Ion Exchange Chromatography - Principles and Methods
Ion Exchange Chromatography - Principles and Methods
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Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 7
Symbols ................................................................................................................................................... 8 Common abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 9
Analysis of results and further steps ............................................................................ 50 Scaling-up ................................................................................................................ 51 Equipment selection .................................................................................................. 52 Care of ion exchange media ........................................................................................ 52 Troubleshooting ......................................................................................................... 53 BioProcess Media made for bioprocessing ................................................................. 58 Custom Designed Media ............................................................................................. 58
SOURCE: purification at high throughput with high resolution and easy scale-up ............. 74
Purification options .................................................................................................................................. 75 Purification examples ............................................................................................................................... 76 Performing a separation ............................................................................................................................ 80 Cleaning ................................................................................................................................................. 82 Media characteristics ............................................................................................................................... 82 Chemical stability .................................................................................................................................... 83 Storage ................................................................................................................................................... 83
Sepharose Fast Flow: purification with good resolution and easy scale-up ........................ 93
Purification options .................................................................................................................................. 94 Purification examples ............................................................................................................................... 97 Performing a separation .......................................................................................................................... 100 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................... 102 Media characteristics ............................................................................................................................. 103 Chemical stability .................................................................................................................................. 104 Storage ................................................................................................................................................. 104
Sepharose XL for selected proteins that require very high binding capacity to increase productivity, easy scale-up ....................................................................... 105
Purification options ................................................................................................................................ 105 Purification examples ............................................................................................................................. 107 Performing a separation .......................................................................................................................... 109 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................... 111 Media characteristics ............................................................................................................................. 111
Sepharose Big Beads: purification from crude, viscous samples at large scale ............... 113
Purification options ................................................................................................................................ 114 Performing a separation .......................................................................................................................... 115 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................... 116 Media characteristics ............................................................................................................................. 116 Chemical stability .................................................................................................................................. 117 Storage ................................................................................................................................................. 117
Buffer exchange and desalting .................................................................................. 156 Removal of lipoproteins ............................................................................................ 159 Removal of phenol red ............................................................................................. 159 Removal of low molecular weight contaminants .......................................................... 159
Additional reading ............................................................................................... 178 References .......................................................................................................... 179 Ordering information ............................................................................................ 180
Ion exchange .......................................................................................................... 180 Chromatofocusing .................................................................................................... 183
Introduction
Biomolecules are purified using chromatography techniques that separate them according to differences in their specific properties, as shown in Figure 1 . Ion exchange chromatography (IEX) separates biomolecules according to differences in their net surface charge.
Property
Charge Size Hydrophobicity Biorecognition (ligand specificity)
Technique
Ion exchange chromatography (IEX), chromatofocusing (CF) Gel filtration (GF), also called size exclusion Hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) Reversed phase chromatography (RPC) Affinity chromatography (AC)
Gel filtration
Hydrophobic interaction
Ion exchange
Affinity
Reversed phase
IEX for the separation of biomolecules was introduced in the 1960s and continues to play a major role in the separation and purification of biomolecules. Today, IEX is one of the most frequently used techniques for purification of proteins, peptides, nucleic acids and other charged biomolecules, offering high resolution and group separations with high loading capacity. The technique is capable of separating molecular species that have only minor differences in their charge properties, for example two proteins differing by one charged amino acid. These features make IEX well suited for capture, intermediate purification or polishing steps in a purification protocol and the technique is used from microscale purification and analysis through to purification of kilograms of product. This handbook describes both theoretical and practical aspects principles of the technique, the media available and how to select them, application examples and detailed instructions for the most commonly performed procedures. Practical information, with many tips and hints drawn from over forty years of experience in chromatography purification, guides beginners and experts towards obtaining the best possible results from the latest chromatographic media.
The final chapter includes information on chromatofocusing, another chromatography technique that separates biomolecules on the basis of charge, but, in this case, according to differences in their isoelectric points. This technique can provide very high resolution separations for specific applications. Proteins with a difference as small as 0.02 pH units in their isoelectric points can be separated in laboratory-scale applications. GE Healthcare offers a wide variety of prepacked columns and ready-to-use chromatography media. A range of handbooks ensure that purification with any chromatographic technique becomes a simple and efficient procedure at any scale and in any laboratory.
Symbols
this symbol indicates general advice which can improve procedures or provide recommendations for action under specific situations. this symbol denotes advice which should be regarded as mandatory and gives a warning when special care should be taken. this symbol highlights troubleshooting advice to help analyze and resolve difficulties that may occur. chemicals, buffers and equipment. experimental protocol.
Common abbreviations
In chromatography IEX: ion exchange chromatography (also seen as IEC in the literature) GF: gel filtration (sometimes referred to as SEC: size exclusion chromatography) AC: affinity chromatography RPC: reverse phase chromatography HIC: hydrophobic interaction chromatography CF: chromatofocusing CIPP: Capture, Intermediate Purification and Polishing CV: colume volume pKa: the pH at which an acid is 50% dissociated pI: isoelectric point, the pH at which a protein has zero net surface charge MPa: megaPascal psi: pounds per square inch SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate A280nm, A214nm: UV absorbance at specified wavelength Mr: relative molecular weight N: column efficiency expressed as theoretical plates per meter Rs: resolution, the degree of separation between peaks Abbreviations found in product names HMW: high molecular weight LMW: low molecular weight Tricorn PE: column manufactured in PEEK (polyetheretherketone) Tricorn GL: column manufactured in glass HR: high resolution PC: precision column
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Cation
Surface net charge
pH
Anion
Fig. 2. Theoretical protein titration curves, showing how net surface charge varies with pH.
IEX chromatography takes advantage of the fact that the relationship between net surface charge and pH is unique for a specific protein. In an IEX separation reversible interactions between charged molecules and oppositely charged IEX media are controlled in order to favor binding or elution of specific molecules and achieve separation. A protein that has no net charge at a pH equivalent to its isoelectric point (pI) will not interact with a charged medium. However, at a pH above its isoelectric point, a protein will bind to a positively charged medium or anion exchanger and, at a pH below its pI, a protein will behind to a negatively charged medium or cation exchanger. In addition to the ion exchange interaction, other types of binding may occur, but these effects are very small and mainly due to van der Waals forces and non-polar interactions.
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12
Equilibration
Matrix Low ionic strength buffer
Absorption
Sample application
Negatively charged proteins
Absorption
Oppositely-charged proteins bind to ionic groups of the IEX medium, becoming concentrated on the column. Uncharged proteins, or those with the same charge as the ionic groups, elute during or just after sample application.
Time/Volume
Elution 1
Absorption
Increasing ionic strength (using a gradient) displaces bound proteins as ions in the buffer compete for binding sites.
Time/Volume
Elution 2
Absorption
Further increases in ionic strength displace proteins that are more highly charged (more tightly bound)
Time/Volume
Elution 3
Absorption
Time/Volume
Wash
Absorption
Final high ionic strength wash removes any ionically bound proteins before re-equilibration
Time/Volume
Resolution
The resolution of an IEX separation is a combination of the degree of separation between the peaks eluted from the column (the selectivity of the medium), the ability of the column to produce narrow, symmetrical peaks (efficiency) and, of course, the amount (mass) of sample applied. These factors are influenced by practical issues such as matrix properties, binding and elution conditions, column packing, flow rates which are covered in detail in Chapter 2, Ion exchange in practice. Resolution (Rs ) is defined as the distance between peak maxima compared with the average base width of the two peaks. R s can be determined from a chromatogram, as shown in Figure 4.
UV
Rs =
VR1 wb1
VR2 wb2
Volume
Elution volumes and peak widths are measured with the same units to give a dimensionless resolution value. Rs gives a measure of the relative separation between two peaks and can be used to determine if further optimization of the chromatographic procedure is necessary. If Rs = 1.0 (Figure 5) then 98% purity has been achieved at 98% of peak recovery, provided the peaks are symmetrical and approximately equal in size. Baseline resolution requires that Rs >1.5. At this value, peak purity is 100%.
UV A B UV A B
Rs = 1.0
Rs = 1.5
96% A 2% B
96% B Volume 2% A
A single, well resolved peak is not necessarily a pure substance, but may represent a series of components which could not be separated under the chosen elution conditions.
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Efficiency
Column efficiency (the ability to elute narrow, symmetrical peaks from a packed bed) relates to the zone broadening which occurs on the column and is frequently stated in terms of the number of theoretical plates (see Appendix 3 for determination of column efficiency). One of the main causes of zone broadening is longitudinal diffusion of the solute molecules i.e. proteins, peptides or oligonucleotides. Zone broadening can be minimized if the distances available for diffusion are minimized. In all situations, a well-packed column will contribute significantly to resolution. Columns that are packed unevenly, too tightly, too loosely or that contain air bubbles will lead to channeling (uneven passage of buffer through the column), zone broadening and hence loss of resolution. Figure 6 illustrates the parameters that contribute to good column efficiency. Obviously particle size is a significant factor in resolution and, in general, the smallest particles will produce the narrowest peaks under the correct elution conditions and in a well-packed column.
Rapid exchange of counterions, typically Na+ or Cl-, and solute molecules
Buffer flow
Rapid diffusion
15
Figure 7 demonstrates the influence of particle size on efficiency by comparing several different IEX media under exactly the same running conditions. Note that different media selectivities also influence the final resolution.
A 280
3 m
A 280
10 m
10
min
20
30
15 m
10
min
20
30
30 m
10
min
20
30
34 m
10
min
20
30
90 m
10
min
20
30
90 m
Q Sepharose XL Sample: Recombinant a-amylase Pilot scale: Gradient elution begins after 20 l
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 Volume (l)
Although resolution in terms of efficiency can be improved by decreasing the particle size of the matrix, using a smaller particle size often creates an increase in back pressure so that flow rates need to be decreased, lengthening the run time. Hence the need to match the medium with the requirements for the purification (speed, resolution, purity etc). The viscosity of highly concentrated samples may reduce resolution if large sample volumes are loaded onto columns packed with small particles. Samples may need to be diluted or, alternatively, a larger particle size needs to be used.
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Resolution increases
RESOURCE Q, 1 ml
Selectivity
Good selectivity (the degree of separation between peaks) is a more important factor than high efficiency in determining resolution (Figure 8) and depends not only on the nature and number of the functional groups on the matrix, but also on the experimental conditions, such as pH (influencing the protein charge), ionic strength and elution conditions. It is the ease and predictability with which these experimental conditions can be manipulated, when using a suitably designed chromatography medium, that gives IEX the potential of extremely high resolution.
Good selectivity Bad selectivity
UV
UV
high efficiency
high efficiency
low efficiency
low efficiency
Selectivity and pH Good selectivity is achieved by performing IEX separations at pH values carefully selected to maximize the differences in net charge of the components of interest. Figure 9 (overleaf) emphasizes the significance of pH. Optimum selectivity can be expected at a pH where there is maximum separation between the titration curves for the individual proteins (i.e. the difference in net charges between the species is greatest) and when using an ion exchanger with a charge opposite to the charge of the proteins at the particular pH. The order in which proteins are eluted cannot always be predicted with absolute certainty since a titration curve (produced in practice by measuring electrophoretic mobility in a gel) reflects the total net charge on a protein and IEX chromatography depends on the net charge on the surface of the protein.
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Abs
Abs
Abs
Abs
V +
Cation
pH
Anion
Less acidic pH: blue protein is above its isoelectric point, negatively charged, other proteins are still positively charged. Blue protein binds to an anion exchanger and can be separated from the other proteins which wash through. Alternatively, red and green proteins can be separated on a cation exchanger and the blue protein washes through.
Less alkali pH: red protein below its isoelectric point, positively charged. Red protein binds to cation exchanger and can be separated from the other proteins which wash through. Alternatively, blue and green proteins can be separated on an anion exchanger and the red protein washes through.
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Selectivity and elution The figures below illustrate the most common forms of IEX separation in which proteins are eluted by increasing the ionic strength of a buffer (typically with NaCl) using linear gradient or step elution. The UV absorbance and conductivity traces show the elution of protein peaks and the changes in salt concentration, respectively, during elution. Buffer volumes used during sample application, elution, washing and re-equilibration are expressed in column volumes, for example 5 CV=5 ml for a column with a 1 ml bed volume. Using column volumes to describe a separation profile facilitates method development and transfer of methods to columns of different dimensions when scaling-up. Gradient elution (Figure 10a) is often used when starting with an unknown sample (as many components as possible are bound to the column and eluted differentially to see a total protein profile) and for high resolution separation or analysis.
sample injection volume gradient elution
equilibration
re-equilibration
1M
[NaCl]
510 CV
Fig. 10a. Typical high resolution IEX separation using linear gradient elution (2545 column volumes).
Step elution is used in several ways. When an IEX separation has been optimized using gradient elution, changing to a step elution speeds up separation times and reduces buffer consumption while retaining the required purity level (Figure 10b).
high salt wash 1M unbound molecules elute elution of unwanted material elution of target molecule 5 CV 5 CV
[NaCl]
Fig. 10b. Typical IEX separation using step elution (2530 column volumes).
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Step elution can also be used for group separation in order to concentrate the proteins of interest and rapidly remove them from unwanted substances (Figure 10c). The target protein(s) is eluted in an enriched, concentrated form.
high salt wash 510 CV 1M
[NaCl]
Fig. 10c. Typical IEX separation using a step elution to separate groups of proteins with very different charge properties (2035 column volumes).
Occasionally, step elution is used to remove contaminants by choosing conditions that maximize binding of the contaminants and allow the target protein(s) to pass through the column (Figure 10d). Care must be taken to ensure that the binding capacity of the column is sufficient to bind all contaminants.
high salt wash elutes contaminants 510 CV
1M
[NaCl]
re-equilibration 510 CV
Fig. 10d. Contaminant removal: target protein(s) elute in the wash through, contaminants bind to the column.
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Matrix
High porosity offers a large surface area covered by charged groups and so ensures a high binding capacity. High porosity is also an advantage when separating large biomolecules. Non-porous matrices are preferable for extremely high resolution separations when diffusion effects must be avoided. An inert matrix minimizes non-specific interactions with sample components. High physical stability ensures that the volume of the packed medium remains constant despite extreme changes in salt concentration or pH thus improving reproducibility and avoiding the need to repack columns. High physical stability and uniformity of particle size facilitate high flow rates, particularly during cleaning or re-equilibration steps, to improve throughput and productivity. High chemical stability ensures that the matrix can be cleaned using stringent cleaning solutions if required. Modern IEX media use either polymer or agarose-based matrices to fulfil not only the requirements for high binding capacity, chemical and physical stability, but to generate media with suitable particle sizes for a range of applications (Table 1).
Table 1. Ion exchange matrices. Form
MiniBeads MonoBeads SOURCE 15 SOURCE 30 Sepharose High Performance Sepharose Fast Flow Sepharose 4 Fast Flow Sepharose XL Sepharose Big Beads Polystyrene/divinyl benzene Polystyrene/divinyl benzene Polystyrene/divinyl benzene Polystyrene/divinyl benzene Agarose 6% Agarose 6% Agarose 4% Agarose 6%, dextran chains coupled to agarose Agarose 6%
MiniBeads is a matrix made from polystyrene, with divinyl benzene as cross-linker, to produce highly spherical (monodispersed), very small (3 m), non-porous particles that facilitate micropreparative or analytical separations when extremely high resolution is more important than high binding capacity or high flow rates.
21
MonoBeads and SOURCE are matrices made from polystyrene with divinyl benzene to produce highly spherical (monodispersed), small (10, 15 or 30 m), porous particles (Figure 11) that facilitate high resolution separations at high flow rates.
Sepharose media are based on chains of agarose, arranged in bundles and with different degrees of intra-chain cross-linking (Figure 12), to give a range of rigid, macroporous matrices with good capacity and low non-specific adsorption. The most suitable matrix can be selected according to the degree of resolution, binding capacity and flow rates desired for the separation. For example, gradient elution on Sepharose High Performance (34 m) will give a high resolution separation whereas the larger particles of Sepharose Fast Flow (90 m) or Sepharose Big Beads (200 m) would be best suited for high capacity, step elution at high flow rate.
Many different matrices have been used over the years and references to these will still be found in scientific literature, for example, Sephadex, Sephacel and Sepharose CL-4B. In most cases, more recently developed matrices offer improved capacity with greater physical and chemical stability. To benefit from significantly faster separations and improved performance, transfer and optimize older protocols onto modern media.
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Functional groups
The functional groups substituted onto a chromatographic matrix (Table 2) determine the charge of an IEX medium i.e. a positively-charged anion exchanger or a negatively-charged cation exchanger.
Table 2. Functional groups used on ion exchangers. Anion exchangers
Quaternary ammonium (Q) Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)* Diethylaminopropyl (ANX)* strong weak weak strong strong weak
Functional group
-O-CH2N (CH3)3 -O-CH2CH2N H(CH2CH3)2 -O-CH2CHOHCH2N H(CH2CH3)2
+ + +
Cation exchangers
Sulfopropyl (SP) Methyl sulfonate (S) Carboxymethyl (CM)
Functional group
-O-CH2CHOHCH2OCH2CH2CH2SO3 -O-CH2COO
-O-CH2CHOHCH2OCH2CHOHCH2SO3
* The active end of the charged group is the same for DEAE and ANX. The difference between them is in the length of the carbon chain of the charged group. DEAE has a diethylaminoethyl-group bound to the agarose. ANX has a diethylaminopropyl-group attached which prevents the formation of quaternary groups, giving a different selectivity compared to DEAE.
The terms strong and weak refer to the extent that the ionization state of the functional groups varies with pH. The terms strong and weak do not refer to the strength with which the functional groups bind to proteins. Strong ion exchangers show no variation in ion exchange capacity with change in pH (Figure 13). These exchangers do not take up or lose protons with changing pH and so have no buffering capacity, remaining fully charged over a broad pH range. Strong ion exchangers include Q (anionic), S and SP (cationic).
pH 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ml 0.1 M NaOH pH 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ml 0.1 M NaOH
Fig. 13. Titration curves show the ion exchange capacity of strong ion exchangers Q and S. Approximately 5 ml of Q or S Sepharose Fast Flow are equilibrated in 1 M KCl and titrated with 0. 1 M NaOH.
There are several advantages to working with strong ion exchangers: development and optimization of separations is fast and easy since the charge characteristics of the medium do not change with pH. the mechanism of interaction is simple since there are no intermediate forms of charge interaction. sample loading (binding) capacity is maintained at high or low pH since there is no loss of charge from the ion exchanger.
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The majority of proteins have isoelectric points within the range 5.5 to 7.5 and can be separated on either strong or weak ion exchangers. An advantage of a weak ion exchanger, such as DEAE (anionic), ANX (anionic) and CM (cationic), is that they can offer a different selectivity compared to strong ion exchangers. A disadvantage is that, because weak ion exchangers can take up or lose protons with changing pH, their ion exchange capacity varies with pH (Figure 14).
pH 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
pH
pH 12 10 8 6 4 2
200
400
600
800
1000
200
400
600
800
1000
ml 0.1 M NaOH
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 ml 0.1 M NaOH
ml 0.1 M NaOH
Fig. 14. Titration curves show how the ion exchange capacity of weak ion exchangers varies with pH.
Try a weak ion exchanger such as DEAE, CM or ANX Sepharose Fast Flow, if a strong ion exchanger (substituted with Q, S or SP) does not give the required selectivity.
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Media selection
The origin and differences between modern IEX matrices are explained in Chapter 1. Choice of a suitable matrix depends on factors such as the scale of the final purification, the purpose of the separation (for example to concentrate sample in a capture step or to achieve high resolution in a final polishing step) and the throughput required. Refer to Chapter 4 for more details on the use of capture, intermediate purification and polishing steps in a purification strategy.
Capture
Media for primary capture steps, where the aim is to isolate, concentrate and stabilize the target products, should offer high speed and high capacity. Select from the following: Sepharose Fast Flow (90 m particle size) capture or intermediate purification steps that require good resolution (flows up to 300 cm/h). Use Sepharose Big Beads (200 m particle size) for capture steps when viscosity and backpressure may limit the throughput attainable with IEX media of smaller particle size (flows up to 1000 cm/h). Use a weak ion exchanger such as DEAE, CM or ANX Sepharose Fast Flow, if a strong ion exchanger (substituted with Q, S or SP) does not give the required selectivity. Use Sepharose XL (90 m particle size) for capture when a high binding capacity and rapid separation is required for a selected protein from clarified samples. If only milligram quantities of product are needed and the capture step will not be scaled up, use high performance media such as Sepharose High Performance, MonoBeads or MiniBeads according to the capacity required. Note that, when using MonoBeads or MiniBeads, it is especially important to remove particulate matter to avoid column blockage.
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Intermediate purification
Media for intermediate purification, where the aim is to remove most of the bulk impurities, should offer high capacity and high resolution. Select from the following: SOURCE 15 (15 m) intermediate purification in laboratory or large-scale applications that require high resolution and high throughput (flows up to 1800 cm/h). Sepharose High Performance (34 m) for intermediate purification steps that require high capacity and high resolution (flows up to 150 cm/h). Sepharose Fast Flow (90 m) intermediate purification steps that require good resolution (flows up to 300 cm/h). If only microgram milligram quantities are required and the intermediate purification step will not be scaled-up, use MonoBeads or MiniBeads according to the capacity required. Use SOURCE 30 (30 m) as an alternative to SOURCE 15 for large scale applications or large sample volumes when speed rather than resolution is a priority (flows up to 2000 cm/h).
Polishing
Media for polishing steps, where the aim is to achieve final purity by removing trace impurities or closely related substances, should offer the highest possible resolution. Select from the following: MiniBeads (3 m) polishing at microscale when highest resolution is essential. MonoBeads (10 m) polishing at laboratory scale when highest resolution is essential and a higher capacity than MiniBeads is required. SOURCE 15 (15 m) polishing in laboratory or large-scale applications that require high resolution and high throughput (flows up to 1800 cm/h). Use SOURCE 30 (30 m) as an alternative to SOURCE 15 for large scale applications or large sample volumes when speed rather than resolution is a priority (flows up to 2000 cm/h). Figure 15 gives a comprehensive selection guide for IEX media and prepacked columns currently available.
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Polishing
Remove trace impurities or closely-related substances Sample condition: almost pure
Intermediate purification
Good resolution Easy scale-up Broad choice of selectivity, including alternatives to Q or S ion exchange media
Capture
Isolate, concentrate and stabilize target protein(s) Sample condition: clarified or non-clarified
Good resolution High binding capacity for selected proteins Easy scale-up
Fig. 15. A typical purification strategy has three phases: Capture, Intermediate Purification and Polishing (CIPP) Each phase has a specific objective, dependent largely on the properties of the starting material. Select the appropriate ion exchange medium according to the objective of your purification step and the condition of your starting material.
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A 280
MiniBeads (Q or S)
Use for intermediate purification if column capacity is sufficient and no scale-up is required.
5.0
10.0
ml
15.0
MonoBeads (Q or S)
Use for intermediate purification if column capacity is sufficient and no scale-up is required. Can be used for capture steps if sample is free from particulate matter.
A 280
10
min
20
30
SOURCE 15 (Q or S)
A 280
RESOURCE Q, 1 ml
10
min
20
30
SOURCE 30 (Q or S)
A 280
A 280
Try weak ion exchangers such as DEAE, CM or ANX if the selectivity of Q or S is unsatisfactory.
10
min
20
30
A 280
Sepharose XL
(Q or SP)
Use Sepharose Q XL virus licensed as an alternative to cesium chloride gradients for purification of viruses, including adenovirus, or viral vectors.
10
min
20
30
A 280
Q Sepharose XL
Sample:
(Q or SP)
STREAMLINE
Use STREAMLINE for direct capture from unclarified feed-stock. Use CST 1, a salt tolerant adsorbent, to minimize dilution and reduce process time.
A 280
STREAMLINE SP
Sample:
Sample application
50
Washing, Buffer A
100 150
10 15 Volume (l)
Note: STREAMLINE products, based on expanded bed adsorption technology enable proteins to be purified from crude, , particulate feedstock without the need for separate clarification, concentration or initial purification. STREAMLINE products are designed for use in industrial scale processes and for producing gram quantities of product.
Resolution
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Use HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose High Performance, Sepharose XL and Sepharose Fast Flow for media selection and pH scouting.
10
min
20
30
Time and sample can be saved in the early stages of development by using small, prepacked HiTrap columns such as those in the HiTrap IEX Selection Kit to quickly and efficiently screen for the most suitable charge group and to develop the basic separation method. This approach is particularly helpful if the properties of the target protein(s) are unknown. Even if the preferred matrix is not available in a HiTrap format, the method can be easily transferred for optimization at the required scale of operation on the preferred matrix. HiTrap columns are prepacked with Sepharose Fast Flow media (strong or weak ion exchangers) or Sepharose XL (strong exchangers) and can be run with a syringe, a peristaltic pump or any KTAdesign system. These columns can be used for small scale purification as well as fast method development and are supplied with detailed protocols for use.
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1. Scout for optimum pH by testing a range of pH values within which the proteins of interest are known to be stable. If the isoelectric point of the target protein is known, then begin with a narrower pH range, for example, 0.51 pH unit away from the isoelectric point. Typical results from an automatic pH scouting run are shown in Figure 17. 2. If required, scout for optimum selectivity (testing strong or weak exchangers) using automatic media scouting. 3. Scout for the steepest gradient that gives acceptable resolution at the selected pH. 4. Scout for the highest flow rate that maintains resolution and minimizes separation time. Check recommended flow rates for the specific medium. 5. Scout for the maximum sample load that can be applied while maintaining satisfactory resolution. In general, loading 2030% of the total binding capacity of the column gives optimal resolution with gradient elution.
Reduce separation time and buffer consumption by transfering to a step elution when optimized separation conditions have been established. Sample loads can often be increased when using a step elution.
START CONDITIONS pH Run 1 7 Run 2 6.5 Run 3 6 Run 4 5.5 Run 5 5 Run 6 4.5 Run 7 4
A 280 nm
Conductivity (mS/cm)
80.0 250
200
60.0
pH 4.0
150
100
50
RESOURCE S 6 ml Fab fraction from HIC separation 20 ml Automatic BufferPrep with 0.06 M sodium acetate, 0.03 M sodium phosphate, 0.03 M sodium formate 0.1 M HCI and 2 M NaCI 20 column volumes, to I M NaCI 60 ml/min A280nm, from top: pH 4.0; 4.5; 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5; 7.0
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Scout for optimum pH by testing a range of pH values within which the proteins of interest are known to be stable. If the isoelectric point of the target protein is known, then begin with a narrower pH range, for example, 0.51 pH unit away from the isoelectric point. The methods here are optimized for use with 1 ml HiTrap columns and should be adjusted if other column volumes are used. Screening for IEX medium and pH conditions
1. Start buffers: set up a series of buffers with pH values in the range 48 (SP CM) or 59 (Q, DEAE, ANX) and , with 0.51 pH unit intervals between each buffer. See Appendix 2 for recommended buffers. 2. Elution buffers: set up a second series of buffers with the same pH values, but including 1 M NaCl. 3. Equilibrate the column (s) with 5 ml start buffer at 1 ml/min. Wash with 5 ml elution buffer. 4. Re-equilibrate with 510 ml start buffer. 5. Adjust the sample to the pH of the start buffer and apply a known amount of the sample at 1 ml/min. Collect eluate. 6. Wash with at least 5 ml of start buffer or until no material appears in eluent. Collect eluate. 7. Elute bound material with elution buffer (35 ml is usually sufficient, but other volumes may be required dependent on the exact experimental conditions). Collect eluate. 8. Analyze all eluates (for example by an activity assay) and determine purity and the amount bound to the column. 9. Perform steps 38 for the next buffer pH. 10. Select medium and pH: the most suitable pH should allow the protein(s) of interest to bind, but should be as close to their point of release as possible.
Further optimization
1. If gradient making equipment is available, determine the steepest gradient that gives acceptable resolution at the selected pH. Begin with a gradient of 10 column volumes over an ionic strength range based on the maximum and minimum values determined when screening. Alternatively, begin with a gradient of 050% elution buffer that contains 1 M NaCl and a gradient volume of 1020 column volumes. 2. Determine the highest flow rate that maintains resolution and minimizes separation time. Check recommended flow rates for the specific medium. 3. Determine the maximum sample load that can be applied while maintaining satisfactory resolution. In general, loading 2030% of the total binding capacity of the column gives optimal resolution with gradient elution. Sample loads can often be increased if resolution is satisfactory or when using a step elution.
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Using PD-10 columns for media selection and method development If an assay is available to detect the target protein(s) and the media of interest are available, PD-10 columns can be packed with alternative media and used to select the medium and establish some idea of the most suitable separation conditions. With basic information on the requirements for pH and ionic strength, a suitable column can be packed in order to begin optimization. Note that the condition of the sample is very important in order to achieve the most effective separations. Ideally, samples should be in the same conditions as the start buffer (see Appendix 1, Sample preparation and, in particular, Buffer exchange and desalting, page 156 for details). When working with small volumes during screening and scouting, it may be sufficient to dilute the sample in start buffer in order to lower the ionic strength and adjust the pH to a value similar to that of the start buffer. pH selection
1. Set up a series of 10 PD-10 columns for each medium to be tested and thoroughly resuspend the medium in its storage solution. 2. Pour approximately 25 mls of slurry into the PD-10 column, allowing the medium to settle as the column fills. Do not allow the column to dry out. 3. Equilibrate each column to a different pH by washing (5 5 ml) with buffer (0.5 M) using buffers between pH 59 for anion exchangers or pH 48 for cation exchangers and with 0.5 pH unit intervals between columns (see Appendix 2 for buffer recommendations). 4. Equilibrate each column at a lower ionic strength: wash with 5 5 ml of buffer (0.020.05 M) at the same pH. 5. Load a known constant amount of sample to each column while collecting the eluent. 8. Assay the eluent for the protein of interest. The most suitable medium and pH should allow the protein to bind (protein is absent from the eluent), but should be as close to the point of release as possible (the first pH at which the protein appears in the eluent).
33
34
(see Appendix 1, Sample preparation and, in particular, Buffer exchange and desalting, page 156 for details). When working with small volumes during screening and scouting, it may be sufficient to dilute the sample in start buffer in order to lower the ionic strength and adjust the pH to a value similar to that of the start buffer. Proteins often begin to dissociate from IEX media about 0.5 pH units from their isoelectric points at an ionic strength around 0.1 M. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q, DEAE or ANX) or 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (SP or CM). For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q, DEAE or ANX) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (S, SP, CM) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. Whenever possible, check for stability at the pH and ionic strength values selected, especially if recovery of biological activity is a priority.
Isoelectric point
35
If sample components are most stable below their isoelectric points, use a cation exchanger. If sample components are most stable above their isoelectric points, use an anion exchanger. If stability is high over a wide pH range on both sides of the isoelectric point, use either type of ion exchanger.
Functional group
-O-CH2N (CH3)3 -O-CH2CH2N H(CH2CH3)2 -O-CH2CHOHCH2N H(CH2CH3)2
+ + +
Cation exchangers
Sulfopropyl (SP) Methyl sulfonate (S) Carboxymethyl (CM) strong strong weak
Functional group
-O-CH2CHOHCH2OCH2CH2CH2SO3 -O-CH2COO
-O-CH2CHOHCH2OCH2CHOHCH2SO3
* The active end of the charged group is the same for DEAE and ANX. The difference between them is in the length of the carbon chain of the charged group. DEAE has a diethylaminoethyl-group bound to the agarose. ANX has a diethylaminopropyl-group attached which prevents the formation of quaternary groups, giving a different selectivity compared to DEAE.
Begin with a strong exchanger to enable development work to be performed over a broad pH range. Use a strong anion exchanger (Q) to bind the protein(s) of interest if their isoelectric point is below pH 7.0 or unknown. Use a strong exchanger in those cases where maximum resolution occurs at an extreme pH and the proteins of interest are stable at that pH. Consider using a weak exchanger if the selectivity of the strong ion exchanger is unsatisfactory, but remember that the ion exchange capacity of a weak ion exchanger varies with pH. As a result: sample loading (binding) capacity can vary with increasing pH due to loss of charge from the exchanger. resolution is more readily affected by changes in flow rate or sample load due to the intermediate forms of charge interaction which can occur. predicted results (based on known information about the sample components such as their isoelectric points and how their net surface charge changes with pH) may not correlate with actual results since the number of charged groups on weak ion exchangers can vary with pH. longer equilibration times may be required in order to titrate the weak ion exchange functional groups.
36
When using a weak exchanger, work within the pH values given below to minimize variations in performance: DEAE: pH 29 ANX: pH 29 CM: pH 610
37
Counter-ions The counter-ions (salt ions) used in IEX are almost always Na + for cation exchange and Cl for anion exchange. Salts such as NaCl have a chaotropic character (i.e. an ability to make water less polar) and therefore a lower 'salting-out' effect on hydrophobic molecules. This ensures maximum solubility during elution and improves recovery. Chaotropic salts can also be used in the presence of organic solvents if required. Salts such as (NH 4)2SO4 or K3PO4 should be avoided as they are most likely to cause precipitation at high concentrations. In certain applications alternative counter-ions such as Li +, Br, I, SO42, CH3COO or HCOO may improve and even alter, selectivity since they exhibit different elution strengths, but it should be noted that using these ions may affect the binding capacity of the medium. Figure 19 shows how selectivity and resolution can vary when using different counter-ions.
Column: Sample:
A280 nm Mono Q HR 5/5 carbonic 1 anhydrase, transferrin, ovalbumin, a-lactalbumin, b-lactoglobulin A and B a) 2 3 4 0.35 M NaCl Elution buffer A280 nm 1 b) 3 2 4 0.28 M NaBr 6 5 14.6 ml Elution buffer
6 14.8 ml
6 15.0 ml
Volume (ml)
Volume (ml)
Fig. 19. Effect of counter-ions on selectivity and resolution (Mono Q HR 5/5 now available as Mono Q 5/50 GL). Note the variation in elution order of peaks 3 and 4.
Use the following procedure if a medium is to be used with counter-ions other than sodium or chloride:
1. Wash the packed column with 10 column volumes 0.51 M salt solution containing the new counter ion. Flow rate: see relevant media section in Chapter 3. 2. Wash with 10 column volumes of start buffer at the same flow rate as in step 1. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 several times.
38
Sample preparation
Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Simple steps to clarify a sample before application to a column will avoid the risk of blockage and reduce the need for stringent washing procedures. Appendix 1 contains a detailed overview of sample preparation techniques. Desalt samples and transfer into the chosen start buffer (refer to page 156 for details of buffer exchange and desalting). The pH and ionic strength of the sample are extremely important in order to achieve the most effective high resolution or group separations and to make the most of the high loading capacity. For small sample volumes in a high salt concentration and with no major contaminants such as lipids or ionic detergents, it may be sufficient to dilute the sample with start buffer in order to lower the salt concentration to a level that does not interfere with binding to the medium. However, buffer exchange and desalting is the only way to guarantee the correct pH and ionic strength conditions of a sample. Samples must be clear and free from particulate matter, particularly when working with particle sizes of 34 m or less. For small sample volumes, a syringe-tip filter of cellulose acetate or PVDF can be sufficient for sample filtration.
39
Concentration and viscosity The solubility or viscosity of the sample may limit the quantity that can be applied to a column. High sample viscosity can cause instability of the separation and an irregular flow pattern resulting in broad, distorted peaks and problems with back pressure. The critical parameter is the viscosity of the sample relative to the viscosity of the eluent. Dilute viscous samples with start buffer. If high viscosity is caused by the presence of nucleic acid contaminants, see Appendix 1 for advice on their removal. Remember that viscosity varies with temperature. If dilution is not an option, using a medium with a larger particle size may help to overcome viscosity problems. Samples should generally not exceed 5070 mg/ml protein, but may vary according to the type of sample and the type of chromatographic medium.
Sample application
Adjust the sample to the chosen starting pH and ionic strength (see sample preparation) and apply to the column. Wash with 510 column volumes of start buffer or until the baseline, eluent pH and conductivity are stable i.e. when all unbound material has washed through the column. Starting conditions should maximize binding of the target proteins near the top of the column and, when possible, minimize binding of contaminants so that they pass through the column. For efficient binding the sample should be at the same pH and ionic strength as the start buffer. The sample volume can be relatively large without affecting the separation since the sample will bind at the top of the column as long as equilibration and sample conditions are correct. Apply samples directly to the column via a chromatography system, a peristaltic pump or a syringe. The choice of equipment depends largely on the sample volume, the size of column, the type of IEX medium and the requirements for accuracy in gradient elution. Ensure that the top of the column bed is not disturbed during sample application Do not change buffer conditions until all unbound material has been washed through the column (monitored by UV absorbance) and until UV and conductivity values have returned to starting conditions.
Sample load
Sample load (mass) is of greater importance than sample volume. The amount of sample which can be applied to a column depends on the dynamic binding capacity of the IEX medium and the degree of resolution required. Sample load has a major influence on resolution since the width of the peaks is directly related to the amount of substance present, as shown in Figure 20. Consequently, in order to achieve satisfactory resolution, the total amount of protein applied and bound to the medium should not exceed the total binding capacity of the packed column.
40
Column: SOURCE 30S, 5 mm i.d. x 50 mm (1 ml) Sample: Mixture of chymotypsinogen, cytochrome C and lysozyme Sample load: a) 1 mg b) 10 mg Start buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.8 Elution buffer: 0.5 M sodium chloride, 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.8 Flow: 1 ml/min (300 cm/h) Gradient: 0100% elution buffer, 20 CV
A280 nm a) A280 nm b)
10
20
Time (min)
10
20
Time (min)
Apply up to 30% of the total binding capacity of the column for optimal resolution with gradient elution. Sample loads can be increased if resolution is satisfactory or when using a step elution. If sample volumes are large compared to the total column volume, the sample buffer composition, in particular the ionic strength, should be the same as that of the start buffer to ensure adequate binding conditions. Chapter 3 gives typical binding capacities for each medium as a guideline for total binding capacity.The actual (dynamic) binding capacity is also affected by factors such as size and shape of the molecules, the pore size of the matrix, flow rate, sample concentration, pH/protein charge and ionic strength. Capacity will decrease for molecules of very large diameter or length, e.g. protein complexes >M r 400 000, assymmetric proteins and DNA. These molecules are unable to penetrate the matrix pores, limiting their binding primarily to the charged groups on the surface of the matrix. Since the exact distribution of pore sizes in some matrices can vary and the apparent size of a molecule can vary according to the buffer conditions, there is no distinct molecular weight cut-off point when molecules can or cannot penetrate the matrix pores. The binding step and the dynamic binding capacity can be increased by applying sample at a pH where the target protein has a higher charge than if the optimal pH for separation was used. Sample volume As a binding technique, IEX is independent of sample volume as long as the ionic strength of the sample is the same or as low as the start buffer and the target proteins are sufficiently charged at the selected pH. Large volumes of dilute solutions, such as fractions from a desalting step or a cell culture supernatant, can be applied directly to an IEX medium without prior concentration.
41
Elution
Bound proteins are eluted by controlled changes in ionic strength or pH. The way in which these changes take place, by using a linear or step elution, is selected according to the aim of the separation: Linear gradient elution high resolution separation or analysis optimized gradient elution at increased speed while retaining required resolution Step elution faster separation time, reduced buffer consumption group separation
1M
[NaCl]
510 CV
Fig. 21. Typical IEX separation using linear gradient elution. The UV (protein) and conductivity (salt) traces show the elution of protein peaks and the changes in salt concentration during elution.
Linear ionic strength gradients, as shown in Figure 21, are the most frequently used type of elution and should always be used when starting with an unknown sample (when as many components as possible are bound to the column and eluted differentially to see a total protein profile). At low ionic strengths, competition for charged groups on the IEX medium is at a minimum. Increasing the ionic strength increases competition and reduces the interaction between the medium and the bound substances which begin to elute. The elution buffer is usually the same buffer salt and pH as the start buffer, but contains additional salt, most often sodium chloride. It is strongly recommended to use linear gradient elution during method development. Linear ionic strength gradients are easy to prepare and very reproducible when generated by a suitable chromatography system. The results obtained can then serve as a base from which to optimize the separation.
42
The retention of charged proteins on the medium is related to the volume of the column and the concentration difference across it: long, shallow gradients give maximum separation between peaks, but separation times will be longer and there will be greater peak broadening. short, steep gradients give faster separations and sharper peaks, but peaks will be eluted closer together. peaks eluted later in the gradient tend to be slightly broader than those eluted early on. Select the steepest gradient to give acceptable resolution at the selected pH. The effects of gradient slope are shown in Figure 22.
Column: Sample: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow:
A280 nm
Mono Q HR 5/5 partially purified dynorphin converting enzyme 20 mM Tris, pH 7.0 20 mM Tris, 1 M NaCl, pH 7.0 1 ml/min
A280 nm 0.10
0.05
Ionic strength
Elution volume
Ionic strength
Elution volume
If gradient elution volumes are decreased, it may be necessary to decrease the sample load proportionally in order to maintain the same resolution. Similarly, if sample load is increased (within the total capacity of the column), gradient volumes may need to be increased to maintain resolution. Gradients are best formed using purpose-designed equipment, such as KTAdesign systems with preprogrammed method templates, that automatically controls the mixing of solutions being supplied to a column. Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select from a range of buffer recipes to run salt gradient elutions at constant pH.
43
BufferPrep automatically calculates and mixes the correct proportions of stock solutions in order to maintain a constant pH throughout the run. Alternatively, systems may use two separate pumps for start and elution buffers or a single pump in combination with a switch valve to mix the buffers. Accurate buffer preparation, efficient mixing and the shortest possible flow path between a mixer and the top of a column will help to ensure accurate gradient formation. Aim: reduced separation time, maintained resolution For certain separations, when conditions for a high resolution separation using a linear gradient have been established, it may be possible to reduce the total separation time by using a more complex elution profile, as illustrated in Figure 23. Shallow gradients can be used where maximum resolution is required while steeper gradients can be used in areas where resolution is satisfactory.
1M high salt wash 5 CV
shallow gradient
step gradient
[NaCl]
sample injection volume 1020 CV equilibration re-equilibration 510 CV Column volumes [CV]
510 CV
Fig. 23. Complex gradient profiles can reduce total separation time for certain separations.
Step elution
Elute bound proteins with 5 column volumes of start buffer + NaCl at chosen ionic strength. Repeat at higher ionic strengths until the target protein(s) has been eluted.
high salt wash 1M unbound molecules elute elution of unwanted material elution of target molecule 5 CV 5 CV
Fig. 24. Typical IEX separation using step elution. The UV (protein) and conductivity (salt) traces show the elution of protein peaks and the changes in salt concentration during elution.
44
[NaCl]
As shown in Figure 24, step elutions are performed by sequential addition of the same buffer at increasing ionic strengths. Step elution is technically simple, but care must be taken in the design of the steps and the interpretation of results since substances eluted by a sharp change in ionic strength elute close together, giving a false peak that may contain several components. Peaks tend to have sharp fronts and pronounced tailing since they frequently contain more than one component. Tailing may lead to the appearance of false peaks if a change in ionic strength is introduced too early. For these reasons it is recommended to use a linear ionic strength gradient when developing a new method. Aim: faster separation time, reduced buffer consumption When an IEX separation has been optimized using gradient elution, changing to a step elution reduces the total number of column volumes used for a separation. This speeds up separation times and reduces buffer consumption while retaining the required purity level. Step elutions of this type are often used for routine, large scale separation. An added advantage of a step elution when used at larger scale is that it is often possible to apply a greater amount of sample, since the molecules which would elute early in a gradient separation no longer take up binding capacity on the column. Aim: group separation In a group separation the molecules of interest are concentrated and rapidly removed from unwanted substances. When binding and elution conditions for a target protein(s) and contaminants have been determined, usually during preliminary gradient elution separations, conditions are chosen to maximize binding of the target protein(s) and minimize binding of contaminants during sample application. The target protein(s) is then eluted by a single buffer change in an enriched, concentrated form. Figure 25 shows an example of such a separation in which a HiTrap Q HP column is used to separate human serum proteins from the unwanted IgG fraction which passes directly through the column.
Column: Sample: Sample volume: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer:
HiTrap Q, 1 ml Human serum, filtered (0.45 m filter) and buffer exchanged to start buffer on a PD-10 column 1.0 ml 0.5 ml/min, (75 cm/h) 75 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0 75 mM Tris-HCl, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 8.0
A280 nm 1.0 100% Buffer B
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
15
20
25
30
Volume (ml)
45
Aim: removal of contaminants If starting conditions have been chosen to maximize the binding of contaminants then no change in elution conditions is required since the target protein(s) will pass through the column. For many applications it is preferable to discard the column rather than spend time and effort removing unwanted bound substances.
pH elution
Since the net charge on a protein is pH dependent, samples can also be eluted from an IEX medium by altering the pH of the elution buffer. As there is no salt gradient, samples are simply retained on the column at one pH and eluted by increasing or decreasing the pH. The various charged groups in the sample or on the column are titrated until they are neutral or of opposite charge to the medium and the sample elutes. Proteins bound to an anion exchanger (Q, DEAE, ANX) will elute as pH is decreased. Proteins bound to a cation exchanger (SP, S, CM) will elute as pH is increased. Since pH elution will involve working at pH values close to the isoelectric point of a protein and since many proteins show minimum solubility close to their isoelectric points, precautions must be taken to avoid precipitation on the column (see page 48 for information on the use of additives to avoid precipitation). Always test in advance the solubility of sample components at the pH and salt concentrations to be used during separation. For any type of pH elution, care must be taken in the selection and mixing of buffer systems in order to achieve reproducibility. Stepwise pH elution is easier to produce and more reproducible than using a linear pH gradient. Note that for weak ion exchangers the buffer may have to titrate the charged groups on the medium and there will be a short period of re-equilibration before the new pH is reached. Linear pH gradients are very difficult to produce at constant ionic strength, since simultaneous changes in ionic strength, although small, also occur. These gradients cannot be obtained simply by mixing buffers of different pH in linear volume ratios since the buffering capacities of the systems produced are pH dependent. A relatively linear gradient can be produced over a narrow pH interval (maximum 2 pH units) by mixing two solutions of the same buffer salt adjusted to 1 pH unit above and 1 pH unit below the pKa for the buffer. In general, separation of proteins according to their isoelectric points, using chromatofocusing (Chapter 5), is likely to provide a more reliable and higher resolution result than attempting to elute proteins from an IEX column using a pH gradient.
Flow rates
The maximum flow rate applied during a separation can vary according to the stage of the separation. For example, during sample application and elution, lower flow rates allow time for sample components to diffuse in and out of the pores as they to bind to or dissociate from the functional groups. Figure 26 shows an example of the influence of flow rate on resolution. Higher flow rates can be used for equilibration, washing and re-equilibration, limited primarily by the rigidity of the media and by pressure specifications of the equipment.
46
Recommended flow rates for each chromatography medium are given in Chapter 3. Working from these recommendations, select the highest flow rate that maintains resolution and minimizes separation time. For example, if peaks are well separated at a low flow rate, increase the flow rate or, alternatively, increase the sample volume to benefit from a higher capacity without significant loss of resolution.
Column: SOURCE 30Q, 10 mm i.d. 50 mm (4 ml) Sample: Mixture of lactoglobulin B and amyloglucosidase Sample load: 1 mg/ml bed volume Start buffer: 20 mM BIS-TRIS PROPANE, pH 7.0 Elution buffer: 0.5 M sodium chloride, 20 mM BIS-TRIS PROPANE, pH 7.0 Flow: a) 4 ml/min (300 cm/h) b) 13 ml/min (1000 cm/h) Gradient: 0100% elution buffer, 20 CV
A280 nm a) A280 nm b)
10
20
Time (min)
8 Time (min)
Flow rate is measured in simple volume terms, e.g. ml/min, but when comparing results between columns of different sizes or when scaling-up, it is useful to use linear flow: cm/hour (see Appendix 5). Results obtained at the same linear flow on different size columns will be comparable as far as the effects of flow rate are concerned. Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the medium. Higher flow rates and viscous buffers increase operating pressures (remember that buffer viscosity increases when running at +4 C). Check the maximum operating pressure of the packed column and set the upper pressure limit on the chromatography system accordingly.
Flow control
Accurate, reproducible flow control is essential for good resolution and reproducibility. Use a pump within a chromatography system (rather than a peristaltic pump) to fully utilize the high rigidity and excellent flow properties of media such as MiniBeads, MonoBeads, SOURCE or Sepharose High Performance. Always pump the buffer onto a column (rather than drawing the buffer through the column with the pump below). This reduces the risk of bubble formation as a result of suction. If you have packed the column yourself, always use a flow rate for separation that is less than the flow rate used for column packing in order to avoid shrinking of the column bed by pressure increases that may occur when running a sample.
47
48
Type
Sarcosyl Nonidet P40 Polyoxyethylene ethers (e.g. Brij 35) Polyoxyethylene sorbitans (e.g. Tween 80) CHAPS
non-ionic non-ionic non-ionic non-ionic zwitterionic, derivative of cholic acid zwitterionic, derivative of cholic acid cation
1.5%
CHAPSO
Deoxycholate
Temperatures <10 C can minimize aggregation caused by hydrophobic interactions between sample components. Working at these lower temperatures may be an alternative to using a detergent to improve solubility. Developing or optimizing a separation using buffers that contain detergents
1. Select detergents that are compatible with the sample. A detergent must be neutral, zwitterionic or have the same charge as the IEX medium. Detergents that bind to the medium can be difficult to remove and may affect protein loading capacity, pH, conductivity and resolution. 2. Determine the minimum concentration that is likely to keep the sample in solution during the separation. Note that different detergents will have different solubilization properties resulting in different peak profiles. 3. Equilibrate the column thoroughly with the detergent solution, using a concentration that is below the critical micelle concentration for the specific detergent. 4. Run blank salt gradients to determine the UV absorbance profile of the detergent and to detect any effect pH. Micelle formation causes light scattering and the appearance of a peak during UV monitoring. If micelle formation is a problem try the following: - decrease detergent concentration as far as possible without impairing sample solubility - increase detergent concentration to run the gradient above the critical micelle concentration (this creates a gradual rather than abrupt UV increase) - change the salt gradient so that the sudden change in UV absorption does not occur during the run - change to highly chaotropic salts such as LiClO4 or sodium trichloroacetate that can be used at higher concentrations without causing micelle formation 5. Perform test runs with sample to find the detergent that gives the best solubilization and resolution.
A single peak obtained from a 'detergent run' often contains more than one component and should be analyzed carefully. Selecting a different detergent may improve the separation.
49
Detergent concentrations that are too high will increase buffer viscosity so that flow rates must be reduced to avoid over-pressure of the column.The concentration of detergent required for solubilization can often be reduced during the separation. Use detergents of the highest quality that are free from salts. Filter buffers that contain detergents under weak suction and ultrasonication for degassing in order to avoid foaming. Wash previously used columns thoroughly using recommended procedures before working with buffers that contain detergents. Reagents to reduce polarity Monoethylene glycol, glycerol and similar mild reagents that reduce polarity can be included in buffers. Avoid high concentrations (>40% w/w) as buffer viscosity will increase and may over-pressure the column. Metal chelators: EDTA, EGTA EDTA (ethylenediaminetetracetic acid) and EGTA (ethylene glycol-bis-(2-aminoethyl)N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) are often used in buffers as metal chelators and can be used with IEX chromatography. EDTA and EGTA contain several carboxylic acid groups that may interact with anion exchangers. During anion exchange separations EDTA and EGTA can concentrate as a band on the column and elute during a salt gradient. Both molecules absorb UV and will appear as a peak or as background noise in the chromatogram.
50
Scaling-up
For fast separations it may be easier to repeat a separation several times on a small column and pool the fractions of interest, rather than scale-up to a larger column. However, a larger column may be preferred for routine processing of large sample volumes. General guidelines for scaling-up are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Guidelines for scaling-up. Maintain
Column bed height Linear flow (cm/h) Sample concentration Gradient elution volume i.e. number of column volumes used for the gradient
Increase
Column volume i.e. column diameter Volumetric flow rate (ml/min) Sample load
When scaling-up an IEX separation, follow the points below to ensure the same cycle time for small scale and larger scale separations.
1. Optimize the separation at small scale. 2. Maintain bed height, sample concentration and the ratio of sample volume: volume of medium. 3. Increase the column volume by increasing the cross-sectional area (diameter) of the column. 4. Run the separation at the same linear flow (see Appendix 5) as used on the smaller column with the same ratio of gradient volume: column volume.
During method development a small particle size may have been used to improve resolution. However, smaller particles can also result in increased back pressure and this factor may become restrictive when scaling-up. Consider moving to a larger particle size, preferably of the same medium, to take advantage of lower back pressures and higher flow rates. When scaling-up, the salt concentrations at which peaks elute may decrease with increased sample loads. As sample is applied to the column, components with a low net charge are displaced by components with a higher net charge. Molecules will elute in the same order, but at a different point in the elution profile. When method scouting, develop the method, whenever possible, on the medium that will be used at the larger scale. For production scale separations which must satisfy throughput and cleaning-in-place (CIP) requirements of industry, transfer an optimized method, as early as possible, to a matrix designed for bioprocessing such as SOURCE, Sepharose High Performance, Sepharose Fast Flow or Sepharose Big Beads. See Appendix 3 for column selection and column packing.
51
Equipment selection
Appendix 4 provides a guide to the selection of systems for IEX chromatography.
52
Troubleshooting
The ideal IEX separation: target proteins well resolved by gradient elution
sample injection volume gradient elution
equilibration
re-equilibration
1M
[NaCl]
510 CV
If only certain peaks are of interest in this well-resolved separation, it may be advantageous to transfer to a step elution in order to save time and buffer. The rest of this section focuses on practical problems that may lead to a non-ideal IEX separation. Sample elutes before salt gradient begins
high salt wash 510 CV
Ensure that buffers are in the correct containers. Reduce ionic strength of sample by desalting, page 156, or dilution with start buffer. For an anion exchanger, increase buffer pH, for a cation exchanger, decrease buffer pH. If proteins still do not bind at any pH, it is possible that the column has been contaminated by detergent.
53
[NaCl]
After sample application the UV trace must return to baseline before elution begins, otherwise proteins that do not bind to the column interfere with the separation. Increase the volume of start buffer (equilibration step) before starting the gradient elution. Sample elutes during high salt wash
high salt wash 510 CV
[NaCl]
Proteins are binding too strongly. Ensure that buffers are in the correct containers. If using an anion exchanger, decrease buffer pH, if using a cation exchanger, increase buffer pH. Protein(s) of interest eluting late in gradient Proteins are binding too strongly. Increase ionic strength of gradient. It is preferable to alter pH if a very high salt concentration is required for elution. For an anion exchanger, decrease buffer pH and for a cation exchanger, increase buffer pH. Refer also to Table 6. Protein(s) of interest eluting too early in gradient: Proteins are not binding strongly. Check ionic strength of gradient. Alter pH, for an anion exchanger, increase buffer pH and for a cation exchanger, decrease buffer pH. Refer also to Table 6. Proteins(s) of interest not sufficiently resolved Refer to the contents of this chapter to review key parameters for improving resolution. Refer also to Table 6.
54
Cause
Outlet closed or pumps not working. Blocked filter, end-piece, adaptor or tubing. Lipoproteins or protein aggregates have precipitated. Protein precipitation in the column.
Remedy
Open outlet. Check pumps for signs of leakage (if using a peristaltic pump, check tubing also). Remove and clean or replace if possible. Always filter samples and buffer before use. Remove lipoproteins and aggregates during sample preparation, (see Appendix 1). Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Modify buffer, pH and/or salt conditions during the run to maintain stability. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10.
Protein precipitation in the column Modify eluent to maintain stability. caused by removal of stabilizing agents during separation. Microbial growth has occurred in the column. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Check bed surface and top filter for possible contamination. Adjust top adaptor to surface of medium if necessary. Reduce all post-column volumes. Check pH and ionic strength to ensure that column was re-equilibrated after previous run. Check conditions required. Prepare new solutions. Alter elution conditions: alter pH, use shallower gradient, reduce flow rate (listed in priority order). Dilute with buffer. Maintain protein concentration below 50 mg/ml. Check column efficiency (see Appendix 3). Repack if needed. Use prepacked columns. Decrease sample load. Remove lipoproteins and aggregates during sample preparation (see Appendix 1). Modify buffer, pH and/or salt conditions during the run to maintain stability. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Clean the column and exchange or clean the filter. Check pH and salt stability of sample. Clean the column, filter the sample and repeat. Prepare fresh samples. Determine the pH and salt stability of the protein. Repeat or prolong the equilibration step until conductivity and pH are constant. Check conditions required. Prepare new solutions. Use urea or zwitterions, betaine up to 10%, taurine up to 4%. Check sample and buffer conditions. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10.
55
Large mixing spaces at top of or after column. Incorrect buffer pH and/or ionic strength. Sub-optimal elution conditions e.g. incorrect pH, gradient too steep, flow rate too high. Sample is too viscous. Column is poorly packed. Column overloaded. Lipoproteins or protein aggregates have precipitated. Precipitation of proteins in the column. Microbial growth has occurred in the column. Proteins do not bind or elute as expected. Proteins or lipids have precipitated on the column or column filter. Sample not filtered properly. Sample has changed during storage. Protein may be unstable or inactive in the elution buffer. Column equilibration incomplete. Incorrect buffer pH and/or ionic strength. Proteins are forming aggregates and binding strongly to the medium. Sample or buffer conditions are different from previous runs. Microbial growth has occurred in the column.
Situation
Protein elutes later than expected or not at all.
Cause
Incorrect buffer pH.
Remedy
Check pH meter calibration. Use a buffer pH closer to the pI of the protein. Increase salt concentration in elution buffer. Maintain ionic strength of buffers above 0.05 M. Reduce salt concentration to minimize hydrophobic interaction. Increase pH. Add suitable detergent or organic solvent, e.g. 5% isopropanol. Decrease ionic strength of sample or buffer.
Ionic strength too low. Ionic interactions between protein and matrix. Hydrophobic interactions between protein and matrix. Protein elutes earlier than expected (during the wash phase). Ionic strength of sample or buffer is too high. Incorrect pH conditions. Column equilibration incomplete. Leading or very rounded peaks in chromatogram. Channeling in the column. Column overloaded. Column contaminated. Peaks are tailing. Incorrect start buffer conditions, sample is not binding to column. Sample too viscous. Column packing too loose.
Increase pH (anion exchanger). Decrease pH (cation exchanger). Repeat or prolong the equilibration step until conductivity and pH are constant Repack column using a thinner slurry of medium. Check column packing (see Appendix 3). Decrease sample load and repeat. Clean using recommended procedures. Adjust pH. Check salt concentration in start buffer.
Dilute in application buffer. Check column efficiency (see Appendix 3). Repack using a higher flow rate. Use prepacked columns. Check column efficiency (see Appendix 3). Repack using a lower flow rate. Use prepacked columns. Check column efficiency (see Appendix 3). Repack using a slower flow rate. Use prepacked columns. Replace or tighten. Do not exceed recommended operating pressure for medium or column. Do not use magnetic stirrers when equilibrating loose medium Determine the pH and salt stability of the protein. Test by pooling aliquots from the fractions and repeating the assay. Add protease inhibitors to the sample and buffers to prevent proteolytic digestion. Run sample through a medium such as Benzamidine 4 Fast Flow (high sub) to remove trypsin-like serine proteases. Use another type of filter. Check pH and salt conditions, adjust to improve sample solubility. Add denaturing agents, polarity reducing agents or detergents. Add 10% ethylene glycol to running buffer to prevent hydrophobic interactions. Reduce salt concentration to minimize hydrophobic interaction. Add suitable detergent or organic solvent e.g. 5% isopropanol. If necessary, add 10% ethylene glycol to running buffer to prevent hydrophobic interactions.
Bed support end piece is loose or broken. Column operated at too high pressure. Medium has been damaged during column packing. Low recovery of activity, but normal recovery of protein. Protein may be unstable or inactive in the buffer. Enzyme separated from co-factor or similar. Protein yield lower than expected. Protein may have been degraded by proteases.
Non-specific adsorption.
Situation
Peaks too small.
Cause
Sample absorbs poorly at chosen wavelength. Different assay conditions have been used before and after the chromatographic step. Excessive band broadening.
Remedy
If appropriate, check absorbance range on monitor. If satisfactory, use a different wavelength, e.g. 214 nm instead of 280 nm. Use same assay conditions for all assays.
Check column packing. Repack if necessary. Optimize conditions to improve resolution. Check buffer conditions used for assay before and after the run. Check selection of medium. Use same assay conditions for all assays.
More sample is recovered than expected. More activity is recovered than was applied to the column.
Protein co-eluting with other substances. Different assay conditions have been used before and after the chromatography step. Removal of inhibitors during separation.
Bed compressed.
If possible repack the column or use a new column. Check sample preparation. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Improve sample preparation (see Appendix 1). Improve sample solubility: add betaine (max. 10% w/v at 25C), taurine (max. 4% w/v at 25C, below pH 8.5) or glycerol (12 %). For hydrophobic samples, add ethylene glycol, urea, detergents or organic solvents. Clean using recommended methods. If possible, exchange or clean filter or use a new column. Include any additives that were used for initial sample solubilization in the running buffer. Calibrate pH meter, prepare new solutions and try again. Change pH. Lipoproteins may be removed prior to chromatography by the addition of 10% dextran sulfate (final 0.2%) and 1 M calcium chloride (final 0.5 M). Degas buffers thoroughly. Remove small bubbles by passing degassed buffer through the column. Take special care if buffers are used after storage in a fridge or cold-room. Do not allow column to warm up due to sunshine or heating system. Repack column, if possible (see Appendix 3). Check all connections for leaks. Repack the column if possible (see Appendix 3). Exchange the sample into start buffer. Clean the buffer by running it through a precolumn. Use high quality reagents. Wash the column according to recommended blank methods. Always use degassed buffers. Work below or above the critical micelle concentration of any detergents being used or change the gradient so that the increase in UV absorption does not occur while the samples are eluting. Use high quality reagents.
Microbial growth.
Turbid sample.
Precipitation of protein in the column filter and/or at the top of the bed. Incorrect pH is causing precipitation. Precipitation of lipoproteins at increased ionic strength. Air bubbles in the bed. Buffers not properly degassed. Column packed or stored at cool temperature and then warmed up.
Cracks in the bed. Negative peaks at solvent front. Unexpected peaks in chromatogram. Peaks appear on gradients. Spikes in chromatogram. UV baseline rises with gradient.
Large air leak in column. Refractive index effects. Buffer impurities. Incomplete elution of previous sample. Air bubble trapped in UV monitor flow cell. Micelle formation as salt concentration changes.
Buffer impurities.
*Polar organic solvents such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol and acetonitrile can be used at concentrations from 020%, but remember that some proteins may irreversibly lose their biological activity in the presence of organic solvents. Check sample and buffer solubility, buffer pH and chemical stability of the medium before running a column. Note that back pressure may increase when working with organic solutions.
57
58
59
60
Purification options
Fig. 27. Mini Q and Mini S media are available prepacked in T ricorn (4.6/50 PE) and Precision (PC 3.2/3) columns. Product, column volume Binding capacity per column Maximum flow Recommended working flow Working Maximum operating pH back pressure ** range* (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
311 10/1450
Strong anion exchangers Mini Q PC 3.2/3, 0.24 ml*** 1.44 mg (a-amylase, Mr 49 000) 1.44 mg (trypsin inhibitor, Mr 20 100) 4.8 mg (a-amylase, Mr 49 000) 4.8 mg (trypsin inhibitor, Mr 20 100) 1.2 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 1.2 mg (lysozyme, Mr 14 300) 4 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 4 mg (lysozyme, Mr 14 300) 1 ml/min 0.11.0 ml/min
2 ml/min
0.52.0 ml/min
311
18/2600
Strong cation exchangers Mini S PC 3.2/3, 0.24 ml*** 1 ml/min 0.11.0 ml/min 311 10/1450
2 ml/min
0.52.0 ml/min
311
18/2600
*Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. **Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress. ***Requires a Precision Column Holder for attachment to KT Apurifier and other HPLC systems.
61
Purification examples
Fast separations at high resolution
Column: Sample:
Mini S 4.6/50 PE a-chymotrypsinogen A (25 g/ml) ribonuclease A (75 g/ml) lysozyme (25 g/ml)
A280 nm % Elution buffer 100 0.0030
Sample volume: 200 l Start buffer: 20 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.0 Elution buffer: 20 mM sodium acetate, 0.4 M NaCl, pH 5.0 Flow: 0.83 ml/min Gradient: 0100% elution buffer in 12 CV
0.0020
0.0010
Purity check
Column: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow:
Mini Q 4.6/50 PE 10 mM NaOH 10 mM NaOH, 2 M NaCl 1.0 ml/min
Biotinylated 20-mer Conductivity mS/cm A 260 nm Conductivity mS/cm
A 260 nm
40.0
50.0
40.0
50.0
20.0
20.0
After purification
Fig. 30. Purity check of 5'-biotinylated synthetic oligonucleotide 20-mer on Mini Q 4.6/50 PE before and after purification on a RESOURCE RPC column.
62
Injection 1
51
Fig. 31. Chromatograms from the 1st, 5th and 201 st separation of a series run on the same Mini S PC 3.2/3 column. The same consistent reproducibility has been confirmed on Mini Q PC 3.2/3 (data not shown).
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use the instructions given here as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance, especially when using small particles such as MiniBeads. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions through 0.22 m filters. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (S). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers.
63
For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (S) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6. First time use or after long term storage
1. To remove ethanol, wash with 4 column volumes of distilled water at 0.5 ml/min. This step ensures removal of ethanol and avoids the risk of precipitation if buffer salts were to come into contact with the ethanol. The step can be omitted if precipitation is not likely to be a problem. 2. Wash with 4 column volumes of start buffer at 0.8 ml/min. 3. Wash with 4 column volumes of elution buffer at 0.8 ml/min. 4. Wash with 4 column volumes of start buffer at 0.8 ml/min. 5. Run a blank elution before applying sample.
If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Refer to Chapter 2 for advice on optimizing the separation. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3.
64
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. The following procedure should be satisfactory to remove common contaminants:
1. Wash with 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 0.2 ml/min. 2. Wash with 4 column volumes of 1 M NaOH at 0.2 ml/min. 3. Wash with 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 0.2 ml/min. 4. Rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water at 0.2 ml/min until the UV-baseline and elutent pH are stable. 5. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of start buffer or storage buffer at 0.2 ml/min until pH and conductivity values have reached the required values.
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: rigid, non-porous matrix of monodisperse, hydrophilic polymer particles (3 m) substituted with quaternary amino (Q) or methyl sulfonate (S) groups.
Product
Mini Q Mini S
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2SO3
+
pH stability*
Long term: 311 Short term: 114 Long term: 311 Short term: 114
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
65
Chemical stability
For daily use, MiniBeads are stable in all common aqueous buffers in the range pH 311 and in the presence of additives such as denaturing agents (8 M urea or 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), non-ionic or ionic detergents and up to 30% acetonitrile in aqueous buffers. Note that aqueous solutions of urea, ethylene glycol and similar compounds will increase the back-pressure due to increased viscosity. MiniBeads can be used with organic solutions such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide or formic acid, but the separation properties of the media will change. Avoid anionic detergents with Mini Q. Avoid cationic detergents with Mini S. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 4 column volumes of distilled water followed by 4 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Do not freeze.
66
pH 12 10 8 6 4 2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
mmol NaOH
Fig. 33. Titration curves for Mono Q and Mono S. Binding capacity remains constant over a broad pH working range.
67
Purification options
Fig. 34. MonoBeads (Q and S) are available prepacked in T ricorn PE (PEEK) and Tricorn GL (glass) columns. Product, column volume Binding capacity per column Recommended working flow Maximum flow Working pH range* Maximum operating back pressure ** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
4/580
Strong anion exchangers Mono Q 5/50 GL, 1 ml 25 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 65 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 80 mg (a-lactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 0.53.0 ml/min 3 ml/min 212
Mono Q 4.6/100 PE, 1.7 ml 40 mg (thyroglobulin, 0.53.0 ml/min Mr 669 000) 110 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 140 mg (a-lactalbumin, Mr 14 300) Mono Q 10/100 GL, 8 ml 200 mg (thyroglobulin, 2.06.0 ml/min Mr 669 000) 520 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 640 mg (a-lactalbumin, Mr 14 300)
3 ml/min
212
4/580
10 ml/min
212
4/580
Mono Q HR 16/10, 20 ml
500 mg (thyroglobulin, up to 10 ml/min 10 ml/min Mr 669 000) 1300 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 1600 mg (a-lactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 75 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 75 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 0.53.0 ml/min 3 ml/min
212
3/435
Mono S 4.6/100 PE, 1.7 ml 130 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 130 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) Mono S 10/100 GL, 8 ml 600 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 600 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 1500 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 1500 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700)
0.53.0 ml/min
3 ml/min
212
4/580
2.06.0 ml/min
10 ml/min
212
4/580
Mono S HR 16/10, 20 ml
up to 10 ml/min 10 ml/min
212
3/435
*Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. **Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
68
Purification examples
Two step purification using complementary selectivities
Column: Sample:
Mono Q HR 5/5 500 ml of T. reesei crude cellulases in buffer start buffer, 2.5 mg Start buffer: 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6 Elution buffer: 20 mM Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.6 Flow: 1.0 ml/min Gradient: 0% elution buffer (4 CV), 040% elution buffer (21 CV), 40100% elution buffer (15 CV)
A280 nm 0.5
Mono S HR 5/5 Peak 3 from Mono Q HR 5/5 20 mM acetate, pH 3.6 20 mM acetate, 0.2 M NaCl, pH 3.6 1.0 ml/min 0100% elution buffer (26 CV)
A280 nm 0.5
10
20
30 Time (min)
10
20 Time (min)
Fig. 35. Purification of cellulose on Mono Q and Mono S HR 5/5 columns (now available as Mono Q 5/50 GL and Mono S 5/50 GL).
1 2
Lane 1. Sample, clarified extract diluted 5-fold Lane 2. Pooled from SOURCE 15Q 4.6/100 PE Lane 3. Pooled from HiTrap Heparin Lane 4. Pooled from Mono S 5/50 GL Lane 5. LMW-SDS Marker Kit
Fig. 36. Final polishing step in purification of a DNA binding protein, transposase TniA. T well-resolved peaks after wo separation on Mono S 5/50 GL (a). SDS-PAGE analysis shows fractions from each of the three steps used in this protocol (b), PhastSystem using SDS-PAGE PhastGel Homogenous 12.5 and Coomassie staining.
69
Mono Q 5/50 GL conalbumin (3.0 mg/ml), a-lactalbumin (4 mg/ml), STI (2.5 mg/ml) 200 l 20 mM Tris, pH 7.0 20 mM Tris, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.0 1.0 ml/min 0100% elution buffer in 20 CV
% Elution buffer 100 150 Injection # 1 Injection # 4001 100 A280 nm % Elution buffer 100
150
100
50
50
0 0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
ml
0 0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
ml
Fig. 37. Chromatograms illustrating run to run reproducibility for Mono Q 5/50 GL (T ricorn). Runs 1, 1000 and 2000 are shown.
Time
Fig. 38. Separation of the peptide bacitracin on Mono S HR 5/5 (now available as Mono S 5/50 GL).
70
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use these instructions as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance, especially when using small particles such as MonoBeads. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions through 0.22 m filters. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (S). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (S) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6. First time use or after long term storage
1. To remove ethanol, wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water at 1 ml/min (1.7 ml and 1 ml columns), 2 ml/min (8 ml column) or 4 ml/min (20 ml column). This step ensures removal of ethanol and avoids the risk of precipitation if buffer salts were to come into contact with the ethanol. The step can be omitted if precipitation is not likely to be a problem. 2. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer at 2 ml/min (1.7 ml and 1 ml columns), 4 ml/min (8 ml column) or 8 ml/min (20 ml column). 3. Wash with 5 column volumes of elution buffer, same flow as step 2. 4. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, same flow as step 2. 5. Run a blank elution before applying sample.
71
Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the column. If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3. Refer to Chapter 2 for advice on optimizing the separation.
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance.
72
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: rigid, monodisperse, polystyrene/divinyl benzene particles (10 m) with an optimized pore size distribution. The base matrix is substituted with quaternary amino (Q) or methyl sulfonate groups (S).
Product
Mono Q Mono S
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2SO3
+
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 214 Long term: 212 Short term: 214
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
Chemical stability
For daily use, MonoBeads are stable in all common, aqueous buffers in the range pH 212, and in the presence of additives such as denaturing agents (8 M urea or 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), non-ionic or ionic detergents and up to 20% acetonitrile in aqueous buffers. Note that aqueous solutions of urea, ethylene glycol and similar compounds will increase the back-pressure due to increased viscosity. MonoBeads can be used with organic solutions such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide or formic acid, but the separation properties of the media will change. Avoid anionic detergents with Mono Q. Avoid cationic detergents with Mono S. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water followed by 5 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Do not freeze.
73
SOURCE: purification at high throughput with high resolution and easy scale-up
Use SOURCE media for purification of proteins, peptides or oligonucleotides. Use SOURCE 15 for intermediate purification or polishing steps in laboratory or large-scale applications that require high resolution and high throughput (flows up to 1800 cm/h). Use SOURCE 30 as an alternative to SOURCE 15 for intermediate purification or polishing steps in large-scale applications where speed rather than resolution is a priority (flows up to 2000 cm/h). Use SOURCE 30 as an alternative to SOURCE 15 for large sample volumes where speed rather than resolution is a priority. The larger particle size slightly reduces resolution, but separations can be performed at higher flow rates. Run SOURCE columns on systems such as KTAdesign, FPLC System and HPLC or systems using peristaltic pumps. Appendix 4 gives guidance on how to select the most suitable KTAdesign system. SOURCE media are based on a hydrophilic matrix made from monodispersed, rigid, polystyrene/divinyl benzene and substituted with quaternary ammonium (Q) or methyl sulfonate (S) groups (Figure 39). This combination confers extreme chemical and physical stability to the media. The small particle sizes allow fast binding and dissociation to facilitate high resolution while the uniformity and stability of the particles ensures high flow rates at low back pressure. The strong ion exchange groups (Q and S) maintain their charge over a broad pH range, allowing selection of the most suitable pH for each application. The high flow rates that can be used with SOURCE media are more likely to be limited by the equipment available rather than the physical properties of the media. Separation methods can be easily scaled up from columns such as RESOURCE Q or S, 1 ml prepacked with SOURCE 15 through to large scale columns such as FineLINE.
74
Purification options
Fig. 40. SOURCE is available in media packs and prepacked in Tricorn or RESOURCE columns. Product, column volume Binding capacity per column or per ml medium Recommended working flow* Maximum flow* Working pH range** Maximum operating back pressure *** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
1.5/220 0.6/87 4/580 0.5/72 0.5/72
Strong anion exchangers RESOURCE Q 1 ml RESOURCE Q 6 ml 45 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 270 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 1.010 ml/min 1.060 ml/min 0.52.5 ml/min 150900 cm/h 10 ml/min 60 ml/min 5 ml/min 1800 cm/h 212 212 212 212 212
SOURCE 15Q 4.6/100 PE, 1.7 ml 75 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 30Q Strong cation exchangers RESOURCE S 1 ml RESOURCE S 6 ml 45 mg/ml (BSA, Mr 67 000) 40 mg/ml (BSA, Mr 67 000)
SOURCE 15S 4.6/100 PE, 1.7 ml 140 mg 0.52.5 ml/min (lysozyme, Mr 14 500) SOURCE 15S SOURCE 30S 80 mg/ml 150900 cm/h (lysozyme, Mr 14 500)
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
75
Use prepacked RESOURCE columns (1 ml or 6 ml) for fast media selection, method scouting, group separations, sample concentration or clean-up. Use SOURCE 15Q PE 4.6/100 to improve resolution by increasing column length with further optimization and as the first step towards scaling up. For column packing:
Volume
SOURCE 15 Tricorn 10/100 Tricorn 10/150 Tricorn 10/200 SOURCE 30 XK 16/20 XK 26/20 XK 26/40 up to 30 ml up to 80 ml up to 196 ml up to 15 cm up to 15 cm > 15 cm up to 8 ml up to 12 ml up to 16 ml up to 10 cm up to 15 cm up to 20 cm
Bed height
Purification examples
Fast, high resolution separations
Column: Sample: Sample volume: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow: Gradient:
RESOURCE Q 1 ml pancreatin 5 mg/ml 200 l 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, pH 7.5 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.5 9.6 ml/min, 1800 cm/h 080% elution buffer in 20 CV
A280 nm
0.1
0.05
0.05
0 0.00
2.00
4.00
Time (min)
Column:
A280 nm 0.05 b)
0.04
0.03 50 0.02 50
0.01
Fig. 43. Separation of proteins scaled up from a 2.2 ml column to a 390 ml column.
Intermediate purification Figure 44 shows an example of SOURCE 30Q used for an intermediate purification step in a large scale process. Recombinant P. aeruginosa exotoxin A, produced as a periplasmic protein in E. coli, was initially purified with STREAMLINE DEAE expanded bed adsorption, followed by hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) on Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (high sub). The fraction of interest was then further purified on SOURCE 30Q before a final HIC polishing step on SOURCE 15PHE to remove the final contaminants.
Column: Sample:
SOURCE 30Q, FineLINE 100 (375 ml) Partially purified recombinant P. aeruginosa exotoxin A, diluted 1:3 with water Sample: 1.8 g total protein ( 0.29 g exotoxin A) in 1.5 l Start buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.4 Elution buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, 1 M NaCl, pH 7.4 Flow: 785 ml/min (600 cm/h) Gradient: 050% elution buffer in 20 CV
A280 nm 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 Pool 10.0 12.0 Volume (litres)
Native PAGE results, Phast System, Coomassie staining Lane 1. Pool from step 2 on Phenyl Sepharose Fast Flow (high sub) Lane 2. Pool from step 3 on SOURCE 30Q Lane 3. Pool from step 4 on SOURCE 15PHE
77
Separations under extreme pH conditions The high pH stability of SOURCE media makes them well-suited for applications requiring conditions of extreme pH such as purification of certain peptides and synthetic oligonucleotides, as shown in Figures 45 and 46.
Column: Sample: Sample volume: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow: Gradient:
RESOURCE S, 1 ml partially purified bacitracin, 5 mg/ml 100 l 5 mM potassium phosphate, pH 2.8, 30% acetonitrile 5 mM potassium phosphate, 0.4 M KCl, pH 2.8, 30% acetonitrile 1 ml/min (180 cm/h) 0100% elution buffer in 10 CV
A280 nm
0.0
10.0
Time (min)
Fig. 45. Intermediate purification of the peptide bacitracin from Bacillus subtilis on RESOURCE Q, 1 ml.
Method optimization
Sample: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer:
A260 nm a) 800 Conductivity 150 Conductivity 100 400 50 50.0
600
60.0
200
40.0
Fig. 46. Manipulation of gradient slope and shape to maximize resolution. Initial purification of a 20 mer oligonucleotide was optimized on RESOURCE Q 1 ml and transferred to SOURCE Q PE 4.6/100 to further increase resolution by increasing bed height to 10 cm.
78
Batch-to-batch reproducibility Batch-to-batch reproducibility is particularly important for media used for scaling-up and large scale industrial applications which are under strict regulatory control. Figures 47 and 48 demonstrate the high batch-to-batch reproducibility of SOURCE 15 and SOURCE 30 media.
Columns: Sample:
SOURCE 30S, 2.2 ml, 4 separate batches chymotrypsinogen, cytochrome C and lysozyme Sample load: 0.32 mg/ml bed volume Start buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.8 Elution buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 6.8 Flow: 2.2 ml/min (300 cm/h) Gradient: 0100% elution buffer in 20 CV
A280 nm
0.0
10.0
20.0
Time (min)
Sample volume: 200 l Start buffer: 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, pH 7.00 Elution buffer: 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, 0.35 M NaCl, pH 7.00 Flow: 2.2 ml/min (300 cm/h) Gradient: 0% elution buffer (2 CV) 0100% elution buffer (21CV)
0.060
0.040
50
0.020
79
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use the instructions given here as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions using filters of 0.45 m or 0.22 m for 30 m particles and 0.22 m filters for 15 m particles. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (S). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (S) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6. First time use or after long term storage:
1. To remove ethanol, wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water at 2 ml/min (SOURCE 15 4.6/100 PE), 4 ml/min (RESOURCE 1 ml), 6 ml/min (RESOURCE 6 ml) or 200 cm/h for SOURCE packed in larger columns. This step ensures removal of ethanol and avoids the risk of precipitation if buffer salts were to come into contact with the ethanol. The step can be omitted if precipitation is not likely to be a problem. 2. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, at 2 ml/min (SOURCE 15 4.6/100 PE), 4 ml/min (RESOURCE 1 ml), 6 ml/min (RESOURCE 6 ml) or 200 cm/h for SOURCE packed in larger columns. 3. Wash with 5 column volumes of elution buffer, same flow as step 2. 4. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, same flow as step 2.
80
Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the medium. If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3.
81
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminatants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance. The following procedure should be satisfactory to remove common contaminants:
1. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 0.2 ml/min (SOURCE 15 4.6/100 PE), 1 ml/min (RESOURCE 1 ml), 6 ml/min (RESOURCE 6 ml) or 40 cm/h with a contact time of 12 h for SOURCE packed in larger columns. 2. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of 1 M NaOH (same flow as in step 1). 3. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl (same flow as in step 1). 4. Rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water (same flow as in step 1) until the UV-baseline and the eluent pH are stable. 5. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of start buffer or storage buffer (same flow as in step 1) until eluent pH and conductivity have reached the required values.
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: rigid, monodisperse, polystyrene/divinyl benzene particles (15 mm) with an optimized pore size distribution. The base matrix is substituted with quaternary amino groups (Q) or methyl sulfonate groups (S).
Product
SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 30Q SOURCE 15S SOURCE 30S
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2SO3
+ +
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 114 Long term: 212 Short term: 114 Long term: 213 Short term: 114 Long term: 213 Short term: 114
-CH2SO3
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
82
Chemical stability
For daily use, SOURCE media are stable in all common, aqueous buffers pH 2 12, denaturing agents (8 M urea, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), 75% acetic acid, 1 M NaOH, 1 M HCl, 70% ethanol, 30% acetonitrile and with additives such as non-ionic detergents. Avoid cationic detergents with SOURCE S. Avoid anionic detergents with SOURCE Q. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water followed by 5 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Include 0.2 M sodium acetate in the 20% ethanol solution for SOURCE S. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Store unused media at +4 C +30 C in 20% ethanol. Do not freeze.
83
Purification options
Fig. 49. Q and S Sepharose High Performance media are available prepacked in HiT rap and HiLoad columns or in media packs.
84
Product
Maximum flow*
Working Maximum o perating pH back pressure *** range** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
212 212 212 212 212 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.5/72
Strong anion exchangers HiTrap Q HP, 1 ml HiTrap Q HP, 5 ml HiLoad 16/10 Q Sepharose High Performance, 20 ml HiLoad 26/10 Q Sepharose High Performance, 53 ml Q Sepharose High Performance Strong cation exchangers HiTrap SP HP, 1 ml HiTrap SP HP, 5 ml 55 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 275 mg (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) up to 1 ml/min up to 5 ml/min 4 ml/min 20 ml/min 5 ml/min 13 ml/min 150 cm/h 413 413 413 413 413 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.5/72 50 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 250 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) <1200 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) <3000 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 70 mg/ml (HSA, Mr 68 000) up to 1 ml/min up to 5 ml/min up to 5 ml/min up to 13 ml/min 30150 cm/h 4 ml/min 20 ml/min 5 ml/min 13 ml/min 150 cm/h
HiLoad 16/10 SP Sepharose <1000 mg (ribonuclease, up to 5 ml/min High Performance, 20 ml Mr 13 700) HiLoad 26/10 SP Sepharose <3000 mg (ribonuclease, up to 13 ml/min High Performance, 53 ml Mr 13 700) SP Sepharose High Performance 55 mg/ml (ribonuclease, Mr 13 700) 30150 cm/h
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
Use prepacked HiTrap columns (1 ml or 5 ml) for media selection, method scouting, group separations, small scale purification, sample concentration or clean-up. Connect up to 3 HiTrap columns in series to scale-up. Use prepacked HiLoad columns (20 ml or 53 ml) for method development, group separations, larger scale purification or sample concentration. For column packing:
Column
Tricorn 10/100 Tricorn 10/150 Tricorn 10/200 XK 16/20 XK 26/20 XK 26/40
Volume
up to 8 ml up to 12 ml up to 16 ml up to 30 ml up to 80 ml up to 196 ml
Bed height
up to 10 cm up to 15 cm up to 20 cm up to 15 cm up to 15 cm >15 cm
85
Purification examples
Intermediate purification
Column: Sample:
HiLoad 26/10 Q Sepharose High Performance Flow through fraction from Blue Sepharose clean-up step Sample load: 110 mg protein Start buffer: 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, 35 mM Na2SO4, pH 7.2 Elution buffer: 20 mM bis-Tris-propane, 35 mM Na2SO4, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.2 Flow: 6.4 ml/min, 73 cm/h (sample application) 24.7 ml/min, 282 cm/h (during elution of non-binding material) 19.8 ml/min, 226 cm/h (gradient elution)
A280 nm 1.2 % Elution buffer 100
0.6
Fig. 50. Intermediate step from a purification protocol for a2-macroglobulin. An affinity step on Blue Sepharose was used to remove albumin, the major contaminant, before IEX.
Scaling-up
Using prepacked Sepharose High Performance columns facilitates quick scale-up and ensures reproducibility, as shown in Figures 51 and 52.
Column: Column volume: Bed height: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Sample: Load:
A280 nm
HiLoad 16/10 Q Sepharose High Performance 20 ml 10 cm 150 cm/h, 5 ml/min 0.02 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.6 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.6 1000 ml diluted pool from Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (high sub), 0.021 mg EGF/ml 1.05 mg EGF/ml medium
Conductivity 100
Column: Column volume: Bed height: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Sample: Load:
A280 nm 3.0
BPG 200/500 Q Sepharose High Performance 3140 ml 10 cm 150 cm/h, 48 l/h 0.02 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.6 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.6 170 l diluted pool from Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (high sub), 0.021 mg EGF/ml 1.09 mg EGF/ml medium
Conductivity 50
0.0
100
200
50
100
150
200
Fig. 51. Elution pattern, purity and yield are maintained when scaling-up from a HiLoad column to a BPG column.
86
Column: Sample:
HiTrap SP HP, 1 ml Concanavalin A, ribonuclease A, a-chymotrypsinogen A, lysozyme, 4 mg protein/ml (3:3:1:1) in start buffer Sample volume: 0.25 ml, 25% of column volume Flow: 0.5 ml/min (75 cm/h) Start buffer: 50 mM MES, pH 6.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM MES, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Gradient: 043% elution buffer over 10 ml (10 CV)
Column: Sample:
HiTrap SP HP, 5 ml Concanavalin A, ribonuclease A, a-chymotrypsinogen A, lysozyme, 4 mg protein/ml (3:3:1:1) in start buffer Sample volume: 1.25 m, 25% of column volume Flow: 2.5 ml/min (75 cm/h) Start buffer: 50 mM MES, pH 6.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM MES, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Gradient: 043% elution buffer over 50 ml (10 CV)
Conductivity
80 ml
Column: Sample:
HiLoad 16/10 SP Sepharose High Performance Concanavalin A, ribonuclease A, a-chymotrypsinogen A, lysozyme, 4 mg protein/ml (3:3:1:1) in start buffer Sample volume: 5.0 ml, 25% of column volume Column volume: 20 ml Flow: 2.5 ml/min (75 cm/h) Start buffer: 50 mM MES, pH 6.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM MES, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Gradient: 043% elution buffer over 200 ml (10 CV)
Column: Sample:
HiLoad 26/10 SP Sepharose High Performance Concanavalin A, ribonuclease A, a-chymotrypsinogen A, lysozyme, 4 mg protein/ml (3:3:1:1) in start buffer Sample volume: 13.25 ml, 25% of column volume Column volume: 53 ml Flow: 6.6 ml/min (75 cm/h) Start buffer: 50 mM MES, pH 6.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM MES, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Gradient: 043% elution buffer over 530 ml (10 CV)
A280 nm 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 ml c) Conductivity
A280 nm 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ml d) Conductivity
Fig. 52. Reproducibility maintained as purification is scaled up from a 1 ml HiT rap column through to a 53 ml HiLoad 26/10 SP Sepharose High Performance column.
87
Group separations Figure 53 shows a group separation of human serum proteins on HiTrap Q HP using a one step elution that had been optimized to ensure that IgG flowed through the column leaving other serum components to be eluted separately. Figure 54 illustrates a multi-step elution to separate groups of human milk proteins.
Column: Sample:
HiTrap Q HP 1 ml Human serum, filtered (0.45 m filter) and buffer exchanged to start buffer on a PD-10 Desalting column Sample volume: 1.0 ml Flow: 0.5 ml/min (75 cm/h) Start buffer: 75 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0 Elution buffer: 75 mM Tris-HCl, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 8.0
A280 nm 1.0 100% Elution Buffer
0.4
0.2
Lane 1. Low Molecular Weight (LMW) Calibration Kit, GE Healthcare Lane 2. Start material, buffer exchanged human serum, diluted 1:75 Lane 3. Flow through, pool 1, diluted 1:10 Lane 4. Desorbed material, pool 2, diluted 1:25
5 10 15 20 25 30 Volume (ml)
Fig. 53. Separation of IgG from human serum proteins on HiT rap Q HP, 1 ml, using one step elution. Analysis by SDS-PAGE (Phast System, PhastGel 1015, silver staining).
Column: Sample:
HiTrap SP HP, 1 ml Casein-precipitated human milk, filtered (0.45 m filter) and buffer exchanged to start buffer on a PD-10 Desalting column Sample volume: 0.5 ml Flow: 1.0 ml/min (150 cm/h) Start buffer: 50 mM sodium acetate, pH 6.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM sodium acetate, 1.0 M NaCl, pH 6.0
A280 nm 0.5 Fraction 2 100% Elution Buffer
0.4
0.2
24
10
15
20
25 30 Volume (ml)
Lane 1. Low Molecular Weight (LMW) Calibration Kit, GE Healthcare Lane 2. Start material, casein precipitated human milk, diluted 1:5 Lane 3. Fraction 2, diluted 1:2 Lane 4. Fraction 9 Lane 5. Fraction 16 Lane 6. Fraction 17 Lane 7. Fraction 24
Fig. 54. Separation of human milk proteins on HiT rap SP HP, 1 ml, using one step elution. Analysis by SDS-P AGE (Phast System, PhastGel 1015, silver staining).
88
Sample concentration It can be an advantage to concentrate a sample prior to gel filtration in order to minimize sample volume and facilitate a rapid, high resolution size separation. HiTrap columns offer a convenient, ready to use solution for sample concentration. Table 7 gives examples of the high concentration factors achieved when concentrating proteins from very dilute starting material using HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose HP medium. Similar results can be achieved with HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose Fast Flow or Sepharose XL media.
Table 7. Sample concentration using 1 ml HiTrap ion exchange columns. Column Sample Sample concentration g/ml
23 10 1 010 HiTrap SP HP, 5 ml Lysozyme 333 33
Sample volume ml
450 100 10 150 1 500
Volume eluted ml
3.0 2.0 3.0 16.0 13.2
Yield %
HiTrap Q HP, 1 ml
Human IgG
92 93 100 100 98
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use the instructions given here as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions through 0.45 m or 0.22 m filters. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (S). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (S) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6.
89
90
Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the medium. If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3. Note that this does not apply to HiTrap columns.
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance. The following procedure should be satisfactory to remove common contaminants:
1. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 1 ml/min (HiT 1 ml), 5 ml/min (HiTrap 5 ml), 3 ml/min rap (HiLoad 20 ml), 8 ml/min (HiLoad 53 ml) or at 40 cm/h with a contact time of 12 hours for Sepharose High Performance packed in larger columns. 2. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of 1 M NaOH (same flow as step 1). 3. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl (same flow as step 1). 4. Rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water (same flow as step 1) until the UV-baseline and the eluent pH are stable. 5. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of start buffer or storage buffer (same flow as step 1) until eluent pH and conductivity have reached the required values.
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
91
Media characteristics
Composition: sulfopropyl (SP) or quaternary amino (Q) groups coupled to highly cross-linked 6% agarose via chemically stable ether bonds.
Product
Q Sepharose High Performance SP Sepharose High Performance
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2CH2CH2SO3
+
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 114 Long term: 413 Short term: 314
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
Chemical stability
For daily use, Sepharose High Performance media are stable in all common, aqueous buffers, 1 M NaOH, denaturing agents (8 M urea, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), 70% ethanol, 1 M acetic acid, 30% acetonitrile and with additives such as non-ionic detergents. Sepharose High Performance can be used with organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethane and dichloroethane/pyridine (50:50) as well as polar solvents and aqueous/organic isolutions. The water in the medium can be exchanged by the alternative solvent with very little effect on the pore size of the matrix. Avoid cationic detergents with SP Sepharose High Performance. Avoid anionic detergents with Q Sepharose High Performance. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 2 column volumes of distilled water followed by 2 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Include 0.2 M sodium acetate in the 20% ethanol solution for columns packed with SP Sepharose High Performance. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Store unused media at +4 C to +30 C in 20% ethanol. Do not freeze. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run.
92
Sepharose Fast Flow: purification with good resolution and easy scale-up
Use Sepharose Fast Flow media for purification of proteins. Use Sepharose Fast Flow for capture or intermediate purification steps that require good resolution (flows up to 300 cm/h). Use a weak ion exchanger such as DEAE, CM or ANX Sepharose Fast Flow, if a strong ion exchanger (substituted with Q, S or SP) does not give the required selectivity. Run Sepharose Fast Flow columns on systems such as KTAdesign, FPLC System and HPLC or systems using peristaltic pumps. Appendix 4 gives guidance on how to select the most suitable KTAdesign system. Sepharose Fast Flow media are based on a matrix of 90 m particles made from 6% agarose and highly cross-linked for chemical and physical stability. ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub) is based on 4% agarose to form a medium that maintains a high binding capacity when separating large molecules such as thyroglobulin (M r = 650 000), particularly suitable for large scale production when total binding capacity becomes economically significant. Sepharose Fast Flow matrices are substituted with a range of ion exchange groups (Q, DEAE, ANX, SP and CM) giving the opportunity to test and use different selectivities (see Chapter 1 for an explanation of strong and weak ion exchangers). Ion exchangers containing strong ion exchange groups (Q and SP) maintain their charge over a broad pH range, allowing selection of the most suitable pH for each application. Ion exchangers containing weak ion exchange groups (DEAE, CM and ANX) offer alternative selectivities, but over a narrower pH working range. Figure 55 illustrates how the selectivity of Sepharose Fast Flow media changes according to the anion exchange group. Particle size and bed volumes remain stable, despite changes in ionic strength or pH, to ensure fast separations at high flow rates with good resolution. Methods can be easily scaled up from columns such as HiTrap Q FF (1 ml, prepacked with Q Sepharose Fast Flow) through to large scale columns such as FineLINE. The performance of Sepharose Fast Flow media is well documented and there are many examples of the smooth transfer from the laboratory to pilot scale and on to production.
93
Columns:
Sample:
a) HiTrap ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub) 1 ml b) HiTrap Q XL 1 ml c) HiTrap Q Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml d) HiTrap DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml 0.4 mg conalbumin (pI=6.3), 0.8 mg a-lactoglobulin (pI=5.8), 1.2 mg soya bean trypsin inhibitor (pI=4.5) dissolved in 2 ml start buffer 2 ml 20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4 20 mM Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl pH 7.4 1 ml/min (150 cm/h) 0% elution buffer (25 CV), 0-80% elution buffer (40 CV) Wash: 5 ml start buffer Elution: 40 ml, linear gradient, 080 % elution buffer
A280 nm a) 300
HiTrap ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub), 1 ml
II III I
Conductivity mS/cm
250
40.0 II b) III I II
200
30.0
150 c)
HiTrap Q Sepharose Fast Flow, 1 ml
III I 20.0
100 II
HiTrap DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow, 1 ml
III 10.0
d)
50
0.0
Fig. 55. Separation of conalbumin (I), a-lactalbumin (II) and soya bean trypsin inhibitor (III) on a range of anion exchange HiTrap columns demonstrates the difference in selectivity according to the anion exchange group.
Purification options
Fig. 56. Sepharose Fast Flow media, with a range of selectivities, are available prepacked in HiT columns and in media packs.
94
Product
Maximum flow*
Working Maximum pH operating range** back pressure *** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
212 0.3/43
Strong anion exchangers HiTrap Q FF, 1 ml 3 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 120 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 110 mg (alactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 15 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 600 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 550 mg (alactalbumin, Mr 14 300) up to 1 ml/min 4 ml/min
HiTrap Q FF, 5 ml
up to 5 ml/min
20 ml/min
212
0.3/43
60 mg (thyroglobulin, 210 ml/min Mr 669 000) 2400 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 2200 mg (alactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 3 mg/ml (thyroglobulin, 50400 cm/h Mr 669 000) 120 mg/ml (HSA, Mr 68 000) 110 mg/ml, (alactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 50 mg (bovine COHb, Mr 69 000) 50 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 70 mg (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 250 mg (bovine COHb, Mr 69 000) 250 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 350 mg (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) up to 1 ml/min
10 ml/min
212
0.15/22
750 cm/h
212
0.3/43
HiTrap SP FF, 5 ml
up to 5 ml/min
20 ml/min
413
0.3/43
1000 mg (bovine COHb, 210 ml/min Mr 69 000) 1000 mg (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 1400 mg (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 50 mg/ml (bovine COHb, 50400 cm/h Mr 69 000) 50 mg/ml (human IgG, Mr 160 000) 70 mg/ml (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 100 mg (alactalbumin, Mr14 300) 110 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) up to 1 ml/min
10 ml/min
413
0.15/22
750 cm/h
413
0.3/43
95
Product
Maximum flow*
Working Maximum pH operating range** back pressure *** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
29 0.3/43
up to 5 ml/min
20 ml/min
2000 mg (alactalbumin, 210 ml/min Mr 14 300) 2200 mg (HSA, Mr 68 000) 100 mg/ml (alactalbumin, Mr 14 300) 110 mg/ml (HSA, Mr 68 000) 43 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 5 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 215 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 25 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 860 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) 100 mg (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 43 mg/ml (BSA, Mr 67 000) 5 mg/ml (thyroglobulin, Mr 669 000) 50 mg (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 250 mg (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 50400 cm/h
10 ml/min
29
0.15/22
750 cm/h
29
0.3/43
up to 1 ml/min
4 ml/min
29
0.3/43
up to 5 ml/min
20 ml/min
29
0.3/43
210 ml/min
10 ml/min
29
0.15/22
50300 cm/h
400 cm/h
29
0.1/14
Weak cation exchangers HiTrap CM FF, 1 ml HiTrap CM FF, 5 ml HiPrep 16/10 CM FF, 20 ml CM Sepharose Fast Flow up to 1 ml/min up to 5 ml/min 4 ml/min 20 ml/min 10 ml/min 750 cm/h 610 610 610 610 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.15/22 0.3/43
1000 mg (ribonuclease A, 210 ml/min Mr 13 700) 50 mg/ml medium (ribonuclease A, Mr 13 700) 50400 cm/h
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
Use prepacked HiTrap columns (1 ml or 5 ml) for media selection, method scouting, group separations, small scale purification, sample concentration or clean-up. Connect up to 3 HiTrap columns in series to scale-up. Use prepacked HiPrep columns (20 ml) for method development, group separations, larger scale purification, sample concentration or clean-up. Connect several HiPrep columns in series to increase binding capacity.
96
Volume
up to 8 ml up to 12 ml up to 16 ml up to 30 ml up to 80 ml up to 196 ml up to 274 ml up to 559 ml
Bed height
up to 10 cm up to 15 cm up to 20 cm up to 15 cm up to 15 cm > 15 cm up to 14 cm up to 28.5 cm
Purification examples
Media scouting Using 1 ml HiTrap columns the most suitable matrix and charged group for a separation can be quickly and easily selected before optimization and scale-up. In Figure 57 a comparison of elution profiles for the same sample separated under identical conditions on three different media illustrates the differences in selectivity and resolution that can result from changing the charge group and the particle size. The most suitable medium can be selected and conditions optimized according to the requirements for the separation, for example to isolate a single, well-resolved peak or to maximize resolution between several peaks of interest. Begin by scouting on the strong ion exchangers (Q, S or SP) in order to find the greatest differences in charge between the molecules of interest.
Columns: Sample:
a) HiTrap SP XL 1 ml b) HiTrap SP Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml c) HiTrap CM Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml 3 mg ribonuclease A (pI=9.3), 0.8 mg cytochrome C (pI=10.3), 0.8 mg lysozyme (pI>11)
A280 nm I III Conductivity mS/cm
a)
HiTrap SP XL, 1 ml
Sample volume: 2 ml in start buffer Start buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate pH 6.8 Elution buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, 0.5 M NaCl pH 6.8 Flow: 1 ml/min (150 cm/h) Gradient: 0% elution buffer (25 CV), 0100% elution buffer (40 CV)
150
II
40.0
b) 100
HiTrap SP Sepharose Fast Flow, 1 ml
I II+III
30.0
20.0
50
c)
II
III 10.0
Fig. 57. Media scouting: separation of ribonuclease A (I), cytochrome C (II) and lysozyme (III) on HiT CM Sepharose rap Fast Flow 1 ml, HiTrap SP Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml and HiTrap SP XL 1 ml.
97
Capture
Column: Sample:
HiPrep 16/10 DEAE Sepharose FF (20 ml) 200 ml clarified E. coli supernatant, diluted 1:2 with water pH 6.6, conductivity 2.6 mS/cm Start buffer: 25 mM Tris-HCl, 10% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, 2 mM DTT, pH 7.4 Elution buffer: 1 M NaCl, 25 mM Tris-HCl, 10% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, 2 mM DTT, pH 7.4 Flow: 5 ml/min (150 cm/h) Gradient: 0% elution buffer (6 CV) 050% elution buffer (20 CV) 50% elution buffer (1 CV) 100% elution buffer (2 CV)
A280 nm 2.0 The phosphatase activity is represented by the green bars. 3.0 A 405 nm 4.0
2.0
1.0
Fig. 58. A HiPrep 16/10 DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow column is used as the capture step to concentrate rPhosphatase and remove most of the contaminants.
Scaling-up Figure 59 shows the ease with which separations can be scaled up on columns prepacked with Sepharose Fast Flow media. Beginning with a 1 ml HiTrap column the reproducibility of the separation has been maintained through a 20-fold scale-up.
Sample:
1. Conalbumin, 2 mg/ml 2. a-lactalbumin, 4 mg/ml 3. Soy trypsin inhibitor, 6 mg/ml Sample volume: 1 CV (column volume) a) 1 ml, b) 5 ml, c) 20 ml Start buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.3 Elution buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.3 Gradient: 0100% elution buffer in 20 CV a) 20 ml, b) 100 ml, c) 400 ml Flow: 150 cm/h (1 ml/min using HiTrap 1 ml, 5 ml/min using HiTrap 5 ml and HiPrep 16/10 columns)
A280 nm 2 a) HiTrap Q FF 1 ml 15.0 3 10.0 1 5.0
A280 nm 2 25.0 c) HiPrep 16/10 Q FF 20 ml 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0 100 200 300 400 500 ml 1 3
Fig. 59. 5-fold and 20-fold scale-up using prepacked Q Sepharose Fast Flow columns.
98
Column: Sample:
HiTrap DEAE, 1 ml 1 ml centrifuged, filtered and de salted E. coli homogenate Flow: 2 ml/min, 310 cm/h Gradient: 0100% elution buffer in 10 ml (10 CV) where 100 %=1 M NaCl Buffer: AIEX pH 59.5 BufferPrep recipe in KTAexplorer
A 280 nm a) A 405 nm
Alkaline phosphatase assay 1) Pipette 100 l sample (fractions) + 100 l substrate (SIGMA FAST pNPP substrate tablet set, N2270, prepared according to the manufacturer's protocol) into micro-titrer plate. Blank = 100 l substrate + 100 l buffer. 2) Incubate for 1 hr in the dark at room temperature. 3) Read the absorbance at 405 nm.
A 280 nm b) A 405 nm
50.0
1.0
50.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
A 280 nm c)
A 405 nm
A 280 nm d)
A 405 nm
50.0
1.0
50.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
Column: Sample:
HiPrep 16/10 DEAE 12 ml centrifuged, filtered and desalted E. coli homogenate Flow: 10 ml/min, 300 cm/h Gradient: 0100% elution buffer in 200 ml (10 CV) where 100%=1 M NaCl Buffer: AIEX pH 59.5 BufferPrep recipe in KTAexplorer
A 280 nm
A 405 nm 0.40
50.0
0.20
0.0
99
Optimizing pH When the most suitable medium has been selected for a separation, conditions can be optimized further by adjusting parameters such as pH. Figure 61 shows how increasing the pH on a column prepacked with CM Sepharose Fast Flow (HiPrep 16/10 CM FF) significantly improved resolution of a mixture of model proteins.
Column: Sample: Flow: Gradient: Buffer:
A 280 nm pH 5.0 200 50 100 100 50 100
HiPrep 16/10 CM FF 10 mg apo-transferrin, ribonuclease A and cytochrome C in 1 ml 10 ml/min, 300 cm/h 050% elution buffer in 300 ml (15 CV) where 50%=0.5 M NaCl CIEX pH 37.5 BufferPrep recipe in KTAexplorer
% Elution buffer A 280 nm pH 6.5 % Elution buffer A 280 nm pH 7.5 % Elution buffer
200
200 50
0 0 200 ml
0 0 200 ml
0 0 200 ml
Fig. 61. Selecting optimal pH for separation of standard proteins on HiPrep 16/10 CM FF .
Sample concentration It can be an advantage to concentrate a sample prior to gel filtration in order to minimize sample volume and facilitate a rapid, high resolution size separation. HiTrap columns offer a convenient, ready to use solution for sample concentration. Table 7 on page 89 gives examples of the high concentration factors achieved when concentrating proteins from very dilute starting material using HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose HP medium. Similar results can be achieved with HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose Fast Flow or Sepharose XL media.
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use the instructions given here as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions using filters of 1 m or less. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, maintain buffers and columns at a constant temperature before and during a run.
100
The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q, DEAE or ANX) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (SP, CM). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (SP) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 If selectivity is not satisfactory when using a strong ion exchanger (Q or SP), try a weak ion exchanger (DEAE, ANX or CM) instead. Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6. First time use or after long term storage
1. To remove ethanol, wash with 1 column volume of distilled water at 1 ml/min (HiT 1 ml), 5 ml/min rap (HiTrap 5 ml), 2 ml/min (HiPrep 20 ml), or at 50 cm/h for Sepharose Fast Flow packed in lar er columns. g This step ensures removal of ethanol and avoids the risk of precipitation if buffer salts were to come into contact with the ethanol. The step can be omitted if precipitation is not likely to be a problem. 2. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer at 1 ml/min (HiTrap 1 ml), 5 ml/min (HiTrap 5 ml) or 5 ml/min (HiPrep 20 ml). 3. Wash with 5 column volumes of elution buffer, same flow as step 2. 4. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, same flow as step 2. 5. Run a blank elution before applying sample.
101
Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the medium. If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Refer to Chapter 2 for advice on optimizing the separation. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3. Note that this does not apply to HiTrap or HiPrep columns.
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance.
102
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: sulfopropyl (SP), carboxymethyl (CM), quaternary amino (Q) or diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) groups coupled to highly cross-linked 6% agarose via chemically stable ether bonds. diethylaminopropyl (ANX) group coupled to highly cross-linked 4% agarose via chemically stable ether bonds.
Product
Q Sepharose Fast Flow SP Sepharose Fast Flow DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow CM Sepharose Fast Flow
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2CH2CH2SO3
+
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 114 Long term: 413 Short term: 314
+
Long term: 213 Short term: 114 Long term: 313 Short term: 214 Long term: 413 Short term: 214
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
103
Chemical stability
For daily use, Sepharose Fast Flow media are stable in all common, aqueous buffers, 1 M NaOH, denaturing agents (8 M urea, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), with additives such as non-ionic detergents, 70% ethanol, 1 M acetic acid and 30% isopropanol. Sepharose Fast Flow can be used with organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethane and dichloroethane/pyridine (50:50) as well as polar solvents and aqueous/organic isolutions. The water in the medium can be exchanged by the alternative solvent with very little effect on the pore size of the matrix. Avoid cationic detergents with SP or CM Sepharose Fast Flow. Avoid anionic detergents with Q, DEAE or ANX Sepharose Fast Flow. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 2 column volumes of distilled water followed by 2 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Include 0.2 M sodium acetate in the 20% ethanol solution for SP Sepharose Fast Flow. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Store unused media at +4 C to +30 C in 20% ethanol. Do not freeze. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run.
104
Sepharose XL for selected proteins that require very high binding capacity to increase productivity, easy scale-up
Use Sepharose XL media for purification of proteins when improved binding capacity compared to other Sepharose media has been confirmed for the selected protein. Use Sepharose XL at the beginning of a purification scheme for initial capture when a high binding capacity and rapid separation is required for a selected protein from clarified samples. Run columns packed with Sepharose XL on systems such as KTAdesign, FPLC System and HPLC or systems using peristaltic pumps. Appendix 4 gives guidance on how to select the most suitable KTAdesign system. Purify viruses or viral vectors using Q Sepharose XL virus licensed. Sepharose XL media are based on a matrix of 90 m particles, made from 6% agarose and highly cross-linked for chemical and physical stability, substituted with quaternary ammonium (Q) or sulfopropyl (SP) groups. The ionic groups are bound to long, flexible dextran chains which have been coupled to the agarose. This increases the exposure of the Q or SP groups thereby raising the binding capacity to a very high level without restricting the passage of charged molecules. The strong ion exchange groups maintain their charge over a broad pH range, allowing selection of the most suitable pH for each application. Particle size and bed volumes remain stable, despite changes in ionic strength or pH, to ensure fast separations at high flow rates with good resolution.
Purification options
Fig. 62. Q and S Sepharose XL are available in prepacked HiT rap and HiPrep columns, in media packs and in the Ion Exchange Selection Kit.
105
Product
Maximum flow*
Working pH range**
Strong anion exchangers HiTrap Q XL, 1 ml HiTrap Q XL, 5 ml HiPrep 16/10 Q XL, 20 ml Q Sepharose XL and Q Sepharose XL virus licensed**** Strong cation exchangers HiTrap SP XL, 1 ml HiTrap SP XL, 5 ml HiPrep 16/10 SP XL, 20 ml SP Sepharose XL >160 mg (lysozyme, Mr 14 500) >800 mg (lysozyme, M r 14 500) >3200 mg (lysozyme, Mr 14 500) up to 1 ml/min up to 5 ml/min 210 ml/min 4 ml/min 20 ml/min 10 ml/min 700 cm/h 413 413 413 413 0.3/43 0.3/43 0.15/22 0.3/43 >130 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) >650 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) >2600 mg (BSA, Mr 67 000) >130 mg/ml (BSA, Mr 67 000) up to 1 ml/min up to 5 ml/min 210 ml/min 300500 cm/h 4 ml/min 20 ml/min 10 ml/min 700 cm/h 212 212 212 212
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress. **** Important information: Separating viral particles with Q Sepharose XL may require a license under United States patent 6,537,793 B2 and foreign equivalents owned by Gencell SAS. Such a license is not included with the purchase of Q Sepharose XL, but is included with the purchase of Q Sepharose XL virus licensed products. Purchasers of Q Sepharose XL virus licensed products are granted a free limited license under US patent 6,537,793 B2 and foreign equivalents owned by Gencell SAS to separate viral particles solely through use of the product purchased.
Use prepacked HiTrap columns (1 ml or 5 ml) for media selection, method scouting, group separations, small scale purification, sample concentration or clean-up. Connect up to 3 HiTrap columns in series to scale-up. Use prepacked HiPrep columns (20 ml) for method development, group separations, larger scale purification, sample concentration or clean-up. Connect several HiPrep columns in series to increase binding capacity. For column packing:
Column
Tricorn 10/100 Tricorn 10/150 Tricorn 10/200 XK 16/20 XK 26/20 XK 26/40 XK 50/20 XK 50/30
Volume
up to 8 ml up to 12 ml up to 16 ml up to 30 ml up to 80 ml up to 196 ml up to 274 ml up to 559 ml
Bed height
up to 10 cm up to 15 cm up to 20 cm up to 15 cm up to 15 cm > 15 cm up to 14 cm up to 28.5 cm
106
Purification examples
Media selection Using 1 ml HiTrap columns the most suitable matrix and charged group for a separation to be selected quickly and easily. In Figure 63 a comparison of elution profiles for the same sample separated under identical conditions on three different media illustrates the differences in selectivity and resolution that can result from changing the charge group and matrix. The most suitable medium can be selected and conditions optimized according to the requirements for the purification. In this example Sepharose XL resolves the three components and optimization of elution conditions could further improve the resolution. However, any of these media would be suitable if the aim was to isolate the first major peak (ribonuclease A).
Columns: Sample:
a) HiTrap SP XL 1 ml b) HiTrap SP Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml c) HiTrap CM Sepharose Fast Flow 1 ml 3 mg ribonuclease A (pI=9.3), 0.8 mg cytochrome C (pI=10.3), 0.8 mg lysozyme (pI>11)
A280 nm a)
HiTrap SP XL, 1 ml
I III
Conductivity mS/cm
Sample volume: 2 ml in start buffer Start buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate pH 6.8 Elution buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, 0.5 M NaCl pH 6.8 Flow: 1 ml/min (150 cm/h) Gradient: 0% elution buffer (25 CV), 0100% elution buffer (40 CV)
150
II
40.0
b) 100
HiTrap SP Sepharose Fast Flow, 1 ml
I II+III
30.0
II
Fig. 63. Media scouting: separation of ribonuclease A (I), cytochrome c (II) and lysozyme (III) on a range of anion exchange HiTrap columns.
Capture Capture of alkaline phosphatase from a clarified lysate of E. coli using a HiTrap Q XL 1 ml column is shown in Figure 64. Separation was monitored at A 280 nm and phosphatase activity assayed by a spectrophotometric method at A 405 nm
Columns: Sample: Sample volume: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow: Gradient:
HiTrap Q XL 1 ml 2 ml E.coli lysate clarified by centrifugation 2 ml 20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4 20 mM Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl pH 7.4 1 ml/min (150 cm/h) 0% elution buffer (30 CV), 0100% elution buffer (40 CV)
A280 nm 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 ml 10.0
A405 nm
Fig. 64. Clarified E. coli lysate on HiT rap Q XL, absorbance values at 450 nm relate to phosphatase activity in eluted fractions.
107
Capture and scale-up Figure 65 shows a pilot scale purification performed on a Sepharose XL ion exchanger. The separation was developed on Q Sepharose XL packed in an XK 16/20 column in order to select optimal pH and to determine maximum binding capacity available. Adding CaCl 2 to the sample precipitated DNA and so increased the binding capacity for the target protein. Final loading was reduced to 75% of the maximum capacity and the result verified before scaling-up to the larger column.
Column: Sample:
Q Sepharose XL in INdEX 70, 385 ml bed volume Recombinant a-amylase produced in E. coli, homogenized, 2.2 l diluted in distilled water to 15.4 l, 7.2 mS/cm, 10 mM CaCl2, centrifuged Start buffer: 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8, 10 mM CaCl 2 Elution buffer: 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8, 1 M NaCl, 10 mM CaCl2 Flow: 300 cm/h, 12 l/h Gradient: 20 CV 01 M NaCl Eluate: 1.48 l, 3.8 CV Spec. act. a-amylase 6420 U/l
A280 nm Conductivity mS/cm
Mr 97 000 66 000 45 000 30 000 20 100 14 400 1 Lane 1. Lane 2. Lane 3. Lane 4. Lane 5. Lane 6. Lane 7. 2 3 4 5 6 7
500
LMW markers Starting material Flow through 1st peak (containing a-amylase) 2nd peak Low Molecular Weight (LMW) Calibration Kit, GE Healthcare
Fig. 65. Capture of recombinant a-amylase from E. coli on Q Sepharose XL pilot scale column together with SDS-P AGE (Phast System, Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining) of starting material and eluted fractions (reduced).
Viral purification
Column: Sample:
Q Sepharose XL packed in a 0.5 10 cm column 0.5 ml of a 1:5 dilution (in start buffer) of a sample of wild type adenoviral vector containing 5 1012 virus particles Start buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, 5% glycerol, pH 8.0 Elution buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, 1 M NaCl, 5% glycerol, pH 8.0 Flow: 75 cm/h Gradient: 075% elution buffer in 20 CV
A280 nm 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 ml UV at 280nm UV at 254nm Conductivity in mS/cm
185 118 85 62 51 38
Lane 1. Molecular weight standards Lane 2. Adenoviral vector purified by CsCl density gradient centrifugation Lane 3. Adenoviral vector purified on Q Sepharose XL
Fig. 66. Q Sepharose XL virus licensed provides an alternate to traditional cesium chloride density gradient centrifugation used for purification of viruses and viral vectors.
108
Sample concentration It can be an advantage to concentrate a sample prior to gel filtration in order to minimize sample volume and facilitate a rapid, high resolution size separation. HiTrap columns offer a convenient, ready to use solution for sample concentration. Table 7 on page 89 gives examples of the high concentration factors achieved when concentrating proteins from very dilute starting material using HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose HP medium. Similar results can be achieved with HiTrap columns prepacked with Sepharose Fast Flow or Sepharose XL media.
Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. Use the instructions given here as a basis from which to optimize a separation. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Samples must be fully dissolved and free from particles or other material likely to interfere with the separation. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice on sample preparation. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions using filters of 1 m or smaller. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, maintain buffers and columns at a constant temperature before and during a run. The pH of the start buffer should be at least 0.51 pH unit above the pI of the target substance when using an anion exchanger (Q) and 0.51 pH unit below the pI of the target substance when using a cation exchanger (S). See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems for anion and cation exchangers. For samples with unknown charge properties, try the following: anion exchange (Q) start buffer: pH 8.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 8.0 cation exchange (SP) start buffer: pH 6.0 elution buffer: start buffer including 1 M NaCl, pH 6.0 Users of KTAdesign systems with BufferPrep functionality can select one of the buffer recipes recommended for anion exchange chromatography at pH 8 or cation exchange chromatography at pH 6.
109
Save time by using higher flow rates during the high salt wash and re-equilibration steps. Do not exceed the maximum recommended flow for the medium. If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable.
110
Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3.
Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance. The following procedure should be satisfactory to remove common contaminants:
1. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 1 ml/min (HiT 1 ml), 5 ml/min (HiTrap 5 ml), 5 ml/min rap (HiPrep 20 ml) or at 40 cm/h with a contact time of 12 hours for Sepharose XL packed in larger columns. 2. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of 1 M NaOH (same flow as step 1). 3. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl (same flow as step 1). 4. Rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water (same flow as step 1) until the UV-baseline and the eluent pH are stable. 5. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of start buffer or storage buffer (same flow as step 1) until eluent pH and conductivity have reached the required values.
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: sulfopropyl (SP) or quaternary amino (Q) groups attached via chemically stable ether bonds to long, flexible dextran chains that are covalently coupled to highly cross-linked 6% agarose.
Product
Q Sepharose XL SP Sepharose XL
Functional group
-CH2N (CH3)3 -CH2CH2CH2SO3
+
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 214 Long term: 413 Short term: 314
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
111
Chemical stability
For daily use, Sepharose XL media are stable in all common, aqueous buffers, 1 M NaOH, denaturing agents (8 M urea, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), with additives such as non-ionic detergents, 70% ethanol, 1 M acetic acid and 30% isopropanol. Sepharose XL can be used with organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethane and dichloroethane/pyridine (50:50) as well as polar solvents and aqueous/organic isolutions. The water in the medium can be exchanged by the alternative solvent with very little effect on the pore size of the matrix. Avoid cationic detergents with SP Sepharose XL. Avoid anionic detergents with Q Sepharose XL. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 2 column volumes of distilled water followed by 2 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Include 0.2 M sodium acetate in the storage solution for SP Sepharose XL. Degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly and apply at a low flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Whenever possible, use the storage and shipping device if supplied by the manufacturer. Store unused media at +4 C to +30 C in 20% ethanol. Do not freeze. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, ensure that column and buffers are at the same temperature when preparing for a run.
112
Sepharose Big Beads: purification from crude, viscous samples at large scale
Use Sepharose Big Beads for purification of proteins from crude, viscous samples. Use Sepharose Big Beads when handling large volumes of crude or viscous samples that must be bound rapidly and when resolution is less important. Use Sepharose Big Beads for capture steps, when viscosity and back-pressure may limit the throughput attainable with ion exchangers of smaller particle size. Run columns packed with Sepharose Big Beads on systems such as KTAdesign, FPLC System and HPLC or systems using peristaltic pumps. Appendix 4 gives guidance on how to select the most suitable KTAdesign system. Sepharose Big Beads are ion exchangers designed for large-scale industrial applications. The media are based on 100300 m, cross-linked 6% agarose particles, substituted with quaternary ammonium (Q) or sulfopropyl (SP) groups. The large particle size, together with a high degree of cross-linking for extreme physical and chemical stability, ensures that high flow rates can be maintained when processing very viscous samples. For example, a flow of 500 cm/h can be maintained in an industrial process at viscosities up to 2.5 times the viscosity of water. More dilute samples can be run at 1000 cm/h. Particle size and bed volumes remain stable, despite changes in ionic strength or pH. The strong ion exchange groups (Q and SP) maintain their charge over a broad pH range, allowing selection of the most suitable pH for each application. Figures 67 and 68 show the excellent flow characteristics and typical binding capacities for Big Bead media.
Flow (cm/h) 3000 BPG300/20 cm/dist.water/25 C PP113/30 cm/65% ethanol/20 C, viscosity 2.5 times water
2000
1000
4 Pressure (bar)
Fig. 67. Sepharose Big Beads allow high flow rates with high viscosity samples.
113
C/Co (%) concentration in eluate as fraction of concentration in sample 100 BSA/300 cm/h b-lactogl./300 cm/h BSA/12 cm/h 80 b-lactogl./12 cm/h
60
40
20
100
Fig. 68. Typical binding capacities of SP Sepharose Big Beads. Binding capacity measured in acetate pH 5 for bovine serum albumin and formate pH 4.1 for b-lactoglobulin at linear flows of 12 and 300 cm/h.
Purification options
Product Binding capacity/ml medium Recommended working flow* Maximum flow* Working pH range** Maximum operating back pressure *** (MPa/psi) 1 MPa=10 bar
0.3/43
Strong anion exchangers Q Sepharose Big Beads Strong cation exchanger SP Sepharose Big Beads tested for each specific application up to 300 cm/h 1800 cm/h 413 0.3/43 tested for each specific application up to 300 cm/h 1800 cm/h 212
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
For column packing during method development, particularly when handling crude, viscous samples:
XK 16/20 XK 26/20 XK 26/40 XK 50/20 XK 50/30 up to 30 ml up to 80 ml up to 196 ml up to 274 ml up to 559 ml up to 15 cm up to 15 cm > 15 cm up to 14 cm up to 28.5 cm
Select a production scale column such as BPG or Chromaflow for larger volumes. Sepharose Big Beads can be packed in large scale columns by applying constant pressure between 13 bar, by slurry sedimentation followed by adaptor compression, or by suction packing. Follow the instructions supplied with the medium.
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Performing a separation
Guidelines for selection of media, buffer, pH and ionic strength conditions and method optimization are given in Chapter 2. See Appendix 2 for recommendations on volatile and non-volatile buffer systems. Correct sample and buffer preparation is essential in order to achieve optimal separation and avoid any deterioration in column performance. Refer to Chapter 2 and Appendix 1 for recommendations and advice. Filter buffers after all salts and additives have been included. Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter solutions through 1 m filters. To avoid formation of air bubbles in a packed column, maintain buffers and columns at a constant temperature before and during a run. First time use or after long term storage
1. Wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water at 300 cm/h. 2. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, same flow as step 1. 3. Wash with 5 column volumes of elution buffer, same flow as step 1. 4. Wash with 5 column volumes of start buffer, same flow as step 1. 5. Run a blank elution before applying sample.
If ionic detergents have been used, wash the column with 5 column volumes of distilled water, followed by 2 column volumes 2 M NaCl. Re-equilibrate with at least 10 column volumes of start buffer until the UV baseline, eluent pH and/or conductivity are stable. Organic solvents such as ethanol can be used to remove non-ionic detergents. When selecting an organic solvent, check the chemical stability of the medium to determine a suitable concentration. Check column performance regularly by determining column efficiency and peak symmetry. See Appendix 3.
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Cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance. The following procedure should be satisfactory to remove common contaminants:
1. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl at 40 cm/h for a contact time of 12 hours. 2. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of 1 M NaOH (same flow as step 1). 3. Wash with at least 2 column volumes of 2 M NaCl (same flow as step 1). 4. Rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water (same flow as step 1) until the UV-baseline and the eluent pH are stable. 5. Wash with at least 4 column volumes of start buffer or storage buffer (same flow as step 1) until eluent pH and conductivity have reached the required values.
To remove precipitated proteins, lipids, hydrophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins, refer to Appendix 1.
Media characteristics
Composition: sulfopropyl (SP) or quaternary amino (Q) groups coupled to highly cross-linked 6% agarose via chemically stable ether bonds.
Product
Q Sepharose Big Beads
Functional group
-CH2N+(CH3)3
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 214 Long term: 413 Short term: 314
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
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Chemical stability
For daily use, Sepharose Big Beads media are stable in all common, aqueous buffers, 1 M NaOH, denaturing agents (8 M urea, 6 M guanidine hydrochloride), with additives such as non-ionic detergents, 70% ethanol, 1 M acetic acid, 30% acetonitrile and 30% isopropanol. Sepharose Big Beads can be used with organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethane and dichloroethane/pyridine (50:50) as well as polar solvents and aqueous/organic isolutions. The water in the medium can be exchanged by the alternative solvent with very little effect on the pore size of the matrix. Avoid cationic detergents with SP Sepharose Big Beads. Avoid anionic detergents with Q Sepharose Big Beads. Avoid oxidizing agents.
Storage
For column storage, wash with 2 column volumes of distilled water followed by 2 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Include 0.2 M sodium acetate in the storage solution for SP Sepharose Big Beads. For small scale columns, degas the ethanol/water mixture thoroughly, for large scale columns ensure that an air trap is included before the column. Add storage solution at a low flow rate, checking the back pressure as the column equilibrates. Alternatively, store at neutral pH in buffer containing 20% ethanol or in 0.01 M NaOH. Store at room temperature or, for long periods, store at +4 C to +8 C. Ensure that the column is sealed well to avoid drying out. Store unused media at +4 C to +30 C in 20% ethanol. Do not freeze.
117
118
Purity
Step
119
Applying CIPP
Imagine the purification has three phases: Capture, Intermediate Purification and Polishing. Assign a specific objective to each step within the purification process. The purification problem associated with a particular step will depend greatly upon the properties of the starting material. Thus, the objective of a purification step will vary according to its position in the process. In the capture phase the objectives are to isolate, concentrate and stabilize the target product. The product should be concentrated and transferred to an environment that will conserve potency/activity. During the intermediate purification phase the objectives are to remove most of the bulk impurities, such as other proteins and nucleic acids, endotoxins and viruses. In the polishing phase most impurities have already been removed. The objective is to achieve final purity by removing any remaining trace impurities or closely related substances. The optimal selection and combination of purification techniques for Capture, Intermediate Purification and Polishing is crucial for an efficient purification.
Technique
Gel filtration (GF) Ion exchange (IEX) Hydrophobic interaction (HIC), Reversed phase (RPC) Affinity (AC)
Resolution
Speed Capacity
Recovery
Every technique offers a balance between resolution, capacity, speed and recovery.
120
Capacity, in the simple model shown, refers to the amount of target protein loaded during purification. In some cases the amount of sample that can be loaded will be limited by volume (as in gel filtration) or by large amounts of contaminants rather than the amount of the target protein. Speed is most important at the beginning of purification where contaminants, such as proteases, must be removed as quickly as possible. Recovery becomes increasingly important as the purification proceeds because of the increased value of the purified product. Recovery is influenced by destructive processes in the sample and by unfavourable conditions on the column. Resolution is achieved by the selectivity of the technique and the efficiency and selectivity of the chromatography matrix in producing narrow peaks. In general, resolution is most difficult to achieve in the final stages of purification when impurities and target protein are likely to have very similar properties. Select a technique to meet the objectives for the purification step. Choose logical combinations of purification techniques based on the main benefits of the technique and the condition of the sample at the beginning or end of each step. A guide to the suitability of each purification technique for the stages in CIPP is shown in Table 9.
Table 9. Suitability of purification techniques for C . IPP
Capture
Intermediate
Polishing
HIC
good resolution good capacity high speed high resolution high capacity high speed
high ionic strength sample volume not limiting specific binding conditions sample volume not limiting limited sample volume (<5% total column volume) and flow rate range sample volume usually not limiting additives may be required
AC
concentrated sample
buffer exchanged (if required) diluted sample in organic solvent, risk loss of biological activity
GF
RPC
high resolution
Minimize sample handling between purification steps by combining techniques to avoid the need for sample conditioning. The product should be eluted from the first column in conditions suitable for the start conditions of the next column (see Table 9).
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Ammonium sulfate, often used for sample clarification and concentration (see Appendix 1), leaves the sample in a high salt environment. Consequently HIC, which requires high salt to enhance binding to the media, becomes the ideal choice as the capture step. The salt concentration and the total sample volume will be significantly reduced after elution from the HIC column. Dilution of the fractionated sample or rapid buffer exchange using a desalting column will prepare it for the next IEX or AC step. Gel filtration is a non-binding technique unaffected by buffer conditions, but with limited volume capacity. GF is well suited for use after any of the concentrating techniques (IEX, HIC, AC) since the target protein will be eluted in a reduced volume and the components from the buffer will not affect the gel filtration process. Selection of the final strategy will always depend upon specific sample properties and the required level of purification. Logical combinations of techniques are shown in Figure 70.
Proteins with low solubility
SDS extraction SDS extraction Solubilizing agents (urea, ethylene glycol non-ionic detergents) HIC GF
HIC GF
Capture
HIC GF
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For any capture step, select the technique showing the most effective binding to the target protein while binding as few of the contaminants as possible, i.e. the technique with the highest selectivity and/or capacity for the target protein. A sample is purified using a combination of techniques and alternative selectivities. For example, in an IEX-HIC-GF strategy, the capture step selects according to differences in charge (IEX), the intermediate purification step according to differences in hydrophobicity (HIC) and the final polishing step according to differences in size (GF). If nothing is known about the target protein use IEX-HIC-GF. This combination of techniques can be regarded as a standard protocol. Consider the use of both anion and cation exchange chromatography to give different selectivities within the same purification strategy.
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Figure 71 shows optimization of a capture step used for purification of a recombinant enzyme, deacetooxycephalosporin C synthase (DAOCS). Since this enzyme is oxygensensitive, it was important to rapidly remove the most harmful contaminants from the relatively unstable target protein. The isoelectric point of DAOCS (pI = 4.8) made an anion exchanger the most suitable choice. Columns from the HiTrap IEX Selection Kit were screened to select the most suitable medium (results not shown) before optimizing the separation on a larger HiPrep 16/10 Q XL column. A detailed description of the entire purification process for DAOCS can be found in Application Note 18-1128-91, available from GE Healthcare.
A280 nm 400 80 300 60 200 40 100 20 0 0 mS/cm
A280 nm
mS/cm
3000
80 60 40
2000
100
200
300
ml
A280 nm
mS/cm
80 60 40 20
System: Column: Sample: Sample volume: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Flow:
KTAFPLC HiPrep 16/10 Q XL Clarified E. coli extract 40 ml 50 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.5; 2 mM DTT, 0.2 M benzamidine-HCl, 0.2 mM PMSF Start buffer + 1.0 M NaCl 10 ml/min (300 cm/h)
Fig. 71. Capture step using IEX and optimization of conditions. The elution position of DAOCS is shaded.
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125
Process scheme
Laboratory scale Yeast supernatant Process scale
Centrifugation
Centrifugation / 5 m filtration
Dilution 1/10, 0.02 M Tris, pH 7.6 1000 ml 0.021 mg EGF/ml HiLoad 16/10 10 cm bed height 38 ml 0.60 mg/ml Recovery: >99% Purity: 95% Q Sepharose High Performance 170 l 0.021 mg EGF/ml Purity: 20% BPG 200/500 10 cm bed height 4.87 l 0.73 mg/ml Recovery: >99% Purity: 96%
Column: Column volume: Bed height: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Sample: Load:
A280 nm
HiLoad 16/10 Q Sepharose High Performance 20 ml 10 cm 150 cm/h, 5 ml/min 0.02 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.6 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.6 1000 ml diluted pool from Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (high sub), 0.021 mg EGF/ml 1.05 mg EGF/ml medium
Conductivity 100
Column: Column volume: Bed height: Flow: Start buffer: Elution buffer: Sample: Load:
A280 nm 3.0
BPG 200/500 Q Sepharose High Performance 3140 ml 10 cm 150 cm/h, 48 l/h 0.02 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.6 0.02 M Tris-HCl, 0.5 M NaCl, pH 7.6 170 l diluted pool from Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (high sub), 0.021 mg EGF/ml 1.09 mg EGF/ml medium
Conductivity 50
0.0
100
200
50
100
150
200
Fig. 73. Elution pattern, purity and yield are maintained when scaling-up from a HiLoad column to a BPG column.
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0. 0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
ml
Fig. 74. High resolution cation exchange chromatography on Mono S 5/50 GL.
IEX media for polishing steps should offer highest resolution: 1. MiniBeads (3 m particle size) polishing at microscale when highest resolution is essential. 2. MonoBeads (10 m particle size) polishing at laboratory scale when highest resolution is essential and a higher capacity than MiniBeads is required. 3. SOURCE 15 (15 m particle size) rapid, high resolution polishing for laboratory or large scale applications using flows up to 1800 cm/h. 4. SOURCE 30 (30 m particle size) an alternative to SOURCE 15 for large scale applications when flows up to 2000 cm/h can be used. Optimize the gradient elution to maximize selectivity. Use high efficiency media with small bead sizes to improve resolution.
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0.005
Vo
Fraction 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vt
4 Time (h)
Fig. 75. Final polishing step: separation of dimers and multimers on Superdex 75 prep grade.
RPC can also be considered for a polishing step, provided that the target protein can withstand the run conditions. Reversed phase chromatography (RPC) separates proteins and peptides on the basis of hydrophobicity. RPC is a high selectivity (high resolution) technique, usually requiring the use of organic solvents. The technique is widely used for purity check analyses when recovery of activity and tertiary structure are not essential. Since many proteins are denatured by organic solvents, RPC is not generally recommended for protein purification because recovery of activity and return to a correct tertiary structure may be compromised. However, in the polishing phase, when the majority of protein impurities have been removed, RPC can be an excellent technique, particularly for small target proteins that are not often denatured by organic solvents. CIPP does not mean that there must always be three purification steps. For example, capture and intermediate purification may be achievable in a single step, as may intermediate purification and polishing. Similarly, purity demands may be so low that a rapid capture step is sufficient to achieve the desired result. For purification of therapeutic proteins, a fourth or fifth purification step may be required to fulfill the highest purity and safety demands. The number of steps used will always depend upon the purity requirements and intended use for the protein.
128
b) Separation according to pI
pI of each protein
Surface net charge
2 3 4
pH gradient 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
pH
In order to achieve consistently high resolution, generation of the linear pH gradient requires an even buffering capacity over the entire pH range used for a separation. Hence the need for specifically designed buffers (Polybuffer 74, Polybuffer 96 or Pharmalyte 810.5) and media substituted with charged, buffering amines (Mono P, PBE 118 or PBE 94). Although chromatofocusing can be a high resolution technique, it is less suitable for the isolation of proteins that precipitate irreversibly at or near their isoelectric point since these proteins are likely to precipitate on the column if they reach a high enough concentration.
129
Separation mechanism: on-column generation of pH gradients and protein behavior In order to separate proteins according to their different pIs, the chromatofocusing medium is equilibrated with start buffer at a pH slightly above the highest pH required. An elution buffer (adjusted to the lowest pH required) is passed through the column and begins to titrate the amines on the medium and the proteins. As the buffer flows through the column, the pH is lowered and a moving, descending pH gradient is generated (Figure 77). a b c d
pH 9 pre-gradient
high pH
8
low pH
6 Volume (ml)
Fig. 77. Development of a pH gradient in a chromatofocusing column. The column is pre-equilibrated with start buffer at high pH (a) and elution with Polybuffer at low pH (b,c,d,) generates a descending linear pH gradient.
After a pre-gradient volume of elution buffer has passed, sample (in start buffer) is applied to the column. The proteins in the sample are titrated (pH adjusted) as soon as they are introduced into the column. Proteins in the sample that are at a pH above their pI are negatively-charged and retained near the top of the column (binding to the positively-charged amine groups). Any proteins that are at a pH below their pI begin to migrate down the column with the buffer flow and will not bind until they reach a zone where the pH is above their pI. This is the beginning of the separation process that is illustrated in Figure 78.
130
Fig. 78. Proteins with different pIs separate as they pass through the column. Molecules with the same isoelectric point are focused in narrow bands during the separation.
As the pH continues to decrease near the top of the column, any protein that drops below its pI becomes positively charged, is repelled by the positively-charged amine groups, and begins to migrate down the column with the elution buffer, travelling faster than the speed at which the pH gradient moves down the column. However, as the protein migrates down the column, the pH of the surroundings increases. When the protein reaches a zone in which the pH is above its pI, it becomes negatively charged and binds to the column again. The protein remains bound until the developing pH gradient reduces the local pH when, again, the protein drops below its pI, becomes positively charged, and begins to move down the column, catching up with the gradient. This process continues until the protein is eluted from the column at a pH near to its pI (when it has almost no net charge). Figure 78 illustrates the focusing effect which takes place during a separation and contributes significantly to the high resolution achievable with chromatofocusing. In a descending pH gradient, a protein can exist in three charged states: positive, negative or neutral and is constantly changing its charged state as the pH gradient develops and the protein travels through different pH zones on the column. Molecules at the rear of a zone will migrate more rapidly than those at the front, gradually forming narrower bands of proteins, each band comprised of one or more proteins of the same isoelectric point. Thus, during chromatofocusing, proteins with different pIs migrate at different rates down the column as the pH gradient develops, continually binding and dissociating while being focused into narrow bands and finally eluted. The protein with the highest pI elutes first and the protein with the lowest pI will elute last.
131
Media selection
Use prepacked, Mono P for fast separations (up to ten times faster than PBE). Use Mono P 5/200 GL for highest resolution separations. Use Mono P 5/50 GL rapid scouting of elution conditions (pH gradients) or for separations not requiring highest resolution. Use PBE 94 for scaling up from Mono P. Note that, under the same separation conditions, resolution may be lower due to the longer diffusion times within larger particles. Reoptimization of the gradient and flow rate should give similar resolution. Use PBE 118 when pH gradients above pH 9 are required. Mono P is based on the same matrix as Mono Q and Mono S (see Chapter 3). The 10 m MonoBeads particles are substituted with tertiary and quaternary amines and the small bead size contributes significantly to the high resolution that can be achieved. Polybuffer exchangers, PBE 118 and PBE 94, are based on Sepharose CL-6B, a cross-linked agarose matrix. The charged secondary, tertiary and quaternary amine groups are coupled to monosaccharide units in the 90 m Sepharose CL-6B particles by ether linkages. For all chromatofocusing media the charged groups have been selected to give an even buffering capacity across a broad pH range. The buffering capacity and titration curves for PBE 118, PBE 94 and Mono P are shown in Figures 79 and 80.
pH 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1.0 2.0 3.0 meq NaOH PBE 94 PBE 118
Fig. 79. Titration of 10 ml aliquots of PBE 118 and PBE 94 in 1 M KCl against NaOH shows the smooth buffering capacity of these media over a broad pH range.
10 9 8 7 6
pH
Fig. 80. Titration curve of Mono P column shows smooth buffering capacity .
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Buffer selection
Use Polybuffer 74 for any pH gradient between 7 and 4. Use a pH gradient 74 when starting to work with proteins of unknown pI. Use Polybuffer 96 for pH gradients that should begin above pH 7 e.g. when the proteins of interest have a pI above or close to 7. Use Pharmalyte pH 810.5 when higher pH values are required. Refer to section Selection of pH gradient and buffers for further details. Polybuffers are specifically designed to form pH gradients by titration of the charged groups on PBE 118, PBE 94 and Mono P media. Polybuffers are mixtures of selected amphoteric buffering substances of different pI and pKa values. Each mixture is designed to give an even buffering capacity across a wide pH range, in order to generate the required linear pH gradient. The titration curves for Polybuffer 96 and Polybuffer 74 are shown in Figure 81.
pH 10 Polybuffer 96 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Polybuffer 74
0.1
0.2
0.3
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Purification options
Product Maximum loading capacity
10 mg/column 40 mg/column 120 mg/ml medium 120 mg/ml medium
Maximum flow**
3.0 ml/min 2.0 ml/min 115 cm/h 115 cm/h
Working pH range**
49 49 811 49
*See Appendix 5 to convert linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa. **Working pH range refers to the pH interval where the medium binds protein as intended or as needed for elution without adverse long term effects. ***Maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the medium begins to compress.
Buffer options
Buffer
Polybuffer 74 Polybuffer 96 Pharmalyte pH 810.5
pH range
74 96 118
Purification examples
High resolution The potential for high resolution separation of proteins with otherwise similar properties makes chromatofocusing an excellent technique for the study of different isoforms. For example, haemoglobins can be separated into 4 distinguishable sub-groups, each with a different isoelectric point (Figure 82). The isoelectric points of sub-groups A and F differ by only 0.05 pH units, yet the peaks are well resolved. The focusing effect of the linear pH gradient and excellent peak symmetry (achieved by using small, uniform particles in a well-packed column) combine to give a high resolution separation.
Sample: Column: Start buffer:
Partially purified haemoglobins Mono P 0.5 cm 20 cm 0.025 M triethanolamine-methanesulfonic acid, pH 8.1 Flow: 1 ml/min (305 cm/h) Elution buffer: Polybuffer 96-methanesulfonic acid, diluted in distilled water 1:16, pH 6.65
% full scale
A280 nm 100
pH 8.0
F 7.5
E 50
S 7.0
6.5
10
20
30 Time (min)
Under ideal conditions with a very well packed column, Polybuffer exchangers can give almost as good resolution as Mono P. Figure 83 shows an example in which model proteins that differ by as little as 0.02 pH units in their pI values have been resolved on a Polybuffer exchanger.
Sample:
Whale myoglobin (2 mg), horse myoglobin (2 mg), carboxyhaemoglobin (2 mg) Column: PBE 94, 1 cm 18 cm bed height Start buffer: 0.025 M ethanolamine, pH 9.5 Flow: 15 cm/h (0.2 ml/min) Elution buffer: Polybuffer 96, pH 7, dilution 1:10 from stock buffer
A280 nm 2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
25
50
75
High selectivity Figure 84 demonstrates the high selectivity of chromatofocusing that enables detection of subtle changes in individual proteins. In this application researchers were able to follow the desialylation of transferrin as sialic acid groups were removed by neurominidase.
Sample: Column: Start buffer:
Iron-saturated diferric transferrin Mono P 0.5 cm 20 cm 0.025 M bis-Tris HCl, pH 6.45, 10% betaine hydrate, 3 mM FeCl3 Flow: 1 ml/min (305 cm/h) Elution buffer: Polybuffer 74 diluted 1:10 in distilled water, pH 5, 10% betaine hydrate, 3 mM FeCl 3
A280 nm S0 S1
S6 S7 ?
Volume
135
Polishing step Figure 85 shows an example of chromatofocusing being used for polishing in a purification strategy (in a polishing step most impurities have been removed and the objective is to achieve final purity by removing any trace impurities or closely related substances). In this example highly pure leukotriene A4 hydrolase was required for functional and structural studies. The enzyme was expressed as (His) 6-tagged LTA4 hydrolase in E. coli. After harvesting the cells and removing nucleic acids, nickel ion affinity chromatography was used as a specific protein capture step and the eluted fraction subjected to a polishing step on Mono P.
Column: Sample:
Mono P 5/200 GL (Tricorn) Recombinant LTA4 hydrolase partially purified with nickel ion affinity chromatography Start buffer: 25 mM BisTris pH 7.0 Elution buffer: Polybuffer 74, diluted 1:10 in water, pH 4.5 Flow: 0.7 ml/min
A280 nm
10
20
30
40
50
ml
Fig. 85. Purification of leukotriene A4 hydrolase. Results courtesy of Eva Ohlson, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
Packing a column
Prepacked columns are likely to give the highest resolution and the most reproducible results, particularly with the MonoBead matrix used in Mono P 5/50 GL and Mono P 5/200 GL. Efficient packing of a chromatofocusing column is critical to achieve the best results. Follow carefully the instructions for column packing given in Appendix 3 when packing PBE 94 or PBE 118. Pack columns in the start buffer to be used for the separation (see Table 10, 11, 12 or 13) using long, narrow columns such as Tricorn 10/300. The amount of medium required will depend on the amount of sample, the nature of the sample and contaminants and the degree of resolution required. For most separations 2030 ml Polybuffer exchanger will be sufficient to separate from 1200 mg protein/pH unit in the gradient. Degas the start buffer and the slurry in order to avoid air bubbles which can interfere with the separation. Check column efficiency as described in Appendix 3. It may be worth checking the packing using a colored marker. Use bovine cytochrome c which is strongly repelled from the medium due to its high isoelectric point (pI=10.5). The progress of the protein band through the column can be visualized in order to check for any distortion caused by poor column packing or air bubbles.
136
137
Table 10. Recommended buffer systems for broad pH intervals using Mono P 5/50 GL or Mono P 5/200 GL. Approx. volumes (ml) Mono P 5/200 GL Total volume Pregradient volume Mono P 5/50 GL Total volume Pregradient volume
pH
97
Start buffer
0.025 M diethanolamine, pH 9.5, HCl 0.025 M diethanolamine, pH 9.5, HCl 0.075 M Tris, pH 9.3, CH3COOH 0.025 M triethanolamine, pH 8.3, CH3COOH 0.025 M triethanolamine, pH 8.3, iminodiacetic acid* 0.025 M bis-Tris, pH 7.1, HCI 0.025 M bis-Tris, pH 7.1, iminodiacetic acid* 0.025 M bis-Tris, pH 6.3, HCI
34 34 30
7 9 3
11 19 17
2 2 2
96 96 86
37
15
85
47 26 46 39
6 3 3 3
15 13 19 16
3 3 3 3
75 74 64
*Use a saturated solution of iminodiacetic acid to adjust the pH of the buffer . Table 11. Recommended buffer systems for narrow pH intervals using Mono P 5/50 GL and Mono P 5/200 GL. Approx. volumes (ml) Mono P 5/200 GL Total volume Pregradient volume Mono P 5/50 GL Total volume Pregradient volume
pH
98
Start buffer
0.025 M diethanolamine, pH 9.4, HCI
28
10
29 29 27
4 5 9
10 10 11
4 4 6
28
10
12
23 25
5 3
9 10
3 3
24
10
0.025 M N-methylpiperazine, 10 ml Polybuffer 74, pH 5.7, HCI or pH 4.0, HCI or iminodiacetic acid* iminodiacetic acid*
27
11
138
Table 12. Recommended buffer systems for gradients with PBE 118. Approx. volume (in column volumes) pH*
10.59 10.58 10.57
Start buffer
0.025 M triethylamine, pH 11, HCl 0.025 M triethylamine, pH 11, HCl 0.025 M triethylamine, pH 11, HCl
Elution buffer
Pharmalyte 810.5, pH 9 Pharmalyte 810.5, pH 8, HCl Pharmalyte 810.5, pH 7, HCl
Dilution factor
1:45 1:45 1:45
Total volume
13 13.5
Pre-gradient volume
1.5 2
Table 13. Recommended buffer systems for gradients with PBE 94. Approx. volume (in column volumes) pH
98 97 96 87 86 85
Start buffer
0.025 M ethanolamine, pH 9.4, HCl 0.025 M ethanolamine, pH 9.4, HCl 0.025 M ethanolamine, pH 9.4, CH3COOH 0.025 M Tris, pH 8.3, HCl 0.025 M Tris, pH 8.3, CH3COOH 0.025 M Tris, pH 8.3, CH3COOH 0.025 M imidazole, pH 7.4, CH3COOH 0.025 M imidazole, pH 7.4, HCl 0.025 M imidazole, pH 7.4, HCl 0.025 M histidine, pH 6.2, HCl 0.025 M histidine, pH 6.2, HCl 0.025 M piperazine, pH 5.5, HCl
Elution buffer
Pharmalyte 810.5, pH 8.0, HCl Polybuffer 96, pH 7.0, HCl Polybuffer 96, pH 6.0, CH3COOH Polybuffer 96, pH 7.0, HCl Polybuffer 96, pH 6.0, CH3COOH Polybuffer 74 (70%) + Polybuffer 96 (30%) pH 5.0, CH3COOH Polybuffer 96, pH 6.0, CH3COOH Polybuffer 74 pH 5.0, HCl Polybuffer 74, pH 4.0, HCl Polybuffer 74, pH 5.0, HCl Polybuffer 74, pH 4.0, HCl Polybuffer 74, pH 4.0, HCl
Dilution factor
1:45 1:10 1:10 1:13 1:13
Total volume
12 14 12 10.5 12
Pre-gradient volume
1.5 2 1.5 1.5 3
10.5 10 14 14 10 9 12
2 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 3
76 75 74 65 64 54
139
Selection of counter-ions As can be seen in the buffer tables, the most commonly used counter-ion is chloride. Other monovalent counter-ions can be used, but it is essential that these anions have a pKa at least two pH units below the lowest point of the chosen gradient. Acetate is not recommended as a counter-ion for Polybuffer 74 because it has a high pKa. Multivalent counter-ions with a net charge below -1 are not recommended. Note that iminodiacetic acid is a multivalent ion. Bicarbonate ions can result from the presence of atmospheric CO 2 or badly stored buffers. All high pH, amine-containing buffers adsorb atmospheric CO 2 and so generate bicarbonate ions which can disrupt a pH gradient by causing a fluctuation or plateau in the region of pH 5.56.5, depending on conditions. These effects are most marked with Polybuffer 96 in pH gradients ending at pH 6, and can be minimized by using acetate as the counter-ion or setting the lower limit to pH 6.5. Adsorption of CO2 can be minimized by storing solutions under nitrogen in tightly sealed bottles and at 38 C in the dark.
Buffer preparation
Use high quality water and chemicals. Filter buffers through 0.45 m or 0.22 m filters under vacuum to ensure that the solutions are thoroughly degassed. The presence of air bubbles in the column can significantly interfere with resolution. Ensure that all buffer components are stored correctly to avoid adsorption of CO 2 (especially those containing amines). Use fresh Polybuffer from a previously unopened bottle whenever possible. Store previously opened solutions under nitrogen in tightly sealed bottles at +4 C and in the dark to minimize adsorption of CO 2. Prepare and use all buffers carefully at the same temperature to ensure correct pH and ionic strength. Use fresh buffers whenever possible. Buffers stored under refrigeration must reach the temperature at which they were prepared before running a separation. The concentration of the start buffer is especially important when working at low ionic strength where microenvironments can vary by as much as 1 pH unit. Alterations in ionic strength may occur if readjustments to pH are made when buffers have been overtitrated with acid. Ensure that start and elution buffers are at the same low ionic strength in order to avoid large pH changes at the beginning or end of a pH gradient.
1. Select start and elution buffers from Tables 10, 11, 12 or 13 according to the pH gradient required and the medium to be used. 2. Calculate the required buffer volumes according to the column volume used. For the elution buffer dilute , Polybuffer and/or Pharmalyte in distilled water to approximately 95% of the final volume required. 3. Titrate buffers to the correct pH with the listed acid (e.g. 12 M or saturated iminodiacetic acid). Always perform the titration on a maximum volume before adding a few milliliters of water to reach the final volume. 4. When the final pH is reached, add distilled water to bring the total volume to 100 ml.
For shallower gradients within the same pH interval, prepare the elution buffer as normal, but dilute to a larger volume. Note that proteins elute with increased volumes when using diluted eluents so pre-gradient and total volumes also need to be increased.
140
Sample preparation
Correct sample preparation is extremely important. Simple steps to clarify a sample before applying it to a column will avoid the risk of blockage, reduce the need for stringent washing procedures and extend the life of the packed medium. Appendix 1 contains an overview of sample preparation techniques. Samples must be clear and free from particulate matter, particularly when working with Mono P. For small sample volumes a syringe-tip filter of cellulose acetate or PVDF can be sufficient for sample filtration. If the pH of the sample is too low or different buffers are used, both gradient and resolution may be affected. Depending on the sample volume, use a HiTrap Desalting or HiPrep 26/10 Desalting column to remove high salt concentrations and/or transfer the sample into start buffer, see page 156. The pH of the sample is not critical if the buffer concentration of the sample is very low. It may be possible to simply dilute the sample if pH and final volume are not critical. Since chromatofocusing is a binding technique, the volume of the sample is not significant as long as all of the sample can be applied and focused before the proteins of interest begin to elute. As a general rule, do not load a sample volume that is greater than half of the total column volume.
Performing a separation
Recommended flow: 0.51.5 ml/min, 305450 cm/h (Mono P 5/50 GL, Mono P 5/200 GL), 3040 cm/h (PBE 118, PBE 94). Start and elution buffers: see Tables 10, 11, 12 or 13.
Monitor eluent at 280 nm since Polybuffers absorb at wavelengths below 280 nm. Monitor pH throughout the run as fluctuations can occur that may affect the separation, for example, due to the presence of CO 2 in the buffer. Using a column for the first time or after long term storage:
1. Inject 0.5 column volumes 5 M NaOH 2. Equilibrate with start buffer until the buffer leaving the column is at the same pH as the start buffer . 3. Apply 0.5 column volumes 2 M salt solution containing the same anion as used in the acid for pH titration of the start buffer. 4. Re-equilibrate the column with start buffer until eluent leaving the column is at the start pH.
To check for pH fluctuations or other disturbances caused by incorrect buffer conditions or contaminants, consider performing a blank run using elution buffer (total volume as indicated in Tables 10, 11, 12 or 13).
141
To maintain a clean column, inject 0.5 column volumes of 1 M NaOH every tenth run (or more frequently if required). The injection of NaOH can be followed by 0.5 column volumes of 75% acetic acid. If the fractions are to be analyzed by reversed phase chromatography, Polybuffer may interact with the pairing ions used during the run. If the pairing ions are non-hydrophobic Polybuffer will elute in the void volume and the retained samples can be eluted with a gradient of organic solvent. However, if the pairing ions are very hydrophobic, Polybuffer will be retained on the column and give an absorption peak at wavelengths below 280 nm during an elution. If organic solvents must be used, note the following: Before running a column, check the solubility of sample and all buffers. The pH interval required may be altered since the pKa values of the charged groups in the buffers, Polybuffer and chromatofocusing medium will be increased. Perform a blank gradient to ensure maintenance of a linear pH gradient. Linearity is likely to vary more at the high and low end of a pH interval 94. Adjust to the highest pH in the useful buffering range of the start buffer substance and adjust the elution buffer to approximately 0.5 pH units higher than recommended in the buffer Tables 10, 11, 12 or 13.
142
Optimization
If results suggest that there may be a problem of sample solubility during the separation (see Troubleshooting) include additives such as betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) in the start and elution buffers to improve solubility. These additives should not affect the separation, but may need to be removed at a later stage thus adding an extra step to the purification strategy. To improve resolution: dilute Polybuffer (up to 1:20), but note that this will increase the pre-gradient and total gradient volumes so the time at which components elute will change and the volume of an eluted peak may increase decrease sample load decrease flow (flow rates as low as 0.25 ml/min have been used successfully on Mono P columns) To improve selectivity, use a shallower gradient (increase gradient volume), but note that this will result in broader peaks because each pH interval will occupy a larger space on the column. However, the resolution within a pH interval will increase. To change selectivity, use alternative buffers, salts or counter-ions. If resolution is satisfactory, it may be possible to increase flow rate in order to speed up the separation. Flow rates up to 1.5 ml/min have been used successfully with Mono P columns without loss of resolution. Figure 86 shows the effect of increasing flow on the separation of a test mixture of proteins on PBE 118.
A280 nm Cytochrome c (5 mg), ribonuclease (8 mg), a) lentil lectin (10 mg) 1.5 Column: PBE 118, 1 cm 30 cm Start buffer: 0.025 M triethylamine HCl, pH 11 Flow: a) 15 cm/h 1.0 b) 117 cm/h Elution buffer: Pharmalyte pH 810.5, pH 8.0
Sample:
pH 11
A280 nm
pH 11
b) 1.5
10 1.0
10
9 0.5 0.5
143
Troubleshooting
A common difficulty encountered during chromatofocusing is that some proteins precipitate when they reach high concentrations at or near their isoelectric point. On-column precipitation causes symptoms such as increased back pressure, apparent loss of sample and even blockage of the column. To avoid precipitation it may be possible to reduce the sample load so that the proteins do not reach sufficiently high concentrations, include additives such as betaine to improve sample solubility or to alter the pH range of the separation to avoid precipitation. Alternatively, remove the proteins causing the problem by using another chromatography technique before chromatofocusing. If the protein of interest precipitates reversibly, then it will elute later than expected. If the protein of interest precipitates irreversibly at its isoelectric point, then chromatofocusing is not a suitable technique for purification. A second factor that can easily affect results is the linearity of the pH gradient. The presence of CO2, especially in the start buffer, can distort the pH gradient and disrupt the separation. It is essential to monitor the pH gradient throughout the run to ensure a linear pH gradient and a satisfactory separation. Figure 87 demonstrates the significant effect that excess CO 2 can have on the formation of a pH gradient. Store buffers under nitrogen or argon (to minimize the adsorption of CO2 which occurs with high pH solutions) and always degas before use.
A280 nm 1.0
40 Volume (ml)
Fig. 87. A plateau in a pH gradient during chromatofocusing caused by excess CO in the start buffer. 2
These difficulties and others that may occasionally be encountered during chromatofocusing are listed in the troubleshooting table that follows.
144
Cause
Outlet closed or pumps not working. Blocked filter, end-piece, adaptor or tubing. Lipoproteins or protein aggregates have precipitated. Proteins are precipitating at their isoelectric point.
Remedy
Open outlet. Check pumps for signs of leakage (if using a peristaltic pump, check tubing also). Remove and clean or replace if possible. Remove lipoproteins and aggregates during sample preparation (see Appendix 1). Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Reduce sample load. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Change pH range to avoid precipitation. If protein contaminants are precipitating, remove with an alternative technique before chromatofocusing. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Inject 4 column volumes 2 M NaOH or a higher concentration of start buffer, re-equilibrate with start buffer. Check eluent pH. Prepare fresh eluent. Degas all buffers, use fresh Polybuffer and restart. Degas all buffers, use fresh Polybuffer and restart. Use recommended counterion. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. during separation. Reduce sample load. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Change pH range to avoid precipitation. If protein contaminants are precipitating, remove with an alternative technique before chromatofocusing. See optimization, page 143. Reduce all post-column volumes. Check column efficiency (see Appendix 1). Repack if needed. Use prepacked columns. Remove lipoproteins and aggregates during sample preparation (see Appendix 3). Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Check that pH of eluent matches pH of start buffer. Prolong equilibration step if necessary. Increase pH of start buffer. Check conditions against recommended buffer composition. Use a desalting column e.g. HiTrap Desalting to remove excess salt (see page 156). Sample dilution may be an alternative within required limits for pH and volume.
Column does not reach start pH during equilibration. Blank gradient does not reach desired pH.
Gradient fluctuates, eluent contains CO2. Gradient fluctuates, incorrect counterion. Protein precipitation
Sub-optimal elution conditions. Large mixing spaces in or after column. Column poorly packed. Lipoproteins or protein aggregates have precipitated. Microbial growth has occurred in the column.
Column not equilibrated sufficiently in start buffer. Start pH too low. Ionic strength of eluent too high. Ionic strength of sample too high.
Situation
Cause
Column is contaminated with lipoproteins or proteins.
Remedy
Change or clean filter. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Prepare fresh sample. Check sample and buffer conditions. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Change pH range to avoid precipitation. Check pH of eluent after the run. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. pH of elution buffer is too high, use lower pH range. Reduce sample load. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Determine pH and salt stability of the protein. Test by pooling aliquots from the fractions and repeating the assay. Add protease inhibitors to the sample and buffers to prevent proteolytic digestion. Run sample through a medium such as Benzamidine 4 Fast Flow (high sub) to remove trypsin-like serine proteases. Use another type of filter. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. during separation. Reduce sample load. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Change pH range to avoid precipitation. Remove Polybuffer, page 148 or use a Bradford assay. Use same assay conditions for all assays.
Sample has changed during storage. Sample or buffer conditions are different from previous runs. Microbial growth has occurred in the column.
Protein elutes at a lower than expected pH. Protein of interest binds, but does not elute.
Sample precipitating during separation. Incorrect eluent composition. Precipitation during separation.
Protein may be unstable or inactive in the buffer. Enzyme separated from co-factor or similar.
Polybuffer interfering with Lowry protein assay. More sample is recovered than expected. Different assay conditions used before and after the chromatographic step. Polybuffer interfering with Lowry protein assay. Protein co-eluting with other substances. More activity is recovered than was applied to the column. Different assay conditions used before and after the chromatography step. Removal of inhibitors during separation.
Remove Polybuffer, page 148 or use a Bradford assay. Optimize conditions to improve resolution. Check buffer conditions used for assay before and after the run. Use same assay conditions for all assays.
146
Situation
Back pressure increases during a run or during successive runs.
Cause
Precipitation of protein in the column filter and/or at top of the bed.
Remedy
Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Reduce sample load. Add betaine (10% w/v), taurine (4% w/v) or glycerol (12%) to buffers. Change pH range to avoid precipitation. If protein contaminants are precipitating, remove with an alternative technique before chromatofocusing. If possible, repack column or use a new column. Store in the presence of 20% ethanol to prevent microbial growth when not in use. Always filter buffers. Follow cleaning procedures, Appendix 10. Improve sample preparation (see Appendix 1). Improve sample solubility: add betaine (max. 10% w/v at 25 C), taurine (max. 4% w/v at 25 C, below pH 8.5) or glycerol (12%). Or for hydrophobic samples, add ethylene glycol, urea, detergents or organic solvents*. Take special care if buffers are used after storage in a fridge or cold-room. Do not allow column to warm up due to sunlight or heating system. Degas buffers thoroughly. Flush column with distilled water and wash with 20% ethanol. Check all connections for leaks. Repack column if possible (see Appendix 3). Clean the buffer by running it through a precolumn. Use high quality reagents. Use degassed buffers. Wash the column according to recommended methods. Remove from any heat source e.g. sunlight through a window.
Turbid sample.
Buffers not properly degassed. Column packed or stored at cool temperature and then warmed up.
Large air leak in column. Buffer impurities. Air bubble trapped in UV monitor flow cell.
*Polar organic solvents such as methanol, ethanol and acetonitrile can be used at concentrations from 020%, but this may cause some proteins to lose their biological activity. The presence of organic solvents may also affect the low end of a linear pH gradient.
147
Removing Polybuffer
For most practical applications it is not necessary to remove Polybuffer since the amount that elutes with any sample is extremely low. Polybuffers do not interfere with enzyme assays or amino acid analysis, but they may interfere with certain protein assays such as Lowry. Polybuffers can be removed from protein samples using a gel filtration medium with a suitable fractionation range. Figure 88 shows separation of Polybuffer and protein using either Sephacryl S-100 HR or Superdex 75. In this example Sephacryl S-100 gives the best separation between the protein myoglobin and Polybuffer. It is recommended to follow any separation by monitoring the absorbance of Polybuffer (A 215 nm) as well as the absorbance of the eluting protein (A280 nm, A254 nm or A215 nm) in order to optimize the running conditions and ensure effective separation. For practical and theoretical information on gel filtration chromatography, refer to the handbook Gel FiltrationPrinciples and Methods available from GE Healthcare.
Column: Flow: Buffer: Sample:
Superdex 75 10/300 GL 0.7 ml/min phosphate buffered saline myoglobin (Mr 17 500) + Polybuffer 96
Conductivity A 215 , protein A 254 , protein mS/cm
HiPrep 16/60 Sephacryl S-100 HR 0.5 ml/min phosphate buffered saline myoglobin (M r 17 500) + Polybuffer 96
Conductivity A 215 , protein A 254 , protein mS/cm
mAU 2500 2000 myoglobin 1500 1000 500 0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 Polybuffer
mAU 2500
15.0
15.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
500 0
5.0
25.0 ml
0.0
20
40
60
80
100
120
ml
0.0
Cleaning
Mono P 5/50 GL, Mono P 5/200 GL, PBE 94, PBE 118 Since certain proteins may precipitate at or near their isoelectric point, blockage of the top filter on a chromatofocusing column is often the most common reason for an increase in back pressure. Reverse the flow direction and run through 2 column volumes of elution buffer at 0.5 ml/min (Mono P) or 30 cm/h (PBE). Return to normal flow direction, run through 5 column volumes of elution buffer.
148
To remove severe contamination (often indicated by an incr ease in column back pressure) proceed as follows:
Reverse flow direction and run the following sequence of solutions at a flow rate of 0.250.50 ml/min. 1. Wash with 4 column volumes 1 M NaCl. 2. Rinse with 2 column volumes distilled water. 3. Wash with 4 column volumes 1 M NaOH. 4. Rinse with 2 column volumes distilled water. 5. Wash alternately with 0.5 column volumes 0.1 M HCl (PBE) or 1 M HCl (Mono P) and 2 column volumes distilled water until the elution profile is constant. 6. Wash with 4 column volumes 1 M NaCl. 7. Reverse flow direction and re-equilibrate column in start buffer.
If back pressure remains high, change top filter. Save time by monitoring any cleaning procedure to check for elution of contaminants. Depending on the nature of the contaminants, the following cleaning solutions can also be used: 100% isopropanol, 20% acetonitrile, 2 M NaOH, 75% acetic acid, 20% ethanol, 100% methanol or up to 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, cationic or non-ionic detergents. Always rinse with at least 2 column volumes of distilled water after using any of these cleaning solutions. When using organic solvents, wash the column using sawtooth gradients e.g. run from 0100% solvent in 5 column volumes then from 1000% in 5 column volumes, including 1% trifluoroacetic acid in the water and organic solvent. If column performance is still not restored, inject a solution of 1 mg/ml pepsin in 0.1 M acetic acid containing 0.5 M NaCl and leave overnight at room temperature or one hour at 37 C. Depending on the contaminant, other enzymes may also be used, e.g. DNase. After any enzymatic treatment, repeat the steps to remove severe contamination described previously.
Media characteristics
Product
Mono P 5/50 GL Mono P 5/200 GL PBE 118 PBE 94
Functional group
Tertiary and quarternary amines Tertiary and quarternary amines Tertiary and quarternary amines Tertiary and quarternary amines
pH stability*
Long term: 212 Short term: 214 Long term: 212 Short term: 214 Long term: 313 Short term: 214 Long term: 212 Short term: 114
*Long term pH stability refers to the pH interval where the medium is stable over a long period of time without adverse side effects on the chromatography performance. Short term pH stability refers to the pH interval for regeneration, cleaning-in-place and sanitization procedures. All ranges are estimates based on the experience and knowledge within GE Healthcare.
149
Chemical stability
Mono P 5/50 GL, Mono P 5/200 GL Mono P is stable in all commonly used, aqueous buffers in the range of pH 212, and in the presence of additives such as denaturing agents (8 M urea or 6 M guanidine hydrochloride) and non-ionic or cationic detergents. Avoid oxidizing agents and anionic detergents. PBE 94, PBE 118 Polybuffer exchangers are stable in all commonly used, aqueous buffers in the range of pH 312 and compatible with urea and other strong dissociating agents. Avoid oxidizing agents and anionic detergents.
Storage
Mono P 5/50 GL, Mono P 5/200 GL, PBE 94, PBE pH 810.5 If the column is to be stored for more than two days after use, wash with 5 column volumes of distilled water and 5 column volumes of 20% ethanol. Polybuffer 96, Polybuffer 74, Pharmalyte 118 Store at 38 C in the dark, preferably under nitrogen. Avoid microbial contamination. To minimize adsorption of CO2, store solutions under nitrogen in tightly sealed bottles after use. Never store chromatofocusing media in 1 M HCl or 1 M NaOH. Avoid solutions containing charged groups.
150
Appendix 1
Sample preparation
Samples for chromatographic purification should be clear and free from particulate matter. Simple steps to clarify a sample before beginning purification will avoid clogging the column, may reduce the need for stringent washing procedures and can extend the life of the chromatographic medium. Sample extraction procedures and the selection of buffers, additives and detergents are determined largely by the source of the material, the stability of the target molecule, the chromatographic techniques that will be employed and the intended use of the product. These subjects are dealt with in general terms in the Protein Purification Handbook and more specifically according to target molecule in the Recombinant Protein Handbook, Protein Amplification and Simple Purification and Antibody Purification Handbook, available from GE Healthcare.
Sample stability
In the majority of cases, biological activity needs to be retained after purification. Retaining the activity of the target molecule is also an advantage when following the progress of the purification, since detection of the target molecule often relies on its biological activity. Denaturation of sample components often leads to precipitation or enhanced non-specific adsorption, both of which will impair column function. Hence there are many advantages to checking the stability limits of the sample and working within these limits during purification. Proteins generally contain a high degree of tertiary structure, kept together by van der Waals' forces, ionic and hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. Any conditions capable of destabilizing these forces may cause denaturation and/or precipitation. By contrast, peptides contain a low degree of tertiary structure. Their native state is dominated by secondary structures, stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonding. For this reason, peptides tolerate a much wider range of conditions than proteins. This basic difference in native structures is also reflected in that proteins are not easily renatured, while peptides often renature spontaneously. It is advisable to perform stability tests before beginning to develop a purification protocol. The list below may be used as a basis for such testing: Test pH stability in steps of one pH unit between pH 2 and pH 9. Test salt stability with 02 M NaCl and 02 M (NH 4)2SO4 in steps of 0.5 M. Test the stability towards acetonitrile and methanol in 10% steps between 0 and 50%. Test the temperature stability in +10 C steps from +4 to +40 C. Test the stability and occurrence of proteolytic activity by leaving an aliquot of the sample at room temperature overnight. Centrifuge each sample and measure activity and UV absorbance at 280 nm in the supernatant.
151
Sample clarification
Centrifugation and filtration are standard laboratory techniques for sample clarification and are used routinely when handling small samples. It is highly recommended to centrifuge and filter any sample immediately before chromatographic purification. Centrifugation Centrifugation removes lipids and particulate matter, such as cell debris. If the sample is still not clear after centrifugation, use filter paper or a 5 m filter as a first step and one of the filters below as a second step filter. For small sample volumes or proteins that adsorb to filters, centrifuge at 10 000 g for 15 minutes. For cell lysates, centrifuge at 40 00050 000 g for 30 minutes. Serum samples can be filtered through glass wool after centrifugation to remove any remaining lipids. Filtration Filtration removes particulate matter. Membrane filters that give the least amount of nonspecific binding of proteins are composed of cellulose acetate or PVDF. For sample preparation before chromatography, select a filter pore size in relation to the bead size of the chromatographic medium.
Nominal pore size of filter
1 m 0.45 m 0.22 m
Check the recovery of the target protein in a test run. Some proteins may adsorb nonspecifically to filter surfaces. Desalting Desalting columns are suitable for any sample volume and will rapidly remove low molecular weight contaminants in a single step at the same time as transferring the sample into the correct buffer conditions. Centrifugation and/or filtration of the sample before desalting is still recommended. Detailed procedures for buffer exchange and desalting are given on page 156. At laboratory scale, when samples are reasonably clean after filtration or centrifugation, the buffer exchange and desalting step can be avoided. For affinity chromatography or hydrophobic interaction chromatography, it may be sufficient to adjust the pH of the sample and, if necessary, dilute to reduce the ionic strength of the solution. Rapidly process small or large sample volumes. Use before and/or between purification steps, if needed (remember that each extra step can reduce yield and desalting also dilutes the sample).
152
Remove salts from proteins with molecular weight M r > 5 000. Use 100 mM ammonium acetate or 100 mM ammonium hydrogen carbonate if volatilen buffers are required.
Clarification Bulk proteins and particulate matter precipitated Extraction Clarification Concentration Target protein precipitated with proteins of similar solubility Extraction Clarification Bulk proteins and particulate matter precipitated
Supernatant
Redissolve pellet*
Chromatography
Remember: if precipitating agent is incompatible with next purification step, use Sephadex G-25 for desalting and buffer exchange e.g. HiTrap Desalting or PD-10 columns
Redissolve pellet*
*Remember: not all proteins are easy to redissolve, yield may be reduced
153
Examples of precipitation agents are reviewed in T able 15. The most common precipitation method using ammonium sulphate is described in more detail.
Table 15. Examples of precipitation techniques. Precipitation agent
Ammonium sulphate
Sample type
> 1 mg/ml proteins especially immunoglobulins. Samples with high levels of lipoprotein e.g ascites.
Comment
Stabilizes proteins, no denaturation, supernatant can go directly to HIC. Helps to reduce lipid content. Precipitates lipoprotein.
Dextran sulphate
Add 0.04 ml 10% dextran sulphate and 1 ml 1 M CaCl2 per ml sample, mix 15 min, centrifuge 10 000 g, discard pellet. Add 3% (w/v), stir 4 hours, centrifuge 17 000 g, discard pellet. Up to 20% w/vol
Polyvinylpyrrolidine
Alternative to dextran sulphate. No denaturation, supernatant goes directly to IEX or AC, complete removal may be difficult. Stabilizes proteins. May denature protein irreversibly. Useful for peptide precipitation or concentration of sample for electrophoresis. Precipitates aggregated nucleoproteins. Precipitates aggregated nucleoproteins. Precipitation of nucleic acids.
Acetone (cold)
Up to 80% vol/vol at +0 C. Collect pellet after centrifugation at full speed in an Eppendorf centrifuge. 0.1% w/v 1% w/v 1% w/v (X/15) g where X = volume of sample. Antibody concentration should be > 1 mg/ml.
Details taken from: Scopes R.K., Protein Purification, Principles and Practice, Springer (1994), J.C. Janson and L. Rydn, Protein , Purification, Principles, High Resolution Methods and Applications, 2nd ed. W iley Inc, (1998). Personal communications.
Ammonium sulphate precipitation Some proteins may be damaged by ammonium sulphate. Take care when adding crystalline ammonium sulphate: high local concentrations may cause contamination of the precipitate with unwanted proteins. For routine, reproducible purification, precipitation with ammonium sulphate should be avoided in favor of chromatography. In general, precipitation is rarely effective for protein concentrations below 1 mg/ml. Solutions needed for precipitation:
Saturated ammonium sulphate solution (add 100 g ammonium sulphate to 100 ml distilled water stir to dissolve). , 1 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.0. Buffer for first purification step.
154
1. Filter (0.45 m) or centrifuge the sample (10 000 g at +4 C). 2. Add 1 part 1 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.0 to 10 parts sample volume to maintain pH. 3. Stir gently. Add ammonium sulphate solution, drop by drop. Add up to 50% saturation*. Stir for 1 hour . 4. Centrifuge 20 minutes at 10 000 g. 5. Remove supernatant. Wash the pellet twice by resuspension in an equal volume of ammonium sulphate solution of the same concentration (i.e. a solution that will not redissolve the precipitated protein or cause further precipitation). Centrifuge again. 6. Dissolve pellet in a small volume of the buffer to be used for the next step. 7. Ammonium sulphate is removed during clarification/buffer exchange steps with Sephadex G-25, using desalting columns (see page 156). *The % saturation can be adjusted either to precipitate a target molecule or to precipitate contaminants.
The quantity of ammonium sulphate required to reach a given degree of saturation varies according to temperature. Table 16 shows the quantities required at +20 C.
Table 16. Quantities of ammonium sulphate required to reach given degrees of saturation at +20 C. Final percent saturation to be obtained 20 Starting percent saturation
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95 100
155
Removal/comment
Remove using Sephadex G-25. Remove using Sephadex G-25 or during IEX. Remove using Sephadex G-25 or during IEX. Remove using Sephadex G-25 or during IEX. Remove using Sephadex G-25 or during IEX. Exchange for non-ionic detergent during first chromatographic step, avoid anion exchange chromatography. May need to adjust pH during chromatography to maintain solubility.
Details taken from: Scopes R.K., Protein Purification, Principles and Practice, Springer (1994), J.C. Janson and L. Rydn, Protein , Purification, Principles, High Resolution Methods and Applications, 2nd ed. W iley Inc, (1998) and other sources.
156
For small sample volumes it may be possible to dilute the sample with the start buffer that is to be used for chromatographic purification, but cell debris and particulate matter must still be removed. To prevent possible ionic interactions the presence of a low salt concentration (25 mM NaCl) is recommended during desalting and in the final sample buffer. Volatile buffers such as 100 mM ammonium acetate or 100 mM ammonium hydrogen carbonate can be used if it is necessary to avoid the presence of NaCl. Figure 90 shows a typical buffer exchange and desalting separation. The process can be monitored by following changes in UV absorption and conductivity.
A 280 nm
(mS/cm)
10.0
protein
salt
1.0
2.0
Time (min)
Fig. 90. Buffer exchange of mouse plasma (10 ml) on HiPrep 26/10 Desalting.
For laboratory scale operations, Table 18 shows a selection guide for prepacked, ready to use desalting and buffer exchange columns.
Table 18. Selection guide for desalting and buffer exchange. Column
MicroSpin G-25 PD-10 (gravity feed column) HiTrap Desalting 5 ml HiPrep 26/10 Desalting
Sample volume
0.10.15 ml 1.52.5 ml 0.251.5 ml 2.515 ml
157
Note: 5 ml/min corresponds to approximately 120 drops/min when using a HiT 5 ml column. A simple rap peristaltic pump can also be used to apply sample and buffers.
The maximum recommended sample volume is 1.5 ml. See Table 19 for the effect of reducing the sample volume applied to the column.
Table 19. Recommended sample and elution volumes using a syringe or Multipipette. Sample load ml
0.25 0.50 1.00 1.50
Add buffer ml
1.25 1.0 0.5 0
Yield %
> 95 > 95 > 95 > 95
Remaining salt %
0.0 < 0.1 < 0.2 < 0.2
Dilution factor
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.3
A simple peristaltic pump can also be used to apply sample and buffers. Alternative 2: Simple desalting with KTAprime KTAprime contains pre-programmed templates for individual HiTrap Desalting 5 ml and HiPrep 26/10 Desalting columns.
Buffer Preparation
Prepare at least 500 ml of the required buffer. 1. Follow the instructions supplied on the KTAprime cue card to connect the column and load the system with buffer. 2. Select the Application Template. 3. Start the method. 4. Enter the sample volume and press OK.
158
Figure 91 shows a typical result obtained from KTAprime. The UV (protein) and conductivity (salt) traces enable pooling of the desalted fractions.
Sample:
(His)6 protein eluted from HiTrap Chelating HP with sodium phosphate 20 mM, sodium chloride 0.5 M, imidazole 0.5 M, pH 7.4 HiTrap Desalting 5 ml Sodium phosphate 20 mM, sodium chloride 0.15 M, pH 7.0
A 280 nm
0.15
UV 280 nm Conductivity
(His)6 protein
Column: Buffer:
0.10 Salt
0.05 Inject
0 0 1 2 min
Removal of lipoproteins
Lipoproteins and other lipid material can rapidly clog chromatography columns and it is advisable to remove them before beginning purification. Precipitation agents such as dextran sulphate and polyvinylpyrrolidine, described under Fractional precipitation, are recommended to remove high levels of lipoproteins from samples such as ascitic fluid. Centrifuge samples to avoid the risk of non-specific binding of the target molecule to a filter. Samples such as serum can be filtered through glass wool to remove remaining lipids.
159
Appendix 2
Non-volatile and volatile buffer systems
Non-volatile buffers for anion exchange chromatography
pH 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 pKa 1 (25 C)
4.75 5.33 bis-Trispropane Triethhanolamine Tris N-methyldiethanolamine Propane-1,3-diamino Ethanolamine Piperazine Propane-1,3-diamino Piperidine 6.48 6.65; 9.10 7.76 8.07 8.52 8.88 9.50 9.73 10.55 11.12
pH interval
4.35.3 4.85.8 5.56.5 6.07.0 6.27.2; 8.69.6 7.38.3 7.68.6 8.09.0 8.09.0 8.49.4 8.49.4 9.010.0 9.210.2 10.011.0 10.611.6
1
Substance
N-Methylpiperazine Piperazine L-Histidine bis-Tris bis-Tris propane Triethanolamine Tris N-Methyldiethanolamine N-Methyldiethanolamine Diethanolamine Propane 1,3-Diamino Ethanolamine Piperazine Propane 1,3-Diamino Piperidine
Conc. (mM)
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 20 at pH 8.4 50 at pH 8.8 20 20 20 20 20
Counter-ion
Cl
-
pKa (25 C)
4.75 5.33 6.04 6.48 6.65; 9.10
-
d(pKa)/dT (C)
-0.015 -0.015 -0.017 -0.020 -0.028 -0.028 -0.028 -0.025 -0.031 -0.029 -0.026 -0.026 -0.031
Cl or HCOO Cl Cl Cl
-
Cl or CH3COO Cl
2-
SO4 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl or CH3COO
-
160
pKa 1 (25 C)
3.13 3.86 4.21 4.75 5.76 6.27 7.20 7.56 8.33
pH interval
1.42.4 2.63.6 2.63.6 3.34.3 3.34.3 3.74.7; 5.16.1 4.35.3 5.26.2 5.66.6 6.77.7 7.08.0 7.88.8
1
Substance
Maleic acid Methyl malonic acid Citric acid Lactic acid Formic acid Succinic acid Acetic acid Methyl malonic acid MES Phosphate HEPES BICINE
Conc. (mM)
20 20 20 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Counter-ion
Na
+ + +
d(pKa)/dT (C)
Na or Li Na Na
+ + +
Na or Li Na
+ + + +
Na or Li Na or Li Na or Li Na
+ +
+ + +
Na or Li Na
+
83rd
Buffer system
Formic acid Pyridine/formic acid Trimethylamine/formic acid Pyridine/acetic acid Trimethylamine/acetic acid Ammonia/formic acid Ammonia/acetic acid Trimethylamine/carbonate Ammonium bicarbonate Ammonium carbonate/ammonia Ammonium carbonate N-ethylmorpholine/acetate
Counter-ion
H
+ -
HCOO HCOO
CH3COO HCO3
22-
HCOO
4.75; 7.72
161
Appendix 3
Column packing and preparation
Prepacked columns from GE Healthcare will ensure reproducible results and the highest performance. Use small prepacked columns for media scouting and method optimization, to increase efficiency in method development e.g. HiTrap IEX Selection Kit. Efficient column packing is essential for IEX separation, especially when using gradient elution. A poorly packed column gives rise to poor and uneven flow, band broadening, and loss of resolution. If column packing is required, the following guidelines will apply at all scales of operation: With a high binding capacity medium, use short, wide columns (typically 515 cm bed height) for rapid purification, even with low linear flow. The amount of IEX medium required will depend on the binding capacity of the medium and the amount of sample. Binding capacities for each medium are given in this handbook and supplied with the product instructions. Estimate the amount of medium required to bind the sample of interest and use five times this amount to pack the column. The amount of medium required can be reduced if resolution is satisfactory. Once separation parameters have been determined, scale up a purification by increasing the diameter of the column to increase column volume. Avoid increasing the length of the column as this will alter separation conditions. IEX media can be packed in either T ricorn or XK columns available from GE Healthcare. A step-by-step demonstration of column packing can be seen in "The Movie", available in CD format (see Ordering Information).
162
1. Equilibrate all materials to the temperature at which the separation will be performed. 2. Eliminate air by flushing column end pieces with the recommended buffer Ensure no air is trapped under the . column net. Close column outlet leaving 12 cm of buffer in the column. 3. Gently resuspend the medium.
Note that IEX media from GE Healthcare are supplied ready to use. Decanting of fines that could clog the column is unnecessary. Avoid using magnetic stirrers since they may damage the matrix.
4. Estimate the amount of slurry (resuspended medium) required on the basis of the recommendations supplied. 5. Pour the required volume of slurry into the column. Pouring down a glass rod held against the wall of the column will minimize the introduction of air bubbles. 6. Immediately fill the column with buffer. 7. Mount the column top piece and connect to a pump. 8. Open the column outlet and set the pump to the desired flow rate.
When slurry volume is greater than the total volume of the column, connect a second glass column to act as a reservoir (see Ordering information for details). This ensures that the slurry has a constant diameter during packing, minimizing turbulence and improving column packing conditions. If the recommended flow rate cannot be obtained, use the maximum flow rate the pump can deliver. Do not exceed the maximum operating pressure of the medium or column.
9. Maintain the packing flow rate for at least 3 column volumes after a constant bed height is obtained. Mark the bed height on the column.
Do not exceed 75% of the packing flow rate during any purification.
10. Stop the pump and close the column outlet. Remove the top piece and carefully fill the rest of the column with buffer to form an upward meniscus at the top. 11. Insert the adaptor into the column at an angle, ensuring that no air is trapped under the net. 12. Slide the adaptor slowly down the column (the outlet of the adaptor should be open) until the mark is reached. Lock the adaptor in position. 13. Connect the column to the pump and begin equilibration. Re-position the adaptor if necessary .
The medium must be thoroughly washed to remove the storage solution, usually 20% ethanol. Residual ethanol may interfere with subsequent procedures. Many media equilibrated with sterile phosphate-buffered saline containing an antimicrobial agent may be stored at +4 C for up to 1 month, but always follow the specific storage instructions supplied with the product.
163
Column selection
Tricorn and XK columns are fully compatible with the high flow rates achievable with modern media and a broad range of column dimensions are available. Columns most suitable for packing IEX media are listed under the column packing section for each IEX medium (Chapter 3). In most cases the capacity of the IEX medium and the amount of sample to be purified will determine the column size required. For a complete listing refer to the GE Healthcare BioDirectory or web catalog (www.gelifesciences.com/protein-purification) or visit www.tricorncolumns.com for more details on Tricorn columns.
( )
VR = volume eluted from the start of sample application to the peak maximum wh = peak width measured as the width of the recorded peak at half of the peak height H is calculated from the expression: H= L N L = height of packed bed. Measurements of VR and wh can be made in distance (mm) or volume (ml) but both parameters must be expressed in the same unit. Column performance should be checked at regular intervals by injecting acetone to determine column efficiency (N) and peak symmetry (assymetry factor, As). Since the observed value for N depends on experimental factors such as flow rate and sample loading, comparisons must be made under identical conditions. In IEX, efficiency is measured under isocratic conditions by injecting acetone (which does not interact with the medium) and measuring the eluted peak as shown in Figure 92.
164
Absorbance Ve
wh
50%
10% Volume
Fig. 92.
As a general rule, a good H value is about two to three times the average particle diameter of the medium being packed. For a 90 m particle, this means an H value of 0.0180.027 cm. The symmetry factor (As) is expressed as: As = b a where a = 1st half peak width at 10% of peak height b = 2nd half peak width at 10% of peak height As should be as close as possible to 1. A reasonable A s value for a short column as used in IEX is 0.801.80. An extensive leading edge is usually a sign that the medium is packed too tightly and extensive tailing is usually a sign that the medium is packed too loosely. Run at least two column volumes of buffer through a newly packed column to ensure that the medium is equilibrated with start buffer. Use pH monitoring to check the pH of the eluent.
165
166
Appendix 4
Selection of purification equipment
Simple IEX chromatography, such as elution by a step-gradient, can be performed using a syringe or peristaltic pump with prepacked HiTrap columns. A chromatography system is required in order to achieve a high resolution separation using accurately controlled linear gradient elution, to take advantage of the high flow rates of modern media, or when the same column is to be used for many runs.
Standard KTAdesign configurations Way of working Pilot Explorer 100 Purifier 10 FPLC Prime Syringe or peristaltic pump + HiTrap column
Simple, step-gradient elution Reproducible performance for routine separation Optimization of one step separation to increase purity System control and data handling for regulatory requirements, e.g. GLP Automatic method development and optimization Automatic buffer preparation Automatic pH scouting Automatic media or column scouting Automatic multi-step purification Scale up, process development and transfer to production Proven sanitary design for cGMP with easily exchanged wetted parts
KTAprime KTApilot
KTAexplorer
KTAFPLC
KTApurifier
167
Appendix 5
Converting from linear flow (cm/hour) to volumetric flow rates (ml/min) and vice versa
It is convenient when comparing results for columns of different sizes to express flow as linear flow (cm/hour). However, flow is usually measured in volumetric flow rate (ml/min). To convert between linear flow and volumetric flow rate use one of the formulae below.
Example:
What is the volumetric flow rate in an XK 16/70 column (i.d. 1.6 cm) when the linear flow is 150 cm/hour? Y = linear flow = 150 cm/h d = inner diameter of the column = 1.6 cm Volumetric flow rate = 150 x p x 1.6 x 1.6 ml/min 60 x 4
= 5.03 ml/min
= Z x 60 x where
Example:
What is the linear flow in an HR 5/5 column (i.d. 0.5 cm) when the volumetric flow rate is 1 ml/min? Z = Volumetric flow rate = 1 ml/min d = column inner diameter = 0.5 cm Linear flow = 1 x 60 x = 305.6 cm/h 4 p x 0.5 x 0.5 cm/h
168
Appendix 6
Conversion data: proteins, column pressures
Mass (g/mol)
10 000 50 000 100 000 150 000
1 g
100 pmol; 6 x 10 20 pmol; 1.2 x 10 10 pmol; 6.0 x 10
13 13 12 12
1 nmol
molecules molecules molecules molecules 10 g 50 g 100 g 150 g
Protein
IgG IgM IgA Protein A Avidin Streptavidin Bovine Serum Albumin
= 333 amino acids of coding capacity = 37 000 g/mol = 10 000 g/mol = 50 000 g/mol = 100 000 g/mol
Column pressures
The maximum operating back pressure refers to the pressure above which the column contents may begin to compress. Pressure units may be expressed in megaPascals, bar or pounds per square inch and can be converted as follows: 1MPa = 10 bar = 145 psi
169
Appendix 7
Table of amino acids
Amino acid Alanine Arginine Asparagine Aspartic Acid Cysteine Glutamic Acid Glutamine Glycine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Proline Serine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine Three-letter code Ala Arg Asn Asp Cys Glu Gln Gly His Ile Leu Lys Met Phe Pro Ser Thr Trp Tyr Val Single-letter code A R N D C E Q G H I L K M F P S T W Y V Structure
HOOC CH3 H2N HOOC CH2CH2CH2NHC H2N HOOC CH2CONH2 H2N HOOC CH2COOH H2N HOOC CH2SH H2N HOOC CH2CH2COOH H2N HOOC CH2CH2CONH2 H2N HOOC H H2N HOOC CH2 H2N HOOC CH(CH3)CH2CH3 H2N HOOC CH2CH H2N HOOC CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 H2N HOOC CH2CH2SCH3 H2N HOOC CH2 H2N HOOC H2N HOOC CH2OH H2N HOOC CHCH3 H2N HOOC CH2 H2N HOOC CH2 H2N HOOC CH(CH3)2 H2N OH N H OH N H CH3 CH3 N N H N H NH2
170
Formula C3H7NO2 C6H14N4O2 C4H8N2O3 C4H7NO4 C3H7NO2S C5H9NO4 C5H10N2O3 C2H5NO2 C6H9N3O2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H14N2O2 C5H11NO2S C9H11NO2 C5H9NO2 C3H7NO3 C4H9NO3 C11H12N2O2 C9H11NO3 C5H11NO2
Mr 89.1 174.2 132.1 133.1 121.2 147.1 146.1 75.1 155.2 131.2 131.2 146.2 149.2 165.2 115.1 105.1 119.1 204.2 181.2 117.1
Middle unit residue (-H20) Formula Mr C3H5NO C6H12N4O C4H6N2O2 C4H5NO3 C3H5NOS C5H7NO3 C5H8N2O2 C2H3NO C6H7N3O C6H11NO C6H11NO C6H12N2O C5H9NOS C9H9NO C5H7NO C3H5NO2 C4H7NO2 C11H10N2O C9H9NO2 C5H9NO 71.1 156.2 114.1 115.1 103.2 129.1 128.1 57.1 137.2 113.2 113.2 128.2 131.2 147.2 97.1 87.1 101.1 186.2 163.2 99.1
Charge at pH 6.07.0 Neutral Basic (+ve) Neutral Acidic(-ve) Neutral Acidic (-ve) Neutral Neutral Basic (+ve) Neutral Neutral Basic(+ve) Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral
Hydrophobic (non-polar)
Uncharged (polar)
Hydrophilic (polar)
171
Appendix 8
Analytical assays during purification
Analytical assays are essential to follow the progress of purification. They are used to assess the effectiveness of each step in terms of yield, biological activity, recovery and to help during optimization of experimental conditions. The importance of a reliable assay for the target molecule cannot be over-emphasized. When testing chromatographic fractions, ensure that the buffers used for purification do not interfere with the assay. Total protein determination Lowry or Bradford assays are used most frequently to determine the total protein content. The Bradford assay is particularly suited to samples where there is a high lipid content that may interfere with the Lowry assay. Purity determination Purity is most often estimated by SDS-PAGE. Alternatively, isoelectric focusing, capillary electrophoresis, reversed phase chromatography or mass spectrometry may be used. SDS-PAGE Analysis
Reagents Required
6X SDS loading buffer: 0.35 M Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 10.28% (w/v) SDS, 36% (v/v) glycerol, 0.6 M dithiothreitol (or 5% 2-mercaptoethanol), 0.012% (w/v) bromophenol blue. Store in 0.5 ml aliquots at -80 C.
1. Add 2 l of 6X SDS loading buffer to 510 l of supernatant from crude extracts, cell lysates or purified fractions as appropriate. 2. Vortex briefly and heat for 5 minutes at +90 to +100 C. 3. Load the samples onto an SDS-polyacrylamide gel. 4. Run the gel and stain with Coomassie Blue (Coomassie Blue R T ablets) or silver (PlusOne Silver Staining Kit, Protein).
The percentage of acrylamide in the SDS-gel should be selected according to the expected molecular weight of the protein of interest (see Table 20).
Table 20. % Acrylamide in resolving gel
Single percentage: 5% 7.5% 10% 12.5% 15%
Gradient:
For information and advice on electrophoresis techniques, please refer to the section Additional reading and reference material.
172
Functional assays Immunospecific interactions have enabled the development of many alternative assay systems for the assessment of active concentration of target molecules. Western blot analysis is used when the sensitivity of SDS-PAGE with Coomassie Blue or silver staining is insufficient.
1. Separate the protein samples by SDS-PAGE. 2. Transfer the separated proteins from the gel to an appropriate membrane, such as Hybond ECL (for subsequent ECL detection) or Hybond P (for subsequent ECL Plus detection). 3. Develop the membrane with the appropriate specified reagents.
Electrophoresis and protein transfer may be accomplished using a variety of equipment and reagents. For further details, refer to the Protein Electrophoresis Technical Manual and Hybond ECL instruction manual, both from GE Healthcare and available on www.gelifesciences.com/proteinanalysis_techsupport ELISAs are most commonly used as activity assays. Functional assays using the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance to detect immunospecific interactions (e.g. using BIACORE systems) enable the determination of active concentration, epitope mapping and studies of reaction kinetics. Detection and assay of tagged proteins SDS-PAGE, Western blotting and ELISAs can also be applied to the detection and assay of genetically engineered molecules to which a specific tag has been attached. In some cases, an assay based on the properties associated with the tag itself can be developed, e.g. the GST Detection Module for enzymatic detection and quantification of GST tagged proteins. Further details on the detection and quantification of GST and (His) 6 tagged proteins are available in The Recombinant Protein Handbook: Protein Amplification and Simple Purification and the GST Gene Fusion System Handbook from GE Healthcare.
173
Appendix 9
Storage of biological samples
The advice given here is of a general nature and cannot be applied to every biological sample. Always consider the properties of the specific sample and its intended use before following any of these recommendations. General recommendations Add stabilizing agents, if essential. Stabilizing agents are often required for storage of purified proteins. Serum, culture supernatants and ascitic fluid should be kept frozen at -20 C or -70 C, in small aliquots. Avoid repeated freeze/thawing or freeze drying/re-dissolving that may reduce biological activity. Avoid conditions close to stability limits for example pH or salt concentrations, reducing or chelating agents. Keep refrigerated at +4 C in a closed vessel to minimize bacterial growth and protease activity. Above 24 hours at +4 C, add a preserving agent if possible (e.g. merthiolate 0.01%). Sodium azide can interfere with many coupling methods and some biological assays and can be a health hazard. It can be removed by using a desalting column (see page 156). General recommendations for purified proteins Store as a precipitate in high concentration of ammonium sulphate, for example 4.0 M. Freeze in 50% glycerol, especially suitable for enzymes. Avoid the use of preserving agents if the product is to be used for a biological assay. Preserving agents should not be added if in vivo experiments are to be performed. Instead store samples in small aliquots and keep frozen. Sterile filter to prolong storage time. Add stabilizing agents, e.g. glycerol (520%), serum albumin (10 mg/ml), ligand (concentration is selected based on concentration of active protein) to help to maintain biological activity. Remember that any additive will reduce the purity of the protein and may need to be removed at a later stage. Avoid repeated freeze/thawing or freeze drying/re-dissolving that may reduce biological activity. Sodium azide can interfere with many coupling methods and some biological assays. It can be removed by using a desalting column (see page 156). Cryoproteins are a group of proteins, including some mouse antibodies of the IgG 3 subclass, that should not be stored at +4 C as they precipitate at this temperature. Keep at room temperature in the presence of a preserving agent.
174
Appendix 10
Column cleaning
Correct preparation of samples and buffers and application of a high salt wash (1 M NaCl) at the end of each separation should keep most columns in good condition. However, reduced performance, a slow flow rate, increasing back pressure or complete blockage are all indications that the medium needs to be cleaned using more stringent procedures in order to remove contaminants. It is recommended to reverse the direction of flow during column cleaning so that contaminants do not need to pass through the entire length of the column. The number of column volumes and time required for each cleaning step may vary according to the degree of contamination. If the cleaning procedure to remove common contaminants does not restore column performance, change the top filter (when possible) before trying alternative cleaning methods. Care should be taken when changing a filter as this may affect the column packing and interfere with performance.
175
Table 21. Recommended flow according to medium, column dimensions and eluent. Column (volume) or medium
MiniBeads (0.24 ml) MiniBeads (0.8 ml) MonoBeads (1.7 ml) MonoBeads (1 ml) MonoBeads (8 ml) MonoBeads (20 ml) SOURCE 15 4.6/100 PE RESOURCE 1 ml RESOURCE 6 ml SOURCE in larger columns** HiTrap (1 ml) HiTrap (5 ml) HiPrep (20 ml) HiLoad (20 ml) HiLoad (53 ml) Sepharose High Performance in larger columns** Sepharose Fast Flow in larger columns** Sepharose XL in larger columns** Sepharose Big Beads**
6 M guanidine hydrochloride
0.1 ml/min 0.1 ml/min 0.1 ml/min 0.25 ml/min 1 ml/min 2.5 ml/min 0.1 ml/min 0.5 ml/min 3 ml/min 20 cm/h 0.5 ml/min 2.5 ml/min 2.5 ml/min 2.5 ml/min 5 ml/min 20 cm/h 20 cm/h 20 cm/h 40 cm/h
* If contamination is thought to be significant, use a lower flow rate to increase the contact time when using 1 M NaOH. ** When cleaning larger columns, allow a contact time of 12 hours for any solution that is used as an initial cleaning step.
To remove lipids, hydr ophobically bound proteins or lipoproteins Organic solvents or detergents may be required to completely remove contaminants of this type. Before using organic solvents, wash the medium with at least 4 column volumes of distilled water to avoid any salts precipitating on the column. When applying organic solvents or solutions it may be necessary to reduce the flow rate to avoid over-pressuring the column. Use cleaning solutions such as up to 100% isopropanol, up to 100% methanol, up to 100% acetonitrile, up to 2 M NaOH, up to 75% acetic acid, up to 100% ethanol, ionic or non-ionic detergents. Always check for solvent compatibility in the instructions supplied with the medium or column. Avoid anionic detergents with Q, DEAE and ANX charged groups. Avoid cationic detergents with S, SP and CM charged groups.
176
177
Additional reading
Code No.
Purification
Antibody Purification Handbook Protein Purification Handbook Recombinant Protein Handbook: Protein Amplification and Simple Purification GST Gene Fusion System Handbook Affinity Chromatography Handbook: Principles and Methods Gel filtration Handbook: Principles and Methods Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography Handbook: Principles and Methods Expanded Bed Adsorption Handbook: Principles and Methods Protein and Peptide Purification Technique Selection Fast Desalting and Buffer Exchange of Proteins and Peptides Gel Filtration Columns and Media Selection Guide Ion Exchange Columns and Media Selection Guide HIC Columns and Media Product Profile Affinity Columns and Media Product Profile Convenient Protein Purification, HiTrap Column Guide KTAdesign Brochure KTA 3D Kit Brochure GST Fusion System Brochure Protein Purifier Software Protein Purification: Principles, High Resolution Methods and Applications, J-C. Jansson and L.Rydn Column Packing Video (PAL) Column Packing Video (NTSC) 18-1037-46 18-1132-29 18-1142-75 18-1157-58 18-1022-29 18-1022-18 18-1020-90 18-1124-26 18-1128-63 18-1128-62 18-1124-19 18-1127-31 18-1100-98 18-1121-86 18-1128-81 18-1158-77 18-1160-45 18-1159-30 18-1155-49 18-1128-68 17-0893-01 17-0894-01 18-1124-82 80-6429-60 80-6013-88 18-1139-13
Analysis
Protein analysisusing the power of 2-D electrophoresis 2D Electrophoresis Handbook Protein Electrophoresis Technical Manual ECL Western and ECL Plus Western Blotting Application Note
Many of these items can be downloaded from www.gelifesciences.com/protein-purification Other useful web links include: www.gelifesciences.com/hitrap and www.tricorncolumns.com.
178
References
Code No.
Reference list HiT rap Desalting Reference list HiPrep 26/10 Desalting Reference list HiLoad Q Sepharose HP and HiLoad Q Sepharose FF Reference list HiLoad SP Sepharose HP and HiLoad SP Sepharose FF Reference list HiPrep 16/10 CM FF Reference list HiPrep 16/10 DEAE FF Reference list HiPrep 16/10 Q FF Reference list HiTrap Q HP and HiTrap Q FF Reference list HiTrap SP HP and HiTrap SP FF Reference list HiTrap CM FF Reference list HiTrap DEAE FF Reference list Mono Q (20002002) Reference list Mono S (19982002) Reference list MiniBeads (19982002) 18-1156-70 18-1156-89 18-1156-98 18-1156-99 18-1156-91 18-1156-90 18-1156-92 18-1156-82 18-1156-83 18-1156-84 18-1156-85 18-1166-18 18-1166-16 18-1166-17
179
Ordering information
Ion exchange
SOURCE, Sepharose High Performance, Sepharose Fast Flow. Sepharose XL and Sepharose Big Beads are all available as BioProcess media for large scale production. Please contact your local GE Healthcare representative for details.
Product
MiniBeads Mini Q PC 3.2/3* Mini S PC 3.2/3* Mini Q 4.6/50 PE Mini S 4.6/50 PE MonoBeads Mono Q 5/50 GL Mono Q 10/100 GL Mono Q 4.6/100 PE Mono Q HR 16/10 Mono S 5/50 GL Mono S 10/100 GL Mono S 4.6/100 PE Mono S HR 16/10 SOURCE RESOURCE Q RESOURCE Q SOURCE 15Q 4.6/100 PE SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 30Q SOURCE 30Q SOURCE 30Q RESOURCE S RESOURCE S SOURCE 15S 4.6/100 PE SOURCE 15S SOURCE 15S SOURCE 15S SOURCE 30S SOURCE 30S SOURCE 30S Sepharose High Performance HiTrap Q HP HiTrap Q HP HiLoad 16/10 Q Sepharose High Performance HiLoad 26/10 Q Sepharose High Performance Q Sepharose High Performance
Quantity
Code No.
1 0.24 ml 1 0.24 ml 1 0.8 ml 1 0.8 ml 1 1 ml 1 8 ml 1 1.7 ml 1 20 ml 1 1 ml 1 8 ml 1 1.7 ml 1 20 ml 1 x 1 ml 1 x 6 ml 1 x 1.7 ml 10 ml 50 ml 200 ml 10 ml 50 ml 200 ml 1 1 ml 1 6 ml 1 1.7 ml 10 ml 50 ml 200 ml 10 ml 50 ml 200 ml 5 1 ml 5 5 ml 1 20 ml 1 53 ml 75 ml
17-0686-01 17-0687-01 17-5177-01 17-5178-01 17-5166-01 17-5167-01 17-5179-01 17-0506-01 17-5168-01 17-5169-01 17-5180-01 17-0507-01 17-1177-01 17-1179-01 17-5181-01 17-0947-20 17-0947-01 17-0947-05 17-1275-10 17-1275-01 17-1275-05 17-1178-01 17-1180-01 17-5182-01 17-0944-10 17-0944-01 17-0944-05 17-1273-20 17-1273-01 17-1273-02 17-1153-01 17-1154-01 17-1064-01 17-1066-01 17-1014-01
180
Product
Sepharose High Performance (continued) HiTrap SP HP HiTrap SP HP HiLoad 16/10 SP Sepharose High Performance HiLoad 26/10 SP Sepharose High Performance SP Sepharose High Performance HiTrap IEX Selection Kit**
** Q Sepharose Fast Flow, DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow, SP Sepharose Fast Flow, CM Sepharose Fast Flow, ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub), Q Sepharose XL and SP Sepharose XL
Quantity
Code No.
5 1 ml 5 5 ml 1 20 ml 1 53 ml 75 ml 7 1 ml
Sepharose Fast Flow HiTrap Q FF HiTrap Q FF HiPrep 16/10 Q FF Q Sepharose Fast Flow Q Sepharose Fast Flow HiTrap SP FF HiTrap SP FF HiPrep 16/10 SP FF SP Sepharose Fast Flow SP Sepharose Fast Flow HiTrap DEAE FF HiTrap DEAE FF HiPrep 16/10 DEAE FF DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow HiTrap CM FF HiTrap CM FF HiPrep 16/10 CM FF CM Sepharose Fast Flow CM Sepharose Fast Flow HiTrap ANX FF (high sub) HiTrap ANX FF (high sub) HiPrep 16/10 ANX FF (high sub) ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub) ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub) Sepharose XL HiTrap Q XL HiTrap Q XL HiPrep 16/10 Q XL Q Sepharose XL Q Sepharose XL virus licensed HiTrap SP XL HiTrap SP XL HiPrep 16/10 SP XL SP Sepharose XL 5 1 ml 5 5 ml 1 20 ml 300 ml 25 ml 5 1 ml 5 5 ml 1 20 ml 300 ml 17-5158-01 17-5159-01 17-5092-01 17-5072-01 17-5437-10 17-5160-01 17-5161-01 17-5093-01 17-5073-01
181
17-5053-01 17-5156-01 17-5190-01 17-0510-10 17-0510-01 17-5054-01 17-5157-01 17-5192-01 17-0729-10 17-0729-01 17-5055-01 17-5154-01 17-5090-01 17-0709-10 17-0709-01 17-5056-01 17-5155-01 17-5091-01 17-0719-10 17-0719-01 17-5162-01 17-5163-01 17-5191-01 17-1287-10 17-1287-01
Product
Sepharose Big Beads Q Sepharose Big Beads SP Sepharose Big Beads Desalting columns HiTrap Desalting HiTrap Desalting HiPrep 26/10 Desalting HiPrep 26/10 Desalting PD-10 Desalting columns PD-10 Desalting columns Column Packing CD The Movie Empty Columns
Quantity
Code No.
1l 1l 5 5 ml 100 5 ml 1 20 ml 4 20 ml 30 50 1
Complete information on the range of Tricorn columns is available at www.tricorncolumns.com Tricorn 10/100 column
Tricorn columns are delivered with a column tube, adaptor unit, end cap, a filter kit containing adaptor and bottom filters and O-rings, two stop plugs, adaptor lock and filter holder, and two M6 connectors for connection to FPLC systems if required.
18-1163-15
1 1 1
Empty Disposable PD-10 Desalting columns LabMate PD-10 Buffer Reservoir Accessories and spare parts Packing Connector XK 16 Packing Connector XK 26 Tricorn packing equipment 10/100
includes Tricorn packing connector 1010, Tricorn 10/100 glass tube, bottom unit and stop plug.
50/pk 1 1 1 1
18-1153-23
182
Chromatofocusing
Product
Mono P 5/50 GL Mono P 5/200 GL PBE 118 Polybuffer exchanger PBE 94 Polybuffer exchanger Polybuffer 74 Polybuffer 96 Pharmalyte pH 810.5
Quantity
1 1 ml 1 4 ml 200 ml 200 ml 250 ml 250 ml 25 ml
Code No.
17-5170-01 17-5171-01 17-0711-01 17-0712-01 17-0713-01 17-0714-01 17-0455-01
183
Product index
A
ANX Sepharose 4 Fast Flow (high sub) 24, 93, 94, 96, 103, 181 Mono P Mono P 5/200 GL Mono P 5/50 GL Mono Q 24, 96, 97, 100, 103, 104, 107, 181 Mono Q 10/100 GL Mono Q 4.6/100 PE Mono Q 5/50 GL 24, 94, 96, 98, 99, 103, 181 Mono Q HR 16/10 Mono S 8487, 90, 91, 126, 176, 179, 181 85, 86, 126, 181 85, 87, 181 85, 86, 181 85, 87, 181 39, 9496, 98103, 105, 106, 110, 111, 124, 127, 141, 148, 157, 158, 176, 179, 181, 182 96, 100, 179, 181 96, 179, 181 95, 98, 179, 181 106, 124, 181 95, 181 106, 182 127, 141, 157, 158, 179, 182 2932, 39, 45, 69, 84, 85, 8791, 93103, 105107, 109111, 124, 141, 142, 145, 153, 157159, 162, 167, 168, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182 96, 181 96, 179, 181 95, 96, 179, 181 141, 142, 145, 153, 157159, 179, 182 30, 124, 162, 181 93, 95, 98, 179, 181 45, 85, 88, 89, 179, 181 94, 106, 107, 181 95, 179, 181 85, 87, 88, 89, 179, 181 97, 106, 107, 182 SOURCE 15Q SOURCE 15Q 4.6/100 PE SOURCE 15S SOURCE 15S 4.6/100 PE SOURCE 30Q SOURCE 30S SP Sepharose Big Beads 16, 29, 6163, 65, 66, 180 61, 62, 180 61, 63, 180 6163, 65, 66, 180 61, 62, 180 61, 62, 63, 180 21, 26, 27, 29, 47, 60, 63, 64, 66, 67, 123, 125, 127, 176, 179, 180 SP Sepharose Fast Flow SP Sepharose XL Mono S 10/100 GL Mono S 4.6/100 PE Mono S 5/50 GL Mono S HR 16/10 MonoBeads 129, 132138, 141, 143, 148150, 183 132, 134, 136138, 141, 148150, 183 132, 134, 136138, 141, 148150, 183 16, 29, 38, 43, 6770, 73, 132, 179, 180 68, 180 68, 180 38, 6870, 180 68, 180 6770, 73, 127, 132, 179, 180 68, 180 68, 180 6870, 127, 180 68, 180 21, 22, 2527, 29, 47, 60, 67, 68, 7173, 123, 125, 127, 132, 176, 180
C
CM Sepharose Fast Flow
D
DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow
H
HiLoad HiLoad 16/10 Q Sepharose High Performance HiLoad 16/10 SP Sepharose High Performance HiLoad 26/10 Q Sepharose High Performance HiLoad 26/10 SP Sepharose High Performance HiPrep
P
PBE 118 Polybuffer exchanger PBE 94 Polybuffer exchanger PD-10 Desalting column Pharmalyte pH 810.5 Polybuffer 74 Polybuffer 96 129, 132134, 136, 139, 141, 143, 148150, 183 129, 132137, 139, 141, 148150, 183 88, 182 133, 134, 138, 139, 143, 183 133136, 138140, 150, 183 129, 133135, 138140, 150, 183
HiPrep 16/10 ANX FF (high sub) 96, 181 HiPrep 16/10 CM FF HiPrep 16/10 DEAE FF HiPrep 16/10 Q FF HiPrep 16/10 Q XL HiPrep 16/10 SP FF HiPrep 16/10 SP XL HiPrep 26/10 Desalting HiTrap
Q
Q Sepharose Big Beads Q Sepharose Fast Flow Q Sepharose High Performance Q Sepharose XL Q Sepharose XL virus licensed 114, 116, 117, 182 16, 23, 29, 9395, 98, 103, 181 16, 29, 85, 86, 92, 125, 126, 181 16, 29, 105, 106, 108, 111, 112, 181, 182 105, 106, 108, 182
HiTrap ANX FF (high sub) HiTrap CM FF HiTrap DEAE FF HiTrap Desalting HiTrap IEX Selection Kit HiTrap Q FF HiTrap Q HP HiTrap Q XL HiTrap SP FF HiTrap SP HP HiTrap SP XL
R
RESOURCE RESOURCE Q RESOURCE S 16, 29, 31, 62, 7476, 78, 8082, 176, 180 16, 29, 7476, 78, 180 31, 75, 76, 78, 180
S
SOURCE 21, 22, 25, 27, 29, 41, 47, 51, 69, 7483, 125, 127, 147, 151, 176, 180 69, 75, 76, 79, 82, 180 69, 75, 180 75, 77, 82, 180 75, 180 29, 47, 75, 77, 82, 180 41, 75, 79, 82, 180 114, 116, 117, 182 23, 95, 97, 103, 104, 107, 181 106, 111, 112, 181, 182
L
LabMate PD-10 Buffer Reservoir 182
M
Mini Q Mini Q 4.6/50 PE Mini Q PC 3.2/3 Mini S Mini S 4.6/50 PE Mini S PC 3.2/3 MiniBeads
T
The Movie Tricorn 162, 182 9, 61, 68, 70, 75, 76, 85, 97, 106, 136, 162, 164, 182
184
GE, imagination at work, and GE monogram are trademarks of General Electric Company. Mini Q, Mini S, Mono Q, Mono S, Mono P, RESOURCE, SOURCE, Sepharose, BioProcess, HiTrap, HiLoad, HiPrep, Tricorn, FPLC, MiniBeads, MonoBeads, KTA, KTAexplorer, KTApurifier, Sephadex, Sephacel, Sephacryl, BPG, Pharmalyte, KTAprime, KTApilot, STREAMLINE, Hybond, ECL, ECL Plus, Superdex, PhastGel, PlusOne, PhastSystem, BioDirectory, FineLINE and Drop Design are trademarks of GE Healthcare companies. All third party trademarks are the property of their respective owners. 2004-2010 General Electric Company All rights reserved. First published Apr. 2004. All goods and services are sold subject to the terms and conditions of sale of the company within GE Healthcare that supplies them. A copy of these terms and conditions is available on request. Contact your local GE Healthcare representative for the most current information. GE Healthcare UK Ltd Amersham Place Little Chalfont Buckinghamshire, HP7 9NA, UK GE Healthcare Bio-Sciences Corp 800 Centennial Avenue P.O. Box 1327 Piscataway, NJ 08855-1327, USA GE Healthcare Europe GmbH Munzinger Strasse 5 D-79111 Freiburg, Germany GE Healthcare Japan Corporation Sanken Bldg. 3-25-1 Hyakunincho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-0073, Japan
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11-0004-21 AB 04/2010