SEISMIC SHAKING AND

EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
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Supplies Needed
calculator
metric ruler
colored pencils (at least three colors)
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PURPOSE
The purpose of the exercise is to familiarize you with the effects of earthquakes on
Earth materials and on buildings. The strength of shaking during an earthquake depends
on the amplitude of seismic waves that reach the site, the earth materials at and near the
surface, and the design of buildings and other structures. The purpose of this exercise is to
outline the methods for describing and measuring seismic shaking, and for predicting its
effects on human structures.
SEISMIC SHAKING
Its simple to measure the magnitude of an earthquake, but the pattern of shaking
that results from a single earthquake (called seismic shaking, or seismic ground motion) is
much more complex. At the same time, predicting ground motion is crucial for designing
structures that will withstand the earthquakes likely to occur in an area. Several factors have
to be taken into account to be able to predict ground shaking:
tectonic framework:
number of faults in area, and their distance to the site
types of faults
earthquake recurrence intervals
predicted earthquake magnitudes
near-surface geology
type of material
thickness of unconsolidated material
construction materials and techniques.
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Earthquake intensity, introduced in Exercise 2, is an after-the-fact assessment of the

strength and pattern of seismic shaking. The magnitude of earthquakes before the
existence of seismometers can only be estimated indirectly. Earthquake intensities,
however, can be estimated from historical records. The following relationship between
magnitude and maximum intensity has been proposed (Howell, 1973) for shallow-focus
earthquakes:
Imax. = (2 * M) - 4.6
(11.1)
where I max is the maximum intensity, and M is the magnitude of the earthquake.
One problem with intensity measurements is that they are essentially qualitative,
whereas engineers and architects require more quantitative values. Ground motion is most
commonly calculated as acceleration, expressed as a fraction of the acceleration of gravity
(g, where g=9.8 m/sec2). In addition, seismic acceleration can be broken down into its three
perpendicular components: a vertical component (up-down shaking), and two horizontal
components (typically east-west shaking, and north-south shaking). The horizontal
components of shaking commonly are the most damaging to buildings because structures
are already designed to withstand the vertical force of gravity.
2000

1000
Gravity (g=9.8m/sec ) 1.0g
800
700
600
500
0.5g
2
acceleration
400

(cm/sec
300 )
200

0.2g

100
80
70
60
50
40

0.1g

0.05g

30
20

0.02g

10 0.01g
8

I
I

II IV V VI VII VIII
I Modified-Mercally
IX
Intensity
Scale

XI

Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

above average (firm bedrock)

Condition of earth material

below average (water-saturated soils, mud, man-made fills)
average condition (well-drained compacted soils, sedimentary rocks)

Figure 11.1. Seismic acceleration vs. ground shaking intensity for different
earth materials. (After Leed, 1973)
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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

Exercise 11

2) Using Figure 11.1 and Equation 11.1, find the peak ground acceleration (in g) on
Mud
bedrock in San Francisco duringBay
an magnitude
7.0 earthquake.

Alluvium
3) How much greater is the acceleration
for man-made fills during a magnitude 7.0
earthquake in this area?
Bedrock

10

15

20

25

30

time (sec)

35

40

45

50

Acceleration at a particular site is related to the distance from the site to the epicenter.
Figure
11.2. Horizontal
ground
motions
of an underground
nuclear
In addition,
acceleration
is related
to earthquake
magnitude
theexplosion
greater the earthquake, the
were
recorded
by
accelographs
in
San
Francisco.
All
materials
were
bigger the acceleration at all locations. An empirical equation (i.e.,
based on observation
to the same
waves. acceleration
(After Borcherdt,
andsubjected
measurement)
relatesseismic
peak ground
(A, in1975)
m/sec2) to earthquake Magnitude
(M) and distance to the hypocenter (R, in km):
4) The vertical axis in Figure 11.2 uses the same scale for all three plots. Calculate how
many times more violent theAground
on A)1.32
bay mud and B) alluvium
= 1080shaking
e 0.5 M /was
(R+25)
(11.2)
compared to bedrock.
Remember that e is the natural exponent function (see Exercise 4 for examples of the
function). This equation was created for California, although it may be applicable in other
plate-boundary settings. As discussed in Regional Focus B, however, intraplate
earthquakes are transmitted farther.
MATERIAL AMPLIFICATION
After tectonic framework, the second major factor that determines the seismic hazard
at a specific location is the type of material under foot. On a local scale, the intensity of
seismic ground motion is mainly a function of surficial geology. The earthquake in 1985
that killed 5600 people in Mexico City was actually centered several hundred kilometers
Inaway
the terminology
seismicMany
waves,
material
amplification
the amplitude
in the PacificofOcean.
coastal
areas
much closerincreases
to the epicenter
than Mexico
of ground
motion,
but the
these waves
is alsofar
important.
Like Destruction
the amplitude,
the
City,
including
theperiod
city ofof
Acapulco,
sustained
less damage.
in Mexico
City
period of
ground
motion
is a function
seismic
thelake
localsediments
geologic which
was
so severe
because
the city of
is both
built the
upon
a thicksource
pile ofand
loose
conditions.
Different
types
of Earth materials each tend to vibrate at a characteristic period,
amplify
seismic
shaking.
known as the fundamental period of that material. Buildings also have a fundamental
period, and theMaterial
fundamental
periods ofis different
buildings
vary
depending
onas
thea height
of surficial
amplification
defined as
increased
seismic
shaking
result of
the structure
and other factors
(Figure
11.4).
and near-surface
deposits.
Amplification
is a function of the composition and thickness of
loose material that underlies an area In particular, sediments and thick soils tend to amplify
seismic waves.

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Exercise 11

Figure 11.3. The response of a tall building to horizontal ground shaking

compared with the response of a short building. (After Lagorio, 1990)
An important factor in predicting earthquake damage is the relationship between the
fundamental period of a building and the period of the material on which the building is
constructed. If the buildings period equals the fundamental period of the material on
which it is built, or if it equals some whole-number multiple of the materials fundamental
period, then seismic shaking will create a resonance with the building that can greatly
increase the stresses on the structure. Tall buildings tend to be damaged more on deep, soft
soils because of their similar vibrational period. Small, rigid buildings perform poorly on
short-period materials such as bedrock (Figure 11.4).
0

50

Thickness of surficial deposits (m)

100
150
200
250

300

350

Buildings 5 to 9 stories high

80
70
60
Structural damage (%)
50
40
30

Buildings 10 to 14 stories high

20
10
0
0

Buildings over 14 stories high

0.4 0.6 0.8

1.0
1.2
1.4
Fundamental period of soil deposit (sec)

1.6

Figure 11.4. Relationship between building height, thickness of sediments, and

earthquake damage. (After Seed, 1972)
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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

Exercise 11

unreinforced masonry, brick and mortar, and adobe constructions. Small wood frame
5) At
structures
what fundamental
are usuallyperiod
the safest
(in seconds)
as long is
as the
they
damage
are securely
greatestanchored
for buildings
to their
of: foundations.
Houses that are not anchored or are improperly anchored can shear off their foundations
a) 5-9
stories?
during
lateral
ground motion. Steel frame or reinforced-concrete construction methods are
least hazardous for multi-story buildings or other tall structures.
b) 10-14 stories?
The horizontal components of seismic shaking can be converted into a parameter
called base shear. As mentioned earlier, it is the horizontal components of acceleration that
c) over 14 stories?
are potentially
the most damaging to buildings. Base shear is the maximum lateral force
imposed on a structure during seismic ground motion. Newton's second law states that
force and acceleration are related as follows:
SECONDARY EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
F=m*a
(11.3)
Seismic shaking is considered the primary effect of earthquakes, but2 the majority of
F is the force
Newtons
= 1 N = 1 kg*m/sec
), mearthquake
is the massthat
(in kg)
damagewhere
and casualties
oftenin
result
from (1
theNewton
indirect,secondary
effects. The
2 In this case, F is
and
a
is
acceleration
in
g
(1
g
=
the
acceleration
of
gravity
=
9.8
m/sec
).
struck San Francisco is 1906 is often called the Great Fire of 1906 because it was the
the of
base
m is the mass
of the structure,
is themajority
maximum
horizontalnot
component
three days
fireshear,
that followed
the earthquake
that didand
theagreat
of damage,
the
of
seismic
acceleration.
seismic shaking itself. Major secondary effects of earthquakes include:
The actual baseshear
fire that a building experiences during an earthquake can be calculated
using Equation 11.3.
landslides
A much more applied equation is used by architects and engineers to
calculate the base shear
tsunami
that a structure at a specific site should withstand:
liquefaction
BS = Z * I * (C/R )w* m * g
(11.4)
All of the
effects
listed
above
can
cause
major
damage
during
or
shortly
after
an
earthquake.
where BS is the base shear, Z is the seismic zone factor (a unitless value that incorporates
The bestthe
guide
to where
this type
of damage
will occur
in the Ifuture
where it has
occurred
maximum
seismic
shaking
at different
locations),
is the is
importance
factor
for a
in the past.
Landslide-hazard,
tsunami-hazard,
and
liquefaction-hazard
maps
have
structure (high for a school, for example, and low for a warehouse), C is a been
numerical
compiled
in many ofrelated
the areas
thatconditions,
face the greatest
of these threats in the future.
coefficient
to soil
R likelihood
w is a parameter that assessed the type of
construction used, m is the total mass of the structure (in kg), and g is gravity (9.8m/sec ) 2
We
will focus
on one of these secondary hazards because it is closely linked to
(Lagorio,
1990).
seismic ground motion. Liquefaction occurs in fine, water-saturated sands during strong
seismic shaking.
Water-saturated
their strength
the grains are
rearranged
A building
resists base sediments
shear withlose
the strength
of its as
load-bearing
walls
(shear walls).
during shaking
and
fluid
pressure
increases.
A
sixteenth-century
earthquake
that
struck is the
During east-west-oriented shaking, or when the east-west component of shaking
Port Royal,
Jamaica
caused much
of the town
and of
itsbuilding
inhabitants
simply
to dissappear
into of the
greatest
component,
the north-south
walls
must
withstand
the majority
the ground.
stress. The number and arrangement of shear walls
determines the portion of base shear that each wall
must
withstand. Solid, regular arrangements of walls
BUILDING
CODES
tend to be the strongest; buildings with unsupported
In designing earthquake-safe structures,
the most
important
criteria
is to make
sure
walls,
such as
ground-level
carports,
often
are the most
that no one critical element of the building isvulnerable.
overstressed (the weakest link philosophy).
In other words, the building is only as strong as its weakest link. The standard in designing
a safe building is the capacity or strength of the material
to resist
stresses,
in of two pairs
The building
in seismic
Figure 11.5
consists
particular horizontal acceleration, without failure.
Its important
to understand
thatB seismic
of perpendicular
walls.
Walls A and
each must be
provisions in most building codes are intended
to protect
life and reduce
property
designed
to withstand
one half
of the damage
total base shear.
but not completely eliminate losses. The Structural
Engineers
Association
of California
If shaking
is predominantly
east-west,
then Wall B is
Structures recommend that structures be ableone
to (a)
resistwalls
minor
earthquakes
withoutstress; if
of two
resisting
the seismic
damage, and (b) resist moderate earthquakes shaking
without is
structural
damagenorth-south,
but with some
predominantly
thennonWall A is
structural damage.
in the same situation.
Buildings that are most vulnerable to lateral
induced
seismic waves
are
6) forces
Suggest
simplebymodifications
or additions
to the
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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

building in Figure 11.5 so that both Wall A and Wall B would only need to withstand
one third of the base shear.

CASE STUDY: EARTHQUAKES IN SAN FRANCISCO

The San Francisco Peninsula lies astride the San Andreas fault where it passes
northward from the land to the ocean. In 1906, the city was burgeoning as the preeminent
cultural and economic center west of the Mississippi. At 5:14 a.m. on April 18, the citys
fortunes suffered a severe setback:
At first came a sharp but gentle swaying motion that grew less and less; then a
joltingheavy
sideways then another, heaviest of all. Finally a grinding round of
everything,
irregularly tumultuous, spasmodic, jerky. (Aitken and Hilton, 1906)
Damage was greatest in the Marina District of the city, where liquefaction and settling in the
underlying soft sediments and artificial fill crumbled many buildings. In most of the city,
however, damage was minor, and some residents simply returned to bed. Over 70% of the
damage done in 1906 occurred in the fire that followed the earthquake. In the Marina
district and other pockets of damage, stoves and lamps toppled, igniting scattered blazes.
Firefighters rushed to contain the fires, but watched water pressure drop to a trickle and
then to nothing because water mains had been cut during the shaking. For four days, fire
ravaged the city, consuming 490 city blocks.
The 1906 earthquake and fire were not the first such events to strike San Francisco.
The city was extensively damaged during an earthquake in 1868, in which it was again the
Marina District that suffered the most. In addition, fire had swept through the city three
times previously: in 1849, 1850, and 1851. The extent to which San Francisco had learned
its lessons were again tested in 1989. The Loma Prieta earthquake, a magnitude 7.1 shock
centered about 120 km southeast of the city, caused shaking damage similar in pattern to
the damage in both 1868 and 1906. Liquefaction again caused buildings to collapse in San
Franciscos Marina District, igniting scattered fires, and broke a number of water mains.
Fortunately, technical improvements in the citys water-supply system avoided a repeat of
the 1906 fire. Of the 65 fatalities in the 1989 earthquake, most occurred when a mile-long
(1.6 km) segment of the two-tier I-880 freeway in Oakland collapsed. The freeway
collapsed
wherewalls
it passed
Figureexactly
11.5. Shear
resistover
basesoft, unconsolidated sediments, which amplified the
shakingshear,
and overstressed
the
structure.
supporting a building during
horizontal shaking.
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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

Exercise 11

Island
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Yerba Buena

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3 mi

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3 km

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San Francisco Bay

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Pacific Ocean

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California St.

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Bay mud (in places covered with artificial fill as of 1906)

Alluvium (> 30m thick)
Alluvium (< 30m thick)
Bedrock

16th
St.

Figure 11.7. Surficial geology of San Francisco. (After Borcherdt, 1975)

Island

0
0

1
1

Army
St.
3 mi

3 km

San Francisco Bay

very violent
very strong
weak

Figure 11.6. Air-photograph composite of San Francisco. (Image courtesy of

Figure 11.8. Ground-shaking intensity during the 1906 earthquake. (After Borcherdt,
the University of California, Santa Barbara Map and Image Laboratory)
1975)

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