3
+ + +
=
4
32 48 24 4 108 4
81 3 3
+ + +
= =
Example 35 The probability of a shooter hitting a target is
3
4
. How many minimum
number of times must he/she fire so that the probability of hitting the target at least
once is more than 0.99?
Solution Let the shooter fire n times. Obviously, n fires are n Bernoulli trials. In each
trial, p = probability of hitting the target =
3
4
and q = probability of not hitting the
target =
1
4
. Then P(X = x) =
1 3 3
C C C
4 4 4
n x x
x
n n x x n n
x x x
n
q p

= =

.
Now, given that,
P(hitting the target at least once) > 0.99
i.e. P(x 1) > 0.99
PROBABILITY 581
Therefore, 1 P (x = 0) > 0.99
or
0
1
1 C
4
n
n
> 0.99
or
0
1 1
C 0.01 i.e.
4 4
<
n
n n
< 0.01
or 4
n
>
1
0.01
= 100 ... (1)
The minimum value of n to satisfy the inequality (1) is 4.
Thus, the shooter must fire 4 times.
Example 36 A and B throw a die alternatively till one of them gets a 6 and wins the
game. Find their respective probabilities of winning, if A starts first.
Solution Let S denote the success (getting a 6) and F denote the failure (not getting
a 6).
Thus, P(S) =
1 5
, P(F)
6 6
=
P(A wins in the first throw) = P(S) =
1
6
A gets the third throw, when the first throw by A and second throw by B result into
failures.
Therefore, P(A wins in the 3rd throw) = P(FFS) =
5 5 1
P(F) P(F) P(S) =
6 6 6

=
2
5 1
6 6

P(A wins in the 5th throw) = P (FFFFS)
4
5 1
6 6

=

and so on.
Hence, P(A wins) =
2 4
1 5 1 5 1
...
6 6 6 6 6

+ + +

=
1
6
25
1
36
=
6
11
582 MATHEMATICS
P(B wins) = 1 P (A wins) =
6 5
1
11 11
=
Remark If a + ar + ar
2
+ ... + ar
n1
+ ..., where | r | < 1, then sum of this infinite G.P.
is given by
.
1
a
r
(Refer A.1.3 of Class XI Text book).
Example 37 If a machine is correctly set up, it produces 90% acceptable items. If it is
incorrectly set up, it produces only 40% acceptable items. Past experience shows that
80% of the set ups are correctly done. If after a certain set up, the machine produces
2 acceptable items, find the probability that the machine is correctly setup.
Solution Let A be the event that the machine produces 2 acceptable items.
Also let B
1
represent the event of correct set up and B
2
represent the event of
incorrect setup.
Now P(B
1
) = 0.8, P(B
2
) = 0.2
P(A|B
1
) = 0.9 0.9 and P(A|B
2
) = 0.4 0.4
Therefore P(B
1
|A) =
1 1
1 1 2 2
P(B ) P(A|B )
P(B ) P(A|B ) + P(B ) P(A|B )
=
0.80.90.9 648
0.95
0.80.90.9 + 0.20.40.4 680
= =
1. A and B are two events such that P (A) 0. Find P(B|A), if
(i) A is a subset of B (ii) A B =
2. A couple has two children,
(i) Find the probability that both children are males, if it is known that at least
one of the children is male.
(ii) Find the probability that both children are females, if it is known that the
elder child is a female.
3. Suppose that 5% of men and 0.25% of women have grey hair. A grey haired
person is selected at random. What is the probability of this person being male?
Assume that there are equal number of males and females.
4. Suppose that 90% of people are right-handed. What is the probability that
at most 6 of a random sample of 10 people are right-handed?
PROBABILITY 583
5. An urn contains 25 balls of which 10 balls bear a mark 'X' and the remaining 15
bear a mark 'Y'. A ball is drawn at random from the urn, its mark is noted down
and it is replaced. If 6 balls are drawn in this way, find the probability that
(i) all will bear 'X' mark.
(ii) not more than 2 will bear 'Y' mark.
(iii) at least one ball will bear 'Y' mark.
(iv) the number of balls with 'X' mark and 'Y' mark will be equal.
6. In a hurdle race, a player has to cross 10 hurdles. The probability that he will
clear each hurdle is
5
6
. What is the probability that he will knock down fewer
than 2 hurdles?
7. A die is thrown again and again until three sixes are obtained. Find the probabil-
ity of obtaining the third six in the sixth throw of the die.
8. If a leap year is selected at random, what is the chance that it will contain 53
tuesdays?
9. An experiment succeeds twice as often as it fails. Find the probability that in the
next six trials, there will be atleast 4 successes.
10. How many times must a man toss a fair coin so that the probability of having
at least one head is more than 90%?
11. In a game, a man wins a rupee for a six and loses a rupee for any other number
when a fair die is thrown. The man decided to throw a die thrice but to quit as
and when he gets a six. Find the expected value of the amount he wins / loses.
12. Suppose we have four boxes A,B,C and D containing coloured marbles as given
below:
Box Marble colour
Red White Black
A 1 6 3
B 6 2 2
C 8 1 1
D 0 6 4
One of the boxes has been selected at random and a single marble is drawn from
it. If the marble is red, what is the probability that it was drawn from box A?, box B?,
box C?
584 MATHEMATICS
13. Assume that the chances of a patient having a heart attack is 40%. It is also
assumed that a meditation and yoga course reduce the risk of heart attack by
30% and prescription of certain drug reduces its chances by 25%. At a time a
patient can choose any one of the two options with equal probabilities. It is given
that after going through one of the two options the patient selected at random
suffers a heart attack. Find the probability that the patient followed a course of
meditation and yoga?
14. If each element of a second order determinant is either zero or one, what is the
probability that the value of the determinant is positive? (Assume that the indi-
vidual entries of the determinant are chosen independently, each value being
assumed with probability
1
2
).
15. An electronic assembly consists of two subsystems, say, A and B. From previ-
ous testing procedures, the following probabilities are assumed to be known:
P(A fails) = 0.2
P(B fails alone) = 0.15
P(A and B fail) = 0.15
Evaluate the following probabilities
(i) P(A fails|B has failed) (ii) P(A fails alone)
16. Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls and Bag II contains 4 red and 5 black balls.
One ball is transferred from Bag I to Bag II and then a ball is drawn from Bag II.
The ball so drawn is found to be red in colour. Find the probability that the
transferred ball is black.
Choose the correct answer in each of the following:
17. If A and B are two events such that P(A) 0 and P(B | A) = 1, then
(A) A B (B) B A (C) B = (D) A =
18. If P(A|B) > P(A), then which of the following is correct :
(A) P(B|A) < P(B) (B) P(A B) < P(A) . P(B)
(C) P(B|A) > P(B) (D) P(B|A) = P(B)
19. If A and B are any two events such that P(A) + P(B) P(A and B) = P(A), then
(A) P(B|A) = 1 (B) P(A|B) = 1
(C) P(B|A) = 0 (D) P(A|B) = 0
PROBABILITY 585
Summary
The salient features of the chapter are
The conditional probability of an event E, given the occurrence of the event F

is given by
P(E F)
P(E| F)
P(F)
= , P(F) 0
0 P (E|F) 1, P (E|F) = 1 P (E|F)

P ((E F)|G) = P (E|G) + P (F|G) P ((E F)|G)
P (E F) = P (E) P (F|E), P (E) 0

P (E F) = P (F) P (E|F), P (F) 0
If E and F are independent, then

P (E F) = P (E) P (F)
P (E|F) = P (E), P (F) 0
P (F|E) = P (F), P(E) 0
Theorem of total probability

Let {E
1
, E
2
, ...,E
n
) be a partition of a sample space and suppose that each of
E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
has nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
then
P(A) = P(E
1
) P (A|E
1
) + P (E
2
) P (A|E
2
) + ... + P (E
n
) P(A|E
n
)
Bayes' theorem If E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
are events which constitute a partition of
sample space S, i.e. E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
n
are pairwise disjoint and E
1
4 E
2
4 ... 4 E
n
= S
and A be any event with nonzero probability, then
i i
1
P(E ) P(A|E )
P(E | A)
P(E ) P(A|E )
i
n
j j
j =
=
A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample

space of a random experiment.
The probability distribution of a random variable X is the system of numbers

X : x
1
x
2
... x
n
P(X) : p
1
p
2
... p
n
where,
1
0, 1, 1, 2,...,
n
i i
i
p p i n
=
> = =
586 MATHEMATICS
Let X be a random variable whose possible values x

1
, x
2
, x
3
, ..., x
n
occur with
probabilities p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, ... p
n
respectively. The mean of X, denoted by , is
the number
1
n
i i
i
x p
=
.
The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted
by E (X).
Let X be a random variable whose possible values x

1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
occur with
probabilities p(x
1
), p(x
2
), ..., p(x
n
) respectively.
Let = E(X) be the mean of X. The variance of X, denoted by Var (X) or
x
2
, is defined as
2 2
1
Var (X) = ( ) ( )
n
x i i
i
x p x
=
=
or equivalently
x
2
= E (X )
2
The non-negative number
2
1
Va r (X) = ( ) ( )
n
x i i
i
x p x
=
=
is called the standard deviation of the random variable X.
Var (X) = E (X
2
) [E(X)]
2
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if they satisfy the
following conditions :
(i) There should be a finite number of trials.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes : success or failure.
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
For Binomial distribution B (n, p), P (X = x) =
n
C
x
q
nx
p
x
, x = 0, 1,..., n
(q = 1 p)
Historical Note
The earliest indication on measurement of chances in game of dice appeared
in 1477 in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy. A treatise on gambling
named liber de Ludo Alcae, by Geronimo Carden (1501-1576) was published
posthumously in 1663. In this treatise, he gives the number of favourable cases
for each event when two dice are thrown.
PROBABILITY 587
Galileo (1564-1642) gave casual remarks concerning the correct evaluation
of chance in a game of three dice. Galileo analysed that when three dice are
thrown, the sum of the number that appear is more likely to be 10 than the sum 9,
because the number of cases favourable to 10 are more than the number of
cases for the appearance of number 9.
Apart from these early contributions, it is generally acknowledged that the
true origin of the science of probability lies in the correspondence between two
great men of the seventeenth century, Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665). A French gambler, Chevalier de Metre asked Pascal to explain
some seeming contradiction between his theoretical reasoning and the
observation gathered from gambling. In a series of letters written around 1654,
Pascal and Fermat laid the first foundation of science of probability. Pascal solved
the problem in algebraic manner while Fermat used the method of combinations.
Great Dutch Scientist, Huygens (1629-1695), became acquainted with the
content of the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat and published a first
book on probability, "De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae" containing solution of many
interesting rather than difficult problems on probability in games of chances.
The next great work on probability theory is by Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705),
in the form of a great book, "Ars Conjectendi" published posthumously in 1713
by his nephew, Nicholes Bernoulli. To him is due the discovery of one of the most
important probability distribution known as Binomial distribution. The next
remarkable work on probability lies in 1993. A. N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) is
credited with the axiomatic theory of probability. His book, Foundations of
probability published in 1933, introduces probability as a set function and is
considered a classic!.
MATHEMATICS 588
EXERCISE 7.1
1.
1
cos 2
2
x 2.
1
sin3
3
x
3.
2
1
2
x
e
4.
3
1
( )
3
ax b
a
+
5.
3
1 4
cos 2
2 3
x
x e
6.
3
4
C
3
x
e x + +
7.
3
C
3
x
x + 8.
3 2
C
3 2
ax bx
cx + + + 9.
3
2
C
3
x
x e + +
10.
2
log 2 C
2
x
x x + + 11.
2
4
5 C
2
x
x
x
+ + +
12.
7 3
2 2
2
2 8 C
7
x x x + + + 13.
3
C
3
x
x + +
14.
3 5
2 2
2 2
C
3 5
x x + 15.
7 5 3
2 2 2
6 4
2 C
7 5
x x x + + +
16.
2
3sin + C
x
x x e + 17.
3
3
2
2 10
3cos C
3 3
x x x + + +
18. tan x + sec x + C 19. tan x x + C
20. 2 tan x 3 sec x + C 21. C
22. A
EXERCISE 7.2
1. log (1 + x
2
) + C 2.
3
1
(log| |) C
3
x +
3. log 1+log C x +
4. cos (cos x) + C 5.
1
cos2( ) C
4
ax b
a
+ +
6.
3
2
2
( ) C
3
ax b
a
+ + 7.
5 3
2 2
2 4
( 2) ( 2) C
5 3
x x + + +
ANSWERS
ANSWERS 589
8.
3
2
2
1
(1 2 ) C
6
x + + 9.
3
2
2
4
( 1) C
3
x x + + + 10. 2log 1 C x +
11.
2
4( 8) C
3
x x + +
12.
7 4
3 3
3 3
1 1
( 1) ( 1) C
7 4
x x + + 13. 3 2
1
C
18(2 3 ) x
+
+
14.
1
(log )
C
1
m
x
m
15.
2
1
log | 9 4 |
8
x
16.
2 3
1
C
2
x
e
+
+
17.
2
1
C
2
x
e
+
18.
1
tan
C
x
e

+ 19.
log( ) +C
x x
e e
+
20.
2 2
1
log( ) C
2
x x
e e
+ +
21.
1
tan(2 3) C
2
x x +
22.
1
tan(7 4 ) C
4
x + 23.
1 2
1
(sin ) C
2
x
+
24.
1
log 2sin 3cos C
2
x x + +
25.
1
C
(1 tan ) x
+
26. 2sin C x + 27.

3
2
1
(sin 2 ) C
3
x + 28. 2 1+sin C x +
29.
2
1
(logsin ) C
2
x +
30. log (1+cos ) x 31.
1
C
1+cos x
+
32.
1
log cos sin C
2 2
x
x x + +
33.
1
log cos sin C
2 2
x
x x +
34. 2 tan C x + 35.
3
1
(1 log ) C
3
x + +
36.
3
1
( log ) C
3
x x + +
37.
1 4
1
cos(tan ) C
4
x
+
38. D
39. B
MATHEMATICS 590
EXERCISE 7.3
1.
1
sin(4 10) C
2 8
x
x + + 2.
1 1
cos7 cos C
14 2
x x + +
3.
1 1 1 1
sin12 sin8 sin 4 C
4 12 8 4
x x x x

+ + + +

4.
3
1 1
cos(2 1) cos (2 1) C
2 6
x x + + + + 5.
6 4
1 1
cos cos C
6 4
x x +
6.
1 1 1 1
cos6 cos 4 cos2 C
4 6 4 2
x x x

+

7.
1 1 1
sin 4 sin12 C
2 4 12
x x

+

8.
2tan C
2
x
x +
9.
tan C
2
x
x +
10.
3 1 1
sin2 sin4 C
8 4 32
x
x x + +
11.
3 1 1
sin4 sin8 C
8 8 64
x
x x + + + 12. x sin x + C
13. 2 (sinx + x cos) + C 14.
1
C
cos +sin x x
+
15.
3
1 1
sec 2 sec2 C
6 2
x x +
16.
3
1
tan tan C
3
x x x + +
17. sec x cosec x + C 18. tan x + C
19.
2
1
log tan tan C
2
x x + +
20. log cos sin C x x + +
21.
2
C
2 2
x x
+ 22.
1 cos ( )
log C
sin( ) cos ( )
x a
a b x b
+

23. A 24. B
EXERCISE 7.4
1.
1 3
tan + C x
2.
2
1
log 2 1 4 C
2
x x + + +
ANSWERS 591
3.
2
1
log C
2 4 5 x x x
+
+ +
4.
1
1 5
sin C
5 3
x
+
5.
1 2
3
tan 2 C
2 2
x
+
6.
3
3
1 1
log C
6 1
x
x
+
+
7.
2 2
1 log 1 C x x x + +
8.
3 6 6
1
log C
3
x x a + + +
9.
2
log tan + tan +4 C x x +
10.
2
log 1 2 2 C x x x + + + + +
11.
1
1 3 1
tan C
6 2
x
+
+

12.
1
3
sin C
4
x+
+

13.
2
3
log 3 2 C
2
x x x + + +
14.
1
2 3
sin C
41
x
+

15.
+
log ( )( ) C
2
a b
x x a x b + +
16.
2
2 2 + 3 C x x +
17.
2 2
1 2log 1 C x x x + + +
18.
2 1
5 11 3 1
log 3 2 1 tan C
6 3 2 2
x
x x

+
+ + +

19.
2 2
9
6 9 +20 34log 9 20 C
2
x x x x x + + + +
20.
2 1
2
4 4sin C
2
x
x x

+ +

21.
2 2
2 +3 log 1 2 3 C x x x x x + + + + + + +
22.
2
1 2 1 6
log 2 5 log C
2 6 1 6
x
x x
x

+ +
+
MATHEMATICS 592
23.
2 2
5 4 +10 7log 2 4 10 C x x x x x + + + + + +
24. B 25. B
EXERCISE 7.5
1.
2
( 2)
log C
1
x
x
+
+
+
2.
1 3
log C
6 3
x
x
+
+
3. log 1 5log 2 4log 3 C x x x + +
4.
1 3
log 1 2log 2 log 3 C
2 2
x x x + +
5. 4log +2 2log 1 C x x + + 6.
3
log log 1 2 C
2 4
x
x x + +
7.
2 1
1 1 1
log 1 log( 1) tan C
2 4 2
x x x
+ + +
8.
2 1 1
log C
9 2 3( 1)
x
x x
+
+
9.
1 1 4
log C
2 1 1
x
x x
+
+

10.
5 1 12
log 1 log 1 log 2 3 C
2 10 5
x x x + + +
11.
5 5 5
log 1 log 2 log 2 C
3 2 6
x x x + + + +
12.
2
1 3
log 1 log 1 C
2 2 2
x
x x + + + +
13. log 1 x +
1
2
log (1 + x
2
) + tan
1
x + C
14.
5
3log 2 C
2
x
x
+
15.
1
1 1 1
log tan C
4 1 2
x
x
x
+
+
16.
1
log C
1
n
n
x
n x
+
+
17.
2sin
log C
1sin
x
x
+
18.
1 1
2
+ tan 3tan C
2 3 3
x x
x

+
19.
2
2
1 1
log C
2 3
x
x

+
+

+
ANSWERS 593
20.
4
4
1 1
log C
4
x
x
+
21.
1
log C
x
x
e
e

+

22. B 23. A
EXERCISE 7.6
1. x cos x + sin x + C 2.
1
cos3 sin3 C
3 9
x
x x + +
3. e
x
(x
2
2x + 2) + C 4.
2 2
log C
2 4
x x
x +
5.
2 2
log2 C
2 4
x x
x + 6.
3 3
log C
3 9
x x
x +
7.
2
2 1
1 1
(2 1) sin C
4 4
x x
x x

+ + 8.
2
1 1
1
tan tan C
2 2 2
x x
x x

+ +
9.
1
2 2
cos
(2 1) 1 C
4 4
x x
x x +
10.
( )
2
1 2 1
sin 2 1 sin 2 C x x x x x
+ +
11.
2 1
1 cos C x x x

+ +

12. x tan x + log cos x + C
13.
1 2
1
tan log(1 ) C
2
x x x
+ +
14.
2 2 2
2
(log ) log C
2 2 4
x x x
x x + +
15.
3 3
log C
3 9
x x
x x x

+ +

16. e
x
sin x + C
17.
C
1+
x
e
x
+
18.
tan C
2
x
x
e +
19. C
x
e
x
+ 20.
2
C
( 1)
x
e
x
+
21.
2
(2sin cos ) C
5
x
e
x x + 22. 2x tan
1
x log (1 + x
2
) + C
23. A 24. B
MATHEMATICS 594
EXERCISE 7.7
1.
2 1
1
4 2sin C
2 2
x
x x

+ +
2.
1 2
1 1
sin 2 1 4 C
4 2
x x x
+ +
3.
2 2
( +2)
4 6 log 2 4 6 C
2
x
x x x x x + + + + + + + +
4.
2 2
( +2) 3
4 1 log 2 4 1 C
2 2
x
x x x x x + + + + + + +
5.
1 2
5 2 2
sin 1 4 C
2 2 5
x x
x x
+ +
+ +

6.
2 2
( +2) 9
4 5 log 2 4 5 C
2 2
x
x x x x x + + + + +
7.
2 1
(2 3) 13 2 3
1 3 sin C
4 8 13
x x
x x

+ + +

8.
2 2
2 +3 9 3
3 log 3 C
4 8 2
x
x x x x x + + + + +
9.
2 2
3
9 log 9 C
6 2
x
x x x + + + + +
10. A 11. D
EXERCISE 7.8
1.
2 2
1
( )
2
b a
2.
35
2
3.
19
3
4.
27
2
5.
1
e
e
6.
8
15
2
e +
EXERCISE 7.9
1. 2 2.
3
log
2
3.
64
3
4.
1
2
5. 0 6. e
4
(e 1)
ANSWERS 595
7.
1
2
log 2 8.
2 1
log
2 3

9.

2
10.

4
11.
1 3
log
2 2
12.

4
13.
1
2
log 2 14.
1
1 3
log6 tan 5
5 5

+
15.
1
2
(e 1) 16.
5 5 3
5 9log log
2 4 2

17.
4
2
1024 2

+ + 18. 0 19.
3
3log2
8
+
20. 1 +
4 2 2

21. D 22. C
EXERCISE 7.10
1.
1
log2
2
2.
64
231
3.

2
log 2
4.
16 2
( 2 1)
15
+ 5.

4
6.
1 21 5 17
log
4 17
+
7.

8
8.
2 2
( 2)
4
e e
9. D
10. B
EXERCISE 7.11
1.

4
2.

4
3.

4
4.

4
5. 29 6. 9 7.
1
( 1) ( 2) n n + +
8.

log2
8
9.
16 2
15
10.
1
log
2 2
11.

2
MATHEMATICS 596
12. 13. 0 14. 0 15. 0
16. log 2 17.
2
a
18. 5 20. C
21. C
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE ON CHAPTER 7
1.
2
2
1
log C
2 1
x
x
+
2.
3 3
2 2
2
( ) ( ) C
3( )
x a x b
a b

+ + +

3.
( ) 2
C
a x
a x
+
4.
1
4
4
1
1+ C
x

+

5.
1 1 1
3 6 6
2 3 6 6log(1 ) C x x x x + + +
6.
2 1
1 1 3
log 1 log ( 9) tan C
2 4 2 3
x
x x

+ + + + +
7. sin log sin( ) cos C a x a x a + + 8.
3
C
3
x
+
9.
1
sin
sin C
2
x
+

10.
1
sin2 C
2
x +
11.
cos ( ) 1
log C
sin ( ) cos( )
x b
a b x a
+
+
+
12.
1 4
1
sin ( ) C
4
x
+
13.
1+
log C
2+
x
x
e
e

+

14.
1 1
1 1
tan tan C
3 6 2
x
x

+
15.
4
1
cos C
4
x +
16.
4
1
log( 1) C
4
x + +
17.
+1
[ ( + )]
C
( +1)
n
f ax b
a n
+
18.
sin ( ) 2
C
sin sin
x
x
+
+
19.
2
1
2(2 1) 2
sin C

x x x
x x

+ +
ANSWERS 597
20.
1 2
2 1 cos C x x x x
+ + +
21. e
x
tan x + C 22.
1
2log +1 3log 2 C
1
x x
x
+ + +
+
23.
1 2
1
cos 1 C
2
x x x

+

24.
3
2
2 2
1 1 1 2
1 log 1 C
3 3 x x

+ + +

25.
2
e
26.
8
27.
6
28.
1
( 3 1)
2sin
2

29.
4 2
3
30.
1
log9
40
31.

1
2

32.

( 2)
2

33.
19
2
40.
2
1 1
3
e
e

41. A 42. B
43. D 44. B
EXERCISE 8.1
1.
14
3
2. 16 4 2 3.
32 8 2
3
4. 12 5. 6 6.

3
7.
2
1
2 2
a

8.
2
3
(4)
9.
1
3
10.
9
8
11. 8 3 12. A 13. B
MATHEMATICS 598
EXERCISE 8.2
1.
1
2 9 2 2
sin
6 4 3
+
2.
2 3
3 2

3.
21
2
4. 4 5. 8
6. B 7. B
1. (i)
7
3
(ii) 624.8
2.
1
6
3.
7
3
4. 9 5. 4
6.
2
3
8
3
a
m
7. 27 8.
3
( 2)
2

9.
( 2)
4
ab
10.
9
2
11. 2 12.
1
3
13. 7 14.
7
2
15.
1
9 9 1 1
sin
8 4 3 3 2

+

16. D 17. C 18. C 19. B
EXERCISE 9.1
1. Order 4; Degree not defined 2. Order 1; Degree 1
3. Order 2; Degree 1 4. Order 2; Degree not defined
5. Order 2; Degree 1 6. Order 3; Degree 2
11. D 12. A
EXERCISE 9.2
11. D 12. D
ANSWERS 599
EXERCISE 9.3
1. y = 0 2. xy y + x (y) y y = 0
3. y y 6y = 0 4. y 4y + 4y = 0
5. y 2y + 2y = 0 6. 2xyy + x
2
= y
2
7. xy 2y = 0 8. xyy + x(y) yy = 0
9. xyy + x(y) yy = 0 10. (x 9) (y) + x = 0
11. B 12. C
EXERCISE 9.4
1.
2tan C
2
x
y x = +
2. y = 2 sin (x + C)
3. y = 1 + Ae
x
4. tan tan C x y =
5. y = log (e
x
+ e
x
) + C 6.
3
1
tan = + C
3
x
y x +
7. y = e
cx
8. x
4
+ y
4
= C
9. y = x sin
1
x +
2
1 x
+ C 10. tan y = C ( 1 e
x
)
11.
2 2 3 1
1 1
log ( 1) ( 1) tan 1
4 2
y x x x

= + + +

12.
2
2
1 1
log
2
x
y
x

=

13.
2
cos
y
a
x

=

14. y = sec x 15. 2y 1 = e
x
( sin x cos x)
16. y x + 2 = log (x
2
(y + 2)
2
) 17. y
2
x
2
= 4
18. (x + 4)
2
= y + 3 19.
1
3
(63 27) t +
20. 6.93% 21. Rs 1648
22.
2log2
11
log
10

23. A
EXERCISE 9.5
1.
2
( ) C
y
x
x y x e
= 2.
log C y x x x = +
MATHEMATICS 600
3.
1 2 2
1
tan log( ) C
2
y
x y
x

= + +

4. x
2
+ y
2
= Cx
5.
1 2
log log C
2 2 2
x y
x
x y
+
= +
6.
2 2 2
+ + C y x y x =
7. xy cos
y
x

= C 8.
1 cos Csin
y y
x
x x

=

9. cy = log 1
y
x
10.
C
x
y
ye x + =
11. log ( x
2
+ y
2
) + 2 tan
1

y
x
=
log2
2
+
12. y + 2x = 3x
2
y 13. cot log
y
ex
x

=

14. cos log
y
ex
x

=

15.
2
( 0, )
1 log
x
y x x e
x
=
16. C 17. D
EXERCISE 9.6
1. y =
1
5
(2sin x cos x) + C e
2x
2. y = e
2x
+ Ce
3x
3.
4
C
4
x
xy = + 4. y (sec x + tan x) = sec x + tan x x + C
5. y = (tan x 1) + Ce
tanx
6.
2
2
(4log 1) C
16
x
y x x
= +
7.
2
log (1 log ) C y x x
x
= + +
8.
2 2 1
=(1+ ) log sin C(1 ) y x x x

+ +
9.
1 C
cot
sin
y x
x x x
= +
10. (x + y + 1) = C e
y
11.
2
C
3
= +
y
x
y
12. x = 3y
2
+ Cy
ANSWERS 601
13. y = cos x 2 cos
2
x 14. y (1 + x
2
) = tan
1
x
4
15. y = 4 sin
3
x 2 sin
2
x 16. x + y + 1 = e
x
17. y = 4 x 2 e
x
18. C 19. D
1. (i) Order 2; Degree 1 (ii) Order 1; Degree 3
(iii) Order 4; Degree not defined
3.
2 2
2
4
y x
y
xy
=
5. (x + yy) = (x y)
2
(1 + ( y)
2
)
6. sin
1
y + sin
1
x = C 8. cos y =
sec
2
x
9. tan
1
y + tan
1
(e
x
) =
2
10. C
x
y
e y = +
11. log 1 x y x y = + + 12.
2
(2 C)
x
ye x = +
13.
2
2

sin 2 (sin 0)
2
y x x x = 14.
2 1
log , 1
1
x
y x
x
+
=
+
15. 31250 16. C
17. C 18. C
EXERCISE 10.1
1. In the adjoining figure, the vector OP
represents the required displacement.

MATHEMATICS 602
2. (i) scalar (ii) vector (iii) scalar (iv) scalar (v) scalar
(vi) vector
3. (i) scalar (ii) scalar (iii) vector (iv) vector (v) scalar
4. (i) Vectors a
and b
are coinitial
(ii) Vectors b
and d
are equal
(iii) Vectors a
and c
are collinear but not equal

5. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) False
EXERCISE 10.2
1. 3, 62, 1 a b c = = =

2. An infinite number of possible answers.
3. An infinite number of possible answers.
4. x = 2, y = 3 5. 7 and 6;

7 and 6 i j
6.

4 j k 7.
1 1 2

6 6 6
i j k + +
8.
1 1 1

3 3 3
i j k + +
9.
1 1

2 2
i k +
10.
40 8 16

30 30 30
i j k +
12.
1 2 3
, ,
14 14 14
13.
1 2 2
, ,
3 3 3

15. (i)
1 4 1

3 3 3
i j k + +
(ii)

3 3 i k +
16.

3 2 i j k + + 18. (C) 19. (D)
EXERCISE 10.3
1.

4
2.
1
5
cos
7

3. 0
4.
60
114
6.
16 2 2 2
,
3 7 3 7
7.
2
2
6 11 . 35 a a b b +

8. 1, 1 a b = =
9.
13
10. 8
ANSWERS 603
12. Vector b
can be any vector 13.

3
2
14. Take any two non-zero perpendicular vectors a
and b
15.
1
10
cos
102

18. (D)
EXERCISE 10.4
1.
19 2
2.
2 2 1

3 3 3
i j k
3.
1 1 1
; , ,
3 2 2 2
5.
27
3,
2
6. Either 0 or 0 a b = =
8. No; take any two nonzero collinear vectors

9.
61
2
10. 15 2 11. (B) 12. (C)
1.
3 1

2 2
i j +
2.
2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
, , ; ( ) ( ) ( ) x x y y z z x x y y z z + +
3.
5 3 3

2 2
i j
+
4. No; take a
,
b

and c
to represent the sides of a triangle.

5.
1
3
6.
3 10

10
2 2
i j + 7.
3 3 2

22 22 22
i j k +
8. 2 : 3 9. 3 a
+ 5b
10.
1

(3 6 2 ); 11 5
7
i j k +
12.
1

(160 5 70 )
3
i j k + 13. = 1 16. (B)
17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (B)
MATHEMATICS 604
EXERCISE 11.1
1.
1 1
0, ,
2 2
2.
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
3.
11
2
,
11
6
,
11
9
5.
2 2 3 2 3 2 4 5 1
, , ; , , ; , ,
17 17 17 17 17 17 42 42 42

EXERCISE 11.2
4.

2 3 ( 3 2 2 ) r i j k i j k = + + + +
, where is a real number

5.

2 4 ( 2 ) = + + +
r i j k i j k and cartesian form is

1
4
2
1
1
2
=
+
=
z y x
6.
6
5
5
4
3
2 +
=
=
+ z y x
7.

(5 4 6 ) (3 7 2 ) r i j k i j k = + + + +
8. Vector equation of the line:

( 5 2 3 ) r i j k = +
;
Cartesian equation of the line:
3 2 5
z y x
=
=
9. Vector equation of the line:

3 2 5 (11 ) = +
r i j k k
Cartesian equation of the line:
3 2 5
0 0 11
x y z + +
= =
10. (i) =
1
19
cos
21

(ii) =
1
8
cos
5 3

11. (i) =
1
26
cos
9 38

(ii) =
1
2
cos
3

12.
70
11
p =
14.
3 2
2
15. 2 29
16.
3
19
17.
29
8
ANSWERS 605
EXERCISE 11.3
1. (a) 0, 0, 1; 2 (b)
1 1 1 1
, , ;
3 3 3 3
(c)
2 3 1 5
, , ;
14 14 14 14
(d) 0, 1, 0;
5
8
2.

3 5 6
7
70
i j k
r

+
=

3. (a) x + y z = 2 (b) 2x + 3y 4 z = 1
(c) (s 2t) x + (3 t) y + (2s + t) z = 15
4. (a)
24 36 48
, ,
29 29 29

(b)
18 24
0, ,
5 5

(c)

3
1
,
3
1
,
3
1
(d)

0 ,
5
8
, 0
5. (a)

[ ( 2 )] ( ) 0; + =
r i k i j k x + y z = 3
(b)

[ ( 4 6 ) ] ( 2 ) 0; + + + =
r i j k i j k x 2y + z + 1 = 0
6. (a) The points are collinear. There will be infinite number of planes
passing through the given points.
(b) 2x + 3y 3z = 5
7.
2
5
, 5, 5 8. y = 3 9. 7x 5y + 4z 8 = 0
10.
( )

38 68 3 153 + + =
r i j k 11. x z + 2 = 0
12.
1
15
cos
731

13. (a)
1
2
cos
5

(b) The planes are perpendicular
(c) The planes are parallel (d) The planes are parallel
(e) 45
o
14. (a)
13
3
(b)
13
3
(c) 3 (d) 2
MATHEMATICS 606
3. 90 4.
1 0 0
x y z
= =
5.
1
5
cos
187

6.
10
7
k

=
7.
8. x + y + z = a + b + c 9. 9
10.
17 13
0, ,
2 2

11.
17 23
, 0,
3 3

12. (1, 2, 7)
13. 7x 8y + 3z + 25 = 0 14. p = 1 or
3
7
15. y 3z + 6 = 0 16. x + 2y 3z 14 = 0
17. 33x + 45y + 50 z 41 = 0 18. 13
19.

2 3 ( 3 5 4 ) = + + + + +
r i j k i j k
20.

2 4 (2 3 6 ) = + + + +
r i j k i j k 22. D
23. B
EXERCISE 12.1
1. Maximum Z = 16 at (0, 4)
2. Minimum Z = 12 at (4, 0)
3. Maximum Z =
235
19
at
20 45
,
19 19

4. Minimum Z = 7 at
3 1
,
2 2

5. Maximum Z = 18 at (4, 3)
6. Minimum Z = 6 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (6, 0)
and (0, 3).
7. Minimum Z = 300 at (60, 0);
Maximum Z = 600 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (120, 0)
and (60, 30).

2 3 ( 2 5 ) = + + + +
r i j k i j k
ANSWERS 607
8. Minimum Z = 100 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (0, 50)
and (20, 40);
Maximum Z = 400 at (0, 200)
9. Z has no maximum value
10. No feasible region, hence no maximum value of Z.
EXERCISE 12.2
1. Minimum cost = Rs 160 at all points lying on segment joining
8
, 0
3

and
1
2,
2

.
2. Maximum number of cakes = 30 of kind one and 10 cakes of another kind.
3. (i) 4 tennis rackets and 12 cricket bats
(ii) Maximum profit = Rs 200
4. 3 packages of nuts and 3 packages of bolts; Maximum profit = Rs 73.50.
5. 30 packages of screws A and 20 packages of screws B; Maximum profit
= Rs 410
6. 4 Pedestal lamps and 4 wooden shades; Maximum profit = Rs 32
7. 8 Souvenir of types A and 20 of Souvenir of type B; Maximum profit
= Rs 1600.
8. 200 units of desktop model and 50 units of portable model; Maximum profit
= Rs 1150000.
9. Minimise Z = 4x + 6y
subject to 3x + 6y 80, 4x + 3y 100, x 0 and y 0, where x and y denote the
number of units of food F
1
and food F
2
respectively; Minimum cost = Rs 104
10. 100 kg of fertiliser F
1
and 80 kg of fertiliser F
2
;

Minimum cost = Rs 1000
11. (D)
1. 40 packets of food P and 15 packets of food Q; Maximum amount of vitamin A
= 285 units.
2. 3 bags of brand P and 6 bags of brand Q; Minimum cost of the mixture = Rs 1950
3. Least cost of the mixture is Rs 112 (2 kg of Food X and 4 kg of food Y).
MATHEMATICS 608
5. 40 tickets of executive class and 160 tickets of economy class; Maximum profit
= Rs 136000.
6. From A : 10,50, 40 units; From B: 50,0,0 units to D, E and F respectively and
minimum cost = Rs 510
7. From A: 500, 3000 and 3500 litres; From B: 4000, 0, 0 litres to D, E and F
respectively; Minimum cost = Rs 4400
8. 40 bags of brand P and 100 bags of brand Q; Minimum amount of nitrogen
= 470 kg.
9. 140 bags of brand P and 50 bags of brand Q; Maximum amount of nitrogen
= 595 kg.
10. 800 dolls of type A and 400 dolls of type B; Maximum profit = Rs 16000
EXERCISE 13.1
1. ( ) ( )
2 1
P E|F , P F|E
3 3
= = 2. ( )
16
P A|B
25
=
3. (i) 0.32 (ii) 0.64 (iii) 0.98
4.
11
26
5. (i)
4
11
(ii)
4
5
(iii)
2
3
6. (i)
1
2
(ii)
3
7
(iii)
6
7
7. (i) 1 (ii) 0
8.
1
6
9. 1 10. (a)
1
3
, (b)
1
9
11. (i)
1
2
,
1
3
(ii)
1
2
,
2
3
(iii)
3
4
,
1
4
12. (i)
1
2
(ii)
1
3
13.
5
9
14.
1
15
15. 0 16. C 17. D
ANSWERS 609
EXERCISE 13.2
1.
3
25
2.
25
102
3.
44
91
4. A and B are independent 5. A and B are not independent
6. E and F are not independent
7. (i)
1
10
p =
(ii)
1
5
p =
8. (i) 0.12 (ii) 0.58 (iii) 0.3 (iv) 0.4
9.
3
8
10. A and B are not independent
11. (i) 0.18 (ii) 0.12 (iii) 0.72 (iv) 0.28
12.
7
8
13. (i)
16
81
, (ii)
20
81
, (iii)
40
81
14. (i)
2
3
, (ii)
1
2
15. (i) , (ii) 16. (a)
1
5
, (b)
1
3
, (c)
1
2
17. D 18. B
EXERCISE 13.3
1.
1
2
2.
2
3
3.
9
13
4.
12
13
5.
198
1197
6.
4
9
7.
1
52
8.
1
4
9.
2
9
10.
8
11
11.
5
34
12.
11
50
13. A 14. C
EXERCISE 13.4
1. (ii), (iii) and (iv) 2. X = 0, 1, 2; yes 3. X = 6, 4, 2, 0
4. (i) X 0 1 2
P(X)
1
4
1
2
1
4
(ii) X 0 1 2 3
P(X)
1
8
3
8
3
8
1
8
MATHEMATICS 610
(iii) X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X)
1
16
1
4
3
8
1
4
1
16
5. (i) X 0 1 2
P(X)
4
9
4
9
1
9
(ii) X 0 1
P(X)
25
36
11
36
6. X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X)
256
625
256
625
96
625
16
625
1
625
7. X 0 1 2
P(X)
9
16
6
16
1
16
8. (i)
1
10
k = (ii)
3
P(X 3)
10
< = (iii)
17
P(X 6)
100
> =
(iv)
3
P(0 X 3)
10
< < =
9. (a)
1
6
k = (b)
1 1
P(X 2) , P(X 2) 1, P(X 2)
2 2
< = = =
10. 1.5 11.
1
3
12.
14
3
13. Var(X) = 5.833, S.D = 2.415
14. X 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
P(X)
2
15
1
15
2
15
3
15
1
15
2
15
3
15
1
15
Mean = 17.53, Var(X) = 4.78 and S.D(X) = 2.19
15. E(X) = 0.7 and Var (X) = 0.21 16. B 17. D
ANSWERS 611
EXERCISE 13.5
1. (i)
3
32
(ii)
7
64
(iii)
63
64
2.
25
216
3.
9
29 19
20 20

4. (i)
1
1024
(ii)
45
512
(iii)
243
1024
5. (i) (0.95)
5
(ii) (0.95)
4
1.2 (iii) 1 (0.95)
4
1.2
(iv) 1 (0.95)
5
6.
4
9
10

7.
20
20 20
12 13 20
1
20C C ... C
2

+ + +

9.
11
243
10. (a)
50
99
1
100

(b)
49
1 99
2 100

(c)
49
149 99
1
100 100

11.
5
7 5
12 6

12.
4
35 5
18 6

13.
3
11
22 9
10
14. C 15. A
1. (i) 1 (ii) 0
2. (i)
1
3
(ii)
1
2
3.
20
21
4.
10
10 10
7
1 C (0.9) (0.1)
r r
r
r
5. (i)
6
2
5

(ii)
4
2
7
5

(iii)
6
2
1
5

(iv)
864
3125
MATHEMATICS 612
6.
10
9
5
2 6
7.
625
23328
8.
2
7
9.
4
31 2
9 3

10. n 4 11.
11
216
12.
1 2 8
, ,
15 5 15
13.
14
29
14.
3
16
15. (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.05 16.
16
31
17. A 18. C 19. B

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Contents

is both one-one and onto.

is neither one-one nor onto.

x A, which implies that gof = I

x, which shows that gof is one-one. But g is clearly not one-one.

x, y and z in N. Show that ho(gof ) = (hog) of.

1.5 Binary Operations

are not commutative.

a, b, c R. However, subtraction and division are not

a R implies that 0 and 1 are

a. Similarly, we can not find any element e in R

. Hence, and do not have identity element.

(x, y) A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is

A, B P(X). Show that the empty set is the

a A, are called equal functions).

Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R = X X.

Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X X.

Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) R

Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R implies (b, a) R.

Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) R and (b, c) R

Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and

Equivalence class [a] containing a X for an equivalence relation R in X is

A function f : X Y is one-one (or injective) if

A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y Y, x X such

A function f : X Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one

The composition of functions f : A B and g : B C is the function

A function f : X Y is invertible if g : Y X such that gof = I

A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one and onto.

Given a finite set X, a function f : X X is one-one (respectively onto) if and

A binary operation on a set A is a function from A A to A.

An element e X is the identity element for binary operation : X X X,

An element a X is invertible for binary operation : X X X, if

Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of

}, then it is one-one and onto with

} etc., is bijective and its range

} is called the principal value branch of the

, n Z} and the range is R. It means that tan function

. If we restrict the domain of tangent function to

Example 2 Find the principal value of cot

. Hence, principal value of cot

2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Similarly, we can prove the other parts.

Solution We have tan

The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric

The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal

The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. CANTOR

3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m n.

An m n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.

A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.

k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.

(k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant.

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C, (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC, (iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC

(i) (A) = A, (ii) (kA) = kA, (iii) (A + B) = A + B, (iv) (AB) = BA

A is a skew symmetric matrix if A = A.

Any square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a

Elementary operations of a matrix are as follows: