EPA/625/R-00/008

February 2002

Onsite W
aste
water T
reatment
astew
Wastewater
Treatment
Systems Manual

Office of Water
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(Click Here to Return to Bookmarks Page)

Notice

This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

ii

Foreword

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is pleased to publish the Onsite Wastewater Treatment
Systems Manual. This manual provides up-to-date information on onsite wastewater treatment
system (OWTS) siting, design, installation, maintenance, and replacement. It reflects significant
advances that the expert community has identified to help OWTSs become more cost-effective and
environmentally protective, particularly in small suburban and rural areas.
In addition to providing a wealth of technical information on a variety of traditional and new
system designs, the manual promotes a performance-based approach to selecting and designing
OWTSs. This approach will enable States and local communities to design onsite wastewater
programs that fit local environmental conditions and communities capabilities. Further details on
the proper management of OWTSs to prevent system failures that could threaten ground and surface
water quality will be provided in EPAs forthcoming Guidelines for Management of Onsite/
Decentralized Wastewater Systems. EPA anticipates that the performance-based approach to
selecting and managing appropriate OWTSs at both the watershed and site levels will evolve as
States and communities develop programs based on resources that need protection and
improvement.
Robert H. Wayland III, Director
Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds
E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

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USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

iv

Table of Contents
Notice
.................................................................................................................................................................. ii
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................................ ix
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................... xi
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1. Background and use of onsite wastewater treatment systems ........................................................ 1-1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2 History of onsite wastewater treatment systems ......................................................................................... 12
1.3 Regulation of onsite wastewater treatment systems ................................................................................... 13
1.4 Onsite wastewater treatment system use, distribution, and failure rate ..................................................... 14
1.5 Problems with existing onsite wastewater management programs ............................................................ 15
1.6 Performance-based management of onsite wastewater treatment systems .............................................. 110
1.7 Coordinating onsite system management with watershed protection efforts ......................................... 111
1.8 USEPA initiatives to improve onsite system treatment and management ............................................... 112
1.9 Other initiatives to assist and improve onsite management efforts ......................................................... 115
Chapter 2. Management of onsite wastewater treatment systems .................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 21
2.2 Elements of a successful program ............................................................................................................... 23
2.3 Types of management entities .................................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Management program components .......................................................................................................... 213
2.5 Financial assistance for management programs and system installation ............................................... 241
Chapter 3. Establishing treatment system performance requirements ........................................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2 Estimating wastewater characteristics ........................................................................................................ 31
3.3 Estimating wastewater flow ........................................................................................................................ 32
3.4 Wastewater quality ...................................................................................................................................... 38
3.5 Minimizing wastewater flows and pollutants .......................................................................................... 310
3.6 Integrating wastewater characterization and other design information .................................................. 320
3.7 Transport and fate of wastewater pollutants in the receiving environment ............................................ 320
3.8 Establishing performance requirements ................................................................................................... 340
3.9 Monitoring system operation and performance ....................................................................................... 353
Chapter 4. Treatment processes and systems ..................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 41
4.2 Conventional systems and treatment options ............................................................................................ 42
4.3 Subsurface wastewater infiltration .............................................................................................................. 42
4.4 Design considerations ................................................................................................................................. 46
4.5 Construction management and contingency options .............................................................................. 434
4.6 Septic tanks ............................................................................................................................................... 437
4.7 Sand/media filters ..................................................................................................................................... 448
4.8 Aerobic treatment units ............................................................................................................................. 452

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

Table of Contents, Contd.

Onsite wastewater treatment systems technology fact sheets
1
Continuous-Flow, Suspended-Growth Aerobic Systems (CFSGAS) ..................................................... TFS1
2
Fixed-film processes ............................................................................................................................... TFS7
3
Sequencing batch reactor systems ....................................................................................................... TFS13
4
Effluent disinfection processes ............................................................................................................ TFS17
5
Vegetated submerged beds and other high-specific-surface anaerobic reactors ................................ TFS23
6
Evapotranspiration and evapotranspiration/infiltration ..................................................................... TFS31
7
Stabilization ponds, FWS constructed wetlands, and other aquatic systems ..................................... TFS37
8
Enhanced nutrient removalphosphorus ........................................................................................... TFS41
9
Enhanced nutrient removalnitrogen ............................................................................................... TFS45
10
Intermittent sand/media filters ............................................................................................................ TFS53
11
Recirculating sand/media filters ......................................................................................................... TFS61
12
Land treatment systems ....................................................................................................................... TFS71
13
Renovation/restoration of subsurface wastewater infiltration systems (SWIS) ................................. TFS77
Onsite wastewater treatment systems special issues fact sheets
1
Septic tank additives ............................................................................................................................. SIFS1
2
High-organic-strength wastewaters (including garbage grinders) ....................................................... SIFS3
3
Water softeners ...................................................................................................................................... SIFS7
4
Holding tanks and hauling systems ...................................................................................................... SIFS9
Chapter 5. Treatment system selection ............................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Factors for selecting appropriate system design and size ......................................................................... 51
5.2 Design conditions and system selection ................................................................................................... 51
5.3 Matching design conditions to system performance ................................................................................ 51
5.4 Design boundaries and boundary loadings ............................................................................................... 53
5.5 Evaluating the receiving environment ...................................................................................................... 59
5.6 Mapping the site ...................................................................................................................................... 524
5.7 Developing the initial system design ...................................................................................................... 524
5.8 Rehabilitating and upgrading existing systems ..................................................................................... 532

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Figures
Figure 1-1.

Conventional onsite wastewater treatment system ......................................................................... 11

Figure 1-2.

Typical single-compartment septic tank ......................................................................................... 13

Figure 1-3.

Onsite treatment system distribution in the United States ............................................................. 15

Figure 1-4.

Fate of water discharged to onsite wastewater treatment systems .................................................. 17

Figure 1-5.

The watershed approach planning and management cycle .......................................................... 113

Figure 1-6.

Large-capacity septic tanks and other subsurface discharges ...................................................... 114

Figure 2-1.

Onsite wastewater management overlay zones example .............................................................. 218

Figure 2-2.

Process for developing onsite wastewater management ............................................................... 220

Figure 3-1.

Distribution of mean household daily per capita indoor water use ............................................... 35

Figure 3-2.

Indoor water use percentage, including leakage, for 1,188 data logged homes ............................ 36

Figure 3-3.

Daily indoor water use pattern for single-family residence ............................................................ 37

Figure 3-4.

Peak wastewater flows for single-family home ............................................................................... 38

Figure 3-5.

Average hourly distribution of total unfiltered BOD5 .................................................................. 310

Figure 3-6.

Typical graywater reuse approach ................................................................................................. 319

Figure 3-7.

Strategy for estimating wastewater flow and composition ........................................................... 321

Figure 3-8.

Plume movement through the soil to the saturated zone .............................................................. 322

Figure 3-9.

An example of effluent plume movement ..................................................................................... 325

Figure 3-10.

Soil treatment zones ....................................................................................................................... 326

Figure 3-11.

Zinc sorption by clay as a function of pH ..................................................................................... 338

Figure 3-12.

Example of compliance boundaries for onsite wastewater treatment systems ............................. 340

Figure 3-13.

Input and output components of the MANAGE assessment method ........................................... 344

Figure 3-14.

Probability of environmental impact decision tree ....................................................................... 350

Figure 4-1.

Conventional subsurface wastewater infiltration system ................................................................ 42

Figure 4-2.

Lateral view of conventional SWIS-based system .......................................................................... 45

Figure 4-3.

Subsurface infiltration system design versus depth to a limiting condition ................................. 47

Figure 4-4.

Raising the infiltration surface with a typical mound system ........................................................ 49

Figure 4-5.

Schematic of curtain drain construction ......................................................................................... 49

Figure 4-6.

Capacity chart for subsurface drains ............................................................................................. 411

Figure 4-7.

Pathway of subsoil reaeration ........................................................................................................ 416

Figure 4-8.

Distribution box with adjustable weir outlets .............................................................................. 419

Figure 4-9.

Serial relief line distribution network and installation detail ...................................................... 419

Figure 4-10.

Drop box distribution network ...................................................................................................... 421

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

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Figures, Contd.
Figure 4-11.

Various gravelless systems ............................................................................................................ 421

Figure 4-12.

Placement of leaching chambers in typical application ............................................................... 422

Figure 4-13.

Typical pressurized distribution system layout ............................................................................ 423

Figure 4-14.

Pressure manifold detail ................................................................................................................. 424

Figure 4-15.

Horizontal design for pressure distribution .................................................................................. 425

Figure 4-16.

Rigid pipe pressure distribution networks with flushing cleanouts ............................................ 426

Figure 4-17.

Pressure manifold and flexible drip lines prior to trench filling .................................................. 428

Figure 4-18.

Emitter discharge rates versus in-line pressure ............................................................................. 429

Figure 4-19.

Dripline layout on a site with trees ............................................................................................... 431

Figure 4-20.

Pumping tank (generic) ................................................................................................................. 432

Figure 4-21.

Profile of a single-compartment septic tank with outlet screen ................................................... 438

Figure 4-22.

Two-compartment tank with effluent screen and surface risers .................................................... 440

Figure 4-23.

Examples of septic tank effluent screens/filters ............................................................................ 441

Figure 4-24.

Tongue and groove joint and sealer .............................................................................................. 443

Figure 4-25.

Underdrain system detail for sand filters ...................................................................................... 448

Figure 4-26.

Schematics of the two most common types of sand media filters ................................................ 450

Figure 5-1.

Preliminary design steps and considerations .................................................................................. 52

Figure 5-2.

Performance (design) boundaries associated with onsite treatment systems ................................. 54

Figure 5-3.

Subsurface wastewater infiltration system design/performance boundaries .................................. 55

Figure 5-4.

Effluent mounding effect above the saturated zone ....................................................................... 58

Figure 5-5.

General considerations for locating a SWIS on a sloping site ..................................................... 513

Figure 5-6.

Landscape position features (see table 5-6 for siting potential) .................................................. 514

Figure 5-7.

Conventional system layout with SWIS replacement area ........................................................... 515

Figure 5-8.

Site evaluation/site plan checklist ................................................................................................ 516

Figure 5-9.

Soil textural triangle ...................................................................................................................... 519

Figure 5-10.

Types of soil structure .................................................................................................................... 520

Figure 5-11.

Potential evaporation versus mean annual precipitation ............................................................. 524

Figure 5-12.

Development of the onsite wastewater system design concept .................................................... 525

Figure 5-13.

Onsite wastewater failure diagnosis and correction procedure .................................................... 533

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viii

Tables
Table 1-1.

Typical pollutants of concern from onsite wastewater treatment systems ..................................... 12

Table 1-2.
Table 1-3.
Table 2-1.
Table 2-2.
Table 2-3.
Table 2-4.
Table 2-5.
Table 2-6.
Table 2-7.
Table 3-1.
Table 3-2.
Table 3-3.
Table 3-4.
Table 35.
Table 3-6.
Table 3-7.
Table 3-8.
Table 3-9.
Table 3-10.
Table 3-11.
Table 3-12.
Table 3-13.
Table 3-14.
Table 3-15.
Table 3-16.
Table 3-17.
Table 3-18.
Table 3-19.
Table 3-20.
Table 3-21.
Table 3-22.
Table 3-23.
Table 3-24.
Table 3-25.

Census of housing tables: sewage disposal, 1990 .......................................................................... 16

Estimated onsite treatment system failure rates in surveyed states ................................................ 17
Organizational approaches for managing onsite systems ............................................................... 27
Survey of state certification and licensing programs .................................................................... 233
Components of an onsite system regulatory program .................................................................. 236
Compliance assurance approaches ................................................................................................ 238
Example of functional responsibilities matrix ............................................................................. 242
Funding options ............................................................................................................................. 243
Advantages and disadvantages of various funding sources ......................................................... 247
Summary of average daily residential wastewater flows ................................................................ 33
Comparison of daily per capita indoor water use for 12 study sites .............................................. 34
Residential water use by fixture or appliance ................................................................................. 35
Typical wastewater flow rates from commercial sources ................................................................ 37
Typical wastewater flow rates from institutional sources ............................................................... 38
Typical wastewater flow rates from recreational facilities .............................................................. 39
Constituent mass loadings and concentrations ............................................................................ 311
Residential wastewater pollutant contributions by source .......................................................... 311
Wastewater flow reduction methods .............................................................................................. 313
Flow rates and flush volumes before and after U.S. Energy Policy Act ........................................ 314
Wastewater flow reduction: water-carriage toilets and systems ................................................... 314
Wastewater flow reduction: non-water-carriage toilets ................................................................. 315
Wastewater flow reduction: showering devices and systems ....................................................... 315
Wastewater flow reduction: miscellaneous devices and systems ................................................. 316
Reduction in pollutant loading achieved by eliminating garbage disposals ............................. 318
Typical wastewater pollutants of concern ..................................................................................... 323
Examples of soil infiltration system performance ........................................................................ 323
Case study: septic tank effluent and soil water quality ................................................................ 328
Wastewater constituents of concern and representative concentrations ...................................... 329
Waterborne pathogens found in human waste and associated diseases ....................................... 332
Typical pathogen survival times at 20 to 30 oC ............................................................................ 333
MCLs for selected organic chemicals in drinking water .............................................................. 335
Case study: concentration of metals in septic tank effluent ........................................................ 336
MCLs for selected inorganic chemicals in drinking water ........................................................... 337
Treatment performance requirements for New Shoreham, Rhode Island ..................................... 345

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

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Tables, Contd.
Table 3-26.
Table 3-27.
Table 3-28.
Table 3-29.
Table 3-30.
Table 4-1.
Table 4-2.
Table 4-3.
Table 4-4.
Table 4-5.
Table 4-6.
Table 4-7.
Table 4-8.
Table 4-9.
Table 4-10.
Table 4-11.
Table 4-12.
Table 4-13.
Table 4-14.
Table 4-15.
Table 4-16.
Table 5-1.
Table 5-2.
Table 5-3.
Table 5-4.
Table 5-5.
Table 5-6.
Table 5-7.
Table 5-8.
Table 5-9.
Table 5-10.
Table 5-11.

Resource listing, value ranking, and wastewater management schematic ................................... 346
Proposed onsite system performance standards in various control zones .................................... 348
Treatment performance standards in various control zones ......................................................... 348
Nitrogen loading values used in the Buttermilk Bay assessment ................................................ 352
Typical laboratory costs for water quality analysis ...................................................................... 361
Commonly used treatment processes and optional treatment methods ......................................... 43
Characteristics of typical SWIS applications .................................................................................. 45
Suggested hydraulic and organic loading rates for sizing infiltration surfaces .......................... 412
Geometry, orientation, and configuration considerations for SWISs ........................................... 416
Distribution methods and applications ......................................................................................... 418
Dosing methods and devices ......................................................................................................... 423
Pressure manifold sizing ................................................................................................................ 425
Contingency options for SWIS malfunctions ............................................................................... 434
Operation, maintenance, and monitoring activities ..................................................................... 436
Characteristics of domestic septic tank effluent ........................................................................... 438
Average septic tank effluent concentrations for selected parameters ........................................... 439
Average septic tank effluent concentrations from various commercial establishments .............. 439
Septic tank capacities for one- and two-family dwellings ........................................................... 440
Watertightness testing procedure/criteria for precast concrete tanks ........................................... 443
Chemical and physical characteristics of domestic septage ........................................................ 446
Single pass and recirculating filter performance .......................................................................... 453
Types of mass loadings to subsurface wastewater infiltration systems .......................................... 56
Potential impacts of mass loadings on soil design boundaries ...................................................... 57
Types of mass loadings for point discharges to surface waters ....................................................... 59
Types of mass loadings for evapotranspiration systems ................................................................. 59
Site characterization and assessment activities for SWIS applications ........................................ 511
SWIS siting potential vs. landscape position features .................................................................. 514
Practices to characterize subsurface conditions through test pit inspection ............................... 518
Example of a total cost summary worksheet to compare alternatives ......................................... 5 31
Common onsite wastewater treatment system failures ................................................................. 532
General OWTS inspection and failure detection process ............................................................. 535
Response of corrective actions on SWIS boundary mass loadings .............................................. 535

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

Acknowledgments
This update of the 1980 Design Manual: Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems (see
http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom/nepishom/tips.html) was developed to provide supplemental and new
information for wastewater treatment professionals in both the public and private sectors. This manual
is not intended to replace the previous manual, but rather to further explore and discuss recent
developments in treatment technologies, system design, and long-term system management.
The information in the chapters that follow is provided in response to several calls for a more focused
approach to onsite wastewater treatment and onsite system management. Congress has expressed interest
in the status of site-level approaches for treating wastewater, and the Executive Branch has issued
directives for moving forward with improving both the application of treatment technologies and
management of the systems installed.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) responded to this interest by convening a team
of subject matter experts from public agencies, private organizations, professional associations, and
the academic community. Two representatives from the USEPA Office of Water and a representative
from the Office of Research and Development coordinated the project team for this document. Close
coordination with the USEPA Office of Wastewater Management and other partners at the federal,
state, and local levels helped to ensure that the information in this manual supports and complements
other efforts to improve onsite wastewater management across the nation.
The principal authors of the document are Richard Otis of Ayres Associates; Jim Kreissl, Rod Frederick,
and Robert Goo of USEPA; Peter Casey of the National Small Flows Clearinghouse; and Barry
Tonning of Tetra Tech, Inc. Other persons who made significant contributions to the manual include
Robert Siegrist of the Colorado School of Mines; Mike Hoover of North Carolina State University;
Jean Caudill of the Ohio Department of Health; Bob Minicucci of the New Hampshire Department of
Environmental Services; Tom Groves of the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission; Tom Yeager of Kennedy/Jenks Consultants; Robert Rubin of North Carolina State University; Pio Lombardo of Lombardo Associates; Dov Weitman and Joyce Hudson of USEPA; Lisa Brown,
Seldon Hall, Richard Benson, and Tom Long of the Washington Department of Health; David Pask
and Tricia Angoli of the National Small Flows Clearinghouse; James Davenport of the National
Association of Counties; Jim Watson of the Tennessee Valley Authority; John Austin of the U.S.
Agency for International Development; Pat Fleming of the U.S. Bureau of Land Management; James
Jacobsen of the Maine Department of Human Services; Richard Barror of the Indian Health Service;
Glendon Deal of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; Lisa Knerr, Jonathan Simpson, and Kay Rutledge
of Tetra Tech; Kenneth Pankow of Pankow Engineering; Linda Stein of Eastern Research Group;
Robert Adler, Charles Pycha, Calvin Terada, and Jonathon Williams of USEPA Region 10; Richard
Carr of the World Health Organization; Ralph Benson of the Clermont County, Ohio, General Health
District; Rich Piluk of the Anne Arundel, Maryland, county government; Jerry Nonogawa of the
Hawaii Department of Health; Tony Smithson of the Lake County, Illinois, Health Department;
Conrad G. Keyes, Jr., and Cecil Lue-Hing of the EWRI of ASCE; Robert E. Lee of the National Onsite
Wastewater Recycling Association; Anish Jantrania, private consultant; Larry Stephens of Stephens
Consultants; Bruce Douglass and Bill Heigis of Stone Engineering; Alan Hassett of Oak Hill Co.;
Steven Braband of Biosolutions, Inc.; Matt Byers of Zoeller Co.; Carl Thompson, Infiltrator Systems,
Inc.; Alex Mauck of EZ Drain; Bob Mayer of American Manufacturing; Rodney Ruskin of Geoflow;
Fred Harned of Netafim; Don Canada of the American Decentralized Wastewater Association, and
Michael Price, Norweco, Inc.
Graphics in the manual were provided by John Mori of the National Small Flows Clearinghouse,
Ayres Associates, and other sources. Regina Scheibner, Emily Faalasli, Krista Carlson, Monica Morrison,
Liz Hiett, and Kathryn Phillips of Tetra Tech handled layout and production; Martha Martin of Tetra
Tech edited the manual. The cover was produced by the National Small Flows Clearinghouse.

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

xi

Review Team Members for the

Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual
Robert Goo, USEPA, Office of Wetlands (OW), Oceans
and Watersheds
Rod Frederick, USEPA, OW, Oceans and Watersheds
Eric Slaughter, USEPA, OW, Oceans and Watersheds
Jim Kreissl, USEPA, Office of Research and
Development (ORD)
Don Brown, USEPA, ORD
Robert Bastian, USEPA, Office of Wastewater
Management (OWM)
Charlie Vanderlyn, USEPA, OWM
Steve Hogye, USEPA, OWM
Joyce Hudson, USEPA, OWM
Joel Salter, USEPA, Office of Science and Technology
Philip Berger, USEPA, Office of Ground Water and
Drinking Water (OGWDW)
Howard Beard, USEPA, OGWDW
Robert Adler, USEPA Region 1
Charles Pycha, USEPA Region 5
Ernesto Perez, USEPA Region 6
Calvin Terada, USEPA Region 10
Danny Averett, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Ed Smith, USACE Research Laboratory
Rick Scholz, USACE Research Laboratory
John Austin, U.S. Agency for International Development
Patrick Fleming, National Park Service
Rick Barror, U.S. Public Health Service
Gary Morgan, USDA Rural Development Administration
Andree Duvarney, USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Phil Mummert, Tennessee Valley Authority
Raymond Reid, Pan American Health Organization
Homero Silva, Organizacin Mundial de la Salud, Costa
Rica
Dennis Warner, World Health Organization
Tom Groves, New England Interstate Water Pollution
Control Commission
Paul Chase, DuPage County (Illinois) Health
Department
Douglas Ebelherr, Illinois Department of Public Health
Randy Clarkson, Missouri Department of Natural
Resources
Anish Janrania, Virginia Department of Health

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

Steve Steinbeck, North Carolina Department of Health

and Natural Resources
Ron Frey, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality
Mark Soltman, Washington State Department of Health
Alex Campbell, Ontario Ministry of Environment and
Approvals
Jerry Tyler, University of Wisconsin
Mike Hoover, North Carolina State University
Ruth Alfasso, Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Protection
Jerry Nunogawa, Hawaii Department of Health
Robert Siegrist, Colorado School of Mines
Rick Piluk, Anne Arundel County (Maryland) Health
Department
Gary Eckler, Erie County (Ohio) Sanitary Engineering
Department
Janet Rickabaugh, Clermont County (Ohio) Health
District
Jay Harrell, Mohave County (Arizona) Environmental
Health Division
Dan Smith, Coconino County (Arizona) Environmental
Health Services
Tom Yeager, Kennedy/Jenks Consultants
Richard Otis, Ayres Associates
Robert Mayer, American Manufacturing Co.
Hamilton Brown, National Association of Towns and
Townships
Larry Markham, National Environmental Health
Association
Robert Rubin, Water Environment Federation
Thomas McLane, American Society of Civil Engineers
Dan MacRitchie, American Society of Civil Engineers
Don Canada, American Decentralized Wastewater
Association
Naomi Friedman, National Association of Counties
Peter Casey, National Small Flows Clearinghouse
Tricia Angoli, national Small Flows Clearinghouse
Thomas Bruursema, National Sanitation Foundation

xii

Introduction
Background and Purpose
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
first issued detailed guidance on the design, construction, and operation of onsite wastewater treatment
systems (OWTSs) in 1980. Design Manual: Onsite
Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems (USEPA,
1980) was the most comprehensive summary of onsite
wastewater management since the U.S. Public Health
Service had published a guidance on septic tank
practice in 1967 (USPHS, 1967). The 1980 manual
focused on both treatment and disposal of wastewater in general accordance with the approach and
terminology in use at the time. The 1980 design
manual stressed the importance of site-specific soil,
landscape, ground water, and effluent characterization
and included soil percolation tests as one of several
site evaluation tools to be used in system design and
placement. The manuals discussion of water conservation to reduce hydraulic flows, pollutant reduction
to minimize contaminant loading, and management
programs to oversee the full range of treatment
activities was especially important to the developing
field of onsite wastewater treatment in the United
States and other countries.
Technologies explored in the 1980 manual include
the conventional system (a septic tank with a subsurface wastewater infiltration system), alternating leach
fields, uniform distribution systems, intermittent sand
filters, aerobic units, disinfection technologies, and
evapotranspiration systems. The original manual also
contains guidance on dosing chambers, flow diversion methods for alternating beds, nutrient removal,
and disposal of residuals. Although much of that
information is still useful, advances in regional
planning, improvements in ground water and surface
water protection, and new technologies and management concepts necessitate further guidance for public
health districts, water quality agencies, planning
boards, and other audiences. In addition, the growing
national emphasis on management programs that
establish performance requirements rather than
prescriptive codes for the design, siting, installation,
operation, and maintenance of onsite systems underscores the importance of revising the manual to

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

address these emerging issues in public health and

water resource protection.
USEPA is committed to elevating the standards for
onsite wastewater management practice and removing
barriers that preclude widespread acceptance of onsite
treatment technologies. The purpose of this update of
the 1980 manual is to provide more comprehensive
information on management approaches, update
information on treatment technologies, and describe
the benefits of performance-based approaches to
system design. The management approaches suggested in this manual involve coordinating onsite
system planning and management activities with land
use planning and watershed protection efforts to
ensure that the impacts of onsite wastewater systems
are considered and controlled at the appropriate scale.
The management approaches described in this manual
support and are consistent with USEPAs draft Guidelines for Management of Onsite/Decentralized
Wastewater Systems (USEPA, 2000). The incorporation of performance standards for management
programs and for system design and operation can
help ensure that no onsite system alternative presents
an unacceptable risk to public health or water
resources.
This manual contains overview information on
treatment technologies, installation practices, and
past performance. It does not, however, provide
detailed design information and is not intended as a
substitute for region- and site-specific program
criteria and standards that address conditions,
technologies, and practices appropriate to each
individual management jurisdiction. The information
in the following chapters provides an operational
framework for developing and improving OWTS
program structure, criteria, alternative designs, and
performance requirements. The chapters describe the
importance of planning to ensure that system densities are appropriate for prevailing hydrologic and
geologic conditions, performance requirements to
guide system design, wastewater characterization to
accurately predict waste strength and flows, site
evaluations that identify appropriate design and
performance boundaries, technology selection to

xiii

ensure that performance requirements are met, and

management activities that govern installation,
operation, maintenance, and remediation of failed
systems.
This manual is intended to serve as a technical
guidance for those involved in the design, construction, operation, maintenance, and regulation of onsite
systems. It is also intended to provide information to
policy makers and regulators at the state, tribal, and
local levels who are charged with responsibility for
developing, administering, and enforcing wastewater
treatment and management program codes. The
activities and functions described herein might also
be useful to other public health and natural resource
protection programs. For example, properly planned,
designed, installed, operated, and maintained onsite
systems protect wellhead recharge areas, drinking
water sources, watershed, estuaries, coastal zones,
aquatic habitat, and wetlands.
Finally, this manual is intended to emphasize the need
to improve cooperation and coordination among the
various health, planning, zoning, development,
utility, and resource protection programs operated by
public and private organizations. A watershed
approach to protecting public health and environmental resources requires an integrated operational
framework that encourages independent partners to
function cooperatively while each retains the ability
to satisfy internal programmatic and management
objectives. Integrating onsite wastewater management
processes with other activities conducted by public
and private entities can improve both the effectiveness and the efficiency of efforts to minimize the risk
onsite systems might present to health and ecological
resources.
Overview
Onsite wastewater treatment systems collect, treat, and
release about 4 billion gallons of treated effluent per
day from an estimated 26 million homes, businesses,
and recreational facilities nationwide (U.S. Census
Bureau, 1997). These systems, defined in this manual
as those serving fewer than 20 people, include
treatment units for both individual buildings and
small clusters of buildings connected to a common
treatment system. Recognition of the impacts of
onsite systems on ground water and surface water
quality (e.g., nitrate and bacteria contamination,
nutrient inputs to surface waters) has increased
interest in optimizing the systems performance.
Public health and environmental protection officials
now acknowledge that onsite systems are not just

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

temporary installations that will be replaced eventually by centralized sewage treatment services, but
permanent approaches to treating wastewater for
release and reuse in the environment. Onsite systems
are recognized as potentially viable, low-cost, longterm, decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment
if they are planned, designed, installed, operated, and
maintained properly (USEPA, 1997). NOTE: In
addition to existing state and local oversight, decentralized wastewater treatment systems that serve more
than 20 people might become subject to regulation
under the USEPAs Underground Injection Control
Program, although EPA has proposed not to include
them (64FR22971:5/7/01).
Although some onsite wastewater management
programs have functioned successfully in the past,
problems persist. Most current onsite regulatory
programs focus on permitting and installation.
Few programs address onsite system operation and
maintenance, resulting in failures that lead to unnecessary costs and risks to public health and water
resources. Moreover, the lack of coordination among
agencies that oversee land use planning, zoning,
development, water resource protection, public health
initiatives, and onsite systems causes problems that
could be prevented through a more cooperative
approach. Effective management of onsite systems
requires rigorous planning, design, installation,
operation, maintenance, monitoring, and controls.
Public health and water resource impacts
State and tribal agencies report that onsite septic
systems currently constitute the third most common
source of ground water contamination and that these
systems have failed because of inappropriate siting or
design or inadequate long-term maintenance (USEPA,
1996a). In the 1996 Clean Water Needs Survey
(USEPA, 1996b), states and tribes also identified more
than 500 communities as having failed septic systems
that have caused public health problems. The discharge of partially treated sewage from malfunctioning onsite systems was identified as a principal or
contributing source of degradation in 32 percent of
all harvest-limited shellfish growing areas. Onsite
wastewater treatment systems have also contributed to
an overabundance of nutrients in ponds, lakes, and
coastal estuaries, leading to the excessive growth of
algae and other nuisance aquatic plants (USEPA,
1996b). In addition, onsite systems contribute to
contamination of drinking water sources. USEPA
estimates that 168,000 viral illnesses and 34,000
bacterial illnesses occur each year as a result of con-

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sumption of drinking water from systems that rely on

improperly treated ground water. Malfunctioning
septic systems have been identified as one potential
source of ground water contamination (USEPA, 2000).

mance requirements, wastewater characteristics, and

site conditions.

Improving treatment through performance

requirements

The principles of the 1980 onsite system design

manual have withstood the test of time, but much has
changed over the past 20 years. This manual incorporates much of the earlier guide but includes new
information on treatment technologies, site evaluation, design boundary characterization, and especially
management program functions. The manual is
organized by functional topics and is intended to be a
comprehensive reference. Users can proceed directly
to relevant sections or review background or other
information (see Contents).

Most onsite wastewater treatment systems are of the

conventional type, consisting of a septic tank and a
subsurface wastewater infiltration system (SWIS). Site
limitations and more stringent performance requirements have led to significant improvements in the
design of wastewater treatment systems and how they
are managed. Over the past 20 years the OWTS
industry has developed many new treatment technologies that can achieve high performance levels on sites
with size, soil, ground water, and landscape limitations that might preclude installing conventional
systems. New technologies and improvements to
existing technologies are based on defining the
performance requirements of the system, characterizing wastewater flow and pollutant loads, evaluating
site conditions, defining performance and design
boundaries, and selecting a system design that
addresses these factors.
Performance requirements can be expressed as
numeric criteria (e.g., pollutant concentration or mass
loading limits) or narrative criteria (e.g., no odors or
visible sheen) and are based on the assimilative
capacity of regional ground water or surface waters,
water quality objectives, and public health goals.
Wastewater flow and pollutant content help define
system design and size and can be estimated by
comparing the size and type of facility with measured
effluent outputs from similar, existing facilities. Site
evaluations integrate detailed analyses of regional
hydrology, geology, and water resources with sitespecific characterization of soils, slopes, structures,
property lines, and other site features to further define
system design requirements and determine the
physical placement of system components.
Most of the alternative treatment technologies
applied today treat wastes after they exit the septic
tank; the tank retains settleable solids, grease, and oils
and provides an environment for partial digestion of
settled organic wastes. Post-tank treatment can
include aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (with no
or low oxygen) biological treatment in suspended or
fixed-film reactors, physical/chemical treatment, soil
infiltration, fixed-media filtration, and/or disinfection. The application and sizing of treatment units
based on these technologies are defined by perfor-

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

Toward a more comprehensive approach

Although this manual focuses on individual and

small, clustered onsite systems, state and tribal
governments and other management entities can use
the information in it to construct a framework for
managing new and existing large-capacity decentralized systems (those serving more than 20 people),
subject to regulation under state or local Underground
Injection Control (UIC) programs. The UIC program
was established by the Safe Drinking Water Act to
protect underground sources of drinking water from
contamination caused by the underground injection
of wastes. In most parts of the nation, the UIC program, which also deals with motor vehicle waste
disposal wells, large-capacity cesspools, and storm
water drainage wells, is managed by state or tribal
water or waste agencies with authority delegated by
USEPA.
The Class V UIC program and the Source Water
Protection Program established by the 1996 amendments to the federal Safe Drinking Water Act are
bringing federal and state drinking water agencies
into the field of onsite wastewater treatment and
management. Both programs will likely require more
interagency involvement and cooperation to characterize wastewater impacts on ground water resources
and to develop approaches to deal with real or
potential problems. States currently have permit-byrule provisions for large-capacity septic systems.
Overview of the revised manual
The first two chapters of this manual present overview and management information of special interest
to program administrators. Chapters 3, 4, and 5
contain technical information on wastewater characterization, site evaluation and selection, and treatment technologies and how to use them in develop-

xv

ing a system design. Those three chapters are intended

primarily for engineers, soil scientists, permit writers,
environmental health specialists, site evaluators, and field
staff. Summaries of all the chapters appear below. The level
of detail provided in this manual is adequate for preliminary

system design and development of a management program.

References are provided for additional research and
information on how to incorporate local characteristics into
an optimal onsite management program.

Overview of the Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

USEPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual

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