UNIT 3 THE MACRONUTRIENTS-11:

PROTEINS AND FATS

Introduction Proteins Fats L a Us Sum Up 3.5 Glossary 3.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In U?it 2 you learnt some aspects relating to two categories of macronutrients i.e. carbohydrates and water. This unit will cover another two categories of macronutrients i.e. proteins and fats. Like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are also organic compounds. This unit discusses the nature, functions and food sources of proteins and fats. In addition, the processes of digestion, absorption and utilization of proteins and fats in the body are also discussed.

be After studying this unit, you w~ll able to: describe the chemical nature of proteins and fats list the food sources of proteins and fats state the role of proteins and fats in the body and describe the processes of digestion, absorption and utilization of proteins and fats in the body.

3.2 PROTEINS
You have s far studied about carbohydrates and water. Let us now concentrate on o the study of yet another category of macrot~utrientsi.e. proteins. Proteins like carbohydrates are organic compounds but are distinct from carbohydrates in certain respects. Besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, proteins also contain another element called nitrogen. The basic building blocks of proteins are nitrogencontaining units called omino ocids. Amino acids are joined or linked together in chains by linka~et called peptide linkages. Several hundreds or even thousands of amino acids a n strung'together in specific strands and coils to form proteins (Figure3. I). (You may k amazed t o know that these proteins are built up of just 22 amino acids. Food has an almost endless variety of proteins and no two proteins have similar structure. This is because the twenty or more amino acids are present in varying proportions and are arranged in varying sequences in different kinds of proteins. Of thew about 8 cannot be manufactured by the body while the rest can. Those which cannot be manufactured by the body must be supplied by the diet. These amino acids are called essenrial. The amino acids which can be manufactured by the body need not, of course, be supplied by the diet. They are hence called non-essential. Hen the terms 'essential" and "non-essential" only refer to whether it is essential or not essential to provide them in the diet. We must remember that for the synthesis of body proteins both essential and non-essential amino acids are equally important.

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Basic Concepts in Nutrition-I

- - Peptide
Linkage

Fig. 3.1 Amino acids are the bulding blocks of proteins

Ta~ble lists the essential and non-essential amino acids. 3.1

Essiential amino acids

Table 3.1 : Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids Non-essential amino acids Alanine Asparagine As partic acid Cystine Cysteine Glutamic acid Glutamine Glycine H ydroxyprohns H ydroxylysine Proline Serine Tyrosine,

Isoleuci ne Leucine Lysine Methionine Ph,enylali~nine Threonine Tryptophan Vrlline Histidine*

*lissentinl for infants only

--

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The quality of food proteins depends on the number and the prop.ortion of essential a:mino acids contained in them. Proteins are obtained from both animal and plant foods. The proteins in animal foods are of good quality because they contain all easentiial amino acids in the required amounts and proportions.

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On the other hand, the proteins in plant food generally lack one or two essential amino acids and, therefore, are not of good quality. For example, cereals are poor in lysine and rich in methionine. On the other hand, pulses are poor in methionine and rich in lysine. When cereals are combined with pulses in the same meal then the quality of protein improves. Protein quality of plant foods can be thus improved by the combination of one or more kinds of foods of plant origin. If you look at the traditional Indian diets (whatever the region you may belong to), you will find many dishes which are prepared by using either a cereal-pulse combination as in dosa (rice, urad dal); dal-roti; rice-dal or cereal-animal food combinations as in dalia (milk, broken wheat); rice-fish. This is one of the ways of improving the quality of food proteins. &J judicious combination of foods of animal and plant origin, you can a ensure that the protein consumed will be of good quality. You must remember that even small amounts of animal protein with vegetable protein in a meal greatly improves protein quality.

The Macronutriens-Il Proteins and Fat!

Food Sources: Here is the list of some of the rich sources of proteins. The list is vast and
includes: milk, milk products (like curd, khoa, paneer), flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry), eggs, nuts and oilseeds (groundnuts, almond, cashewnut, walnut) and pulses (bengal gram, lentils, green gram, rajmah, soyabean). Among pulses, soyabean is particularly rich in protein. Protein content of some of these foods is given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Prokfn-dch Food8. Amount of Protein (g) ,(per lOOg of edible portion of food)

Foodduff Foods o h l n d Origh f Flesh Foods: Goat meat Fish (Pomfrd)

Egg

Milk tmd Milk Products: Milk (ww) Khoa Paneer (Cottage cheese) Foods d P b t omlgin Nuts and Oilseeds Cashewnut Groundqut w e s Soyabean Rajmah Bengal gram (whole)
Source: Nutritive Yohe of Indian Foods by C. Gopalan, B.V. Rama Sastri and S.C. Balasubramanian; revised and updated by B.S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G.Deosthale and K.C. Pant; National Institute of Nutrition (1989)

If you look at the current prices offoods of animal origin like meat, fish, poultry, you will find that most of these are very costly. The only animal foods which are relatively less expensive (though expensive as compared to plant foods) are milk and eggs. As the protein in foods of animal origin are of good quality, one should try to include small amounts of these foods in the daily diet. Milk is the only animal food used by both vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Although the protein content of lOOg milk is only 3.2 g yet it contains protein of very good quality and is rich in lysine. Hence, even a small amount of milk added to a basic Indian diet of dal-roti greatly enhances the protein quality of the whole diet. One should therefore try to include a1 least a small amount of milk in the daily diet. Non-vegetarians, who cannot afford meat, fish and chicken can eat eggs which are cheaper and as nutritious as meat, fish or chicken. Let us now take a look at the foods of plant origin. According to Table 3.2, pulses, nuts and oilseeds are rich sources of proteins. But these foods are also very expensive. Pulses are the major source of protein in Indian diets. One can try to improve the quality of cereal proteins by combining them with pulses. A small amount of milk, if% can be afforded, will further improve the quality of food

rotei in.

Basic Concepts In Kutritlon-I

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

I)

How can we improve the protein quality of cereals?

2)

List the sources of animal and vegetable proteins in your diet and compare their cost.

Functions: Remember your childhood days when your parentslelders forced you to drink?milk.They always said that you need milk for the proper growth of your body. Now, as an adult and a student of nutrition, you would realize that they were right. Milk is a good source of protein and proteins do play a role in growth and body-building. Let us now study the body-building and other functions of proteins in detail. Some of the functions of proteins are given below: 1) Body-building: Proteins supply amino acids for building new body tissues and for the replacement of worn out tissues. Thus they help in the growth and the maintenance of the body. For the constant growth of human beings from birth till adulthood, a regular supply of dietary protein is required. This does not mean that ,proteins are not needed ahen growth ceases. Evenduringadulthoodworn out body tissues need continuous replacement. Thus, proteins are required throughout life for the growth and maintenance of the body. Proteins as regulatory and protective substances: Proteins are also part of some chemical substances essential for the regulation of vital body processes. You are aware of the role of enzymes in the process of digestion of food. All enzymes are proteins in nature. Like enzymes, hormones are also chemical substances vital for the regulation of metabolism as well as some other body processes. Some of the hormones (like insulin) are proteins. Antibodies which protect the body from illness are also proteins. I'roteins as carriers: Some of the proteins act as carriers and help to transport certain substances from one place to another. One prominent example of a protein carrier is haemoglobin, the red coloured protein-containing substance present in the blood. Haemoglobin carries oxygen f r ~ m lungs to various the body tissues and carbon dioxide from body tissues to the lungs. Energy-giving function: Proteins can also be broken down in the body to provide energy. Each gram of protein yields about 4 Kcal. This, however, is not the major function of proteins and only takes place when the diet does not supply enough energy-giving nutrients such as carbohydrates and fats.

2)

3)

4)

Ibigestion, absorption and utilization: Dietary proteins chiefly consist of proteins and large chains of amino acids. Digestion of proteins involves the and sn~all breakdown of these amino acid chains to their constituent amino acids. Since saliva contains no proteolytic enzyme (enzymes which bring about breakdown of proteins), protein digestion mainly occurs in the stomach and the small intestine. Pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme. present in gastric juice breaks down proteins into smaller amino acid chains. But pepsin itself cannot complete the digestion of proteins. Partly broken down proteins from the stomach are released into the small intestine where further digestion takes place in two steps : i) Breakdunn qfparrh. djgested proteins to smaller amino acid chains : There are several proteolytic enzymes

called proreuses in the small intestine which act on partly digested proteins and convert them to even smaller amino acid chains: ii) breakdown ofamino acid chains ro amino acids: Finally other kinds of proteolytic enzymes called peptidases act on amino hcid chains and convert them to their constituent amino acids. The metabolism of proteins is essentially the metabolism of amino acids as these are the end products of the process of digestion of proteins. After digestion, amino acids arc carried by the blood to the liver. Here amino acids are used in three ways : a) some of them are used for building of blood proteins; b) some are retained in the liver and c) the rest enter the Mood circulation as amino acids. Some of the amino acids remain in circulation and others are taken up by body tissues for protein synthesis w'henever needed. It must be emphasized here that only proteins of good quality are maximally utilized by the body for synthesis of its own proteins. like Foods of animal o r i ~ i n millti, meat have proteins of good quality. This is because the animal proteins have the right proportions and amounts of all essential amino acids. Food of plant origin, on the other hand (like wheat, rice and pulses), have protein of poor quality because they generally lack one or more essential amino acidb. Thus the amino acids present in proteins of good quality can be used optimally for body protein synthesis. On the other hand, proteins of poor quality are less likely to be used for tissue protein synthesis. Those proteins (amino acids) are more likely to be used for other purposes including release of energy. Like glucose, ami'no acids can also be oxidized or burnt in the body to produce energv.
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'The Macronutriens-ll : Proteins and Fats

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

I) Fill in the blanks. a)
b)
.
,

f)

.......................... are the building blocks of all proteins. Pulses arc lacking in the amino acid ........................ and rich I l l . ......................... A good quality protein has the right ........... .............. and ............................
of all essential amino acids. Amino acids in proteins are linked together by the ............................. linkage.

d)
2)

Indidate whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false statements. a) b) c) d)
'

Cereals contain relatively poor quality protein. (True/ False)

.....................................................................................................................
The cncrgy-giving function is the major function of proteins. (True/ False)

'

AH hormones are proteins. (True/ False)

Haemoglobin is the red coloured substance present in the blood. (True/ False) Combination of cereal and pulse in a meal greatly improves the quality of protein. (True/ False)

e)

9.3 FATS
Fats, like carbohydrates, are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygyn. However, they differ from carbohydrates in structure and properties. The term fat includes fats

Basic Coacrpts in
Nutrition-I

and oils which are greasy in feel and insoluble in water. In addition to fat and oils there ,are certain fat-like substances such as cholesterol which are important in the body. You can learn more about cholesterol from Box 3.1 given at the end of this section. Let us first discuss the chemical nature of fats and oils. The major co~stituent all of fats and oils are fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids are composed of a chain of carbon atoms with other elements like hydrogen and oxygen. Some of the cornman fatty acids are palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids. The fatty acids can be classified in three categories on the basis o chain length. There are shorter chain f fatty acids (10 or fewer carbon atoms), long chain fatty acids (12 to 20 carbon atoms) and very long chain fatty acids (20 or more carbon atoms). Whenever we talk about fats and oils we come across terms like saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids. What do we m a n by these terms? A fatty acid chain of specified chain length (in terms of number of carbon atoms) has a fixed maximum number of hydrogen atoms. Certain fatty acids have as many hydrogen atoms as the carbon chain can hold. They are called guturated fatty acids. On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids have the capacity to accommodate more hydrogen atoms i.e. some hydrogen atoms are missing from the carbon chain. Now let us learn about the essential fatty acids. There are two fatty acids which cannot be synthesized in the body. These fatty acids have to be provided in the diet and art! referred to as essential fatty acids. These are linolenic and linoleic acids, Both these fatty acids are unsaturated in nature. You miiy recall that fats and oils are made up of glycerol and fatty acid. In fact a molecule of fat or oil has three fatty acids and a molecule of glycerol. This is called a triglyceride (Figure 3.2). Fats and oils are composed of many triglycerides or fat molecules.

I It is made up of a molecule of glycerol ' and three fatty acid molecules. I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -J

I

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Fig. 3.2 A molecule of fat (triglyceride)

Let us now see what is the difference between fats and oils. Both fats and oils are triglycericles but fats are solid at room temperature and have a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids e.g. ghee and butter. Oils, on the other hand. have more unsaturatczd fatty acids and are liquid at room temperature e.g. mustard oil. groundnut oil. Usually. the term fat is used.for both fats and oils.

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Food Sources: Food sources of fats and oils include all common fats and oils like
ghee, vanaspati, mustard oil, groundnut oil, soya oil, coconut oil. They are almost ~mprcentfat. The p m e n a of fat is a h o evident in other foodstuffs like milk and milk.prodwts (curd, paneer, khoa), nuts and oiheeds (almond. groundnut, coccnut, mustaru seeds), eggs and flesh foods. These are known as far-rich foods. They have 8 to 50 percent fat in them (Table 3.3).

The Ma-ronutriens-ll : Proteiru and Fats

Foodrtd

Fat Content (8) (per lOO# edible portion) 58.9 46.9 40.1
41.6

Cashewnut Groundnut Coconut (fresh) Mustard seeds

39.7 19.5 13.3 13.3

Source : Nurnrrve Value o Indian Foods by C. Gopalan, B.V Rama Sastri, S.C. Balasubramanian; f revised and updated by B.S. Naiasinga Rao. Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant; National Institute of Nutntion (1989).

You may be surprised to know'that fat is present in very minute quantities in almost all foodstuffs. Even foods like cereals, pulses. fruits have fats in them in minute quantities (invisibleform). These foods contribute a substantial amount of fat to Indian diets by virtue of being consumed in large quantities.

Functions: The term fat may be associated in your mind with a substance which is
harmful for h~alth. You may consider fats as substances which would make you overweight and may endanger your life by causing disease like heart attack. This is a negative view about fats. Fats as macronutrients play a crucial role in the body. Problems come up only if you take fats in excess amounts i.e. more than the requirement of the body. You would realize how important fats are for your body as you go through the following important functions:
I)

Source of energy: Fat is a concentrated source of energy.. Each gram of fat provides approximately 9 Kcal. This is more than double the amount of energy supplied by a g e m of carbohydrate or protein. Usually only a small amount of fat is used to meet the energy needs of the body. Most of the excess fat is stored in the body in specific tissues called adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is present under the skin, and in the abdominal region among others. Satiety Value: What happens when you consume fat-rich diets? Do you feel hungry sooner or later? In fact, as you would have noticed, you feel full and d o not feel hungry for a long time. This is because fats remain longer in the stomach and take more time to digest. Hence, like fibre, fats also give satiety Insulation and padding: You have read that fat is stored in the body in adipose tissues at specific places. Layers of stored fat under the skin act as an insulator and keep the body warm. A layer of fat is also present around the vital organs of the body like the kidney and the heart. This serves as a padding and protects them against injury.

2)

3)

5)

Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins: You have read about a category of micronutrients called vitamins. Some of the vitamins are soluble in fats and are termed as fat-soluble vitamins. Fats serve as carriers of these fat-soluble vitamins in the body and also aid in their absorption.

Raoic Can>epls

Nutrition-t

in

Digestion, absorption a n d utilization: In the process of digestion fats are broken down to their constituent compQnents i.e. glycerol and fatty acids. The two enzymes which aid in the digestion of fats are gastric. lipase present in gastric juice and par?r,rearic lipase poured into the small intestine from the pancreas. For enzyme action. fats need to be dispersed or mixed in water. You know fats are insoluble in water. A secretion from the liver called bile helps in fat digestion by breaking fat into small droplets. These fat droplets are then dispersed in the liquid digestive juice and are (easilyacted upon by enzymes. Since bile is not present in the stomach, the actton of gastric lipase is not very significant. This is the reason why fats are chiefly dige5ted in the small intestine where pancreatic lipase breaks them into glycerol and aided by the action of bile. fatty ac~tis Tht: end products of fat digestion i.e. glycerol and fatty acids present in the intestine move into the intestinal cells. The fatty acids cannot enter intestinal cells as such. Bile salts play an important role in fat absorption by dispersing the fatty acids into ' smilll, tiny water-soluble units called rnic,elles which can easily move into the intestinal cells. Fatty acids and glycerol then get transported from the intestinal cells to blood circulation. They d o not travel directly into the bloodstream but first enter the network of vessels (present in the villi of the small intestine) called lymph vessels. Then fatty acids from the lymph vessels enter the heart and from there move into the blood. Blood then carries them either to the adipose tissues where they are stored as concentrated sources of energy or to cells where they are broken down to provide energy (in a similar fashion as glucose and amino acids).

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

I) How are saturated fatty acids different from unsaturated'fatty acids? .

................................................................................................................................

2)

Name the two essential fatty acids.

.............................................................................................................................. ...... .......................................................................................................................

3)

Fill in the blanwr. a) b) c) and All fatr and oils are made up of,........................

................... ..............
JCcaI.

Each gram of fat provides approximately.......................

The amount of energy supplied by a gram of fat is .....................the amount of energy supplied by a gram of carbohydrate or protein.

. e)
3;4

d)

....................... essential for digestion and absorption of fats and oih. is

A molecule of fat has .................... fatty acids and a molecule of glycerol and is called a ......................... . .

LET US S U M UP

The discussion in this unit is on two categories of macronutrients i.e: proteins and fats. You have read that : Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Food and body proteins contain 22 different amino acids. These 22 amino acids are classified into two categories : essential and ?on-essential amino acids. The quality of food proteins depends on the relative proportion of essential amino acids present in them. As animal proteins generally contain enough of all the essential amino acids needed by the body, they are considered superior in quality as compared to plant proteins. The quality of plant proteins can be improved by combining plant foods with other plant foods or animal foods e.g. cereal-pulse combinations or cereal-milk conibinations. The end products of protein digestion in the body are amino acids which after absorption are utilized for several functions in the body. The chief function of proteins is growth and-maintenance. Fatty ;ads are the chief constituents of all fats and oils. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated' depending on the number of hydrogen atoms present in the carbon chain. A molecule of triglyceride or fat is made up of three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. During the process of digestion triglycerides present in the food are broken down to their constitdent fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids released as a result of digestion are concentrated sources of enerpy.

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GLOSSARY
: :

Eesentirl amino acid8 Fatty acid

The amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the body and hence have to be provided in the diet An organic compound composed of carbon. hydrogen and oxygen. In combination with glycerol, fatty acids form fat Secretions of some glands of the body which travel through the blood to specific target organs to exert their specific effects e.g. the hormone insulin is secreted by a gland (pancreas) and travels in blood to the target organ (i.e. muscle and adipose tissue) A protein-containing compound present in the blood which helps to carry oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carbon dioxide from the body tissues to the lungs An am'ino acid which can be synthesized in the body and hence does not have to be provided in the diet

Hannm

Non-eesential amino acid

Bade Concepts i n Nutrition-1

Reserve Triglyceride

: :

Reserve here refers to stores of various nutrients in the body at specific sites A molecule of fat which is made up of glycerol and three fatty acids

3.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
I)
Cereals are lacking in one of the essential amino acids (lysine). Their protein quality can be improved by combination with other foods which are rich in lysine i.e. pulses o r animal foods like milk, egg, meat. Answer from your own experience.

!)

Check. Your Progress Exercise 2

I)
!

a) Amino acids b) methionine, lysine c) proportion and amount d) Pepude.

a) True b) False. The major function of protein is body-building. c) False. Some hormones are proteins. d ) True e) True.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

I) Saturated fatty acids contain all the hydrogen atoms which the carbon chains can hold whereas in unsaturated fatty acids some of the hydrogen atoms a're missing fro^ the carbon chain. The degree of unsaturation will vary according to the number of missing hydrogen atoms. The two essential fatty acids are also unsaturated in nature. Linoleic acid and linolenic acid. a) fatty acids and glycerol b) 9 c) double d ) Bile e) three, triglyceride.

2)
3)