APRIL/MAY 2008 PART A:

1}Conduction velocity range in nerves: The conduction velocity varies in nerves depending on the type and diameter of the nerve fiber and is from 20 to 140 m/s. But in heart muscle it is very slower range from 0.2 to 0.4m/s. 2}Passive transducer: i}Resistive transducer ii}Inductive transducer iii}Capacitive transducer 3}ERG: Eectro retinogram is for interpreting the electrical activity of the eye.This is for diagnosing neurological disorders & to find the level of anaesthesia. 4}Need for preamplifier: Refer key for weekly test question III{quest.no.2} 5}Need for earthing of medical instruments: many devices have a metal chasis and cabinet that can be touched by the medical attendantand patients. If they are not grounded there an insulation failure or short circuit results and leads to
6}Use of plethysmography:

To measure the total lung capacity(TCL),the pneumotachograph cannot be used since the residual volume of air left in the lung after a force exhaling cant be detected,. To measure TCL, the body plethysmograph is used. 7}Macroshock: A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the body that produces unwanted or unnecessary stimulation like muscle contraction or tissue injury is called macroshock. Microshock: A physiological response to a current applied to the surface of the heart that results in unwanted stimulation like muscle contractions or tissue injury is called microshock. 8}Need for image intensifier in an X-ray machine: the X-ray image is created with the high density high contrast and high sharpness on film. The density or darkness of the image is proportional to the amount X-ray that penetrate the film. Contrast is a measure of the darkness of a desired image compared to its surroundings. 9}Defibrillator: A defibrillator is an electronic device that creates a sustained myocardial depolarisation of a patients heart in order to stop ventricular fibrillation or atrial fibrillation. 10}Dialysis:

Hemo dialysis

Peritonial dialysis

PART B:
11}a)i)
An action potential (or nerve impulse) is a transient alteration of the transmembrane voltage (or membrane potential) across an excitable membrane in an excitable cell (such as a neuron or myocyte) generated by the activity of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in the membrane. The best known action potentials are pulse-like waves of voltage that travel along the axons of neurons.

[1

11}a)ii)

Piezo electric transducer: When certain crystals subjected to compression or tension charge separation occurs in these crystals and an electrical voltage is developed. This is called piezo electric effect. Thus the piezoelectric type transducers convert displacement or pressure into an electrical variable. If we apply the dynamical pressure along the mechanical axis(y-axis) of the transducer, then an a.c. electrical v is induced along the electrical axis(x-axis ) of the transducer. piezoelectric effect is reversible. Inductive transducer: inductive transducer are based on the principle of charge in the reluctance, Permeability,no.of.turns in the coil and orientation of the coil which may produce a change in the L or mutual inductance of the transducer.

Nno.of.turns in the coil effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil Aarea of cross section of the coil l length of the coil Ggeometric form factor(A/l) Rreluctance of the coil 11}b)i)Cardiovascular circulation: In an intact heart,venous or unoxygenated blood is returned to the right side of the heart at a pressure 11}b)ii) Ultrasonic transducer: Ultrasonic waves are the nonaudiable sound waves whose frequencies are greater than 20000HZ. Ultrasonic waves are very useful for diagonstic and therapeutic applications. 12}a)i)Refer Nov\Dec 2007 question(12)a)1) ii)Refer Nov\Dec 2007 question(12)a)ii) 12)}b)i)Refer Nov\Dec 2007 question(12)b)i) b)ii)Refer Nov\Dec 2007 question(12)b)ii) 13}a)i)Refer key for second cycle test question(7(a)) ii)Refer key for second cycle test question(7(b)) 13}b) Gas analysis: Gas analysis are used tp determine the quantitative composition of inspired and expired gas and to assess the lung function. i}infrared gas analysers ii}paramagnetic oxygen analysers iii}thermal conductivity gas analysers Infrared gas analysers: It is based on the fact that many gases will absorb specific wavelengths of infrared radiation.

CO2 concentration can be evaluated by its infrared absorption. 11)b)ii)ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER: An air-coupled reflected ultrasound technique has been developed for the examination of surface characteristics. The general approach is to generate a transient ultrasonic pulse that is focused onto the surface of interest which is then reflected back and the returning signal is detected. By using a raster scanning technique an image of the surface can be constructed.

Schematic of a capacitance ultrasonic transducer

Schematic of focusing transducer

Measured ultrasonic intensity from a focusing transducer. In it's simplest form just the amplitude of the returned signal can be used, however it is also useful to detect transit time, using the velocity of sound in air allows quite accurate spatial information to be recorded. As can be seen below analysis of the recorded waveforms allows good 3D images of a surface to be produced.

12)a)i)Measurement of biopotential with 2 electrodes:

A circuit was developed for a differential two-electrode biopotential amplifier. Current sources at the amplifier inputs were controlled by the common-mode voltage. This principle is well known in telephony for interfacing the telephone line with analogue-type phones. A low impedance of about 1 k was obtained between each input and the common point of the circuit. The differential input impedance of 60 M was obtained with the use of precision resistors. 12)b)i)

ECG isolation amplifier:

2].

Fig. 1 : Schematic diagram of an isolated biomedical recording. . Isolation amplifiers electrically isolate input and output signals, often by inductive couplings. Isolation amplifiers or iso-amps may be used to protect components from potentially dangerous voltages or to amplify low-level analog signals in applications with multiple channels. Isolation amplifiers work with systems where a sensor or input is separated from the system supplying data. These isolation barriers are useful in protecting sensitive sensors from high voltages. A good example of this type of amplifier isolation exists in medical devices that use electricity to get physical data from patients, such as an electrocardiograph (ECG) or an electroencephalograph (EEG). 12)b)ii)EEG: Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain.[1] In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 2040 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In neurology, the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can create clear abnormalities on a standard EEG study.[2] A secondary clinical use of EEG is in the diagnosis of coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG used to be a first-line method for the diagnosis of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders, but this use has decreased with the advent of anatomical imaging techniques such as MRI and CT.

Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory, or auditory). Event-related potentials refer to averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science, cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research.

13)a)i)

Techniques of measurement

It is not possible to derive a numerical value for blood pressure without some equipment, but a crude assessment of the circulation can still be obtained. If you can feel a radial pulse the systolic blood pressure is usually at least 80 mmHg. The character of the pulse, i.e. bounding or thready, gives a further clue. In most cases, shocked patients have cold hands and feet. (The most important exception to this is a patient who is shocked because of severe sepsis). Capillary refill time is another simple test of circulatory adequacy: press firmly on the patient's nail bed with your thumb; release your thumb and see how long it takes for blood to

return. A refill time of greater than 2 seconds suggests an inadequate circulation.

13)a)ii) Direct blood pressure measurements were made by catheterization of the lingual artery, and simultaneous indirect measurements were determined by placing a cuff over the median artery (midradial area). Blood pressure measurements at 2 different planes of anesthesia (light and deep) were recorded in triplicate. At a light plane of anesthesia, the Dinamap 8100 underestimated diastolic and mean arterial pressure, and at a deep anesthetic plane overestimated systolic pressure. 13)b)i) Paramagnetic oxygen analysers:

Due to that it attracts the magnetic lines of force. Eventhough nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide exhibit paramagnetism susceptibilities are so small when we compare them with oxygen.

Thermal conductivity gas analysers: A thermal conductivity analyser can be used to follow CO 2 concentration changes in the individual breaths of a patient when there are no gaseous or voltaile anaesthetic agents present.

13}b)ii)Refer key for weekly test questionIV{no.7} 14}a)Refer key for second cycle test{ques.no.6} 14}b)i)Refer key for second cycle test{ques.no.5} 14}b) ) Bio-telemetry helps us to record the biosignals over long periods and while the patient is engaged in his normal activities. The medical attendant (or) computer can easily diagonise the nature of disease by seeing the telemetered biosignals without attending the patients room. For future reference (or) to study the treatment effect the biotelemetry is the essential one. For recording an animals particulary for research the biotelemetry is greatly used. 15}a)Pacemakers:

It is an electrical pulse generator for starting and/or maintaining the normal heart beat. The o\p of the pacemaker is applied either externally to the chest or internally to the heart muscles. S.NO INTERNAL PACEMAKER 1 The pacemaker is placed outside the body. It may be in the form of wristwatch or in the pocket from that one wire will go into the heart through the vein. It does not necessiate the open chest surgery. EXTERNAL PACEMAKER The paacemaker is miniaturized and is surgically implanted beneath the skin near the chest or abdomen with its o\p leads are connected directly to the heart muscles. It requires an open chest minor surgery to place the circuit.

2 3

During placement,swelling and pain During placement swelling and pain arise do not arise due to minimum due to the foreign body reaction. foreign body reaction. 15}b)i)Refer key for cycle test question III{8(a)} 15}b)ii)Nerve and muscle stimulator: Stimulators are the devices which are used to stimulate innerrated muscles denervated muscles and nerves. Further these are used for the treatment of paralysis with totally or partially denervated muscles for the treatment of pain,muscular spasm and peripheral circulatory disturbances.This technique is called electrotherapy which uses low volt,low frequency impulse currents. i}gavanic currents ii}interupted galvanic current iii}faradic current a)plain faradism b)surged faradism iv}exponential current Versatile electrodiagonstic\therapeutic stimulators: M1 is the variable rate multivibrator. The o\p from it triggers a monostable multivibrator H2 which sets the pulse width.