Running head: BANDURAS MODELING THEORY

How Bandura's Modeling Theory Compares to Paul's "Follow Me as I Follow Christ" Ryan J. Adams, Ryan S. Calhoun & Runell S. Washington Regent University August 31, 2011

Abstract This article seeks to compare the basic concepts of Banduras theory of modeling to one of Christianitys most exemplary models, the Apostle Paul. Further examination of Banduras social cognitive theory and its relatedness to Pauls prototypic example revealed an emphasis on learning through vicarious experience. Banduras four basic models of observational learning, live models, verbal instructional and symbolic models, were each examined in relation to Pauls methods of teaching. Each of these basic models was identified in the methods used by Paul. The broader implications of Banduras theory are far-reaching and relevant to clinical practice. Banduras theory reflects the therapeutic alliance in the exchange of vicarious experiences between observer and learner. This theory also speaks to broader social and environmental factors that impact the therapeutic alliance. The therapists vicarious experience of client suffering, and the clients indirect experience of the therapists self-efficacy present invaluable learning opportunities that facilitate mutual growth. Thus, a greater understanding of Banduras theory and the use of modeling are essential, as this premise offers perspectives that are clinically relevant to the collaborative therapeutic process.

Common Principles An investigation of Banduras social learning theory and an examination of Pauls follow me, as I follow Christ revealed common principles related to observational learning. Bandura describes the role of symbolization, incentive sets, and exposure to live and symbolic models as essential components of social learning theory. This theory emphasized learning from indirect experiences, and the potential for active observers to develop competencies, skills, and even values. In many ways, the Apostle Paul emulates the exemplar model and himself becomes a live, verbal instructional and symbolic model in the lives of his followers. Modeling Behavior "Be ye followers of me, even as I also am of Christ" (1 Corinthians 11:1 KJV). According to Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible, the word follow is used to convey the concept more commonly known as imitation. Paul is saying to his new converts that they should imitate him even as he imitates Christ (1984, p. 360). Matthew Henry's Commentary asserts "Paul not only preached such doctrine as they ought to believe, but led such a life as they ought to imitate."Be ye followers of me," that is, `Be imitators of me; live as you see me live" (1991, p. 2263). Robertson's Word Pictures of the New Testament conveys further meaning of the Greek word used in the

passage at 1 Corinthians 11:1: Imitators of me (mimhtai mou). Paul is himself an imitator of Christ. Paul is a leader and therefore, bound to set an example or pattern (tupo) for others (2003). Craig Blomberg asserts that Paul offers a challenging model. Blomberg maintains it is as if Paul says, Do you want to know what it means to live a consistent Christian life, properly balancing freedom and restraint? Then watch me. I may not be perfect, but I imitate the selfless life Christ lived, and to the extent that I succeed, you should do the same. (1994, p. 204) Blomberg continues "Little wonder ancient Christian behavior often stood out among the pagans of the day. Early believers often drew from the concept that in Christ one was no longer Jewish or Gentile, but a member of a third race, qualitatively distinct from the other two" (p. 204-05). Observational Learning Paul resorted to using techniques that Bandura later refers to as observational learning in order to get his message out to the people. "Central to spiritual modeling phenomena is what we term observational spiritual modeling, that is, the learning of spiritually relevant skills or behaviors through observing other persons" (Oman and Thoresen, 2003a, p. 150). Considering the avant-garde nature of his early messages, Pauls effectiveness as a religious model may have been largely due to his demonstrative teachings, and scrupulous lifestyle. Concerning religious models, Bandura (2003) explains, "there is wide variation in the lifestyles being modeled and discrepancies between what is practiced and what is preached" (p. 3). Therefore, Paul was in a position such that he could not afford discrepancies, since he was at times the sole model for those first hearing his teachings. His teachings were often forward-thinking and radical for his time, and therefore provided yet another reason for the importance of modeling these teachings. Consistency of Model Again, he wrote "Be ye followers of me, even as I also am of Christ" (1 Corinthians 11:1 KJV). In the midst of this, he welcomed criticism and allowed for accountability. He gave reasoning behind his call; the call to follow Christ. One should note that Paul did not use his identity as a Pharisee, a disciple, a man of his prestigious lineage, or even his own works or reputation as his reasoning. What was implied therefore in Paul's writing was the charge that if he failed to follow Christ, or if there was any discrepancy in his lifestyle, his followers were no longer to follow him. Paul was able to live the life that he was calling them to live, thereby proving himself a competent model. "Competent models convey knowledge, skills, and strategies for managing different life circumstances" (Bandura, 2003, p. 5). Moreover, Paul fostered aspirations and resilience to adversity" by not only pursuing but succeeding in challenges (Bandura, 2003, p. 5). Learning by Observation Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling" (Bandura, 1986, p. 47). The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura (1977) "approaches the explanation of human behavior in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants" (p. vii). This conceptualization of behaviorism suggests a mutually dependent association between behavior and environment and is most often referred to as reciprocal determinism. This reciprocal determinism is perceptible in the relationships depicted between Paul and his followers. Taken further, one can observe similar interactions occurring within the therapeutic relationship. As the therapist provides unconditional positive regard, an environment is created that may positively influence clients perceptions, cognitions, and subsequent behavioral changes. Contiguity Learning Process According to Bandura (1969), representational mediators are acquired on the basis of a contiguity learning process. Bandura's (1969) concept of observational learning involves both imaginal and verbal representational systems that serve as mediators for response retrieval and reproduction. Once these cognitive representations are formed, a conception matching process facilitates the

conversion of cognitive symbols into action. For instance, an internalized cognitive representation acquired in therapy may later be generalized and enacted in appropriate interpersonal interactions. Live Model Paul provides an example of Bandura's first model of observational learning, a live model, when he travels to preach and spread his message to the people. This serves as a very effective form of modeling. However, due to the large geographical area Paul was attempting to reach with his message, this form of modeling was not always possible. "The people with whom one regularly associates, either by preference or imposition, delimit the behavioral patterns that will be repeatedly observed, and hence, learned most thoroughly" (Bandura, 1986, p. 55). Paul, greatly influenced by Christ, understood the magnitude and responsibility of his own immediate influence. By becoming a model himself, Paul gave the people reason to believe in the strength of his convictions and his ability to persevere even in the midst of the prevailing social climate. As Bandura explains, "enabling social supporters can raise personal efficacy by modeling effective coping strategies for managing difficult situations. Pauls modeling affected his followers personal efficacy by demonstrating the value of perseverance and providing positive incentives and resources for efficacious coping" (Bandura, 2003, p. 4). Paul was also able to relate to his audience on several different levels. He had lived manifold lifestyles and held several occupations. Furthermore, Paul was an example of someone who had experienced significant lifestyle changes, and yet demonstrated that he was capable of living up to the message he was teaching. As a result of this, repeated differential reinforcement occurred via his ability to be a matching model for those differing in intelligence, age, socioeconomic status, social and vocational competencies, prestige and power. Modeling attributes that signify probable consequences for exemplified behavior determine in large part which models will have the greatest response in facilitating effects. (Bandura, 1969, p. 203) As a Pharisee, Paul claimed membership in one of the best known of the sects of that day. According to Ancient Israel, the Pharisees appeared to have enjoyed a significant degree of popularity among the people (Shanks (Ed.), 1988, p. 200). Moreover, Paul was afforded status simply for his ability to produce his writings as well. As Moe (1954) explains in his work, The Apostle Paul, "no position in Israel commanded larger recognition than that of the scribes (p. 48). The scribes of Pauls time not only served as the people's theologians but also their jurists indeed their scholars, and their academicians. Moe (1954) asserts that Paul was not only a Pharisee by conviction and learning, but he lived as such according to the strictest party of the Jewish religion. "Circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, an Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee; concerning zeal, persecuting the church; touching the righteousness which is in the law, blameless" (Philippians 3:5-6, KJV). "At any rate," Moe continues, "a brilliant career lay before him as a doctor of the law, a prospective member of the high council and a transmitter of the best of the rabbinical traditions" (p. 81). Given Pauls group membership and inherent social status, the observed behavior is more likely to be replicated.

Verbal Instruction Paul also used the second basic model of observational learning, verbal instruction. Paul perceived this as a calling from Christ, to preach not his own words, but the word of God. "For Christ sent me not to baptize, but to preach the gospel: not with wisdom of words, lest the cross of Christ should be made of none effect" (I Cor. 1:17, KJV). As previously explained, it was not always possible for Paul

to serve as a live model to his audience. "Limited time, resources, and mobility impose severe limits on places and activities that people can directly explore to gain new social perspectives and styles of thinking and behaving" (Bandura, 2003, p. 1). In the same way, the nature of the therapeutic relationship is time-limited and clients are expected to recall and demonstrate acquired skills and behaviors beyond the confines of therapy. Extrinsic/Intrinsic Reinforcement During conventional therapy sessions, clients and therapists generally work together to establish goals and objectives, many of which must continue to be worked on by the client long after termination. Since the therapist is physically incapable of being perpetually present with clients, written and/or verbal instructions can reinforce therapeutic gains. Banduras social learning theory emphasizes the importance of reinforcement and incentives, as they are integral to the crystallization of learned behaviors. People are motivated to enact a behavior when influenced by three kinds of incentives: direct, vicarious or self administered incentives (Bandura, 2003). People are more likely to replicate a behavior when they determine that it is in their best interest to do so. These three components can be seen as either extrinsic or intrinsic reinforcements (Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1998). Much in the same way, Paul's missionary journeys spanned from Antioch to Asia Minor, where he made countless numbers of converts and continued to write his epistles as instructions to the established churches, further reinforcing what they had been taught (Bahr, Johnston & Bloomfield (Eds.), 1996). Symbolic Model "Even when-as is usually the case-the physical presence of a preeminent exemplar such as Jesus a great saint or sage is not readily available, devotees are urged to remember the words and deeds of these persons and to seek to live by the same guiding spirit" (Oman and Thoresen, 2003a, p. 150). Not only did Paul preach the message of Jesus, the preeminent exemplar of this church, but he would become a symbolic model for the Christian church as well. Through his letters and writings Paul provided not only teachings, but an example to be followed by the Christians of his time, and Christians of future generations. In this mode of symbolic modeling, values, lifestyles, and guides for daily living are personalized in idealized exemplars in treatises, biographical writings about past visionaries and reformers, abstracted storied characters ascribed valued attributes, myths, and religious scriptural prescriptions that offer models of behavior. (Bandura, 2003, p. 3) Though Paul did not necessarily provide the Christian church with an all-inclusive guide to behavior, he demonstrated a lifestyle and principles which would serve as a means for Christians and with which they would engage in their own decision-making. An individual may see others confront moral conflicts involving various different matters, and thereby decide to apply the same standards to similar moral conflicts with which they are confronted. Modeled activities thus convey principles for generative and innovative behavior," (Bandura, 2003, p. 2). As previously stated, Paul becomes a symbolic model for the new converts during his extended periods of absence, as the newly established churches received letters from Paul with doctrine, reproof and correction, and continued steadfastly and accordingly in the apostle's doctrine (Williams, 1953). Paul's letters reminded these newly established churches of accounts of his ministry among them, which was principally preaching the gospel. Scripture conveys the manner in which he preached, and the different successes that can be attributed to the gospel using the methods he used. Bandura proposes that memory can be enhanced by organization of the material and by rehearsal. The Pauline epistles served as reminders of the doctrines of the church and correction in regards to departures from it. They also included instructions to continue to assemble in one place, to practice the rituals and to be accountable to one another (1 Cor. 8, 1 Cor.12, KJV). Four Main Processes in Effective Learning

Next, one should consider Bandura's four main processes (1986) to gain insight into Pauls effectiveness as a model. It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned, and this is also the case with those who have heard Paul's messages. The first of the four modeling processes is attention. "It is exceedingly unlikely that a person could reproduce modeling stimuli if he did not attend to, recognize, and differentiate the distinctive features of the model's responses, (Bandura, 1969, p. 10). An impaired attentional process can inhibit learning and can prevent observer retentiveness. Exposure to modeling stimuli does not guarantee attentiveness, nor does it promise the extraction of relevant stimuli. Bandura (1969) identifies both motivational conditions and the presence of incentive-oriented sets as contributory factors of the attentional process. Attentional Processes As it concerns the attentional processes, Bandura proposes that: One is more likely to pay attention to behaviors that are salient, simple and promise to have some functional value and that as a consequence, a model that is vivid, attractive, competent and seen repeatedly is more likely to catch our attention. (as cited by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1998, p. 59697) Paul is an ideal model based on the fact that he was considered competent, attractive and of high standing. In his book, Social Aspects of Early Christianity , Abraham J. Malherbe (2003) notes that because Pauls Roman citizenship gave him status among the social elite of the Hellenistic states, he moved in well established circles where there was opportunity for vigorous discussions about behavior and ideas (p. 47). Observer preference, model influence, and observer-model similarities facilitate the learning process, as evidence by Pauls effective ministry. In order to produce learning "stimulus contiguity must be accompanied by discriminative observation" (Bandura, 1969, p. 136). Christianity was in its infancy during Pauls ministry and in competition with other religious ideologies. Persons extrinsically motivated by the promise of heaven, were inclined to follow Pauls teaching. Persons who are informed in advance that they will later be asked to reproduce a given model's responses and rewarded in terms of the number of elements performed correctly would be expected to pay much closer attention to relevant modeling stimuli than persons who are exposed to the same modeled events without any predisposition to observe them and learn them. (Bandura, 1969, p. 137) Similarly, in a therapeutic context, clients are more apt to attend to personally relevant information that would likely illicit optimal outcomes. This may have further implications, particularly if the client lacks the insight to connect the short-term investment to the long-term goals. Retention of Observational Input The second of Bandura's four basic processes is retention. "In order to reproduce social behavior without the continued presence of external modeling cues, a person must retain the original observational inputs in some symbolic form," (Bandura, 1969, p. 138-139). Once stored, these symbolic representations of the formerly observed model can be preserved for extended periods. For some, these behavior patterns can be retained without ever being outwardly expressed. For others, "observational learning can be significantly enhanced through overt practice or rehearsal of modeled response sequences" (Bandura, 1969, p. 8). Interestingly enough, Bandura (1969) suggests that covert behavior may improve retentive abilities if overt participation is hindered. Favorable outcomes are often incentives that increase retentive propensities. Similarly, the covert practice of observed behaviors is unlikely when "models command no rewarding or punishing power" (Bandura, 1969, p. 10). This presupposition suggests that rehearsal patterns are regulated

by incentive sets, which Bandura (1969) proposes may be independent of the model. At any rate, symbolic coding, in each of its varied forms, may be more efficacious during the retention process. The process of retention has also been able to explain the importance of many religious rituals including memorized prayers, the singing of hymns, and the recounting of stories such as those passed down from symbolic models. "Repetition fosters retention of modeled behaviors and may occur through rituals as well as through a variety of other cultural forms such as storytelling, devotional plays, singing, or textual material" (Oman and Thoresen, 2003a, p. 154).

Motor Reproduction Processes The next of Bandura's four basic processes is reproduction. "The third major component of modeling phenomena (motor reproduction processes) involves the utilization of symbolic representations of modeled patterns in the form of imaginal and verbal contents to guide overt performances," (Bandura, 1969, p. 138-139). As noted in the above paragraph, symbolic representations of modeled patterns can exist in multiple forms. The two most commonly discussed representational systems include imaginal and verbal. The reproduction process elicits these two symbolic representations to direct overt performance. According to Bandura, "reinstatement of representational schemes provides a basis for self-instruction on how component responses must be combined and sequenced to produce new patterns of behavior" (1969, p. 11). Essentially, this process mimics the initial modeling process in observational learning. The principle difference is that behavior reproduction is cued by symbolic depictions of the once present model. The exactness of each symbol can dramatically affect the correctness of reproduced behavior. Additionally, physical limitations may impair the observer's ability to behaviorally reenact a particular behavior. Motivation The last of Bandura's four basic processes of modeling is motivation. "A person may acquire and retain modeled events and possess the capabilities for skillful execution of modeled behavior, but the learning may rarely be activated into overt performance if negative sanctions or unfavorable incentive conditions obtain" (Bandura, 1969, p. 138-139). When positive incentives are introduced however, observational learning is then likely to be translated into action (Bandura, 1965). When an individual identified with Paul and came to believe in the prospect of eternal life in Christ, they were then given positive incentives to produce the learned behaviors. The early church converts continued to follow Paul and the new church leaders, in spite of the persecutions and pressures outside of the confines of their fellowship. This may suggest that their motivation was intrinsic at some level. Crossan and Reed (2005) convey that followers of the pagan religions during the onset of the early churches were at odds with the new churches and converts, as were the religious leaders of traditional Judaism. Paul and Christianity are said to have proven bad for pagan business [with direct confrontations to the fortune telling business through a slave girl with the spirit of divination] (Crossan and Reed, 2005). These authors maintain that there were silversmiths who made a living forging artifacts to pagan gods who suffered business losses, while Jewish leaders discounted these new converts for their association with infidels and were also filled with jealousy (Crossan and Reed, 2005). Yet, they remained loyal to following the directive from Paul, "be steadfast". The record includes several accounts of devout Jews of high standing and leading men of the city being at odds with them. Persecution was stirred in the region all about them and they heard or witnessed Paul being driven out of the region. The church continued to assemble together however; rehearsing the directives sent by Paul and holding each other in accountability to the directives (Crossan and Reed, 2005). Although the societal pressures were at odds with the new church converts, the extrinsic value many may have found within the confines of their fellowship may have been enough to hold together what

values they found in remaining loyal to the church. In his book, The First Urban Christians, Meeks (2003) conveys that the common meeting places were private houses of the followers. This suggests that an intimate connection existed between the followers. The letters sent to the churches by Paul, identified them as brothers and sisters and collectively as the `household of faith'. (Crossan and Reed, 2005) They mention that the salutary address `brothers' appears at least sixty-five times in Paul's letters (Crossan and Reed, 2005). Personal, Proxy, and Collective Agency Bandura's (2003) Social Cognitive theory distinguishes among three different modes of agency. Paul demonstrated personal agency in some areas of his life; however he was aware that he often did not have direct control over conditions that affected his life. Therefore Paul turns to proxy agency and looks to his faith in Christ. He also worked at times within the social framework, using his status as a tool to influence others. Lastly, Paul demonstrates collective agency in his appeals against division within the Church. Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that there be no divisions among you; but that ye be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment. (1Cor. 1:10, KJV). This investigation of Banduras social learning theory and examination of Pauls follow me, as I follow Christ revealed common principles related to observational learning. Bandura described the roles of symbolization, incentive sets, and exposure to live and symbolic models as essential components of social learning theory. This theory emphasizes learning from indirect experiences, and the potential for active observers to develop competencies, skills, and values. In many ways, the Apostle Paul emulated the exemplar model and became a live, verbal instructional, and symbolic model in the lives of many followers.

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