39

Quran and Mathematics-I

Noor Muhammad Awan*
ABSTRACT:Quran has not only emphasized on the acquisition of
knowledge and laid down foundation of scientific method by
making orders of observation , thinking, contemplation, utilization
of vision and reasoning for derivation of result but, it also
forwarded the greatest step towards knowledge and science by
associating performance of its religious rituals with high standard
mathematical sciences. For example, Mawaqeet, regulation of
lunar colander , determination of direction of Qibla, Ilm ul Faraid,(
Inheritance) Islamic decorative art, calculation of Zkat , Ushr, and
Kharaj, weight and measures. These Quranic commands and
religious necessities compelled and led the muslim scientists to
mathematical research which resulted in the invention of numeral
and number system. So in this article the author has tried to bring
the light on the mathematical aspect of Quran very briefly.

Mathematics & Religious Rituals in Islam

The importance of science and mathematics in Islam can be visualized
by the fact that mathematical science is used in the performance of religious
rituals in Islam. If we study the history of religions, we can not find a single
such like example. There is no any other religion of mankind in which
scientific or mathematical concepts and procedures are used in the
performance of religious rituals.
1
The Rom Landau recognized the fact by
saying that truly startling features of the Arabic achievements in mathematics
is the result of its religious commands. It became vitally important for the
Muslims to know correctly the position of Makkah in relation to all different
parts or locations of the Muslims world. The Muslims were also compelled to
determine the movements of sunrise and sunset, the rising and creation of the
moon by which the Muslims regulate the observance of the fast of the
Ramadan; and finally, the correct measurement of surfaces for the purposes of
division of inherited land according to teaching of Quran. In order to perform
all these diverse tasks, the Muslims had to developed the mathematical
concepts.
2
Besides the Quranic inducement and appreciation of scientific
knowledge, there are five main aspects of religious rituals in which
mathematics is applied compulsorily;
_____________________________________________________________
* Assistant Commissioner, 26-A ,Wahdat Colony , Lahore, Pakistan.
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40
1. The regulation of lunar calendar (Its periods are based on the moon).
2. The regulation of the times of five daily prayers (whose periods are based
on the sun).
3. The determination of sacred direction or direction of Qibla (whose goal is
specific location)
4. The distribution of inheritance (which involves some skills in arithmetic
and first degree algebraic equations).
5. The geometry of Islamic decorative art (which involves various
geometrical designs and skills).
3


Umar Farookh concluded that the Muslims turned first of all to the
practical sciences - which would yield them an immediate profit, either in
private individual life or in religious life of the community such as
mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The science of arithmetic was required
because it enabled them to calculate inheritances and to prepare calendar to
count days and years. From geometry, they could find the direction of Qibla
and Hajj routs, and from the astronomy they could determine the beginning of
the holy month of Ramadan and the great fasts, and fixed the times for prayers.
Hence there were religious base for the Arabs need for sciences.
4
Francoise
Micheau concluded that certain mathematical and astronomical learning were
necessary to men of law and religion in Islamic civilization. That is why some
scientific disciplines were able to find a place in Madrasas besides other
institutions. For example, Ilm-ul-Faraid, the science of succession shares,
which involves precise juridical rules and complex mathematical processes,
was taught in certain religious Madrasas of Islamic civilizations. e.g. in
Madrasa Nizamiya of Baghdad, there were two teachers for arithmetic and
faraid along with twenty three all. Similarly astronomy was also studied in
Madrasas.
5

Hence we can conclude that Islam incited the Muslims to study and
research in the scientific disciplines of knowledge, by basing the religious
rituals like, Salat times, Lunar calendar, dates of Hajj and Ramadan, direction
of Qibla, law of inheritance, etc. on scientific knowledge. Hence Islam not
only incited his followers for science but also his followers were compelled to
work out scientific concept for the performance of basic religious obligatory
duties like, Salat, Fast of Ramadan, Hajj of Makkah and legacies of Faraid.
And it was the greatest impulse given by Islam to science.
Quran and Mathematics - I

41


Times of Salat and Fasting or time keeping (-,,-)
i. Salat (Prayer)
After the faith in the unity of God, punctual observation of five times
daily prayers is compulsory and obligatory religious duty of all Muslims.
6

Quran many times ordered for observance of prayers.
7
e.g. (Al-Baqara, 2:110):
` . ,` , ' , ` , ,` , .
"Be steadfast in prayers and regular in charity.
8

The Quran ordered the Muslim to observe daily prayers at appointed times
by saying: (Al-Nisaa', 4:103):
_ ` . ` . . , ` ,` , ` ,` O
"Indeed salat is a prescribed duty that should be performed at
appointed times by the believers.
9

The stated times for prayers are given, with reference to sunrise, sunset,
declining of sun, before sunrise, before sunset in different Quranic verses and
in Hadith also.
10
As, Quran says, (Al-Qaf, 50:39-40):
` , ` ` _, ~ ` :` , _ ` - , ` _` , .,` ,` O ` , , ,` -' _ ,` ' , ` ` -` O
"And celebrate the praises of the Lord, before the rising of the sun and
before (its) sitting, and during part of the night, (also) celebrate His praises
and (so likewise) after the postures of adoration.
11

The times of prayers are also prescribed in this verse as: (Al-Isra, 17:78):
` . , ' ,` - .` , , ` , _ ` ` , ` .
"Establish regular prayers - at the sun's decline till the darkness of
night, and the morning prayer and reading."
12

This verse again prescribes times of prayers with reference to sun; as; Zuhr
and Asr by saying, "From declining of sun" and Maghrib and Isha by saying,
"Till darkness of night."
13
Quran also describes times of prayers in terms of
parts of day and night, which are again related to sun; by saying: (Hud, 11:114)
` . , ' , ` , ` ` _ , _ ,` , ~ .
"And keep up prayer in the two parts of the day and in the first hours of
the night."
14

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42
There is very comprehensive discussion about the times of prayer in Sura
Taha (20:130):
- , ` _` , ` , ` ` _, ~ ` :` , _ ` : _ ,` , ~ ' , ` _` ` , . ` , , ,,` , _ .` , O
"And celebrate (constantly) the praise of thy Lord before the rising of
the sun, And before its setting; yea, celebrate them for part of the hours of the
night, and at the sides of the day: That thou mayest have joy."
15

The times of prayers, given in books of Ahadith, are also described in
similar terms. e.g.
"Abdullah bin Amr reported, God's Messenger as saying, "The time of
noon prayer, is when sun passes the meridian and a man's shadow is the same
length as his height, so long as the time for the afternoon prayer has not come;
the time for the afternoon prayer is as long as the sun has not become yellow;
the time of the sunset (maghrib) prayer is as long as the twilight has not ended;
the time of the night prayer is up to midnight; and the time of the morning
prayer is from the appearance of dawn, as long as the sun has not risen, but the
sun rises refrain from the prayer, for it rises between the horns of the devil."
16

(Sahih Muslim, Kitab-ul-Salat)
Hence we can conclude that the times of prayers prescribed in Quran and
Sunnah, are as follows:
i. Fajr: Before rising of sun (Q-~- ;-= J--)
ii. Zuhr: Immediately when sun begins to decline the afternoon. In
Quranic words, declining of sun (Q-~- -;---) or when sun cross meridian.
iii. Asr: In the late afternoon (,- J--)
iv. Maghrib: Immediately after sunset (')-- ,=)
v. Isha: End of twilight (J--- Q '-- J---'' J-- _~-)
And two optional prayers:
i. Tahajjud: Said at midnight
ii. Duha: A short before midday.
17

Thus times of prayers are given in parameters of position of sun or with
reference to, length of shadow that is again corresponding to position of sun.
18


ii. Times of Fasting
Fasting is another obligatory duty of the Muslim as Quran says: (Al-
Baqara, 2:183):
Quran and Mathematics - I

43

, ,', ' , ` ,` . ` , ` , . ,` .
"O Ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you."
19

The time of fasting starts before daybreak and ends after sunset as it is
described in the Hadith:
"Ans reported that, the Holy Prophet () said "Take a meal (sahri)
little before dawn."
20
There is another hadith about end time of fasting:
"Umar reported that, the Holy Prophet () said "When sun approaches
on this side and the day retreats on that side and sun sets he who fasts has
reached the time to break it."
21
(Muslim, Bukhari)
Hence time of fasting is also given in terms of day break and sunset. Thus
according to standard definition of time of prayer and fasting, the interval for
Isha and Fajr prayers begin at nightfall and day break, the permitted interval
for Zuhr usually begins when sun has crossed meridian i.e. when the shadow of
any object has been observed to increase. The interval for Asr begins when
shadow increases in twice the length of object to gnomon or sunset and interval
for Maghrib and end of fasting starts after sunset. Thus the times of five daily
prayers in Islam are defined in terms of astronomical phenominon.
22

Thus the limits of permitted intervals for prayers are defined in terms of the
apparent position of sun in the sky relative to that local horizon. Their times
vary throughout the year and are dependent upon terrestrial latitude, when
reckoned in terms of meridian other then local meridian, these also dependent
upon terrestrial longtitude.
23

Hence the Muslim, in order to determine the times of prayer and fasting,
must know longitude, latitude, process and techniques of their measurements
and their use to determine times of prayer. For this purpose, they must know
mathematics like, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry and spherical
trignometry. The Muslim scholars invented and used spherical trigonometry to
overcome this religious necessity.
24

Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi and other scholars Contribution to
Time Keeping or Times of Prayers
Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi, first time in history, worked on
this topic. He calculated tables for regulating daylight prayers.
25
Al-
Khawarizmi wrote two great books on the topic:
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44
i. Kitab Sharah fi Tariqa li Ma'arifa Al-Waqat Be Wasatat-il-Shams ( '--
Q-~- ='; ~-;- -,-- -,= -- ,)
ii. Kitab Al-Rukhama ('=,- '--).
26

The earliest known work on Sundial which deals with the construction of
Sundials is contribution of Al-Khawarizmi. It consists mainly, of a set of tables
of co-ordinates for constructing horizontal Sundials for various latitudes.
27
An
exact from Al-Khawarizmi's table for Sundial construction is occurred in a
treatise on Sundial by Al-Sijzi, which is recently discovered, and present in
Top - Kopi (Turkey) with MS. 3342, 8 + 9.
28
Besides Al-Khawarizmi many
Muslim scholars, meeting with the need of religion for fasting and salat times,
wrote on the time keeping called Ilm-ul-Rukhama like Habsh bin Abduallh Al-
Mazuri (,-- = --- Q Q-=) wrote Kitab Al-Rakhaim wal-Maqabis ( '--
Q-'--- ;-'=,-).
29
Moreover, after Al-Khawarizmi, Habash Al-Hasib also
worked in this field and calculated quantitative estimates of the angle
depression of the sun at nightfall and daybreak.
30
Some well known
books/treatises, on time keepings along with names of their authors, written in
Islamic era, are given as follows:
1. Risala fil Falak wa Ma'arifat Awqat-is-Salat ( ~--- _- -' '- -,
;-~-) by Sharf-ud-Din Musa bin Muhammad Al-Khalili ( _ ; Q-- ,
_---=- Q).
2. Risala Awqat-is-Salat wa Simit Qibla (--- ~- ;-~- '- -') by Al-
Khalkhani ('=-=-)
3. Risail Istikhraj Awqat-is-Salat fi Amaal-il-Falkiyya ( '- ,=- J-'
----- '-- - ;-~-) by Muhammad bin Muhammad Al-Makli Al-Andulusi
(_~--V _--- --= Q --=).
31

Many treatises on latitude of sun, longitude at Zuhr and Asr prayers, and
duration of morning and evening twilight accur in several Zijs of medieval
Islam.
32
This discipline is called Ilm-ul-Miqaat in Arabic sciences.
Abu Rehan Al-Bairuni (_,--- '= ;) also discussed and determined the
times of fasting in his famous book Qanun-e-Mas'udi (;~-- ;'-).
33
After
13
th
century, time keeping was in the hands of muwaqqits (professional
astronomers), employed in the mosques. The tables available to the muwaqqits
had to be used together with instruments which could establish when the given
present time had arrived. The main source of regulating the daylight prayers
was available to the Muslims in the form of Sundials.
34
Al-Khalili, Ibn Yunus
Quran and Mathematics - I

45

etc. were famous muwaqqits. However, we will discuss the details in the next
section under the title: Time Keeping and Sundials.

Direction of Qibla ('--' ---)
The Kaba is the most famous sanctuary of Islam called Baitullah,
situated at the centre of great mosque at Makkah.
35
The Muslim all over the
world are enjoined to face the sacred direction of Qibla during their prayers
36

prescribed by Quran as: (Al-Baqara, 2:144):
: ,` - , , , - -` , = .
"Now shall we turn thee to a Qibla that shall please thee. Turn the face
in the direction of sacred mosque."
37

The words of tradition of Holy Prophet () are:
,. . , _ , .,., .
"When you stand for prayer, first make Wudu then stand facing Qibla."
(Sahih Muslim, Kitab-ul-Salat)
38

The mosques are oriented towards the Qibla, the mehrab or prayer niche in
mosques indicate direction of Qibla. Islamic tradition further prescribes that
person performing certain acts like recitation of Quran, announcing call to
prayer (Azan), the ritual slaughter of animal for food, should stand in the
direction of Qibla.
39
Thus Muslims have been spiritually and physically
oriented towards Kaba and Makkah and hence the direction of Qibla has
fundamental importance in their lives.
40

Consequently Muslim must know the direction of Qibla to assist
organization of various aspects of religious rituals in Islam. But the calculation
of direction of Qibla was problem of purely geographical mathematics and its
determination was not possible without the measurement of geographical co-
ordinates and the direction of computation of one locality from another by
procedures of geometry, trigonometry and spherics.
41

Thus Muslims were bound to inquire into geography, mathematics,
geometry and spherical trigonometry, to determine direction of Qibla for
religious purposes. As a result of this religious inducement, many Muslim
scholars devoted their attention to this problem, one of them was Al-Bairuni.
He wrote a book on this subject, called Tahdid-ul-Amakin (The determination
of co-ordinates of cities).
42
Al-Bairuni also wrote a comprehensive treatise on
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46
the subject called, Fi Tariq-ul-Asnai li-Ma'arifa Simit-e-Qibla Waghera (The
methods for determination of direction of Qibla etc.) in his Encyclopedia book
Qanun-e-Mas'udi. He discussed the topic beautifully and gave the
mathematical formulas.
43
Al-Bairuni also wrote a book called Al-Risala fi
Ma'arifat Simit-e-Qibla.
44
Besides Al-Bairuni, Saif-ud-Din Abd-ul-Haq wrote
a book called Al-Ma'rifa bi Dalail Qibla (--- J-V- -,--). Other famous works
of Muslim scientists on the topic of jihat al-Qibla are given:
i. Kitab Tahdid-ul-Qibla (---- --= '--) by Ibn Al-Marakushi.
45

ii. Risala Awqat-is-Salat wa Simat Qibla (--- ~- ;-~- '- -') by Al-
Khalkhani
iii. Risala fi Tahqiq Jihat Qibla (--- ~)= _--= _- -') by Shaikh Baha-ud-
Din Aamli
iv. Simat-ul-Qibla li-Aafaq-il-Farisiyya ( -'-- '-7 ---- ~- ) by Razi-ud-
Din Muhammad Al-Khazini
46

v. Kitab-uz-Zij Al-Majisti by Al-Batani.
47

vi. Simat-ul-Qibla bil Hisab ('~=-' ---- ~-) (Determination of Direction of
Qibla by Arithmetic), Risala Sharh fiha Ittijah-ul-Qibla ( '= ')-- , -'
----), Risala Buhitha fiha Kayfiyyat Istikhraj Simat-ul-Qibla fi Jami' Inha-
il-Aalam (;-'- '= --= _- ---- ~- ,=- ---- ')-- ~= -') (Treatise
about the extraction of direction of Qibla in whole world) by Ibn-ul-
Haitham.
48

vii. Kitab Simat-ul-Qibla ( '-- ---- ~- ) (The Book on Direction of Qibla) by
Al-Naziri.
49

viii. Ibn Al-Banna Al-Marakushi wrote on the subject along with in other book
with the title Kitab Tahdid-ul-Qibla (---- --= '--).
50

Ibn Yunus, Abu Al-Wafa, Ibn-ul-Haitham, and Al-Khalili, etc. also made a
worth seeing contribution to the subject and Baqi Yazdi prepared a Qibla-
centered world map.
51
Calendar and Taqweem
The basic obligatory religious duties in Islam like Hajj,
52
fasting,
53
and
various festivals throughout the twelve months, are related with lunar calendar.
Lunar month starts with first appearance of lunar crescent. The Muslim start
fasting with first appearance of lunar crescent of Ramadan, which is ninth
month of lunar year, till end of it.
54
Abu Huraira reported God's messenger as
saying:
Quran and Mathematics - I

47

"Calculate on the basis of new moon of Shaban when Ramadan
begins."
55
(Tirmidhi)
Similarly, Hajj is performed at Makkah from 8
th
to 13
th
of Dhul Hijja,
twelfth month of lunar calender.
56
Thus it was religious compulsion of
Muslims to establish and formulate lunar calendar more accurately, to perform
their religious duties. And Quran directly guides Muslims in this regard by
saying: (Al-Baqara 2:189):
: , '` , ` _ - , ` ` ., , . .
"They asked thee concerning the new Moons. Say: They are but signs to
mark fixed period of time in (the affairs of) men, and for pilgrimage."
57

Here Quran is describing that crescent is for time keeping (Mawaqeet) and
determination of time of Hajj, people will calculate and determine length of
time or duration of time for their lives that is called calendar. Quran again
describes the fact more comprehensively. (Yunus, 10:5)
,` - ,` ` _ ` _` , _,` , , . , . ` ` . - , ` .
"It He who made the sun to be shining glory and the moon to be a light,
and measured out stages for it, that ye might know the number of years and the
count (of time)."
58

Here Quran is referring towards stages of moon for calculation of calendar.
The calendar can not be calculated, with high accuracy, with respect to sun.
The time of year (length of time interval) with respect to sun can not be
divided completely in days, and 12 months and fraction of time is rested.
Roman made 13 months.
59
But Quran indicates about the number of months as
12: (Al-Tawba, 9:36):
_,` ,' ` . , .
"The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve."
60

Shaykh Tantawi Jawhari writes in his commentary on Quran, called Al-
Jawahir fi Tafseer-il-Quran-il-Karim, that this verse contains many
astronomical and mathematical facts. It requires very deep and wisdomful
research.
61
The concepts given in this verse are not our subject here. Hence
these concepts and requirements bind the Muslims to calculate lunar calendar.
The lunar calendar as prescribed by Quran is made of 12 months and each
month having 29 or 30 days.
62

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48
The moon revolves around earth in elliptical orbit with varying speed of
rotations and completes its trajectory in 29 or 30 days with total period of
rotation around earth 354/48/34 days.
63
Thus, in order to prepare Islamic
calendar, the Muslim had to know the orbit of moon, its speed, trajectory
around earth, for the visibility of moon in advance, in the evening of twenty-
ninth day at any locality. But may parameters are involved in this process -
celestical co-ordinates of the sun and moon, apparent relative speed of these
two luminaries; latitude of place etc.
64
In order to meet with this problem, the
Muslim had to know arithmetic, geometry, spherical trigonometry and
spherical astronomy etc.
Authorships of Muslim scientists on taqweem
Uraib bin Sa'd Al-Qatib Al-Qurtubi wrote a beautiful treatise on topic,
called Tafseel-uz-Zman wal-Anba,
65
which is translated in French by R. Dozy.
Muhayyi-ud-Din Al-Maghribi wrote a book, called Kitab Al-Qanun Al-
Tarheel-ish-Shams wal-Qamar fi Manazil wa Ma'rifa Awqat-il-Layl wan-Nihar
(')-- J--- '- -, '--- _- ,--- Q-~- J-=,-- ;'-- '--).
66
Similarly,
Nasir-ud-Din wrote Kitab Istikhraj-ut-Taqweem (;;--- ,=- '--),
67
And
Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi wrote Kitab-ul-Zij.
68
Muhammad bin
Musa Al-Khawarizmi also wrote two other great books on this topic, called (i)
Kitab Sharh fihi Tariqat-ul-Ma'rifa al-Waqt bi Wasatat-ish-Shams ( -- , '--
Q-~- ='; ~-;- -,-- -,=) (Discussion on method of determination of time
with reference to the sun). (ii) Kitab-ul-Rukhama ('=,- '--).
69
A calendar
was compiled for Al-Hakim II, this gives the data when sun inters the twelve
signs of the zodiac according to Sindhind and Ashab-al-Mumtahan. Hence we
have been able to confirm that this refers to the Zij of Al-Khawarizmi.
70

Habash-al-Hasib wrote Zij-ul-Dimashqi, with great care of calculation. Thabit
worked on visibility of moon and two his treatises are present on the subject,
for visibility by calculation and by table.
71

Al-Bairuni wrote one chapter on "day," month,
72
year and their history, and
on "calender,"
73
in his book Kitab-ul-Tafheem. Al-Bairuni also wrote two
books on the subject of determination of Islamic calender and moon called (i)
Kitab Royat-al-Ahilla (-V ~ '--), (ii) Kitab Manazil-ul-Qamar ( '- '--
,---).
74
Abu-ul-Fazal Muhandis wrote Kitab Royat-ul-Ahilla (-V ~ '--)
(Book on the creation of moon).
75
Similarly Ibn Al-Majdi wrote Kitab
Khulasat-ul-Aqwal fi Ma'rifat-il-Waqt wa Royat-il-Hilal ( _- ;-V >= '--
>)- ~-;- -,).
76

Quran and Mathematics - I

49

Other important treatises are:
Al-Zij Al-Sabi (_'~- ,-) by Al-Batani, Al-Zij Al-Hakimi Al-Kabir ( ,-
,--- _--'=-) by Ibn Yunus, Kitab Al-Haya by Muhayyi-ud-Din Al-Urdi,
Tadhkira fi Ilm-ul-Hayya by Tusi, Zij Yalkhani (_'=- ) by Nasir-ud-Din
Tusi, Zij Ibn Shatir, Zij Abu Ma'shar Balkhi and Zij Mamuni by Hubaish bin
Abdullah, etc.
77
Thabit bin Qurra wrote Al-Risala fi Royat-il-Ahilla min
Jadawal (-= Q -V _- -',-) and Kitab Royat-il-Ahilla bil Janub ( '--
;-=-' -V ).
78

Law of Inheritance (Ilm-ul-Faraid)
Law of inheritance (Ilm-ul-Faraid) is main portion of Islamic law in
which shares of heirs of a deceased Muslim are determined from the property
of a deceased Muslim with certain ratios and conditions, given in Quran &
Sunnah.
79
The Holy Prophet () described that Ilm-ul-Faraid is one third of all
useful knowledge.
80
Quran describes about the stated portions of both men and
women with their parents and kindred leaves.
81
(Al-Nisa, 4:7):
-` , ` ., . . ` , .,` , , . , . , , ` ` ` . ,. , ` , ' ` ` ` .,` , , . , . , , ` ` , .
.,` , ` O
"From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share
for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large - a
determinate share."
82

Quran also discussed ratio of shares with detail in different circumstances
or conditions. (Al-Nisa, 4:11-12):
` ` , , .,`, .` , ' ` , . ` . , ` , , . - , ` , , - , ` . . , , `` , ` ,
. , ` ` ` ' ` ,` ` - , `, , , . , ` .` .` , ` , . , ` , ` . ` ` , , ' ` _ , , ` , ` ` . . , .
` , . , ` , ` ` ' ` ,` - ` ,` ,', ' .,` _` . ` , ` ,, ' , ` , ` , , `, ` , ' , , .,`, . ` ., , ` , ` . , '
, . , - O ` .` . ` , , ` ` , . . , ` , ` ` , , ` , . ` ,` - ,` _ ' , , ` ` _` ,' , ` , ` ,
, , .,`, ` , . , ` , ` , . ` ,` , ` ` _` ,' , ` ` , , `, `, ' ` , ` , , ` , ` ,` , ` ` ` ` ` , ` , `, . . ,
, ' . _,`, ` - _ . . , `, ` , ' , , .,` .,` ` , . , . , ` ` ' ` ,` ` - , ` .` - ' ` ,' ` _ ' ` , ' ,` , ' ,`
` , . , ` , . . ,` ` ,` , : ` ,, ` , ` ` , . , _ .` ,` , `, ` , ' , , _ .,`, ` ,, - O
Jiht al-Islm Vol. 3 (July-December 2009) No.1




50
"Allah thus directs you as regard your children's (inheritance): to the
male a portion equal to that of two females: If only daughters, two or more,
their share is two-third of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For
parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if deceased left children; if no
children and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has third; if the
deceased left brothers (or sisters) the mother has sixth. (The distribution is all
cases is) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your
parents or your children are nearest to you in benefits. These are settled
portion ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing, All wise. If what your
wives leave, your share is half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child,
ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what you leave, their
share is fourth, if you leave no child; but if you leave a child, they get an
eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose
inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants but has
left a brother or a sister, each one of two gets a sixth; but if more than two,
they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is
caused (to anyone). Thus it is ordained by Allah; and Allah is all knowing,
most forbearing."
83

Shares of "kalala": Distant kindreds are also given in Quran, (Al-Nisa,
4:176):
: ,` ` , ` , ` ` , : ` ,` ,` . ` , , `, ` , ` , . , ,, ,` , , ` .` . , ` .` - ' ` ,
, . , , ` . ` , ` , . , ` , ` , , . - , . , . -` _ ,` - ,` . ' ` , ` ` ` , `,
` ,, .` , ` , , . O
They ask thee for a legal decision. Say: Allah directs (thus) about those
who leave no descendants or ascendants as heirs. If it is a man that dies,
leaving a sister but no child, she shall have half the inheritance: If (such a
deceased was) a woman, who left no child, Her brother takes her inheritance:
If there are two sisters, they shall have two-thirds of the inheritance (between
them): if there are brothers and sisters, (they share), the male having twice the
share of the female. Thus doth Allah make clear to you (His law), lest ye err.
And Allah hath knowledge of all things.
84

There are many other Quranic verses related to law of inheritence.
85
Quran and Mathematics - I

51

Hence according to Holy Books, Siraj-ud-Din Sajawandi writes, shares are
six: Half, fourth, third, fifth, sixth and made half and multiple according to
conditions.
86
Thus Quranic rules for distribution of estates of a deceased
Muslim to various relatives, are complicated and their application calls for
some skills in arithmetic and algebraic equations.
87
The calculation of legal
shares of natural heirs could be solved by arithmetic of fraction.
88
If estate is a
land, then geometry must be known. Thus we can conclude that in order to
address religious problem of inheritance, the Muslim should have knowledge
of arithmetic, number theory, algebraic equation, roots, measurement,
geometry etc. as Ibn Khuldun writes that Ilm-ul-Faraidh is an art of arithmetic.
Specific methods and operations are required to determine the shares of
inheritance. The whole number, fraction, extraction of roots and Surds, known
and unknown quantities, etc. are involved in it. Of course every kind of
arithmetic is required in Ilm-ul-Faraidh. Ilm-ul-Faraidh comprises two parts -
jurisprudence (Fiqah) and the arithmetic, by which the shares are determined.
89

Shaykh Tantawi Jawhari writes, in his commentary (exegesis) of Quran,
named, Al-Jawahir fi Tafseer-il-Quran-il-Karim, about law of inheritance
(Ilm-ul-Mirath) and its effects on various branches of knowledge. Tantawi says
that Ibn-ul-Haitham prepared a table for calculation of shares of heirs, by
which, unknown quantities (numbers) can be determined with help of, known
quantities and with certain rules. The art of calculating unknown quantities
with the help of known quantities, using common mathematics and its rule,
establish and promote following disciplines of knowledge;
90

1. Ilm-ul-Hisab-ul-Hawai (Knowledge of calculating by mind without
writing)
2. Ilm-ul-Hisab wa Takhat (Knowledge of place-value based number system)
3. Ilm-ul-Jabr wal-Muqabla (Algebra and algebraic equations)
4. Ilm-ul-Hisab-il-Khatain (Knowledge of calculation of unknown quantities
by short, particular methods)
5. Ilm-ud-Dirham wad-Dinar (Solution of problems by algebra)
6. Ilm-ul-Uqood
7. Ilm-ul-Ta'abi (Science of arrangement of armed forces in war)
8. Ilm-ul-Hisab wan-Nujum (Science of mathematical astronomy and
astrology)
9. Ilm-ul-Faraid (Knowledge of kinds of inheritance).
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52
The science of measurement of area of land is also necessary to follow law
of inheritance. Hence it promotes science of measurement and geometry.
Tantawi concludes: "The Muslims are how much incited to search treasures of
knowledge from Quran."
91

Ilm al-Faraid and Invention of Algebra
Al-Khawarizmi's book, Al-Jabr wal-Muqabala, was the result of this
religious inducement and Al-Khawarizmi acknowledge it by saying, "I
composed a short work on calculating by completion and reduction, such as
men constantly require in cases of inheritance, legacies, partition, law suits,
and trade, and in all their dealings with one another, or where the measuring
of lands, the digging of canals, geometrical computation, and other objects of
various sorts and kinds are concerned."
92

Al-Khawarizmi's Al-Jabr wal-Muqabala comprises two parts, first half is
devoted to numbers, their roots, and calculation, mathematical operation,
measurement, various types of algebraic equation and demonstrations of the
validity of his methods and the 2
nd
half contains, the solutions of practical
problems of inheritance, legacies, measurements, etc. and the examples to
show that how the science of arithmetic, of algebra could be applied to the
problems posed by the requirements of the Muslim law of inheritence.
93
Al-
Khawarizmi also wrote another book on inheritance is called Kitab-ul-Wasaya
('';- '--).
94

Contributions of Muslim Scientists to Mathematics of Inheritance or
Wasaya and Measurement of Land or Masaha
Many other scholars paid attention to this discipline as Ibn Khaldun quotes
Ibn Yunus, "Religious scholars in Muslim cities have paid much attention to it
(inheritance). Some authors are inclined to exaggerate the mathematical side
of discipline and to pose problems requiring for their solution various
branches of arithmetic, such as algebra, the use of roots, and similar things."
95

Number of the Muslim scholars worked out on the topic. e.g. Abu Hanifa
Al-Dainuri (;--- ---= ;) wrote Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '--).
96
Abu
Abdullah Muhammad bin Al-Hassan (Q~=- Q --= = --- ;) wrote Kitab-ul-
Wasaya ('';- '--) and Kitab Hisab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '~= '--).
97
Al-
Hassan bin Ziyada Al-Lolwi ( ' Q Q~=- ;-;-- ) wrote Kitab-ul-Faraid ( '--
-,-- ) and Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '--),
98
and Ahmad bin Umar Al-
Shaybani (_'--~- ,-- Q --=) wrote Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '--).
99

Other important books on the topics are:
Quran and Mathematics - I

53

Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--) and Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '--) by
Muhammad bin Ahmad Al-Tahawi ('==- --= Q --=),
100
Kitab-ul-Wasaya
fil Hisab ('~=- _- '';- '--) by Dawud bin Khalaf Al-Asfahani ( ~-= Q
_'-V);
101
Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--) and Kitab-ul-Wasaya ( ';- '-- ' )
by Safwan bin Yahya (_= Q ;-),
102
Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '-- ) by Abu
Yusuf Al-Masisi (_~-~-- ~; ;) and Kitab-ul-Wasaya by Al-Karabisi
(_~-,-),
103
Kitab-ul-Wasaya wal- Hisab-ud-Daur (-- '~=- '';- '--)
by Abu Ibrahim Al-Muzni ( ; _,-- ;-, );
104
Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--) by
Abu Al-Hassan Ali bin Muhammad Al-Misri (,~-- --= Q _-- Q~=- ;),
105

Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--) and Kitab-ul-Wasaya ('';- '--) by Ya'qub
bin Ibrahim (;-, Q ;-),
106
and Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--) by Al-Naziri
(,,--).
107
Similarly many other scholars like; Ibn Al-Sairfi (_-,-~- Q),
Sufiyan Al-Suri (;-- '--), Abd-ul-Rahman bin Ziad (' Q Q-=,- ---),
Yahya bin Aadam ( Q _-=) and Yazid bin Harun (' Q -,) wrote books
with the title Kitab-ul-Faraid (-,-- '--).
108
Ibn-ul-Haitham wrote Risala fi
Ilaqat-il-Jabr bi Ilm-il-Faraid (-,-- ;- ,-=- ->- _- -')
109
and Tusi
(_;=) wrote Kitab fil Mirath (,--- _- '--).
110

Moreover, the measurement of areas of land should also be known to the
Muslims, to act upon the Islamic law of inheritance. Number of Muslim
scholars worked on the subject of measurement of areas of land. It is called
Ilm-ul-Masahat (~='~-- ;--) in Islamic civilization. Al-Khawarizmi wrote
Bab-ul-Masaha (='~-- ') in his book Al-Jabr wal-Muqabala (-'--- ,-=-)
on the topic.
111
Many other Muslim scientists worked on the subject of Masaha
but we can not describe the names of all of them here. Some wellknown works
are: Kitab-ul-Masaha ( ='~-- '-- ) by Ibn Nahiya (-=' Q), Kitab-ul-Masaha
(='~-- '--) by Abu Barza (, ;), Kitab-ul-Masaha wal-Handasa ( '--
--)- ='~--) by Abu Kamil (J'- ;),
112
Kitab Masahat-ul-Halqa ( ='~ '-
--=-) by Al-Karabisi (_~-,-),
113
Kitab fi Masahat-il-Ashkal ( ='~ _- '--
'V) by Thabit bin Qurra (,- Q ~'),
114
Risala Masahat Ba'd-ul-Astah
(_=V ~='~ -') by Al-Karkhi (_=,-),
115
Muqaddima fil Masaha
(='~-- _- --) by Umar Khayyam,
116
Kitab Masahat-ul-Ashkal-il-Basita
wal-Kurra ( '~ '-- ,- =-~-- 'V = ) by Tusi,
117
Risala fil-Masahat ( -'
'='~-- _-) by Al-Kashi (_'-),
118
and Kitab Talkhis-ul-Hisab wal-Jabr wa-
A'mal-ul-Masaha (='~-- '-- ,-=- '~=- -=- '--) by Baha-ud-Din
Aamli (_-'- Q-- ')).
119
Similarly Ibn-ul-Haitham wrote four books on the
subject called: Risala fil Masaha (='~-- _- -'), Kitab Masahat-ul-Kurrah
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54
(,- ='~ '--), Maqala fi Usul-il-Masaha wa Zikriha bil-Brahin ( _- -'-
Q-,--' ',- ='~-- ;) and Kitab fil Masaha ala Jiht-il-Usul ( _- '--
;V ~)= _-- ='~--).
120
Al-Hakim Muhammad bin Al-Adli Al-Ani ( ;-=-
_'- _--- Q --=) wrote Kitab fil-Masaha (='~-- _- '--).
121
Abu Al-Wafa
wrote the famous book Kitab ma Yahtaju Ilaih-il-Ummal wal Kitab min
Sana'a-til-Hisab ( ' '-- '~=- -'- Q '-- '-- -- '-= ),
122
Abu Hatim
Al-Fazari (,-- ;'= ;) wrote Muqaddima fil-Hisab ('~=- _- --) and
Abd-ul-Qahir Al-Baghdadi (--- ,'-- ---) wrote Kitab fil-Masaha ( _- '--
='~--).
123

(To be continued)




































Quran and Mathematics - I

55


REFERENCES

1. Gratten (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematics, vol. I, p. 80
2. Rome Landau, Islam and the Arabs, p. 166-167
3. Sources: Gratten (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematics, vol. I, p. 80-83 (article: Mathematics Applied to Religious Rituals
in Islam) & Encyclopedia of Islam (Articles: Faraid, Ilm-ul-Hay'ah, Qibla (Sacred
direction), Makka as a centre of the world (Sacred geography) and Ilm-ul-Miqat
(Time-keepings), & J. L. Berggren, Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval
Islam, p. 63-67, 89-94, 124-125, 173-186
4. Umar Farukh, Ubqarryat-ul-Arab fil Ilm wal-Falsafa, p. 43 & Umar Farukh, The
Arab Genius, p. 35
5. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. 3, p. 996-997
6. Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 5
7. The Quranic verses about observance of Salat can be found in:
(i) Fawad Abd-ul-Baqi, Maujim-ul-Faharis le-Alfaz-il-Quran-il-Karim, p. 524

(ii) Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 36
8. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 48
9. Ibid, p. 48
10. The Quranic verses relating to times of prayers are given in the verses: (Al-Rum,
30:17-18), (Al-Hud, 11:114), (Taha, 20:130), (Qaf, 50:38,39), (Al-Tur 52:48,49),
(Bani Israil, 17:78), etc. for Ahadith consult Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim,
Also Mishkat Al-Masabih, Chapter: Kitab-ul-Salat.
11. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 1353
12. Ibid, p. 696
13. Ibid, p. 696
14. Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 34
15. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 791
16. Mishkat-ul-Masabih (Eng. Trans. by James Robson), vol. I, p. 118
17. Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 37 & Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The
Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 696
18. Urdu Dairat-ul-Ma'rif-e-Islamia, vol. 12, p. 184-185
19. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 73
20. Mishkat-ul-Masabih (Eng. Trans. by James Robson), vol. I, p. 423
21. Ibid, p. 423
22. Gratten (ed), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematics, vol. I, p. 81 & Roshdi Rashed, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic
Sciences, vol. I, p. 170
23. Ibid
24. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 174-175
Berggren J. L. The Episodes in the Matheamtics of Medieval Islam, p. 181
Jiht al-Islm Vol. 3 (July-December 2009) No.1




56

25. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 173 &
Abbas Al-Uzavi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 52
26. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 93-94
27. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 158
28. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 159
29. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 334 & Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi
fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 186
30. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 174
31. Abbas Al-Uzavi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 88, 95-96
32. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 174
33. Al-Bayruni, Qanun-e-Masaudi, vol. I, p. 63
34. Gratten (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematics, vol. I, p. 82
35. Encyclopedia of Islam (Art. Makkah), vol. VI, p. 180
36. Urdu Dairat-ul-Maarifa-e-Islamia, vol. 16, p. 254 & Berggren J. L. The
Episodes in the Matheamtics of Medieval Islam, p. 182
37. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 58
38. See: Sahih Muslim (Kitab-ul-Salat)
39. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 128
40. Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. VI, p. 180
41. Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of Mathematical Sciences
(Art. Mathematics Applied to Aspects of Religious Rituals in Islam), vol. I, p.80
42. Al-Bayruni, Tahdid-ul-Amakin, Hydrabad Dakkan, 1964
43. Al-Bayruni, Qanun-e-Masaudi, vol. II, p. 526
44. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 144 & Tuqan
Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 320
45. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 432 &
Abbas Al-Uzavi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 95-96 & Ibn Abi Usaibia'a,
Uyyun-ul-Anba fi Tabaqat-il-Atibba, vol. II, p. 21
46. Abbas Al-Uzavi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 95-96
47. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 141
48. Ibn Abi Usaibia'a, Uyyun-ul-Anba fi Tabaqat-il-Atibba, vol. II, p. 94-97 & Tuqan
Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 306 & Ali A. Al-
Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 136-137
49. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 338 &
Al-Qifti, Tarikh-ul-Hukama, p. 254
50. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 432
51. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 147-148
Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. VI, p. 180-183
52. Order of Hajj is given in Al-Quran, (Al-Imran 3:97)
53. Order of Fasting is given in Al-Quran (Al-Baqra, 2:179)
54. Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 51
55. Mishkat-ul-Masabih (Eng. Trans. by James Robson), vol. I, p. 423
56. Urdu Dairat-ul-Maarifa-e-Islamia, vol. 7, p. 910
Quran and Mathematics - I

57


57. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 75
58. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 480-481
59. Tantawi Jawhari, Al-Jawahir fi Tafsir-il-Quran-il-Karim, vol. 6, p. 19
60. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 448
61. For comprehensive discussion on the above verses see: Tantawi Jawhari, Al-
Jawahir fi Tafsir-il-Quran-il-Karim, vol. 6, p. 18-49
62. Ibid, p. 18
63. Muhammad Sa'id Hakim, Hamdard Islamiscus, November 4 (1981), p. 50
64. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 16 &
Gratten (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematics, vol. I, p. 81
65. R. Dozy, Le Calender De Cardoue, Birlin, 1961
66. Abbas Al-Uzawi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 215
67. Ibid, p. 41
68. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 94-95 & Ibn al-
Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 333 & Charles C. Gillispie (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, vol. 7, p. 361-365
69. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 94-95 & Ibn al-
Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 333 & Charles C. Gillispie (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, vol. 7, p. 361-365
70. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 250
71. Rushdi Rashid, Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Sciences, vol. I, p. 40 & Ibn
al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 331, 334
72. Al-Bayruni, Kitab Al-Tafhim (Persian Trans. by Jilal), p. 220
73. Ibid, p. 274
74. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 145 & Tuqan
Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 319-320
75. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 376
76. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 458
77. Source: Abbas Al-Uzavi, Tarikh-ul-Ilm wal-Falak fil Iraq, p. 46-92 & Tuqan
Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 113 & Jurji
Zaidan, Tarikh-ul-Tamadan-ul-Islami, p. 195
78. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 108 & Ibn al-
Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 331 & Al-Qifti, Tarikh-ul-Hukama, p. 117-119 & Ibn Abi
Usaibia'a, Uyun-ul-Anba fi Tabaqat-il-Atibba, vol. I, p. 219 & Tuqan Qadari
Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 203
79. The number of related Quranic verses are given in Ref. No. 99, 100, 101, 102
and 103.
80. Sunan Abi Dawud, vol. 2, p. 468
81. Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 156
82. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 185
83. Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p. 187-188
84. Al-Quran (4:175) & Abdullah Yousaf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Quran, p.
241
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58

85. For detail see: Valibhai Merchant M., Quranic Laws, p. 145-155 & related
Quranic verses are: (Al-Baqara, 2:241), (Al-Nisa, 4:8-12, 176), (Al-Baqara,
2:177), etc.
86. Siraj-ud-Din Al-Sajawandi, Siraji fil Mirath, p. 12
87. Gratten (ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of History and Philosophy of
Mathematical Sciences, vol. I, p. 87
88. Berggren J. L. The Episodes in the Matheamtics of Medieval Islam, p. 83
89. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, vol. 2, p. 348, 386-387
90. Tantawi Jawhari, Al-Jawahir fi Tafsir-il-Quran-il-Karim, vol. 3, p. 20
91. Ibid, p. 21
92. Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi, Kitab Al-Mukhtasar fil-Hisab Al-Jabr wal-
Muqabala (ed. & Trans. by F. Rosen), p. 2
93. See: Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi, Kitab Al-Mukhtasar fil-Hisab Al-Jabr
wal-Muqabala (ed. & Trans. by F. Rosen) & Berggren J. L. The Episodes in the
Matheamtics of Medieval Islam, p. 63
94. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 95
95. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima Ibn Khaldun, vol. 2, p. 348 & Berggren J. L. The
Episodes in the Matheamtics of Medieval Islam, p. 67
96. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 86 & Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-
Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 182
97. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 257
98. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 258
99. Ibid, p. 259
100. Ibid, p. 260
101. Ibid, p. 272
102. Ibid, p. 278
103. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 240 & Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-
Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 211, 265
104. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 266
105. Ibid, p. 237
106. Ibid, p. 256-257
107. Ibid, p. 266
108. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 267, 281-284
109. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 136
110. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 177
111. Frederic Rosen (ed.), Algebra of Muhammad bin Musa (English Tr.), p. 70-86
& Ali Mustafa Musharafah (ed.), Al-Jabr wal-Muqabala lil-Khawarizmi, p. 54-66
& Frederic Rosen (ed.), Algebra of Muhammad bin Musa (Arabic text), p. 50-64
& Solomon Gandz, The Geometry of Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khawarizmi
(Arabic text with Eng. trans.), p. 66-85
112. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 339 & Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-
Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 165, 207, 268 & Al-Qifti, Tarikh-ul-Hukama, p.
287
113. Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Fehrist, p. 340
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59


114. Ibn Abi Usaibia'a, Uyun-ul-Anba fi Tabaqat-il-Atibba, vol. I, p. 219-220 &
Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 201 & Ali
A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 108
115. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 131
116. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 158
117. Ibid, p. 176
118. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 178 &
Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 452
119. Ali A. Al-Daffa, Al-Mujiz fil-Turath-il-Ilmi al-Arabi al-Islami, p. 197 &
Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 477
120. Ibn Abi Usaibia'a, Uyun-ul-Anba fi Tabaqat-il-Atibba, vol. 2, p. 94 & Tuqan
Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 304-305
121. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 260
122. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 233
123. Tuqan Qadari Hafiz, Turath-ul-Arab al-Ilmi fil-Riyadiyat wal-Falak, p. 342,
358