To Study Instrumentation Amplifier

Kamal Preet Singh

Lovely Professional University
B.Tech-M.Tech ECE
R170A24
3060071012

Abstract: It has never been easy to design a high performance

An instrumentation (or instrumentational) instrumentation amplifier; however, the availability
amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that of high performance IC's considerably simplifies the
problem. IC op amps are available today that can
has been outfitted with input buffers, which
give very low drifts as well as low bias currents;
eliminate the need for input impedance matching however, most of the circuits have some
and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable drawbacks.The most commonly used instrumentation
for use in measurement and test equipment. amplifier designs utilize either 2 or 3 op amps and
Additional characteristics include very low DC several precision resistors. These are capable of
offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop excellent performance; however, for high
gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and performance they require very precisely matched
resistors. The common mode rejection of these
very high input impedances. Instrumentation
designs depends on resistor matching and overall
amplifiers are used where great accuracy and gain. Since op amps arenow available with
stability of the circuit both short- and long-term exceedingly high CMRR, this is no longer a problem.
are required.Although the instrumentation The CMRR of the instrumentation amplifier is
amplifier is usually shown schematically identical approximately equal to half resistor mismatch plus
to a standard op-amp, the electronic the gain. For a 1% resistor mismatch the CMRR is
limited to 46 dB plus the gainÐreferred to the input.
instrumentation amp is almost always internally
Each of the three basic Instrumentation Amplifier
composed of 3 op-amps. These are arranged so architectures that have been already discussed have
that there is one op-amp to buffer each input been implemented in standard integrated circuit
(+,−), and one to produce the desired output with packages. To achieve a hig CMRR,extensiveresistor
adequate impedance matching for the function. trimming is required with lasers or other suitable
The ideal common-mode gain of an techniques. While each of these devices provide
instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit adequate specifications for a precision
Instrumentation Amplifier, each device has its own
shown, common-mode gain is caused by
compromise based on operating voltage range, supply
mismatches in the values of the equally-numbered current, common mode operating range, input
resistors and by the non-zero common mode gains impedance, etc. These instrumentation amplifiers use
of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely one external resistor to set the gain; while this may
matched resistors is a significant difficulty in seem to be an advantage, there are considerations
fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the which make the single resistor configuration
common mode performance of the input op-amps. undesirable from a design viewpoint. The
temperature coefficient (TC) of the external resistor
will be a direct gain drift. Also, an external filter can
1.1 INTRODUCTION: not be applied to the feedback network because it is
One of the most useful analog subsystems is internal to the device.
the true instrumentationamplifier. It can
faithfullyamplify low level signals in the presence of 1.2 Operational Amplifier:
high common mode noise. This aspect of its
performance makes it especially useful as the input
amplifierof a signal processing system. Other features An operational amplifier, which is often
of theinstrumentation amplifier are high input called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain
impedance, low input current, and good linearity. electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1]
and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of
the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback,
which largely determines the magnitude of its output
voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which
facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High
input impedance at the input terminals and low
output impedance are important typical
characteristics.Op-amps are among the most widely
used electronic devices today, being used in a vast
array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.
Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in
moderate production volume; however some
integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with
special performance specifications may cost over
$100 US in small quantities. Modern designs are
electronically more rugged than earlier
implementations and some can sustain direct short-
circuits on their outputs without damage. The op-amp
is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of
differential amplifier include the fully differential
amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs),
the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3
op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the
instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with
common-mode voltages that would destroy an
ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier The operational amplifier is an extremely
(usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive efficient and versatile device. Its applications span
feedback network). the broad electronic industry filling requirements for
signal conditioning, special transfer functions, analog
Shown on the right is an example of an ideal instrumentation, analog computation, and special
operational amplifier. The main part in an amplifier is systems design. The analog assets of simplicity and
the dependent voltage source that increases in precision characterize circuits utilizing operational
relation to the voltage drop across Rin, thus amplifiers. Originally, the term, “Operational
amplifying the voltage difference between V + and V − Amplifier,” was used in the computing field to
. Many uses have been found for operational describe
amplifiers and an ideal op-amp seeks to characterize amplifiers that performed various mathematical
the physical phenomena that make op-amps useful. operations. It was found that the application of
negative feedback around a high gain DC amplifier
would produce a circuit with a precise gain
V + and V − are not connected to the circuit within the
characteristic that depended only on the feedback
op-amp because they power the dependent voltage
used. By the proper selection of feedback
source's circuit (not shown). These are notable,
components, operational amplifier circuits could be
however, because they determine the maximum
used to add, subtract, average, integrate,
voltage the dependent voltage source can output.
and differentiate.As practical operational amplifier
techniques became more widely known, it was
For any input voltages the ideal op-amp has apparent thatthese feedback techniques could be
useful in many control and instrumentation
 infinite open-loop gain, applications.Today, the general use of operational
 infinite bandwidth, amplifiers has been extended to include such
 infinite input impedances (resulting in zero applicationsas DC Amplifiers, AC Amplifiers,
input currents), Comparators, Servo Valve Drivers, Deflection Yoke
 zero offset voltage, Drivers,Low Distortion Oscillators, AC to DC
 infinite slew rate, Converters, Multivibrators, and a host of others.What
 zero output impedance, and the operational amplifier can do is limited only by the
 zero noise. imagination and ingenuity of the user.With a good
working knowledge of their characteristics, the user
will be able to exploit more fully the useful properties the“openloop” amplifier. Thus, amplification almost
of operational amplifiers. any degree of precision can be achieved with ease1.4
Notation and Terminology
1.3 The Feedback Technique Texas Instruments employs the industry
standard operational amplifier symbols shown in
The precision and flexibility of the operational figure. Power pins are often omitted from the
amplifier is a direct result of the use of negative schematic symbol when the power supply voltages
feedback. Generally speaking, amplifiers employing are explicit elsewhere in the schematic. Some op amp
feedback will have superior operating characteristics symbols also include offset nulling pins, enable /
at a sacrifice of gain. disable pins, output voltage threshold inputs, and
other specialized functions.

Fig. Feedback circuit.

With enough feedback, the closed loop amplifier

characteristics become a function of thefeedback
elements. In the typical feedback circuit, figure 1, the
feedback elements are two resistors. The precision of
the “closed loop” gain is set by the ratio of the two
resistors and is practically independent of

ground potential. For purposes of circuit analysis, it

Input Terminals can be assumed to be ground -a “virtual ground.”
In figures 2b and 2c, the “-“ pin is the “inverting
input” or “summing point,” meaning a positive Output Terminals
voltage produces a negative voltage at the output on The relation between the inverting and non-inverting
symbol (b), and the top (non-inverting) output on inputs and the output was stated above.
symbol (c). When only one input or output terminal For the symbol of (c) the second output voltage is
exists, its voltage is measured with respect to ground. approximately equal and opposite in polarity
This is indicated by the term, “single ended.” It is a to the other output voltage, each measured with
popular ambiguity not to explain if a circuit, earth, or respect to ground. When the two outputs are
chassis ground is meant by this, so the use of a used as the output terminals without ground
common line is preferred with the ground symbol reference, they are known as “differential outputs”.
used to indicate which line is the common.When
there is an inverting input, such as in figures 2b and
2c, the voltage at the inverting input may be
measured with respect to the non-inverting input. In
use, such an amplifier responds to the difference
between the voltages at the inverting and non-
inverting inputs, i.e., a “differential input.In many
circuits, the non-inverting input is connected to
ground. Due to the high gain of operational
amplifiers, only a very small input voltage then
appears at the output and the output is virtually at
 Fig OP AM IC
pacakages

Power Connections:
Power is supplied to each of these units at Simulinking:
connections as shown in figure 4. Such a connection
is implied in all operational amplifier circuits. The
dual supply presents the same absolute value of
voltage to ground from either side, while the center
connection ultimately defines the common line and
ground potential. The exceptions to this are AC
amplifier circuits that may use a single power supply.
This is accomplished by creating a floating AC
ground with DC blocking capacitors. In such circuits,
a source of “half-supply” creates a “virtual ground”
exactly half way between the positive supply and
ground potentials.

Fig power connections.

Defining the Ideal Operational Amplifier

Gain: The primary function of an amplifier is to

amplify, so the more gain the better. It can
always be reduced with external circuitry, so we
assume gain to be infinite. Simunlink Using Tina software.
Input Impedance: Input impedance is assumed to
be infinite. This is so the driving source
An instrumentation (or instrumentational)
won’t be affected by power being drawn by the ideal
amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has
operational amplifier.
been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the
Output Impedance: The output impedance of the
need for input impedance matching and thus make
ideal operational amplifier is assumed to
the amplifier particularly suitable for use in
be zero. It then can supply as much current as
measurement and test equipment. Additional
necessary to the load being driven.
characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift,
Response Time: The output must occur at the same
low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high
time as the inverting input so the
common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input
response time is assumed to be zero. Phase shift will
impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used
be 180
. Frequency response will be
where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both
flat and bandwidth infinite because AC will be
short- and long-term are required.Although the
simply a rapidly varying DC level to the ideal
instrumentation amplifier is usually shown
amplifier.
schematically identical to a standard op-amp, the
Offset: The amplifier output will be zero when a
electronic instrumentation amp is almost always
zero signal appears between the inverting
internally composed of 3 op-amps. These are
and non-inverting inputs.
arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each
input (+,−), and one to produce the desired output packages. To achieve a hig CMRR,extensiveresistor
with adequate impedance matching for the function. trimming is required with lasers or other suitable
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier techniques An IC instrumentation amplifier typically
circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of the circuit contains closely matched laser-trimmed resistors, and
isThe ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation therefore offers excellent common-mode rejection.
amplifier is zero.

Input Signal Amplitude=1v F=50 Hz.

In the circuit shown, common-mode gain is

caused by mismatches in the values of the equally- Output Of Instrumentation amp.
numbered resistors and by the non-zero common
mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very Our input voltage differential is still zero volts, yet
closely matched resistors is a significant difficulty in the output voltage changes significantly as the
fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the common-mode voltage is changed. This is indicative
common mode performance of the input op- of a common-mode gain, something we're trying to
amps.[3]Instrumentation amplifiers can be built with avoid. More than that, its a common-mode gain of
individual op-amps and precision resistors, but are our own making, having nothing to do with
also available in integrated circuit form from several imperfections in the op-amps themselves. With a
manufacturers (including Texas Instruments, Analog much-tempered differential gain (actually equal to 3
Devices, Linear Technology and Maxim Integrated in this particular circuit) and no negative feedback
Products). An IC instrumentation amplifier typically outside the circuit, this common-mode gain will go
contains closely matched laser-trimmed resistors, and unchecked in an instrument signal application.
therefore offers excellent common-mode rejection. There is only one way to correct this
The CMRR of the instrumentation amplifier is common-mode gain, and that is to balance all the
approximately equal to half resistor mismatch plus resistor values. When designing an instrumentation
the gain. For a 1% resistor mismatch the CMRR is amplifier from discrete components (rather than
limited to 46 dB plus the gainÐreferred to the input. purchasing one in an integrated package), it is wise to
Each of the three basic Instrumentation Amplifier provide some means of making fine adjustments to at
architectures that have been already discussed have least one of the four resistors connected to the final
been implemented in standard integrated circuit op-amp to be able to "trim away" any such common-
mode gain. Providing the means to "trim" the resistor Simple circuit of Instrumentational Amplifier.
network has additional benefits as well. Suppose that
all resistor values are exactly as they should be, but a
common-mode gain exists due to an imperfection in  REVIEW:
one of the op-amps. With the adjustment provision,  Op-amp inputs usually conduct very small
the resistance could be trimmed to compensate for currents, called bias currents, needed to
this unwanted gain. properly bias the first transistor amplifier
stage internal to the op-amps' circuitry. Bias
One quirk of some op-amp models is that of currents are small (in the microamp range),
output latch-up, usually caused by the common-mode but large enough to cause problems in some
input voltage exceeding allowable limits. If the applications.
common-mode voltage falls outside of the  Bias currents in both inputs must have paths
manufacturer's specified limits, the output may to flow to either one of the power supply
suddenly "latch" in the high mode (saturate at full "rails" or to ground. It is not enough to just
output voltage). In JFET-input operational amplifiers, have a conductive path from one input to the
latch-up may occur if the common-mode input other.
voltage approaches too closely to the negative power  To cancel any offset voltages caused by bias
supply rail voltage. On the TL082 op-amp, for current flowing through resistances, just add
example, this occurs when the common-mode input an equivalent resistance in series with the
voltage comes within about 0.7 volts of the negative other op-amp input (called a compensating
power supply rail voltage. Such a situation may resistor). This corrective measure is based
easily occur in a single-supply circuit, where the on the assumption that the two input bias
negative power supply rail is ground (0 volts), and currents will be equal.
the input signal is free to swing to 0 volts.  Any inequality between bias currents in an
op-amp constitutes what is called an input
Latch-up may also be triggered by the offset current.
common-mode input voltage exceeding power supply  It is essential for proper op-amp operation
rail voltages, negative or positive. As a rule, you that there be a ground reference on some
should never allow either input voltage to rise above terminal of the power supply, to form
the positive power supply rail voltage, or sink below complete paths for bias currents, feedback
the negative power supply rail voltage, even if the current(s), and load current.
op-amp in question is protected against latch-up (as
are the 741 and 1458 op-amp models). At the very References:
least, the op-amp's behavior may become
unpredictable. At worst, the kind of latch-up
triggered by input voltages exceeding power supply
voltages may be destructive to the op-amp. 1. R.F. Coughlin, F.F. Driscoll Operational
Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits
(2nd Ed.1982. ISBN 0-13-637785-8) p.161.
2. Moore, Davis, Coplan Building Scientific
Aparatus (2nd Ed. 1989 ISBN 0-201-13189-
7)p.407.
3. Smither, Pugh and Woolard: ‘CMRR
Analysis of the 3-op-amp instrumentation
amplifier', Electronics letters, 2nd February
1989.
4. 4.Jung, Walter G. (2004). "Chapter 8: Op
Amp History". Op Amp Applications
Handbook, Newnes.
5. 5. Jung, Walter G. (2004). "Chapter 8:
Op Amp History". Op Amp Applications
Handbook, Newnes..
6. 6. A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd
Ed.1979. ISBN 0-07-039867-4) p.476.