8

Use of textiles

8.1

Primary and secondary production

Once a textile fabric has been manufactured, its potential for causing damage to the environment does not end. A fabric, no matter how high its quality or how well it is finished, coloured and generally enhanced, is of little or no use unless it is made into something. The possible products of this further processing include such widespread objects as clothing, upholstery, drapery, bedding and industrial goods. We normally tend to regard the primary (i.e. fabric production) and secondary (i.e. products made from fabrics) textile industries as separate ones, but the environment makes no such distinction; pollution is pollution no matter what its source may be. One of the major problems facing the entire industry today is a lack of communication between these two different areas, since there is often a misinterpretation of the needs of the secondary sector by members of the first one, as well as a misunderstanding of the capabilities of the primary industry by the secondary one. Nature may benefit substantially by the development of a closer connection between the two, reducing the number of discarded materials that result from these failures to match needs, abilities and production.

8.2

Types of use

In view of the nature of this book, a distinction is proposed here between different types of use in a way not normally adopted. Those uses intended to protect the environment in some way will be separated from the others and treated in Chapter 13. This is obviously not a simple matter, because there will be immense grey areas where the two cannot readily be distinguished. A geotextile barrier designed to prevent flooding of houses in an area inundated with water from a burst river bank, for instance, is clearly intended to keep the human inhabitants of the threatened region safe and alive. A geotextile used to contain polluted substances in a landfill site from leaching out into the water table is intended to protect the environment. Yet, the flood barrier also prevents erosion of land by water flow, while the 90

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contained pollution is also prevented from poisoning human beings, so that both end results are met in each case. The distinction here (which is totally arbitrary and personal) is to determine what seems to be the more important criterion for use and to allocate the application to the section that makes most sense in that case. In this chapter, the normal uses will be dealt with and the environmental protection uses will be deferred to Chapter 9.

8.3

Normal uses

8.3.1 Clothing
The most obvious normal use of textiles is in making clothing, a use that has been around for thousands of years. For the purpose of this chapter, products of the garment sector will include only clothing and accessories. As always, the machines needed to make them are complex, though usually much smaller in scale than those used in textile yarn and fabric manufacture. Cutting, sewing, pressing and other machines all need to be made and operated, at the now-familiar cost to the planet. There are frequently excess pieces of fabric that are cut away in making clothing to be discarded. It is, admittedly, possible to recycle these scraps, as will be discussed in the next chapter, but large, complex machinery is needed to put them back into the production train. Although such scraps may be too small anyway to make recycling worthwhile, one author1 describes yarns made with fibres recovered from the garment industry, noting that they avoid excess pollution by eliminating the need for fertilisers and dyes. Uses as socks, blankets and upholstery materials are mentioned specifically, a point that gives the key to this over-optimistic attitude. These articles differ from most textile end uses in that colour is not critical, unlike virtually all other applications. In more usual recycled goods, especially as they are almost invariably coloured, some process for removing all the dyestuffs is always needed. This involves chemical reactions in which bleaching agents or dye strippers are used to destroy the dye molecules or change their molecular structure to render them colourless. These substances are waste products that can harm the Earth once discarded into the environment (* L-2, W-3) (see Table 1.1 for an explanation of codes).

8.3.2 The fashion industry

One of the most powerful driving forces influencing the manufacture of clothing is the fashion industry, which has increased considerably in importance in the centuries since the Industrial Revolution. Clothing is one of the easiest ways to display wealth conspicuously, so it is now accepted among people in many parts of the world (and particularly in the developed nations) that new outfits should be purchased at every season of the year. Seasonal variations in climate are an added major incentive for these expenditures and, in practice, the resulting annual

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production of clothing may be regarded as too great to be justified as environmentally responsible. Few people actually wear more than one outfit at a time, which means that many garments are stored in environmentally destructive plastic bags for a great proportion of their useful life. After the season ends, it is currently fashionable, in a kind of lip service to planetary well-being, to recycle the articles via alternative outlets, such as second-hand clothing stores or factory shops selling designer clothes at reduced prices. Even this gesture is not entirely altruistic in terms of the Earths welfare; the loss of an article of clothing invariably leaves a gap that must be filled by something new in the wardrobe of the person making this supreme sacrifice. The premises where the unwanted garments are resold also need to be built, heated, lit, staffed and so on. Unfortunately, the pressures of the fashion industry appear to be increasing rather than declining, as would be preferable for ecological welfare. The problem, as always, lies in commercial interest. Modern people, especially in the developed world, are accustomed to the need to follow a fashion cycle on an annual or even seasonal basis, so that the fashion industry (and those connected with it) has a vested interest in ensuring a regular turnover of garments. It is inevitable that a large reduction in sales would lead to a major loss in employment, because it is not only the textile and clothing manufacturers who would be out of work, but also the designers, alteration staff, marketing specialists, transportation personnel, retailers, magazine editors or artists, and anyone else with an ancillary interest in the fashion world. The cumulative psychological effect on Society of the need of all these people to be kept in employment is difficult to resist, meaning that the relentless drive to be up-to-date will continue for as long as we (or our planetary home) are prepared to tolerate it.

8.4

Environmental aspects

8.4.1 Laundering
The renewal of the fashion requirement per se does not merely cause environmental problems in the debate regarding recycling versus disposal. As a consequence of our modern lifestyle and technology, dust and dirt are omnipresent, and soiling necessitates emergency procedures in the form of laundering or dry cleaning. Both of these can cause environmental difficulties. Laundering involves exposing the textile article to the combined effects of water, heat, agitation and detergent. Often, an optical bleach or a fabric softener is added to the mix, and machine drying is frequently used. Both of these procedures give a much more luxurious feel than do an untreated wash and outdoor drying on a clothing line. The energy needed to heat the water and operate the machinery, together with the chemicals (* W-3) discarded into the drain, are a source of harm, as also are the heat needed to operate and the polluted exhaust emitted (* A-2) from the dryer. The thermal load from both washing and drying can also affect the surrounding air or water (* W-1), making

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it unsafe for other species to exist in the neighbourhood of the discard point unless precautions are taken to reduce the rise in temperature occurring on discharge.

8.4.2 Dry cleaning

Dry cleaning also has ecological consequences. The machinery needs to be built and operated, while the solvents used for extracting the dirt are often toxic or carcinogenic. Even though strenuous efforts are made to contain them and recycle them for later use, there is still an inevitable loss (* A-2) because of entrapment in the fibres or escape into the air via the garment transport path. Jipp2 describes nontoxic stain removal using solvents without chlorocarbons, so that the chemicals can be regarded as being kind to both fibre and environment. Nevertheless, all of the reagents used in maintenance, even these more harmless ones, have to be manufactured, with expensive loading on the environment.

8.4.3 Maintenance chemicals

The actual chemical substances used in maintenance can be examined in more detail to ascertain their potential for harm. As a consequence of our current fascination for cleanliness, garments are washed or cleaned far more often than is necessary for the sake of health or even hygiene. For this reason, the quantities of detergent, softeners, bleaching agents, dry cleaning solvents or other chemicals expelled are enormous. Detergents contain alkalis and organic chemicals that act as pollutants (* W-3). They also often contain phosphates, used as builders to enhance the effectiveness of the washing action, which are known to encourage the growth of algae in large bodies of water. These can take over the oxygen available in the water, preventing other species (both animal and vegetable) from having access to it, As a result, fish can die and the balance of the local aquatic plants can be disturbed seriously, bringing about major changes in the locality and eventually resulting in a dead body of water where fish no longer exist and weeds choke the entire surface. Fabric softeners, usually quaternary ammonium compounds, are becoming more and more popular. These bring about water pollution (* W-3). They are produced by relatively complex chemical reactions, with the usual environmental concerns and their disposal brings about harmful changes in the local water supply.

8.5

Household textiles

In the home, textiles find widespread use, from household furnishings such as carpets, cushions and table linens, to towels, bath mats or dish cloths. David Rigby Associates3 give an overview of the various types of textile applications in home furnishing products, suggesting that the largest growth in the foreseeable future will occur in non-wovens or fibrefill categories, rather than in the more traditional

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woven or knitted fabrics. Two unusual applications in the household category have been reported in the literature; one author4 writes of the usefulness of wool tightly woven and attached to gypsum board (in the form of decorative panels) as a means of combating the relatively new hazard of sick building syndrome by absorbing the formaldehyde reputedly responsible for this problem. The second application5 consists of a system used to wrap houses during construction to maintain acceptable working comfort, for craftsmen operating on the outside walls of the house in adverse weather conditions, with enough moisture vapour permeability to ensure that breathing comfort can be retained.

8.6

Industrial and medical uses

8.6.1 Technical textiles

Bhonde6 gives an overview of textiles used in applications beyond those of clothing or household purposes, while Legler7 examines technical textiles from the perspective of recent advances. Both authors more or less agree on the list of end uses, including geotextiles, agrotextiles, industrial products (including composite reinforcement), automotive, space, protective and medical ones. Not mentioned specifically in this list is the use of textiles in building, which may be extended to the subject of architectural fabrics. Their adoption, according to Hill,8 reduces building time significantly and saves natural resources (a valuable advantage from our point of view!), while providing long life and cost-effective, aesthetically pleasing appearance. Swedberg9 describes applications of tent structures using PTFE-coated fibreglass with steel tubing and cables and, in a later paper,10 the use of air-inflated beams for supporting massive structures in high wind or loading conditions with potential applications in aerospace or nautical projects. Other interesting applications are the use of a composite of high-tensile glass with epoxy resin to make a reinforcement beam as protection against earthquake collapse11 and wrapping corroded bridge columns with carbon fibre12 to prevent further damage.

8.6.2 House construction

House construction can also be aided indirectly by fibres, when used as reinforcement for concrete or in other aspects of building. In such applications, the environment is preserved by preventing premature failure of the material, allowing it to last longer. Peter13 recommends Kevlar for concrete reinforcement, because it imparts low density, non-catastrophic failure (and resistance to repeated impacts) to the concrete. In addition, because the fibres are electrically insulating, Kevlar permits building to take place more safely near high-voltage power lines. Komatsu et al.14 assess the durability of geotextiles in reinforcing asphalt concrete, noting that this process increases viscosity of the material and reduces the stress

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concentration of wheel loading. Locatelli15 reports the production of a stretchable roofing felt that can be installed and maintained without shrinkage when used in a layered system. A French company16 is marketing a woven structure that can be laid across soft, sandy or swampy ground, allowing vehicles to pass safely. In temporary houses, such as tents, fabrics are invariably used for their combination of light weight, easy folding ability, weather (especially wind) resistance and versatility.

8.6.3 Motor vehicles

Fung17 provides a detailed description of the many applications of textiles, in the form of coated or laminated fabrics, in vehicles. He includes in his listing seat materials, headliner structures, other interior coverings, air bag components, convertible coverings, liners for bonnets or wheel arches, carpeting, noise control items and drive belts. In view of current traffic hazard concerns involving motor vehicles, the air bags used to enhance safety in crashes have received particular attention. One writer18 recommends the use of nylon 4.6 in making them, because of its better thermal stability. Barnes and Rawson,19 after devising a new test to assess the efficiency of coated fabrics for this end-use, find that nylon 6.6 is better than either nylon 6 or polyester in this regard. They also report that a silicone-based coating should be applied to the fabric to increase thermal resistance still further. Gutlein et al.20 recommend a polyurethane bladder in a textile net for making sideimpact bags, while yet another author21 would like to see needle-punched construction methods used to increase permeability in a controlled manner and describes conditions for achieving optimum gas transfer characteristics.

8.6.4 Medical textiles

Medical uses of textiles should also not be ignored, as they constitute a major area of advance for the industry. They are summarised in Section 6 of the Appendix, where more information regarding applications (such as in surgical uses of clothing and inserts into the body, or general medical clothing and health care) can be found.

8.6.5 Industrial applications

The widespread use of textiles in industrial applications, however, is not generally discussed in any detail. Various authors17, 22 write articles dealing with the many valuable attributes of technical fabrics, including those intended for space activity, automotive filtration, airbags, composites, marine uses, laminating, seismic protection and resistance to harmful agents. Applications range widely in type and some consideration of representatives of all the varieties of application should be

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included. They may be divided into those used directly by industry, those used in leisure or sport activities and those in which heavy duty use is needed in everyday life. Textiles used directly in industry include such diverse items as tarpaulins, filters, acoustic or thermal insulation and protective garments for workers.

8.6.6 Other uses

Three specific types of more interesting use can be identified. First, transport via heavy lorries is rendered less perilous (and has a lower risk of polluting the road or causing accidents by losing part of the material being shipped) by the use of a new kind of tarpaulin,23 knitted from stretchable textured polyester, that conforms to the shape of a load, reducing flapping as the vehicle moves. Second, filters appear to be popular subjects for research, an occurrence caused at least in part by the need for a cleaner environment. Third, leisure or sport applications are rapidly increasing and include items such as tentage, sleeping bags, boat sails, mooring ropes or other marine cordage, aircraft skins, parachute fabrics, climbing ropes, bungee cords, balloon fabrics or guy ropes. Little attention appears to have been paid to most of these applications, although there are some papers worth mentioning in the literature. The work taking place in each of these areas is summarised in Sections 7 and 8 of the Appendix. Finally, one or two less obvious uses may be mentioned. Newberry24 reviews new developments in the use of composites in corrosion-resistant applications such as piping, lamp poles, and tanks to contain hot brine or for use in deionised brine service. Risks of harm from mobile phones, reportedly causing brain damage from electromagnetic radiation, are supposedly counteracted25 by the use of a flexible metal-coated fibre, preferably an acrylic one coated with copper or nickel. Plates used to press boards of plywood, or those for printed circuits, lined with textile cushions designed for high-temperature use, are reported,26 while Marsh27 discusses the use of fibre-reinforced plastics for improving under-sea oil extraction; the smooth surface, chemically inert nature and low weight mean that lower losses from corrosion and oil escape will occur, so providing an ecological benefit. Kotliar28 uses textile and carpet waste to produce a low-cost, wood-like material by incorporating them in a high-modulus phenol/formaldehyde matrix. Other heavy-duty uses in everyday life include tyre cords, seat belt webbing, vehicle upholstery, carpeting, wall hangings, conveyor belts, drive belts, tow ropes, isolation suits, protective clothing, space suits, architectural fabrics and geotextiles. In addition, cleaning cloths, surgical clothing or drapes, bandages or other dressings should also be added to the list. Many of these will be dealt with later in the book but, as a final general comment here, we should note that all of them, in common with all the cases mentioned above, have a production process that tends to be an expensive one from the environmental perspective and, in many cases, create difficulties in disposal.

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References
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Anon., Amer.Textile Int., 1998, 27(8), 84. Jipp, M., Bekleidung Wear, 1998, 50(20), 4849. David Rigby Associates, Textile Horizons, 1999, 19(1), 1215. Anon., Wool Record, 1999, 158/3657, 20. Bay Mills Ltd., High Perf. Textiles, 1999, August, 67. Bhonde, H.U., Synthetic Fibres, 1999, 29(1), 1719. Legler, F., Textile Horizons, 1998, 18(5), 1013. Hill, D., Tech. Textiles Int. 1998, 7(6), 1723. Swedberg, J., Ind. Fabric. Product Rev., 1998, 75(4), 1618. Swedberg, J., Ind. Fabric. Product Rev., 1998, 75(4), 5255. Hexcel-Fyfe Co., High Perf. Textiles, 1999, June, 67. Ma, G., Adv. Comp. Bull., 1998, December, 112. Peter, E., High. Perf. Textiles, 1999, August, 5. Komatsu, T.et al., Geot. Geom., 1998, 16(5), 257271. Locatelli, A., High. Perf. Textiles, 1999, August, 6. Societ Responsabilit Limit Deschamps, High. Perf. Textiles, 1999, July, 78. Fung, W., Coated and Laminated Textiles, Cambridge, Woodhead, 2002. Anon., High Perf. Textiles, 1998, December, 45. Barnes, J.A. and Rawson, N.J., Textiles Asia, 1998, 29(11), 3740. Gutlein, U., Schaper, J. and Von Dreyse, J.S., Textiles Usages Techniques, 1998, 29, 62 64. Anon., High Perf. Textiles, 1999, January, 67. Various authors, Textile Month, 2000, March, 622. Wagner, J.E., High. Perf. Textiles, 1999, August, 78. Newberry, A.L., Reinforced Plastics, 1998, 42(8), 3438. Daiwabo Co. Ltd., High. Perf. Textiles, 1998, October, 4. Du Pont Taiwan Ltd., High. Perf. Textiles, 1998, September, 56. Marsh, G., Reinforced Plastics, 1998, 42(11), 3236. Kotliar, A.M., Polymer Plastics Tech. Eng., 1999, 38(3), 513531.