Design Solutions Guide

Table of Contents
Topic Part/Page

Welcome! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 BASF Product Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Design Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 CAD/CAE Capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . II Parting Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II2 Draft Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Fillets and Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Bosses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II4 Ribs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II4 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Vents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II6 Potential Knit Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II6 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III2 Stress-Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III2 Normal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III3 Shear Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III3 Torsional Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III4 Bending Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III5 Section Properties of Various Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III6 Explanation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III6 Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III6 Formulas for Common Beams in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III7 Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III8 I, T and L Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III9 Formulas for Flat Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III10 Flat Plate Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III10 Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III11 Thermal Expansion and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III12 Impact Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III13 Stress Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III14 Rib Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III15 Design for Equivalent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III18

Topic

Part/Page

Design Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV Cruise Control Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV2 Cover Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IV4 Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V Snap-Fit Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Snap-Fit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Cantilever vs. Cylindrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V2 Tapered Cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V2 Short Cantilever Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V3 New Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V4 Snap-Fit Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V4 Press-Fit Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V5 Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V6 Bolts, Nuts, and Machine Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V8 Molded-in Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V9 Self-Tapping Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V10 Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V11 Ultrasonic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V12 Shear Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V12 Energy Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V13 Vibration Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V14 Other Assembly Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V15 Thermoplastic Staking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V15 Spin Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V15 Electromagnetic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V16 Plastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI Classification of Plastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI2 Molecular Weight Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI4 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI5 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI5 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI5 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VI6 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII The Mechanical Properties of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII2 Short-Term Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII2 Notches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII2 Rate of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII4 Thermal Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII4 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII5 Dimensional Considerations (Moisture Absorption) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII6

Topic

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Effects of Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII6 Dimensional Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII6 Accelerated Moisture Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII6 Process Induced Property Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII7 Additives (Color) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII8 Ultraviolet (UV) Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII8 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII8 Long-Term PropertiesCreep, Stress Relaxation and Service Life . . . .VII9 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII11 Design Considerations for Gas Assist Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VIII Hollow Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VIII2 Short Shot Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VIII3 Full Shot Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VIII3 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX2 Printing/Hot Stamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX2 Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX3 Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IX -3 Appendix I: Physical Properties and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . .A1 Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Friction and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Isotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Lubricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A12 Mold Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Notch Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Specific Gravity (Relative Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Warpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Water Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A13 Appendix II: ISO and ASTM Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A2 A22 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .B1 B12

Part I
Welcome!
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 BASF Product Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Design Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 CAD/CAE Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3

WELCOME! Part I: Welcome!

As part of our customer-driven philosophy of doing business, we have prepared this guide to give you a general product design overview with a focus on plastic part design. It is our goal to provide all our customers with the optimum level of technical and design support during their product development process.
Recycling Recycling is part of an all-important global drive toward reducing contamination, landfill volume and saving natural resources. Recycling is good business too, since in many cases, it results in reduced product lifestyle costs. Recycled plastic materials can often be specified into less-demanding applications. There are some design implications which should be considered when using recycled products: One should use the same material in assembly applications where parts are permanently affixed to one another. Mixing material types is acceptable for mechanically assembled units which can be disassembled. Color availability is generally limited. Cadmium-free colors are available. Overview Proper design strategy includes: a) a concern for safety and performance b) appropriate material selection and preparation for processing to achieve the ultimate functional design goal c) maximum functionality d) minimum material usage Our intent in developing this Design Solutions Guide is to supply general information for the customer on a variety of applications as a precursor to the more narrowly focused information which will appear in subsequent manuals. Manuals on specific applications will expand upon this general guide and address those precise topics. Your design success is our primary concern.

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WELCOME!
Safety When designing parts, a factor of safety should be used to manage the risk of catastrophic, premature and short-term failures. The factor is contingent upon numerous conditions, including type of application, temperature, lack of material homogeneity, unforeseen overloads, unknowns, etc. Having predetermined load conditions, the introduction of a factor will extend the service life of the product depending on the value used. The value used for the factor is based on the criticality of the function. Engineering handbooks cover this subject in more detail. Nylon has some unique characteristics. For instance, in the presence of moisture, it changes its physical properties. Strength, stiffness, surface hardness and brittleness will decrease while elongation, ductility, impact resistance, dimensions and creep will increase. These characteristics need to be tempered with the safety factor during design. These are reasons for designing with information not found on data sheets which are readily issued by material suppliers. Data sheet information is point data only. We trust you will find this and our other manuals of great value. We are always available to assist when needed.

I-3

Part II
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts

Parting Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II2 Draft Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Fillets and Radii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II3 Bosses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II4 Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II4 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II6 Potential Knit Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II6

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts Part II: Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts
The injection molding process is the most common process for producing economical and automated thermoplastic parts. It commonly requires the use of steel molds, injection molding machinery and auxiliary equipment. To injection mold a part, there are numerous design aspects which should be addressed. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Parting Lines Draft Angles Wall Thickness Fillets and Radii Bosses Ribs Opening Formations Shrinkage Gating Vents Potential Knit Lines
Nozzle Heater Bands Hopper Screw Motor Injection Piston

Parting Lines Parting line consideration depends upon shape and the function of the part. If a shaft diameter is used as a bearing surface and is going to be injection molded, it cannot tolerate a conventional parting line. In this situation, incorporating small flats on the shaft at the parting line will avoid mismatch and minimal flash conditions (see Figure II2).

Parting Line

.005 .005

Figure II-2. Free Running Shaft The parting line depends on the shape of the part. Figure II-3 illustrates an irregular parting line. When a parting line involves two mating halves with close tolerances, the mold mating steel parts should be interlocked for good positioning or take in an allowance for possible mismatches. The allowance should be in the 0.005 in to 0.010 in range relative to the finished dimension.

Mold Clamp System

Mold

Back Flow Check Valve

Screw Travel Limit Switches

Motors, Pumps, Valves, Oil Tank, Heat Exchangers, etc. Controls

Figure II-1. Schematic of Reciprocating Screw Injection Molding Machine

Parting line

Figure II-3. Irregular Parting Line

II-2

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts

Draft Angles Draft is necessary for the ejection of the parts from the mold. Always design with draft angles. Recommended draft angle is normally 1 with 1/2 on ribs. Some draft angle is better than none and more draft is desirable if the design permits. Where minimum draft is desired, good polishing is recommended and feature depth should not exceed .5in. Wall Thickness The number one rule for designing plastic parts is uniform wall thickness. Uniform walls aid in material flow in the mold, reduce the risk of sink marks, molded-in stresses and differential shrinkage. For non-uniform walls, the change in thickness should not exceed 15% of the nominal wall (see Figure II-4) and should transition gradually. Corners should always be designed with a minimum fillet radius of 50% of the wall thickness and an outer radius of 150% of the wall thickness to maintain a uniform wall thickness (see Figure II-4).
NOT RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED

Fillets and Radii Sharp corners should be avoided. They are the number one cause of part failure, stress concentrations, poor flow patterns and increased tool wear (see Figure II-5). Indicate radii at all inside and outside corners to the maximum which a design will allow.

3Z
Min.

Figure II-4

NOT RECOMMENDED

RECOMMENDED

R = .5T Min.

T
R = 1.5T Min.

Figure II-4

II-3

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts

Bosses Bosses are usually designed to accept inserts, self-tapping screws, drive pins, etc., for use in assembling or mounting parts. Avoid stand-alone bosses wherever possible. Bosses should be attached to walls or ribs by means of ribs or gussets for structural stability (see Figures II-5 & 6).
NOT RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED
.5T AT BASE

Ribs Ribs should be used when needed for stiffness and strength or to assist in filling difficult areas. In structural parts where sink marks are of no concern, rib base thickness (t) can be 7585% of the adjoining wall thickness (T). For appearance parts, where sink marks are objectionable, rib base thickness (t) should not exceed 50% of the adjoining wall thickness (T) if the outside surface is textured and 30% if not textured. Sink marks are also dependent on the material.

Rib height should be at least 2.53.0 times the wall thickness (T) for effective strength. Draft should be 1/2 per side nominal. Fillets at the base of the rib should be .020 in minimum. Multiple ribs should be spaced at least 2 times the wall thickness apart to reduce molded in stress and problems in cooling of the mold (See Figure II-7).
1/2Min. 2 T Min.

Figure II-5 The O.D. of the boss should ideally be 2.5 times the screw diameter for self-tapping screw applications. Thick-walled bosses with bases greater than 50% of the wall could form visible sink marks. To overcome this condition, a thinnerwalled boss of 2.0 times screw diameter or less can have multiple ribs (see Figure II-6).
NOT RECOMMENDED
SINK MARK .5T

RECOMMENDED

.7 T 2.5-3.0 T Min. R = .25T T T t R = .020in

Figure II-6 The thickness at the base of the ribs and gussets used to stabilize bosses should not exceed 50% of the thickness of the adjoining wall. Boss inside and outside diameters should have 1/2 draft per side. See Part V of this guide for additional information on bosses for press fits and self-tapping screws.

Figure II-7

II-4

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts

Openings When an opening is desired in a part (such as to accommodate a snap-fit) and is to be formed without core pulls, a 5 angle mating of the core and cavity is required (see Figure II-8). Gating The gate connects the part to the runner system. It is usually the thinnest cross-section in the entire system. The design of the gate is dependent on tool design, part geometry and the material selection. Gate location, size, type and number must also be addressed. Gates should be located away from high stress or impact areas.
MOLD PULL

Gate configuration and location should minimally affect part appearance. Gate design and location should eliminate secondary degating operations, if possible.

5 Min.

Kissoff between two pieces of steel

Figure II-8

The gate should be located to best fill the part; position flow for advantageous glass fiber orientation, if present, and locate knit lines in low-stress areas. Refer to the BASF Injection Molding Processing Guide for more details.

Shrinkage Shrinkage is a characteristic of resin which occurs during molding. Different resins have different mold shrinkages. Crystalline and semi-crystalline materials exhibit higher shrinkage than amorphous materials. Unreinforced plastics have higher shrinkage than reinforced grades. It is important that the grade of material be selected before the mold is constructed and that the proper mold shrinkage be specified. Basic shrinkage data is obtained from ASTM tests or ISO tests. Material shrinkage can vary with part and tool design: thick walls will have higher shrinkage rates than thin, variation in section thickness can cause differential shrinkage and warpage; flow direction will effect shrinkage, particularly with glass fiber-reinforced grades (more when perpendicular to flow and less when parallel to flow; see Figure VII-14). Shrinkage is also influenced by process conditions. As cavity pressure increases, shrinkage typically will decrease. The mold and melt temperature will also influence shrinkage. Cooler molds will reduce shrinkage while hotter melt temperatures will increase shrinkage especially with semi-crystalline materials. Contact BASF Technical Services for shrinkage recommendations on any of our products.

II-5

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts

Vents Vents are regions in the mold where clearance is used to permit trapped air and gases to escape. Lack of proper venting can cause excessive injection pressure, short shots, burn marks and splay. A cavity can be considered adequately vented when plastic can be injected at high rates without showing signs of burn marks. There are many ways to vent a mold. Typically, this is done by machining numerous shallow channels at the parting line. The dimensions of the channels are dependent on the material injected. Contact BASF Technical Services for this information. Other ways to vent a mold are ejector pins, vent pins and runners. Flow analysis can identify areas needing specific venting for best results. Potential Knit Lines Knit lines are areas in the molded part where two or more flow fronts converge. This area generally has lower strength than the other areas of the part. One should anticipate knit lines, which show up well in flow analysis programs, and direct them away from anticipated high stress areas of the part where possible. Knit lines generally form on the opposite side of obstacles which are in the way of the normal flow path, such as pins that form holes in the part or bosses designed to accept inserts.

II-6

Part III
Structural Design
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III2 Stress-Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III2 Normal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III3 Shear Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III3 Torsional Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III4 Bending Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III5 Section Properties of Various Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . III6 Explanation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III6 Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III6 Formulas for Common Beams in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . III7 Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress . . . . . . . . . III8 I, T and L Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III9 Formulas for Flat Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III10 Flat Plate Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III10 Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III11 Thermal Expansion and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III12 Impact Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III13 Stress Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III14 Rib Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III15 Design for Equivalent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III18

Structural Design Part III: Structural Design

Stress
Stress-Strain When a force is applied to a part, the result is a deformed part which is both stressed and strained. The stress () in a part is determined by the load (F) applied per unit area. _ =F A Strain () is a change in the parts length over its original length (see Figure III-1). Hookes Law is the relationship between stress and strain, such that strain is proportional to stress and the modulus of elasticity (E) or Youngs Modulus is the constant of proportionality:

E=
.All plastic materials have a characteristic stress-strain curve (see Figure III-2).

L L
STRESS

Typical Metal

Figure III-1. Strain

F

Brittle Plastic Ductile Plastic

Figure III-2. Stress vs. Strain

L

In order to obtain a stress-strain curve for a resin, a tensile test is performed at room temperature. The part is axially loaded with the force directed away from the part. The stress-strain curve describes the resins response to a force applied at a predetermined rate (.2.5in/min). The yield point (deviation from the straight line) is dependent upon the temperature at which it is measured. Plastic materials do not have a distinct linear response like that of metals. Temperature and humidity can change these curves. Higher temperatures and humidity generally reduce stress carrying ability and increase strain (deflection). When a plastic part is subjected to a high enough external force, it will exceed its elastic limit (the straight line portion of the curve in Figure III-2). Its original size and shape will no longer remain constant. The material behaves linearly as long as the stress is kept well below the yield point. Once the yield point is reached, the material at that point is in its plastic (non-linear) range. Exceeding the linear range results in some permanent deformation of the material. It is only when the part has not been stressed beyond its elastic limit that Hookes Law applies. There are many types of stresses: Normal, Shear, Torsional, and Bending. Each will be discussed in detail.

III-2

Structural Design
Normal Stress Normal stress () is the ratio of the force applied over a given cross-sectional area (A): _ =F A When a load is applied perpendicular (normal) to the plane of a surface, it results in a stress normal to the cross-section. A normal stress is either tensile or compressive, depending on the direction of the force applied. When the force is directed away from the part, the stress is tensile (see Figure III-3), and when the force is directed toward the part, the stress is compressive (see Figure III-4).
F

Shear Stress Shear Stress (), like tensile and compressive stress, is also expressed as the force applied over a cross-sectional area (A). _ =F A The difference is that the result of the force being applied is a stress which is parallel to the cross-section (see Figure III-5).
F C

A
C F A

Figure III-3. Tensile Stress

F

Figure III-5. Shear Stress

Illustration credit: Beer & Johnson, Mechanical Materials.

Figure III-4. Compressive Stress

III-3

Structural Design
Torsional Stress When a part is in torsion (T), twisted along its longitudinal axis, there is, at any point on the plane of the section, a shear stress () (see Figure III-6). The maximum shear stress of a shaft in torsion is calculated by: __ = Tc
K

Example for solid circular shaft: A 5in long solid circular shaft of .5in diameter, is subjected to a torque of 8 inlb. Calculate the shear stress and angle of twist. Using Ultramid 8267 resin (40% mineral/glass), at room temperature and dry as molded (DAM):
E = Modulus of elasticity = 1,110,000 psi

Where variable c is the distance from the center of the shaft to the outer surface where the maximum stress occurs, and K is the torsional constant.*

= Poissons Ratio = 0.35

G= E = 1,110, 000psi = 411,111 psi 2(1 + 0.35) 2(1+ )

4 K = 1 R 4 = (0.25) = 0.006136in4 2 2

= (8in-lb)(0.25in) = 326 psi 4

.006136in (8inlb)(5in) = (411,111psi)(.006136in4) = .0158 rad

The shear stress is extremely low in comparison to the resins tensile strength, therefore, the shaft can withstand the 8 inlb torque applied. * Please reference the formula for the torsional constant of various cross-sections in the Torsional Formula Section (see Figure III-8).

(b)

Figure III-6. Torsional Stress

Illustration credit: Beer & Johnson, Mechanical Materials.

Torque is calculated by:

T = KG L
Where variable is the angle of twist due to the torque, G is the modulus of rigidity, and L is the length of the member. The equation can be manipulated to calculate the angle of twist ():
__ = TL KG

III-4

Structural Design
Bending Stress When a simply supported structural member is in flexure, the top section will be in compression and the bottom surface will be in tension. The center of the member is the neutral axis (N.A.), and is a region of zero stress. The maximum stresses will occur at the extreme fibers (a and b). Bending stress is expressed as:
= Mc I

Example for cantilever beam: The I-beam shown has applied force of 20lb (see Figure III8). Once the moment is calculated, then the bending stress can be calculated. The chosen material is Ultramid 8267 (40% mineral/glass), tensile strength at room temperature and dry as molded (DAM) is 20,000 psi.
F = 20 lb

t = .1 d = .2 .4

where M is the bending moment, c is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme outer fiber and I is the moment of inertia (see Figure III-7).
Compression

w = .15

b = .3

2in

Figure III-8. Cantilever I-Beam Cross-Section

N.A.

M = Force x distance = (20lb)(2in) = 40in-lb

b Tension Width (b)

I* =

b(d +2t)3 (bw)d 3 .3(.2 + 2(. ))3 (.3.15)(.2)3 1 12 = = .0015in4 12 12 12 .0015in

b = (40in-lb)(.42in) = 5333 psi

N.A. Height (h) Distance to N.A. (c)

Figure III-7. Neutral Axis in Bending

In comparing the bending stress with the materials tensile strength, the I-beam will be able to withstand the 20 lb force applied. * Please reference the Beam Sections that follow for the moment of inertia of various cross-sections.

III-5

;; ;; ;
Structural Design
Section Properties of Various CrossSections (Straight Beams)
Explanation of Variables The table below provides the following useful section properties for Figures III-9 through III-14:
I-Beam, C channel and Hollow Rectangle
t t t y y y d w w d d

A = Area Y = Distance from centroid to extreme fiber I = Moment of Inertia about principal axis r = Radius of gyration about principal axis

w/2

A = 2bt + wd d y = __ + t 2

Beam Sections
Rectangle

b(d + 2t)3 (b w) d 3 12 12 1 /2 I r = __ A I=

()
w

A = bd d y = __ 2

1 I = __ bd 3 12

Figure III-12

U channel, T section and L section

w/2

r = 0.2887d

Figure III-9

Solid Circle

A = R2 y=R

I = __ R 4 4 R r = __ 2

A = tb + wd

3 2 b d _ I = __ (d + t) _ (b - w) - 9Ad + t - y) 3 3

y = bt 2 + wd (2t + d) 2(tb +wd)

I r = __ A

()

12 /

Figure III-10

Figure III-13

Hollow Circle

R1

A = (R 2- Ri2) I = __ (R 4- Ri4) 4 y=R

Side T section, cross-section and H section

w w

w 2

1 r = __ i2 2 + R R 2

Figure III-11

b 2

A = wd d y = __ 2

3 3 I = wd + bt 12

I 1/2 r = __ A

()

Figure III-14

III-6

; ; ;; ; ;
Structural Design
Formulas for Common Beams in Bending
Fixed Beam, Center Load
Y L W

The following equations can be utilized to determine the maximum moment, Mmax; displacement at a point, y; maximum displacement, ymax; and maximum stress, max, of many commonly used beam structures; c = distance from centroid of cross-section (Figures III-15 through III-22).
Cantilever Beam End Load
Y L

L _ Mmax = WL @ x = _ 8 2
2 3 y = W (3Lx 4x ) 48EI

L/2

y max
x

L _ ymax = WL @ x = _ 192EI 2

max = WLc @ x = 0, L 8I

Mmax = WL
2

Figure III-19

y max

y = Wx (3L x) 6EI 3 ymax = WL 3EI

Fixed Beam, Intermediate Load

Y L W

max = WLc @ x = 0 I Figure III-15

Mmax = Wa (La) L2 2 3 ymax = 2W(La) a 2@x= 2aL if a > L/2 L+2a 3EI(L+2a)
2

y max

max = Wa (La)c
2

Cantilever Beam, Intermediate Load

Y L

Figure III-20

Mmax = W(La)
3

y max

ymax = W(2L 3L a+a ) 6EI max = W(La)c @ x = 0 I

Fixed Beam, Fully Distributed, Uniform Load

Y L W

w = load/unit length
2

Figure III-16

y max

Cantilever Beam, Fully Distributed, Uniform Load

Y L

w = load/unit length
2

Mmax = wL @ x = 0 2 X 2 wx (6L24Lx+x2) y= y max 24EI 4 ymax = wL @ x = 0 8EI 2 max = wL c @ x = 0 2I Figure III-17

Mmax = wL @ x = 0,L 12 2 2 2 y = wx (2LxL x ) 24EI 4 L _ ymax = wL @ x = _ 384 2 2 max = wL c @ x = 0,L 12I

Figure III-21

Simply Supported Beam, Center Load

L

L/2

y max

Cantilever Beam, Partially Distributed, Uniform Load

Y
2

y max

Mmax = w(La) @ x = 0 2 w (La)3 (3L+a) ymax = 24EI 2 max = w(La) c @ x = 0 2I

Mmax = WL @ x = L 2 4 2 3 y = W(3L x-4x ) for O x L 2 48EI WL3 ymax = 48EI max = WLc @ x = 0, L 4I

Figure III-22

Figure III-18

III-7

Structural Design
Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress
By using these formulas on beams of common crosssections, angle of twist, U, and maximum shear stress, Tmax, can be calculated. (See Figures III-23 through III-29.)
2a

Solid Rectangular Section

2b

TL =KG

Where:

T = Twisting moment (force-length) L = Length of beam G = Modulus of rigidity (force per unit area) K = Cross-section dependent function (length4)

16 b b4 K = ab3 3.36 1 for a b 3 a 12a4 T(3a + 1.8b) @ midpoint of each longer side max = 8a 2 b2

Reference: Roark, Raymond & Young, Warren, Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw Hill.

Figure III-25
Solid Square Section

Beam in Torsion
Solid Circular Section

2a

K = 1R4 2
2R

max =

2T @ boundary R 3

K = 2.25a4 max = 0.601T @ midpoint of each side a3

Figure III-23
Hollow Circular Section

Figure III-26

Ri R0

1 K = (Ro4 Ri 4 ) 2 2TRo @ outer boundary max = 4 (Ro Ri4 )

Figure III-24

III-8

Structural Design
I, T and L Sections For sections I, T and L, the maximum shear stress occurs where the largest inscribed circle, D, touches the boundary. A=cross-sectional area.
4 K1 = ab 1 0.21 b (1 b 4 ) 3 a 12a max = Tc K 3

T Section
K = K1 + K 2 + D4
a
4 K 2 = cd 3 1 0.105d (1 d 4 ) 3 c 192c t (0.15+ 0.10r ) = t1 b

D r

D=
d

d2 (b + r ) 2 + rd + 4 (2r + b)

for d < 2(b + r )

c=

D D D where D 0.118 loge(1+ ) + 0.238 touches 1+ 0.762 2r 2r radius r 2D4 1+ 2 16A

2 4 D 1 + 015 ( D ) where D touches flat surface . 2D4 16A 2 1+ 16A 2

Figure III-28
L Section
b
c r D

c=

K = K1 + K2 + D 4
4 K2 = cd 3 1 0.105 d (1 d 4 ) c 3 192c d (0.07+ 0.076r =b b )

*If b < d then t = b and t1 = d If b > d then t = d and t1 = b

a

I Section

K = 2 K1 + K2 + 2 D
D r c d b a b

D = 2 d + b + 3r 2(2r + b)(2r + d) for b < 2(d + r)

K2 = 1 cd 3 3 = t (0.15+ 0.1r ) b t1

Figure III-29

d2 (b + r) 2 + rd + 4 D= 2r + b

Figure III-27

III-9

Structural Design
Formulas for Flat Plates
Both circular and rectangular plates with constant thickness may use these formulas to determine maximum displacement, ymax and maximum bending stress, max, of a plate under uniform loading. is Poissons Ratio (See Figures III-30 through III-33).
a

Rectangular Plate, Uniform Load, Simply Supported

Flat Plate Equations

Circular Disk, Edge Supported, Uniform Load

W = w r 2

ymax

Figure III-32
3 3 +1

Rectangular Plate, Uniform Load, Fully Fixed

Figure III-30
Circular Disk, Fully Fixed, Uniform Load
b

ymax

Figure III-33 Figure III-31a

Circular Disk, Fully Fixed, Concentrated Load at Center
-3W(m21)r2 4
ymax

radial stress 0.01261W(m1) 3W 2

edge

Figure III-31b

III-10

Structural Design
Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels, containers, or tanks can be analyzed by the use of shell theory because of their shell-like shape and symmetrical loading. To distinguish between thick and thin wall shell or cylinders, the relationship of the wall thickness (t) to the radius (r) must be considered: If 10t is < r, the thin wall theory applies. If 10t is > r, the thick wall theory applies. In dealing with pressure vessels, only those vessels having internal pressure resulting in a tensile failure will be addressed in this manual. External pressure resulting in buckling failure is not covered here because it seldom occurs in practice. The equations are as follows: Internal pressure: (See Figure III-34) Thin wall Maximum stress (hoop or circumferential) is:
= Pri t
Cover

The critical or the highest-stressed area of a pressure vessel is the knuckle or transition section, located at the juncture between the end cover and the shell or body of the vessel (see Figure III-35).

Knuckle

where P is the internal pressure, ri is the inner radius, and t is the wall thickness. Thick wall Maximum stress is:
= P (ro + ri )
2 2

High localized stresses at the knuckle section are caused by stress risers. (These can be linked to the effects of stress concentration factors. See section III-12.) The more abrupt the change, the higher the stress will be. As a result, a spherical shaped end cover is best.

(ro ri )
2 2

where ro is the outside radius, ri is the inside radius, and P is the internal pressure. Shells or Curved Surfaces Thick Wall: Radial and Hoop (Tensile) Stresses Thin Wall: Hoop Stress only

;
Shell

Figure III-35

ri ro

III-11

Structural Design
Pressure Vessels (cont.) Example: Design a cylinder container to withstand an internal pressure of 50 psi, if the diameter is to be 12in. Material has been selected to be Ultramid 8233 (33% glass reinforced nylon 6). The wall thickness, for molding convenience, has been set at 0.250 in maximum. Test for wall conditionThin or Thick? 10t (10)(.250in) = 2.5in r = 12/2 = 6in 2.5 in < 6in Therefore, thin wall approach is acceptable.
(50psi) ( in ) 6 = 1200 psi = Pr = t (.250in ) .
L

Thermal Expansion and Stress

Thermal stresses are typically not of significant concern except in the case of dissimilar materials in an assembly which sees temperature variations. This occurs when a thermoplastic part is fixed to metal. If the plastic is clamped to the metal, then the material with the greater expansion would tend to buckle from the resultant compressive loading. To eliminate this potential, the allowable stress of the larger expanding material must be less then the compressive stress developed due to expansion. Eulers critical buckling load (Pe ) equation allows one to calculate the critical compressive stress. Pe = 4p2 EI L2

L 1 Thermoplastic 2 Metal

Since we are dealing with long-term effects, we need to compare the 1,200 psi against the allowable tensile strength of the material to determine if this design is satisfactory. Fortunately, this 1,200 psi is well below the allowable tensile strength of the material (18,400 psi @ 50% RH), therefore, the design is satisfactory for short term applications. One must check acceptability for long term conditions, where applicable. NOTE: for a spherical shape the stress is:
(50 psi) (6in) = 600 psi = Pr = 2t 2(.250in)

Figure III-36

cc = Pe /A1 cc = critical compressive stress

A1 = cross-section area of material 1 I = moment of inertia of material 1 E = modulus of elasticity

This demonstrates that spherical is a good shape for the end cap.

The following equation calculates the thermal expansion difference between two dissimilar materials (1 & 2). L = (1 - 2)TL where 1 = coefficient of thermal expansion of material 1 2 = coefficient of thermal expansion of material 2 L = change of length T = change in temperature L = length between fixed points To calculate thermal stress, use the following equation:

c = (1 - 2) ET
or increase the section modulus for the larger expanding material. If the c > cc , buckling will occur. To avoid this potential: 1) add additional bolts, 2) increase the section modulus (I/c) of material 1, or 3) provide clearance between bolts and holes for expected movement.

III-12

Structural Design
Impact Stresses
An impact situation results when the loading of the part occurs over a very short time frame. When designing for impact, certain concerns should be considered. One important factor is to minimize stress concentrations. Various places in a part, such as holes, notches, grooves, depressions, sharp corners, ribs and bosses, can create high stress concentrations and induce impact failures. Modify the part, where possible, to reduce and spread the stress over a larger area. One method to predict impact stresses, deflections or strains is to calculate the static deflection of the part. This information can then be used to calculate an amplification factor. By multiplying the static deflection, stress or strain by the amplification factor, an approximation of the dynamic, deflection, stress or strain can be determined. The amplification factor is as follows: Amplification factor: First determine the static deflection and stress by using the formulas for flat plates, shown in Figure III-31b.
ystatic = -3W (m 1 ) r 4Em2 t 3 1 2 1 15 2 3(12) . . . 0 35 = 1 2 (0.25) 3 41,300,000 . 0 35
2 2

= 2.7846 x 10 5 in. radial stress @ edge: 3W static = 0.01261W(m 1 ) mr 2 2t 2 1 0.01261(1.2) 0.35 1 = 3(1.2) 2 1 2 2(0.25) 0.35 (1.5)

= 9.163 psi Next, calculate the amplification factor: 2h KD= 1 + 1 + y static 2 (48) _ = 1 + 1+ 2.7846x10 5 = 1858

KD = 1 + 1+
where h = height of drop y = static deflection

2h ystatic

Example: The following simulates the impact of a 1.2 lb. load from a height of 4 feet on the center of a fully fixed 1/4 in. thick, 3in circular thermoplastic disk. = Poissons Ratio = .35 E = 1,300,000 m = 1/

Then, the predicted dynamic deflection and stress are as follows:

ydynamic = KD ystatic = (1858)(2.7846 x 10 -5) = 0.052in @ center

dynamic = KDstatic
= 1858 (9.163)
1.2 lb

= 17025 psi @ edge

4 ft.

Please note that this method is an approximation and generally will be conservative. All calculations should be verified by experimental testing.

Figure III-37

III-13

Structural Design
Stress Concentrations
Irregularities in a structure subjected to loading may produce high localized stress, or stress concentration (see Figure III-38). These irregularities or stress risers include holes, sharp corners, notches, abrupt changes in wall thickness, or numerous other geometric discontinuities.
Stress Concentration = Stress Riser

Example:
Cantilever Beam
10 LB R = .05in b= .20in

h = .25in

d = 2in

Typical Cross-Section

B E F O R E

Sh

ar

o pC

ner

A F T E R

ak Bre

Load

M = Fd = (10lb) (2in) = 20inlb h C = __ 2 = 0.125in

Wrong Way

(.20in)(.25in)3 __ I = bh = ______________ 12 12 = 2.6 x 10 -4in4

Right Way

= ___ Mc

Sharp Corners Concentrate Stress Break Due to Stress Concentration

Figure III-38 In many instances it is difficult to accurately compute the actual stress, but, good information does exist which provides for a reasonable estimate. Figure III-39 shows a graph for a given configuration. When the corner radius is small compared to the wall thickness, a high stress concentration factor results. Stress Concentration Factor
3.5

I = (20inlb)(.125in) ________________ 2.6 x 10 -4in4 = 9600 psi

I __ = .05in = .2 R t .25in K = 2.5 = 2.5(9600 psi) = 24,000 psi

= K ___ Mc

The design and load shown should be expected to experience a stress of 24,000 psi. Note that changing the radius to .25 in. changes the expected stress concentration to 12,500 psi.

Stress Concentration Factor (K)

R
3.0

Load

2.5

T
2.0

1.5

1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

R /T

Figure III-39
Illustration credit: Peterson, R.E., Stress Contribution Factors.

The actual stress is now predicted by simply multiplying the calculated bending stress by the K factor.

III-14

Structural Design
Rib Design
When designing a part, it is often necessary to determine the number of ribs needed to produce an equivalent displacement or stress based on an un-ribbed part of different thickness. An example is the conversion of an aluminum/steel part into thermoplastic. It is typically required that the thermoplastic provide equal or better stiffness and strength as the metal part. The following method can be used to determine the number of required ribs. It also results in minimizing the mass of the part without compromising performance or manufacturability. Draft angle (in degrees) = 1/2 Base rib thickness to wall thickness (T/W) = .75 All values are per unit of plate wall thickness, W
12 11 10 9 8 7

EQUIVALENT THICKNESS-DEFLECTION
1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6.5 8 13 15 S/W 20 30 40 50 70 100

W equiv 6 W
5 4 3 2 1

Draft

10

12

14

16

H/W
H 12 11 W 10 T S 8 9 3

EQUIVALENT THICKNESS-STRESS
1 1.5 2

S/W
4 5 6.5 8 10 15 20 30 40 50 70 100

Figure III-40. Ribbed Plate With Draft Where W = Wall thickness T = Base rib thickness S = Distance between ribs H = Height of rib Figure III-40 shows the geometric parameters used in this method. The following curves (Figure III-41) have been generated for a plate with ribs having 1/2 draft per side and a T/W = .75. There are numerous other similar curves for other variations.

W equiv 6 W
5 4 3 2 1

10

12

14

16

H/W

Figure III-41. Equivalent Thickness Charts

III-15

Structural Design
To use these charts a few ratios need to be calculated. To convert an aluminum part to thermoplastic of equal rigidity, it is necessary to calculate the equivalent thickness of the plastic part without ribs. Next, a nominal thermoplastic wall thickness must be selected along with either the rib height or number of ribs. Using the curves, the appropriate rib pattern can be determined. This process can be reversed as well if there is a desire to determine displacement or stress for a ribbed member. It basically reduces the ribbed member to a simple flat plate. Example: The following shows the conversion of a flat aluminum plate of 6 in. x 10 in. with a thickness of 0.125 in. to a typical glass reinforced nylon plate with ribs and having equivalent stiffness. For flat plates of equal rigidity, the following ratio is valid: (see page III-15.)
3 EA tA = EP t 3 P

We must now choose a value for two of the following: nominal wall thickness (W), rib height (H), or distance between the ribs (S). For this exercise, let us make W = 0.125in and H = 0.725in. Therefore:
Wequiv 0.339 = = 2.712 W 0.125 H 0.725 = = 5.8 . W 0125 T = 0.75T = (0.125)0.75 W = 0.094in

(see page III-18)

knowing: Ealuminum = 1.0x10 7psi Eplastic = 5.0x10 5psi then EA tA 3 tP = EP

1 3

Since we are interested in equivalent deflection, we can find the curve that corresponds to these 2 ratios and find that S/W = 20, therefore S = (0.125)20 = 2.5in. This means that for a plate of 6 in. x 10 in.we will need 3 and 4 ribs respectively. The equivalent plate would look like Figure III-42.
10in

6in

0.125in

0.725in

1.0 x 107 (0.125) 3 = 5.0x10 5

1 3

Figure III-42. Equivalent Plate Using Cross-Ribbing

tP = Wequiv = 0.339in

NOTE: To lower stresses in the plate, it is recommended that generous radii be placed at the base of the ribs. Table III-1 further illustrates the weight-to-stiffness advantage of various rib heights.

This is the thickness that the thermoplastic part would need to be if no ribs were present. Since this wall thickness is thicker than desirable for injection molding, the addition of ribs is an alternative.

III-16

Structural Design
Case Number 0 1 2 3 4 5

Effect of 1/8in Thick Rib of Various Heights on the Strength of a 2in x 1/4in Beam Rib Rib Height/ Shape Size Wall Thickness % Increase in Weight % Increase in Stiffness
2 in T

N/A N/A 1/8in W x 1/8in H 1/8in W x 1/4in H 1/8in W x 1/2in H 1/8in W x 3/4in H

N/A N/A 1:2 1:1 2:1 3:1

N/A 100 3.12 6.25 12.5 19.0

N/A 700 23 77 349 925

2T

1/8in W x 1in H

4:1

25.0

1901

7 T = Thickness = 1/4in

1/8in W x 1 1/4in H

5:1

31.0

3352

Table III-1

III-17

Structural Design
Design for Equivalent Stiffness
In order to replace metal parts with plastic, the equivalent stiffness of a plastic part can be determined. When the two parts are of equivalent stiffness, deflection is the same. Deflection is inversely proportional to the rigidity modulus (R): R = EI where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the moment of inertia. (The moment of inertia will vary for each geometry. See Figure III-43.) Therefore, by equating the modulus of rigidity of the metal and plastic parts the condition of equivalent stiffness will be satisfied. Sections of Equivalent Stiffness in Bending:
Aluminum Zinc

.457

.789

.620 .620

E = 10.3 x 106 psi I = 0.0049in4 EI = 5.08 x 104 lbin2 A = 0.283in2

Nylon 33% GF

E = 2.0 x 106 psi I = 0.0254in4 EI = 5.08 x 104 lbin2 A = 0.489in2

Nylon 33% GF
.100

E aluminum

I aluminum

E plastic

I plastic

.898 1.142 .100 .620 .620

For solid shape of equal width;

E aluminum

h3aluminum

E plastic

h3plastic

E = 1.36 x 106 psi DAM I = 0.0374in4 EI = 5.08 x 104 lbin2 A = 0.557in2

E = 1.36 x 106 psi DAM I = 0.0374in4 EI = 5.08 x 104 lbin2 A = 0.270in2

Figure III-43

III-18

Part IV
Design Examples
Cruise Control Bracket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV2 Cover Cap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV4

Design Examples Part IV: Design Examples

Design Example #1
A

Application: Problem: Potential Reasons for Part Failure:

Steel Part

CRUISE CONTROL BRACKET Plastic Bracket Bending Under Load After Conversion From Steel a) Material b) Processing c) Design Simple Cantilever Beam (Closely similar to the end-use condition). (Note actual outlined part.)
X

Analysis:

B
Present Plastic Part

Section XX

X L Part fixation

C
Redesign

Figure IV-2. Rigidity Modulus, R = EI E = Modulus of Elasticity I = Moment of Inertia R can be increased by increasing E or I

Figure IV-1. Cruise Control Bracket

IV-2

Design Examples
NOTE: The small section was analyzed because the left portion of the part, which is basically clamped, has a large section modulus and is therefore much stiffer than the middle of the part. Since I = bh3/12, a small change in h will result in a cubed effect or a large increase in R, a very effective change. Example: If h is doubled, it will increase the R by a factor of 8!!! To make the plastic part more rigid than the steel part, > EI plastic = EI steel (lb. in2.) If the E for plastic is 740,000 (Ultramid 8233) @ 50% RH, and for steel 30,000,000 psi, then the results would be as noted:
Section AA Original Steel Part Section BB Plastic Present Part Redesign Section CC

Conclusion: a) A material change would not be effective enough; it could increase the cost and require new approvals. b) Processing was not determined to be the problem by lab analysis. c) Redesign was implemented with successful results.

I = .0002 EI = 6,000

I = .0008 EI = 592 Figure IV-3

I = .041 EI = 30,340

IV-3

Design Examples
Dimensional Change (in/in)

Design Example #2 Application: COVER CAP Problem: Oversize Parts Out of Specification Potential Reason for Part Failure: a) Material, or b) Processing Customer Input: 1) The parts were initially inspected, approved by Q. C. and placed into stock. 2) Five months passed, when a reorder was issued. 3) Parts were .0045in oversize and rejected by the customer. Analysis: Parts were in Ultramid 8233. The critical dimension, and the one in question, is 2.002 in. in diameter. It was assumed that the problem could well be the growth of the part due to moisture absorption. If the parts were measured soon after molding, the parts were in the DAM (dry as molded) condition. Using the plot shown for part growth versus moisture absorption or percent relative humidity, it can be seen that the growth of the part at 50% RH is .0025in/in. This is a worldwide average which should be used in all calculations for critical dimension determinations. The formula for the circumference of a round part is: C = 2 x x r or C = x D Where: r = radius D = diameter If we multiply the 2.002in diameter by .0025in/in, a .005in part growth results. This was the amount the parts in stock were oversize and therefore the problem.

.010

.005

.0025

0 0 20 40 60 80 100

Percent Relative Humidity

Figure IV-4 Conclusion: a) A concern only when very tight tolerances are important, as this was. b) Can be corrected by preparing the mold for the anticipated long term size and 50% RH conditions. c) Parts can be conditioned initially to stabilized dimensions.

IV-4

Part V
Assembly
Snap-Fit Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Snap-Fit Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Cantilever vs. Cylindrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Tapered Cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V2 Short Cantilever Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V3 New Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V4 Snap-Fit Design Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V4 Press-Fit Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V5 Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V6 Bolts, Nuts, and Machine Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 Mold-in Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V9 Self-Tapping Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V10 Inserts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V11 Ultrasonic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V12 Vibration Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V14 Other Assembly Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V15 Thermoplastic Staking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V15 Spin Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V15 Electromagnetic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V16

Assembly Part V: Assembly

Snap-Fit Assembly
Snap-Fit Design When assembling two parts, snap-fits are simple, costeffective, and a quick method of assembly. When designed correctly, snap-fits can be assembled and disassembled many times without any adverse affect on the assembly. Snap-fits are also one of the more environmentally-friendly form of assembly because of their easy disassembly. The designer should be aware that snap-fits do have some limitations. These include a possible clearance condition due to the tolerance stack-up of the two mating parts, and low pullaway forces. Snap-fits can also increase the cost of an injection molding tool, if slides are needed in the mold. The designer can eliminate the need for slides by adding a slot directly underneath the snap ledge or by placing the snap at the outside edge of the part. Cantilever vs. Cylindrical Most applications use the cantilever snap-fit design (see Figure V-1). The cylindrical design can be employed when an unfilled thermoplastic material is selected (a typical application is an Aspirin bottle/cap assembly). When designing a cantilever snap, the designer may have to go through several iterations (changing length, thickness, deflection dimensions, etc.) to design a snap-fit which results in a strain lower than the allowable strain of the material (Figure V-6). Figure V-1
CANTILEVER
(FILLED & UNFILLED MATERIALS)

Tapered Cantilever For most applications, the uniform section cantilever (see Figure V-2) is sufficient in designing a snap-fit. A tapered section beam is desirable, if additional deflection is desired.
B P

UNIFORM SECTION BEAM

= 1.50-tL2 Y
t L B t

B P t/2 t L B

TAPERED SECTION BEAM

= 0.92-tL2 Y

Figure V-2. Conventional Cantilever Formulas

CYLINDRICAL
(UNFILLED MATERIALS)

Y Y 2

V-2

Assembly
Short Cantilever Design The conventional cantilever formulas used in analyzing snap-fit deflections predict a much smaller deflection than observed in the field for short cantilevers. The wall from which the snap protrudes is assumed to be rigid in the conventional formulas. This is a valid assumption for long cantilevers, but not short cantilevers. The intersecting wall actually deforms under load for short beams. BASF has proven1 this both experimentally and by Finite Element Analysis. The results of this study were compiled and are shown in Figure V-4 for various configurations (see Figure V-3). An example illustrates the procedure for designing a snap-fit. Formulas for calculating maximum strain, deflection and amount of force required to assemble the parts are also given. A special snap-fit manual with more detail is available.
1

8.0

7.0

6.0

DEFLECTION MAGNIFICATION FACTOR Q

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1987 SPE ANTEC, Chul S. Lee, Alan Dublin and Elmer D. Jones, SHORT CANTILEVER BEAM DEFLECTION ANALYSIS APPLIED TO THERMOPLASTIC SNAP-FIT DESIGN, Held in Los Angeles, California, USA.

1.0

ON A BLOCK (SOLID WALL)

0.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0 4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0 11.0

ASPECT RATIO, L/t

Figure V-4. Q Factor

NOTE: Numbers inside of the circles correspond to the beam configuration cases shown in the preceding figure.

ON A PLATE (THIN WALL) 2 4

Figure V-3. Beam Configurations

V-3

Assembly
New Formulas
t W B P

Example: MAXIMUM STRAIN

t W B P

O = 1.5 - tY Q L2

GIVEN: Material: PETRA 130 (PET) t = 0.10in L = 0.50in B = 0.25in E = 1,300,000 psi = 0.2 = 30.0 O = 1.5%

Figure V-5 Where: DETERMINE:

Figure V-6

O = Maximum strain at the base

t = Beam thickness Y = Deflection L = Beam length Q = Deflection magnification factor (refer to graph for proper Q values) Bt2 E P= 6LQ

a) THE MAXIMUM DEFLECTION OF SNAP b) THE MATING FORCE SOLUTION: a) THE MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION OF SNAP

MATING FORCE + tan W = P 1 - tan Where:

O L2 Q tY O = 1.5 max- Ymax = 2

L Q 1.5 t L = 5.0 Q = 2.0 (from Q Factor graph) t (0.015)(0.5)2 (2.0) Ymax = = 0.05in (1.5)(0.1) Therefore, in an actual design, a smaller value for deflection (Y) would be chosen for an added factor of safety. b) THE MATING FORCE Bt2 P = EO 6L (0.25)(0.1)2 (1,300,000) (0.015) P = = 16.2lb 6(0.5) + W = P tan 1 tan 0.2 + tan30 W = 8.1 = 14.2lb 1 0.2 (tan30) Therefore, it will take 14.2 pounds to force the snap-fit into position. (More detailed information can be found in the BASF Snap-Fit Design Manual.)

W = Push-on force W = Pull-off force P = Perpendicular force = Coefficient of friction = Lead angle = Return angle B = Beam width t = Beam thickness E = Flexural modulus = Strain L = Beam length Q = Deflection magnification factor (refer to graph for proper Q values)

V-4

Assembly
Press-Fit Assembly
Two parts can be assembled by press-fitting them together (see Figure V-7). Although this is a common assembly method in metals, a good design is more critical for thermoplastics. Since plastics creep (or stress relax), the designer must allow for a large reduction of the initial press-fit clamp force. A good design will minimize the strain on the plastic (see Figures V-8 & V-9), take tolerance stack-up into account and estimate the final residual clamp force due to plastic creep relaxation. Figure V-7
b PLASTIC

RADIAL DEFORMATION
2 2 c2 2 = b - b 2 + b +vPL c2 22 c +b c -b

( )(

METAL

WHERE: = Radial deformation = Strain vPL = Poissons Ratio.

Figure V-9. Press-Fit a Metal Shaft into a Plastic Hub

NOTE: 1. Radial deformation, , must be doubled for the total interference fit on a diameter. 2. b and c are radii, not diameters. 3. Formula assumes zero deformation of the metal shaft. 4. Creep must be fully analyzed.

EXAMPLE: GIVEN: A metal insert (O.D. = 0.50in) is to be press-fit into a Ultramid 8233 boss (O.D. = 0.75in). Determine the maximum interference of the assembly using a 2% allowable strain for Ultramid 8233. SOLUTION: b c2 2 d = b - c2 + b2 2 b3 (c2 - a2) = (c2 + b2)(b2 - a2)
PLASTIC

RADIAL DEFORMATION
PLASTIC a

+ )(cbb- + vPL) c .375 - .250 .375 + .250 = (.250)(.02)( ( - + .35 ) ) .375 + .250 .375 - .250
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

d = .0057in Therefore, the Capron 8233 boss I.D. should be designed with an .011in (2) maximum interference (.489in minimum diameter).

WHERE: = Radial deformation = Strain WHEN a = 0 2bc2 = 2 c2 + b

Figure V-8. Press-Fit With Two Identical Materials

NOTE: 1. Radial deformation, , must be doubled for the total interference fit on a diameter. 2. a, b and c are radii, not diameters. 3. Formula is only valid when the shaft and hub are the same material. 4. Creep must be fully analyzed.

V-5

Assembly
Adhesive Bonding
Another method for assembling parts is by applying an adhesive. Two similar or dissimilar materials can be assembled together in a strong leak-tight bond. Various joint designs are shown in Figure V-10. Epoxies High strength, high temperature resistance, two parts (usually), poor impact resistance, long cure times, and usually needs to be fixtured.
Cyanoacrylates (example: Krazy Glue) High strength, very fast cure time, one part, limited service temperature (about 200F), poor impact resistance, and limited moisture resistance.

The choice of the adhesive depends on the application and its end-use environment. Details of some adhesives, Silicones Low strength, very high heat resistance, two which can be used with BASF Ultramid and Petra products, parts (usually), good low temperature flexibility, good impact are highlighted in Table V-1. resistance, good sealing capability, very long cure times, Polyurethanes High strength, good impact resistance, usually needs to be fixtured, and very high material cost. good low temperature flexibility, two parts (usually), limited *3M, Structural Adhesive Guide for Industrial Product Design and Assembly. moisture resistance, long cure times, and usually needs to be fixtured.

Simple lap

Double butt lap

Joggle lap

Conventional tongue and groove

Figure V-10. Joint Design*

V-6

Assembly
ADHESIVE UR 1100 FE 6046 (Flexible Epoxy) Hysol 934 Scotch-Weld 2214 Regular Scotch-Weld 2214 Hi-Temp Scotch-Weld 2216 Tyrite 5700 A/C Superbonder 498 Cylok P Permabond 268 3-0100 Plexus MA310 TYPE 1 part urethane 2 part epoxy 2 part epoxy 1 part epoxy 1 part epoxy 2 part epoxy 2 part epoxy Cyanoacrylate Cyanoacrylate Cyanoacrylate Silicone 2 Part Methacrylate CURE 30 min @ 250 F (121 C) 60 min @ 200 F (93 C) 60 min @ 200 F (93 C) 40 min @ 250 F (121 C) 40 min @ 250 F (121 C) 5 min @ 250 F (121 C) 15 min @ 200 F (93 C) 30 sec @ 73 F (23 C) 10 - 30 sec @ 73 F (23 C) 10 sec @ 73 F (23 C) 24 hrs @ 73 F (23 C) 15-18 min @ 73 F (23 C) MANUFACTURER HB Fuller 1-800-328-7307 HB Fuller 1-800-328-7307 Hysol Aerospace Products (510) 458-8000 3M Company 1-800-362-3550 3M Company 1-800-362-3550 3M Company 1-800-362-3550 Lord Industrial Adhesives (814) 868-3611 Loctite Corporation 1-800-562-8483 Lord Industrial Adhesives (814) 868-3611 Permabond Intl 1-800-526-4741 Dow Corning (517) 496-6000 ITW Plexus 1-800-851-6692

Table V-1. Recommended Adhesives for BASF Resins

V-7

Assembly
Bolts, Nuts, and Machine Screws
Standard metal fasteners are also used to assemble thermoplastic components, although self-tapping screws are more common. Bolts and screws are used to join plastic to metal or plastic to plastic. Care must be taken to prevent excessive compressive stress on the plastic. Assembly must be limited to a prescribed torque level and controlled. Rapid application of torque should be avoided since most thermoplastics are rate sensitive. High torques generally produce high compressive stress. A rapid initial stress reduction takes place before leveling off over time. The higher the stress, the greater the stress relaxation. Elevated temperatures will further increase relaxation. A larger head screw or addition of a large diameter metal washer under the bolt head and/or nut will increase the contact area and reduce stress. Figure V-11 illustrates this concept. Flat head screws and rivets should be avoided in plastic applications. These conical shaped fasteners cause a wedging action which results in high hoop stress and possible failure of the part. As stress relaxation occurs, the clamping force and torque retention drop and the fastener will loosen. A spring washer can be used to maintain acceptable force and torque levels. Figure V-12 shows various options to help counteract stress relaxation. Options 1 & 2 use a shoulder washer or bolt in combination with the spring washer. The main clamping is metal to metal while a smaller force holds the plastic.
1.0 So=5000 psi 0.9 So=15000 psi 0.8 S/So 0.7

STRESS RELAXATION ON A PLASTIC PART

0.6 0.5 .01

So=15000

So=5000

.1

1 TIME, HOURS

10

100

Figure V-11. Application of Stress Relaxation to Plastic Part Design

SHAKEPROOF STEM BOLT ASSY. (STEM WASHER ATTACHED) STEM WASHER PLASTIC METAL

SHOULDER BOLT SPRING WASHER PLASTIC METAL

Option 1

Option 2
STEM (WASHER ATTACHED) FLAT WASHER (OPTIONAL) PLASTIC METAL

Option 3

Figure V-12. Minimizing Stress Relaxation

V-8

Assembly
Molded-In Threads One of the advantages of injection molded parts is the ability to mold in many kinds of functional features such as threads. These can be traditional forms or specially modified versions tailored to specific applications. Coarse threads are generally preferred due to their higher strength and torque limits. For applications requiring high pullout or subject to high pressure loads, Acme or Buttress thread forms can be used. The two main types of threads are external and internal. Both types should be designed with lead-in thread relief. Generally 1/32 in. is sufficient to prevent high stresses at the end of the threads. Also it is good design practice to include radii of .005 in..010 in. at the thread roots to minimize stress concentration. Examples of external and internal threads are shown below.
1/32 in 1/32 in

Figure V-14. Single Screw Thread Tapered Pipe Threads Special care should be taken when designing internal tapered pipe threads that will be mated with a metal pipe. These threads act as a wedge, causing high hoop stress that may crack the plastic member, if over-tightened. Some means of providing a positive stop should be incorporated such as a shoulder at the bottom of the internal plastic thread.

1/32 in

Figure V-13. Molded-In Thread Relief External threads should be located on the tool parting line, if at all possible, to avoid undercuts and the need for an unscrewing mechanism. This will lower tool cost and lower mold cycle time. Internal threads are usually formed by an unscrewing or collapsible core. If a single thread that is slightly less than 360 around is adequate, then it can be formed using a straight core pull. (See Figure V14.)

V-9

Assembly
Self-Tapping Screws There are two main types of self-tapping fasteners used in plastic parts: thread cutting and thread forming. Thread cutting screws are generally used only on brittle plastics, such as thermosets and highly filled (+50%) thermoplastics. They cut threads by means of a slotted shank. Because they actually remove material when inserted, thread cutting screws should not be reinstalled and a chip reservoir should be added. Thread forming screws are generally preferred for most thermoplastic applications. These types of screws can be reinstalled a limited number of times (3-7). For repeated assembly and disassembly, some form of metal inserts should be used. There are several styles of thread forming screws designed specifically for plastics. Three of the more widely used are: Plastite These screws have a trilobular cross-section which roll threads by moving material out of the way as they are installed. After installation, the material fills back around the shank lowering the residual stress in the screw boss. This feature also gives the Plastite screws excellent resistance to loosening due to vibration. Higher hoop stress is produced with these screws. Hi-Lo These screws feature a dual lead with a high thread having a 30 included angle and the low thread having a 60 angle. These screws have a high strip torque to drive torque ratio which is important for small sizes. Lower hoop stress is produced but higher stress concentrations result due to acute angle threads. PT This thread design has a single 30 included angle which reduces hoop stress in the boss and also provides a high strip torque to drive torque ratio. Guidelines for self-tapping fasteners: 1. Thread engagement length should be 2.5 times the screw diameter. 2. Boss diameter should be at least 2 times the pilot hole diameter. 3. Pilot hole diameter should be based on 50%-70% thread engagement. This can vary with the material and the type of fastener (check with your Basf design representative). 4. Cored holes should have 1/4 to 1/2 draft/side. 5. Holes should be counterbored or chamfered to a depth of .020 in. to aid alignment and reduce the chance of boss cracking. 6. Strip to drive torque ratio should be at least 3:1, but the difference in strip to drive torque is more important than the ratio. 7. Seating torque should be no more than 2/3 strip torque.

D 2.0 to 2.5D D .020 in

Figure V-15. Bosses for Self-Tapping Screws

V-10

Assembly
Inserts Inserts of various types are used with plastics. The most common are threaded metal inserts; either internally threaded nuts or externally threaded studs. Threaded metal inserts are used when the assembly application requires repeated assembly and disassembly or the assembly needs to resist creep and compressive relaxation. There are several methods of installing inserts: Ultrasonic This method uses the same equipment as ultrasonic welding. The high frequency horn vibrations cause frictional heat between the insert and plastic, thereby melting it into the boss. This process takes under 5 seconds and features low residual stress and excellent pullout strengths. Thermal This is similar to ultrasonics in that the insert is melted into the boss but the insert is heated by a device like a soldering iron. This method is relatively slow and also yields a low stress assembly with good pull out strengths. Self-tapping These inserts have an external self-tapping screw thread and are driven into the hole using low cost equipment. (See Figure V-7.) Press-fit and Expansion This type of insertion is not normally desirable. The insert is pressed in with an interference fit. The expansion insert is designed to expand into the side walls of the boss with a tool. Both methods impart a high stress to the boss, and they have lower mechanical performance. Molded-in This method is often used for large or special inserts. As the name implies, these inserts are placed in the mold cavity and the plastic is injected, thereby encapsulating them. The need to place the insert in the mold increases cycle time and mold damage can occur.

Thermal Insert

Ultrasonic Insert

Expansion Insert

Self-Tapping Insert T

Figure V-16. Typical Threaded Metal Inserts

Illustration Credit: Spirol Inserts CEM Corporation Inc. and In-X Fasteners Corp.

V-11

Assembly
Ultrasonic Welding Ultrasonic welding is a quick and reliable way to assemble the same or very similar thermoplastic parts. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical vibrations causing frictional heat between mating parts, thereby melting the plastic. The parts are held in a fixture under pressure while the ultrasonic energy is applied. The energy is then shut off and the pressure maintained until the weld surface has solidified. Total weld time is generally around 0.5-1.0 second. Standard welder frequencies are 20 kHz, although 40 kHz units are available for small delicate parts. The major factor determining the quality of an ultrasonic weld is the joint design. The two major types of joint designs are shear joints and energy director joints. The choice depends on the type of material to be welded and the end use requirements. Shear Joint A shear joint is more commonly used on semi-crystalline materials such as nylon* and polyester. Due to their sharp melting points, semi-crystalline resins often do not achieve strong welds with energy director joints. The molten material flowing from the weld area quickly resolidifies before welding to the opposite interface. In a shear joint, a small contact area is initially melted and then continues down the weld surface as one part is forced into the other. Due to the good material mixing between the welded parts, strong structural and hermetic seals can be obtained. Typical joint designs and interference guidelines are shown in Figure V-17 (ac). As with energy director joints, flash traps can be included in the joint design. * NOTE: Hygroscopic materials such as nylon should be welded in their dry as molded condition to prevent brittle welds. This can be achieved by welding parts soon after molding, or by placing parts in moisture proof bags to assure dry as molded condition.
DEPTH OF WELD

.25 in

Min. LEAD-IN .020 in

30 45 INTERFERENCE

FIXTURE

Figure V-17 (a). Shear Joint

Illustration credit: Vibration Welding, Branson Ultrasonics Corp., 1980.

Interference

Figure V-17 (b). Shear Joint (Flash Trap)

Maximum Part Dimension (In) <0.75 0.75 to 1.50 >1.50

Interference for Part Dimension Size (Range) Tolerance (In) 0.008 to 0.012 0.012 to 0.016 0.016 to 0.020 0.001 0.002 0.003

Figure V-17 (c). Shear Joint Interference Guidelines

V-12

Assembly
Energy Director An energy director is a raised triangular bead molded on one of the joint surfaces. It concentrates ultrasonic energy causing a rapid initiation of the melt and welding of the material. Energy director joints are normally used for amorphous materials. Typical joint designs are shown below in Figure V-18. For appearance parts, flash traps can be designed into the joint. (Figure V-19.)
W 2 3 to 5 DRAFT ANGLE

W 8

3W 8

CLEARANCE FIT (BOTH SIDES)

W 8

W 4 W

Figure V-19. No Flash

W 4

Illustration Credit: Holtz, Richard, Vibration Welding: Fast, Quiet, Efficient, Assembly Engineering, Hitchcock Publishing.

W 8

W 64

BEFORE WELD

AFTER WELD

CLEARANCE

W 8

3W 8

W 8

W* 4 W

BEFORE WELD

AFTER WELD

*Minimum of .024 in

Figure V-18 (a) & (b). Energy Director

V-13

Assembly
Vibration Welding Vibration welding is a preferred method for assembling large structural parts of the same or very similar thermoplastic parts. In this process, frictional heat is developed by moving the two parts relative to each other under pressure. Strong hermetic bonds can be achieved using this process. Depending on the equipment (Figure V-20), welding frequency is either 120 Hz or 240 Hz with weld peak to peak amplitudes being .060 in..140 in. and .030 in..065 in., respectively. Allowance for this amplitude must be built into the joint. Weld time is generally 23 seconds. The welding cycle is described in more detail below. A proper holding fixture is critical in achieving a good weld. Care must be taken when designing fixturing to prevent unsupported part walls from flexing during welding. A new method called orbital vibration welding makes welding unsupported walls easier by producing a constant circular motion so no wall is ever perpendicular to the weld direction. Some common joint designs are shown in Figure V-21, including flash traps to provide for a cosmetic appearance. The flash trap must accommodate the melt area (shaded areas are basically equal in volume).

SPRINGS ELECTROMAGNET

VIBRATING ELEMENT ELECTROMAGNET

WELD SURFACE

0.020in Min.

MELT DOWN 0.015in0.030in WALL THICKNESS

STATIONARY ELEMENT

Figure V-20. Components of a Vibration Welder

Illustration credit: Designing Parts for Ultrasonic Welding, Branson Ultrasonics Corp., 1980.

Standard machines can accept parts up to 16 in. x 24 in. The back and forth motion of vibration welding also helps to remove surface contaminants such as mold release from the weld area. One of the main limitations on this welding process is that the weld joint must be designed so that the reciprocation motion takes place on a single plane. However, the plane need not be flat, it may be bowed or bent as in automotive intake manifolds. Separate welded areas can be incorporated on parallel planes to the direction of motion on the same part. This method is used to create separate sealed integral gas and oil compartments on chain saw chassis.

Figure V-21. Vibration Weld Joints

Illustration Credit: Holtz, Richard, Vibration Welding: Fast, Quiet, Efficient, Assembly Engineering, Hitchcock Publishing.

V-14

Assembly
Other Assembly Techniques
Thermoplastic Staking Staking (including ultrasonic, heat and hot gas) is a common assembly technique to join two dissimilar materials. A stud configuration or boss molded into one of the plastic parts protrudes through a hole or matching configuration in the second part. A specially contoured horn contacts and melts the top of the stud, forming a head and locking the second part in place. Staking is simple, fast and permanent. It produces a tight assembly with a variety of head contours to choose from (Figure V-22 shows a dome configuration). Spin Welding Spin welding is a fast and practical assembly technique for joining circular parts or surfaces. Most thermoplastics can be spin welded, particularly rigid resins. Welds are made by rotating one part against the other fixed part at high speed and under pressure. Frictional heat melts both surfaces. Rotation is stopped and pressure is maintained until the weld solidifies. Strong, permanent and hermetic welds can be obtained, but accurate orientation between the parts is difficult. Cycle times are generally 1 to 2 seconds and ordinary machinery equipment can be used. Part configuration or a keying feature is needed for rotating a part. The welding joint can be either flat, angled or V-shaped, usually with a flange for increased surface area and rigidity. Flash from the weld can also be hidden with special joint designs (see Figure V-23).
SHEAR JOINT TONGUE & GROOVE
rib Steel CLEARANCE .002in c 1.5 t Plastic 1.2 t b a rib

Horn

rib t .015in .02in

Where: Figure V-22. Dome Stake t = wall thickness of the part a = depth of weld. Should be .5 to .8 times the wall thickness. b = angle of stationary joint interface. Must be 30 degrees or greater to avoid jamming. c+d = weld surface. Should be up to 2.5 times the wall thickness. Figure V-23
Credit: Forward Technology Industries.

V-15

Assembly
Electromagnetic Welding Electromagnetic welding provides a simple, rapid and reliable assembly technique to produce a strong and hermetic joint. A specially designed strand is placed between the two parts to be welded. This assembly is then exposed to an induction heat field which melts the strand and plastic to form a strong bond at the interface. Our studies show the shear strength of the weld to be about 5000 psi. A variety of joints can be used as in other welding techniques. A tongue and groove joint is shown in Figure V-24.
.267 in (Min.) .112in .020in .310in .203in .085in .040in R .085in (Min.) .085in (Min.) .325in .020in R .020in .097in

.040in

.077in .092in EMAWELD STRAND

BEFORE WELD
PROVIDE STOP

.218in

AFTER WELD

Figure V-24
Credit: Emabond Systems.

V-16

Part VI
Plastic Materials
Classification of Plastic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI2 Molecular Weight Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI4 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI5 Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI5 Thermal Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI5 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI6

Plastic Materials Part VI: Plastic Materials

Plastics are man-made materials. They are made up of long chains of large molecules. Each molecule consists of many units of organic chemicals, thus called a polymer (many units), or macromolecules. At room temperature, the material is solid and rigid, and it can withstand significant structural load. Some of the materials retain rigidity at relatively high temperatures and can replace metallic components in such high temperature environments as automobile underhood applications. The material can be formed into a finished shape by molding, extruding or shaping under high temperature conditions.

Classification of Plastic Materials General classification of plastic materials is shown in Table VI-1.
PLASTIC MATERIALS THERMOPLASTIC CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS PP PE THERMOSET EPOXY MELAMINE PHENOLICS UNSATURA

PC PS POLYESTER PET PPS BUTYL RUBBER PBT PPO NYLON (PA) PVC ACETAL (POM) ABS SAN POLYSULFONE POLYARYLATE POLYETHERIMIDE PMMA (ACRYLICS) Table VI-1. Family of Plastic Materials Thermoplastic material is processed in a molten state at elevated temperature, while thermoset plastics are processed in an uncured state and then cured in the mold. Thermoplastics can be reprocessed by melting the finished product while a thermoset material cannot because it has no melting point. It will degrade or char if exposed to high temperature. Thermoplastic material can be classified into two categories: Crystalline and Amorphous. Figure VI-1 shows molecular structure of the material in various forms.

VI-2

Plastic Materials
c.

M O D U L U S
d.

Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastic

Thermoset with Transition

Amorphous Thermoplastic

Thermoset without Transition

TEMPERATURE
b. a.

Figure VI-2. Mechanical Characteristics of Various Plastics In real molding conditions, most of the crystalline polymers cannot achieve full crystallinity. Instead, they will form some crystalline regions and some amorphous regions. Therefore, they are sometimes called semi-crystalline polymers. The proportion of the two phases depends on the cooling rate during molding. Faster cooling rates will result in higher amorphous content, as shown in Figure VI3 for a Nylon 6 material. Since a semi-crystalline polymer contains both crystalline and amorphous phases, it exhibits both a glass transition behavior and a sharp melting point.
1.08 1.04

Figure VI-1. Molecular Configuration of Crystalline Polymers and Amorphous Polymers a) Amorphous Polymer Solid b) Folded Chain Polymer Crystal c) Extended Chain Drawn Polymer Fiber d) Semi-Crystalline Polymer The molecular structure of crystalline polymers shows periodic folding of molecules, whereas amorphous polymers consist of randomly entangled polymer chains. When heated, the crystalline polymers exhibit a distinct melting point (Tm ) and change from rigid plastic to easy-flowing liquid. Amorphous polymers change their rigidity gradually as the temperature rises. They start in a rigid state at room temperature and get softer above the glass transition temperature (Tg ) until they become liquid in the higher temperature regions. Figure VI-2 shows the temperature dependence of the modulus for various classes of plastics.

Specific Volume

1.00 0.96 Amorphous 0.92 0.88 0.84 100% Crystalline 0.80 0 32 100 50 100 200 150 300 200 400 250 500 300C 572F Typical Nylon 6

Temperature

Figure VI-3. Volume vs. Temperature Behavior of Nylon 6

VI-3

Plastic Materials
Molecular Weight Distribution Molecular chain length in plastic materials varies from very short to very long, and the distribution of such chain lengths, or molecular weight, creates a form of bell curve, as shown in Figure VI-4.
Molecular Weight of Polymers
Chain Length I1 I2

The weight averaged value (Mw) of the molecular weight distributions affects important physical properties, such as melt viscosity and part strengths. The full spectrum of molecular weight distributions can be obtained through an analytic lab technique called Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). However, this method is rather time consuming and costly. A simple method to evaluate relative value of a given polymer is to use the Melt Index (MI) method. Molten plastic is placed in a heated capillary chamber, and it is pushed through a nozzle by placing a specified weight on a plunger. The amount of plastic collected at the bottom of the capillary in a given time is called MI, and this number is related to the molecular weight of the sample. The higher the number, the lower the molecular weight. There are similar but a little more complicated methods of estimating the molecular weight distribution. They are Formic Acid Viscosity (FAV) and Intrinsic Viscosity (IV). FAV is normally used for Nylon materials, and IV is used for thermoplastic PET materials.

Population n1 n2

In

nn

n2

Population N

n1 nn

Mn Mw In Chain Length Mn : Number Average Molecular Weight Mw : Weight Average Molecular Weight

I1

I2

Figure VI-4. Molecular Weight Distribution of Polymers

VI-4

Plastic Materials
Physical Properties Plastic materials have significantly different physical properties compared to metallic materials. Some key properties are compared against metallic materials in the following topics: Density Plastic material is significantly lighter than most metallic materials, as shown in Figure VI-5. Plastic materials replace metals in many applications where product weight reduction is desired.
Specific Gravity
Relative Comparisons
8 7 7.75 50

Thermal Expansion Plastic materials change dimensions significantly with temperature. Therefore, the product design engineer should calculate dimensional changes over the service temperature range, to verify that critical dimensions will remain within acceptable limits. Figure VI-6 compares the thermal expansion coefficient of various materials. Care must be taken when joining materials having different coefficient of thermal expansion for buckling, tensile and shear stress, etc. Large parts are also more of a concern than smaller parts.
Thermal Expansion
Relative Comparisons

5 4 3 2 1.13 1 0 1.49 2.77

Expansion (x 106 in/in/F)

Steel

40

Specific Gravity

30

20

10

Unfilled Nylon

G/Filled Aluminum Nylon

Unfilled Nylon

G/Filled Aluminum Nylon

Steel

Figure VI-5. Specific Gravity

Figure VI-6. Thermal Expansion Coefficient

VI-5

Plastic Materials
Thermal Conductivity Plastic materials do not conduct heat well and are about two orders of magnitude less conductive than the metals. Plastic is then a good thermal insulator. This thermal characteristic can be a positive or negative factor depending on the application. Figure VI-7 shows thermal conductivities of various plastic materials as compared to other materials.

400 200 Aluminum 100 80 60 40 20 Alloy Steels 10 8 6 4 Magnesite Brick 2 Ice 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 Water 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 Methane 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 200 400 600 Diatomaceous Earth 10 lb/ft3 Air Silica Brick .2 Missouri Firebrick ABS Polyethylene Acetal Polypropylene Nylon .3 30% Glass Filled Nylon High Alloy Steels Lead (liquid) Zinc (solid) Sodium (liquid) Low Carbon Steels Iron Zinc (liquid) Potassium (liquid) Copper 1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 30% Glass Filled PBT

.4

Thermal Conductivity Btu hr -1 ft -1 F -1

PLASTICS
Polycarbonate .1 .09 .08 .07 Carbon Dioxide Benzene (gaseous) .06 .05 Polyvinyl Chloride Polystyrene

.04 800 1000 2000 3000 4000

Absolute Temperature R

Figure VI-7. Thermal Conductivities of Solids, Liquids and Gases with Temperature
Illustration credit: Arpaci, Vedal S., Convection Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley.

VI-6

Part VII
Physical Properties
The Mechanical Properties of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII2 Short-Term Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII2 Notches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII2 Rate of Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII4 Thermal Aging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII4 Moisture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII5 Dimensional Considerations (Moisture Absorption). . . . . . VII6 Effects of Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII6 Dimensional Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII6 Accelerated Moisture Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII6 Process Induced Property Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII7 Additives (Color) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII8 Ultraviolet (UV) Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII8 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII8 Long-Term Properties Creep, Stress Relaxation and Service Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII9 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII11

Physical Properties Part VII: Physical Properties

The Mechanical Properties of Plastics The mechanical properties of plastic materials can vary depending on the service environments, the duration of the service loading, types of loading, part configuration, etc. So the short-term properties cannot be applied to long-term applications. Therefore, design engineers should obtain property data that is applicable to the service conditions and life expectancy of the product. Definitions of various physical properties and terminologies are listed in Appendix I, at the end of this guide. Short-Term Properties Standard mechanical properties are normally obtained by test methods as specified by the American Standard Testing Materials (ASTM) or by the International Standard Organization (ISO) methods. These two standards are cross referenced in Appendix II. You can find these properties for individual resins listed in BASFs product data sheets. (Product data on all our individual resins is also available via the Internet. Call BASF for details.) Test specimens used for some standard test methods are shown in Figure VII-1. The material properties, however, can be affected significantly by the following factors: Notches Notches or sharp corners introduce stress concentrations and can induce premature failures, especially during impact. Sudden change of cross-sections are to be avoided when designing with plastics. Resistance of material to the combined effects of notches and impact is measured by the Notched Izod Impact Test. The notched Izod specimen geometry is shown in Figure VII-2. The influence of the notch radius on the impact resistance is shown in Figure VII-3 and it indicates the notch sensitivity of materials. Impact resistance of materials is better measured by drop weight impact loading (see Figure VII-4 for testing method). It produces significantly different ranking of materials compared with those obtained by the notched Izod test method, as shown in Figure VII-5. Rate of Loading Higher rates of loading tend to reduce elongation of a plastic material, and it can result in brittle failures. Some materials are more resilient to such rapid loading effects than others.

TENSILE IMPACT

DROP WEIGHT IMPACT

FLEX, DTUL, IZOD, FLAME

TENSILE TYPE I I

Figure VII -1. Test Specimens

VII-2

Physical Properties
.400
Top Weight

1.250

Detail

2.500

45

Tube (Cross - Section)

.010 R .500

Figure VII-2. Impact Specimen

Specimen

Cross Section Specimen/Ring

Top View

%M .C.)

12

Izod Impact ftlb/inch of notch

Ring

10

(2.5

202

SE 8

RPO

L PU

ERA

GEN

UL

TR

I AM

DC

PO

M LY

ER

3 25

(D

RY

Figure VII-4. Drop Weight Impact Test Drop Weight (ft-lbs)

Polycarbonate Nylon 6 Modified Nylon 6/6 Nylon 6 Copolymer PBT Nylon 6/6 Nucleated Nylon 6 30% GR Nylon 6 20% GR Polycarb 30% GR Nylon 6/6 30% GR PBT >180 135 125 125 95 75 75 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0

G
2

RA ENE

L PU

RPO

20 SE 8

2 (D

RY)

IZOD (ft-lbs/in notch)

Polycarbonate Modified Nylon 6/6 Nylon 6 Copolymer Modified PPO 20% GR Polycarb 30% GR PBT 30% GR Nylon 6 PBT Nylon 6/6 Nylon 6 Nucleated Nylon 6 12.0 3.0 2.5 1.9 1.8 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4

GLASS REINFORCED NYLON (DRY)

O O 5 10 20 40 60 80 100

Notch Radius, 1/1000 inch

Figure VII-3. Izod Impact Strength vs. Notch Radius

Figure VII-5. Drop Weight Impact Values vs. Izod Impact Values of Various Engineering Thermoplastics

VII-3

Physical Properties
Temperature Properties of plastics change significantly with temperature. Typical property changes with temperature are shown in Figure VII-6. Property values corresponding to the service temperature should be used for designing a plastic part. Deflection Temperature Under Load (DTUL) is sometimes used for screening high temperature grade materials. The test apparatus is illustrated in Figure VII-7. However, this test method is based on a specific deflection during test rather than a total time history. Results should be used in combination with other inputs.

DIAL INDICATOR LOAD THERMOMETER

SPECIMEN -40 C (-40F) TENSILE STRESS (psi) HEATED LIQUID MEDIA

23 C (73F)

Figure VII-7. DTUL Apparatus

93 C (200F) 149 C (300 F)

STRAIN (% ELONGATION )

Figure VII-6. Tensile Stress-Strain Curve of Petra 130 at Various Temperatures

Thermal Aging Plastic degrades under extended exposure to high temperature environment. Figure VII-8 shows the effect of heat aging on an Ultramid nylon product. And Figure VII-9 shows how extensive heat aging affects thermoplastics.

VII-4

Physical Properties
125 % Retension Tensile Strength Effect of heat aging on tensile strength of ULTRAMID 8233G HS BK-102

100

75

50

Moisture Nylon 6 or 6/6 absorb moisture from the air and environment. Mechanical properties and dimensions will change depending on the amount of the absorbed moisture. Figure VII-10 shows the flexural modulus change due to temperature and moisture. (See Dimensional Considerations Moisture Absorption in Part VII of this guide.)
400

25

0 0 500 Flexural Modulus (x 103 psi) 1000 Time (Hours) Key: - 250F (121C) - 300F (149C) - 350F (177C) 1500 2000 300

200

Figure VII-8. Heat Aging Effect

100

10 0 8 100 200 Temperature (F) DAM 50% R.H. 300 350

Key:

Stress, Kpsi

Figure VII-10. Flexural Modulus vs. Temperature and Moisture of Ultramid 8202

0 1E3 1E4 1E5 1E6 1E7 1E8

Number of Cycles to Failure

Key: As Molded Heat Aged 650 Hrs at 400F

Figure VII-9. Fatigue Life of Petra 130 Before and After Heat Aging

VII-5

Physical Properties
Dimensional Considerations (Moisture Absorption)
Effects of Moisture All nylons are hygroscopic. The amount and rate of moisture absorbed from the atmosphere depends upon the ambient humidity and temperature. A study performed by BASF showed that the annual average relative humidity throughout the USA varies between 40% to 60%. Design engineers should account for moisture effects when designing parts with nylon. The conventional practice is to choose 50% relative humidity at 73F and base the design on property values at this condition. Nylon will increase in impact resistance, toughness and size, while its strength and stiffness properties will decrease as it absorbs moisture. The time it takes for nylon to come to equilibrium depends on the thickness. The moisture absorption rate is shown in Figure VII-11 for Ultramid 8233 (33% GR Nylon). Dimensional Changes Nylon parts will expand with exposure to moisture, as can be seen in Figure VII-12. These changes are small and need only be considered for applications with very large dimensions or very tight tolerances.
8233 DIMENSIONAL CHANGE (mils/in) 25 20 15 10 5 0 20 40 60 80 RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%) Key: Dimensional Change Equilibrium Moisture Content 10 8 6 4 2 0 100 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (%) 10

Figure VII-12 Accelerated Moisture Conditioning Some applications having critical dimensional, property, or impact requirements may need moisture conditioning prior to use or testing. Submerging the parts in room temperature water or high temperature water can accelerate the time to achieve the design moisture content (Compare Figure VII-11 with Figure VII-13.)

MOISTURE CONTENT vs. TIME

50% RH & 73 F 8233 33% GLASS REINFORCED AT DIFFERENT THICKNESS 3.0 MOISTURE CONTENT 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 2 4 6 TIME (MONTHS) 8 10 12 0.060 in 0.125 in 0.250 in

Once at the new average condition, further dimensional changes will be minimal. See Dimensional Considerations manual for other materials.
Ultramid 8233
ROOM TEMPERATURE WATER

Ultramid 8233
180 F WATER 10 MOISTURE CONTENT 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 TIME (HRS.) 5

Figure VII-11
MOISTURE CONTENT

10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 2 5 10 20 TIME (HRS.) 50 100

in 60 0.0 in 25 0.1
0 0.25

0 in 0.06 5 in 0.12

0 0.25

Figure VII-13

VII-6

Physical Properties
FIBER ORIENTATION
Glass-Reinforced Polymers Stronger GATE LONGITUDINAL (Flex Bar) GATE Stronger Weaker Weaker

Process Induced Property Variations Fiber orientation, introduced during molding, creates different directional property characteristics: stronger in the flow direction and weaker in transverse direction. (See Figure VII-14.) A typical property profile of an injection molded Petra 130 shell structure is shown in Figure VII-15. The molded part will also be very weak at a weld line, especially for glass reinforced material (see Figure VII-14). Excessive amounts of regrind will reduce strength as well. Improper preparation, such as poor drying of the resin, and improper processing, will degrade the resin, thereby reducing physical properties.

Hole Formed by Mold Pin TRANSVERSE (Plaque)

Weld Line

Figure VII-14
IZOD Impact
1.5 30

Flexural Strength
10

Flexural Modulus

IZOD Impact (ft-lbs/inch of notch)

25 Flexural Strength (x 103 psi) 1.0 20 15 10 5 0 0 Flexural Modulus (x 105 psi)

0.5

Figure VII-15. Property Variations With Fiber Orientation in a Molded Petra 130 Shell Structure Where: L -Longitudinal Direction T -Transverse Direction

VII-7

Physical Properties
Additives (Color) Carbon black or colorants do affect strength. The influence of colorants varies, depending on the ingredients and quantity used to achieve a specific color. Ultraviolet (UV) Light Ultraviolet light affects the polymer structure chain and reduces the physical properties of plastics. Most of the degradation is localized to the outermost layer so the overall strength decay is minimal. However, the surface appearance can be significantly affected. Special UV resistant grades are available from BASF. These grades are formulated to extend the surface appearance, and therefore, service life of the material. Chemicals Certain chemicals attack plastics and reduce their physical properties. Each polymer behaves differently when exposed to various chemicals. A design engineer should refer to the chemical resistance table for each material (See the Chemical Resistance Guide) to make sure the service environment is not harmful to the plastic material being used, and testing is recommended.

VII-8

Physical Properties
Long-Term Properties Creep, Stress Relaxation and Service Life When a load is applied on a plastic part, the part will elongate or collapse with time. The amount of the elongation depends on the magnitude of the load, duration, and if the load is constant or diminishing with time. Such time dependent change is called creep. The creep phenomenon is illustrated in Figure VII-16(a). When a sustained load is applied Figure VII-16(a), creep will continue and lead to eventual failure. On the other hand, if the load is applied and then fixed, the stress will decrease with time Figure VII-16(b). This last case is called stress relaxation. One can observe this phenomenon in plastic assemblies such as mechanically fastened plastic components.

Lo

Lo + L

Lo + L + c

Lo

Lo + L

Lo + L

Initial Strain (short-term creep)

c = Creep

w Time = 1 Min. w

Force Gage Reading Time = 1 Min. Time = T

Force Gage Reading

a) Tensile Creep
(Sustained Load)

Time = T

b) Stress Relaxation
(Diminishing Load)

Figure VII-16. (a) & (b) Creep and Stress Relaxation Phenomena

VII-9

Physical Properties
The creep strain is added to the initial elastic strain to arrive at a total strain. Elastic strain can be recovered immediately upon release of the load. Creep strain does not recover immediately but takes time to recover after the load is removed. Generally, a significant portion of the creep strain is unrecoverable. The amount of the creep strain and the rate of elongation depends on the applied load. The higher the load or stress, the higher the strain and the faster the rate. See Figure VII-17. The rate of the stress decay takes place faster with a higher initial stress level, as shown in Figure VII-18. Based on this principle, reducing stress in a mechanical fastening application reduces the clamping force decay. The amount of deformation and failure time depends on the stress level. If the failure time is plotted against the applied stress level on a log-graph, an approximate linear relationship can be found. One can now predict the service life of a part under sustained loading. Extrapolation of a curve for more than one decade in the time scale is not recommended. Examples of the service life prediction scheme are shown in Figures VII-19 and 20.

Log, Creep Strain

Increasing Stress
2

1.0

.9

St /S0 104 105

.8

101

102

103 Time, Hours

.7

Figure VII-17. Creep Strain Showing Stress and Time Dependency

.6 0

50

100 Time (Hours)

150

200

Legend:

- SO = 5,000 psi - SO = 10,000 psi - SO = 15,000 psi

Figure VII-18. Compressive Relaxation of 33% Glass Reinforced Nylon

VII-10

Physical Properties
Coefficient of Friction The coefficient of friction COF () is defined in ASTM D1894 as the ratio of the frictional force (F) to the force, usually gravitational, acting perpendicular to the two surfaces in contact (N). Therefore the COF, = F/N, and is dimensionless. The COF is a measure of the relative difficulty of one surface moving over another. Static COF (s) relates to the force required to initiate the movement. Kinetic COF (k) relates to the force required to sustain the movement. s is generally greater than k. The lower the COF value, the easier it is to move one part relative to another. The following COF data was generated by ASTM D-1894, in which a sled of one material was pulled over a plane of a second material (See Figure VII-21). This test is very sensitive to surface irregularities, imperfections and specimen warpage. Although the data presented in Table VII-1 are believed to be representative, a conservative design approach is recommended.
Log Stress (1000)

101

102

Figure VII-19. Extrapolation of a Creep-Rupture Curve for Service Life Prediction

1000

ULTRAMID 8267 100 Pressure, psi

x x
PETRA 130

10

10

Figure VII-20. Pressure vs. Time to Rupture Curve of Wheel Assemblies (Air Filled) @ 73 F

;;
103 Time (Hours) 104 105
ULTRAMID 8233

OPERATING PRESSURE

100 1000 Time, Hours

10,000

100,000

ULTRAMID 8267
ULTRAMID 8233 x PETRA 130

N=W F = N

Figure VII-21

VII-11

Physical Properties
PRODUCT ULTRAMID 8200 HS 8202C HS 8224 HS 8253 HS 8254 HS BK-102 8350 HS 8351 HS BK-102 D-8358 HS BK-102 8233G HS 8267G HS D-8333G HS GY5723 8360 HS PETRA 130 230 D-242 BK-112 132 0.22 0.37 0.33 0.33 0.21 0.27 0.32 0.32 0.15 0.2 0.21 0.18 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.26 0.53 0.48 0.33 0.48 0.35 0.4 0.39 0.34 0.3 0.34 0.41 0.21 0.33 0.47 0.32 0.47 0.32 0.35 0.38 0.32 0.22 0.32 0.22 0.17 0.24 0.23 0.25 0.32 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.26 0.23 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.22 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.15 POLYMER-TO-POLYMER STATIC KINETIC POLYMER-TO-STEEL STATIC KINETIC

ULTRAMID and PETRA are registered trademarks of Basf Inc.

Table VII-1. Coefficient of Friction

VII-12

Part VIII
Gas Assist Molding
Hollow Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII2 Short Shot Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII3 Full Shot Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII3

Gas Assist Moldings

Part VIII: Gas Assist Molding

Gas assist molding is used to partially core out thick sections. It produces large, dimensionally stable parts with good surface and mechanical properties. The process can also lower costs because it reduces cycle times and uses less material. Gas assist molding is a form of injection molding in which the mold cavity is partially filled with molten plastic followed by injecting an inert gas, usually nitrogen, into the melt. Depending on the process, the gas can be introduced through the machine nozzle, into the runner, or into the part itself. The gas pressure is maintained until it is vented just prior to part ejection. In this way, the gas takes up the volume shrinkage of the plastic as it cools, packing out sink marks and greatly reducing molded-in stress that can cause the part to warp. There are generally three ways gas assist molding is utilized: 1. Hollow Molding 2. Short Shot 3. Full Shot

VIII-2

; ; ;
Hollow Molding This method is normally used to core out parts like chair arms and various types of handles, including those found on chain saws, cars and large appliances. The final crosssection is determined by part geometry, gas and resin flow, material type, and filler content. Some common cross-sections are shown in Figure VIII-1. The maximum circular area is generally limited to 1.25in. (A) A circular core is
produced during Phase 2 Flow that retains its form during Phase 3 Packing.

(B) A rectangular form

produces thicker sections on shorter sides.

(C) Offset Phase 2 Flow

produces solid sections on the opposite side.

Phase 2 Flow

Largest Circular Area 1.25 in max.

Cooling Effect of Surrounding Metal

Phase 1. Plastic Injection Phase 2. Gas Injection Phase 3. Packing final channel shape Figure VIII-1

Reference: Application of Gas Injection Technology by Matthew Sayer, Cinpress, Ltd.

; ; ; ;
Gas Assist Moldings
Short Shot Molding This version is normally used for structural parts where heavy ribs are desired for stiffness. The gas channels are generally positioned so the gas will flow along the base of ribs and under bosses, thus packing out sink marks. They can also be run along the base of the side walls to help stiffen the part and prevent warpage. Some design examples of these channels are given in Figure VIII-2. A. Vertical Rib B. Bridge Rib C. Sidewall D. Sidewall

;; ;; ;; ;;;
E. Channels Created Using Form Figure VIII-2
Reference: Design Tips for Gas-Assisted Injection Molding, diagram of rib designs by Indra Baxi of Sajar Plastics, Plastics Design Forum, (July/August, 1990)

Full Shot Molding Here the mold cavity is filled completely with plastic before the gas is applied. The coring is limited to the volume shrinkage of the plastic. This is primarily used for highly aesthetic parts where elimination of sink marks is critical, especially those that will be painted or chrome-plated, such as mirror housings or door handles.

VIII-3

Part IX
Finishing
Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX2 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX2 Printing/Hot Stamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX2 Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX3 Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX -3

Finishing Part IX: Finishing

Electroplating The mineral reinforced nylon 6 material (Ultramid 8260), which is designed to accept plating, results in excellent plating adhesion and appearance. Plating can be used to enhance conductivity, shielding and/or aesthetics. An electrolytic pre-plating process of copper or nickel prepares the surface for final electroplating of copper, nickel and chrome in that sequence. Other plating materials can also be used where desired. Good design practice for an effective end product includes: a) avoiding deep cavities or sharp corners b) application of abundant radii to avoid plating build-up. Deep pockets can be expected to be void of plating. Special surface preparation may be needed in some cases. The total thickness of plating is in the range of .001in to .005in. Refer to BASFs Finishing Manual for more detailed information. Painting Most plastics accept paint systems well, especially the amorphous resins. With special preparation of the surface for better adhesion (cleaning is essential), even the more difficult plastics, i.e., PE, PP and Acetal, which have more slippery surfaces and chemical resistance, can be painted. BASF materials will accept paint systems well. Nylon and PET are excellent resins for paint applications, especially where high-temperature curing is required. Their ability to tolerate high temperatures for long periods of time without softening is a key advantage. Printing/Hot Stamping All known printing methods are effective when using BASF materials. Occasional surface preparation may be needed for improved adhesion quality. A well-cleaned surface is the most important preparation for quality adhesions.

IX-2

Finishing
Machining Nylon and PET are readily machinable using conventional metal-cutting equipment. Cutting techniques for plastics are different than those for metals, and special preparations should be taken. When cutting, you should remember to: Provide for cooling during the cutting process. Maintain a sharp tool with relief after the cut, especially for reinforced resins. Provide good support at the cutting area. Apply low cutter forces. Use carbide where possible. Use cutting points with a radius. Surface Treatment A designer can chose from a variety of surface treatments and plastic colors. Both can be molded into the plastic part and require no further finishing operations. The injection molding process will accurately duplicate the mold surface. Part function and/or aesthetics usually dictate the surface requirements. A smooth, uniform surface is often preferred for plating and painting, and high gloss is popular on many consumer applications. However, matte or textured surfaces are also attractive, are less slippery, provide contrast, hide sink marks, and disguise wear and abuse. Specifying mold finish has often been arbitrary or neglected completely. A practical guide to surface finish selection is the SPI Mold Finish Guide which is available from the Society of the Plastics Industry. The finish should be specified by SPE/SPI number where possible. Uniform matte and textured mold surfaces are usually less costly than a high polish and can be obtained by vapor blast or glass blast, while machining or chemical etching can produce a variety of patterns and textures. A wide selection of textures are available from companies that specialize in mold engraving.

IX-3

Part A1
Appendix I: Physical Properties and Terminology
Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Ductility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Friction and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Isotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Lubricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12 Mold Shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Notch Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Plasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Specific Gravity (Relative Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Toughness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Warpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13 Water Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13

Physical Properties and Terminology Appendix I: Physical Properties and Terminology

Density, specific gravity, mold shrinkage, water absorption, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, toughness, brittleness, notch sensitivity, tribological (lubricity and abrasive resistance) properties, anisotropy and isotropy are crucial physical properties determining the usefulness and durability of a plastic. These terms and others are defined below. Anisotropy Anisotropic material properties depend on the direction in which they are measured. Glass and mineral reinforced thermoplastics have a high degree of property dependence on orientation of fiber reinforcement. Brittleness Brittleness is the opposite of toughness. As a rule, reinforced thermoplastics show higher stiffness and lower impact properties, or more brittleness than unfilled plastics. Density The density of plastics is the mass in air per unit volume of material at 23 C (73 F), expressed in pounds per cubic inch or grams per cubic centimeter. Ductility The ability of plastic to be stretched, pulled or rolled into shape without destroying its integrity. Typical ductile failure of plastics occurs when molecules slide along or past each other. Elasticity Elasticity is the ability of material to return to its original size and shape after being deformed. Elastic limit is the greatest stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any permanent strain remaining upon complete release of stress. It is expressed in force per unit area. The elastic region is very important for linear analysis (FEA) of thermoplastic components. Most plastic materials have limited elasticity. Friction and Wear Friction is resistance against change in the relative positions of two bodies touching one another. If the plastic in the area of contact is loaded beyond its strength, wear or abrasion will take place. Although plastics may not be as hard as metal, their resistance to abrasion and wear may still be excellent. Hardness Hardness is closely related to wear resistance, scratch resistance, strength, stiffness, and brittleness. The various hardness tests provide different behavior characteristics for plastics: the resistance of a material to indentation by an indentor; the resistance of a material to scratching by another material; the measurement rebound efficiency or resilience. Isotropy An isotropic material is a material that retains the same physical properties when measured in any direction. Lubricity Lubricity refers to the load-bearing characteristics of a plastic under conditions of relative motion. Those with good lubricity tend to have a low coefficient of friction either with themselves or other materials and have no tendency to gall.

AI-2

Physical Properties and Terminology

Mold Shrinkage Mold shrinkage is the amount of contraction from mold cavity dimensions that a molded part exhibits after removal from the mold and cooling to room temperature. Mold shrinkage starts the very moment plastic is injected into the cavity of a closed mold, so optimum mold design will choose the best gate(s) position, runner diameter, cycle times, and the smoothest flow path to prevent excessive shrinkage or differential shrinkage across the whole part. For a given material, mold shrinkage can vary with design and molding variables, such as part walls thickness, flow direction, and injection molding conditions. Mold shrinkage is very important for concurrent design, for material substitution (plastic for metal; plastic for plastic) and for specific applications. Notch Sensitivity Notch sensitivity is the ability of crack propagation through a plastic from existing stress concentration areas (sharp corners, grooves, holes, abrupt changes in the crosssectional area). In evaluating plastics for a particular impact or cyclic loading condition, design variables (stress concentration areas) are quite important. Plasticity Plasticity is the ability of material to preserve the shape and size to which it is formed. Plasticity occurs when the stress goes beyond yield strength on the stress-strain curve for plastic. Increases in temperature affect plasticity of plastic materials. Specific Gravity (Relative Density) The specific gravity (relative density) is the ratio of the mass in air of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of the material at 23C (73F) to the mass in air of equal density of an equal volume of gas-free water at same temperature. Toughness Toughness refers to the ability of plastic to absorb mechanical energy without fracturing. This process is done with both elastic and plastic deformation. Material toughness is often measured as the area under the stressstrain curve. As a rule, unfilled resins have excellent toughness. Sometimes the toughness is measured by the amount of energy consumed to generate unit area of a fracture surface. Warpage Complex shapes of the finished part promote varying contraction rates relative to molded part dimensions and can cause internal stress to build up during the cool-down process while molding. This can cause warpage. The warpage and plastic part-distortion can be caused by internal stresses generated by non-uniform shrinkage. Part warpage can be significantly greater than the in-plane mold shrinkage value. Water Absorption Water absorption is the percentage of increase in the weight of a plastic part during its immersion in water, or exposure to a humid air environment. Plastic parts (materials) can be either absorbent (hygroscopic) or nonabsorbent (non-hygroscopic). Most engineering plastics show absorbent tendencies in their dry conditions (DAMdry as molded). Plastic parts absorb water by direct exposure or from airborne water vapors at a rate specific to each material. Standard test specimens of a material whose physical property values would be appreciably affected by exposure to high temperatures in the neighborhood of 110C (230F) shall be dried in an oven for 24 hours at 50C (122F), cooled in a desiccator, and immediately weighed to the nearest 0.0001g. Generally, the rate of water absorption is measured when a material is exposed to 50% relative humidity air (50% RH). Saturation is given by percentage of part dry weight. The presence of water (water absorption) in the plastic part influences its physical, mechanical and electrical properties, as well as dimensional stability. Moisture in the resins before molding, unless removed by drying prior to processing, can cause serious degradation of physical properties.

AI-3

Part A2
Appendix II: ISO and ASTM Test Methods

ISO and ASTM Test Methods Appendix II: ISO and ASTM Test Methods
Property Number in ISO ISO 10350:1998 Property Standard 1 Rheological Properties 1.1 Melt mass1133 flow rate 1.5 1.6 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 Shrinkage, flow direction Shrinkage, transverse direction 294-4 ASTM* Standard D 1238 SI Units for ISO Test g/10 min % SI Units for ASTM Test g/10 min % U.S. Units for ASTM Test g/10 min %

294-4

Mechanical Properties Tensile modulus Yield Stress Yield Strain Nominal strain at break Stress at 50% strain Stress at break Strain at break Flexural modulus Flexural strength Charpy impact strength Charpy notched impact strength Izod impact strength at 23C 527-1 & 2 527-1 & 2 527-1 & 2 178 178 179 179 180 D 638 D 638 D 790 D 790 D 4812 D 256 MPa MPa % MPa MPa kJ/m2 kJ/m2 kJ/m2 kJ/m2 MPa % MPa MPa J/m J/m psi % psi psi ftlb/in ftlb/in 527-1 & 2 527-1 & 2 527-1 & 2 527-1 & 2 D 638 D 638 D 638 MPa MPa % % MPa MPa % psi psi % -

Izod notched 180 impact strength at 23C

* For each applicable ISO method, corresponding ASTM methods are provided for reference. These methods may not be technically equivalent.

A2-2

ISO and ASTM Test Methods

Property Number in ISO 10350:1993 Property 3 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.11 3.13 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 ISO Standard ASTM Standard D3418 D 648 D 648 E228 or 831 E228 or 831 (UL94) (UL94) (UL94) (UL94) D 2863 SI Units for ISO Test C C C E-4 1/K E-4 1/K SI Units for ASTM Test C C C 1/C 1/C U.S. Units for ASTM Test F F F 1/F 1/F

Thermal Properties Melting 11357-3 temperature Temperature of deflection at 1.8 MPa 75-1& 2

Temperature of 75-1& 2 deflection at 0.45 MPa CLTE*, flow direction, 23-55C CLTE*, transverse direction, 23-55C Flammability at 1.6mm Thickness Flammability5V Thickness Limiting Oxygen Index 11359-2 11359-2 1210 10351 4589

mm class mm %

class (as HB, V-2, V-1, V-0) mm mm class mm % class mm %

Electrical Properties Relative permittivity, IEC 250 100Hz Relative permittivity, 1MHz Dissipation factor, 100 Hz Dissipation factor, 1MHz Volume resistivity Surface resistivity Electric strength Comparative tracking index Other Properties Water absorption 24 hr immersion/23C Water absorption saturation at 23C Water absorption at 23C/50% RH Density Specific gravity IEC 250 IEC 250 IEC 250 IEC 93 IEC 93 IEC 243-1 IEC 112

D 150 D 150 D 150 D 150 D 257 D 257 D 149 E-4 E-4 ohm cm ohm kV/mm ohm cm ohm kV/mm ohm cm ohm V/mil

2 62 62 1183 1183

D570 D570 D792 D792

% % % g/cm3

% % % g/cm3

% % % lb/ft3

* CLTE = Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion ** TMA = Thermo-Mechanical Analysis

Chart reference: Wigotsky, Victor, The Road to Standardization, Plastics Engineering.

A2-3

Part B1
Bibliography

Bibliography Selective Bibliography

Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts Dym, Joseph B., Injection Molds and Molding, Second Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Structural Control Beer & Johnson, Mechanical Material. Peterson, R.E., Stress Contribution Factors. Flat plate, torsional deformation, and stress formulas thanks to: Roark, Raymond, and Young, Warren, Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw Hill. Assembly Designing Parts for Ultrasonic Welding, Branson Utrasonics Corporation, Danbury, CT. Ultrasonic Insertion, Branson Utrasonics Corporation, Danbury, CT. Vibration Welding, Branson Utrasonics Corporation, Danbury, CT. Holtz, Richard, Vibration Welding: Fast, Quiet, Efficient, Assembly Engineering, Hitchcock Publishing. 1987 SPE ANTEC, Chul S. Lee, Alan Dubin and Elmer D. Jones, Short Cantilever Beam Deflection Analysis Applied to Thermoplastic Snap-Fit Design, Held in Los Angeles, California, USA. 3M, Structural Adhesive Guide for Industrial Product Design and Assembly. Plastic Materials Arpaci, Vedal S., Convection Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley. Forward Technology Industries, Joint Designs. Emabond Systems, Emaweld, Electromagnetic Welding System for Assembling Thermoplastic Parts. Gas Assist Molding Sayer, Matthew, Application of Gas Injection Technology, Cinpress, Ltd. Design Tips for Gas-Assisted Injection Molding, diagram of rib designs by Indra Baxi of Sajar Plastics, Plastics Design Forum. Appendix II: ISO and ASTM Test Methods Wigotsky, Victor, The Road to Standardization, Plastics Engineering.

BI-2

English/Metric Conversion Chart

To Convert English System DISTANCE inches feet MASS ounce (avdp) pound pound U.S. ton VOLUME inch3 inch3 fluid ounce quart (liquid) gallon (U.S.) TEMPERATURE degree F PRESSURE psi psi ksi psi ENERGY AND POWER in lbf ft lbf kW U.S. horsepower Btu Btu in (h ft2 F) VISCOSITY poise BENDING MOMENT OR TORQUE ft lb DENSITY lb/in3 lb/ft3 NOTCHED IZOD ftlb/in To Metric System millimeters meters gram gram kilogram metric ton centimeter3 liter centimeter3 decimeter3 (liter) decimeter3 (liter) degree C bar kPa MN/m2 MPa Joules Joules metric horsepower Kw Joules W(m K) Pa s Multiply English Value by. . . 25.38 0.30478 28.3495 453.5925 0.4536 0.9072 16.3871 0.016387 29.5735 0.9464 3.7854 [(F)-32] / 1.8 = (C) 0.0689 6.8948 6.8948 0.00689 0.113 1.3558 1.3596 0.7457 1055.1 0.1442 0.1

Nm g/cm3 kg/m3 J/m

1.356 27.68 16.0185 53.4

BASF Corporation Engineering Plastics 1 (800) 527-TECH

BASF: The Chemical Company. We don't make a lot of the products you buy. We make a lot of the products you buy better.
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